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HORTICULTURE 
 
 BY 
 
 IRRIGATION; 
 
 A. E. GIPSON, 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE COLORADO STATE HORTICULTURAL AND FORESTRY 
 ASSOCIATION, AUTHOR OF " WHEN AND HOW TO IRRIGATE," ETC. 
 
 DENVER, COLO. ; 
 
 The Republican Publishing Company. 
 
 1888. 
 
Copyrighted, 1888, by 
 
 A. E. GIPSON, 
 Greeley, Colorado. 
 
 ^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Preface 1 
 
 A Brief Retrospect 3 
 
 Introduction • • • • 
 
 The Duty of Water ^ • 9 
 
 The Best System of Irrigation 15 
 
 Sub-Irrigation ]6 
 
 "The New Agriculture" 1& 
 
 The Asbestine System 2() 
 
 Pipes, Conduits, Etc 24 
 
 Reservoirs, Welis, Etc " ' ' 25 _ 
 
 Judge James Marsh Clark 27 
 
 The Orchard . . . ou 
 
 Laying Out and Planting ■ jj 1 
 
 Pruning 34 
 
 Mulching 37 
 
 Protecting Tree Trunks ' 39 
 
 Wind -Breaks ' 40 
 
 Heeling In 40 
 
 Dr. Shaw on Fruit Growing in Northern Colorado 41 
 
 The Plum 45 
 
 Apricot, Peach and Nectarine 46 
 
 Peach and Apricot Culture, by C. W. Steele 47 
 
 48 
 
 ' '. ' 49 
 
 Cherries 
 
 The Pear 
 
 Quince, Mulberry, Etc 
 
 Small Fruits 50 
 
 Strawberries 01 
 
 Raspberries and Blackberries 52 
 
 Grapes ° 
 
 Currants and Gooseberries 
 
 59 
 
 Cuttings { . 60 
 
 Cranberry 61 
 
 Dwarf Cherry and Juneberry 62 
 
 Table Showing Trees and Plants Per Acre 62 
 
 Distances for Planting 6S 
 
 Weights of Trees 63 
 
 Vegetable Culture • 64 
 
 Asparagus " 4 
 
 Beets 65 
 
 Turnip, Parsnip and Carrot .65 
 
 65 
 
 67 
 
 Cauliflower . 
 
 Melons 
 Onions 
 Peas . . 
 Radish 
 
 67 
 
IV INDEX. 
 
 Vegetable Culture— Continued. Page. 
 
 Squash 69 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 69 
 
 String Beans 70 
 
 Sweet Corn 70 
 
 Tomatoes 70 
 
 Rhubarb or Pie Plant 72 
 
 Horse-Radish , . . 72 
 
 Celery Culture 73 
 
 Vitality of Seeds .80 
 
 The Potato 81 
 
 Insect Enemies and Remedies 85 
 
 Alfalfa . '■'. ' • 91 
 
 Forestry 101 
 
 Stock for General Planting 109 
 
 Ornamental Plants and Shrubs 113 
 
 Lawn MaKing . • H7 
 
 Summary of Instructions About Irrigation 119 
 
 The Rain-Belt Extension 122 
 
 Budding and Grafting 124 
 
 Effects of Cold on Fruit Buds 125 
 
 Correspondence 127 
 
 Number of Seeds to the Pound 139 
 
 Vegetable and Grass Seed Table 140 
 
 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Machine Used in Making Cement Pipe for Sub-Irrigation 22 
 
 Judge Clark 27 
 
 Proper and Improper Methods of Planting 33 
 
 A Well-formed, Low-headed Apple Tree 35 
 
 Manner of Protecting Tree Trunks 38 
 
 Orchard Irrigation • 44 
 
 Plum Tree in Bearing at Gardenside 45 
 
 Well-Set Strawberry Plant 51 
 
 Berry Canes Ready for Covering with Plow " " " 53 
 
 Bending Canes and Roots 53 
 
 Pruning of Grape Vines 56 
 
 Grape Vine Ready for Bearing 56 
 
 Grape Trellises 58 
 
 Neat Method of Garden Irrigation 71 
 
 Celery Plant and Manner of Tying 76 
 
 Banking of Celery Plants 77 
 
 Storing Celery 78 
 
 Convenient Potato Cellar 84 
 
 Alfalfa or Lucerne 91 
 
 Manner of Using the Trochar . . .- -98 
 
 Hydrangea Grandifiora H3 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to remark that this volume is not, in any 
 sense, intended to be exhaustive, nor to take the place of other excellent 
 publications that treat the subject of horticulture in detail. The aim has 
 rather been to find out the best methods of orchard and garden culture 
 under irrigation, so far at least as Colorado experience has gone ; to give 
 practical rules so far as possible for the application of water to trees and 
 plants, and to furnish a list of the leading varieties best adapted to this 
 portion of the Rocky Mountain region. 
 
 The numerous applications to the author in the past few years for a 
 practical handbook on the subject in question, with more especial refer- 
 ence to the needs of this portion of our country, has prompted the publi- 
 cation of this little book. 
 
 That Colorado and adjoining territory, particularly on the South and 
 West, are destined to become large producers of the horticultural staples, 
 there seems little doubt. The wide diversity of soil, climate and varia- 
 tions of altitude, the dryness of air and almost perpetual sunshine from 
 the skies, together with reasonable assurance of an ample water supply, 
 all combine to make success possible in many directions. Hence, there is 
 scope and hope for much that must necessarily be denied to other portions 
 of our land, that do not possess these natural advantages and distinctive 
 conditions. 
 
 While this is true, it should be remembered that we have scarcely 
 more than entered the experimental period in horticultural development. 
 The effect of altitude and constant sunshine on fruit stock, the influence of 
 irrigation on soils as well as fruits, the "duty" of water, the best means 
 of guarding against early and late frosts, and from the rapid transitions 
 in some districts from zero weather to the temperature of Spring ; these 
 1 
 
2 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 and other complicated problems in pomology, must be encountered. For 
 these reasons it should not be surprising if the history of fruit growing in 
 much of the West and Northwest repeats itself here, in a measure. That 
 the same faith, perseverance and intrepidity, which led men to invade 
 these Great Plains .and subdue them, that prompted the pioneers in horti- 
 culture of a quarter of a century ago to transport the first plantings a thous- 
 and miles by ox and mule teams to the New West, and that has led others 
 in more recent times to make great sacrifices in the same direction — that 
 indomitable energy and persistence will triumph, there is little room for 
 doubt. Let us be patient therefore and strive for the best possible results 
 in the work before us. In the preparation of this volume I have been 
 aided not only by those who have kindly contributed to its pages, but by 
 suggestions from leading horticulturists of different parts of this State, to 
 each and all of whom I desire to tender thanks. Especially do I acknowl- 
 edge indebtedness for favors shown, to Professor James Cassidy, instructor 
 in botany and horticulture at the Colorado State Agricultural College. 
 
 A. E. G. 
 Greeley Nurseries and Gardenside 
 Fruit Farm, 
 Greeley, Colo., February, 1888. 
 
A BRIEF RETROSPECT. 
 
 The marvelous development of the Great West has no parallel in the 
 history of the world. Little more than a quarter of a century ago fully 
 half of our continent was comparatively unknown and was associated with 
 all that was to be dreaded in the most dismal features of desert life. A 
 vast region of country stretching through twenty degrees of longitude 
 and as many of latitude, with a mighty mountain range as its backbone, 
 was, less than fifty years ago, supposed to be a barren and uninhabitable 
 waste. The bugbear in an overland trip to the Pacific Slope was the 
 crossing of the "Treeless Sand Plains" that interposed their parched and 
 cheerless expanses for nearly a thousand miles. Even the wisest states- 
 men of that time saw in all this an insurmountable obstacle to the build- 
 ing of a line of continental railway. 
 
 The gallant Fremont, who came this way at an early day, reported 
 officially, "that all west of the Missouri River was barren desert, unpro- 
 ductive, rainless and treeless." 
 
 Many of to-day, not far advanced in years, can recall the wild, wierd 
 pictures of the "wind swept solitude," of a sand storm on the "Great 
 American Desert," and perhaps of the complete destruction of some luck- 
 less caravan. To my own mind as these lines are written, come vividly 
 the sketches of the awful doom that often overtook those wLo ventured 
 too far beyond the borders of civilization. Poisonous simoons were writ- 
 ten about, and the picture was not complete without reference to those 
 who had been lured to destruction by the cruel deception of the fatal 
 mirage. The hero of those days was he who had penetrated this strange 
 land and had been permitted to return safely to the "Father of Waters." 
 Now as one is hurried by the iron horse over any one of the half-dozen 
 great railways that span this same wonderful country, what a transforma- 
 tion is opened to view. Instead of the grim and hideous visions of boy- 
 hood days, the desert has blossomed and a land is seen rich in verdure, 
 dotted with cities, villages and beautiful homes and teeming with the 
 evidences of a vigorous civilization. Within little more than a score of 
 years the practical men in horticulture have made glad the waste places 
 
4 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 by the planting within the borders of two great States alone ^Kansas and 
 Nebraska) fully six hundred million trees. 
 
 Surely the chaos of a mighty world is rounding into form ! Long- 
 lived and prosperous be the lot of those who have laid the foundations, 
 and who are developing the agricultural possibilities of this wonderful 
 domain. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Artificial irrigation is essentially a part of the agriculture of nearly 
 half of our American continent. The subject of the right distribution 
 and conservation of moisture is one that is attracting the attention of the 
 leading cultivators throughout the entire land. Each recurring season of 
 drouth and floods, with its record of failures and disasters, is causing 
 widespread discussion of the best means of arresting the gigantic waste 
 from these sources. 
 
 The problem is not only among the first in economic importance, but 
 involves as well a movement towards an improved and scientific agricul- 
 ture. Thoughtful tillers of the soil are beginning to realize that the 
 waters have "run riot" too long, and that possibly the "settled policy" of 
 the last half century, which has been directed towards relieving both 
 earth and air from moisture, either by drainage or deforesting, should be 
 reversed. 
 
 Prominent agricultural writers, almost to a man, are to-day calling a 
 halt, and urging that steps be at once taken to not only arrest the " waste 
 of waters," but to conserve them as well, for use in times of need. Not 
 alone this. The conspicuous and manifest advantage to every grower of 
 crops of a certain and ample water supply, is a most persuasive and pow- 
 erful argument in favor of artificial irrigation in some form. 
 
 Mr. A. N. Cole heads his valuable work on " his system" of sub-irri- 
 gation with the double title : "The New Agriculture ; or the Waters Led 
 Captive," and declares that " the world seems to have gone stark mad in 
 efforts to dry up and carry off the waters." 
 
 He would conserve the moisture and shows marvelous results from 
 his new method. " Sub-irrigate our States and Territories," says Mr. 
 Cole, "and these would feed all the populations of the world. The water 
 wasted annually, were it run through the soils as I am doing, would in 
 from five to ten years suffice to increase the wealth of the country to a 
 degree so manifold, I dare not so much as venture an opinion in estimate." 
 
 Mr. Henry Stewart, in his able treatise on irrigation says: "The 
 supply of water then becomes the measure of the fertility of our soil, and 
 
6 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 our climate, subject to torrid drouths in the midst of the growing 
 season, is the obstacle to success which meets the farmer, rather than the 
 impoverished soil — a condition indeed mainly due to the poverty of 
 water." 
 
 Mr. Hinton, in his recent compilation of "Irrigation in the United 
 States," declares it the opinion of those qualified to form a judgment that 
 irrigation is yet in its infancy, and has given no more than a promise of 
 what it is destined to achieve. " Our own country," says he, "possessing 
 vaster domains than any nation in the world, and of incomparable value, 
 has only to enter upon her own possessions, and by trenching her moun- 
 tain sides, beget reservoirs as enduring as the foundations of the earth." 
 
 Mr. Johnson, of Illinois, who is eminent as a writer on farm topics, 
 asserts it something more than reasonably certain that irrigation on a 
 scale not now dreamed of as possible, will be adopted within a century 
 for the prairies of Illinois. 
 
 Orange Judd, and a score of other writers of equal note, are likewise 
 enthusiastic converts to the benefits resulting from the artificial applica- 
 tion of water to land. In fact the drift of public sentiment has become 
 so marked in this direction within the past few years as to justify the 
 prediction of a revolution in the present methods of crop culture. 
 
 Whatever forecast may be warranted with reference to results on 
 general agriculture, will apply particularly to fruit and garden culture. 
 While it would be an exaggeration to assert that there are no limits to 
 the possibilities of horticulture under an ample system of irrigation, it is 
 certainly safe to say that these limits have not yet been reached. 
 
 "Intense culture" will be synonymous, in the future, with a certain 
 and uniform supply of moisture. 
 
 Mr. Cole, in the " New Agriculture," reports approximate yields to 
 the acre under his system, of 1,200 bushels of Early Rose potatoes; grapes 
 in proportion of five to one as against the old method ; 300 to 400 bushels 
 of strawberries of extraordinary size and flavor, and so on. California 
 vineyardists give returns of yields, often as four or five to one, and enor- 
 mous production of strawberries. Colorado has produced upwards of 
 1,100 bushels of onions to the acre (field culture). Colorado also claims 
 the prize beet, a fifteen-pound head of celery, and a yield of grapes from 
 small plots at the rate of fifteen tons to the acre. 
 
 Similar instances could be cited almost indefinitely, and while these 
 place judicious irrigation at great advantage, it should be understood that 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 such results are from favorable conditions and good management. Irriga- 
 tion may be easily overdone and disastrous failures follow. Mr. Stewart 
 is right when he says that " to irrigate economically and successfully is 
 a business that requires technical knowledge and skill, and belongs to a 
 highly advanced condition of agriculture." Some years ago we wrote 
 the following, which experience since has fully confirmed : " The suc- 
 cessful cultivator must know how and when to apply water to his crops. 
 To the grower of fruits the ability to command this element when needed 
 is of manifest advantage. That the yield may be largely increased by the 
 judicious application of water, there is little doubt. That the fruit may 
 also be increased in size and made more attractive, is equally certain. At 
 the same time judgment is required for the best results. Indeed, positive 
 harm may be done by untimely irrigation ; harm not only to the tree and 
 plant, but to the land as well. Incessant watering without regard to the 
 condition of the soil or the needs of the plant will often force a growth of 
 wood at the expense of the fruit product and fruit flavor. It may like- 
 wise cause a growth to be made which the succeeding winter finds imma- 
 ture and unable to withstand the tests. This will almost certainly be the 
 result with any tree or plant that has a tendency to make a strong or 
 succulent growth. I have known great injury to result from this 
 cause alone. I have also known the quality of small fruits, particu- 
 larly strawberries, to be seriously impaired by too frequent watering. 
 This, by way of illustrating the point that there is danger in careless irri- 
 gation. The condition of the soil and needs of whatever is growing on it 
 should be studied. My own view is that too much water is used by a 
 majority of irrigators in the orchard and garden, and that more harm 
 results from a too free use of it than from too little. In a word, every- 
 thing beyond a legitimate use is an abuse, and this will be better under- 
 stood in a few years than it is now." 
 
 But, aside from definite pecuniary results, certain general propositions 
 may be stated with reference to irrigation, of which the limits of this 
 work will prevent a discussion. Experience has abundantly demonstrated 
 that water, properly applied, is beneficial, both to soil and to plant growth ; 
 that, from a sanitary standpoint, it acts as a purifier, and is injurious only 
 when allowed to stagnate either on or below the surface of the ground, 
 and become the receptacle for unwholesome accumulations; that it is a 
 solvent of vegetable plant food, and often, although not always, acts as a 
 powerful fertilizer, as modern experience, in widely separated regions, is 
 
8 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 demonstrating.* That it almost uniformly, when distributed to any 
 extent, increases the humidity of the climate ; that it avoids the occurrence 
 of the much dreaded drouth, with its accompanying record of failures, 
 discouragements and often appalling consequences ; and, finally, that 
 it makes possible a condition of agriculture so manifestly in advance of 
 the present status of things, that words seem inadequate to express these 
 possibilities. 
 
 *Note.— A very probable effect ol irrigation on a large scale " would be an 
 increase of precipitation in the region watered. Hitherto, scientific observation has 
 recorded no such increase, but, in a question of so purely a local character, we must 
 ascribe very great importance to a consideration which has frequently been over- 
 looked by meteorologists ; namely, that vapors exhaled in one district may probably 
 be condensed and precipitated in another, very distant from their source. If, then, 
 it were proved that an extension of irrigated soil was not followed by an increase of 
 rain-fall in the same territory, the probability that the precipitation was augmented 
 somewhere would not be in the least diminished." (Man and Nature, Page 463.) 
 It is asserted that rain-fall on the Isthmus of Suez has increased since the opening 
 of that great water thoroughfare, and has enlarged the evaporable surface of the 
 country. Some leading cultivators of California assert positively that an increase 
 of rain-fall has followed extended irrigation in portions of that State. While this 
 belief is gaining ground, perhaps, in other sections of the country, the fact should 
 be kept in mind that questions of this character, that involve changes of climate, 
 can only be determined by tests extending through a series of years. 
 
THE DUTY OF WATER. 
 
 It is safe to say that, at the present time, there is absolutely no 
 standard or basis for accuratel} 7 estimating the "duty of water." So many 
 conditions are to be taken into consideration in determining how much 
 water may or may not be needed for any given crop, and so little thought 
 has, until quite recently, been devoted to the matter of economizing water, 
 that little data that is at all reliable can be given. Broad generalization, 
 bordering closely on to " guess work," has been the rule. That there are 
 difficulties in the way of arriving at accurate conclusions in these investi- 
 gations, must be seen, at a glance. Local conditions, character of the soils, 
 slope of the land, cultivation, humidity, evaporation, precipitation, drain- 
 age and capillary action, are so widely at variance in different localities, 
 that there is small hope of getting any formula that will admit of extended 
 application. Then, too, the demands of plant life are variable. 
 
 As no two trees are precisely alike, so it follows that their require- 
 ments may not be the same in all respects. Again, the products of different 
 latitudes, even of the same varieties, are influenced by local surroundings. 
 The plant that requires a gallon of water a day in one locality might 
 demand more or less in another. The tree that would drink up five 
 hundred gallons of water per day in Colorado, might be easily satisfied 
 with half that quantity in Olinois. 
 
 It would be quite as logical to say that the dweller in the " Land of the 
 midnight sun " should have the same food regimen as the dusky being on 
 the burning sands of the equator, as to assert that products of the vegetable 
 life should have the same treatment the world over. The best, then, that 
 can be done in efforts to formulate conclusions on the duty of water, is to 
 say that, given certain specified conditions, approximate requirements 
 would be the same. 
 
 The author of "Man and Nature" sa)'S that, "as near as can be 
 ascertained, the amount of water applied to irrigated lands is scarcely 
 anywhere less than the total precipitation during the season of vegetable 
 growth, and in general it much exceeds that quantity." 
 
10 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 This is undoubtedly true, and yet it offers no solution of the problem 
 of what the actual duty of water is. The amount of water used, and what 
 is really needed, are two very different things. The systems or facilities 
 employed for distribution cut an important figure. Instances are given 
 in California where a flow of one cubic foot per second has supplied 9,000 
 acres, while in Colorado the average duty is estimated at 50 acres for the 
 same flow. 
 
 A Massachusetts man estimates that 108 tons of water are needed per 
 acre, every five days, in a dry period for irrigating the garden lands of 
 that section, and a fruit grower of Wisconsin, who waters his fruits by 
 means of wind-mill and tank, reports that it takes 30,000 gallons to a 
 watering to satisfy his acre of strawberry plants. Under a system of sub- 
 irrigation, the State Engineer of California reported that he saw three 
 acres of young trees thoroughly irrigated, in half an hour, with about four 
 hundred cubic feet of water, or less that 3,000 gallons. The "duty " then, 
 under the flooding process, is vastly less than under the furrow system, 
 and by an improved system of sub-irrigation, it is as a hundred to one in 
 favor of the latter. These are suggestive figures, and some day will be 
 looked into when the waters from our streams become too valuable to 
 waste. It will be a forcible reminder of the old adage that "economy is 
 wealth." Stili, even under frugal management, the demands of vegetable 
 life are comparatively large.* 
 
 Few people realize the amount of moisture utilized and required by 
 growing plants and vegetation. Dr. Gilbert has stated that the amount 
 of water given off by plants during growth might be approximately esti- 
 timated as equal to a depth of three inches of rain for every ton of dry 
 substance grown. Another eminent authority found that most plants 
 exhaled during the four or five months of their growth, more than two 
 hundred times their dry weight of water, drawn up from the soil in which 
 they grew. 
 
 Prof. Burrell, of the University of Illinois, says, in a recent report, 
 that "the water requirements of a tree, in full leaf, in warm, sunshiny 
 weather, are astonishingly great. A good sized apple tree, having 25,000 
 square feet of evaporating surface — by no means a large estimate — will 
 give off 31,250 ounces of water per day. This is substantially 250 gallons ; 
 
 *Note.— The experiments now being made at the Colorado State Agricultural 
 College, to determine the duty of water on various crops, will be watched with 
 interest. 
 
THE DUTY OF WATER. I I 
 
 an amazing amount, yet far less than has sometimes been calculated. 
 If so much is given up to the air through the leaves, an equal amount 
 must be absorbed from the soil by the roots — the only way that plants of 
 the kind under discussion obtain the water required by them." 
 
 Mr. Cole, author of the " New Agriculture," found that a single hill of 
 cucumbers would drink a half a barrel of water in three days time, and, 
 having done so, would begin to languish for want of moisture, and, failing 
 to secure it, die in a week. 
 
 It is also known that crops growing on manured land evaporate more 
 water than on the same land unmanured. Likewise land growing a heavy 
 crop of barley was shown by Messrs. Laws and Gilbert to have evaporated 
 nine inches, or 1,800 tons of water more than bare land lying alongside. 
 It will be seen then that the necessities of plant life, with respect to moisture, 
 is a matter that is influenced or governed more or less by surroundings and 
 by local conditions. 
 
 Another important point that enters largely into a proper determin- 
 ation of the ''duty" of water is the manner of cultivation practiced on 
 any given crop. The plow and the cultivator are most effective conser- 
 vors of moisture. Hence, crops are saved by frequent and thorough 
 stirrings of the soil, when otherwise they would either perish or fail to 
 mature. This fact is often noticed in the cultivation of corn. When 
 parched and wilted during a season of excessive drouth, I have seen this 
 crop fully restored by a timely use of the cultivator. Among garden 
 crops, the beet and squash are conspicuous examples of the efficacy of 
 good cultivation as a diffuser of moisture. 
 
 So important is this item of tillage to the best results on the farm or 
 the garden, that with good soil, deep plowing, and thorough culture, crops 
 may often be assured with little or no surface irrigation. Therefore, it 
 should be said that no discussion, or mathematical calculation of the 
 "duty of water," is accurate or logical that ignores the influence of these 
 local conditions. 
 
 In a report of the Farmers' Alliance, of Fort Collins, under date of 
 January 21st, 1888, the recommendation was made that land should be 
 plowed deep in the fall of the year, to allow the frost and snow to have 
 full action on the upturned soil. "It was also demonstrated" says the 
 report, " that one irrigation on land that has been plowed deep was as good as 
 three irrigations on shallow plowed ground." We italicize this because it 
 goes to confirm a position for which we have for years contended. "Deep 
 
12 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 and thorough disintegration of the soil," says Professor Cassiday, of our 
 Colorado Agricultural College, " will accomplish the first step in the 
 retention in the soil of the moisture for the sustenance of flagging vegeta- 
 tion. Cultivation, too, checks evaporation, and hence currently lessens 
 the deposit of alkali on the surface. High tilth of the soil supplements 
 irrigation. This, with good under-drainage and the successful application 
 of water to plants in the free soil, and a judicious selection of varieties, 
 may be said to be the foundation of successful fruit culture in this State." 
 
 These remarks of Professor Cassiday need not be limited to Colorado. 
 They are of universal application ; and while the people of the West are 
 to-day petitioning Congress for a grand system of surface reservoirs for 
 the Great Plains, the importance of which is too manifest to need dis- 
 cussion, let them supplement this by constructing a still grander system 
 of underground reservoirs, by plow and trench, to hold like a sponge the 
 water which falls or flows upon them, to be returned to the growing crops 
 as their needs demand. 
 
 From an investigation of results in nearly every part of the country 
 where irrigation is practiced, with few exceptions, the verdict is quite 
 unanimous that "the duty of water" is annually increasing. In fact, so 
 uniform is this testimony that Mr. Dakin, whose able report has been sev- 
 eral times quoted from, singles out as an apparent exception to the rule 
 " Colorado alone, in situations like that of Greeley ; upon a deep, porous 
 soil, with a rapid fall and quick drainage." Here he says as much water 
 is said to be used now as was required some twelve years ago. " Every- 
 where else the verdict of experience is that water goes farther every 
 year." But this statement is qualified by another which he terms "an all 
 important principle, as to which there is no question, and which is testi- 
 fied too on every hand — that the more thoroughly the soil is cultivated, 
 the less water it demands." 
 
 The remark is made here in passing that this is strong support of the 
 proposition already, advanced, that no attempt to determine the actual 
 duty of water will be very satisfactory that does not take into considera- 
 tion the "duty of cultivation." 
 
 Professor Cassiday makes a good point when he says that "the vary- 
 ing efficiency of the duty of water in Colorado, as compared with 
 California and other countries, is largely due to our elevation, causing 
 greater evaporation of both plant and soil." But whatever may be the 
 difference, comparatively speaking, between Colorado and other States 
 
THE DUTY OF WATER. 1 3 
 
 and Territories in climatic influences, we feel warranted in the assertion 
 that this State is no exception to the rule of the increased duty of water, 
 excepting possibly in degree. In the third biennial report of State 
 Engineer Nettleton, pages 59 and 60 (referring specially to the Cache la 
 Poudre River, which waters Greeley and lands contiguous), he says: 
 " The duty for the present season (1886) was about three times as large as 
 the estimate heretofore generally accepted." Total number of acres 
 under cultivation in this district was 125,000, and the average duty for 
 the months of May, June, July and August for this year of each cubic foot 
 per second was 193 acres. Mr. Nettleton then proceeds to make the fol- 
 lowing general statement : " It is a matter of common experience, how- 
 ever, that the duty of water has increased greatly of late years. The 
 reasons for this will be discussed in another part of the report* That 
 this duty is not exceptionally great is shown by the experience of Utah 
 under similar climatic conditions, where a duty of 200 acres to the cubic 
 foot per second is not unusual, while in California a much higher duty*is 
 attained. * . * * * What has been accomplished 
 
 on this river (the Cache la Poudre) in the way of records on increasing 
 the duty of water, and by reducing the work of dividing waters to a sys- 
 tem, which commends itself to all, can be done on other streams and in 
 other water districts." 
 
 That seepage cuts an important figure in estimating the duty of 
 water will be seen by experiments made by Engineer Nettleton. In one 
 instance, "starting with a flow of 127,609 cubic feet per second in the 
 canon, before any water was drawn into canals, the volume at the lower 
 point, after supplying fifteen canals, had increased to 214,508 cubic feet 
 per second ; showing an addition of more than two-thirds of the original 
 amount, to supply canals further down the valley." 
 
 Another experiment on the same river (Cache la Poudre) disclosed 
 the fact that more water passes through the canon during one day in the 
 hight of flood season than there does during a month in the fall. This 
 test applies rather to the matter of storage, and shows the possibility of 
 doubling the capacity of a stream, or greatly enlarging it by ample stor- 
 age facilities. 
 
 * Colonel Nettleton in this reference accounts for the increased duty of water 
 mainly for the reason of the better knowledge from year to year of how and when 
 to apply water, and to the control the State has taken in the distribution of the 
 waters, and in the manner of defining appropriations. In another portion of the 
 report attention is called to the importance of seepage as a factor in the distribution 
 of moisture. 
 
14 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 A summary of all this discussion, then, shows that while water may 
 be made to do increased duty in many ways, it also shows the extreme 
 difficulty of arriving at anything like accurate conclusions, in the absence 
 of a knowledge of atmospheric conditions and the numerous local causes 
 or surroundings, that may so directly influence results. 
 
THE BEST SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION. 
 
 Irrigation is by no means a modern method of applying water to 
 land. A writer on the subject tells us that ''in the regions regarded by 
 general tradition as the cradle of the human race, we find traces of canals 
 evidently constructed for this purpose at a period long preceding the ages 
 of which we have any written memorials. There are in ancient Armenia 
 extensive districts which were already abandoned to desolation at the 
 earliest historical epoch, but which in a yet remoter antiquity had been 
 irrigated by a complicated and highly artificial system of canals, the 
 lines of which can still be followed ; and there are in all the highlands, 
 where the sources of the Uphrates rise, in Persia, in Egypt, in India and 
 in China, works of this sort which must have been in existence before 
 man had begun to record his own annals." So says the author of " Man 
 and Nature." Various methods have been employed for artificially 
 applying water to land, some of which appear very primitive and labori- 
 ous to us- of to-day. We read of the " creaking of the water wheels " 
 during the whole night on the Nile in irrigating season, " while the 
 poorer cultivators unceasingly ply the simple shadoof, or backet and 
 sweep, laboriously raising the water from trough to trough by as many as 
 six or seven stages, when the river is low. Instances of other rude meth- 
 ods are known, such as carrying water by means of pots and distributing 
 it on plats of ground." 
 
 These "systems" would not be calculated to awaken great enthusiasm 
 at the present time in the " noble art of irrigation " if they had to be 
 adopted from necessity. But the plans now in use in the United States 
 are mostly copied or borrowed from the improved methods of the Old 
 World. Practically, the history of irrigation in the United States, as 
 Commissioner Coleman says, "begins with the construction of the Pacific 
 railroads." But even with thousands of miles of canals, and rapid 
 development within this brief period, it is safe to say that we have 
 scarcely made a beginning. Hence it is too early to assert what may yet 
 be accomplished, or what may prove the "best" system of irrigation. 
 
1 6 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 This much, however, should be recognized : that there is a vast differ- 
 ence between a system of distributing water and that of rightly applying 
 it to land. For example, there might be perfect harmony of views upon 
 the proposition that the best arrangement for conveying water would, be 
 that which would accomplish the work most expeditiously and neatly, 
 with the least loss from any cause, either from seepage, evaporation or 
 the like, and at a cost consistent with a judicious expenditure of money; 
 and yet it would not follow that there must be the same agreement as to 
 the proper manner of applying this water to the land. There is clearly a 
 wide difference here, which will be better understood in the future than it 
 is now. The one simply involves the point as to what would be the most 
 economic expenditure of money, all things considered. The other fea- 
 ture goes farther and requires a knowledge of the needs of the soil and 
 of the crops growing or to be grown thereon. It also demands an under- 
 standing of the effect of using water in various ways, whether by 
 flooding, furrow irrigation or by some form of sub-irrigation. In other 
 words, it means reducing the matter to a scientific basis. 
 
 This will be the system of the future. 
 
 As to the merits of the various methods of irrigation, from the 
 knowledge I have been able to obtain, both from study, observation and 
 practical experience, I do not hesitate to pronounce in favor of some form 
 of sub-irrigation, for most horticultural products. To my mind the 
 evidence is cumulative and most abundant, that this way of using water is 
 not only correct in principle, but is the most economic, effective and whole- 
 some. The prime aim, under any system of cultivation, or irrigation, 
 should be to stimulate and induce " capillary action " in every possible way. 
 
 It is a fact conceded by every observing cultivator of the soil, that 
 the finest and best crops and most satisfactory results in every way are 
 obtained from those lands where there is free, constant and uniform 
 moisture diffused from below. Soils differ with respect to the workings 
 of capillary attraction, but it is more or less potent in all land. 
 
 Three years since Hon. Alfred Deakin, M. P., chairman of the Eoyal 
 Commission on the water supply of Australia, made an able and compre- 
 hensive report on American irrigation, in which he refers to the peculiar 
 property possessed by many soils (capillary attraction) as forming a most 
 important factor in all calculations as to the limits of irrigation. Mention 
 is made of the fact that in California (as shown by experiments) water 
 rises rapidly in coarse, sandy soils, but only to a moderate hight ; while in 
 
THE BEST SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION. \J 
 
 finer soils, whether in clay or of silty formation, the rise is slower, but 
 higher. So that in a few weeks or months, as the case may be, the water 
 attains twice or thrice the hight that it climbs in the former. He con- 
 cludes, upon this point, that a " consideration of these results points to 
 the superior value, in suitable soils, of sub-irrigation, or irrigation by 
 seepage from below, over all methods of surface application, because it is 
 thus possible to avoid caking the soil and loss by evaporation." 
 
