A NATIONAL SYSTEM ^ OF EDUCATION -P WALTER SCOTT ATHEARN A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION WALTER SCOTT ATHEARN THE MERRICK LECTURES AN ENDOWED LECTURESHIP IN THE FIELD O^ PRACTICAL CHRISTIANITY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE OHIO WES- LEYAN UNIVERSITY, DELAWARE, OHIO. The lectures already delivered upon the Merrick Foundation are as follows: Daniel Curry, D.D.: Christian Education. President James McCosh, D.D., LL.D.: Tests of the Various Kinds of Truth. Bishop Randolph S. Foster, D.D., LL.D.: The Philosophy of Christian Experience. Professor James Stalker, D.D.: The Preacher and His Models. John W. Butler, D.D.: Mission Work in Mexico. Professor George Adam Smith, D.D., LL.D.: Christ in the|_01d Testament. Bishop James W. Bashford, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D.: The Science of Religion. James W. Buckley, D.D., LL.D.: The Natural and Spiritual Orders and their Relations. John R. Mott, M.A., F.R.G.S., LL.D.: The Pastor and Modern Missions. Bishop Elijah E. Hoss, D.D., LL.D.; Professor Doremus A. Hayes, Ph.D., S.T.D., LL.D.; Charles E. Jefferson, D.D., LL.D.; Bishop William F. McDowell, D.D., LL.D.; Bishop Edwin H. Hughes, D.D.: The New Age and Its Creed. Robert E. Speer, M.A. : The Marks of a Man, or the Essentials of Christian Character. Rev. Charles Stelzle, Miss Jane Addams, Commissioner of Labor Charles P. Neill, Ph.D., Prof. Graham Taylor, and Rev. George P. Eckman, D.D.: The Social Application of Religion. Rev. George Jackson, M.A.: Some Old Testament Problems. Prof. Walter Rauschenbusch, D.D.: Christianizing the Social Order. Prof. G. A. Johnston Ross, M.A.: One Avenue of Faith. Rev. Charles E. Jefferson, D.D.: What the War is Teaching. Robert E. Speer, M.A.: Some Needed Notes in American Character. Rev. John Kelman, D.D.: The War and Preaching. Prof. Walter S. Athearn, M.A. : A National System of Education. A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION BY WALTER SCOTT ATHEARN DIRECTOR DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SERVICE, BOSTON UNIVERSITY NEW ^SW^ YORK GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY A COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY *0 mwfiMm liOST w)? f MAY 1? '961 PRINTED IN TH TES OF AMERICA PREFACE A reconstruction and a reevalnation of edu- cational theory and practice have been forced upon us by the tragic events of the past five years. A new educational literature is already appearing, bringing with it a new vocabulary and announcing a new technique. A renais- sance in education has already begun. The fac- tors necessary for the rebirth had been gradu- ally maturing for two decades. The world war broke the shell and gave the setting for the de- velopment of the new life which is to dominate our educational circles in the period of world rebuilding which is just ahead. When the whole field of educational recon- struction is viewed by one whose primal inter- est is in moral and religious education, three needs stand out in the foreground as the most important, and the most immediate problems in American education. The first and most fundamental is for an adequate philosophy of education. In the early history of our Ameri- can school system, we borrowed much of our educational machinery and method from Eu- vi PREFACE rope; in recent years we have been importing European and Oriental philosophies of educa- tion. There is great danger that we shall build the educational program of our new democracy upon a philosophy which will in the end accom- plish the undoing of democracy. There is ur- gent need for the restudy of the philosophy of democracy, the philosophy of religion, and es- pecially the philosophy of the Christian re- ligion, and for the building of an educational philosophy which will fittingly express the ideals of a democratic and spiritually minded people. I am convinced that the battle ground in the field of religious education for the next decade will not be in the field of organization and methodology, but in the field of educational theory. The second and most apparent need is for the development of a professional spirit among ed- ucators. This need is especially acute in the field of religious education. The events of the past few years have revealed an appalling dearth of academic and professional interest in religious education. There is need of an ed- ucational leadership that will die for the cause — for a revival of that disinterested spirit of martyrdom which gives up life itself that the cause may live. This spirit takes its cue from the laboratory, not from the counting room. PREFACE vii It experiments, weighs, measures and tests, and modestly and humbly gives its results tc man- kind, seeking no reward save the joy of search- ing for and finding the truth. For such disin- terested, professional leadership there is a cry- ing need. The third and most immediate need is for a clearly outlined program for the organization and administration of secular and religious schools in a democracy. The agencies and in- stitutions that are to control religious educa- tion during the next fifty years are now taking form. The voice of the educator has too sel- dom been heard in the councils of reorganiza- tion. The National Educational Association came up to this national crisis with a states- manlike program for secular education which is embodied in the Smith-Towner Bill. This great educational program challenges the educational leadership of the Church to produce a program which will be equally scientific, equally demo- cratic and equally prophetic. What is needed is a blue print which will indicate the general architectural stnicture, and a statement of the fundamental principles which are to guide the workmen as they fill in the details of the com- pleted structure. These lectures are presented as a contribu- tion towards meeting the last of these three out- viii PREFACE standing needs in the field of American edu- cation. The lectures are the result of a decade of actual laboratory experimentation. Many- types of organizations have been established in different communities, and the results carefully studied. These results have been compared with the results of similar experiments in the field of secular education. I am indebted to the President, Trustees and Faculty of Ohio Wesleyan University for the privilege of presenting these studies to the stu- dents of the university as the Merrick Lectures of 1919. Walter Scott Atheaeit. Boston, Mass., November 27, 1919. CONTENTS CHAFTER PAOB I : PRESENT TENDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDU- CATION Health education — Industrial and vocational edu- cation — The socialized curriculum — The universalized high school — NaturaUstic tendencies in secular edu- cation — A national system of public schools — The place of rehgion in the educational program of a democracy 13 II: THE EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS The European background — The early reading schools and the American academy — Elements bor- rowed from Europe — The welding process — Teacher training schools — Changes in the curriculum — Social sohdarity in a democracy — The secularization of the pubhc schools 32 III: PROBLEMS IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Biu^aucracy and paternaUsm — Centrahzed author- ity, local initiative and professional freedom — The function of a national education association — Prob- xems of administration and control — The responsi- biUty of the schools to the people 53 IV: A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDU- CATION Methods of teaching religion to the American people — Denominational educational machinery — Provi- ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE sion for professional growth — Interdenominational cooperation in religious education — The Maiden ex- periment reviewed — Christian citizenship the basis of locol control 69 V: A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDU- CATION (continued) Coordination of denominational and interdenomi- national machinery— -The coordination of a national system of public schools with a national system of reUgious schools — The necessity for fusion of curric- ula — Relation of Protestant, Jewish and CathoUc schools to the pubhc schools — Leadership — Elements in a statesmanlike program of religious education . 