 It may be observed in this connection, and has been already referred 
 to, that broad and deep disintegration of the soil always influences most 
 favorably capillary action. 
 
 Mr. Cole, the author, who has truly led the waters captive, declares 
 that "the methods of surface irrigation, when compared to those of sub- 
 surface, are as fractions to units." 
 
 Says the able author of a book from which quotations have been 
 made (Hon. Geo. P. Marsh), "The readiness with which water not 
 obstructed by impermeable strata diffuses itself through the earth in all 
 directions, shows the importance of keeping up the supply from subterra- 
 nean sources. The deep-lying veins and sheets of water, supplied by 
 infiltration, from often comparatively distant sources, send up moisture 
 by capillary attraction around the roots of vines and trees. Without the 
 help of artificial conduit, or of water carrier, the Thames and the Seine 
 refresh the ornamental trees that shade the thoroughfares of London and 
 Paris, (paved by flagstone and cement almost impervious to water) and 
 beneath the hot and reeking mold of Egypt the Nile sends currents to 
 the extremest borders of its valleys." 
 
 The diffusion of moisture in this way will depend then mainly upon 
 two conditions — the supply received or contained in the underlying 
 strata, and the character of the soil operated upon. Two other points 
 closely allied to these are, the storage capacity underneath and the 
 manner of cultivation. 
 
 Now the position has been taken for sub-irrigation for the orchard 
 and garden, without regard to any artificial system for carrying it out. 
 
 The objections we urge to surface irrigation, and " flooding " particu- 
 larly, as commonly applied, are that it is a wasteful, untidy, unskillful 
 and often an unwholesome method of distributing water. That it is 
 objectionable also in rigorous climates, because of its tendency to induce 
 surface rooting, and for the further reason that it is a most effective means 
 of distributing harmful and destructive weeds. Careless surface watering 
 2 
 
1 8 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 often results in excessive saturation and caking of the soil and in the 
 injurious deposits of the soluble salts. 
 
 In discussing " Irrigation in Horticulture," Professor Cassiday says : 
 " Surface irrigation, whether practiced out of doors or in the plant house, 
 cannot be too strongly condemned, as it unquestionably induces surface 
 rooting — not a desirable result in any climate." Besides promoting 
 surface rooting it induces a continuous evaporation, and refrigeration of 
 the soil, the latter acting as a wick, drawing water by capillary attraction 
 to be absorbed at the surface by the air with which it comes in contact, 
 and depositing at its surface its salts, which, if in too great quantity, are 
 destructive to all useful vegetation. The " furrow system," although often 
 open to much of the criticisms above, is, nevertheless, when used with 
 care and economy, far less objectionable than is the practice of flooding.* 
 Of course, either natural or artificial ^drainage should go hand in hand 
 with any system of irrigation. 
 
 Professor Short, in a paper read some three years since before the 
 Colorado State Horticultural Society, said : " When irrigation is properly 
 carried on, it is undoubtedly the best and safest method of furnishing 
 water to plants. I think the method now used throughout the State is a 
 very bad one." 
 
 He then goes on to show that the water used from our mountain 
 streams is laden with the sulphates of soda, magnesia and alumina, which 
 are deposited by irrigating ditches on our lands with the water, and hence, 
 , as evaporation takes place, large quantities of these soluble salts remain. 
 After a repetition for several years of this process, a white crust is formed, 
 called " alkali." While a moderate quantity of this so-called alkali is 
 beneficial as plant food, a large accumulation is exceedingly injurious. 
 This is the chief reason that some land, which has been irrigated for 
 several years, will not produce any vegetable growth. As one remedy, he 
 suggests underground drainage, by which superfluous water would sink 
 into the soil (with most of the objectionable salts) and be carried off. 
 Fresh water falling would also aid this. Then, concludes Professor Short, 
 with thorough manuring, the lands would be rendered fit for continual 
 use, as the manure furnishes the phosphates and nitrogenous organic food 
 
 *I am aware that frequent and copious fioodings are sometimes recommended 
 for dispersing the accumulated salt from lands, but this plan seems open to 
 serious objections, and should never be resorted to where the under-drainage is 
 not good. 
 
THE BEST SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION 1 9 
 
 for the plants, and irrigating water would supply the soda, lime, potash, etc. 
 It is possible that the best system of irrigation for this western 
 country, at least, has not yet been discovered. The "New Agriculture" 
 provides for storing the waters in parallel trenches four or five feet deep, 
 and of the same width, below frost line, and filling in these trenches with 
 round stones to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet, tiling to be used 
 if stones are not to be had, then shingling over with flat stones, or tile, or 
 timber. After which, to prevent the earth from filling up the spaces be- 
 tween the stones, any coarse material like straw, hay, weeds, cornstalks or 
 fine brush are placed on. A heavy coating of manure may follow this, and 
 then the excavated soil is placed on top. A series of these trenches are 
 constructed on an incline, one above the other, about a rod apart ; these 
 main reservoirs or trenches are connected with smaller trenches, about 
 eighteen inches from the surface, partly filled in with small stones, and 
 designed to connect and convey the surplus water from the trench above 
 to the one below. These are called overflow trenches. Each of these 
 main trenches, then, becomes a reservoir capable of holding three feet or 
 more ot water before it overflows into the cross trenches. This is the 
 method by which Mr. Cole would store and conserve the rains and melting 
 snows for use when needed, and it affords an excellent illustration of the 
 principle of irrigation by capillary attraction, or by the gradual and 
 uniform raising and diffusion of moisture from below. Beyond a question 
 it is correct in principle, and I am prepared to believe all the reports of 
 results from experiments at the "Home on the Hillside." As to what 
 extent this system may be utilized in other parts of the country, and under 
 conditions widely different from those where tests have proven so satisfac- 
 tory, remains to be seen. Mr. Cole not only reports amazing yields under 
 the system, but claims remarkable immunity from disease for all products 
 grown in that way. The expense of fitting the land for this plan amounts 
 to several hundred dollars an acre, where it has been tested, which of 
 itself, appears almost a bar to an extended adoption of the system. But 
 Mr. Cole does not so regard it, and writes under date of Dec. 28th, 1887 : 
 " As for cost of fitting lands; were it to cost ten thousand millions to fit 
 under my system the soils of Colorado, as a return interest, at six per cent, 
 would be realized, as near as I calculate, on $900,000,000,000,000,000,000. 
 Don't vote me a crank, now, but wait for a letter I have just written for 
 my ideal paper, your Field and Farm." The progress of the New Agri- 
 culture will be watched with interest. 
 
20 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 > 
 
 THE ASBESTINE SYSTEM. 
 
 This method of sub-irrigation was devised in California by E. M. 
 Hamilton, and is sometimes called the " Hamilton Process." It consists 
 of pipes made of a combination of Portland cement, lime, sand and gravel, 
 laid at a depth of two feet below the surface of the ground, parallel to the 
 rows of trees or vines in an orchard or vineyard. In these pipes, on the 
 upper side, is inserted a wooden plug opposite each tree or vine, the plugs 
 having tapering holes in the center one-fourth to three-eights of an inch 
 in diameter, through which the water finds exit. Each plug is surrounded 
 by a larger stand pipe, setting loosely on top of the distributing pipe, open 
 at the bottom and reaching to the surface of the ground, for the purpose 
 of keeping the dirt away from the outlet, and rendering it accessible at 
 all times for inspection. The pipes are connected with mains leading 
 from a reservoir. The water finds its way through all the outlets, filling 
 the stand pipes, and slowly percolating to the roots of the plants. No 
 water appears on the surface. 
 
 The claim is made for this method, that it effects a very great saving 
 of water over the ordinary means of surface application ; that it requires 
 far less time and labor ; that it may be used for the distribution of liquid 
 manure; that it does not cause the ground to bake with the heat of the 
 sun— no water appearing at the surface; that no grading is necessary; 
 that the growth of weeds is checked ; and, finally, that it induces deep, 
 instead of shallow, rooting, as is the tendency with surface irrigation. 
 
 The further claim is made that, by keeping the water from standing 
 on the surface of the ground, injurious deposits of alkali are avoided. 
 These points are strong, and if they can be sustained, which is by no 
 means improbable in many localities, the system is destined to great pop- 
 ularity and usefulness. In many parts of California it is giving much 
 satisfaction. 
 
 The Australian member of parliament, Mr. Dakin, from whose report 
 we have already quoted, in commenting on this system, after a mention of 
 the fact that irrigation beneath the surface, if not excessive, is considered 
 the most perfect method of supplying water to vegetable life ; because it 
 can avoid the dangers of over-saturation, surface caking, and of washing 
 out the richer elements in the soil, as well as accomplish an enormous 
 saving in water, says : " It certainly appears that sub-irrigation is the hope 
 of the most intelligent irrigators, because it promises a great economy of 
 
THE BEST SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION. 2 1 
 
 water, and the most direct application of it to the thirsty tree that it is 
 possible to devise." 
 
 The difficulties that naturally suggest themselves in the way of com- 
 plete success in this plan are the liability to have the pipes stopped up, 
 either by tree roots or sediment. The advocates of the system claim that 
 both of these dangers have been anticipated by ample provision for either 
 guarding against or clearing obstructions of this kind. Nevertheless, it is 
 probable that in some localities obstructions similar to those named might 
 be serious drawbacks to the successful working of any system of conveying 
 water by pipes. But that all these hinderances will ultimately be over- 
 come, there seems, little doubt. 
 
 The Asbestine system is attracting wide attention at the present 
 time. Professor Cassiday makes favorable mention of it, and thinks that 
 at this altitude, where surface evaporation is rapid and water quickly 
 dissipated, for this and other reasons already pointed out, that "sub-irri- 
 gation offers positive advantages." At Gardenside we have tested the 
 method in a small way only, but see no reason why it may not succeed. 
 
 It will be more fully tried here. But the man who has given it the 
 most thorough trial in Colorado is Mr. Gravestock, of Canon City, and 
 we have let him tell the results in his own words. 
 
 If those interested would give this, or any similar invention, a trial, 
 first in a small way, under different conditions of soil and location, in a 
 few years we would be prepared to speak understandingly of its merits for 
 this region. 
 
 SUB-IRRIGATION. 
 
 Canon City, Colo., December 5th, 1887. 
 
 Your letter is received. With reference to sub-irrigation, will just 
 say that this is the fourth season I have tried it, and I cannot speak too 
 highly of it. I have in only about a thousand feet, but enough to satisfy 
 me that when properly applied it is a grand success in Colorado. Had 
 not my fruit trees and grape vines been so old, I should have put my 
 whole place into sub-irrigation, but as my orchard and vineyard was full 
 of roots, I was afraid of doing it an irreparable injury by cutting too 
 many roots in digging trenches to lay the pipe. 
 
 I have three short rows, of a little over 300 feet in length, to which I 
 have planted one row of standard pear, one row of plums, and a row of 
 grape vines between and each side of my fruit trees. All have made a 
 
22 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 remarkably fine growth this season. My young plum trees especially 
 have made a growth this year of nearly six feet of fine, stout wood and 
 well ripened up. Some young Salem and Duchess grape vines, four years 
 old, made a growth of over twelve feet this season, although they have 
 been attacked a good deal with the grape leaf hopper. As for conducting 
 water long distances, the cement pipe cannot be beat, neither for durabil- 
 ity, cleanliness or cheapness. 
 
 Sub-irrigation is away ahead of surface irrigation. I would put it 
 about as far ahead as surface irrigation is of the old hand watering-pot 
 we used to use when we were boys, with our wet legs and tired arms and 
 back. 
 
 From the same writer, December 23d : 
 
 With reference to size of pipe, will say that the laterals for distrib- 
 uting the water are 2-inch bore; the main, that laterals are attached to, 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Figure 1 illustrates the machine used in making this cement, and the manner 
 in which it is done. 
 
 are 3-inch bore. Trenches are dug 16 inches deep and 16 inches wide for 
 convenience of laying pipe. 
 
 As to your second question — how often to irrigate — will say: If I had 
 an orchard of young trees, just planted, and to be irrigated by this method, 
 I would, the first season, irrigate once a week. Say let the water run from 
 one hour to one and a half, according to nature of soil. After the first sea- 
 son, once every ten days or two weeks would be quite enough. This, I think, 
 has proven to be enough on my soil, which is a sandy loam. As to sug- 
 gesting any improvement in the method, will just say that if the plugs 
 were four to six inches above the pipes, instead of two, it would certainly 
 
THE BEST SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION. 23 
 
 be better, as grit and small pebbles would not be so apt to get in the plugs 
 to affect the discharge of water. 
 
 I don't know of a single instance where I would prefer the old method 
 to sub-irrigation, except for corn and grain growing. As to expense per 
 acre (that's the place where the shoe pinches), this depends a good deal 
 on circumstances — whether you want to irrigate orchard, vineyard or 
 garden ; and another big item is the price at which you can get Portland 
 cement. One barrel of cement and one barrel of dry-slacked lime, free 
 from lumps, will make about 350 feet of 2-inch pipe. By using seven 
 parts sand (must be clean), one part Portland cement and one part lime, 
 will make 350 feet of good 2-inch pipe; so you can easily figure for your- 
 self what it would cost per acre. 
 
PIPES, CONDUITS, ETC. 
 
 The use of pipes, flumes and lined channels, for conveying water long 
 distances, will ultimately come into extensive use in all sections where 
 water is scarce and costly. 
 
 Few of us realize the enormous losses by seepage and evaporation in 
 conveying water by means of opens canals and laterals. Mr. Dakin esti- 
 mates this waste at from 25 to 50 per cent., and cites one instance where it 
 was far greater— a canal in the San Joaquin Valley, which took 90 cubic 
 feet per second at its head, and only delivered 14 cubic feet per second on 
 the farms 28 miles away. " Some put," says Mr. Dakin, " the loss of 
 farmer and canal proprietor together as high as nine-tenths of the water 
 diverted, others at three-fourths, and it is rarely calculated at less than 
 the latter figure." 
 
 Professor Mead, who fills the chair of Physics and Engineering in the 
 Colorado Agricultural College, calculates that the atmosphere takes up 
 from the surface of the Poudre district (in Northern Colorado), during the 
 months of June and July, at least one thousand cubic feet of water per 
 second. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the time is not far distant when, instead of 
 open, excavated channels in the soil for conveying water, closed or imper- 
 vious piping, flumes and the like will be largely employed. 
 
 In California, according to Mr. Hinton's report, the following conduits 
 are used: (1) Wooden flumes, (2) lined channels, (3) wrought iron 
 riveted asphalted pipes, (4) wrought iron asphalted pipes, (5) terra cotta 
 pipes, (6) cemented pipes, (7) asphalt pipes. Of course, whatever is 
 selected for this purpose must be able to resist the action of the salts as 
 well as of the elements. 
 
RESERVOIRS, WELLS, ETC. 
 
 It seems evident that the reservoir or storage system, for supplying 
 water for irrigating purposes, will enter into the agricultural economy of 
 this country to an extent not thought or dreamed of as possible to-day. 
 Not only will the Great Plains — "the possible homes of fifty million 
 people" — he supplied from mountain and upland storage, but the system 
 will extend, in one form or another, through the broad acres of the Great 
 Northwest, and even to all sections of our land. The waters will be con- 
 served, "led captive," and utilized in a hundred ways, of which we have 
 not, perhaps, the remotest conception. 
 
 China is said to have one irrigating canal a thousand miles in length, 
 and other nations of the Old World are close rivals. The extent to 
 which storage is practiced there can hardly be realized by us, but it is 
 sufficient for us to state here that the most sagacious minds of all those 
 lands early saw the importance of a certain and ample system of water 
 storage to the permanent welfare of the people. 
 
 Storage, then, with improved methods of conveying water, will be a 
 leading problem in the agricultural development of this nation for the 
 century to come. 
 
 Much can and will be done, in a limited way, by means of artesian 
 wells, wind-mills, steam pumps and hydraulic appliances for raising water 
 connected with distributing pipes. 
 
 In Syria, extensive vineyards are irrigated from large wells dug for 
 that purpose. And in portions of the southern San Joaquin Valley, Cali- 
 fornia, irrigation from artesian wells is relied on largely. One well, bored 
 to the depth of 310 feet in 1879, was made to water successfully a 40-acre 
 tract of land set to forest trees, and it is claimed that some of the wells in 
 Tulare county, with an average capacity of 247 gallons per minute, will 
 water thoroughly 160 acres of land. The average flow of the wells in this 
 county (Tulare) are given as two and one-half inches above the casing. 
 These instances serve to show the possibilities of irrigation by artesian 
 wells in specially favored regions, where geological and surface formations 
 are favorable. 
 
26 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 For small tracts (under close culture) of one, two, or even five acres, 
 the wind-mill, with large tank or reservoir connected, is now used in 
 different portions of the country for supplying water. In this case, iron 
 or cement piping, or wooden conduits, are employed for conveying the 
 water where desired. 
 
 Wherever the Asbestine system is practicable, and a supply of water 
 amounting to from 25,000 to 100,000 or more gallons can be stored, by 
 means of wind-mill, steam pump or hydraulic power, a considerable tract 
 may be watered. Reference has heretofore been made to the fact that, in 
 one instance in California, three acres of young trees were thoroughly 
 irrigated in half an hour by this underground method, and with less than 
 3,000 gallons of water. This, of course, was under highly favorable con- 
 ditions. 
 
 But the promoters of the Asbestine plan assert that an artesian well 
 with the capacity of 100,000 or 150,000 gallons daily, will readily supply 
 all the moisture required on a farm of 160 acres. This statement is given, 
 not for the purpose of intimating that this claim has been sustained, nor 
 to endorse the assumption that the system is practicable for the needs of 
 general farming, but with the sole object of illustrating the possibilities, 
 even of the artesian well, wind-mill or steam pump, with the right appli- 
 ances for distributing the water so supplied. Great improvements may be 
 safely anticipated in this direction, as well as in the building of mammoth 
 canals and gigantic reservoirs. 
 
JUDGE JAMES MARSH CLARK, 
 
 Whose portrait is given on this page, was born in New York City, 
 December 8th, 1810, and has been an earnest, enthusiastic horticulturist 
 all his life. He inherited a love for this calling from a long line of 
 ancestry, dating back prior to the days of the American Bevolution. At 
 an early age he had charge of the planting of an orchard for his uncle in 
 New Jersey. A little later he pushed westward, and in 1828 planted 
 
 quite an extensive orchard in Indiana. A few years later, in pursuit of 
 health, he moved to Wisconsin, and was among the earliest planters in 
 that State— first at Fon-du-lac, in 1840, for a friend ; near Madison, in 1841, 
 for himself; and afterwards near Baraboo, in 1847. At this last named 
 place he resided twenty years, and achieved such remarkable success 
 as an amateur fruit grower that in a few years he was able to show 
 one 'hundred varieties of apples alone grown in that trying climate. 
 
28 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 This success was not only the marvel of his own section of the State, but 
 became widely known in other parts; and in 1867 he was awarded first prize 
 by the Wisconsin State Horticultural Society for the largest and best col- 
 lection of apples grown in that State ; also several special premiums for best 
 varieties for different seasons and localities. All this was accomplished 
 while Judge Clark was holding responsible official positions. In 1861, 
 being severely prostrated by ill-health, he made a trip to Colorado, and 
 in May of that year planted an orchard in Boulder County for James 
 Maxwell, a prominent citizen of Boulder City, and the father of Hon. 
 James P. Maxwell, also of Boulder. This, so far as I can learn, makes 
 Judge Clark the pioneer fruit planter of Colorado. 
 
 Subsequently, in 1861, he returned to Wisconsin to lend his influence 
 and aid to the cause of the Union in the Great Conflict which followed. 
 In 1867 poor health again prompted him to seek the milder climate of 
 East Tennessee. Here he at once planted an orchard ; but his surround- 
 ings not being congenial, in the chaos that followed the war, he moved to 
 Kansas in 1869, and was the first orchardist in Oswego Township, of that 
 State. From Kansas Judge Clark came to Colorado again in 1871 and 
 joined his fortunes with the Union Colony of Colorado, locating perma- 
 nently at Greeley, where he still resides. 
 
 True to his faith and tastes he brought a considerable stock of fruit 
 trees and plants, at large expense, and at once proceeded to establish his 
 favorite fruit garden. Here he has remained with his noble wife, sur- 
 rounded by a prosperous and influential family of children, among whom 
 are J. Max., and A. B. Clark, well known as leading farmers of Northern 
 Colorado. Year after year "Father Clark" has experimented with vari- 
 ous new varieties and added to his already choice collection of hardy 
 horticultural products. Notwithstanding his advanced years, he is still 
 active and enthusiastic, and believes that one should never be too old to 
 plant a tree or shrub. As he said to me the other day : " I was scarcely 
 ever in a state a week without planting (if health and season permitted) 
 tree or fruit stock of some kind ; and aside from any benefit that this may 
 have been to others, I am confident that my active interest in this work 
 has prolonged my life at least twenty years." An acquaintance of 
 Charles Downing, a contemporary of Marshal P. Wilder, the father of 
 John J. Thomas, and a score of other distinguished men in pomology, 
 Judge Clark has had unusual opportunites for study and observation, 
 and has improved them well. 
 
JUDGE JAMES MARSH CLARK. 29 
 
 The following incident in connection with the subject of this sketch 
 is given to illustrate his deep devotion to his loved vocation : 
 
 Arbor day, 1886, was observed by the various schools in and about 
 Greeley. A procession of all the children was formed at the main build- 
 ing and they marched from one school house to the other, each grade 
 planting as many trees as there were classes, about their building. 
 Bringing up the rear of the long line of school children, mostly dressed 
 in white, was "Father Clark," carrying in one hand a spade, in the other 
 a two-year-old apple tree, which, with his own hands he planted at the 
 Second Ward school house. It was indeed a beautiful picture to witness 
 the silver-haired veteran of seventy-six years, surrounded by many 
 children, planting a tree, and it left a lasting impression upon those wit- 
 nessing the scene and who listened to the remarks of the sage as he 
 addressed the children : " I plant this tree, not with the hope or expec- 
 tation of myself seeing its fruit, but for your benefit, my children. 
 Doubtless there are many here to-day whose children may enjoy the fruit 
 and shade of this tree. Thus may you learn the lesson — 'Do what you 
 can, though never so little, for the good of those who come after us.' " 
 
 The children responded heartily in song, singing, " Swinging 'neath 
 the old apple tree." 
 
 All honor to the men who are contented to sow and to plant 
 that others may partake of the fruits of their honest toil and unselfish 
 devotion to a noble calling. A cultured, modest man, a skilled pomologist 
 and a lover of mankind, "Father Clark" has lived to ripe old age and 
 has served well his day and generation. 
 
THE ORCHARD. 
 
 The average Colorado soil will do for the orchard and garden, but if 
 one has a choice in this particular, preference should be given to rich, 
 deep sandy loam, with a clayey, sandy sub-soil ; and if there is an oppor- 
 tunity for a choice in exposure, select a north or northeast slope for the 
 orchard. 
 
 It is useless, however, here in the West, to insist on either of these 
 preferences, as the " lay of the land " is, in so many cases, nearly level 
 over wide stretches, and the ideal soil is not always to be found. Any 
 land that will produce good general farm crops can usually be relied on to 
 grow good trees, and while a northern slope tends to protect against the 
 action of a hot sun and to avoid premature growth in the early spring, 
 still, with care and good culture, natural obstacles or disadvantages may 
 be greatly modified, if not overcome. 
 
 Upon the subject of soil adaptation, I quote from Mr. P. Barry, a 
 recognized authority : " For an orchard of apples or pears, a dry, deep, 
 substantial soil, between sandy and clayey loam, and possessing among its 
 inorganic parts a considerable portion of lime, is, according to all experi- 
 ence, the best. On such soils we find the greatest and most enduring 
 vigor and fertility, the healthiest and hardiest trees, and the finest and 
 best flavored fruits. The plum succeeds best, as a general thing, on a 
 clayey loam, rather stiff. * * * The cherry, peach, apricot, 
 nectarine, and almond, require a light, dry and warm soil." He further 
 says : " There are two points to be observed, under all circumstances, in 
 regard to soils. They must possess the inorganic substances, such as lime, 
 potash, etc., that constitute a large portion of the wood and bark of fruit 
 trees, when burned, and a sufficient amount of organic matter — vegetable 
 mould, which dissolves and furnishes materials for the formation and 
 growth of new parts." 
 
 If the land chosen has not been cultivated, a good plan is to grow a 
 potato or corn crop the season before setting the trees. This tends to 
 subdue the soil, and make it of better texture for planting. In any event, 
 it is desirable to break the land the season previous to setting. If this is 
 
THE ORCHARD. 3 I 
 
 to be done, turn the sod under rather shallow in midsummer, or when the 
 native grass is most thrifty, and in the autumn plow again, this time 
 length-wise of the furrow and deep enough to bury the sod several inches. 
 The point is not only to have the soil subdued and mellow, but to have 
 the native growth turned under so that it will decay and fertilize the 
 land. 
 
 The following spring, before planting, run over the land with a heavy 
 harrow, to smooth down lumps and level up for the trees. Previous to 
 this, however, see that the right grade is established for irrigation. 
 Every arrangement in connection with the orchard, of course, should be 
 consistent with convenience in irrigating. 
 
 There are various ways of laying out an orchard, some of which in- 
 volve considerable work and painstaking care. But the first and most im- 
 portant considerations are to have the trees well planted, and in a manner 
 consistent with good cultivation and a proper regard for economizing 
 space. After this the matter of general appearance may be considered. 
 If one is not particular about perfect accuracy or range in the plan, a very 
 good as well as expeditious way is to mark out the ground with a plow, 
 running furrows at desired distances each way. 
 
 This can be done with reasonable precision by the aid of stakes at 
 regular intervals, to enable the plowman to keep his bearings. If one 
 wishes to plant so that the trees will range perfectly, not only each way, 
 but diagonally, the following plan for laying out, as given by Mr. Thomas, 
 in " The American Fruit Culturist," is quite simple and easily accomplished : 
 
 " The following mode of laying out and planting will not require 
 one-twentieth of the labor commonly devoted, and will give rows that 
 will range perfectly, not only in both directions, but diagonally. The 
 writer has found that two men would thus lay out from thirty to forty 
 acres in a day, with perfect precision, for planting. 
 
 " The first thing to do is to procure as many short pins or stakes, a few 
 inches long, as there are to be trees in the orchard. These may be made 
 by simply splitting short blocks or boards with an axe, say half an inch 
 in diameter ; or corn cobs will answer a good purpose, and may be more 
 easily seen. Then procure a strong cord, as long as one side of the 
 orchard, or, if the orchard is very large, as long as each section may be, 
 if necessary to divide it. Then, with a pole or measure, mark off the dis- 
 tances of the trees on this line, sticking a common brass pin through at 
 each place for a tree, bending it around the cord so that it will not come 
 
32 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 out. Red yarn sewed through and tied around the cord would be more 
 visible than pins; but the latter are quickly found if the workman 
 measures the distance by pacing between them as he walks from one to 
 the other. A new cord will stretch a little at first, but will soon cease to do 
 so. The easiest way to mark the spaces on the cord is to wrap it around 
 the ends of a board cut at the right length, sd that every third coil will 
 be a place for a pin. Thus, if the board is five feet long, by marking 
 every third coil at the end of the board, we obtain spaces of thirty feet. 
 The field having been plowed and fitted for planting, we are now ready 
 for operation. Select a still day, so that the wind will not blow the cord 
 out of place, and then stretch the line along one side of the field, at a suit- 
 able distance from the fence where the first row is to be made. Make 
 it as straight as possible, by drawing on it forcibly ; a stout cord is better 
 than a weak one on this acoount. If the land is tolerably level, twenty or 
 thirty rods may be measured off at a time. Place flat stones or other 
 heavy weights upon it at intervals, to keep it in position ; if there is some 
 wind, care will be necessary in making it perfectly straight before thus 
 fixing it. Next, drive in one of the short pegs or sticks at each point 
 marked by the pin already described. When this is done, one row will 
 be marked, then remove the line, and mark each end of the field at right 
 angles to this in the same way. Lastly, mark the remaining side. Before 
 marking both ends, it is safest to stretch the line on the fourth side, that 
 all may be perfectly spaced. Next, to fill up this hollow square with the 
 proper marks, stretch the line successively between corresponding sticks 
 on the opposite sides, and mark as before till the whole is completed. If 
 the work has been carefully done, every stake will be found to range per- 
 fectly. Every cord will stretch more or less, but if stretched so that the 
 ends will come even each time, which is attended with no difficulty, the 
 rows will be perfect. 
 
 " Next, take a strip of board, say about eight feet long and six inches 
 wide, and cut a notch in one side at the middle, just large enough to let in 
 the stem of a tree. Bore a hole through each end, exactly at equal dis- 
 tances from this notch. Then, whenever a tree is to be planted, place the 
 middle notch around the peg, and thrust two other pegs through the holes 
 at the ends. Then take up the board, leaving these two pegs, dig the 
 hole, replace the board, and set the tree in the notch. Proceed in this 
 way till the whole orchard is planted. It is obvious that the trees will 
 stand precisely where the first pegs were placed, and will range in perfect 
 
THE ORCHARD. 
 
 33 
 
 rows. A large number or series of the two pins may be set successively 
 by the board, so that a number of workmen may be digging and planting 
 at the same time. It is of no importance in what direction the board is 
 placed, as the pin and tree will occupy the same spot." 
 
 In addition to marking out with the plow, as already described, when 
 everything is in readiness for planting, the work may be hastened and 
 made effective by running a sub-soil plow along the furrows. This not 
 only serves to excavate the ground for the reception of the trees, but it 
 combines in a measure the advantages of trenching, with deep stirring 
 and pulverizing of the sub-soil. It is practiced by some of our most suc- 
 
 A badly planted tree 
 
 A well planted tree. 
 
 cessful orchardists, and among them David Brothers, of Jefferson 
 County, Colorado, and is especially to be commended in all sections 
 subject to scarcity of moisture or of water for irrigating purposes. If the 
 soil is not of the best, this preparation may be advantageously followed 
 by filling in the bottom of the trench with a few inches of well-rotted 
 manure, over which a covering of top soil should be placed before setting 
 the trees. But whether manure is applied in this way or not, the deep 
 furrow will have to be filled up to the proper depth for planting, as of 
 course the bottom of the trench would be too deep for young trees. After 
 this preparatory work the planting can be readily accomplished. In 
 3 
 
34 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 small gardens the line and spade would have to be used instead of the plow. 
 
 Go down well in digging holes, and make the excavation broad and 
 deep, and have the soil mellow, so as to give the roots of the tree ample 
 room. Trenching or sub-soiling may precede this preparation, but it 
 should be understood that there is some hazard in highly enriching the 
 soil for young fruit trees. It often forces them into a strong growth 
 which a succeeding unfavorable winter finds immature, and serious injury 
 results. This caution is dropped here, but manuring will be referred to 
 again further, on. 
 
 Before setting the trees, pare off smoothly all torn or mutilated roots 
 by a slanting cut with a knife, then place the tree in the hole at about the 
 same depth that it stood in the nursery row, if anything, in this climate, a 
 trifle deeper ; spread out the roots in their natural position. Be sure to 
 have the soil in the bottom of the hole moist and mellow. When the 
 tree is placed in position (and if the site is level and exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun, it is well to incline the top a little towards the South- 
 west) fill in around the roots with fine soil, and occasionally raise the tree 
 a trifle so that the soil may be well worked in. As the dirt is being 
 thrown on, press firmly with the foot until the hole is filled up. If 
 water for irrigation is not immediately at hand, it is well after the hole is 
 partially filled to pour in a half-bucketful or so. But this need not be 
 done if water can be turned in the laterals and allowed to saturate the 
 ground, and thus fully settle the soil around the roots. Very cold water, 
 however, should be used sparingly, if at all, where it comes in contact 
 with roots of any kind. 
 
 In transplanting or removing trees from nursery, never expose the 
 roots to the sun or dry winds; keep them moist at all times. This is a 
 very essential precaution. Eight here the first fatal mistake is often 
 made in handling trees and plants. When the planting is done, it is 
 often beneficial to place around the tree a liberal coating of coarse litter 
 or manure, but never permit green manure to be placed in contact with 
 the trunk of the tree. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 A young tree that has been properly grown in the nursery will need 
 very little pruning at the time of transplanting. As already stated, in 
 transplanting all mutilated roots should be dressed by cutting back to the 
 sound wood with a smooth, slanting cut, " on the under side of the root." 
 
THE ORCHARD. 
 