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY On Educational Organization and Admiaistration — On the English Education Bill — On the Evolution of the PubUc School System of the United States — On Present Tendencies in American Education . . . 123 INDEX 131 DIAGRAMS NO. PAQB I A Dual School System. — Germany .... 35 II A Dual School System. — England .... 39 III The Development of a Unified System op Public Schools in the United States . . 43 IV Correlation op Schools, Colleges and Agen- cies OP Supervision 47 V An Especiallt Bad Form op Educational Organization 63 (From Cubberley, Public School Administration. By permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) VI Plan op Educational Organization for a Large City School System, and Showing Proper Relationships 67 (From Cubberley, Public School Administration. By permisaion of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) VII Showing Education as Subordinate to Pub- UCITY 71 VIII Showing Religious Education as a Missionary Extension Enterprise 76 IX Interlocking Boards and Secretarial Combi- nations 79 X A Standard Organization for Religious Education 83 XI Organization op the Malden System op Religious Education 101 XII The Coordination op Denominational and Interdenominational Control .... 105 XIII The Coordination of Church and State Schools 109 XIV A Suggested Coordination op Public Schools with Jewish, Catholic and Protestant Educational Systems 115 xi A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION CHAPTER I PRESENT TENDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION Pour thousand two hundred college profes- sors caused the great World War. Four thou- sand two hundred college professors can cause another World War. In the last analysis the destiny of any nation is determined by the schoolmasters of that nation. The disarma- ment of the Central Powers will not insure world peace. Unless the very nature of the Prussian educational system can be changed, there will sooner or later appear in Central Eu- rope a race of men that will again terrorize the free people of the earth. Because of the vital relationship between ed- ucation and social welfare, those who seek to reconstruct society on a permanent basis will do well to inquire into the present tendencies in 13 14 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION education as they have been influenced by the war. After a very careful analysis of the edu- cational literature of Europe, Asia and Amer J ica, I feel safe in predicting certain changes in* the educational systems of the allied nations. I shall discuss these changes only as they are taking form in the United States of America. 1. Health Education,— The first change to be noted is a new emphasis on health education. The whole nation was startled by the announce- ment that twenty-nine percent of our drafted men were unfit for military duty because of physical ailments contracted in times of peace. The effect of this announcement will be seen in a modified curriculum in our schools and col- leges. I do not think we will come to com- pulsory mihtary education. It seems to be the consensus of opinion among educators that compulsory military education is not the best way to give the physical development that will prepare our people for both peace and war. I do think, however, that we are to have compul- sory physical education. There will be courses in physiology and hygiene in our elementary schools and colleges; in our secondary schools and colleges there will be courses in social hy- giene ; and in our graduate schools there will be unprecedented development in medical research and preventive medicine. We have just PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 15 passed through an epidemic of influenza which has cost millions of lives. When a plague of this kind breaks out in the future, we will not be content to call out the preachers to pray for the abatement of the plague. We will also call out the policemen. We will enlist our most skillful detectives. We wiU trace down the man who let loose the disease germs upon society and hang him, because by crimes of neglect he has murdered his fellow men. At a recent meeting of representative public school-teachers, the following resolution was discussed: ** Resolved, that in the future no student should be permitted to graduate from an American high school who, at the time of graduation, suffers from any remediable physi- cal defect. ' ' This resolution reflects the temper of the American educators. It means a revised curriculum, playgrounds, gymnasiums, profes- sional playground directors ; it means free den- tal and medical clinics and visiting nurses; it means school cafeterias, etc. In short, it means that we have set out to produce a race of men and women who are physically fit to sustain the institutions of a democratic people. 2. Industrial, and Vocational Education. — The second tendency to be noted is the greatly increased emphasis on industrial and vocational education. The movement in this direction had 16 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION gained great headway before the Great War. It is now under full steam. The war called for the development of applied science in the in- terests of both the production and the destruc- tion of property. The devastated world is now to be rebuilded; a hungTy world is to be fed; world commerce is to be reestablished. All this demands skilled labor. The schools are re- sponding to the demand. Institutes of tech- nology have doubled their capacity and elemen- tary schools have increased their vocational electives. Under the provisions of the Smith- Hughes Bill, a national subsidy is being used to encourage vocational training. As a result of these influences boys and girls in the seventh and eighth grades are encouraged to elect their studies in the interest of their future vocation. In the high school they are met by a largely in- creased group of popular vocational electives. From the vocationalized high school they can go to the junior college where majors and minors are determined on the basis of voca- tional needs. There is now an increased ten- dency to rest the professional and technical schools down upon the junior college instead of the senior college. It thus becomes possible to begin the student's vocational preparation in the seventh grade of the elementary school, carry it on through the high school and build PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 17 a side-track around the old-time cultural courses leading to the baccalaureate degrees, by taking students from the sophomore class by means of pre-medical, pre-law and pre-engi- neering courses directly into the professional and technical schools. In this craze for vocational and industrial ef- ficiency we face a very real danger. A citizen in a democracy needs something more than vo- cational efficiency. He must be an intelligent voter as well as a skilled artisan. We shall not have industrial peace until every citizen enjoys a satisfying portion of all the good things which the earth possesses. Among the good things of the earth which must be equitably distributed are knowledge, music, art, literature, the old and new ''humanities." There are evidences that the older disciplines will not retire without a struggle, but that they must take account of the movement for vocational and industrial ed- ucation is apparent to all. The schools are get- ting our people ready to sustain an industrial democracy. 