 35 
 
 After this is done, to preserve the necessary balance between the branch 
 and the roots, authorities agree that the branches should be cut out and 
 shortened so as to correspond with^the condition of the roots. In other 
 words, leave enough branches only to form a compact (not crowded) head, 
 and cut these back, say one-third, or to within a half-dozen buds of the 
 base of each of the branches. By this treatment your tree ought to have 
 a good start. But trees differ so much in make-up and habits of growth 
 that it is almost impossible to give specific directions about pruning, and 
 this is especially true when we consider the different aims sought by the 
 practice. 
 
 All things considered, the low-headed, stocky trees are safest for the 
 plains, and those portions of the West exposed to sudden and violent 
 
 Well Formed Lowheaded Apple Tree. 
 
 extremes of temperature. They are self-protecting, and in a measure 
 prevent sun scald, and the trunk and earth immediately around from 
 becoming overheated in the spring, and inducing an early rise of sap. 
 
 If trees are to be headed high in large orchards, except in favored 
 situations, the trunks should be protected from the action of the sun. 
 
 If the tree is taken up with roots well preserved, there will be little 
 necessity of severe pruning or cutting back. The use of knife or saw on 
 any tree should be avoided as much as possible. If taken in hand when 
 
36 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 young, the top may be formed easily by pinching off the heads where they 
 are not needed. 
 
 Pruning may be done in autumn after the fall of the leaf, also during 
 the winter and the early spring. Mr. Downing, the eminent horticultur- 
 ist, says : " We should especially avoid pruning at that period in spring 
 when the buds are swelling and the sap in full flow, as the loss of sap by 
 bleeding is very injurious to most trees, and in some brings on a serious 
 and incurable canker in the limbs." 
 
 In removing a limb, cut just outside of the crown or collar. This is 
 quite important. The collar is a small ridge of bark to be seen on limbs 
 near the body of the tree. 
 
 If severe pruning must be done, especially in the established orchard, 
 where large limbs have to be removed, it is very important that the 
 wounds heal early. In such cases summer pruning should be practiced. 
 It may be done either when the tree is in partial leaf, or when in full leaf 
 and blossom. The former is probably the better time. I would not 
 recommend much winter pruning in any locality where the winters are 
 severe, for the reason that fresh wounds render trees liable to injury from 
 extreme cold. 
 
 In removing large limbs, always first make a cut on the under side, 
 to prevent splitting or peeling off the bark before the limb is fully severed. 
 This will occur if knife or saw is used on the upper side before the lower 
 cut is made. 
 
 An excellent preparation for covering wounds made by pruning, is 
 gum shellac dissolved in alcohol to the consistency of paint, and applied 
 to the wounded surface with a small paint brush. 
 
 After the orchard has been planted, unless the soil is moist and mellow 
 and in prime condition, the trees should be immediately watered. It is 
 best to run furrows at once with a shovel plow, or other suitable imple- 
 ment. Have these sufficiently near the trees so that the moisture may be 
 easily diffused around the roots when the water is turned on. If the soil 
 is rather heavy and compact, it is sometimes best to make a trench or 
 basin around each tree to have the soil properly saturated. Use a suffici- 
 ent volume of water to run slowly along the rows, and when it it com- 
 pletely through, and the ground around the trees deeply moistened, shut 
 the water off; never let it remain and soak and flood your grounds. 
 Where a mixed orchard is to be planted, care should be exercised to lay 
 it out so that those trees which require the least water will receive the 
 
THE ORCHARD. 37 
 
 least, and vice versa. Plant the cherry trees, for example, where they 
 will not be subjected to too much irrigation. Next to them the pears and 
 peaches. Apples will need, on an average, watering once every week or 
 ten days the first season ; and the second, perhaps every two or three 
 weeks. Most varieties of plums rejoice in abundant moisture, and hence 
 should be freely watered. 
 
 It is a good plan to go over the ground after the soil has settled from 
 the effects of the irrigation, before it has dried much, and fill in around 
 the trees all depressions made by the water with fine, dry earth. This 
 will tend to prevent the soil from baking, as well as to arrest evaporation. 
 A slight, basin-like depression should be left around the tree^ to assist in 
 retaining the moisture that falls from the clouds. 
 
 The established orchard will require irrigation according to the soil, 
 location, cultivation and treatment it receives. For this reason each 
 orchardist must be his own judge to a great extent. It is safe to say 
 however, that from one to three thorough applications of water each sea- 
 son will be ample on an average. The soil should at all times be kept 
 mellow and free from weeds in young orchards. 
 
 Garden root crops, potatoes and the less rank growing varieties of 
 sweet corn, may be cultivated to advantage for a few seasons, but should 
 not be planted too near the trees. Never sow grain crops in the orchard, 
 they not only exhaust the fertility of the soil, robbing it of the elements 
 of plant food needed to sustain the trees, but they are enormous consum- 
 ers of moisture. It is a rule, with rare exceptions, now recognized by 
 leading cultivators everywhere, that water should be witheld from the 
 orchard after the season's growth has been practically made, (which in 
 Colorado is by September 1st) to allow this growth to fully mature. But 
 the last thing before the ground freezes, to give a copious irrigation, in 
 order to place the trees in good form for our usually open winters and 
 uniformly dry atmosphere. This precaution is an important one, as it 
 enables fruit stock to resist the drying-out process so fatal to trees every- 
 where. 
 
 MULCHING. 
 
 It is always safe to give the surface, for three or four feet around the 
 young tree, a dressing of coarse litter, cut straw or partly decomposed 
 manure, and this should by all means be done if the soil is of a heavy, 
 coarse texture and not in good tilth. Green, fresh manure, howeve^ is 
 
33 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 not desirable and should never be placed in contact with the body of the 
 tree- There is less necessity of a dressing where the soil is naturally 
 warm, deep and mellow, with a moist, sponge-like sub-soil. This kind is 
 in a measure self-protecting, because it not only keeps the surface of more 
 even temperature, but brings about a most desirable condition — that of 
 deep rooting. 
 
 But where trees are to be planted in situations unprotected from the 
 direct action of the sun and the elements, mulching should always be 
 applied. The advantages are that it tends to guard against sudden 
 extremes of temperature, to retain both surface and capillary moisture, 
 
 MANNER OF PROTECTING THE TRUNKS 
 OF TREES. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 Gunny-sack 
 or Burlap. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 Heavy pape 
 
 protects from the at times too powerful and long continued heat of the 
 sun, and in other ways equalizes conditions. Whatever virtue there may 
 be in the atmospheric ammonia given off by the rains, or in the sub- 
 stances deposited by the irrigating waters, the mulch assists in utilizing. 
 The generally accepted theory is then that a good mulch both operates as 
 a protection and a fertilizer. 
 
 Mulching does not retard the blossoming period in trees as was form- 
 erly supposed. It could have this effect only where the tree was entirely 
 
THE ORCHARD. 39 
 
 covered. In other words, placing a protection merely on the surface of 
 the ground, does not control or perceptibly influence the top with respect 
 to the development of fruit buds and bloom. This has been abundantly 
 demonstrated in Colorado. The chief objection to the practice is that, 
 under a system of surface irrigation, it tends to encourage shallow rooting. 
 For this reason when applied to trees for any considerable time it must 
 be continued. Where sub-soiling, or trenching or under-irrigation is 
 adopted, the objection would in a measure be obviated. Therefore, in a 
 dry climate with open winters and almost perpetual sunshine, where solar 
 and terrestrial radiation are most marked and evaporation active, we 
 believe that the benefits of judicious mulching are far in excess of its 
 disadvantages. At the same time this should not supercede cultivation. 
 The soil should be frequently stirred and the weeds kept down, always 
 using care not to injure the roots or body of the tree. 
 
 In addition to this it may be necessary to enrich the land by an 
 annual application of well-rotted manure or compost carefully worked in 
 around the extremities of the roots. This should always be done if the 
 soil is light or impoverished from any cause. Never let the trees lag for 
 lack of plant food. This will apply to old as well as young orchards. 
 
 After the details of planting are attended to, it will pay the planter 
 to protect the trunk of every tree in some one of the ways illustrated. 
 The action of the sun's rays on the South and West sides of the tree is often 
 very harmful. Any heavy building paper may be used for making the 
 protection shown at Fig. 4. If tarred paper is employed, there should be 
 a space of two or three inches between it and the bark of the tree, and a 
 still safer plan is to line the inside of this with white paper of some kind. 
 Never place tarred paper directly in contact with the bark of a fruit tree. 
 When properly used, it is a valuable protection not only against the sun's 
 rays, but against depredations of rabbits and insect enemies of tree trunks. 
 A convenient way of protecting the cherry, plum and peach tree is by 
 wrapping a gunny-sack around the trunk and winding it with twine. A 
 prominent fruit grower of the East protects his trees from mice, rabbits, 
 etc., by cutting fine wire netting, such as is used for window screens, into 
 strips 18 inches broad, then into lengths to surround the trees, letting 
 them lap over considerably. He says this will also protect the tree from 
 the borer.* 
 
 *Trees are often protected by simply wrapping them with light paper or straw, 
 or with strips of bark of various kinds ; but it is better not to have any protection 
 remain too long in contact with the trunk of the tree. 
 
40 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 WIND-BREAKS OR SHELTER-BELTS. 
 
 Plant by all means, either in advance of or simultaneously with the 
 orchard, a shelter belt of trees. Rapid, upright growers should be set for 
 this purpose, either all round the orchard or on the sides from which 
 come the prevailing winds. The Lombardy poplar, where it does not kill 
 back, makes an excellent wind-break. The western or gray willow is about 
 as good, and still hardier. The Cottonwood makes a stronger growth than 
 anything that can be planted, and hence a quicker protection, but it is a 
 gross feeder and should not be set within several rods of an orchard. The 
 black and honey locust are also used. 
 
 Some of the strong growing crabs are also desirable. For an inside row 
 of a shelter-belt (I prefer this word, because it means more than simple 
 protection from wind), a row of hardy plum trees may be planted. Ever- 
 greens are good where they can be cheaply obtained. Mr. Grimes, the 
 well-known Denver nurseryman, "thinks a wind-break is as incomplete 
 without an evergreen lining as a bird's nest is without a lining." Here, 
 in Northern Colorado, I would surround the entire orchard with a shelter- 
 belt, but protection is most needed on the North and West sides — not alone 
 for the teees, but to protect the fruit buds and fruit from injury by occa- 
 sional prolonged and drying winds. 
 
 HEELING IN. 
 
 It is often desirable to procure fruit stock in fall and trench in until 
 spring. This practice is growing in favor, and one nurseryman of large 
 experience declares that trees treated in this way not only retain the full 
 vitality they have in autumn, but are actually worth twenty-five per cent 
 more than those taken up in spring. 
 
 To heel in, put trees in a sloping trench, with roots at deepest end (ljto 
 2 feet deep). Spread out roots, and cover thoroughly and closely with 
 fine, moist earth and fill in trench, covering tops of trees with about six 
 inches of dirt, leaving mound that will turn water. Always bury on a 
 well-drained site. We usually wet roots before trenching. 
 
 Should trees arrive dry and shriveled by reason of delay or from other 
 cause during shipment, if water is convenient put them in root and 
 branch, and let them remain for several days in water, or bury them deep 
 in moist earth. This practice will usually restore the stock fully. If 
 frozen, do not unpack on arrival, hut place in cellar or other cool place, 
 free from frost, and let them remain until entirely thawed out. 
 
THE ORCHARD. 4 I 
 
 The following extracts are from a paper read recently by Dr. Alex- 
 ander Shaw, before the Northern Colorado Horticultural Society, at Fort 
 Collins. The special subject was the practicability of apple growing in 
 Northern Colorado, but it will be seen that the paper covers a general 
 scope : — 
 
 For the last four consecutive seasons I have made a toui of inspection 
 of the State of Colorado, for about six weeks, for the express purpose of 
 being able to respond to this inquiry, not only as to North, but also as to 
 the South. The State is a State of magnificent distances, in range of area 
 from North to South about 600 miles. The area of the State East of the 
 Rocky Mountain range is about 47,000 square miles, aggregating about 
 30,080,000 acres. Altitude does not limit the possibility of apple growing. 
 I have found the Ben Davis and Oldenberg apple growing at an altitude 
 of near 8,000 feet, also at 4,500, all seemingly alike matured. 
 
 The meteorological influences necessary to grow fruit are not gov- 
 erned by altitude alone, but the contour of the ground and surroundings 
 play an important part. The era of fruit growing in Colorado dates back 
 to about twenty-four years. William Lee, of Jefferson county, near Clear 
 Creek, is probably the pioneer fruit culturist of Colorado. He hauled his 
 first stock by mule team in 1863 from Iowa City, Iowa; 1865 was the 
 date of the next fruit growers' venture. George Webster, M. L. McCaslin 
 and others in the St. Vrain Valley purchased their stock from the Atchi- 
 son nursery, Kansas, which were hauled by ox teams. About the same 
 time Jesse Frazer, of Florence, Fremont County, hauled his first stock by 
 ox team from Quincy, Illinois. Frazer has been pre-eminently the most 
 successful apple grower in the State, having the largest plantation of aged 
 trees in the State, being about three thousand trees, which produced a 
 crop of about ten thousand bushels for the year 1886. From the several 
 points, as above named, have radiated fruit planting with a varied success. 
 There is no meteorological cause preventive of fruit culture in Colorado 
 but what is found in any of the States East of us. 
 
 The weather records of the government show less extremes of heat 
 and cold, and more bright, sunshine days in Colorado, than any other 
 State of the Union. The mean line of temperature, as indicated by our 
 signal stations, from North to South, passes through Denver. As to the 
 climatic causes preventive of fruit growing, we are favorably situated. 
 At the present date fruit growing has been tested successfully over an area 
 from North to South of about 500 miles. Each locality within that area 
 
42 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 has its off years, with more or less success. Jefferson, Boulder and Fre- 
 mont have been testing fruit culture, both as to small and tree fruits, for 
 over twenty years, yet one has had its barren years from climatic causes 
 as often as the other. For instance, one orchard of aged trees for the year 
 1886, at Canon City, failed, while in the Longmont neighborhood they 
 were pre-eminently a success, yet for the current year of 1887 the fruitful- 
 ness was reversed. Frazer's orchard in 1886 produced 10,000 bushels, yet in 
 1887 had not more than fifty bushels. With the conditions precedent to 
 successful fruit growing, such as water, at command, the right kind of 
 soil, proper care and culture, I know no reason why fruit growing in 
 Northern Colorado cannot be as successfully done as in the Southern 
 counties, except some of the stone fruits, such as peaches, apricots, nee" 
 tarines, and some of the tender varieties of cherries, and possibly plums. 
 The better varieties of plums and cherries in Northern Colorado are at 
 present on probation. Pears, in many sections of the State, at proper age, 
 are a success, and I know no reason why they should not rank with apples 
 as a success. The home of the stone fruits, as above named, in Colorado, 
 will be in the extreme South and in valleys West of the Rocky Mountain 
 range on the tributaries of the Gunnison and Grand Rivers. 
 
 It is possible that peach trains in the near future will run from 
 Western Colorado as well as Salt 'Lake. The altitude (4,500 feet) and 
 conditions of peach growing are about the same. 
 
 The successful fruit culturist of any country must study and practice 
 the conditions precedent to success in his own locality. At all points 
 where water is at command and soil appropriate small fruits succeed, and 
 as a rule tree fruits are equally a success where proper selections as to 
 kinds are made. The greatest bar to success in Colorado is our May 
 frosts. Early bloomers as a rule should be avoided. The crab family of 
 apples are more uncertain than standards, on account of precocious 
 blooming. In my observations in fruit culture in Colorado, I have been 
 most interested in apple and pear culture. 
 
 I have noted about two hundred varieties of apples and thirty-one of 
 pears. I here make a note. As a rule I know of no country that will grow 
 and mature good wheat and a Hubbard squash that will not make a good 
 apple country. If this notation be true, as applied to Colorado, then has 
 the possibility of apple culture from t*lie extreme northern to the southern 
 line been established beyond any doubt. 
 
 The apple is the king of fruits and numbers more kinds than any 
 other known fruit — probably 3,000. 
 
THE ORCHARD. 43 
 
 In a majority of the orchards of the State that I have seen trees are 
 not more than fifteen feet apart, and some even twelve. I have not met a 
 man whose orchard is ten years old and twelve feet apart, but would pre- 
 fer thirty. In this connection there is another error to be regretted, and 
 that is to encumber an apple orchard with small fruits, such as currants, 
 gooseberries, blackberries and raspberries. The ground should be dedi- 
 cated to trees alone and they not closer than thirty by thirty feet. 
 
 My orchard grounds contain ten acres in a square farm. I have 
 planted as a wind-break black locust thirty feet apart on the outer line of 
 the grounds. On the North and West lines I have set, fifteen feet apart, 
 three varieties of the best native plums I could get. The line of plum 
 trees alternate the space between the locust trees, and set so as to give 
 fifteen feet to the first row of apple trees. The habits of growth of 
 the locust and plum trees are low-headed, and for this reason I conclude 
 will make a good wind-break. This arrangement leaves space for setting 
 twenty-one rows thirty feet apart running East and West, and twenty rows 
 North and South, aggregating 443 apple trees. I have made my selection 
 of trees so as to give me a succession of fruit the year round of winter, 
 fall and summer varieties. As the most profitable kinds I note them in the 
 following order : Winter long keepers, first ; fall, second ; and summer- 
 third. In locating my trees I have arranged so as to have the hardier 
 varieties North of the more tender, but in no instance have I named a 
 tree I have not seen bear fruit and do well in Colorado. 
 
 A summary will show my orchard to contain 221 winter trees, 167 
 fall, 31 summer, aggregating 23 kinds. 
 
 I believe success of orchard culture will be best secured by an entire 
 dedication of the ground to growing trees. 
 
 To my mind it is somewhat questionable for the best success in 
 orchard culture to grow any kind of crops on orchard grounds, and 
 especially such crops as are exhaustive of plant food. The rootlets of 
 apple trees soon take possession of the orchard grounds. The rootlets of 
 a full grown apple tree are said to extend thirty feet from its trunk, and 
 as a matter of course must be impoverished by the growth of other crops. 
 
 Water is the solvent of all vegetable food, and its proper application 
 is a question of paramount importance to orchard culture. . Happily for 
 the fruit culturists of Colorado, in most localities you can have water at 
 will, which is an advantage that will discount the contingencies of natural 
 rainfall. Excessive rainfall and scorching drouth are not necessarily 
 
44 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 factors in Colorado fruit growing. The questions, how to irrigate and 
 when to irrigate, are questions of deep importance, and I hope will 
 receive a good share of the time of this meeting. With an enlightened 
 practical experience on this water question, a country the proper contour 
 
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 SOUTH 
 
 Orchard Irrigation. 
 a, canal ; b, checks in canal ; c, gates at the head of each row. 
 
 which is adapted to the right application of water at will, and living on 
 the direct line of the mean temperature of the North American conti- 
 nent, the Colorado horticulturists have a bright future before them. 
 
THE ORCHARD. 
 
 45 
 
 THE PLUM. 
 
 This fruit is certain to be a success in Colorado, and is each year 
 gaining in popularity. The plum of good quality is always in good de- 
 mand, and is not only a wholesome fruit, but is profitable when exempt 
 from attacks of insect enemies and the like. On onr Gardenside grounds, 
 for several years in succession, plum trees have fruited abundantly. We 
 
 Plum tree in bearing at Gardenside. 
 (From photograph.) 
 
 have just been among the plum trees to see the promise of fruit for this 
 season, and find indications most favorable. It succeeds with us both on 
 light, sandy soil and on that which is heavy and compact. 
 
 The tender Eastern varieties have not been tested here, and probably 
 would not succeed in our northern counties. But the hardier sorts of 
 
46 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Chickesaws and natives (P. Americana) seem quite at home. Of the 
 nearly fifty varieties at Gardenside, all seem to be doing well, but not more 
 than a dozen of these varieties have yet reached the age of fruiting. ' In 
 addition to the new hardy sorts like Shipper's Pride, Moore's Arctic, 
 Mariana, Ogon, Boton, Prunus Simoni, Wolf, Eollingstone, etc., we are 
 testing seedlings of our own, and many natives of Colorado. Some of the 
 latter are worthy of quite extended trial, and we recommend fruit growers 
 to be on the look-out for these natives, and whenever a promising one is 
 found to give it a trial. 
 
 The varieties that have so far fruited heavily in Northern Colorado 
 are Forest Garden, De Soto, Forest Eose, Weaver, Quaker, and, in special 
 localities, Miner and Wild Goose. 
 
 The illustration on preceding page shows a plum tree in bearing on 
 our grounds. 
 
 A good place for a plum orchard is either within or near by a hen 
 yard, if the curculio is troublesome. Give the trees an abundance of 
 moisture, and keep the soil well enriched. If trees are so heavily loaded 
 as to endanger the limbs, thin out the fruit, and thereby increase the size 
 and improve the quality of that remaining. If several varieties are 
 grown, plant closely, as some are likely to need fertilizing while in bloom. 
 Large, vigorous trees frequently fail to fruit from lack of fertilization. In 
 all localities where the growing season is rather short, always plant the 
 early maturing kinds. Where the plum curculio is troublesome, it may 
 be destroyed or driven off either by spraying the trees with well-diluted 
 coal tar water at two or three different stages of fruit development (from the 
 time it is the size of B shot, until it is perhaps two-thirds grown), or by 
 the use of arsenical poisons, like Paris Green and London Purple, (1) as 
 soon as the buds begin to swell in spring, (2) two weeks after the petals 
 have fallen. Other similar preparations would, doubtless, be effective, 
 but care should be exercised to use at the right time and in the right pro- 
 portion. 
 
 See paper by Prof. Cassiday. 
 
 APRICOT, PEACH AND NECTARINE. 
 
 These fruits are so similar in character and habits of growth that the 
 same general rules of culture will apply to all. The only important dis- 
 tinction between the apricot and the other two named, is that the former 
 not only has fruit and wood buds mixed on the shoots of one year's 
 
THE ORCHARD. 47 
 
 growth, but also has little fruit spurs, like the plum, which may be 
 renewed by shortening. The nectarine is simply classed as a smooth- 
 skinned peach, but is usually rather more delicate and difficult to raise. 
 
 The peach and apricot, particularly the hardy varieties of the latter, 
 promise to succeed over wide sections of the West. Some of the Russian 
 varieties at Gardenside, are, at this writing, heavily loaded with fruit 
 buds. The so-called iron-clad peach trees are being tested on our grounds, 
 said to be as hardy as the Ben Davis apple tree. But time is needed to 
 sustain this claim. 
 
 For points on the culture of the fruits under this heading readers are 
 referred to the paper of C. W. Steele, Esq., on "Peach and Apricot 
 Culture" and to the notes from Mr. Wade. 
 
 PEACH AND APRICOT CULTURE IN MESA COUNTY, COLORADO, 
 BY C. W. STEELE. 
 
 Given a suitable climate for the producing of semi-tropical fruits, the 
 water supply under absolute control, a good market, easy of access, and 
 you have the conditions of successful fruit growing to make glad the 
 heart of the horticulturist. The portion of Mesa County adapted to the 
 perfecting of the finer fruits is comprised in the valleys of the Grand 
 River, White Water, Kannah, Roan, and Plateau Creeks. 
 
 The first planting of peach trees in what is now Mesa County was in 
 the spring of 1883. These trees bore fruit the next year and abundantly 
 during the season of 1885 and 1886, making three " peach years " in suc- 
 cession. This year (1887) owing to the late severe frosts, peaches have 
 proven a partial failure. Only a few orchards in especially favored 
 localities having fruited. 
 
 Such encouragement has been given the fruit growers, that peach and 
 apricot orchards from a few trees to eighty acres in extent are now com- 
 mon, and the Mesa County horticulturist looks forward with confidence to 
 the time when the markets of Colorado will be largely supplied from the 
 orchards of Mesa County. 
 
 The best time to plant is a mooted question, but our experience 
 inclines us to favor fall planting, from the first to the middle of November. 
 We have never lost a peach or apricot tree from winter killing, and the 
 trees make a much larger growth the first season than when planted in 
 the spring. But above all we earnestly recommend would-be horticultur- 
 ists, don't procrastinate, don't wait from fall to spring and spring to fall, 
 
48 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 but prepare the ground thoroughly and plant the trees, be it fall or 
 spring; mark the rows eighteen by twenty feet apart, set the tree about 
 three inches deeper than it grew in the nursery, after trimming all broken 
 roots with a sharp knife. Fill in finely pulverized earth around the roots, 
 firm well, making good use of your feet while planting, prune severely 
 and irrigate directly after planting. Give good cultivation. Potatoes or 
 other low growing hoed crops may be grown between the rows, but the 
 branches need the sunlight. The shade of growing corn will injure the 
 trees. We do not usually irrigate during the growing season later than 
 the first week in September, giving the wood a chance to mature, but 
 always irrigate for winter after the middle of November. Among the 
 many desirable varieties for planting we would specially recommend the 
 Crawfords, Arkansas Traveler, Alexander, Foster, Hale's Large, Early 
 York, Old Nixons, Wheatland and Wager. For apricots, Breda, Moore- 
 park and Early Golden. The Eussian varieties will no doubt prove 
 desirable in higher altitudes. 
 
 Much loss and dissatisfaction is caused by planting inferior varieties, 
 or such as are untrue to name. Buy only from responsible parties. Send 
 your order to some reliable nursery direct (Colorado preferred) or through 
 some party whom you personally know to be trustworthy. One-year-old 
 trees are to be preferred for transplanting. The area of the profitable 
 culture of fruit may be greatly extended, and to the Mesa County horti- 
 culturist the future is specially full of promise. 
 
 CHERRIES. 
 
 The chief points to be regarded in the culture of the cherry are to 
 avoid all conditions that. are calculated to force a Ftrong growth, and to 
 plant on sites that will tend to retard development in the spring. Fruit 
 buds are often destroyed by late frosts, when the tree itself is quite hardy. 
 Another difficulty with the cherry tree in the West is bark bursting. 
 
 This suggests the desirableness of branching the trees near the 
 ground. In fact this seems to be the better form of growing the cherry 
 tree in all localities subject to severe changes. The bush form is adopted 
 with great success in different parts of Kussia, where extremes of temper- 
 ature are often violent and cold intense. The cherry is one of the leading 
 fruits of that country. We are heading many of our trees near the 
 ground, but testing several varieties in different ways. 
 
THE ORCHARD. 
 
 49 
 
 Plant, as a rule, on rather light, well-drained soil, and on a North 
 aspect, if available. Water sparingly, and cultivate with a view of in- 
 ducing a moderate and definite annual growth. 
 
 THE PEAR. 
 
 Some portions of Colorado seem especially well adapted to the growth 
 of the pear. It will be successful in "most localities where the apple 
 thrives, and being of the same genus (although not quite so hardy), re- 
 quires substantially the same soil and general treatment. In the Northern 
 tier of Counties in Colorado, except in more favored localities, the pear 
 has not yet proven a success, but certain varieties are likely to be found — 
 perhaps among the Eussian sorts — that will adapt themselves to our 
 climate. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 The quince, mulberry, berberry, etc., are being tested in different 
 parts of Colorado, and some varieties are doing quite well. The Eussian 
 mulberry is hardy, and fruits abundantly, but it is not of particular value 
 as a fruit tree. 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 
 
 Much that has been said concerning the culture of orchard trees will 
 apply equally to small fruits. For the best results, the ground should be 
 deeply plowed, or spaded and heavily manured. In fact, intense culture 
 is the secret of success with nearly all small fruits. Place the ground, 
 then, in the best possible shape, always keeping in view the importance 
 of convenience in irrigating. If possible, water should be near at hand at 
 time of planting. 
 
 Always set this stock, if in any quantity, with a view to horse culti- 
 vation, and use the horse freely, too. Spring planting is usually preferred, 
 although excellent results have been secured by fall setting of such fruits 
 as the raspberry, blackberry, currant, and even the strawberry, if not set 
 later than the 10th of September and well cared for. In all cases of fall 
 planting, mulch before winter sets in. Under a complete system of irri- 
 gation, with care in performing the work as it should be done, there is no 
 reason why many things may not succeed set at this season of the year. 
 
 Small fruits, with scarcely an exception, should have constant and 
 uniform moisture during the period of fruit development. Some kinds 
 will need more than others, and this is true of soils. Once a week, during 
 the fruiting season, would be a fair average, perhaps, with all small fruits, 
 excepting the grape. 
 
 As will be seen by reading the correspondence elsewhere from fruit 
 growers of prominence in our own State, some of them water, after each 
 picking, "their berry vines and plants." This is probably the general 
 rule, and is often necessary; otherwise the crop would be cut short, and 
 the berries deteriorate in size and appearance, if not in flavor. If plants 
 have been well cultivated and heavily mulched, they will require less 
 water, and bear finer fruit, than those neglected in this respect. 
 
 The small fruits, like the orchard trees, should be watered late in the 
 season, before they "go into winter quarters," and likewise should not re- 
 ceive much irrigation after September. 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 5 I 
 
 If the winter promises to be excessively dry, canes and plants should 
 be covered deeper than otherwise. 
 
 STRAWBERRIES. 
 
 It is a familiar saying that " the Lord might have made a better fruit 
 than the strawberry, but He never did." By general consent it is the 
 king of small fruits, and prime berries are always in demand at a good 
 figure. Of all small fruits this most delights in rich soil, abundant moist- 
 ture, and good cultivation of course. The average soil will do if properly 
 enriched, but different varieties are partial to different soils. The 
 Jucunda, for example, is^a very indifferent bearer on light, sandy soil, but 
 is hard to beat on soil that is heavy and rich. Some kinds, like the 
 
 Well Set Strawberry Plant. 
 
 Crescent, Wilson, Cumberland and Manchester, will do well nearly every- 
 where. 
 
 But the general purpose soil that will satisfy reasonably well every 
 variety, is a deep, rich, moist loam, The matted row system is the one in 
 most favor in the West ; that is, setting the plants a foot or so apart, with 
 a space of three or three and a half feet between the rows, and letting the 
 plants grow together in, but not between the rows. This gives ample 
 space for cultivating, as well as irrigation. The tendency is for beds set 
 in this way to exhaust themselves early by making too many runners. 
 Hence they should be well supplied with plant food. 
 
 The narrow row plan is a good one for most gardeners, but requires 
 more care. In this the rows are two and one-half to three feet apart, with 
 plants one foot from each other in the row and the runners kept off. 
 
52 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 There is no doubt that this will produce larger and handsomer berries 
 than those grown in the " matted row." 
 
 The "hill system" is setting the plants from three to four feet each 
 way, although practiced largely in the South has not succeeded in other 
 sections of the country for extensive culture. 
 
 Be cautious about the use of water in the fruiting season. Keep soil 
 constantly moist but don't soak the beds, and avoid if possible letting 
 water touch the fruit. Mulch well in the early winter, after ground is 
 frozen, with clean straw or coarse litter that is free from weed seed. 
 
 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 
 
 Specific directions need not be given for the planting and cultivation 
 of these, as the same general rules will apply to all fruits. We will there- 
 fore simply say, have the soil well prepared and properly enriched and 
 reasonably moist. Mark rows the required distance, get good young 
 plants, place them carefully in the ground with roots well spread out and 
 press soil firmly around them. As a rule always let the water follow 
 immediately after planting. 
 
 It is advisable, if the spring opens up with drying winds, to irrigate 
 (on light soils), if water can be had, before the canes are uncovered. As 
 winter covering is necessary in many parts of the West, it is well to attend 
 to this early in October. 
 
 COVERING. 
 
 First cut out all of the dead canes, and those of the present season's 
 growth not wanted for another year, leaving six or eight of the best canes in 
 each hill. It is not necessary to wait until the canes have shed their leaves 
 before covering, as some suppose. They will handle better if not allowed 
 to become too dry. In case the ground is hard and difficult to work, it 
 may be necessary to run water along the rows before attempting to cover. 
 Whenever it can be done, use the plow in covering. Two man can go 
 along the rows and "tie down" the plants, as it is called ; that is, one bend 
 down the canes all one way, and as nearly level with the ground as pos- 
 sible without breaking, while the other throws a shovelful or two of dirt 
 on the ends or tips to bind them down, as shown in illustration. After 
 this is accomplished, hitch the horses (sometimes one horse, with light 
 plow, will do) to the plow, and throw a furrow up on the canes from each 
 side of the row. This will rarely complete the covering. It will be 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 
 
 53 
 
 necessary to go over the ground with a shovel and "top off" the hills 
 with more dirt. But the use of the plow greatly facilitates the work, and, 
 in large plantings, saves from one-half to two-thirds the time and expense 
 required by the use of the shovel alone. 
 
 In the case of blackberries, it is important to have the soil quite 
 moist before attempting to lay down the canes. They will not only bend 
 better, but are not so liable to break. With rank growers, inclined to be 
 
 Berry canes laid down— ready for covering with plow. 
 
 brittle, it is often desirable to take soil from around the plant, that the 
 root may be bent, or by placing a shovelful of dirt near the roots, upon 
 which to lean the cane. 
 
 The b,est time to uncover canes in the spring is something o a 
 mooted question. Occasionally it may be done early in March when a 
 "spell" of pleasant weather will give the tender buds a chance to 
 " harden." After being exposed to mild weather for several days they 
 will be in condition to resist considerable extremes in temperature. The 
 usual date, however, for uncovering, is from the 10th to the 20th of April, 
 
 ^3S^ 
 
 Canes bent over mound of dirt. 
 
 Bending of roots. 
 
 in this latitude, and the time immediately following a "clearing up 
 storm" is often selected with good success, as a few days at least of favor- 
 able weather can usually be relied on. The main precaution is to try to 
 avoid lifting the canes in advance of either a drying wind or a sharp 
 freeze. The latter is apt to follow our April storms. A severe drying 
 wind, which is sometimes accompanied by something like a sand storm 
 
54 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 will do more harm at this time of year than all other causes combined. 
 When one of these occurs, if possible to do so, always turn on the water 
 along the rows of berry canes. Some of these days, with an improved 
 signal service, fruit growers may be enabled to avoid the solicitude con- 
 nected with this phase of small fruit culture. Better still, when a hardier 
 race of fruits shall be grown that will defy the vicissitudes 'of wind and 
 weather. Still, thanks to the _" reserve" buds, our growers have good 
 average crops of these berries one year with another. The depth of soil 
 usually put on the canes in covering is from one and one-half to two 
 inches. It is well to place over this depth an inch or so of coarse manure 
 in the early winter. Some cover to the depth of four inches to retard 
 the growth in the spring. 
 
 If summer pruning is done, or " pinching back," as it is called, it 
 should be attended to in May, or early June, when the canes are in full 
 vigor of growth, and at the bight of four and one-half to five feet. This 
 will cause lateral branches to appear that should in turn be pinched back 
 when they have made a growth of one foot or so. The chief aim sought 
 by this is to develop fruit buds by checking the growth of wood. If done 
 at the right time this result may be accomplished. If attempted when 
 the canes have practically made their growth later on, buds, which ought 
 to remain dormant, will be started into a growth that cannot mature 
 before the succeeding winter sets in. For this reason and the additional 
 one, that the practice tends to make the canes stocky, and more difficult 
 to lay down, I have never felt like recommending much summer pruning. 
 
 During the hight of the fruiting season the blackberry, raspberry 
 and strawberry should be picked daily, if possible. 
 
 The dewberry, or running blackberry, is succeeding admirably in 
 certain localities, and some kinds of this popular fruit are likely to be 
 found adapted to general culture in the West. It is well worth extended 
 trial. 
 
 For best varieties see list of fruits given elsewhere. 
 
 GRAPES. 
 
 Whatever difference may exist among growers as to the " perfect " 
 soil for grapes, or the manner of cultivation and of pruning, it will 
 scarcely be questioned that the climatic influences of this portion of the 
 United States are very favorable both to vine and fruit development. 
 This in connection with the ability to supply moisture whenever needed, 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 55 
 
 and an abundance of sunshine, comes about as near the ideal condition as 
 could well be named. "Wherever we find the ague an habitual guest 
 with the inhabitants we need not look for healthy grape vines, but high 
 table lands and hillsides, with their dry atmosphere and cool breezes, and 
 on gentle slopes — these are among the best locations for the culture of the 
 grape," says an authority. Again he says : " A good soil for a vineyard 
 should be a dry, calcareous loam, sufficiently deep, (say three feet,) loose 
 and friable, draining itself readily. A sandy, yet moderately rich soil 
 is better adapted to most varieties than heavy clay. New soils, both 
 granite and limestone, made up by nature of decomposed stone and leaf 
 mould, are to be preferred to those that have long been in cultivation, 
 unless these have been put in clover, and rested a few years. If you 
 have such a location and soil, seek no further, ask no chemist to analyze 
 its ingredients, but go at once to preparing the soil.' ; 
 
 The chief points to be observed right here are, that all varieties do 
 not succeed equally well on any one soil, nor under the same treatment 
 with respect to irrigation. Neither can the same rules apply, except in a 
 general sense, with reference to pruning. For this reason no discussion 
 of details will here be attempted. All agree that the soil should be 
 deeply plowed or spaded, well drained, with a sponge-like sub-soil that 
 holds moisture well, and should be of a uniform texture and richness so 
 far as possible. 
 
 It is safe to say that in all parts of Colorado, barring altitude, soils 
 may be found upon which the grape will thrive. Those localities that 
 seem particularly well adapted to its culture are situations like much of 
 Fremont and Boulder Counties, where the soil is largely of decomposed 
 granite and limestone, and where a modifying influence is exerted on 
 local surroundings by the presence of the foot-hills. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 Twice, at most, during fruitage, would meet the requirements of this 
 on some soils ; while on the light, sandy soil, with quick drainage (where 
 those kinds inclined to be late in maturing are often planted), once a 
 week might not be excessive. With Concord and Brighton vines on this 
 kind of soil, I have found it necessary to use water freely at this period. 
 It is a mistake to advise the use of little or no water for the grape in our 
 climate, without any regard to the character of the soil and drainage. I 
 say again, that where one application of water might he sufficient on a 
 
Grape Vine pruned for training to 
 perpendicular wires or strips. 
 
 One-year Grape Vine 
 pruned. 
 
 Three-year-old Grape Vine pruned. 
 
 Grape Vine ready for bearing. 
 
SMALL FRIUTS. 57 
 
 site where the roots go down to perpetual moisture (and we know and 
 should encourage this deep-rooting tendency or habit of the grape), a half 
 dozen waterings might be within limits of requirements in another loca- 
 tion. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 Upon this subject there has been perpetual controversy among grow- 
 ers, and it is not the province of this work to attempt to decide. The 
 proper method or methods, ?s several are not far from right, can only be 
 learned by experience and careful observation. Our illustrations of the 
 appearance of a well-trained vine, from the planting to its development 
 into full-bearing size, will give an idea of at least one proper method of 
 pruning. This much may be said, that is of universal application : 
 " Avoid too much wood growth." This is always at the expense of fruit, 
 whether of tree or vine. Grow but one cane the first season, and in the 
 fall cut this back to three buds. If the vine has made a vigorous growth, 
 two canes may be permitted to grow the second season, which, in turn, 
 should be cut back to within a few buds of the base. Subsequent pruning 
 will depend upon how the vine is to be trained, also on its habits of 
 growth. 
 
 Says the Bushburg Catalogue: "There is one well authenticated 
 fact in the fruiting of the grape, viz : that the finest crops are produced 
 upon the strongest canes of the previous year's growth. The only proper 
 system of pruning, therfore, will be that which encourages and secures an 
 abundance of such shoots." 
 
 Mr. Fuller also says: "Some varieties of the strong-growing Lab- 
 ruscas, like the Concord, Hartford, Martha, etc., will fruit best on the 
 laterals of the young canes of last summer's growth, if they have been 
 properly pinched back. All of these rank growers should have plenty to 
 to do — that is, they should be pruned much longer than is generally 
 done. All of the Riparia produce best on spurs of two or three year old 
 canes." 
 
 The more tender Labrusca, and all of more or less Vinefera charac- 
 teristics, like Cassiday, Creveling, Catawba, Delaware, lona and Rebecca, 
 produce readily and abundantly from the main canes. 
 
 Whenever and wherever old bones are at hand, place them where 
 the roots of the grape may feed on them. The phosphates are a staple 
 food of the grape. 
 
'1 
 
 Grape Trellises most commonly used. Strips of board may be 
 substituted for the wires sbown. 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 59 
 
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 
 
 A cold, damp, Northern exposure is where nature seems to have 
 planted these and kindred fruits. The ribes, in their various species, 
 abound in cool, damp, rich soil and continuous, uniform moisture. 
 
 The four essentials to the best results are, high fertilization, annual 
 pruning, heavy mulching and a sufficient stirring of the soil to keep 
 down the weeds and make the ground reasonably mellow. To these, of 
 course, I always add, in ordinary seasons, two or three thorough irriga- 
 tions during the fruiting time. This latter requirement will depend, 
 however, on the nature of the soil. One can grow many small berries 
 and much wood product, or an abundance of large, fine fruit with little 
 wood. 
 
 This much in general terms ; now as to details. If any one has any 
 choice in soil or exposure, let that be selected which comes nearest the 
 conditions named. If not, even natural disadvantages may be overcome 
 by good management. In any event, enrich the land generously with 
 good manure — well-rotted stable manure is excellent — plow deep and 
 thoroughly, and place the land in good condition for planting. Mark 
 rows for field culture about five feet each way, or the rows may be five 
 feet apart, and the plants set four feet apart in the rows. My own expe- 
 rience leads me to favor close planting, such, of course, as will not be in- 
 consistent with easy cultivation. It will have a tendency to shade the 
 earth and keep it cool and moist, and to protect the foliage and fruit buds 
 against injury from sun, frost, and extremes of temperature. For 
 garden planting, four feet each way will be about the right thing. After 
 the stock is in the ground, of course, weeds should be kept down, and 
 water, at least the first season, freely applied, without the site is naturally 
 moist. Don't fail to see that there is an abundance of moisture during 
 the time of fruiting. It will greatly aid fruit development in size, yield 
 and general appearance. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning may be done in the fall, winter and early spring. Late fall 
 is, perhaps, as good a time as as any. 
 
 The tree form system of training is neither practicable nor desirable 
 with us for field culture, and should not be practical where the borer is 
 liable to work. A dozen strong branches or root shoots are enough for 
 
60 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 any bush. These should be cut back each season, according to the growth 
 made. Where the tendency is to make a rapid wood growth, cut back 
 each season from one-third to one-half the season's growth. This pro- 
 motes the formation of fruit buds, and, of course, avoids the long, barren 
 stems so often seen in currant bushes. The aim should be to form a com- 
 pact, stocky bush that will not only yield well, but that will withstand 
 wind and weather. The small shoots or suckers should always be kept 
 down. They are an enemy to the fruit yield. 
 
 In pruning, care should be taken not to cut too much of the old wood 
 if fruit is wanted, as the fruit is produced on wood of two years' growth 
 and upwards, and not on shoots of the previous season's growth. Black 
 varieties are, however, an exception to the" rule. Their best fruit buds 
 come from the previous season's growth. 
 
 We have raised at Gardenside, in one season, on less than an eighth 
 of an acre of bushes, upwards of 800 quarts of currants. When well man- 
 aged they are a profitable fruit to grow. 
 
 CUTTINGS, ETC. 
 
 Currants and gooseberries are propagated either from cuttings or 
 layers, usually the former. They grow readily from cuttings which may 
 be made in the fall or spring. If in the fall, where the ground is ready, 
 plant at once, covering close to the terminal bud. Protect them by a 
 mulch of coarse litter or manure. I plant both in fall or spring. Cut- 
 tings made in August, if the season's growth is mature, can be planted at 
 once and grown successfully, but the ground should be kept moist and 
 mulched, as stated. They may also be cut in fall or winter, when wood 
 is free from frost, and buried either in cellar or ground outside below the 
 action of the frost, and allowed to remain until ready for planting. In 
 this way they will often form small roots, and be in good shape for mak- 
 ing an immediate growth when planted. However, cuttings may betaken 
 as soon as land can be worked in the spring, and, if properly set, they will 
 grow readily. They are usually made in sections of six to ten inches of 
 new wood, and should be cut at the base near a strong bud. The 
 stronger the bud or buds are at the base of the cutting, the stronger will 
 be the roots and growth. Let the soil be mellow and rich, and have the 
 earth very firm around the lower end of the cutting. 
 
SMALL FRUITS. OI 
 
 Currants and gooseberries belong to the same tribe, or different 
 branches of the same (Kibes) family, and require substantially the same 
 treatment. 
 
 Another method of growing both currant, gooseberry and grape cut- 
 tings, which is quite successful, is as follows: Cuttings are tied in bundles 
 and buried in a dry place, top-end down, so that the bud end is about one 
 foot below the surface of soil. Plenty of soil must be worked down among 
 the cuttings. Some straw or litter, thrown over the spot, serves to keep 
 the ground from freezing. The soil is removed in early spring to within 
 two inches of the cutting, and a thick layer of fermenting horse manure 
 thrown upon them. This warms the ground, and induces not only rapid 
 callusing, but in many cases formation of roots also. At the proper time 
 the cuttings are taken up and planted in the usual fashion in rich, well- 
 prepared soil. 
 
 For currant and gooseberry worm remedies, and for treatment of the 
 borer, see chapter on " Insect Remedies." 
 
 CRANBERRY. 
 
 It is early yet to state with certainty as to the probability of success- 
 ful cranberry culture in this region, but the opinion is expressed that 
 those lands impregnated with alkali deposits will not be suited to this 
 fruit. It is more than likely that in the higher mountain ravines, or 
 depressions, which are comparatively free from the action of these salts, 
 and where running water is accessible, lands will be found on which the 
 cranberry will flourish. It succeeds over a wide range of country and 
 does particularly well between 38° and 45° North latitude. 
 
 The best soil and situation, says Mr. Thomas in "The American 
 Fruit Culturist," for the cranberry, "consists of peat and muck bottoms 
 coated with pure sand, obtained from adjacent banks, and the ground thus 
 prepared, to be capable of being flooded with clear running water at 
 pleasure during winter, and thoroughly drained at other times. Drift 
 soils have proved unsuccessful. Muddy water over the plants injures 
 them." 
 
 The leading cranberries are the Bell, Bugle and Cherry, with inter- 
 mediate grades. 
 
 Another shrub (Viburnum Oxycoccus,) is sometimes classed as high 
 or bush cranberry, and resembles the snowball in wood and foliage. It 
 
62 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 succeeds on high lands in various sections of the country and bears red 
 fruit, in appearance some like the cranberry, and while often esteemed, is 
 not generally regarded as a fruit of much merit. 
 
 DWARF CHERRY AND JUNEBERRY. 
 
 Among the fruits native of Colorado which are worthy of extended 
 planting, and which improve with culture, are the dwarf cherry and the 
 dwarf Jnneberry. These are both absolutely hardy, are good annual bear- 
 ers and quite ornamental in appearance. The fruit of the dwarf cherry 
 is especially valuable for pies aud preserves, and is often pleasant to eat 
 from the hand. It is wonderfully productive, and will survive all changes 
 and vicissitudes of the most exacting climate. 
 
 The dwarf Juneberry resembles somewhat the huckleberry, but is 
 rather larger ; black, with blue bloom, when ripe. 
 
 In flavor it is a pleasant sub-acid. Blooms very early in the sum- 
 mer, and is very ornamental at this time. Needs considerable moisture. 
 
 SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TREES OR PLANTS PER ACRE WHEN PLANTED 
 AT STATED DISTANCES IN FEET. 
 
 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 
 
 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 
 
 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 
 1 X 
 
 1 ... 
 
 43,560 
 
 14 
 
 X 
 
 14 ... 
 
 222 
 
 34 
 
 X 
 
 34 .... 
 
 37 
 
 1 X 
 
 2 .,. 
 
 21,780 
 
 15 
 
 X 
 
 15 ... 
 
 193 
 
 35 
 
 X 
 
 35 ... 
 
 35 
 
 2 x 
 
 2 ... 
 
 10,8% 
 
 16 
 
 X 
 
 16 .... 
 
 170 
 
 36 
 
 X 
 
 36 ... 
 
 32 
 
 2x 
 
 3 ... 
 
 7,260 
 
 17 
 
 X 
 
 17 ... 
 
 150 
 
 37 
 
 X 
 
 37 ... 
 
 31 
 
 2 x 
 
 4 ... 
 3 ... 
 
 5,445 
 
 4,840 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 18 ... 
 
 134 
 
 38 
 39 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 38 .... 
 
 39 ... 
 
 30 
 
 3 x 
 
 19 ... 
 
 120 
 
 28 
 
 3 x 
 
 4 ... 
 
 3,630 
 
 2(1 
 
 X 
 
 20 ... 
 
 109 
 
 40 
 
 X 
 
 40 .... 
 
 27 
 
 3 x 
 
 6 ... 
 
 2,420 
 
 20 
 22 
 
 23 
 94 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 21 .... 
 2° 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 41 .... 
 
 42 .. 
 
 26 
 
 4 x 
 
 4 ... 
 6 ... 
 8 
 
 2,722 
 
 1,820 
 
 1,352 
 
 24 
 
 4 x 
 
 23 ... 
 
 85 
 
 43 ... 
 
 44 .... 
 
 22 
 
 4 x 
 
 24 .... 
 
 75 
 
 22 
 
 5 x 
 
 fi 
 
 1,742 
 
 2f> 
 
 X 
 
 8fi 
 
 69 
 
 45 
 
 X 
 
 45 ... 
 
 21 
 
 6 x 
 
 6 ... 
 
 1,210 
 
 26 
 
 X 
 
 26 ... 
 
 64 
 
 46 
 
 X 
 
 46 .... 
 
 20 
 
 6 x 
 
 8 ... 
 
 910 
 
 27 
 
 X 
 
 27 ... 
 
 59 
 
 47 
 
 X 
 
 47 .... 
 
 19 
 
 7 x 
 
 7 ... 
 
 888 
 
 28 
 
 X 
 
 28 ... 
 
 : 55 
 
 48 
 
 X 
 
 48 ... 
 
 18 
 
 8 x 
 
 8 ... 
 
 680 
 
 30 
 
 X 
 
 30 ... 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 X 
 
 49 .... 
 
 18 
 
 9 x 
 
 9 ... 
 
 537 
 
 31 
 
 X 
 
 3L ... 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 X 
 
 50 .... 
 
 17 
 
 10 x 
 
 10 ... 
 
 435 
 
 32 
 
 X 
 
 32 ... 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 x 
 
 12 ... 
 
 302 
 
 33 
 
 X 
 
 33 ... 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rule.— Multiply the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the 
 plants are apart in the rows, and the product will be the number of square feet for 
 each plant or hill, which divided into the number of feet in an acre (43,560) will 
 give the number of plants or trees to the acre. 
 
SMALL FRUITS. 
 
 63 
 
 DISTANCES FOR PLANTING. 
 
 As to distance for planting no exact rule can be given, on account of 
 difference in habits of growth, but the following table will serve as a gen- 
 eral guide : 
 
 Standard Apples 18 to 30 feet apart each way, 
 
 Dwarf " 8 to 12 ' 
 
 Standard Pears 12 to 20 
 
 Dwarf " 8 to 10 
 
 Plums 8 to 16 
 
 Cherry Trees 12 to 18 
 
 Grapes 6 to 10 
 
 Raspberries and Blackberries 3 to 5 by 5 to 8 
 
 Currants and Gooseberries 4 to 5 
 
 Strawberries, Field Culture 1 by 3 
 
 " Garden Culture 1 by 2 
 
 WEIGHTS OF TREES. 
 
 Forest trees with clean roots will weigh about as follows: 3 to 4 and 8 inch, 5 to 8 
 lbs. per thousand ; 8 to 15 inch, 10 to 15 lbs. per thousand ; 12 to 20 inch, 15 to 30 lbs. 
 per thousand. 
 
 One thousand Apple trees, packed for shipment, ordinarily weigh— 1 year, 1 
 to 2 feet, about 400 lbs ; 2 years, 3 to 5 feet, SCO ; 3 years, 4 to 6 feet, 1,400 ; 4 years, 5 
 to 7 or 8 feet, 2,200 lbs. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE. 
 
 The three essentials everywhere to successful vegetable culture are, 
 first, (and at any price,) good seed, true to name; second, good soil; and 
 third, thorough cultivation. To these should be added another condition, 
 scarcely less important, viz : moisture, at all times when needed. The 
 last named requirement is what gives the gardener who has water, or 
 facilities for irrigation, an immense advantage over one who has not. 
 
 As to the matter of detail, the first and very important point to be 
 observed is to have the ground in a suitable condition for the crop to be 
 raised. This with reference to culture under the ordinary methods of 
 irrigation, means not only putting the soil in the right shape, but it 
 implies as well having the land graded, so that water can be readily run 
 to any part desired. This, to the grower of vegetables by means of arti- 
 ficial irrigation, is a very important item, and if neglected will be the 
 source of much annoyance and trouble later on. First, then, prepare the 
 ground thoroughly before planting. 
 
 The scope of this work will not admit of giving instructions in 
 detail, and with the exception of the chapter on " Celery Culture " we are 
 necessarily limited to brief comments on the leading and best known pro- 
 ducts under this head. It may be said, however, that many or nearly all 
 familiar varieties do exceedingly well in this portion of the West, and as 
 a rule are profitable for the grower. For valuable information connected 
 with this subject I am indebted to my neighbor, Mr. C. E. Ward, a prac- 
 tical and skillful commercial gardener of large experience. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 This is always a good crop and very desirable. It can be grown 
 either from seed or roots. It requires about four years to get a good 
 stand from seed, hence it is considered better to plant roots. One-year 
 plants are probably best, although two-year plants are often set. In pre- 
 paring ground manure heavily and sub-soil, if possible. 
 
 For family use plant say one foot each way ; but for garden culture 
 plant four feet from row to row, and two feet apart in the row. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE. 65 
 
 In setting an asparagus plant set roots exactly two inches under 
 surface and spread the roots out well. The first season cultivate well ; 
 keep clear of weeds and irrigate say every two weeks. The second season 
 little may be cut, but not much. The third season the bed comes into 
 full bearing. Each fall put on a good coating of well-rotted manure, and 
 the following spring dig this in and around the roots with a digging fork. 
 After this, a barrel of salt to the acre sowed over the bed is beneficial. 
 This, even if it has no special value as a fertilizer, is often an excellent 
 conserver of moisture. 
 
 Keep well watered during the cutting season. After this, water once 
 a month. Cut every day. 
 
 BEETS. 
 
 Sow from March 15th to April 15th, with Matthews' or other good 
 drill, in rows from sixteen to eighteen inches apart, in rich garden soil, 
 and about one inch deep. 
 
 For first early, the Egyptian is excellent; Eclipse nearly as early, 
 and of fine quality — an abundant bearer. 
 
 Blood turnip still later ; very desirable. 
 
 Plant Mangel-Wurzels for stock beet. This is a wonderful yielder, 
 and valuable for stock. Will easily produce 25 tons to the acre. 
 
 Never irrigate the beet, unless it is absolutely necessary to bring it 
 up, but cultivate often and well. 
 
 TURNIP, PARSNIP AND CARROT. 
 
 Sow turnip, parsnip and carrot seed one-half inch deep, same distance 
 as beet, and give same cultivation, with frequent irrigations until the root 
 is fully formed. After carrot or parsnip form roots, or the plants are 
 large enough to shade the ground, do not irrigate them, as it will be an 
 injury, and tend to rot them in the ground. The carrot, especially, is a 
 prodigious yielder, and with gocd soil and cultivation has been grown in 
 Greeley at the rate of a thousand bushels to the acre. The Dan vers vari- 
 ety is an excellent general -purpose carrot. 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 One of the best vegetable crops, when grown on a large scale — say 
 from five to twenty-five acres. 
 
 The plant is hardy, and can be set quite early. Has stood twenty 
 degrees below freezing. Plant early varieties in rows two feet apart, by 
 5 
 
66 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 eighteen inches in the row ; and for late kinds, rows three feet apart and 
 two feet in row. One active man, who is familiar with the work, can set, 
 with dibble, ten thousand plants in a day, with a boy to drop plants. They 
 should have good garden soil, but do especially well where very coarse 
 manure has been spread and plowed under. Mark rows the distance to be 
 planted, and, if ground is very dry, run water along in the row before 
 planting ; but, in this case, it is better to wait until the soil is somewhat 
 dried before setting. Irrigate immediately after plants are set. In other 
 words, let the water follow the planter right along the rows. As soon as 
 soil is sufficiently dry, put on cultivator. Water again the second day, 
 and afterwards two or three times during the season. Give a little irriga- 
 tion as heads are beginning to form, but not after they are developed, as 
 this will cause them to burst. 
 
 The best early variety is the Jersey Wakefield (Henderson's strain), 
 and the next best, probably, is the Early Winningstadt. For late cab- 
 bage, the Flat Dutch has no superior. The Excelsior, of recent introduc- 
 tion, is very fine. The largest variety known is the Marblehead Mam- 
 moth. Of 8,000 heads grown by our near neighbor, the average weight 
 was fifteen pounds each. Several weighed upwards of forty pounds each. 
 
 Cultivate every week, and until the horse cannot walk between the 
 rows. 
 
 STORING CABBAGE. 
 
 An important item is winter storage. Prices are usually much better 
 in the spring. Quite a successful way of burying in winter (and this 
 should be done before any very hard freezes), is to open up a hollow 
 trench by throwing two furrows in opposite directions. Then place the 
 cabbage head down, slightly sloping, and lay the next one in same position, 
 or perhaps a little sideways, letting the lower end lap over the head of 
 the other, and so on to the length of the trench. After all are in, turn the 
 furrows back from each side upon the plants. This will leave the cover- 
 ing of earth loose on top of the cabbage for ventilation, and enable the 
 moisture given off by them to escape readily through the porous soil. 
 Before the coldest weather sets in, throw more dirt loosely over the top. 
 Deep covering is very apt to rot the cabbage, especially where the earth 
 is moist or compact. The average yield of cabbages, on good garden soil, 
 should be 50,000 pounds to the acre. From eight acres this season, a 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE. 6j 
 
 neighbor, Mr. Keever, of Greeley, took off twelve car-loads, netting him 
 $1,200. The average price in Colorado is from 75 cents to $1.00 per one 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. 
 
 This plant may be grown to perfection in Colorado. 
 
 The early, medium and late varieties will all mature. This is a 
 great advantage over the Eastern States. 
 
 Plants should not be set until the weather is settled, which in this 
 section is about the middle of April. This is about the only garden plant 
 that moisture does not injure. In fact it must be kept continually moist 
 and. growing right along. If allowed to become stunted or frosted, little 
 heads or buttons will form and the crop is worthless. With the excep- 
 tion of more water, cauliflower requires the same soil 3 distance in 
 planting and general culture as cabbages. 
 
 Henderson's Snow Ball is considered about the best variety. Our 
 Greeley florist, Mr. Leavy, two years since grew two heads of this variety 
 weighing, when trimmed, twenty-six pounds, and was awarded the prize 
 offerea by Peter Henderson for the largest and best two heads grown in 
 this country. 
 
 Seed is very expensive, and has often cost $8.00 per ounce, but is now 
 reduced. So far it has not been grown in America, but a New Jersey 
 man claims to have discovered the secret, and if so prices will probably 
 be lower. 
 
 MELONS. 
 
 Musk or sugar melons are a great success with good treatment, but 
 ordinarily most varieties are too late for this region. 
 
 Plant in moderately good soil, rather light and sandy, on the level 
 ground and not on raised beds, four feet apart each way. Leave two or 
 three plants in a hill. 
 
 After the fruit is about the size of a teacup, pull off all of the small 
 fruit and trim vines back to within six inches of the melons selected to 
 remain. By this means the melons will mature much earlier and will be 
 larger and finer in quality. Give but little water, and as a rule, none 
 after the fruit is half grown. 
 
 Water-melons require substantially the same treatment — perhaps a 
 little more water. 
 
68 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Plant cucumbers on good soil and give them lots of water. They are 
 large yielders. 
 
 ONIONS. 
 
 Our market gardeners report an occasional yield of this garden pro- 
 duct at the rate of a thousand bushels to the acre, but with an average of 
 from five to six hundred bushels. Onions are nearly always in good 
 demand with price not less than $1.25 per hundred pounds. 
 
 No vegetable requires more careful treatment with regard to irriga- 
 tion. If not applied at the right time and in the right manner, injury is 
 sure to follow. In irrigating, water should never touch the plant, as it is 
 pretty certain to ruin it in any stage of growth. To avoid this it is best 
 to sow in ridges. 
 
 Sow seed with drill from March 15th to April 1st. 
 
 Plant two rows, six inches apart, on each ridge, with the ridges two 
 feet apart, using at the rate of four pounds of seed to the acre, on rich 
 ground. Give extra good cultivation. Scullions are numerous among 
 onions, some seasons — probably the result of improper irrigation or poor 
 seed, or perhaps both. Good sets, as well as seed, can be grown in Colo- 
 rado. For sets, sow seed thickly, twenty-five or thirty pounds to the acre. 
 When up, and bulb begins to form, no more water should be given them. 
 This is a very important precaution, and one of the essentials of growing 
 good sets. After sets are grown plant them instead of the seed, and the 
 crop will not only be much surer, but will be ready for market nearly two 
 months in advance of seed-grown onions. 
 
 The best variety for Colorado is the Eed Wethersfield and is really a 
 good onion, but its color is against it for market. Yellow Globe Danvers 
 is the best market variety for this section. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 All of this family of vegetables thrive under irrigation and should 
 have plenty of moisture during the growing season — particularly at the 
 period of blooming. 
 
 The Little Gem and American Wonder are perhaps the best for a 
 summer crop ; the Champion of England for later. The latter is called 
 the best " hot weather " pea. 
 
 Plant in drills three feet from row to row. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE. 69 
 
 RADISH. 
 
 This is a very popular relish and is always in great demand. A rich 
 sandy loam is best for its cultivation and successful raising. The first 
 crop, out doors, is usually planted from the middle of March to the first 
 of April. 
 
 Wood's Early Frame and Long Scarlet Short Top, for early. 
 
 For general summer crop the Early Round Dark Eed. For fall and 
 winter crop grow the Chinese Rose. Red varieties sell best. 
 
 Plant in rows sixteen to eighteen inches apart, and give abundance 
 of water at all stages of growth ; this causes a quick growth and makes 
 them sweet, brittle and tender. Keep the ground moist all the time. 
 The richer the soil, the quicker and better the growth ; this is essential. 
 Keep the soil thoroughly stirred. 
 
 SQUASH. 
 
 This is not only a delicious and wholesome food for the table, but 
 is valuable for stock feeding, especially for swine. They are exceedingly 
 fond of squash, and will thrive and fatten on it, either cooked or un- 
 cooked. Fed in connection with a little corn, or, better still, corn meal, 
 it makes a prime article of pork. 
 
 This vegetable will thrive on almost any soil, although, of course, it 
 will do best on good land. 
 
 Like the melon family, it needs but little water, and often none at 
 all. 
 
 Difficulty is sometimes experienced, in this latitude, in getting the 
 squash fully matured; so, where the tendency is to a great growth of 
 vine, the same treatment should be given as described in growing melons. 
 
 Under even fair conditions the yield is enormous, and is always a 
 profitable crop for the gardener and stock farmer. 
 
 The Early Orange, sent out for testing last season by the " Rural New 
 Yorker," is a fine summer variety. The Hubbard is the best keeper. 
 Marblehead is rather late in maturing for Northern sections. The Mam- 
 moth Chili is largest, and is often grown to the size of 150 pounds; used 
 mostly for stock. 
 
 SWEET POTATOES. 
 
 This vegetable is well adapted to the dry climate and constant sun- 
 shine of Colorado. Excellent yields, with fine quality, have been had 
 
70 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 in various parts of the State. In one instance in Greeley, at the rate of 
 600 bushels to the acre were grown, and sold at five cents per pound? 
 wholesale. 
 
 Set the plants in rich, sandy loam, on ridges thrown up by one-horse 
 plow, three feet apart and sixteen inches from plant to plant. 
 
 Run water between ridges and let it soak up, but put no water on the 
 plant, as it will cause sun-scald. Give about the same water as to Irish 
 potatoes ; but after the tubers are thoroughly set, give no more water. 
 
 Keep vines from taking root at the joint. 
 
 After digging, allow them to remain in the sun a day, and they will 
 be sweeter and less watery. 
 
 Eed Bermuda is one of the best sorts for Colorado. 
 
 STRING BEANS. 
 
 This is another great vegetable for a climate and soil like that of 
 Colorado. "Can almost beat the world on these," says a gardener. With 
 good, rich soil, rather sandy, and an irrigation once a week, the result will 
 be astonishing. 
 
 The Golden Wax is the earliest, best and most profitable, and a most 
 delicious table bean. 
 
 Plant rows two and one-half feet apart, in drills. 
 
 SWEET CORN. 
 