3. Social Education. — Perhaps the most profound change which is occurring in our schools is in the direction of a socialized cur- riculum. It is evident that a people individu- alistically trained cannot sustain the social in- stitutions of a democracy. The humanities 18 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION were at the core of the curricula of our early- schools. During the past century the humani- ties gave way to the physical sciences. Our schools have taught us about things ; they have not taught us about people. We were compelled to learn about the stars in the heavens; about the crust of the earth upon which we walked; we studied the flowers by the roadside and the animal life in our midst. We studied every- thing except people. Is it any wonder we are in the midst of social unrest with no solvent for our social problems? Social experimentation with newly released psychic forces which are little understood and with which there has been little laboratory analysis may be expected to produce a series of social catastrophes before they are brought under control. The response of the schools to the present social-industrial revolution wiU be the socializing of our cur- ricula. The core of the curricula will not be the physical sciences. At the heart of our cur- ricula will be the social sciences — sociology, ethics, psychology, economics, history and gov- ernment. The only protection our people can have from the political demagogue or the irre- sponsible social agitator is training in the so- cial sciences. Contemplate the problems which the masses must solve ! Among them are the regulation of PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 19 railroads — our whole transportation system; capital and labor; racial adjustments; national finance; the unearned increment; the temper- ance question; the right of collective bargain- ing, eta It is self-evident that these subjects can not be taught in our elementary schools. Where then can they be taught? The answer is the universalized high school. Our compulsory school-age must be raised from fourteen years to eighteen years, and the state must make it economically possible for its youth to remain in school during that period of early and middle adolescence during which life 's great ideals are formed and life 's greatest choices are made. The American High School has been well called the People 's College. It now enrolls over one and one-half million boys and girls. This is one for every sixty-seven of our population. No other nation has ever had so large a percentage of its population in secondary schools. At the rate of growth for the twenty years preceding the war, we would approach universal high school attendance by 1950 without special legis- lation. Present developments will hasten the coming of the compulsory universal high school. We have one and one-half million young peo- ple in our high schools receiving training for citizenship; but we have six and one-half 20 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION million young people of high school age who are not in any school. Thousands of them are in the industries and thousands are to-day out on strike. They will soon come to the polls to vote and their verdict will register the impres- sion of immaturity in the midst of physical and psychic forces which they will not be pre- pared to interpret. If the universal high school came to-day, we would be compelled to enter upon a high school building enterprise, unprecedented in all his- tory to furnish seating facilities for six and one-half million new pupils. We would need two hundred thousand new high school teachers at once. " This would take the entire output of all our colleges, at the present rate of gradua- tion, for the next twenty years. The moment sociology, psychology and eth- ics become a part of the public school curricu- lum, other profound changes will occur. Physics brought the physical laboratory ; chem- istry brought the chemical laboratory. Just as certainly sociology will demand a sociological laboratory. This laboratory will be the com- munity. Already the Bureau of Education in Washington is fostering a community center program. Its slogan is ''Every community a little democracy and every schoolhouse the cap- itol of the community." This means that in PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 21 the near future the recreation aud play pro- grams of the community will be directed largely by the public schools. It means that the pub- lic schools will take over the activities of such organizations as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Boys' and Girls' Departments of the Christian Associations, and give them local direction and control and make them part and parcel of the pub- lic school system just as inter-collegiate athletics are now, with no independent national associations to project policies in opposition to the ideas of the teachers of sociologj' and ethics in the high schools. It is inevitable that the community will be the laboratory for the so- cialized high school. When this time comes, the church will face a new jjroblem. We have just passed through a period when the church had to deal with the results of the teaching of biol- ogy, evolution and the scientific method. The Sunday-school teacher of the immediate future will be faced by pupils who know modem sci- ence, but who also know sociology and who have a theory of ethics — a way of life — which they are able to defend with skill. If the Sunday- school teacher does not know the principles which underlie the ethics of Jesus, if she is not trained in the science of society, she will be fig- uratively ** argued off her feet" by her pupih:^, 22 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION and the teachings of Jesus will fail to command the interest of our youth. Suppose the social theory taught in the pub- lic schools should be naturalistic and material- istic. It happens that the three most influen- tial leaders in American education during the past twenty years have been champions of nat- uralistic and materialistic philosophies of edu- cation. Their theories are not only influencing public education, but they are being carried over into religious education, where they find expres- sion in the current tendency to secularize the Sunday-school curriculum. One of these leaders stresses instincts and de- mauds that all instincts shall have freedom to develop without inhibition. This doctrine as- sumes the infallibility of nature and asks its devotees slavishly to follow nature. It asks parents, teachers and social institutions to re- frain from imposing upon the ** natural man" any standards which have resulted from racial experience. Here is a doctrine of freedom on the basis of animal instincts. A second theory, now the most influential in American education, is a rare combination of pragmatic philosophy and functional psychol- ogy. Besides its own converts, it has inherited many of the followers of Herbart. When Her- bartian psychology became untenable, the edu- PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 23 oators who had rested their pedagogical pro- gram upon it were forced either to abandon their methods or to find a new theory to sus- tain them. They chose the latter and eagerly accepted pragmatic philosophy and an extreme form of functional psychology. This theory stresses the doctrine of interest instead of in- stincts. It makes much of the sense of a ''felt need'* in the organism. The organism has cer- tain *'satisfiers" and certain "annoyers." The child is to be taught to gratify the *'satisfiers" and inhibit the ''annoyers," on the basis of the ' ' felt need, ' ' which, of course, is the endorsement of immediate interests as a guide to conduct. It has little place for a systematic study of racial experience — formal knowledge. It stresses freedom, interest, activity. It has no place for indoctrination. The child must learn every- thing through his own actual contact with soci- ety and the physical universe. There is little place for racial experience as a basis of control. Children are allowed to do as they please; so also are adults, subject only to their one inune- diate interest. A disciple of this theory recently evaluated a large number of educational agencies and the friends of the Sunday school were surprised to find that institution classed eighth from the top of the list. But the Sunday school has a place 24 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION for the indoctrination of the young with racial experiences. This theory does not. The two theories just discussed emphasize freedom, seK-interest, initiative, which are the individualistic factors in society. To overem- phasize these factors in a democracy would lead to Bolshevism and anarchy of the most extreme type. One of the most insidious influences in our political and religious life to-day is the growth of this doctrine of freedom which has no place for authority outside of individual ca- price. These theories tend to level society down to the natural, brute, instinctive level of living. They have no way to level society up. Put into operation they would annihilate democracy. Just as this doctrine held by Tolstoi finds a fit- ting expression in Eussian Bolshevism to-day, so the same theory of freedom introduced into our school system to-day will by the same lev- eling-down process produce an American Bol- shevism to-morrow. Democracy involves the rule of the common mind. A level of conduct ' ' safe for the world ' ' is established and democracy finds a way to en- force the mil of the common mind upon the in- dividual who does not wish to order his life on the level of the common good. In other words, there must be a place for compulsion in democ- racy. Education is one of the most effective PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 25 agencies used by a democracy in indoctrinat- ing the people ^vith the 'Svill of the majority." The Christian church believes that the uni- versal mind of Christ is the only level of con- duct which will be safe for the world, and it proceeds systematically to indoctrinate the minds of all men with the standards, ideals and personal experiences of Jesus Christ in the in- terest of a permanent brotherhood of man. The universal acceptance of materialistic theories of society by the public schools would be fatal to the church as well as fatal to democ- racy. It is for this reason that the church must take an active interest in the development of the social program of the schools. The course of the public schools has been determined. They are preparing our people to sustain a socialized- industrial-democracy. 