 The point to be observed, in the cultivation of corn, is to water at 
 the right time, or the crop will be injured. It needs but little irrigation 
 (none, as the rule,) until the tassel is on, and again when the ears begin to 
 form. One irrigation will often do. 
 
 The Minnesota for first early, and Stowell's Evergreen for fall, are * 
 among the best for general crop; but both should be planted at nearly the 
 same time, in order to get the proper succession. 
 
 TOMATOES. 
 
 Not safe to set out, in Northern Colorado, until the middle of May. 
 
 For general crop, the Acme and Livingstone's Perfection are perhaps 
 the best. Plant on rather poor soil, and without manure. Set in rows 
 six feet apart, with plants three feet apart in rows. Between the rows, a 
 row of early sweet corn may be planted. This will furnish a shade for 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE. 
 
 71 
 
 the plants, and not interfere with their growth. The ground for tomatoes 
 should be thoroughly soaked immediately after they are set out, and per- 
 haps irrigated again in a week or so, but should seldom be watered after 
 the fruit has set on the vines. Good cultivation will develop the fruit 
 best. 
 
 
 t§H H j£ % 
 
 #> mJ^_M_M &M 
 
 <€ m 
 
 jf ^ ^ J & & •$■ 3& ^ # ^ : i 
 
 c# '* 
 
 # # # ffi gg <s ggj 
 
 ^ ^ -^ ^a 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 =\ 
 
 jt jj| ^ ^ # ^ ^ ^ J* g 
 
 Neat Method of Garden Irrigation. 
 
 a, canal ; b, flume ; c, box or pipe at head of rows ; d, gates or 
 
 checks at head of each row. 
 
 This is usually a profitable crop, but is sometimes troubled with 
 blight, which is attributed by some to the injudicious use of water, or un- 
 favorable soil. 
 
72 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Alkali land should not be used for tomatoes. Our neighbor, Mr. 
 Ward, took last season, from 640 hills, 622 bushels of ripe fruit, and left 
 upwards of 40 bushels of immature fruit unpicked; so that this strip of 
 ground netted him nearly $200. 
 
 RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. 
 
 This is a plant that well repays cultivation and requires less care 
 after it becomes established than most vegetable roots. Little irrigation 
 is needed, and often none, if soil is deep and mellow and liberal mulching 
 is practiced. It is a good plan to throw around each hill, in the winter or 
 early spring a liberal coating of well rotted manure ; hen manure well 
 mixed with soil is excellent. 
 
 If desired for early market, a rich sandy loam is best, and the growth 
 may be hastened in the spring by placing around the plants a half barrel 
 with bottom out, or any similar arrangement. Give the plants plenty of 
 room — three feet square for each will not be too much. 
 
 The varieties generally grown are for early, Linnaeous, and Victoria 
 for late. 
 
 HORSE RADISH. 
 
 This root is largely grown and is very profitable in some localities, 
 and does well everywhere. Will make a prodigious growth in rich, deep 
 soil. Being a deep-rooting plant little or no irrigation is needed. Should 
 not be planted on soil or in a place that cannot afterwards be deeply 
 plowed or spaded, (that is to be used for other root crops,) because it takes 
 possession of the ground and is difficult to exterminate. 
 
CELERY CULTURE. 
 
 BY JOHN TOBIAS, OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, COLORADO. 
 
 Since writing upon this subject, some six years ago, celery culture 
 near the city of Denver has taken great strides forward, as far as quantity 
 is concerned. At the present time not only is the home market fully 
 supplied, but it is being shipped to all the large mining towns in Colorado 
 and hundreds of miles in every direction, and in dry years like the last 
 (1887) was shipped to Kansas City and farther East, thanks to our 
 system of irrigation which makes it a safe crop to grow in Colorado. 
 
 As far as quality is concerned I can see no improvement in the past 
 five years. The following are the varieties mostly grown, and the merits 
 of each : 
 
 At the head of the list and for main crop I would place Golden 
 Dwarf, or Golden Heart of some seed dealers — both the same — as the best 
 for winter use. 
 
 This variety will grow two feet high and twelve inches in circumfer- 
 ence. It will keep longer and better than any other variety I have tried. 
 Perhaps three-fourths of the celery grown for this market is of this 
 variety. White Plume would perhaps come next in quantity grown. 
 This variety is intended for fall and early winter use ; is self-blanching to 
 a great extent, the inside stems and tops being of a silvery white color, 
 even without banking up; is very ornamental on the table and is used 
 very extensively for this purpose. Although blanched in appearance it 
 is by no means as brittle and tender as other varieties that require the 
 exclusion of light to blanch them. If earthed up, like other varieties, it 
 would be sweet and crisp as any ; but it is not a good variety to keep later 
 than New Years. 
 
 The Golden Self-Blanching is a variety introduced lately which is 
 growing in favor with many for early use ; is of a short and stocky 
 growth, rarely ever over eighteen inches high, the inside being very 
 short; grows very close and compact; very liable to rot if banked up too 
 high in hot weather — in fact, should not be banked at all. A few inches 
 
74 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 of soil around "the base of the plant, or the plant tied together low down, 
 is about all it needs to blanch it ; even then only the heart of it is fit for 
 use. Have never tried its keeping qualities. 
 
 Henderson's Half Dwarf is little used at present and Eed Celery not 
 at all, as there is no demand for it. Celeriac, or root celery, is grown in a 
 small way by a few gardeners. 
 
 Seed sowing should be done in this latitude about April 1st, in a cold 
 frame or out of doors, in a damp place. If sown much earlier many of 
 the plants will go to seed ; if allowed to suffer for want of water they will 
 also throw up seed shoots. The soil of the seed bed should be rich and 
 made very fine, as celery is very slow in sprouting. 
 
 Sow thinly in drills two and a half inches apart (if in frame), cover 
 one-fourth of an inch deep; water with a fine rose watering pot, and 
 never allow to get dry until the plants are up, which will be in about 
 three weeks. To save much watering, it is well to cover the ground with 
 burlap sacks or material of that kind, removing them when the plants 
 appear. If glass is used, shade it from the hot sunshine. If sown out of 
 doors, it should be where they will not suffer for moisture. Drill in 
 rows a foot apart, so they can be cultivated and hoed; or, the seed may be 
 drilled in where the plants are to remain, being afterwards thinned to the 
 required distance. This plan saves some work in transplanting. If the 
 seed was sown carefully in the seed bed, the plants will need no thinning. 
 With good seed, four to an inch will be about right. One ounce of seed 
 should sow a bed of eight square yards; two ounces will give plants 
 enough for an acre of celery. When about two inches high, if found to be 
 too thick, they should be thinned to the required distance, being an inch 
 apart, if it is not designed to transplant them before permanent setting; 
 if to be transplanted later into another bed, then about four to the inch. 
 When about four inches high, cut the tops off about midway, and, if in- 
 clined to grow long and spindling, cut them off once or twice again. 
 About the 1st of June, if the plants have been left thick in the seed bed, 
 they should be transplanted into another similar bed, about three inches 
 between plants each way, well watered and shaded for a few days, until 
 they have started to grow. If the plants were thinned in the seed bed, 
 when small, to an inch or more apart, transplanting will be unnecessary. 
 Afaout a month before it is time to take up, draw a knife along the row, 
 so as to cut off the tap root about two inches below the surface. Give the 
 plants a good dusting of bone dust, which the water will wash down to the 
 
CELFRY CULTURE. 75 
 
 roots, and they will soon form a mass of fine roots near the surface. By 
 this treatment, the plants will be half an inch thick by July 1st. Forcing 
 by heat is not good for them. Celery is a salt water plant, and delights 
 in moisture, rich soil, and partial shade, at least for the plants, if grown 
 under glass. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. 
 
 The ground, pre\ious to setting out, should be heavily manured a 
 year or more before planting the celery, for best results ; plow deep, and 
 harrow until in good condition. A soil that is rather damp, but not wet 
 — that would be good for late cabbages — but slightly too wet for most 
 garden crops; a spot approaching an alkali bed (of which we have plenty 
 ia Colorado), but not showing much alkali itself; a heavy loam, rather 
 than sand ; such a soil will generally raise good celery, if rich enough. If 
 manure is not plenty, good celery can be raised by making a deep plow 
 furrow where the celery row is to be, and spreading three inches of rotted 
 manure in it, mixing it well with the soil with cultivator or hoe; but it 
 is best to manure the whole ground, as celery roots extend for three or 
 four feet on each side. I would advise against the use of much fresh horse 
 manure, as I think it has a tendency to cause a rank growth, making the 
 celery soft and spongy. 
 
 TIME AND MANNER OF SETTING PLANTS. 
 
 Early celery, such as White Plume and Golden Self-Blanching, are 
 set out from the 15th of June to the 1st of July. They may be set in rows 
 three feet apart, if not to be banked much; otherwise, four to four and a 
 half feet by six inches apart in the row, if for single rows, or ten inches 
 in double rows, set alternately, the two rows about a foot apart. Set as 
 you would cabbage plants, a few inches below the general level of the soil, 
 but set the plant no deeper than it was before, while standing in the seed 
 bed. Have the irrigating water to follow closely after the planter. 
 
 The later kinds of celery require five to six feet between the rows, to 
 give soil and room for banking. Plant the same distance, in the row as 
 the other kinds, from July 1st to 10th. Care should be used in removing 
 the plants from the seed bed, that as many roots as possible may be re- 
 tained. The plants should be graded as to size, not planting large and 
 small plants together. My experience teaches me not to depend upon 
 
j6 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 rainy weather in which to set celery plants in Colorado. Unless we are 
 assured of two or three days of wet weather to follow, it is best to irrigate 
 them as they are planted. It is also well to irrigate again soon after 
 planting, to make sure of a good stand. I would not advise replanting, 
 unless done in a few days after the original planting. 
 
 The treatment from this time on consists in good cultivation, and 
 watering as often as may be necessary, according to the character of the 
 soil, hoeing around the plants and keeping the soil mellow. It is well, 
 after the plants get well started, to fill up the inequalities around the 
 plants with soil, so that they may grow more upright and not spread out 
 flat upon the ground. 
 
 This treatment for two months will bring us to the time of "hand- 
 ling," as it is called, which consists in taking the fcelery (which should 
 stand a foot or more high by this time), with all the stems gathered to- 
 
 Manner of Tying. Celery Plant, 
 
 gether in one hand, and drawing enough soil around it with the other 
 hand to keep it in an upright position. My own plan — and, of late years, 
 that of many others — has been, after gathering the stems of the plant to- 
 gether and holding them with one hand, with the other hand I place a 
 string around it and tie it rather loosely, allowing for future growth ; tie 
 about half way of the length of the plant (see illustration). After a row 
 has been tied in this way, take a horse and small turning plow and turn 
 a furrow against the row of celery from each side. For celery to use 
 early, tie a piece of wrapping paper, eight inches high, around the plant 
 to keep the soil away from it. This is not necessary unless you desire to 
 
CELERY CULTURE. 
 
 77 
 
 raise some extra nice celery, entirely free from rust, as the soil coming in 
 contact with the plant so long is one cause of rust. This is all the White 
 Plume and Self-Blanching kinds of celery will need. It will be ready for 
 use or market in six or eight weeks after this work is done. Handling is 
 all that winter celery will need, provided it is put in trench by October 
 20th ; in which case it should be handled about a month before that time. 
 But, as a general thing, celery, for use about Christmas, is handled about 
 September 15th, left growing two weeks or more, and then banked with 
 the spade as high as the stems go without the leaves. After another two 
 
 First Banking. 
 
 rm 
 
 Second Banking. Third Banking. 
 
 or three weeks' growth, it will be ready to bank up higher, this time put- 
 ting the soil clear to the top of the celery (see figures), but being careful 
 each time to keep the soil from getting into the celery. Never handle or 
 put soil to celery when the ground is wet or frosted. It can be left after 
 the last banking until it is time to trench it ; or it may be left out until 
 ready for use, by putting enough soil or coarse manure around it to keep 
 out the frost. Left in this way, it will be ready for market the latter part 
 of November. 
 
78 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 The time for storing or trenching for winter is from October 20th to 
 November 10th. That which is hilled up the highest can be left out the 
 longest. A light freeze will not hurt it providing you do not touch it. 
 Celery will stand nearly as much freezing as cabbage. Dig your trenches 
 a few inches deeper than the celery is tall, including a few inches of roots, 
 and not more than ten or twelve inches wide. If the soil is damp or wet 
 on the bottom, provided no water stands in it long, all the better. 
 
 Storing Celery. 
 With a horse and plow work down the soil from around the celery. With 
 a sharp shovel take up the plants, with a few inches of root attached, place 
 in the trench upright, rather close together without crowding ; cover with 
 boards held up with cross-pieces a few inches above the tops of the celery, 
 so as to leave an air space over the trench and under the boards. A few 
 inches of straw upon the boards is all that is necessary for some time, or 
 
CELERY CULTURE. 79 
 
 until cold weather. When it threatens to freeze up be prepared to put on 
 more covering of long, coarse manure, six to twelve inches deep, or 
 enough to keep out frost. But it is best to delay putting on heavy cover- 
 ing as late as it is safe. More celery is spoiled in the trench by heating 
 than by freezing ; so, after a heavy covering is on it will require airing 
 every fine day, during the winter, by opening a small hole in the cover 
 about every rod. 
 
 In preparing celery for market lh*e outside green leaves and the roots 
 are removed, all soil washed or scrubbed off and any decayed or rusty 
 spots neatly removed with a sharp knife, assorted as to size and tied in 
 bundles of twelve stocks. If it is to be shipped any distance, each bundle 
 should be wrapped in brown wrapping paper. 
 
 The cost of raising celery, per acre, is about as follows : 
 
 Interest on $300 at 8 percent $ 24.00 
 
 Manure, forty loads at $2.00 80.00 
 
 Plowing, harrowing and marking— one man and team 3.00 
 
 Planting— one man four days at $1.50 6.00 
 
 Cultivation— one man and horse three days at $2.0o 6 00 
 
 Hoeing twice— one man three days at $l..-o 4.50 
 
 Handling or tying— one man ten days at $1.50 15.00 
 
 Banking-one man fifteen days at $1.50 22.50 
 
 Trenching 10.00 
 
 Water and watering , 7.00 
 
 Thirteen thousand plants at $4.00 per thousand 52.00 
 
 Preparing for market 30.00 
 
 Total ; $.60.00 
 
 Prices here range from 25 cents to $1.00 per dozen, according to size 
 
 and quality ; the small being raised at a loss, the large at a good profit. 
 
 Perhaps a fair average would be 50 cents per dozen. Counting 12,000, or 
 
 1,000 dozen per acre, we have receipts of $500.00, or about one-half profit. 
 
 Where land and manure is high and scarce, it is desirable to help out 
 
 expenses by raising an early crop upon the ground before the celery is 
 
 planted, which can be done in Colorado to some extent, but not as well as 
 
 in the Eastern states where the seasons are longer. Early peas may be 
 
 planted on the ground, and after the first good picking the whole turned 
 
 under, when it makes a valuable manure ; or early cabbage, cauliflower, 
 
 beets, turnips, lettuce, or potatoes may be planted in rows six feet apart, 
 
 and in July the celery set between the rows. The first named crops will 
 
 be off the ground before it is needed for banking purposes. By this means 
 
 two crops can be raised, and hence the gardener can well afford to manure 
 
 the ground heavily. 
 
VITALITY OF SEEDS. 
 
 The keeping quality or vitality of seeds will depend somewhat upon 
 the manner in which they are kept, as well as upon the conditions of 
 climate and of planting; but the following is perhaps a fair approximate 
 of the average vitality of the list given : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Artichoke 5 to 6 
 
 Asparagus...., 2 to 3 
 
 Beans— all kinds 2 to 3 
 
 Beet ._ 3 to 4 
 
 Carrot 2 to 3 
 
 Cress 3 to 4 
 
 Corn kept on the cob 2 to 3 
 
 Cucumber 8 to 10 
 
 Egg Plant 1 to 2 
 
 Cauliflower 5 to 6 
 
 Celery 2 to 3 
 
 Corn Salad 2 to 3 
 
 Anise 3 to 4 
 
 Balm 2 to 3 
 
 Caraway 2 
 
 Hyssop... ...'.'"3 to 4 
 
 Onoin 2 to 3 
 
 Parsley.... 2 to 3 
 
 Parsnip 2 to 3 
 
 Pea 5 to 6 
 
 Pumpkin 8 to 10 
 
 Rhubarb 3 to 4 
 
 Squash 8 to 10 
 
 Lettuce 3 to 4 
 
 Melon 8 to 10 
 
 Mustard 3 to 4 
 
 Okra 3 to 4 
 
 Spinach 3 to 4 
 
 Tomato 2 to 3 
 
 Turnip 5 to 6 
 
 Pepper 2 to 3 
 
 Radish 4 to 5 
 
 Salsify 2 to 3 
 
 Lavender 2 to 3 
 
 Sweet Marjoram.... 2 to 3 
 
 Summer Savory 1 to 2 
 
 Sage 2 to 3 
 
 Thyme 2 to 3 
 
 "Wormwood 2 to 3 
 
THE POTATO. 
 
 The potato is one of the leading food staples of this country, the 
 yield in favorable seasons aggregates nearly if not quite 200,000,000 
 bushels, and Colorado is already becoming noted for the size and excel- 
 lence of its product of the great tuber. 
 
 The soil best adapted to the growth of the crop in Northern Colorado 
 is a good sandy loam, with clayey sub-soil. Early and deep plowing in 
 the spring is recommended, in order to have the land ready to receive 
 and hold the moisture that falls at this season. The best results are 
 obtained by planting from May 15th to June 1st. Some plant sooner 
 than this to secure advantage of the early market, but the yield will be 
 lighter, tubers smaller in size, and the crop uncertain. 
 
 The general practice is to use medium and small sized potatoes for 
 planting, and if the seed used is sound and ripe at digging time the small 
 ones will give as good returns as if large seed is used. Cut the large ones 
 twice in two and the small ones once for planting. Avoid cutting seed too 
 small in this dry climate as it is liable to wither and become dried up 
 before it has time to sprout. For the same reason never cut seed many 
 days before planting as it is apt to become dry and worthless. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 The old method is still adhered to by some of furrowing out with 
 plow and dropping by hand. But when a large acreage is to be put in 
 the two-horse planter is generally used. Among the several kinds in use 
 the one that is regarded as among the safest and best is made by fixing a 
 frame on the running gear of a walking cultivator, with a long shoe in 
 front to make the furrow, and two oval shields in the rear to do the cov- 
 ering. By fixing a hopper on top to hold the seed, with a spout down 
 to the furrow, and arranging a lead for the dropper, one man can do the 
 planting as fast as an ordinary team can walk. 
 
 Another kind is made in a similar way out ot a two-horse corn 
 planter, which will plant two rows at once, but this kind requires two 
 droppers and one driver. Four horses are used abreast and more acres 
 
82 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 can be planted than by the first method, but it is more difficult and expen- 
 sive to operate. 
 
 Before beginning to put the seed in mark the ground off in 
 straight rows, from three and one-half to four feet apart. Plant the seed 
 about eighteen inches apart in the rows. 
 
 If the ground is weedy it is best to harrow just as the plants are com- 
 ing up. If they are free from weeds, start the. cultivator as soon as the 
 potatoes are well out of the ground and cultivate deep and thoroughly. 
 This will keep the ground loose around the plants and between the rows. 
 If weeds come in so close to the plants that they cannot be covered or 
 rooted out with the cultivator, then it will be necessary to go through 
 with hoes and cut them all out, as a crop of potatoes and weeds cannot be 
 successfully raised at the same time. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 All potato growers agree that the longer the vines can be kept grow- 
 ing without irrigation, the better for the crop ; but when they begin to 
 wither and turn yellow around the roots, it is time to water them. When 
 this condition is observed, furrow the rows out with the shovel plow with 
 wings attached. Make deep channels so that . the water will not run up 
 around the vines, and also arrange so that the lower ends of the rows will 
 not be flooded. This is an important precaution, as permitting the water 
 to flow over on the plants would prove fatal to them. With right man- 
 agement two irrigations are all that is necessary to raise a crop, and 
 frequently one watering will be sufficient if applied at the right time. 
 As soon as the ground becomes dried so that it will not be sticky in work- 
 ing and before it has time to bake, cultivate the soil up loose and deep as 
 before. The crop in Colorado matures usually about October, when it is 
 ready to be dug. 
 
 HARVESTING. 
 
 No successful potato-digging machine has yet been introduced, but 
 one or two have been tried that do fairly well, and work much faster than 
 by hand if the soil is moderately dry at the time of harvesting. Until 
 these machines are perfected, which they undoubtedly will be in time, the 
 potato fork will be most generally used. Some growers use the plow, but 
 with indifferent success. 
 
 If the crop is to be marketed at digging time, the best method is to go 
 along the rows and pick up the merchantable potatoes first, and after- 
 
THE POTATO. 83 
 
 wards gather the smaller sizes and those to be saved for seed. Sacks 
 should be distributed the entire length of the field, and have the pickers 
 each take a row and work abreast, with one man to shake down the sacks 
 and sew them. This man should see that the pickers do their work well, 
 and not permit them to put in small, scabby or inferior potatoes with 
 those intended for market. Carelessness in this particular will tell when 
 the crop is placed on sale. If they are to be^stored, then the best way is 
 to gather all — little and big — and run them into dugouts or cellars made 
 for that purpose, where they can be sorted in the winter time, when labor 
 is much cheaper. 
 
 In this way, the yield can be harvested for one-third less than it can 
 be when they are sorted and sacked at digging time. Potatoes will keep 
 well in Colorado through the winter in dugouts, cellars or warehouses, 
 either sacked or loose, with protection against freezing, and with ventil- 
 ation on mild days. With these precautions they will go through from 
 October to March with from 3j to 5 per cent, shrinkage, as they scarcely 
 ever rot in this dry climate. 
 
 POTATO CELLAR. 
 
 Every farmer or potato grower, to any extent, should have a ''dug- 
 out" cellar. This can be constructed with little expense, compared with 
 other buildings. A site should be selected near which water will not 
 have to run. Excavaiions can be done mostly with team and scraper, and 
 should be made to the depth of five or six feet. In dimensions, the cellar 
 should be twice as long as wide, and if the earth is left sloping all around 
 the inside of the excavation, no walling-up will be necessary. 
 
 Make wide doors in the south end, and scoop out a run-way for some 
 distance back from the entrance, so that loads can be easily hauled out of 
 the cellar with teams. 
 
 Set' two rows of posts six by six, eight feet high, about eight feet apart 
 lengthwise of the cellar, and one-third distance from each side put string- 
 ers 011 top, running lengthwise. For rafters, large sized poles or small 
 logs may be used, placing them the same distances apart across the top, 
 from one bent to another. Cover first with boards, then straw, after 
 which place a foot or so of dirt on top. Before the roof is completed, 
 spouts should be placed along each side, say ten feet apart, which will 
 secure ventilation, and also to use in shooting the potatoes into the cellar.* 
 
 *Note— The illustration only shows the shoot on one side. 
 
8 4 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 These spouts are usually made of boards. The accompanying illustration 
 will show front elevation of the cellar and its appearance when completed. 
 The cost of one thirty by sixty feet would be about $150. When ready to 
 move or market the potatoes, back the wagon down into the cellar by 
 hand, and haul the load out with teams. This will save the labor of 
 carrying them out, a sack at a time, on the back. Cellars are sometimes 
 made with entrances at both ends, so that wagons may be driven in at one 
 door and out at the other, and also so that a team may turn or back 
 around in them. 
 
 The best varieties for a general crop around Greeley are the Mam- 
 moth Pearl, Eose Seedling, Snow Flake and Early Eose. The Ohio and 
 
 Convenient Potato Cellar. 
 
 a, boards; b, straw; c, dirt; d, posts running lengthwise of cellar; h, door; g, shoot 
 
 and ventilation; *, bottom of pit. 
 
 Beauty of Hebron do well in special localities. Of the above the Eose 
 Seedling and Mammoth Pearl are the best yielders. The Snow Flake is 
 not as heavy a producer, but is a fine quality and an excellent keeper. 
 Average yield one year with another is, with field culture, one hundred 
 bushels to the acre. This return is often largely exceeded. During the 
 year 1887 two hundred bushels to the acre was not uncommon, and in a 
 few instances even this figure was doubled. 
 
INSECT ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 
 
 BY PROFESSOR JAMES CASSIDAY. 
 
 Insects are among the most formidable enemies to the successful culture 
 of orchard and small fruits in Colorado, as elsewhere, and to combat them 
 successfully requires an exact knowledge of their life, history and habits. 
 Irrigating as we do, however, to promote the growth of crops enables us 
 to hold in check some of these pests which in adjoining States prove so 
 injurious to the labors of both farmer and gardener. 
 
 Our injurious insects may be divided into two classes, according to the 
 construction of their mouth parts. First, those that eat the structure of 
 plants, and having jaws adapted to this end can only be destroyed through 
 the stomach, by poisoning their favorite food plants. The second class 
 have their mouth parts in the form of a beak by means of which they 
 extract the juices of plants, and hence enfeeble if not destroy them. 
 This class of insects, not eating the structure of plants, can be destroyed 
 only by the direct contact of the remedies applied. Hence the remedies 
 employed are grouped into two classes. First, arsenical poisons, killing 
 insect life through the stomach ; the second, represented by alkalies, acids 
 and oil mixtures, are designed to be effective only by direct contact. 
 White hellebore is a vegetable poison and is effective in destroying insect 
 life in both ways. Some insects cannot be combatted successfully by the 
 application of remedies; they must be met by preventive measures, by 
 which the plant is protected from injury, or the known habits of the 
 insects are so circumvented as to render them powerless to do much injury. 
 
 Preventive measures are, first, keeping the plants in a thrifty condi- 
 tion. Every observant plant grower will endorse this. Second, a 
 judicious rotation of crops, and fall plowing. 
 
 ARSENICAL POISONS. 
 
 Paris green is, without doubt, chief among the arsenical compounds, 
 and the most practical for the destruction of insects that eat the structure 
 of plants. If pure it is effective in proportion of one pound to one hun- 
 dred gallons of water. Where any large number of trees or plants are to 
 
86 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 be treated, the liquid in quantity is put in a barrel and drawn on a wagon 
 with a good force pump attached to the barrel. To the pump is attached 
 a hose through which, and a " Nixon Cyclone Nozzle," the liquid is scat- 
 tered in the form of a finely divided spray. 
 
 In spraying trees, a light pole about ten feet in length is attached, 
 by means of which the spray is brought closer to the trees and avoids 
 wetting and inhaling of the poison by the operator. 
 
 Arsenical solutions need to be frequently agitated to keep the powder 
 in suspension, and to prevent its settling. The greatest care should be 
 exercised in the handling of poisons that they be not inhaled, nor 
 permitted to come in contact with the skin when broken, nor used on 
 plants soon to be used as food. The mineral should be well mixed and 
 applied with great force to the tree. 
 
 White hellebore is a vegetable poison. It kills insect life by contact 
 as well as on being taken into the stomach. It will cause death to per- 
 sons if taken in any quantity, hence it should be handled with care. It 
 is a standard remedy for the currant worm and the various species of plant 
 lice, which are the bane of plant growers in a dry climate. It is best 
 applied as a liquid, combining one pound of the powder with twenty-five 
 to thirty gallons of water, using the fcrce pump and nozzle as in the case 
 of Paris green. 
 
 Kerosene emulsion is without doubt the most effective of all the 
 remedies employed to destroy insects that have mouth parts adapted to" 
 sucking the juices of plants, and it is effective only as it comes in contact 
 with their bodies. The best emulsion is that made from the formula used 
 by Dr. Riley, the eminent entomologist. It is as follows: 
 Kerosene, 2 gallons. 
 Soap, 3/2 pound. 
 Water, 1 gallon. 
 
 Heat the water, dissolving the soap in it, and then add it boiling hot 
 to the kerosene. Churn the mixture forcibly by means of a force pump 
 and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes, when the mixture will have 
 assumed a creamy appearance, the globules of oil will have disappeared, 
 and the result is a staple emulsion. Before using, dilute with from nine to 
 fifteen parts of water to one of the emulsion. Good judgment must be 
 exercised in regard to the strength at which it is applied. For if applied 
 at full strength to plants at the beginning of the growing season it will 
 certainly kill them. Later in the season they would stand a stronger 
 dose with impunity. 
 
INSECT ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. Sy 
 
 This remedy is effective against plant lice, the grape and apple leaf 
 hopper, and the climbing cut-worms, occasionally so destructive to useful 
 vegetation in Colorado. It is applied by means of the force pump and 
 nozzle, already spoken of, observing to discharge the fluid with consider- 
 able force, so as to produce a very finely divided spray. Fields' force 
 pump is considered the best for this purpose, and the Nixon Cyclone 
 Nozzle the best of its kind. 
 
 Birds are valuable aids to the tree grower in the destruction of 
 noxious insects. Where it not for the blackbird, our cottonwoods would 
 be destroyed by the cottonwood beetle. The quantity of eggs and larva 
 of insects destroyed annually by birds is astonishingly large. The black- 
 bird and robin, it is true, are predacious on useful plants, but we could 
 not dispense with their services in ridding us of an excess of injurious 
 insect life. The planting of wind-breaks, shelter-belts and masses of trees 
 and shrubs generally promotes the domestication of birds, in affording 
 them shelter for their nests. 
 
 DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 
 
 Apple Leaf Koleer (Tortrix-rosaeana). 
 
 The larva of this leaf roller is very destructive to the foliage of the 
 apple tree early in the season in Colorado. While it is a general feeder, 
 it is found most commonly upon plants of the family Eosacese. Leaf- 
 rolling insects of all kinds may readily be destroyed by the wet mixture 
 of Paris green. 
 
 Cabbage Worm (Peris Rupee). 
 
 This well-known pest was present in Northern Colorado in the sum- 
 mer of 1887 in large numbers. It was our most common butterfly. It 
 was imported from England, and first appeared in the neighborhood of 
 Quebec in 1859. It has since spread all over the United States. The 
 butterfly is white, with black spots upon its wings. It is two-brooded, the 
 second being the most injurious. The first specimens appeared early in 
 March. Pyrethrum is the most effective remedy of any in use for the 
 destruction of this pest. The powder is best applied by means of a 
 Woodason bellows. An active man should be able to sprinkle two or 
 three acres per day. 
 
88 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Cut-Worms (Agrotians). 
 
 Several species of these worms are injurious. The moths are dingy 
 in color, and fly mostly at night. The worms generally feed at night ; 
 some, however, feed during broad daylight, partially concealed by the 
 dense foliage of the plants attacked. An undetermined species was 
 alarmingly destructive during the summer of 1887, feeding with equal 
 avidity upon the foliage of the herb, and the unripened fruit of the to- 
 mato. 
 
 For the species that feed at night, the only effective remedy is the 
 one recommended by Dr. Kiley, which is to poison with Paris green suc- 
 culent vegetation, and place on the ground at the base of the plant at- 
 tacked. As against the species feeding in daytime, the kerosene emulsion 
 is very effective, observing, in the case of plants with very tender foliage, not 
 to apply too strong. Where the cabbage is attacked late in summer, no 
 application of remedies to the foliage will be of the least avail. When 
 clover and alfalfa fields are attacked, a good irrigation is very effective. 
 
 The Currant Borer (Aegeria Tipuliformis) . 
 
 This is an imported insect very destructive in Colorado. It also 
 attacks the gooseberry, though less frequently. Its color is blue, with 
 yellow bands, resembling a wasp, but really belonging to a Lepidopterous 
 family of borers. The moths appear in June, laying their eggs upon 
 stems of the current season's growth, near the base of a bud, which soon 
 hatch, the caterpillar soon eating its way to the pith, where it remains a 
 year, emerging the following season as a moth. The yellowish, unthrifty 
 character of the foliage indicates the presence of the borer. The affected 
 stems should be pruned off in the early spring and burned. It is the only 
 effective remedy. The pruning, too, will insure a more thrifty growth, 
 much larger fruit, and of better quality. 
 
 The Codling Moth (Carpocapsa Pomonella). 
 
 This insect is, without doubt, the worst enemy of the apple. It 
 makes its appearance early in spring, about the time the apple trees are 
 in blossom, and commences laying its eggs, usually one on the blossom or 
 calyx end of each apple as soon as the fruit is set. The eggs hatch in 
 from five to ten days, on which the young worm eats its way to the center 
 of the fruit, where it remains twenty to thirty days. It then leaves the 
 apple and seeks some secure hiding place, usually the rough bark of the 
 
INSECT ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 89 
 
 tree, where it spins a papery cocoon and passes into the pupa state. It 
 remains in this state from nine to fifteen days, when it comes forth a per- 
 fect moth, and proceeds to repeat the c) T cle of existence just noted. The 
 second brood is also highly injurious. The most of the larva from this 
 brood spin up during late summer and fall, to reappear the following sea- 
 son as a moth. By far the best remedy for this insect is Paris green, in 
 the proportion of a teaspoonful in one pailful of water, observing to stir 
 frequently, and to scatter the water in fine spray on all of the fruit. The 
 poison must be applied when the fruit is about the size of a pea. Two 
 applications will generally be sufficient. Dr. Kiley says that Paris green 
 may be used on the fruit of the apple in Colorado without fear of danger- 
 ous results to consumers of the fruit so treated. 
 
 An application of Paris green, besides destroying the codling moth, 
 is equally effective against the leaf rollers, and other caterpillars which 
 defoliate our trees thus early in the season. 
 
 Plant Lice (Aphididce.) 
 The plant lice are among the most injurious of insect life in a dry, 
 warm climate. Among orchard fruits the plum suffers most. The 
 cabbage and late turnip are also very subject to attack by them. Either 
 the hellebore mixture or the kerosene emulsion will destroy them, dilut- 
 ing the latter in the proportion of one" part emulsion to thirteen parts of 
 water. 
 
 Owing to the universality of plant lice, and the diffiulty experienced 
 sometimes in destroying them, it is of the greatest importance to keep all 
 growing plants in a thrifty condition. They are about certain to infest 
 plants or trees in an enfeebled condition, so that measures tending to pro- 
 mote thrifty growth will be helpful in warding off their attacks. 
 Colorado Apple Leaf Beetle ( Graptodosa Foliacea.) 
 This beetle and its larva are particularly destructive to young apple 
 trees, and to the grape. As it likes to feed within three or four feet of 
 the ground, it is only injurious to nursery stock or young trees in orchard. 
 It will not feed upon the pear, and it exhibits a preference for thin-leaved 
 varieties of the apple and grape. The Paris green remedy will remove 
 them readily — observing to apply the remedy early, so as to destroy the 
 first brood.* 
 
 *Note— Air slacked lime dusted on the foliage, when moist, will often repel 
 this pest —A. E. G. 
 
go HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Kaspberry Saw Fly (Selandria Rubi.) 
 
 The larva of the saw fly are injurious to the rose, the plum and the 
 raspberry. The greenish slugs destroy the pulpy portion of the leaf, 
 feeding on its underside, and are generally present in numbers sufficiently 
 numerous so that the foliage looks as if scorched by fire. One or two 
 applications of the wet mixture of hellebore will be found effective in 
 destroying them. 
 
 We follow Professor Cassiday's paper with a few comments on 
 
 Fruit Tree Blight. 
 
 As there is neither a certain known remedy nor preventive for 
 apple and pear tree blight, no attempt will be made to discuss the disease 
 here. Probably the best safeguard that can be adopted is to plant 
 orchards on high, well drained sites, and in soils rich enough to induce 
 a thrifty annual growth. If trees can be protected from sudden extremes 
 of heat and cold and, in fact, from all immoderate or unseasonable 
 changes in temperature, so much the better. It may be stated on general 
 principles that whatever tends to impair the vitality of a tree, renders it 
 more liable to disease of any kind. 
 
 While scientific investigations disclose the presence of bacteria in 
 cases of tree blight, it is by no means a settled question that these {Micro- 
 coccus amylovorus) are the true cause. Professors Arthur, of New York, 
 and Burrill, of Illinois, maintain, I believe, that they are, while others 
 are inclined to the view that bacteria are rather an accompaniment or 
 result of a diseased condition. 
 
 Sections like Colorado are likely to be much more exempt from the 
 trouble than many portions of the East. 
 
ALFALFA, CHILIAN CLOVER, OR LUCERNE. 
 
 (Medicare? Sativa.) 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 Alfalfa or Lucerne. 
 This great perennial forage plant is one of very remote origin, and 
 seems to have held a leading place among grasses from the earliest times. 
 When first known it is said to have flourished in the South of Europe 
 
92 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 under its Latin name — Medicago Sativa. At a latter period it was called 
 lucerne, which is really its proper modern name, although in Colorado 
 and the West, the Spanish term, alfalfa, is adhered to, as it comes to us 
 from the vast pampas of South America, where this grass grows wild. 
 
 Its history has been traced back for more than twenty-five centuries, 
 and writers claim that it was cultivated in Greece five hundred years 
 before the Christian era, and that during the Eoman Conquest it found its 
 way to the latter country, where it is cultivated and highly esteemed at 
 the present time. From Rome it is supposed to have been introduced 
 into France and Spain, and subsequently to South America and Mexico. 
 The plant seems to have been brought to California under the name of 
 Chilian clover, at an early period in the history of the State, and from 
 there has been distributed to different points in the United States. 
 
 Although cultivated here scarcely more than a dozen years, alfalfa 
 has already taken a leading place in the agricultural economy of Colorado. 
 Its cultivation is increasing by thousands of acres each year, and to-day 
 no one is prepared to say what we would do without it in this State. 
 
 Experience has shown that it is specially adapted to the dry climate 
 and perpetual sunshine of this region, and, taken one year with another, 
 is among the safest and most profitable of farm products. When once 
 thoroughly established, it has remarkable vitality, as the roots penetrate 
 the earth to the depth of from ten to twenty feet or even more. It is said that 
 fields of this crop in parts of South America, known to be centuries old, 
 are still in full vigor and productiveness. 
 
 SEEDING. 
 
 The ground should be prepared for this as for the average farm crop. 
 A rich, deep sandy loam is best adapted to alfalfa, as it is a heavy feeder, 
 and the better the soil the quicker and stronger the growth. Seeding may 
 be done either by sowing broadcast and harrowing in, or by drilling in ; 
 the former method is generally practiced, and is usually found to avoid 
 the danger of getting the seed so deep that it may not germinate well. 
 Occasionally, however, good results are secured by drilling in, and only 
 about half the quantity of seed is used that is required in sowing broad- 
 cast. But, as remarked, broadcasting is practiced most generally, and, on 
 an average, twenty-five pounds of seed are used to the acre. The more 
 thickly and evenly distributed, the finer and better the quality of the 
 grass. If the stand is thin, the growth is apt to be coarse and woody. 
 
ALFALFA. 93 
 
 Formerly the practice was to wait until all danger from frost was over, in 
 the spring, before sowing; but now most farmers prefer to sow as early as 
 possible and take the chances of injury from frost (thus securing the 
 benefits of spring moisture), rather than incur the damage apt to result 
 by drouth from too late sowing. 
 
 It is important to select good, clean seed, even at a higher price, than 
 to use an inferior article, that is liable to be mixed with noxious weeds 
 and worthless chaff. Oats and barley are sometimes sown with alfalfa, 
 and good results received, where there is sufficient moisture to bring up 
 both crops without irrigation for that purpose. This practice is recom- 
 mended by some and disapproved by others. On weedy ground it is often 
 advisable to sow with oats or barley. 
 
 After the grain is cut, the grass is generally able to protect itself from 
 weeds. Irrigation should follow the cutting of the grain, when the grass 
 will come forward rapidly. If the seed is sown without grain, do not 
 water the young growth (unless it is absolutely necessary to save it from 
 burning up) until a few inches high, because the ground is liable to bake 
 and the tender leaves to sun-scald. If, however, the stand begins to droop 
 and turn yellow, apply the water. 
 
 The first season's yield is usually light, but by running over with a 
 mower early, one fair crop may be had the next cutting — four or five 
 weeks later. The second year, nearly, if not quite, a full crop will be 
 secured, which means, as a rule in Colorado, three good cuttings each year. 
 Occasionally a fourth cutting is taken off; but this is apt to be immature, 
 and difficult to cure properly. In portions of California, where there is 
 almost perpetual summer, from eight to ten cuttings are secured annually 
 under irrigation. 
 
 Seeding is sometimes done during summer and autumn, and even late 
 in the fall; but this plan is'not recommended, except under very favorable 
 conditions, as failures are more likely to result than from spring sowing. 
 
 To those in the "rain belt" who propose to sow alfalfa, the chief hope 
 of success will be in selecting the best soil possible, with deep plowing 
 and early rowing. If the roots can once get thoroughly established, a 
 fair crop may be raised without irrigation— under favorable conditions. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The usual practice is to water thoroughly after each cutting; but one 
 should be governed by the conditions of the soil as to moisture. If it is 
 
94 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 already moistened deeply, either by reason of heavy rains or seepage water 
 in the sub-soil, this of itself may be sufficient. It not unfrequently hap- 
 pens that the soil is so well moistened from seepage alone as to require 
 scarcely any irrigation. 
 
 Water should never be allowed to stand long upon alfalfa, nor to 
 freeze on ground that is seeded to it, as there is danger of killing the roots 
 by want of care in these particulars. 
 
 HARVESTING. 
 
 Next in importance to having a thick, even stand of grass is the mat- 
 ter of harvesting at the right time. Some experience is needed to deter- 
 mine this point; but the generally accepted rule now is to "cut when the 
 plant is just coming into blossom," and not to wait until it is in full bloom 
 and ready to go to seed. Here is where mistakes are generally made, as 
 it is easy to ruin the cutting by failure either to cut "in the nick of time" 
 or to cure properly ; in other words, it means simply the difference be- 
 tween clean, sweet, nutritious and palatable food, and dried-up, woody, 
 innutritious, indigestible, worthless stuff. In this connection I quote from 
 a clear-headed writer (Mr. McNeal), before the Wheat Kidge Farmers' 
 Institute, of Jefferson County, Colorado. 
 
 " Alfalfa is valuable in proportion to the quantity of sugar and albu- 
 men it contains, which makes it, when properly handled, a sweet and 
 palatable feed for stock. Cut when just coming into bloom, it contains 
 one-third more nutritive properties than when fully ripened, which are 
 lost if allowed to form seed, and makes the hay both innutritious and 
 indigestible. So, if alfalfa is cut at the proper time, the juices are in a 
 condition to thicken and become sufficiently dried, so that little sun will 
 be required to cure to that degree that the hay may be safely placed in 
 the stack, to go through a natural chemical change which gives it its fra- 
 grant aroma. Some allow their hay to stand until it is all dried up and 
 nothing but a woody stock remains. When stock are forced to obtain 
 subsistence from such dried-up stuff, it compels them to enter upon a 
 struggle for existence in which they get worsted. Make hay while the 
 sun shines and make it early. Do not wait until all the juices and the 
 sweetness of the plants have been absorbed by the seeds, leaving nothing 
 but poor, dry, chippy, dusty stuff. Start the mower early, cure well, stack 
 properly and carefully, and so have nice, sweet, bright hay, and get the 
 highest price you can for it. 
 
ALFALFA. 95 
 
 The success of wintering stock 'depends largely on the character of 
 the hay crop. This may be almost worthless from either of two causes : 
 First, from being injured in the curing; second, from not being cut in 
 season, either of which is alike prejudicial to its quality. There is a 
 medium in the process of curing hay, that acts favorably and avoids any 
 injury that may arise from too little or too much curing. Too little cur- 
 ing is a careless manner of taking hay to the stack before the external 
 moisture is all expelled, and the grass has not had time to wilt properly. 
 Too much curing is allowing it to dry to such an extent as to be hard and 
 brittle, and the leaves are shaken off — which is the sweetest part of alfalfa. 
 Large quantities of hay are spoiled from being hauled a little on the 
 green side, or when a little too moist, and in this condition there is an 
 accumulation of unnatural heating, and subsequent mustiness. It is often 
 injured by being exposed too much to the sun. This not only causes the 
 volatile aroma to escape, but much of the coloring matter also, as is 
 shown in its bleached appearance. The milk and butter produced by feed 
 of this kind will be deficient, alike in color, flavor and quantity. It is 
 one of the most valuable fodder plants in the world, but the present 
 method of curing, by exposure to a hot sun, reduces the crop somewhat in 
 flavor and value. A question for the future is ensilage — that is, storing it 
 when green and watery— thus preserving all the nutritive qualities. This 
 method is meeting with great success in Europe and some parts of the 
 East." 
 
 The following instructions about making the hay are given by Mr. 
 Lee, in his catalogue, and are perhaps as good "fair weather" suggestions 
 as can be made. 
 
 " In making hay, cut one day, let it lay on the swath and cure all 
 next day, raking up early on the morning of the third ; if the sun should 
 not shine clear, a longer time may be required. Never shake it out or 
 turn it in the swath in this country, as it will cure perfectly without it, 
 and the more it is turned and disturbed the more it will lose of its leaves 
 and fine stems. Cock it up immediately after raking, while yet damp 
 with the dew, if possible, and let it cure in the cock from one to three 
 days before stacking." 
 
 A good average yield to the acre, per cutting, is from one and one- 
 half to two tons — or from four and one-half to six tons for the season. 
 Some prominent cultivators are now using the third crop for pasturing, 
 instead of cutting it. They turn horses and cattle upon it, (after a heavy 
 
g6 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 frost has " cured " the juices) and have not only experienced no trouble 
 from pasturing in this way, but claim that it is really the most economi- 
 cal and profitable way of using this cutting, and that it is greatly relished 
 by both horses and cattle. 
 
 If it is desired to raise seed only, the original seeding should not be 
 so thick, and the ground should not be irrigated until after the cutting. 
 In any case the seed crop should be saved from the first cutting, and 
 allowed to fully mature before harvesting. Our climate is very favorable 
 for growing an excellent quality of alfalfa seed, and the crop is profitable. 
 The average yield of seed to the acre is from seven to ten bushels, under 
 good treatment. Do not use a horse rake when saving the seed, but 
 bunch with a hay fork. An active man should follow up the mower and 
 remove the cutting as it falls from the machine so that it will be out of 
 the way before another round is made. After the seed has been threshed 
 by a machine used for that purpose, it is better to run it through a fine 
 sieve, as by this means poor, and often harmful seeds, like the Dodder, 
 may be removed. 
 
 FEEDING. 
 
 The first and second cuttings are usually preferred for horses, and the 
 third for cows. This hay should always be kept dry for feeding, as when 
 wet it becomes heavy and soggy, and hence unsafe as a food, either for 
 horses or cattle. 
 
 For milch cows, probably no hay is equal to alfalfa, either for in- 
 creasing the flow and richness of the milk, or for producing butter of a 
 high quality, color and flavor. But to achieve this desirable result, the 
 hay must be sweet and well-cured. Horses, cattle, sheep, and in fact 
 nearly all domestic animals, will thrive and fatten easily on this hay. 
 For road horses, it is better to feed somewhat sparingly in connection 
 with more concentrated food. 
 
 In this place we insert the report of Professor Blount, of the Colo- 
 rado Agricultural College, just at hand as this article was ready for the 
 press. 
 
 " Alfalfa stands at the head of all clovers in nearly all respects. It 
 needs no comment. Its feeding value, and as a hay crop, is excelled by 
 nc other plant. As hay, its value may be seen in the experiments made 
 last year. Four steers were fed one month on it, and one on red clover. 
 They consumed each from 133 to 221 pounds more clover hay per month 
 
ALFALFA. 97 
 
 than alfalfa, and in no case was the per cent, of gain less in alfalfa months, 
 but considerable more. The fact may be clearly seen in the feeding ex- 
 periment illustrated in the following table. Three steers were fed four 
 months on alfalfa, clover, chop and roots. They consumed in 
 
 Oct. and Dec. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 Nov. and Jan. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 2805 lbs. alfalfa. 
 
 270 lbs. 
 
 3558 lbs. clover. 
 
 240 lbs. 
 
 558 '" chop. 
 
 
 675 " chop. 
 
 
 1275 " -roots. 
 
 
 1830 " roots. 
 
 
 "Each steer is credited the same amount of chop and roots 'nasmuch 
 as they were given in limited quantities, but of hay each had all he would 
 eat. 
 
 "Taking the hay as a base, the alfalfa made a difference in gain of 
 twenty pounds, and 1,053 pounds less of it was fed, showing clearly its 
 superior value for a feeding plant." 
 
 PASTURING. 
 
 It might as well be conceded once for all that green and growing al- 
 falfa is never absolutely safe as a pasturage for cattle. When it is full of 
 juices and immature, they are very fond of it, and are liable to gorge 
 themseves and bloat, if not fed with extreme caution. The greener and 
 more succulent the growth, the greater the danger; and this is always 
 heightened or increased when the grass is wet, either from rains or heavy 
 dews. There is less liability to this trouble, however, on fields that have 
 received little or no irrigation. It is true that there is a difference in 
 animals with respect to this danger or tendency, and the one that eats 
 moderately and rather daintily is usually safe. If the animal is greedy and 
 gorges itself, particularly on an empty stomach, the gasses are pretty cer- 
 tain to accumulate ; then look out. The advantages of afternoon pastur- 
 ing are that the grass is usually dry and the cattle have at least partially 
 satisfied their hunger. But this cannot always be relied on as a guide ; 
 nor can the fact that plenty of dry hay has been fed and water given be- 
 forehand. All of these "perfect preventives" have occasionally failed to 
 protect. This is the testimony of men of large experience with the grass, 
 and might as well be understood. It is always best to be on the safe side. 
 Neither is salt kept before them a certain safeguard, as some claim, yet 
 it is advisable to do so.* 
 
 *Note— The following clipping is taken from a leading paper, and we give it for 
 what it is worth. Some of the statements made may be open to question. But if 
 stock can be encouraged to eat clean, bright straw in connection with alfalfa, good 
 
9 8 
 
 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 The times when alfalfa may be pastured with comparative safety are, 
 when the growth is fully matured and ready to go to seed (when it has 
 taken on a brownish tinge), and again when frost has checked the growth 
 and cured the juices. Experience has shown that these periods are the 
 ones when there is little hazard in turning in cattle. 
 
 Horses are rarely injured, and swine never, by pasturing. Give the 
 porkers free run on alfalfa, and a little corn to "harden" the flesh before 
 they are placed on the block, and the work is complete. 
 
 The usual remedies for bloat in cattle are, in mild cases, either to 
 elevate the head and fore-quarters of the animal, by standing it on a 
 stack, manure pile, or the like, when the gasses will often escape; or to 
 
 keep the mouth open with a stick or a cob; or give a tablespoonful of 
 hyposulphite of soda; or, in severe cases, use a trochar. The latter is 
 rather a harsh remedy, and should be intelligently performed. Animals 
 are often injured by the unskillful use of the trochar. The rule is to 
 
 may possibly result and some harm be avoided: "Many farmers now stack their 
 wheat and barley straw in their alfalfa pastures, and find it of great advantage in 
 fattening their stock, increasing the milk and butter production of their dairy cows, 
 and in every way being an advantage to their health and growing qualities. It is 
 noticed, too, that both horses and cattle will leave alfalfa for days at a time to feed 
 on straw stacks thus placed in the pasture." 
 
ALFALFA. 
 
 99 
 
 plunge the trochar into the region of the greatest distention on the left 
 side, at a point mid-way between the spines of the loins last rib and point 
 of the hip, pointing the trochar in and downward, and letting it pass in 
 obliquely to avoid the kidneys. (See illustration.) 
 
 Euraenotomy is the last and most difficult operation for hoven, or 
 bloat, and is resorted to only in desperate cases — when paralysis of the 
 stomach has taken place from engorgement. In this case the contents of 
 the rumen or paunch must be removed by hand. But, as the operation is 
 rarely performed except by skillful practitioners, it is hardly worth while 
 to describe it here. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA. 
 
 Protein 21.19 
 
 Fat 3.04 
 
 Nitrogen 36.74 
 
 Crude Fibre 29.9 > 
 
 Ash ....."I.!.."!."...!!... 9.13 
 
 100.00 
 
 As a soiling crop, or fertilizer, alfalfa is extremely valuable. Plow it 
 under ; and this can be done in fall or early spring, by using four good 
 horses and a suitable plow; and the great roots will decay and enrich the 
 ground almost beyond conception. Some of our Greeley farmers have 
 obtained wonderful crops of potatoes and grain by this practice. In fact, 
 alfalfa does not exhaust the soil, but constantly enriches it. Says Pro- 
 fessor Blount : "Asa fertilizer it has no superior, if reports from those 
 who have tested it are true. It not only can be turned under, as red 
 clover is, but in the operation it enriches the soil and at the same time is 
 not itself at all impoverished, but greatly benefitted, even so far as to 
 make a good crop itself the same year of hay, and sometimes of seed." 
 
 This plant has been known to flourish from sea level to the altitude 
 of seven or eight thousand feet. In favorable surroundings it might 
 succeed even higher up. 
 
 A careful consideration of the analysis above given will demonstrate 
 the value of this grass to the farmer in the various uses it can be put. 
 The average price in stack, in Northern Colorado, is six dollars per ton. 
 
 An enemy of alfalfa that is troublesome in some localities is the 
 dodder plant (Cuscuta trifolii.) It resembles a number of fleshy threads 
 twisted around a branch, and when fully developed is a true parasite, and 
 feeds upon the juices of the alfalfa. It is an annual, and may usually be 
 
IOO HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 destroyed by frequent cutting of the crop infested. Sometimes, however, 
 if thoroughly established, says an authority, "nothing short of digging 
 up the crop infested and burning the whole will get rid of it." But the 
 best plan is to be sure that the seed sown is free from this pest. Alfalfa 
 seed is about two lines long and one and one-fourth wide ; while dodder 
 seeds are not more than half the size ; hence, if alfalfa or clover seed is well 
 sifted before sowing, the dodder will be easily separated. Here again is 
 another forcible illustration of the importance of obtaining clean, pure 
 seed for sowing. 
 
FORESTRY. 
 
 So thoroughly am I impressed with the importance of this branch ot 
 horticulture to the best results in fruit growing, that I would be willing 
 to promise a revolution in this industry could I be given the control of 
 the forest tree planting of the Nation for the next twenty years, and the 
 facilities for making the work effective. 
 
 I would place a shelter-belt of timber on every farm in the land, and 
 to every tenth acre cultivated, at most, I would have an acre of perma- 
 nent woods. Furthermore, the most ample precautions would be taken 
 to guard against disastrous forest fires, and to preserve, within reasonable 
 limits, the mountain and native woodlands from denudation. It is doubt- 
 ful if our Government could make a more judicious investment, or better 
 promote the general welfare, than by annually making well-advised ex- 
 penditures in the direction of forest tree planting. 
 
 The "Timber Culture Act" is founded in a wise public policy, and, 
 if its provisions were honestly carried out, would be very beneficial. But 
 so much neglect and bad faith are shown on the part of many who avail 
 themselves of its generous terms, that the real aim of the law is defeated in 
 a large majority of cases. 
 
 It can only be made to accomplish the wholesome objects intended, 
 by the strictest supervision on the part of those in authority. With every 
 reasonable allowance made for failures from unforseen causes or adverse 
 conditions, like lack of water (and these should only operate to extend 
 the time to enable a substantial compliance with the law), no person 
 should be permitted to obtain a title under this act who has not acted, in 
 all respects, with absolute good faith in planting and caring for his "tim- 
 ber claim." If this rule were strictly adhered to, deception would be un- 
 availing, and there would be less heard of the "impossible conditions of 
 the law," or the hardships of enforcing its provisions to the letter, as an 
 excuse for making a farce of tree planting. Let the law stand, and, if 
 necessary, add tenfold to its advantages, as au inducement to planters, but 
 see that the work is done, and done well. Failure is often the result, too, 
 of lack of knowledge of the proper methods of planting, which will be 
 
102 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 noticed later on. But the masses manifestly need enlightening with 
 reference to the influence and general benefits of the right distribution of 
 wood lands. That destructive tendencies of many kinds would be arrested 
 if the great West and Northwest could be given the protection afforded by 
 extensive forests, there seems little doubt. It is safe to say that the proper 
 distribution of moisture, the modification of atmospheric and soil tempera- 
 ture, the influence towards preventing the frightful tornadoes, the pitiless 
 blizzards from the far North, and the parching winds that sweep our 
 Western plains, the annual precipitation of moisture, the avoidance of 
 prolonged drouths and of disastrous floods — all these and similar con- 
 ditions would be most favorably affected. The modifying influences of 
 large bodies of timberland upon climate are too well known to need dis- 
 cussion. For- this reason fruit growing is always more certain, other 
 things being equal, contiguous to extensive woods, or where sheltered by 
 trees. As a protection from the disastrous effects of severe winds, they 
 are most valuable to the orchard and garden. 
 
 Fifteen years ago the author of "Man and Nature" was of the 
 opinion that not one of our States had, within its borders, with the excep. 
 tion of Oregon, more timber land than it ought permanently to preserve^ 
 (meaning of course the relative proportion to the landed area.) Since 
 then the decrease has been considerable, as the annual consumption in the 
 arts alone amounts to over 20,000,000,000 cubic feet. 
 
 While the entire forest area of the United States is not far from 
 500,000,000 acres, (which seems a large amount,) yet our economists agree 
 that we have reached the lowest profitable limit of forest area. Basing 
 the calculation upon the known rates of forest increase in European coun- 
 tries, it is estimated that to supply the yearly demand mentioned, the 
 yield or increase of some 400,000,000 acres must be employed. Add to 
 this the enormous destruction from forest fires, domestic uses, etc., and it 
 will be seen that the conclusion reached from the standpoint of National 
 economies is a reasonable and logical one. But, however indisputable the 
 position taken may be in favor of conserving and adding to the forest 
 area, it is doubtful if the correct solution of the problem will be reached 
 until the people can be made to realize that there is money in the tree as 
 an investment. This it ought not to be difficult to show. Let any person 
 select even one acre of good strong soil, the same as he would expect to 
 grow any profitable crop on, and let him plant say 5,000 small trees oi 
 several good varieties — white ash, wild black cherry, black walnut, linden. 
 
FORESTRY. I03 
 
 maples, for example, or take five acres of any desirable kinds adapted to 
 his section of country. Let these be cultivated and watered say four or 
 five times a year. They may be pruned in the winter time when little or 
 nothing else can be done. At the end of the third year from planting? 
 one-half of these, or a third, might be easily sold for shade or other pur- 
 pose, if they were nice and smooth trees, at a handsome advance over 
 the original cost and the expense of cultivation. Each year thereafter 
 more than enough can be easily taken, by way of thinning out, to pay all 
 expenses. Now at the end of eight or ten years there should be any- 
 where from a thousand to fifteen hundred nice, thrifty trees to the acre, 
 and these should be on an average at least five inches in diameter, and 
 from twenty to twenty-five feet high. Here we have then on five acres, 
 say six thousand trees after making due allowance for losses from any 
 cause. Trees of this age of any good hard wood variety are worth for 
 mechanical purposes, at least fifty cents each, and those suitable for trans- 
 planting (any good street tree) even at half the size, has always sold 
 readily at that price ; and to-day fifty thousand nice street trees— like the 
 elm, box elder and soft maple— from two to four inches in diameter would 
 find quick sale at from twenty-five to fifty cents each at wholesale, (many 
 people in the West will plant nothing but a large tree,) in Colorado and 
 Wyoming. The demand in all this region for years to come will be 
 extensive, and any person who has a well-grown street tree even, need not 
 have difficulty in finding a purchaser. 
 
 For mechanical purposes trees like the ash, cherry and black walnut 
 are always in demand wherever they can be got to market. But to return 
 to figures : We have six thousand trees ten years of age worth at least 
 fifty cents each, or $3,000, (and this figure would be low, even on an 
 Eastern basis for some of the varieties,) giving a profit of sixty dollars 
 per acre for the entire time. If nut-bearing trees were set, and they do 
 exceedingly well in portions of Colorado, they should be of producing 
 size by the end of ten years. The estimate on trees so valuable for the 
 arts as some we have named, we believe much too low. These figures are 
 made with some knowledge of results, and are in no sense exagger- 
 ated. The serious drawback to tree culture is that people are often 
 unwilling to give trees good soil or even fair treatment. They are too 
 apt to be stuck in the ground and left to take care of themselves. This 
 never pays. 
 
104 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 In this dry climate, without the ground is in exceptionally good con- 
 dition, always follow tree planting by an immediate irrigation. Cultivate 
 several times during the season. Keep down the weeds and water often 
 enough to keep the young trees in active growth. If seedlings are given 
 the right kind of care for the first two seasons they will be well on the 
 way to a fine, permanent growth. If neglected at this period they may 
 either perish or receive a check from which they will never fully recover, 
 
 It is usual in Colorado to plant in rows four feet apart, with the trees 
 from one and one-half to two feet in the row — set with a view to thinning 
 out. In this case cultivation can only be done one way. If it is practic- 
 able to do so, give a good irrigation once a week during the first season. 
 
 Never set young trees on ridges on the plains. They should be 
 planted in a furrow like, so that they may better retain the moisture from 
 the clouds. This is particularly necessary where water is scarce for irri- 
 gation. To those in the "rain belt" district who are attempting to grow 
 trees, the importance of deep plowing and setting in trenches or furrows 
 where the soil has been mellowed to a considerable depth, and of early 
 spring planting, can scarcely be overestimated. After the trees have been 
 set, throw around them a heavy mulch or protection of fine straw, chaff, 
 wild hay, or any coarse litter, and it will serve to protect the young trees 
 and retain the moisture that falls on them. In transplanting, we say it 
 again, for the hundreth time, never allow the roots of trees to lay exposed 
 to the hot sun or drying winds. 
 
 PLANTING SEEDLINGS. 
 
 An expeditious way of setting forest tree seedlings is to run furrows 
 one way with the plow, alter the manner described in orchard planting 
 (the ground having been previously deeply broken and well prepared), 
 then let the young trees be placed in an upright position in the furrow 
 the entire length, after which the soil can be thrown back with the plow. 
 It will be necessary to go over the ground and straighten up the seedlings 
 (uncovering any that have been completely covered), and to press the 
 earth firmly against the roots with the foot while passing along. If care- 
 is used, the young trees may be fairly well planted in this way, and from 
 three to four may work to advantage in carrying, dropping, and complet- 
 ing the work as the plow is run. But good planting is more likely to be 
 
FORESTRY. IO5 
 
 done by the use of the shovel or spade, and it can be accomplished quite 
 rapidly if properly managed. An excellent method is adopted by Mr. 
 Robert Douglas, probably the most extensive planter of forest trees in the 
 country. Mr. Douglas describes it as follows : 
 
 " Before the planting is commenced, the harrow and roller are run 
 over the land, and after that the marker, marking off the ground four feet 
 each way, the same as for corn. The workmen are then divided off into 
 companies of three each, or two men and one boy, the two men with 
 spades, and the boy with a bundle of trees. The two men with spades 
 plant on adjoining rows, the tree-holder standing between them. The 
 planter strikes his spade vertically into the ground on the running line 
 close up to the cross mark, then raises a spadeful of earth, the boy inserts 
 the tree, the earth is replaced, the planter places his foot close up to the 
 stem of the tree — bearing on his full weight — and passes on to the next 
 mark. This tightening of the tree is the most essential part of the work. 
 The boy is kept quite busy attending two planters. After a little experi- 
 ence the boy will learn to bring each tree out of his bundle, with a circu- 
 lar upward motion, that will spread out the roots when placed in the 
 ground about as evenly as they could be placed with the hand. The 
 three persons will plant at least 4,500 trees in a ten-hour day. 
 
 When we consider that by this method the trees are planted in a 
 straight line, at a proper depth, the roots spread out, and the earth firmly 
 packed over them, we think it much better than any other method. Dr. 
 Warder named this the "Douglas Three-Motion system," as three motions 
 of the spade are required in planting each tree. 
 
 When a great number of men are employed, time is saved by having 
 a man follow in the rear, handing the bundle of trees to the tree-holders. 
 We found that one man could attend thirty to sixty workmen. He would 
 follow with a wagon load of trees close in the rear, and whenever he saw 
 a boy on his last dozen, he would throw him a bundle, the boy would put 
 it under his arm, and use it after he had disposed of the few in his hand. 
 We use a two-horse cultivator among the trees during the summer, and 
 the cultivation is just as simple as for corn. Working up the earth to and 
 from the trees alternately, we use no hoes, as careless workmen will injure 
 a great many trees with this instrument, while horses will rarely injure a 
 tree, and they can be worked so close to the trees that a weed rarely needs 
 to be pulled by hand." 
 
106 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 The instruction given for the planting of an orchard, and for the cul- 
 tivation and irrigation of fruit trees, will in the main apply to forest trees. 
 In the end, it will pay to prepare the ground, thoroughly in advance of 
 planting, and to give good cultivation. Eight here is where failures are 
 made in most cases. Never make the mistake of setting a tender young 
 tree on sod, nor of sowing or planting seeds in such a place, especially 
 in this dry soil and atmosphere. It is time and money worse than thrown 
 away. For "timber claims" or extensive plantings, a good one or two 
 year old tree is the best. 
 