4. A National. System of Education. — Be- fore the Civil War we had little national recog- nition of education. The Civil War gave us a bureau of education attached to the Department of the Interior. A little later when we had ac- quired Alaska and the reindeer industry had developed, the task of caring for the reindeer was assigned to the United States Commis- sioner of Education. The man who oversees the raising of hogs in this country has a seat in the President's cabinet, but the man who over- 26 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION sees the education of our boys and girls does not have a seat in the President's cabinet. He has a seat in a crowded section of the pension office and spends half his time gathering and distributing educational statistics and the other half feeding the reindeer in Alaska ! One of the educational results of the World War will be the establishing of a National Department of Education with a Secretary of Education in the President's cabinet. The bill creating this department, known as the Smith-Towner Bill, is being actively sup- ported by our leading educators and the Prot- estant churches are actively committed to its support. It represents the program of the pub- lic schools for the period of reconstruction. At present forty-one millions of dollars are annu- ally paid out of the national treasury for the aid of some form of education. This money is expended by more than thirty-five different de- partments or bureaus. The Smith-Towner Bill continues present provisions and adds one hun- dred million dollars annually to the national grants for the encouraging of education. The funds are distributed through states upon the condition that the legislatures of the respec- tive states shall raise equal amounts for the same purposes. The funds are apportioned as follows : PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 27 Eemoval of adult illiteracy $7,500,000 Americanization 7,500,000 Equalizing educational opportunity. 50,000,000 Health education 20,000,000 Teacher preparation 15,000,000 Total $100,000,000 Amount appropriated through other bureaus 41,000,000 Total $141,000,000 Amount which must be appropriated by states in order to receive national aid $100,000,000 Total amount available for national and state aid of education 241,000,000 Amount raised annually by local taxa- tion for school purposes (esti- mated) 1,000,000,000 Total annual cost of public schools. . $1,241,000,000 Years ago the question of state aid for local school purposes was fought out and it is now the settled policy of our states. The Smith- Towner Bill extends the principle to the nation. It provides that national resources may be so distributed as to guarantee educational priv- ileges to the whole people. In other words, it asks the rich states to help to provide schools for states that are too poor to provide them for themselves. The amazing fact that we now have five and one-half million illiterates in America who are above ten years of age is ex- 28 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION plained largely by the fact that the taxable value of property in mountain and other sec- tions will not provide adequate school facilities. The safety of the nation demands that the richer sections shall be willing to pay for the schools in the poorer sections. This may best be done by some national method of raising and administering funds which are used for the equalizing of educational opportunities. All of the property of the whole people should be taxed to provide an educational opportunity for all the children of all of the people. No child should be damned to illiteracy because he chanced to be bom in one of the waste places of the nation. The Smith-Towner Bill takes the missionary spirit into secular education. Home Mission Boards of the Protestant churches are spending large sums of money operating day schools in neglected places. The state should relieve them of this burden. The support of this bill by the church is but an expression of the conviction of the Protestant church that Christian citizens should aid the state in guar- anteeing educational privileges to all the chil- dren of the nation regardless of whether they were horn in centers of w&alth or in some of the waste and neglected places of the country. Because of the absolute necessity of correct- ing the outstanding defects in our present school PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 29 system, it is only a question of a short time be- fore we shall have an effective national system of education. Local initiative and control will be safeguarded and the nation will encourage and unify the whole educational program. We have set out to build the most effective system of education which the world has ever seen. These schools mil give us a people physically and mentally capable of sustaining a socialized- industrial-dem ocra cy. 5. The Place of Eeligion in the Educa- tional Pkogram of a Democracy. — But the democratic state has not yet established the ma- chinery which will conserve and perpetuate the moral and spiritual achievements of the race and guarantee that the citizenship of the future will he dominated by the highest moral and spir- itual ideals. Democracy must learn how to make intelligence and righteousness co-exten- sive. A new piece of machinery must be cre- ated and made a vital, integral part of the life of every community. This new piece of ma- chinery must spiritualize our citizenship just as the public school makes it wise and efficient. A skilled hand and an informed mind must be united with a good heart to produce a citizen safe for the democracy of the future. The na- tion that can build this new machinery will write 30 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION a new page in the history of democratic gov- ernment. The task of religious education is to motivate conduct in terms of a religious ideal of life. The facts and experiences of life must be in- terfused with religious meaning. In a democ- racy the conmion facts, attitudes and ideals given as a basis of common action must be sur- charged with religious interpretation. Spir- itual significance and God-consciousness must attach to the entire content of the secular cur- riculum. Unless the curriculum of the church school can pick up the curriculum of the public school and shoot it full of religious meaning, the church cannot guarantee that the conduct of the citizens of the future will be religiously motivated. The church cannot ask the state to teach re- ligion, but the church can ask for an adequate amount of the children's time on Sundays and during weekdays to insure the religious train- ing of all the people under church auspices. The price we must pay for our reUgious liberty is whatever price it may take to build and main- tain an efficient system of religious schools, com- plementing the public schools. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the present emergency in our religious life demands the sympathetic cooperation of all denomina- PRESENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 31 tional and inter-denominational agencies. The national public school system must be supple- mented by a unified system of religious educa- 1 which wiU guarantee the spiritual homo- geneity of our democracy. Unless such a sys- tem of religious education can be created, there is great danger that our system of secular schools will become naturalistic and material- istic in theory and practice and that the direc- tion of social development will be determined by a secular state rather than by the spiritual forces represented by the church. Each rebgious denomination has, as its great- est present responsibility, the development of an efficient system of church schools and the correlation of these schools, with those of other denonainations, into a unified system of re- ligious education for the American people. CHAPTEE II THE EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OP PUBLIC SCHOOLS In order to work intelligently at the prob- lems of American education, one must know the historic background of our present school sys- tem. Without attempting a detailed analysis of the historic sources, I wish to present in dia- grammatic form the school systems from which our present schools have evolved. 1. The European Background. — ^Diagram I shows the German school system. On the left is shown the Volksschule, a system of rudi- mentary, vernacular, oral, free, eight-grade schools, attended by ninety-two percent of the people. In these schools the people were taught to be the willing burden bearers, the obedient servants of the ruling class. Here they were consciously rendered unfit to participate in the formation of state policies. In return for non-reasoned obedience, they received the protection of a paternalistic state. In these schools religion was used as an instrument in EVOLUTION OF A xXATIONAL SYSTEM 33 the hands of the ruling class to keep the people obedient. The teachers in these schools are its own graduates who have had but two years of advance training. From the Volksschule students may go forward into the Lehrersemi- nar to prepare to return to the Volksschule as teachers. Students in the Lehrerseminar are not permitted to enter the university except in Saxony, and here they are merely permitted to attend classes without academic credit for their work. From the Volksschule students may go into the army as privates, but they have no hope of ever becoming officers. From the Volks- schule students may also enter the trade schools to be trained as skilled laborers in the indus- tries of the Empire. In the Volksschule we have an invention of the autocratic state de- signed to keep the masses in willing obedience to the state. The ultimate sin of Prussia is best seen here. It consists in denying to the people the right to grow through an intelligent partici- pation in the formation of the laivs they are to obey. An American educator visited three hundred recitations in German schools before he heard a single question from a pupil. They were encouraged to sit with open mouths and ears, listen to instruction and give back to the teacher the exact language they had heard. There is no place for the development of initia- 34 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION tive, invention, originality — the essential fac- tors in the citizens of a democracy. The right hand side of Diagram I shows the Gymnasium, a twelve-year tuition school for the aristocracy. This school enrolls eight percent of the population. Those who enter it know from the beginning that they are to be the rul- ers of the ninety-two percent who are in the Volksschule. The air of arrogant command is instilled in its pupils from the first day. In the Gymnasium the course of study is very rich. Higher mathematics and science are taught from the sixth year on. German, Roman and Greek history are included in the curriculum, as are also the Latin, the French and the Eng- lish languages. Graduates of the Gymnasium can enter the university and go on to the professional schools ; they can enter the army as officers, or they can enter the schools of technology. An examination of the German school system shows a dual system; one type of schools pre- paring the masses for non-resistance and servi- tude; the other type of schools preparing the rulers for lives of luxury and autocratic domin- ion over their subjects. It is evident that un- less this system is fundamentally changed, Germany cannot operate a democratic form of government. DIAGRAM No. 1 M ll 8 t/t £ .^S ^ <>i .0) o > w o o 5 E 1 C U a> 1- ^ sn «j o c o SI >, E E CO «) ^ >- T3 CD £ 0) 1— ^ GYMNASIUM VOLKSSCHULE Rich curriculum Free, Tuition Oral, For the Rudimentary aristocracy 8 Years 12 Years FOR THE MASSES FOR THE RULING CLASS i \ DUAL SCHOOL SYST EM.— GERMANY Diagram I 35 EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM 37 Diagram II shows the English educational system. On the left is shown the Free Schools. These schools cover twelve years of work. They are vernacular, rudimentary schools. No Latin and no higher mathematics have been allowed in these schools. They are comparable to the Volksschule in Germany. They are designed primarily for the children of the poor. The Free Schools grew out of the early mission schools. In 1780 Robert Raikes founded Sun- day schools for the poor children of Gloucester, who were employed in the pin factories during the week. These early Sunday schools were not designed to teach religion. They were in- tended to teach exactly the same things which were taught to the children of well-to-do par- ents on week-days. The Sunday schools de- veloped into week-day mission schools for the poor and finally into the Free Schools. They were originally supported by philanthropy, but in recent years many municipalities have taken over the support of the Free Schools. On the right hand side of Diagram II there is shown the Secondary or Tuition schools of England. These are the schools of the chil- dren of the well-to-do. The course is twelve years in duration. The curriculum is rich in languages, science, history and mathematics. These schools are comparable to the Gymnasium 38 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION of Germany. From these schools students can go to the university and on to the professional and technical schools. Originally there was no way to cross over from the Free schools to the Secondary schools. Later, wealthy men en- dowed scholarships, known as Bursaries, to meet the tuition of bright students who gave promise of conspicuous careers. These '' Bur- saries" were never popular with the teachers of the Secondary schools, who found difficulty in caring for pupils who came to their courses with irregular preparation. Matthew Arnold called these scholarships the Educational Ladder. The English Labor Party in presenting its de- mands for a revision of the English school sys- tem demanded that Matthew Arnold's educa- tional ladder should be replaced with an educa- tional stairway. A suggestion as to the educational changes that are to take place in England is found in the provision of the English Education Bill. The purpose of the Bill is to develop a strong nation with broader human sympathies "by offering to every child the opportunity to enjoy that form of education most adapted to fashion its qualities to the higher use." The humanities are defined as the studies that will acquaint the students ''with the capacities and ideals of man- kind as expressed in literature and art, with its DIAGRAM No. H: Professional Schools Technical Schools UNIVERSITY FREE SCHOOLS ..'^".'' SECONDARY SCHOOLS Rudimentary Tuition For children of the Rich curriculum poor For children Grew out of of the mission schools well-to-do 12 Years 12 Years FOR THE POOR FOR THE RICH / { DUAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.— ENGLAND Diagram II EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM 41 achievements and ambitions as recorded in his- tory, and with the nature and laws of the world as interpreted by science, philosophy and re- ligion." 