 SEED SOWING. 
 
 If seed is to be used, always sow or plant it in rich, mellow soil — 
 if anything, inclined to be sandy — and have it (the soil) well prepared. 
 As a rule, it is better to grow plant seeds on a suitable garden spot, 
 in beds, with rows nine or ten inches apart, and the second or third 
 season transplant to where desired. Select a Northern exposure for the 
 seed bed, or protect with, screens of some kind, plant early and do not let 
 the soil bake. Seeds planted in the fall should be well covered with light 
 mulch to keep them from drying out. 
 
 Mr. D. S. Grimes writes that he sows thickly in rows in seed bed and 
 shades the first summer. He says : " I drive down stakes, nail on cross- 
 pieces, then take old, refuse gunny-sacks, rip them open and tack them on 
 to the cross-pieces. This covering can be put on quickly and cheaply. In 
 the fall the covering should be removed, to enable the plants to sun- 
 harden. When the plants first appear, care must be taken not to keep 
 them too wet, causing them to 'damp off.' * * * *_ Seeds 
 of cone-bearing trees require, as a rule, more care in planting. The 
 yellow pine of the Rocky Mountains, however, (Pinus Pondurosa,) is an 
 exception, and its seed will grow readily as wheat and more rapidly than 
 any other evergreen. They will make an average growth from the seed 
 of two feet each year. I am sorry to see so few evergreens planted by our 
 farmers." 
 
 The depth of sowing seeds depends upon the variety. The rule is, 
 the smaller the seed the less they should be covered. In this dry climate 
 probably one inch would be about right for seeds like ash, maple, elm, 
 etc.* Nut-bearing seeds are planted deeper. 
 
 'Note— Even deeper planting than this might be required in some instances. 
 
FORESTRY. IO7 
 
 The time for sowing seeds varies with different varieties. The soft 
 maples, (white and scarlet,) cottonwood, linden and elm ripen in early or 
 late summer, and should be sown soon after. The fruit of most nut-bear- 
 ing trees, and of the plum, apple, pear and peach, should in this climate, 
 either be sown in the fall or kept in moist earth, where they will be 
 subject to the action of the frost in order to secure germination the fol- 
 lowing spring. Catalpa, birch, ailanthus and some other seeds are 
 generally kept dry in winter and sown in spring. Hard-shelled seed, like 
 the locust and coffee bean, must be soaked in hot water (some say scalded) 
 before planting, and kept warm until they show signs of germinating, when 
 they should be at once planted and not allowed to dry out. Evergreen 
 seeds may be sown in spring, but require careful treatment in seed bed 
 for success. Most of them retain their vitality longer than deciduous 
 seeds. Some of them, like varieties of the pines, have, under favorable 
 conditions, been known to keep for twenty years or more. The silver firs 
 on the contrary should be planted not later than the first season. The 
 beds in which most evergreen seeds are sown should be protected by lath 
 or other suitable screens and well sheltered from the hot sun and drying 
 winds. " The first few months, until the formation of the terminal bud is 
 the most critical time." A close, confined atmosphere with too much 
 water, will be quickly fatal to them. In addition to the screens overhead, 
 mulching the young seedlings in winter with leaves or pine needles is 
 recommended. They may be transplanted after two years and some of 
 the pines at one year. With these, as with all seedlings, weeds should be 
 kept out of the beds. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS. 
 
 Colorado evergreens are famous for beauty and hardiness, and among 
 them the blue spruce, (Picea Pungens,) is the peer of any in the known 
 world. The Engleman spruce, (Abies Englemanii,) the Douglas, (A' 
 Douglasii,) the great silver fir, (A. Grandis,) and the' white spruce, (Picea 
 Alba,) are all magnificent trees. In transplanting these evergreens care 
 should be taken never to expose the roots to the sun or air. If possible, 
 always let the dirt or soil adhere to the roots when taking up, and sack at 
 once, with burlap or gunny-sack tied firmly around. Give constant 
 moisture until well established. Where many young trees, are to be 
 taken up, and it is not practicable to have earth around them, dipping, or 
 puddling the roots in a kind of a mud batter is sometimes practiced. 
 
108 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 The larch or tamarack (Larix Americana,) is succeeding well on low, 
 moist soil, or under irrigation. The European species, which is a more 
 valuable tree, promises to be successful and to grow quite rapidly when 
 established. Evergreens may be propagated from cuttings, but to grow 
 this way requires considerable skill and good facilities for controlling heat 
 and moisture. 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 All species and varieties of the poplar, to which family our cotton- 
 wood, (Populus Monilifera,) shaking aspen, (P. Tremuloides,) and balm of 
 Gilead (P. Condicans,) belong, grow rapidly from cuttings if kept in 
 moist soil. This is true of willows and some other trees. 
 
 THE CUT LEAVED WEEPING BIRCH. 
 
 Among deciduous ornamental trees of great merit for Colorado, 
 special attention is called to the cut-leaved weeping birch. It is a mag- 
 nificent lawn tree and absolutely hardy in the extreme Northern part o 
 the State. 
 
STOCK FOR GENERAL PLANTING. 
 
 The following list of stock for general planting in the West will serve 
 as a guide to those who may wish information in regard to varieties most 
 likely to succeed over widely distributed portions of the country, and 
 under different local conditions. The list might be enlarged somewhat, 
 but the names given are mostly well known, and recognized everywhere 
 as valuable and extremely hardy. One of the most desirable qualities 
 that any tree can possess, for an exacting climate, is that of making a 
 definite annual growth, r and of thoroughly maturing this growth each sea- 
 son. 
 
 In this connection we emphasize two or three points. It is better to 
 plant but few varieties, except for experimental purposes. Among fruits, 
 the profitable kinds are confined to about three of the leading sorts in the 
 respective classes. Others are more or less doubtful for commercial pur- 
 poses. The same is substantially true of forest trees. Plant them with 
 a view to a proper succession in season, and set nothing more than can at 
 least be given fair treatment. 
 
 Our list, of course, may be added to or departed from, according to 
 local surroundings or the needs of any particular locality. 
 
 The usual time for planting in the spring is during the month of 
 April, and in the fall from the 1st of September to the middle of October. 
 As to the distance from each other that trees should be planted, so much 
 depends upon the habits of different trees, that no very definite rule can 
 be given. Those that make an upright, compact growth may be planted 
 nearer together than others whose habits are spreading and vigDrous. 
 
 See table of distarces on page 63. 
 
 One word of explanation is proper in this connection. Our list for 
 general planting embraces some well-known varieties like, for example, 
 the Ben Davis apple, which succeeds over a wide region of the West, and 
 which is found, in many States, to be the most profitable winter apple 
 that has been planted. While it is among the hardiest of the old sorts, it 
 could not be relied on to stand the test winters of such a climate as North- 
 
I 10 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATON. 
 
 ern Iowa, Dakota or Minnesota. For such localities, nothing less hardy 
 han the Oldenburg should be planted. 
 
 VARIETIES FROM WHICH TO SELECT FOR GENERAL PLANTING. 
 
 Apples. 
 
 Summer — Oldenburg, Red June, Tetofsky, Yellow Transparent, Eed 
 Astrachan. 
 
 Fall — Wealthy, Fameuse, Gideon, Haas, September. 
 
 Winter — Ben Davis, Walbridge, Talman Sweeting, Scott's 'Winter, 
 McMahon, Wolf-Eiver, Pewaukee. 
 
 New Varieties of Special Merit. 
 Thaler (Russian), Excelsior (Minnesota), Switzer, Longfield, Anto- 
 novka, Hibernial (Russian), Lou, Sweet Pear, Isham Sweet. 
 
 Crabs and Hybrids. 
 
 Florence, Martha, Whitney, Shields, Brier Sweet, Sweet Russet t and 
 Hyslop. 
 
 Pears. 
 
 Flemish Beauty, Clapp's Favorite, Bartlett. These are probably 
 planted over a wider section of country than any other pears, but the 
 future of pear growing in the extreme Northern portion of Colorado is 
 yet to be determined. Some of the Russian varieties are being tested. 
 Perhaps the most promising of these are the Bessemianka and Gakovaska. 
 
 Plums. 
 
 For geneial planting in the West, any one of the following will be 
 found to succeed over a wide range of country : De Soto, Weaver, Forest 
 Garden, Forest Rose, Quaker, Miner and several others of the same type. 
 In favored localities some of the more delicate varieties of the East do 
 well. 
 
 Cherries. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Dwarf or Low Bush, Utah Red, Early and Late 
 Richmond, English Morello, and Large Montmorency. 
 
 The new and especially hardy varieties are Ostheim, Valdimir and 
 Wragg. 
 
STOCK FOR GENERAL PLANTING. I 1 I 
 
 Peaches. 
 
 (For peach growing sections.) Alexander, Early and Late Crawford, 
 Wheatland and Large Early York. 
 
 For severe climates try the Chinese varieties, Peen-To and Tong Pa, 
 and some of the Russian " Iron Clads." 
 
 Apricots. 
 Breda, Morepark and Early Golden, for Southern and Western 
 Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, etc. For Northern Colorado, Western 
 portions of Nebraska and Kansas, Wyoming, etc., plant the Russian 
 varieties, and especially named sorts like Alexander, Budd, Gibb, etc. 
 
 Mulberries. 
 
 New American, Black and Downing. These are all quite hardy, but 
 will not stand the same extremes of temperature that the Russian red and 
 white fruited varieties do. 
 
 Quince. 
 Grange and Champion. (Not reliable in regions subjected to severe 
 cold.) 
 
 Grapes. „ 
 White — Lady, Niagara, Martha, Empire State. Red — Delaware, 
 Brighton, Salem. Black — Concord, Worden, Moore's Early. 
 
 Raspberries. 
 Red — Cuthbert, Marlboro, Turner and Clark. Black — Tyler, Gregg, 
 Ohio and Mammoth Cluster. Earhart, (new everbearing,) for trial. 
 Yellow — Caroline, Brinkles' Orange and Golden Queen. Purple — 
 Schaeffer's Colossal. (Should have winter protection nearly everywhere 
 in the West.) 
 
 Strawberries. 
 
 Cumberland, Crescent, Jucunda (for heavy soil,) Capt. Jack, Man- 
 chester, Wilson. New and most promising — Jessie and Bubach. 
 
 Blackberries. 
 Ancient Briton, Kittatinny, Snyder, Wilson. 
 
 Dewberries. 
 (For trial.) The Lucretia and one or two Western varieties of recent 
 introduction. 
 
112 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Currants. 
 
 Ked Dutch, Cherry, Victoria, Fay's, White Grape, White Dutch, 
 Black Naples, Lee's Prolific, (black,) 
 
 Gooseberries. 
 
 Downing, Houghton, of American varieties, and White Smith, 
 Crown Bob, and Green Globe of English varieties. Industry, for trial. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Juneberry, Berberry, (red fruited,) both very hardy and ornamental. 
 For trial in special localities, any of the leading huckleberries and 
 cranberries. x _ 
 
 FOREST TREES, ETC. 
 
 For timber— White Ash, Wild Black Cherry, Black Walnut, Black 
 Locust, Catalpa (Speciosa,) Butternut. .White and Red Oak for trial. Test 
 also the Hard Maple. It may succeed in portions of Colorado. 
 
 For street trees — Cottonwood (as a pioneer tree on the plains.) Box 
 elder, Soft Maple, White Elm, Linden, White Ash, Black Locust and 
 Balm of Gilead. For trial, Norway Maple, Carolina Poplar and Shaking 
 Poplar. 
 
 For timber claims — Cottonwood and some other trees of the Poplar 
 family, as a temporary growth. Box Elder, White Ash, Black and 
 Honey Locust, Black Walnut, Butternut, Wild Black Cherry, and for 
 special sections, Hardy Catalpa and Russian Mulberry. 
 
 For lawn planting — Cut-Leaved Weeping Birch, Mountain Ash, 
 Green Ash, Hardy Catalpa, Linden. For trial, Poplar Bolleana, Weirs' 
 Cut-Leaved Silver Maple and Laurel Leaf Willow. 
 
 Among Evergreens — Plant the native Spruces and Cedars, particu- 
 larly those of bluish or steel green foliage. The Colorado Blue Spruce 
 (Picea Pungens) is an Evergreen of incomparable beauty, and very hardy. 
 The Cedars, with the same silver, frost-like colors, are also very beautiful 
 and graceful. 
 
 For wind-breaks — Honey Locust, Russian Mulberry, Gray Willow, 
 Lombardy Poplar and Black Locust. 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS AND SHRUBS. 
 
 Hydrangea Gran d ifl o r a . 
 
 One rule, at least, will apply to the culture of all flowering plants 
 and ornamental shrubs. While the soil need not be highly enriched, it 
 should be of good texture, mellow and easily worked. For the list of 
 plants given below, any average soil will do, but let it be thoroughly pre- 
 pared by deep spading, plowing or trenching, and work in a dressing of 
 
114 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 well-rotted manure or compost. Never set a delicate shrub or plant in 
 cold, heavy, unsubdued land, with the expectation of having it flourish. 
 
 To be sure many of the list given will survive even under very indif- 
 ferent treatment, but the abuse of anything intended to delight the eye 
 seems so incompatible with a desire to be surrounded by the beautiful, as 
 to almost forbid the suggestion of possible neglect. 
 
 In this connection, we make mention of the fact that the flora of 
 Colorado contains a wealth of ornamental plant life that is yet scarely 
 known, but which is destined to great popularity. Our neighbor, Mr. 
 John Leavy, a florist of nearly twenty years' experience in Colorado, favors 
 us with a select list of herbaceous plants, and of hardy shrubs and climb- 
 ers, recommended by him for general culture in Colorado. He could ex- 
 tend the list considerably, but gives those that are among the most desir- 
 able. 
 
 HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Aquilegia Cerulea — native, likes moist ground. 
 
 Delphinium Chinensis. 
 
 Perennial Phlox. • 
 
 Herbaceous Pseony. 
 
 Lychnis Fulgens. 
 
 Lathyrus Latifolia (Perennial Pea.) 
 
 Dicentra Spectabilis (Bleeding Heart). 
 
 Anemone Japonica. 
 
 Lily of the Valley — moist shade. 
 
 SHRUBS THAT ARE HARDY AND DO WELL HERE. 
 
 Syringa Grandiflora. 
 
 Deutzia Scabra. 
 
 Spirea Reevesii. 
 
 Spirea von Houtii. 
 
 Spirea Collusa Rosea. 
 
 Spirea Collusa Alba. 
 
 Spirea Prunifolia. 
 
 Spirea Douglasii. 
 
 Hydrangea Paniculata Grandiflora. 
 
 Viburnum Sterilis (Snow-Ball). 
 
 Berberry — common. 
 
 Berberry — purple leaved. 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS AND SHRUBS. I 15 
 
 CLIMBERS. 
 
 The three best vines for arbors and verandahs — Ampelopsis Quinque- 
 folia, Clematis Ligistrum, Clematis Douglasii. All native, and perfectly- 
 hardy. 
 
 DESIRABLE PLANTS FOR PARLOR AND GARDEN. 
 
 (Colorado Agricultural College Report— Horticultural Department.; 
 
 " Nearly all varieties of ornamental plants succeed admirably out- 
 doors. Indoors, in winter, they exhibit a luxuriance of leaf and wealth of 
 blossom quite foreign to parlor plants at a lower altitude. Among out- 
 door plants, the Verbena is a great success, especially those grown from 
 seed of approved strain. Geraniums and the different varieties of Coleus 
 are brighter colored here, but do not grow so luxuriantly. Of Eoses, all 
 the classes succeed better here than at the East— our bright sun and 
 command of water insuring almost a continuous succession of blossoms in 
 the Hybrid Perpetual class, so that the name here is not so much a mis- 
 nomer as in the oker States. Heliotropes, Carnations, Petunias, Lantanas 
 and most of the varieties of Asclepias are admirable for summer or winter 
 blooming. 
 
 For flowering annuals, nothing gives greater satisfaction than the new 
 dwarf strains of Petunia; it enjoys bright skies, and flowers abundantly 
 until long after the first advent of frost. Not less valuable are the im- 
 proved varieties of Phlox Drummondi; no garden can afford to be with- 
 out them. Pansies are beautiful all summer; the native habitat of this 
 plant is that of an open exposure, although the reverse of this is thought 
 to be the case. 
 
 A word in closing for the Dahlia and Gladiolus. Nowhere else have 
 I seen such a regal display of these deservedly popular flowers as in this 
 State." 
 
 HARDY SHRUBS. 
 
 The following shrubs are in every way admirable for Colorado : 
 
 COMMON NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. 
 
 Sweet Shrub Calycanthus floridus 
 
 Button Bush Cephalanthus occidentalis 
 
 Sweet Pepper Bush Clethra almfolia 
 
 Bladder Senna Colutea arborescens 
 
 Golden Bell Forsyth ia viridissima 
 
 White Althea Hibiscus syriacus 
 
 Hydrangea Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora 
 
 Snowberry— red Symphoriocarpus vulgaris 
 
I 16 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Snowball Viburnum opulus 
 
 Spirea Spiraea billiardi, and other varieties 
 
 Lilac— purple and white Syringa vulgaris 
 
 Privert Ligistrum amurense 
 
 Honeysuckle Lonicera grandiflora 
 
 Mock Orange Philadelphus coronarius 
 
 Currant Ribes floridum 
 
 Weigelia AVeigelia rosea 
 
 ROSES. 
 Koses are justly classed as the most beautiful of flowers. To paint them 
 as nature does has ever been a chief ambition of the artist. Still the per- 
 petual question is, " who can paint the rose? " Yet these peerless bloom- 
 ers are among the easiest to raise in perfection. They require a fine, rich 
 soil and a heavy mulching of coarse litter or leaves in fall. Also 
 considerable water in our climate, and good cultivation. Old and decayed 
 branches and at least half of the previous season's growth should be cut 
 away in the spring. Probably all roses, even the hardiest, do better with 
 winter protection. It increases their vigor and makes them more produc- 
 tive of fine flowers. Earth is doubtless the safest and best covering for 
 the hardier kinds. The ever-bloomers are tender and difficult to keep 
 with us, without one has facilities for keeping them. As a rule, if these 
 are desired, it is better to plant them each spring, and they will bloom 
 about July. The Hybrids are much more satisfactory and quite hardy, 
 but will kill to the roots if not protected. They are said, however, to 
 make a new growth when killed down and to blossom the same season. 
 We give a few of the many excellent varieties: 
 
 Hybrid Perpetuals. 
 Alfred Colomb, Anna de Diesbach or Glorie de Paris, Baroness 
 Rothschild, Paul Neron, General Jacqueminot, John Hopper, La France, 
 Mad. Plantier, Magna Charta, Prince Camille de Rohan, General Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Moss Roses. 
 Countess de Murianais, Glory of Mosses, Luxembourg, Henry 
 Martin, Princess Adelaide. 
 
 June Roses. 
 Cabbage or Hundred-Leaf, Persian Yellow, White, Sweet Briar. 
 
 Hardy Climbing Roses. 
 Baltimore Belle, Seven Sisters, Queen of the Prairie. 
 
LAWN MAKING. 
 
 A beautiful lawn is always one of the most attractive features of 
 home surroundings. It can be easily made, and with the right manage- 
 ment a good stand of grass can be secured in a few weeks. 
 
 Where surface irrigation by flooding is to be practiced, the ground 
 should be carefully graded so that water will run readily to all parts and 
 be evenly distributed over the surface. It is often necessary to take off 
 considerable of the top soil in grading, and it is better to have the exca- 
 vation deep enough in the first instance to permit of easy irrigation for 
 many years, thus making allowance for the natural filling up of the lawn 
 from any cause, rather than be compelled to re-make the lawn in two or 
 three years afterwards. Of course, where hose is used for watering, this 
 precaution is not so important. After the necessary grading has been 
 done, and the ground nicely leveled, turn on the water, not only to see 
 that it will flow easily, but to settle the earth, so that any defect may be 
 discovered, and remedied, in the grading. When sufficiently dried out to 
 work, spread on a liberal quantity of well-rotted, fine manure, and spade 
 in thoroughly. 
 
 If a large plat is to be sown, a plow may be used instead of the 
 shovel or spade. After this is done, rake or harrow the ground smoothly 
 and sow the seed. "Fancy mixed lawn grass" may be used, or nice clean 
 Kentucky blue grass, with white clover. 
 
 The quantity of each required varies somewhat according to the soil. 
 But it should be thickly sown in all cases for best results. After sowing 
 it may be necessary to run lawn roller over the ground. 
 
 The proportion of seed used where a mixture is desired varies from 
 three to five parts of blue grass to one of clover. Sometimes equal parts 
 are sown. A pound of mixed seed will usually be ample for three hun- 
 dred square feet of ground, and it is estimated that about five bushels 
 would be required for an acre. 
 
 White clover makes a quick growth, and a very pretty temporary 
 lawn. 
 
Il8 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 The blue grass will take complete possession of the ground after it is- 
 thoroughly established, and with proper attention will last a long time. 
 Cut after growth is a few inches high, and afterwards trim and water 
 twice a week. Never let the ground bake, if possible to avoid it, when 
 the grass is just coming up. At this time constant moisture is needed. 
 It is better to mow often, and let the clippings remain on the lawn 
 instead of raking them off. In this way they act as a fertilizer. The last 
 cutting of the season may be permitted to grow sufficiently rank so that 
 it will cover the lawn well, and thus avoid the necessity of covering with 
 coarse manure, which is unsightly and often offensive. 
 
SUMMARY OF INSTRUCTIONS ABOUT 
 IRRIGATION.* 
 
 Attention is called to the importance of preparing the ground before 
 planting, so that water can be readily run where desired. The land need 
 not be graded to a water level, nor so that it can be entirely flooded, but 
 should be prepared so that water will run easily. Occasional flooding is 
 rarely desirable, and is seldom practicable except on small lots. In all cases 
 avoid steep grades, where the soil washes badly, for the planting of fruit 
 stock. A gentle slope, all things considered, is best, and long rows are 
 preferable to short ones, when the slope is sufficient to carry the water 
 easily the entire length. If the irrigation is to be done from one direc- 
 tion or from one side of the land, let the main lateral be made along this 
 side, and sub-laterals be constructed down through the rows after planting 
 is done. These are usually made with an ordinary shovel plow, and, in 
 small gardens, with the irrigating shovel and line. For limited tracts or 
 grounds, a neat way of conducting water is by means of a box or flume, in 
 the place of the main lateral, with checks or gates (and both where needed) 
 at the head of and opposite each sub-lateral, so that water can be readily 
 turned into them and off when desired (see illustration on page 71). 
 This plan avoids the necessity of shoveling out and filling in the dirt 
 every time the rows are to be irrigated ; the simple raising and lowering 
 of each gate or check being all that is required. Where the land slopes 
 in opposite directions, it is often practicable to run water both ways 
 by means of a ditch running along the highest point. At times the lay 
 of the ground requires a mixed system, one of sections and cross-sections 
 in irrigating. In all such cases, the irrigator has to be governed by cir- 
 cumstances — in other words, to do the best he can. 
 
 *Note— The suggestions following, although applicable more or less to any sys- 
 tem of irrigation, refer more especially to the surface or furrow methods. 
 
120 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 HOW AND WHEN TO IRRIGATE. 
 
 First of all, care should be exercised to so arrange or lay out the garden 
 and orchard, that those things which require the least water will receive 
 the least, and vice versa. In other words, don't mix everything up so in plant- 
 ing, that your trees or vegetables will have to be irrigated every time the 
 small fruits are. I regard this an important precaution. Plant the cherry 
 trees, for example, where they will get the least irrigation. Next to them 
 the peach, pears and apples, although the latter will need Considerable the 
 first season after planting. Among small fruits, the blackberry and most 
 varieties of grapes will get along with comparatively little water, while the 
 strawberry, currant and gooseberry should be watered quite freely. The 
 raspberry, if properly mulched, only needs an occasional irrigating, ex- 
 cept when fruiting, then once a week will be about the right thing. Nearly 
 all cuttings require plenty of moisture. For obvious reasons, no precise 
 rule can be given for the application of water. So much depends on soil, 
 location and the manner of cultivation, that this would be out of the 
 question. It is safe to say that the well-established orchard would not 
 ordinarily require more than three good irrigatings during the year. 8 fine 
 would do with less, but this would be about the average. The small 
 fruits, during the fruiting season, I would water at least once a week % As 
 to the manner of running water, I prefer a head of water just sufficient to 
 send a moderate stream gradually along the rows. This enables the mois- 
 ture to penetrate the soil more thoroughly than a rapid current would do. 
 If practicable, water should be run on both sides of the row, without the 
 lateral or ditch is close to one side. This is especially desirable in the 
 case of forest or other trees on land that receives little or no cultivation. 
 On my grounds water is usually run along several rows at the same time. 
 Now and then soil is found that will of admit of rapid irrigation, or, as it 
 is sometimes called, sending the water along with a rush. But this is the 
 exception, and is often very objectionable. Of course, where water is 
 scarce and one is limited to a certain time in its use, the best that can be 
 done is to use it as circumstances will permit. When the water has run 
 its course, turn it off. Don't let it soak and soak, and flood your grounds 
 and those of your neighbor, and the streets and highways and byways. 
 
 TO RECAPITULATE. 
 First prepare your ground for irrigation. Avoid steep grades for fruit 
 stock. Give preference to a gentle slope. Irrigate gradually with a mod- 
 
SUMMARY OF INSTRUCTIONS. 121 
 
 erate stream. Plant those things that require least water where they will 
 get the least. Be careful not to force your trees into a growth of wood 
 that will not ripen before the succeeding winter. Give the small fruits 
 plenty of water while maturing. Water the young Orchard, particularly 
 the apple trees, quite freely the first season and also the second. As a 
 rule, withdraw the water in August from the orchard to let the season's 
 growth mature. Don't spoil your land and crops by continuous soaking. 
 Turn off the water (not into the street) back into the ditch when you are 
 through with it. Water thoroughly the last thing before the ground 
 freezes, so that your stock will go into winter quarters in good shape, pre- 
 pared to resist the drying out process so fatal to trees in this climate. 
 
THE RAIN BELT EXTENSION. 
 
 While this subject is somewhat foreign to the scope of this work, the 
 author ventures to record his belief that those who maintain the position 
 that the " rain belt " is gradually extending Westward, are making out a 
 pretty good case. Among advocates of this doctrine are many of the 
 thinking, practical men of the West. In Kansas and Nebraska, such 
 men as Professors Snow, Aughey and Wilber, and Ex-Governor Furnas, 
 and a score or more of others in contiguous States, are showing by proof 
 that seems well nigh conclusive, a marked increase, both in atmospheric 
 humidity and precipitation, within the past thirty years. 
 
 The thirty-eight years' record of the military post at Fort Leaven- 
 worth (covering nineteen years preceding and the same period following 
 the occupation of that State — Kansas — by white settlers,) shows an 
 increase from 30.96 inches, the average of the first period, to 36.21 inches, 
 the average of second, making an average increase of 5.21 inches per 
 annum. 
 
 The thirty years' records of Fort Keiley; of the State Agricultural 
 College of twenty-four years; and the seventeen years' records of the 
 State University at Lawrence — all in the same State — show an increase, 
 respectively, of 3.05, 5.61 and 3.06 inches per annum. " Expressed in per 
 cent." says Professor Snow, "these four stations show an increase in the 
 last half of the period compared, as follows : Fort Leavenworth, nearly 
 twenty-five per cent.; Fort Eeiley, thirteen per cent.; Manhattan, twenty 
 per cent.; and Lawrence over nine per cent. 
 
 These tests cover periods of time sufficiently long to justify logical 
 conclusions, and can hardly be attributed to mere "accidental variations." 
 They are entitled to weight. Says Mr. Hinton : "When settlement 
 began on the line mentioned by Professor Snow, and West thereof, the 
 annual precipitation did not exceed fourteen inches, and," he adds, 
 " Western Nebraska to the North of Kansas, equally s.'iows, and perhaps 
 even in a more marked way, the peculiar Western movement of the rain- 
 fall, to which attention has been 'called, as characteristic of the plains 
 division." 
 
THE RAIN BELT EXTENSION. 1 23 
 
 Professors Aughey and Wilber, of the University of Nebraska, 
 declare that Western Nebraska and Eastern Wyoming will show a steady 
 climatic change. 
 
 Professor Wilber says he has talked with hundreds of farmers upon 
 the frontier, whose uniform testimony was to the effect that there was a 
 gradual development of the resources of the soil, by the increase of 
 moisture in its various forms, which follows upon cultivation. 
 
 More recently, Mr. Harrington, editor of the American Meteorological 
 Journal, in quite an elaborate discussion of this question concludes that 
 "increased rainfall occurs along the line of largest immigration to the 
 plains, and as the invasion is still going on on an enormous scale, it is 
 hardly safe to say that the attendant meteorological change will not con- 
 tinue farther." 
 
 Whether or not these deductions will antagonize the scientific 
 hypothesis, that this planet of ours is gradually approaching the sup- 
 posed rainless condition of the moon, or whether, even if established 
 beyond a question, they would be regarded in the nature of " local oscil- 
 lations " — that are only • apparent exceptions to the hypothesis — is a 
 matter that perhaps does not immediately concern practical people. The 
 question is, what is actually bringing about this increase of rainfall? 
 Probably the two main causes are, first, the subjection of a vast territory 
 to rapid and continuous cultivation, by constant stirring of the soil and 
 uprooting the native grasses, thus overcoming the resistence to free capil- 
 lary action ; and second, the extensive planting of timber and smaller 
 growths, both of which, on a large scale, tend to increase atmospheric, as 
 well as terrene humidity, and consequent precipitation. Another influ- 
 ence that may have a bearing on results is the increased humidity of 
 Western winds, caused by evaporations from extended irrigation districts 
 along the base of the Eocky Mountains. But whatever the true causes 
 are, results will be of deep interest to all the country likely to be effected. 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 
 Suggestions from Mr. V. DeVinny, of Denver. 
 
 Budding and grafting, in my experience, have been satisfactory, with 
 the exception of stone fruits, which are nearly a failure. I have, how- 
 ever, been successful in root-grafting the peach on the plum. Owing to 
 the dry air of our climate, some precautions are necessary to success in 
 budding. One is, that the scion from which buds are taken should be 
 large, not less than a quarter of an inch in diameter ; to the end, that the 
 bud, when removed, will be broad and long, a condition necessary to resist 
 the withering effects of our climate. The bandaging should also com- 
 pletely cover the wound ; likewise in grafting, the wound should be care- 
 fully covered. Another precaution to which I direct special attention is 
 this, that in either budding or grafting old trees, the leading or main 
 limbs should not be budded or grafted, but one or more of their smaller, 
 erect branches should be selected for the purpose, and the main limb 
 should be deadened above the grafted or budded limbs, by the removal of 
 three or four inches in length of bark around the limb. 
 
 This strong, deadened limb will afford a good support, to which the 
 new scions can be tied, thus preventing the disastrous effects of our hard 
 winds. As the union of the graft and the stock is neither perfect nor 
 strong till the stock has doubled its diameter, it is therefore easily torn 
 away by our summer winds. For the want of this hint, I lost many large, 
 budded limbs last summer. 
 
 Kegarding the irrigation of orchards. I recommend the first summer 
 after planting irrigation every two weeks, the second and third years the 
 same, after which irrigation once per month will do. But no irrigation 
 should be done after September 1st, except the first year after planting. 
 
EFFECTS OF COLD ON FRUIT BUDS. 
 
 FROM DR. HOSKINS, OF VERMONT. 
 