2. The Evolution of Schools in the United States. — Diagram III depicts the units which have entered into the school sys- tem of the United States. The first schools es- tablished by the colonists were the reading schools which were held for a few months eacli year. The Protestant Reformation had sup- planted the Holy Church with a Holy Booh. This Holy Book contained the words of eternal life. Through it God spoke to each human be- ing. It was, therefore, incumbent upon all Protestant communities to teach all people to read as a necessary prerequisite to salvation and as a means of future communion with God. These early reading schools were under local control. It should be noted that they were reading schools as distinguished from the oral schools of Germany. They gave their pupils the key to the literature of the world. In these early days industrial education was provided for in the home. The next schools established in America were our colleges. Harvard and Yale led the way in the field of higher learning. They were es- tablished primarily to train men for the Chris- 42 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION tian ministry and for the other learned pro- fessions. At first boys were prepared for col- lege by the local ministers. Later the Latin or Grammar schools were imported from Eu- rope for this purpose. After the Revolutionary War, as the wealth of the people increased, they desired to give their children more education than was pro- vided in the reading schools. Only a few cared to enter the professions by way of the Latin schools. There were no secondary or interme- diate schools for the rank and file of the peo- ple. Out of this need came the American acad- emy, an indigenous American institution. The academy was hailed as the people's college. Everything was taught for which there was a popular demand. After years of competition the academy and the Latin schools were fused during the two decades following 1850. This fusion formed the modern high school with its core of cultural subjects from the Latin school and its rich elective system from the academy. The next stage in the evolution of our public school system was the period of borrowing from Europe. Horace Mann visited Prussia seeking suggestions for the improving of our elementary schools. He was so impressed with the Volksschule that he brought it home with him, and it became the eight-grade common DIAGRAM No. Ill Ui 8 W) University o o sz fl) o o to c (T) o t- C o O. nj College o > \ (junior College) High School (Junior High School) Common School Eight Years E<^ 1846 Lehrer- Seminar Kindergarten The Development of a Unified System of Public Schools in the 'United States Diagram III 43 EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM 45 school system of the United States. During the years that have intervened it has been a rudi- mentary, vernacular school. It seems unbeliev- able that the system of schools that was de- signed to unfit men for democratic citizenship should have been made the cornerstone of the school system of a democratic people ! With the Volksschule came the Lehrers&niinar, which became the American normal school. The most recent borrowing from Europe is the attempt of the American business interests to import the Prussian trade schools. A decade ago in- dustry in this country demanded skilled ar- tisans who could compete with German work- men. An American educator was sent to Prus- sia to study its trade school system. He re- turned with a carefully worked-out plan for the establishing of trade schools on the Prussian plan in this country. The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education was the agency of propaganda, and the Smith-Hughes Bill for the encouraging of industrial educa- tion is the result. This bill, now a law, gives us for the first time in our country the begin- ning of a dual system of schools. The univer- sal adoption of the spirit of its provisions would develop class consciousness and create one body of citizens trained for the industries, and another body trained to be their rulers. It 46 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION is to the credit of the American people that they are accepting the provisions of this bill only in so far as they can be coordinated with our regular high school programs. An account of the borrowed elements in our school system must include the Kindergarten, the Volks- schule, the Leherseminar, the trade school, the Latin school and the college. The indigenous elements are the reading schools and the acad- emy. Diagram III shows the units as they are assembled for final welding into a unified system of schools. These are in order the Kin- dergarten, the common schools, the high school, the college, the graduate, vocational, profes- sional and technical schools. 3. The Welding Process. — The first weld- ing will unite the Kindergarten and the first grade. The discussion is now at white heat in kindergarten circles and a reconstructed kin- dergarten program is sure to result. The sec- ond joint to be united is between the common school and the high school. This gap will be filled with the Junior High School, which will include the seventh and eighth grades of the common schools and the first year of the high school. The next gap to be filled is between the high school and the college. This gap will be spanned by the junior college organization. There will then remain the problem of relat- DIAGRAM No IV National Department of Education Graduate Teachers' College u s q: <0_ y o >- .18 P 1 a .0 c <0 c "cS £ ?^ 1^ TO c g CO u State Departments of Education College Departments of Education Normal Schools Senior College Junior College County and City Departments of Education Normal Training Courses Senior High Schools County and City Institutes and Reading Courses Junior High Schools Village and Ward Supervision Elementary School CORREUTION OF SCHOOLS. COLLEGES AND AGENCIES OF SUPERVISION Diagram IV 47 EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM 49 ing the senior college to the research depart- ments and to the vocational and professional schools. Specialists are struggling with these many complex problems, with the clearly de- fined purpose of unifying our educational sys- tem from the kindergarten to the professional and technical schools. 4. Teacheb Training Schools. — By the side of the system of schools for the masses there must be developed a system of teacher train- ing schools from the graduate school to the teachers' institute in the local community, and these two systems of schools must involve a system of supervision which will include a na- tional secretary of education and state, county, city and village superintendents. Diagram IV shows the correlation of these systems. 5. The Evolution of the Cueeiculum. — The curriculum of the schools of the United States has felt the influence of many schools of psychology, philosophy and social theory. Ed- ucational science is developing means of analy- sis and exact measurement, and democracy will profit greatly from the research which is now under full headway in this field. On one thing there is no ground for difference. The curricur- lum of the schools of a democratic people must contain the common elements which mil guar- antee the social solidarity of the nation. 50 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION It is recognized by all that the great weak- ness of democracy is individualism. The Cen- tral Powers insisted that a democracy cannot protect the individuals in its membership be- cause there is no way to secure mass action in times of attack from without. These Powers, therefore, asked the individuals to surrender their individuality to an overruling, military class which could secure mass action by exter- nal pressure — ^by the iron hand of compulsion. We represent another theory of government and we must find another way to secure social solidarity — to overcome the defects of individu- alism without destroying the rights of indi- viduals. We accomplish this end through the public school system. Here we inoculate our people with common facts, common mental at- titudes, common ideals. For a hundred years our public schools have been teaching patri- otism, freedom, democracy, justice, — until our people possess a common background as the basis of collective action. When an example of national injustice is held up before the Amer- ican people, they react together, as surely as iron filings fly to a magnet. We get social soli- darity through internal impulsion, not through external compulsion. The basis of this social solidarity is the likemindedness guaranteed by the public schools. It is for this reason that the EVOLUTION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM 51 state can compel attendance upon the public schools. Any influence which withdraws chil- dren from the public schools is undemocratic, and tends toward the disruption of the demo- cratic state. It follows, therefore, that no sub- ject should have a place in the public schools which would give any man a just excuse for withdrawing his children from the schools. 6. The Secularization of the Public Schools. — Following the Revolutionary War, the influx of immigrants from both northern and southern Europe raised the problem of re- ligious instruction in the public schools. As long as there was but one religious faith in the colony, there was no objection to religious in- struction in the schools. When there were many religious faiths in the colony, a new method must be found to teach religion. The reasoning was simple: if the common schools are to be the melting pot into which all the chil- dren of all the people are to be thrown for the purpose of fusing them into one homogeneous nation, it is clear that no subject should be in- troduced into the schools that would give any parent a just excuse to withdraw his children from the schools. Consequently, in the inter- ests of the social solidarity of our people re- ligion went out of our public schools, and the 52 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION churches and homes were charged with the im- portant duty. Face to face with the duty of teaching re- ligion, the American church imported the Sun- day school from England, transformed it from a secular school meeting on Sunday into a school designed primarily for the teaching of religion and developed it into a unique and in- fluential system of religious schools. The ver- dict of the American people has been rendered. Eeligion will not be taught in our public schools. If religion is taught to the American people, it will be done in our homes and in our churches and church schools. In this period of educational reconstruction, when the nation is projecting a statesmanlike program of secular education, it behooves the church to take account of its educational stock and to project a statesmanlike program of re- ligious education which will guarantee the spir- itual homogeneity of our people and enable them to take real leadership in that federation of nations which is to constitute the new world order. CHAPTER III PROBLEMS IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION By the very logic of necessity we are soon to have national recognition of education with some form of national supervision and control. A vast national subsidy, such as that provided by the Smith-Towner Bill, placed in the hands of a group of educators who use it to stimulate conformity to certain educational standards and ideals, will be a powerful factor in unifying local educational programs and in developing a real national program for education. Through common elements in the curriculum and common school disciplines, there will be produced a like-minded, homogeneous citizen- ship. With this national system of education the schoolmaster will more truly than ever be- fore determine the destiny of the nation. But suppose the public schools should be- come completely secularized, and suppose the teachers should become dominantly materialis- tic in their view of life. Let sociology and eth- 53 54 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION ics become the core of the socialized curriculum of the secular schools and give these subjects a naturalistic and materialistic interpretation, removing all religious presuppositions from moral and social theory. What then would be the effect of a unified, national system of edu- cation? The answer to this question is a na- tional system of religious education, comple- menting the national system of public schools. In a later lecture this subject will be discussed at length. But suppose the national Secretary of Edu- cation and a small group of his appointees should arrogate to themselves the sole right to determine educational policies for the nation. The danger of bureaucratic dictation is always present when centralization of authority is at- tempted. This was the vital defect in the Prus- sian system of education. With bureaucracy came its twin sister, — state or national pater- nalism. It matters not how democratically an officer may be elected, if his office is non-demo- cratically administered, he is essentially auto- cratic. In Prussia the central bureau controlled the entire educational program. The people had no rights of initiative and teachers and su- pervisors were denied a voice in determining curriculum, program and method. There was no organized method of capitalizing the experi- PROBLEMS IN ADMINISTRATION 55 ence of the teachers for the benefit of the na- tion. The reward of non-reasoned service was the pension system of the paternalistic state. The penalty was the machine-like routine of a metallic, inelastic school system; the inhibition of initiative, originality and invention on the part of teachers and supervisors. A standard- ized, machine-made program was handed down from the national bureau with detailed instruc- tions for its application. To question these di- rections or to suggest modification of the pro- gram brought administrative disfavor and charges of disloyalty to the government. To adopt this method in the United States would Prussianize our public school system. We must find some way to secure the benefits of centralized authority without destroying local or state initiative and control, and without de- stroying professional freedom and interest on the part of the teaching profession. 1. A National Education Association Is a Necessary Corollary of a National System of Education. — The Smith-Towner Bill guaran- tees local initiative and control and makes im- possible bureaucratic dictation from Washing- ton. The safeguarding of professional interest, however, cannot be secured by legislation. A national educational association is a necessary corollary to a national system of education. 56 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Progressive educational administration de- mands a vitalized professional interest on the part of all teachers and officers who are a part of the system. Teachers and officers must be sentiment makers. The interests they repre- sent are not secure unless they have an effective agency of creating public opinion. The most democratically created machinery will soon grow bureaucratic and static unless the rank and file of the workers in the system are fur- nished an opportunity to grow through a par- ticipation in the formation of the laws they are to obey and execute. The academic freedom, which is the one necessary factor in profes- sional interest, demands the free association of teachers and officers for the consideration of questions pertaining to their common tasks. By the side of every administrative agency in education there should he a voluntary profes- sional association which guarantees the re- sponse of the admimistrative agency to the will of the people. The chief weakness of the National Educa- tion Association at the present time lies in the fact that it does not have active units in every county and city in the United States. If this association had 500,000 members in affiliated as- sociations in every part of the United States, its influence for good would be immeasurably PROBLEMS IN ADMINISTRATION 57 increased. That the leaders of this association recognize the important contribution which it should make to a national system of education is seen in the present movement to increase its membership and set it definitely at work on the outstanding educational problems of the pres- ent national crisis. It has recently taken a very decided stand upon a number of important questions. These acts have had a profound in- fluence upon educational thought every^vhere. The need of the hour is a clearer recognition of the vital importance of this association and the enlarging of its membership until the entire teaching profession comes within its influence. 2. Problems of Administration and Con- trol. — The nationalizing of our educational sys- tem makes it necessary for us to examine with great care the principles of educational admin- istration which are to be encouraged in our local and state units of organization. Public school leaders are agreed that experience in this field has established a few principles of or- ganization which may well be used as guiding principles in the building of an efficient school system. Among these principles are the fol- lowing : (a) The unit of local administration must be conscious of its relationship to the entire edux;a- tional system. 