 I cannot say that I have investigated the matter you ask about, but 
 facts have forced themselves on my attention in connection therewith, 
 and it seems very singular that so little notice has been taken of them, 
 considering that it is so well known that peaches, apricots and many other 
 fruits suffer from the effect of cold upon their fruit buds, either or both 
 before and after their opening. I can only attribute the little notice the 
 subject seems to have received, to the probability that these effects of cold 
 upon the fruit buds of the apple have not been marked enough in Europe, 
 or in provincial fruit-growing sections of America, to attract' the attention 
 of pomological writers. But here in the cold North it is different. We 
 have tested here in Northeastern Vermont a good many apples, pears, 
 plums and cherries, the trees of which belong to the "almost hardy" 
 class, and sometimes grow to a large size, yet never bear any perfect fruit, 
 except after an exceptionally mild winter. I have been surprised to see 
 how many plums, cherries and Tolman, Astrachan and St. Lawrence 
 apples, would appear on our market, not one having been offered for so 
 long that the impression had been that the trees were all dead. After a 
 very severe winter, even many of our " iron-clads" — Russians, Siberians 
 and hybrids — though blooming full, will bear but a light crop. The same 
 result follows even a moderate winter, when a sharp frost comes at bloom- 
 ing time. I noticed last spring that the limbs, even of Siberian hybrids 
 or semi-crabs ("improved crabs"), which chanced to be covered with 
 snow where it has drifted deeply, bore a full crop, although the fruit on 
 the rest of the tree was very scattering and imperfect. A few sorts, 
 notably Oldenburgh and Tetofsky, seem able to endure our very hardest 
 winters and give a full crop. I notice, too, that some varieties, not quite 
 hardy in the wood, are hardy in their fruit buds, so that, though the tree 
 is hurt, it will bear a full crop. This, however, when it occurs, is almost 
 invariably followed by the death of the tree, so that when Ave get a full: 
 crop of plums or cherries, we expect to find the trees mostly dead the next 
 
126 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 spring. We then have to wait for young trees and sprouts to come for- 
 ward, and this, too, is one reason for the long intervals between crops 
 from this class of trees. 
 
 From the knowledge of these facts, it will not be difficult to under- 
 stand why it is that there is a difference in the resisting power of the 
 bloom of trees in flower at the same time, and all subjected to the same 
 degree of frost. Yet— and here is a point likely to be overlooked, and 
 which complicates the matter — trees in the same orchard, all in the same 
 stage of forwardness as to blooming, may not be subject to the same degree 
 of cold at the same time. After these spring frosts, it is curious to note 
 single trees, or one side of a tree, or the upper or the lower branches, or 
 even a single branch, having a fall crop, while elsewhere there is but 
 little fruit. I am sorry not to be able to give you more exact information, 
 but I believe that all I really know about the matter is given above. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 T. H. Hoskins. 
 
 New Port, Vt., November, 1887. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 Particular attention is directed to the correspondence following, from 
 prominent fruit growers and horticulturists residing in different sections 
 of Colorado. 
 
 Not only do these contain many valuable suggestions in regard to 
 soil, irrigation and culture, and adaptation of varieties, but they also rep- 
 resent widely different localities and local conditions, and are therefore 
 important as a guide to residents of the immediate respective divisions of 
 the State, as well as to planters in adjoining States or Territories simi- 
 larly situated. 
 
 To furnish this general information has been the aim, rather than to 
 deal with particular localities. Every County in the State will come 
 under some one of the grand divisions heard from, and therefore, wishing 
 to have our book of general application, so far as possible, no special 
 mention has been made of the already fine progress shown by such Coun- 
 ties as Arapahoe, Boulder, Fremont, Jefferson, El Paso, Larimer, Weld 
 and others, nor of the almost certain large success that awaits the devel- 
 opment of sections like La Plata County and the Montezuma Valley. 
 
 The remark is here made that native fruits that nourish in any given 
 locality are often an important indication of what may be cultivated with 
 profit ; although this should not be construed adversely to the success of 
 other fruits and products not so found. 
 
 FROM MESSRS. GODDING AND STEEL, OF ROCKY FORD, BENT 
 
 COUNTY. 
 
 There are only two or three who have had orchard fruit trees planted 
 long enough to bear, but with the best results. We think this is a favorite 
 section for both fruits and vegetables, and in the future we will raise 
 largely of all kinds. 
 
 We have two kinds of soil. That on the river bottom is a stiff 
 adobe that is very hard to work properly, and few succeed with it, but it 
 is very rich and durable, and a man that understands it gets splendid 
 results. On the upland it is of a light-gray color and is mixed with con- 
 
125 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 siderable sand. In this soil fruits and vegetables grow to perfection. It 
 is easily broken up and yields a fine crop the first season. 
 
 Water-melons yield from 1,000 to 1,500 melons per acre, and all small 
 fruits and vegetables do equally well. 
 
 FROM PRESIDENT C. S. FAUROT, OF THE NORTHERN COLORADO 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, BOULDER COUNTY. 
 
 I am very glad to hear that you are writing a book on the subject 
 named in your letter. 
 
 I am trying several new varieties of blackberries, but none have 
 fruited except the Ancient Briton, and I think that is one of the most 
 prolific bearers I ever saw. 
 
 In regard to the irrigation of fruits, I don't know that I can add any- 
 thing new, but I will say this : I would recommend a heavy, clay soil for 
 strawberries and a limited use of water, as I think too much water has a 
 tendency to make the fruit soft and insipid in taste. Ground that 
 currants are grown upon should be kept moist, not wet. 
 
 Raspberries and blackberries should be watered once a week through 
 the fruiting season ; after the fruit is gone, give but little water, in order 
 that the wood may ripen for winter. Grapes, if grown on heavy soil will 
 not need more than two or three irrigations a year, but if on light soil, I 
 should recommend at least five or six irrigations — one, say, as they are in 
 bloom, and two or three after that, as the ground may require. 
 
 In regard to the varieties grown here, I will give you a few of the 
 leading ones: Strawberries — Manchester, Jucunda, Wilson, James VicJc, 
 Captain Jack, Crescent and Sharpless. Raspberries — Cuthbert, Turner, 
 Hansell, Herstine, Souhegan, Gregg, Mammoth Cluster. Blackberries — 
 Ancient Briton, Early Cluster, Snyder, Wilson, Kittatinny and Lawton. 
 
 The varieties in italic I consider good. 
 
 Of grapes I will give just those I could recommend for cultivation : 
 Concord, Hartford, Worden, Moore's Early, Champion, Wilder, Dela- 
 ware, Salem, Brighton, Massasoit, Lindley, Lady, Martha, Empire State, 
 Chasselas. These will do to tie to. 
 
 Currants — Red Dutch, Red Cherry, White Dutch, White Grape, 
 Black Naples. Gooseberries — I cannot say anything for them.* 
 
 * Note— Mr. Faurot, being" almost exclusively a grower of small fruits, does not 
 refer to the larger fruits, like the apple, pear and plum. All of which do exceed- 
 ingly well in Boulder County. Our general list of these will he found well adapted 
 to culture in that County. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 129 
 
 FROM HON. S. A. WADE, OF DELTA COUNTY. 
 Under date of August 14, and October 31, 1887. 
 
 As you are aware the Ute Indians were not dispossessed of this 
 country until September 1st, 1881. Therefore all our progress in the 
 development of the fruit interest in this country cannot date back earlier 
 than the spring of 1882. 
 
 The list of native or wild fruits is short, consisting of the following: 
 Buffalo berries, two varieties, red and yellow. These fruits grow very 
 luxuriantly upon our river and creek bottom lands at an altitude of 4,000 
 to 6,000 feet. The fruit resembling the currant, growing on scrubby trees 
 from eight to twelve feet in hight. Very prolific and a sure bearer. Are 
 improved by cultivation. Ripen about August 15th. 
 
 The service, or Juneberry, grows on the hills at an altitude of 4,000 
 to 8,000 feet; fruits best when protected from the wind and sun; is 
 dwarf, six to ten feet ; fruit large and fine. 
 
 The wild cherry is dwarf; frequently plants two feet high are full of 
 fruit; grow "best from 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude, where they are quite 
 prolific. 
 
 The red raspberry of the mountains is found upon the Grand Mesa 
 at an altitude of 7,000 to 9,000 feet, where the snow falls three to six feet 
 in winter ; are very prolific in their mountain home, but do no good in 
 the vallevs with the best of care. They must have their snowy covering. 
 
 The black currant found on some of the streams in abundance; bush 
 six Jeet high ; prolific; fruit large and good. 
 
 Strawberries grow 7,000 to 9,000 feet quite plentiful ; some of these 
 wild varieties are fair size. 
 
 Of our cultivated fruits this is but our sixth year, so we can but 
 report the progress after close, careful watching this growing interest. 
 Myself being one of the pioneers of the fruit interest in this part of the 
 State, I will say, that in the spring of 1882 I brought here from Illinois 
 and Missouri quite a collection of fruits of different kinds, all one year 
 old ; put them out first year in nursery and re-transplanted them in the 
 spring of 1883 into orchard, and now I have peach and apricot trees 
 measuring eighteen inches in circumference around the trunks or bodies ; 
 cherry trees fifteen to sixteen and one-half inches; apple trees twelve to 
 thirteen inches, with large, fine heads as ever grew, I think. 
 
 I have thirty-one varieties in orchard ; over fifty varieties of apples 
 9 
 
I3O HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 for trial, many of which are now in bearing; have no reason to condemn 
 or even to complain of any variety yet; all perfectly healthy and no 
 winter killing, codling moth, borer or any other insect or pest. Pears 
 have done fairly well, having on my grounds five varieties, and not a 
 blighted leaf on any of my fruits. 
 
 I sold my blackberries this season at fifteen cents per quart, and the 
 yield brought me fully $400 per acre. 
 
 I have ten varieties of cherries, same number of plums, and about 
 the same of apricots and peaches. All my apricots are Russian except 
 one variety. 
 
 The Morello family of cherries are as hardy as the oak. All our 
 small fruits have done remarkably well this season, and my grapes are a 
 wonder to behold, six-year-old vines having one hundred and fifty pounds 
 of fruit on. I have some sixteen varieties in bearing ; my first in favor is 
 the Niagara ; next choice is hard to make among the following: Rogers' 
 No. 1 and 9, Janesville, Catawba, or Telegraph, and two other unnamed 
 varieties. The Clinton is a wonderful bearer here. The Salem (No. 22) 
 is a good bearer, good grower and a good grape, but it drops from the 
 bloom so as to make bunches open and loose. 
 
 I am now trying a lew California varieties with good prospects. 
 
 We have a favored spot here for fruit growing, no doubt the best in 
 the State. Our altitude is 5,500 feet above the sea level. 
 
 I have seen growing at an altitude of 7,800 feet the following fruits : 
 Duchess apples, Whitney, Transcendant and Siberian crabs. I saw these 
 fruits last week. The trees were very full of fruit, but the fruit was 
 small, especially the Duchess apple, which were not larger than crabs. 
 
 We have quite an extent of country in this part of the State that 
 ranges from 6,000 to 8,000 feet altitude, that in time will be utilized for 
 fruit growing quite extensively in the near future, especially for small 
 fruits. It is high table-land with a good deal of timber and grasses, 
 where the snow falls about three feet in winter and rains often during the 
 summer season, with a climate much like a portion of Michigan. 
 
 There is one thing I can note as very peculiar in the fruit trees on 
 this Western or Pacific Slope : Our trees may make a wonderful growth 
 of wood during the summer and will bud profusely at the same time, and 
 if a late frost should happen to come in April or early in May (which we 
 have never had) and kill off our grape crop, by giving the vineyard a 
 thorough irrigation for about three days the vines will re-set and make a 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. I3I 
 
 fair crop ; in fact we have to guard against this second growth continu- 
 ously throughout the fruiting season. 
 
 It is very difficult for you to overestimate the natural fruit advan- 
 tages of this part af the State. 
 
 In letter of October 31st, he says : 
 
 I have two distinct classes of soil on my farm. The first bottom land 
 is sandy loam, with four to six feet of clay sub-soil. This is my best grape, 
 peach and small fruit lands, which I irrigate from three to six times dur- 
 ing the growing season, except strawberries, which I keep quite moist. I 
 irrigate no fruit on this land, except the strawberries, after September 1st. 
 We usually get rains in the fall sufficient for all fruits. 
 
 My second bottom land is of the black loam, with quite a mixture of 
 the adobe. This land is strong and deep soil. I consider it my best 
 apple and pear land. I have twenty-five acres in this fruit on this land. 
 
 I raise corn, potatoes and vines among my trees, and only irrigate 
 sufficient to promote a good, healthy growth to my corn, and find it about 
 right for my trees. I turn on the water about once a week for a day and 
 night, as a general thing, through the season, and our corn matures about 
 September 1st to 10th, when I shut off all irrigation water. After that our 
 fall rains take care of the fruits, and they ripen their wood in excellent 
 shape for the winter. We lay nothing down for winter except the tender 
 California grapes. 
 
 Peaches and apricots begin bearing the second year after budding. 
 Many varieties of apples bear at three and four years from graft. Especi- 
 ally is this the case with the Eussians. Many of the Americans bear at 
 four and five years. Cherries and plums bear very early with us. It is 
 is not unfrequent to see a two-year-old cherry tree full of fruit. 
 
 My choice of fruits for profit here is the grape. The of yield my five- 
 year-old vines this year was enormous. 
 
 FROM GEN. R. A. CAMERON, CANON CITY, FREMONT COUNTY. 
 
 At Canon City the water of the Arkansas does not seem to be impreg- 
 nated with much mineral matter, which, like rivers, notably the Kio 
 Grande in New Mexico, enriches the soil. On the South side of the river, 
 where the soil is composed chiefly of decomposed red and white sand- 
 stone, irrigation practiced once or even twice a week in the warm and dry 
 seasons seems to act like so much refreshing rain. On the North side of 
 the river, however, where the soil is composed largely of decomposed 
 
I3 2 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 shale and lime rock, a rich and heavy adobe, irrigation has to be prac- 
 ticed with great care, and is best conducted in the evening or on cloudy 
 days, which prevents the scalding of trees. A good soaking once in three 
 weeks is beneficial and acceptable to trees, bushes and vines, as well as to 
 vegetables. Some of the latter, however, requiring water oftener. 
 
 While some, or a large variety of grapes, such as the Elvira and Sa- 
 lem, bear irrigation well, the Concord, Pocklington, and others of the 
 Labrusca family, do not relish much water. Whether it is the water 
 itself, or the " alkali" it develops and brings to the surface, I do not 
 know. So strongly has this dislike of irrigation impressed many in regard to 
 the Concord, that Dr. Craven, a leading horticulturist here, only waters 
 his Concord vines in the spring and fall, and yet he has luxuriant crops 
 of most excellent grapes.* 
 
 FROM EX-PRESIDENT J. S. MC CLELLAND, OF THE NORTHERN 
 COLORADO HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, LARIMER COUNTY. 
 
 I use a great deal of water during the fruiting season. Water straw- 
 berries after each picking, and never allow them to get dry. Newly- 
 planted trees I never allow to get dry. My oldest orchards I have not 
 irrigated this year, but will do so this month (October) .f 
 
 The best fruits ? Well, here they are: 
 
 Apples — Summer — Oldenburg, Tetofsky, Red June, Fall, Wealthy 
 and Famous. Winter— Ben Davis, Willow Twig and Golden Kusset. 
 
 Plums — Miner and Weaver. The Miner is a glorious plum, and re- 
 markably hardy. Beats everything else with me. 
 
 Grapes — Concord, Worden, Champion and Sweet Water, especially 
 the latter, do best with me. Am going to make a success of grapes. 
 
 Gooseberries — Houghton. 
 
 Currants — White Grape, Cherry and Red Dutch. 
 
 Strawberries — Crescent, Manchester and Chas. Downing. 
 
 Blackberries — Wilson and Snyder. 
 
 Raspberries — Red — Turner and Cuthbert. Black — Mammoth Cluster 
 and Gregg. 
 
 *Note— Fremont County is one of the pioneer fruit growing Counties of Colorado. 
 The oldest commercial orchard of the State, that of Jesse Frazier, is located here, 
 which in 1886 yielded 10,000 bushels of apples. 
 
 f Note.— Mr. McClelland' s soil is a clayey loam. 
 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 1 33 
 
 FROM REV. S. W. DE BUSK, OF LAS ANIMAS COUNTY. 
 
 In the last volume of our State Horticultural Beportyou will find an 
 article entitled "The Beginnings in Las Animas County," which gives, a 
 correct statement of our first efforts in this County. My own orchard the 
 past season (1887) yielded eighty bushels of Ben Davis, Rawles Janet, 
 Wine Sap, Missouri Pippin, Tetofsky, Duchess, Cooper's Early White, 
 Fall Spitzenburg, Wealthy and Hyslop. Crabs did well with me this 
 year. My first trees were set in the year 1881. Large holes were dug, 
 and a heap of bones placed in each hole. Trees set a rod apart, I find, 
 will prove to be too close soon. The limbs of the Ben Davis trees promise 
 to touch across the space between the rows in three years longer. 
 
 One Missouri Pippin tree, set three years ago last April, ripened one 
 hundred apples five years from graft. One Jonathan tree, same age 
 ripened eighty apples; one Ben Davis tree, same age, ripened seventy-five 
 apples remarkable for fine size and' color. So much for early bearing. 
 
 My trees are on a hill-side, sloping to the North. Soil, a clay loam, 
 which is usual on our prairies. At two points leads of slate crop out on 
 knolls. This upland needs irrigating twice as often as the compact loam 
 or adobe of my low bottom. 
 
 In starting my trees, six years ago, the land was kept in hoed crop; 
 part being used for the vegetable garden, and the other part cultivated in 
 beans, turnips, and sometimes corn. 
 
 The spots irrigated oftenest gave best results. Where the cabbage 
 and tomato patch was, and the water ran three to five times a week, trees 
 grew most rapidly, bore earliest, and to-day are the favorites in the or- 
 chard. My hill-side was rough, having two or three gullies across it, 
 when 1 began to cultivate it. In irrigating this uneven land, a few trees, 
 which stood in low places, received twice the water the others had. 
 Those getting a superabundance of water on this well-drained soil are, in 
 every way, the best trees. It is well undei stood, here in my family, that 
 on this hill-side of clay loam, underlaid by slate, there is no danger of 
 irrigating too much for apples, pears, raspberries, strawberries, currants 
 and gooseberries, even if that irrigation be twice a week from June 1st 
 to September 1st, seasons of heavy rains excepted, of course. 
 
 The above is the sum of my experience for five years. 
 
 The past summer, matters were quite different with me. The floods 
 
134 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATON. " 
 
 of June practically destroyed my irrigating ditch. This hill-side orchard, 
 having been well irrigated once in May, was exposed to the fierce heat of 
 July and August without irrigation. The half and one-third grown 
 apples ceased to grow, and began to shrivel up on the trees. Water was 
 obtained to give all a good soaking once late in August. The trees re- 
 vived in a few days. The fruit resumed its growth, and, with few excep- 
 tions, matured well, though later than usual. Had not the trees been well 
 established they must have died. 
 
 Another incident on this well-drained upland, which requires fre- 
 quent irrigation, teaches me that trees might succeed almost without irri- 
 gation, and I will give this for the benefit of the rain-belt farmers, some 
 hundred of whom we have in Eastern Las Animas County. 
 
 In my early experience, I made the mistake of setting largely of the 
 Transcendant crab, a variety which is nearly useless to me, because the 
 buds push out early in the spring, and have four years in succession been 
 nipped by frost. 
 
 To test to my satisfaction the theory of mulching to make a tree 
 bloom late, I placed a wagon load of old, thoroughly-rotted manure about 
 the roots of three large crab trees, leaving other trees unmulched. The 
 mulch was applied when the ground was frozen and some snow was on. 
 The mulch utterly failed to retard the blooming. It did seem to me the 
 mulched trees bloomed earlier than the olhers. The manure used for 
 mulch could not have heated, for it had lain out-doors two years, some of 
 it even longer, before being used. But when the trees were exposed to a 
 torrid summer, without any irrigation, those mulched flourished with 
 surprising vigor. I strongly suspect, now, if one could spare a heavy 
 wagon-load of such mulch to each tree, that our rain and snow fall might 
 give sufficient moisture for good results. 
 
 Many ask me, how often to irrigate? So much depends upon the 
 soil, location, drainage, etc., that I can give no rule. Have often said 
 this, that a corn field will always indicate, to the experienced farmer, 
 when water should be applied ; and likewise, an orchard, young or old, 
 will make its wants known to the horticulturist who is attentive and quick 
 to comprehend the language of his trees. My trees young, or old, plead 
 piteously for water when they grow too dry. 
 
 Of course, I leave off irrigation in the fall — usually September 15th 
 here — to allow the wood to mature for winter. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. I 3 5 
 
 HORTICULTURE IN MONTROSE AND OURAY -COUNTIES. 
 
 By A. D. Fairbanks, Montrose. 
 
 Among the first to plant fruit trees and small fruits in Montrose 
 County were the following named persons: Gustavus Frost, Ross Broth- 
 ers, Young Brothers, Eldridge Brothers, David Markley, O. D. Loutsen- 
 heizer. Among the first to plant fruit trees and small fruits in Ouray 
 County were the following named persons: R. H. Higgins, J. Smith and 
 Preston Hotchkiss. 
 
 From four to five years is the extent of time in which fruit of any 
 kind has been cultivated in either of the above Counties, with possibly one 
 exception. R. H. Higgins, who located nine or ten years ago within four 
 miles of Ouray City, and has, for nearly the entire time, grown small 
 fruits of some kinds with marvelous success. The hardy varieties of 
 raspberries and blackberries he has propagated successfully, and both 
 have fruited heavily each year. Currants and gooseberries have also 
 thriven well with him, as have also strawberries. He is located at an 
 altitude of 7,000 feet. 
 
 Apples, cherries, plums and pears are not grown very extensively in 
 Ouray County. 
 
 At an altitude of 6,000 feet, near Montrose, a few families have 
 planted trees with varying results. A Mr. Smith has raised apples and 
 pears, also grapes, at an altitude of 6,000 feet and more, and on the river 
 bottom, Preston Hotchkiss, two miles below, on the Uncompahgre, has a 
 line start in all varieties of fruit that can be grown in the best parts of 
 the East. The showing, for this time, is wonderful in the growth, vigor- 
 ous appearance, and all that portends to fruit culture. 
 
 The soil is of a dark brown color naturally, and by cultivation turns 
 to a black, loamy appearance. 
 
 The Eldridge Brothers, still lower down the river and in Montrose 
 County, have succeeded commendably. 
 
 O. D. Loutsenheizer, half a mile East of the town of Montrose, and on 
 what may be called a genuine adobe ranch, has, after several fruitless 
 trials on a large scale, succeeded in a small way in fruit raising. 
 
 All small fruits do well on this adobe, and apples, pears, apricots and 
 plums thrive better on this kind of soil, when it is properly managed, 
 than on the river bottom, as the latter, after two or three years, proves too 
 
I36 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 wet for the roots which have penetrated the earth downwards, in that 
 time three or four feet. 
 
 Mr. Loutsenheizer is very enthusiastic over fruit culture in this 
 valley, especially on the adobe. 
 
 The Ross Brothers, Young Brothers and Gns Frost have severally 
 demonstrated that all moderately hardy varieties of apples, plums, pears 
 arid even peaches at an altitude of 5,500 feet can be successfully grown. 
 The quality of fruit in this valley is remarkable. Demonstration has 
 settled grape culture, and small fruits of all kinds and varieties; and we 
 are sure that anything that can be grown in the Middle States can be 
 grown here. 
 
 Thus far all kinds of fruit have been very free from insects or any of 
 those afflictions so common in the East. 
 
 The greatest extremes in Montrose County, on an average of five 
 years, is from fifteen degrees below zero to ninety degrees above. 
 
 The character of the soil is variable. There is adobe, red gravelly soil 
 underlaid from three to five feet below the surface with a solid cement of 
 pebbles and clay, or some similar formation, perhaps by an admixture 
 with the soil of a sufficient amount of gypsum. 
 
 Irrigation soon softens this underlying stratum and renders this kind 
 of land, which is confined mostly to the mesas, very receptive, and thus 
 seepage is very rapid and the necessity of irrigation more frequent than 
 on the river bottom, where the soil is constantly under-moistened by 
 seepage from the river. 
 
 The adoi)e, which is generally the second bottom, and is in depth 
 from ten to thirty feet, when once well soaked with water to the depth of 
 from eighteen inches to two feet, is sufficiently irrigated, as a rule, by two 
 or three times in a season for small grains ; while the mesa soil as a rule 
 needs water every two weeks, in some localities oftener. If small grains 
 are planted near the surface in the adobe ground it will need water often, 
 as the hot sun bakes rapidly the top of the ground in the summer 
 months. If there is any favor to special varieties, there has not been suf- 
 ficient time to demonstrate it in Montrose County. 
 
 Routt, Routt County, Colo., November 8th, 1887. 
 Looking towards fruit culture in this part of the State, the part that 
 I shall describe is but a small part of the great' County in which I live. 
 One man I believe planted out a few trees last spring on the river bottom, 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 1 37 
 
 and I believe they did very well until they were eaten up by the cattle. 
 
 Judging from the altitudes by Hayden and his geological survey, our 
 best farming lands have an altitude of from 6,300 to 6,500 feet above the 
 sea. 
 
 The sage land is the best, and is a deep, sandy loam, and very rich, 
 and where the sage gets a sufficiency of water it grows to a great size, and 
 often reaches the hight of six or seven feet. The grease-wood lands are 
 adobe, and are not considered good farming lands. 
 
 There are but few kinds of native fruit growing in this vicinity 
 — the choke-cherry, sarvis berry, mountain raspberry and currant. I 
 have s.een cherries that grew at an altitude of 7,000 feet that were both 
 large and well flavored. 
 
 The mercury was not lower than twenty below zero last winter, and 
 not very long spells of cold weather at any one time, and not higher than 
 one hundred during the hottest day of summer. 
 
 I can give you a better idea of what will succeed by giving you a few 
 facts of my own personal experience in my vegetable garden. Sweet 
 corn matured so as to make good seed ; also beans. I planted out a few 
 tomato plants the first of July that ripened a few tomatoes. My water- 
 melons did not succeed for lack of irrigation during the Indian troubles, 
 when we had to leave our homes and seek safety in forting up our place. 
 Our place is only a half-mile north of the trail taken by the Indians at 
 the time the Meeker women were taken into captivity. 
 
 The hills that have timber on are very poor and rocky, producing 
 but low, scrubby cedar, that seldom if ever gets long enough for two fence 
 posts. The canons in the mountains, and sometimes nearly to the tops of 
 the mountains, are covered with scrub oak and quaking asp, some box 
 elder and pinon pine. 
 
 The general lay of the country is very hilly and uneven and cut up 
 with gullies and wash-outs, so that travel on horseback is sometimes 
 difficult. The gullies and wash-outs would indicate heavy rains, and yet 
 I have not seen anyone that has seen a hard rain since the country has 
 been settled, Several persons here, at Axial, and at Yampa, have been 
 getting fruit trees 
 
 I should be much pleased to see a more general desire to improve 
 the country by setting and growing fruits of such kinds as would succeed, 
 and I think many kinds would do well here. Only eighty miles to the 
 West of us, down at Ashley, I am told they raise considerable fruit. 
 
I38 HORTICULTURE BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 And with money and energy I think this would become a fruit-growing 
 country. Elisha Bennett. 
 
 APPLES FOR WELD COUNTY. 
 
 By O. H. Gallup, Esq., Greeley, Colorado. 
 
 The Wealthy, Gideon, and Excelsior of the Minnesota kinds have 
 fruited on my place, but with me the Wealthy lacks in hardiness a little 
 and is a shy bearer ; the Excelsior is also slow to fruit. I have trees that 
 are of good size, but have never had but three or four apples form 
 thereon. The Gideon bears early and abundantly and is "A No. 1." 
 
 The Bussian Yellow Transparent is the only foreign apple I have 
 fruited, and I think the best apple on my grounds. 
 
 The Oldenburg seems to be hardy and productive. Gideon's Flor- 
 ence (crab) will fruit the earliest and fullest and dodge the late spring 
 frosts better than any other apple I have, and for cooking, it almost 
 equals a good standard. I have growing, but not fruiting yet, Mann, and 
 the Haas, that are promising trees. I find that trees on crab roots stand 
 much better than those grafted on common stock. 
 
 As to soil best adapted for apples, my trees here in town are on a 
 stony soil ; on my old farm it is a coarse, sandy soil ; on my West farm 
 the soil is finer sand, with a little adobe added, and on this the trees seem 
 to do best in their growth, and also fruit more freely. 
 
 As to frequency of irrigating, this will depend on the soil, but I am 
 inclined to the opinion that after trees are well established, (say after the 
 first year,) they need less water than Ave have been in the habit of giving 
 them. A good, thorough wetting about once a month I think about 
 right for established trees. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 NUMBER OF SEEDS TO THE POUND, BY ACTUAL COUNT. 
 
 Forest Trees. 
 
 no. IN 
 
 COMMON NAME." BOTANICAL NAME. POUND. 
 
 White Birch Betula Alba 500,000 
 
 American Mountain Ash Pyrus Americana 108,327 
 
 American White Elm Ulmus Americana 92,352 
 
 Bed Elm Ulmus Fulva 54,359 
 
 Black Locust Bobinia Pseudacacia 28,992 
 
 Green Ash Fraxinus Viridis 22,(556 
 
 Scarlet Maple Acer Bubra 22,464 
 
 White Pine Pinus Strobus 20,540 
 
 Ailanthus Ailanthus Glandulosa 20,161 
 
 Hardy Catalpa Catalpa Speciosa 19.776 
 
 Box Klder Acer Negundo 14,784 
 
 Silver Fir Abies Pectinala 12,000 
 
 Osage Orange .Maculara Aurantiaca 10,656 
 
 American White Ash Fraxinus Americana 9,858 
 
 Bock Elm Ulmus Bacemosa 8,352 
 
 Bed Cedar Juniperus Virginiana 8,321 
 
 Berberry ..Berberis Canadensis 8,183 
 
 Sugar Maple Acer Saccbarinum 7,488 
 
 Norway Maple Acer Platanoides _ 7,231 
 
 American Basswood Tilia Americana 6,337 
 
 Black Ash ..Fraxinus Sambucifolia 5,629 
 
 Black Cherry Prunus Serotina 4,311 
 
 Honey Locust Gledilschia Friacanthos 2,496 
 
 Silver Leaf Maple Acer Dascycarpum 2,421 
 
 American Sweet Chestnut Castanea Vesca 90 
 
 Hickory (Shell Bark) Oarya Alba 78 
 
 American Horse Chestnut iEsculus Glabra 36 
 
 Black Walnut Juglaus Nigra 25 
 
 Butternut Juglaus Cinerea 15 
 
 Fruit Trees. 
 
 About 
 
 Apple 12,000 
 
 Cherry Bits 1,000 
 
 Peach 200 
 
 Pear , 15,000 
 
 Plum (iOO 
 
 Quince 15,000 
 
 Mulberrv (fruit bearing) 200,000 
 
VEGETABLE AND GRASS SEED TABLE. 
 (From Henry Lee's Catalogue.) 
 
 AVERAGE QUANTITY OF SEED SOWN TO AN ACRE. 
 
 IN DRILLS. 
 
 Dwarf Beans 75 to 90 lbs 
 
 Early Peas 75 to 90 lbs 
 
 Marrowiat Peas 70 to 80 lbs 
 
 Beets 4 to 5 lbs 
 
 Mangel-Wurzel 6 to 8 lbs 
 
 Carrots 2 to 3 lbs 
 
 Onions 4 to 5 lbs 
 
 Onions for sets 20 to 30 lbs 
 
 Onion sets 300 to 350 lbs 
 
 Parsnip 4 to 5 lbs 
 
 Radish 6 to 8 lbs 
 
 Rutabaga 1 to 1% lbs 
 
 Spinach 10 to 12 lbs 
 
 Salsify 10 to ]21bs 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 Tomatoes to transplant. 
 
 1 to 1% lbs 
 ' lb 
 
 IN HILLS. 
 
 Corn 8 to 10 lbs 
 
 Cucumbers 1 to 1% lbs 
 
 Musk-Melon , 2 to 3 lbs 
 
 Water-Melon 3 to 4 lbs 
 
 Pumpkins 2 to 3 lbs 
 
 Squash 2 to 3 lbs 
 
 QUANTITY OF SEEDS REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN NUMBER OF PLANTS. 
 
 Asparagus 1 oz to 500 plants 
 
 Cabbage 1 oz to 2,000 plants 
 
 Cauliflower 1 oz to 2,000 plants 
 
 Celery '. „ 1 oz to 3,000 plants 
 
 Leek ■. 1 oz to 1,500 plants 
 
 Endive 1 oz to 3,000 plants 
 
 Egg Plant 1 oz to 1,000 plants 
 
 Lettuce , 1 oz to 3,000 plants 
 
 Pepper 1 oz to 1,0^0 plants 
 
 Tomato 1 oz to 1,500 plants 
 
 Thyme 1 oz to 5,000 plants 
 
 Tobacco 1 oz to 5,000 plants 
 
 Sage 1 oz to 1,500 plants 
 
 Savory 1 oz to 2,000 plants 
 
 Marjoram 1 oz to 1,500 plants 
 
 Rhubarb 1 oz to 500 plants 
 
S : 
 
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