58 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION The size of the unit of educational adminis- tration is a matter of great importance. The unit may be too small to provide adequate finan- cial backing and competent educational leader- ship. It may be too large to be practicable as a unit of supervision. Forty-one of the United States have chosen the county as the unit of civil government. I am of the opinion that, or- dinarily, the county is the logical unit for the administration of religious education. The ter- ritory covered should, of course, represent a homogeneous, socially united population, if pos- sible. Cities should be responsible for the fringe of rural territory around them. It is fatal to the suburbs to organize an independent city organ- ization and leave the remainder of the county without leadership. A different type of super- vision is, of course, necessary for rural and city schools. A leading authority on educational adminis- tration says, ''It is not safe to make use of any given unit of government unless, for the pur- pose in hand, the people feel themselves as in control of that unit." (Payson Smith, in ''School and Society," 7:171, pp. 392, April 6, 1918.) For standardization and stimulation the smaller units need the direction of larger state and national or international units. The PROBLEMS IN ADMINISTRATION 59 power handed down must be regarded as the will of the people themselves, or supervision will be ineffective. There must be a close spir- itual bond between the smaller and the larger units. In arguing for the principle that the ad- ministration of education should be locally di- rected in accordance with formulated principles of our national ideals, Professor Thomas H. Briggs, of Teachers College, says: *'The ex- treme diversity of conditions and consequent needs in our broad land, and indeed, the genius of our national spirit, are opposed to any cen- trally determined strict uniformity. Experi- ence of different states has shown the unwis- dom on the one hand of unrestricted subsidies, and on the other hand, largely because it de- nies growth through democratic participation, of central decision concerning the details of local administration. " {" School and Society, ' ' 7: 168, pp. 303, March 16, 1918.) It is now regarded as the most satisfactory policy to place in the hands of the national or state supervising body the fixing of standards, courses of study, qualifications of teachers and similar general standards, and leave for local administration the details of selecting teachers, adopting text-books, providing support, etc. For a state or national board to fix details, adopt text-books, etc., would deny the local 60 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION teachers the opportunity of "growth through participation" and invite open rebellion on the part of local leadership. The discussion of this principle may be sum- marized as follows : (1) Control from above should he general, not specific. (2) No power can he handed down in the form of effective supervision until it has heen- consciously/ handed up hy people who see the need of overhead direction of supervision. (b) Any hoard of education created to pro- tect vested interests of any kind will he ineffec- tive and, in the end, detrimental to the welfare of the childhood of the community. Effective educational administration requires unity of purpose. Board members must be free to promote a common objective without prejudice, and without influence from a spe- cially interested constituency. The most effec- tive board is secured when each member rep- resents the whole school and the whole com- munity. Boards of public education should not be com- posed of members selected by the various po- litical parties, publishing and supply houses to represent their interests. To prevent partisan politics and commercial rivalry from influenc- ing the schools we should have a non-partisan PROBLEMS IN ADMINISTRATION 61 board of education, and persons sharing in the profits from school books or supplies should be by law denied membership on such boards. The inside story of school book adoptions in many sections of the country, and the facts about the election of city superintendents, high school principals and other administrative of- ficers in many counties and cities is a record of corruption which has few parallels in the cat- alogue of bribery, fraud, blackmail and other forms of debasement. Boards of supervisors selected to build bridges and repair roads were charged with the added duty of selecting text- books for the schools of the county. Such boards were in many cases the easy victims of contractors and business agents of interested parties. Legislation designed to protect the children from being exploited by such methods has only just begun. The lobbyist is still in the haUs of legislature, seeking to prevent the pas- sage of bills that make it more difificult for vested interests to control the school system in the interests of manufacturers', builders' or publishers' dividends. Publicity of the actual facts and the demand for professional freedom are the correctives. They should be applied with vigor. (c) The organization of education in a com- munity should guarantee the academic freedom 62 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION of the schools and promote the professional standards of teachers and officers. All political and commercial control must be removed from the community programs in the interests of academic freedom. The teachers must be free to carry forward through a series of years an uninterrupted program of educa- tion. The school must be judged by its prod- uct and teachers must be protected from po- litical and commercial exploitation. Trained educational supervisors alone should be permit- ted to direct the educational program. In the selection of text-books it should be conceded without debate that the teachers should have a voice in the section of the books they are to use ; that educational experts should guide teachers in the selection; that boards should adopt no books not approved by trained educators ; that book publishers and lesson writ- ers should be excluded from all boards charged with the duty of selecting text-books, and that merit and not the pubhsher's imprint should be the basis of selection. (d) The organization which is responsible for the educational program of a community should also he responsible for the financial sup- port of the educational system. In many New England cities the municipal- ity levies the school tax and the school board ex- DIAGRAM N9]r People of the City electing 1 Board of Supervisors (City Council) MAYOR wf)o appoints Board of Public Works Superintendent of Schools Board of Education (4 full-time employees) wli6 Other City Boards controlling AN ESPECUUXY BAD FORM OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION This form of educational organization has existed in the city of San Francisco since 1900 From Cubherley, PubUo School AdministraUon. Permuaion of Houghton Mifflin Co. Diagram V 63 PROBLEMS IN ADMINISTRATION 65 pends the money. School funds are made the basis of political contests, and school appropria- tions are reduced to satisfy tax-payers, leaving the board of education without the ability to give the conununity the kind of a school system its children should have. After a hard struggle, Boston has broken away from this system, and the board of education has been given the power to levy school taxes within limits fixed by law. Under this arrangement the school board knows what it can do through a series of years. It is answerable to the people for the educational program and for the annual school budget, as well. (e) The school system of a commimity should rest upon the people directly. It should not be administered by a sub-com- mittee of the chamber of commerce or by com- mittees appointed by mayors or other executive oflScers or boards. Chicago, San Francisco, Buffalo and other cities might be cited as cities whose school systems have suffered untold in- jury because of an unfortunate organization which made maladministration inevitable and which made scientific educational work in the schools impossible. Diagram V shows the organization of the school system in San Fran- cisco. It represents an undesirable form of or- ganization for a public school system. 66 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION (f ) The most efficient administration is se- cured through a small hoard which acts as a committee of the whole on all matters rather than through large hoards wording through sub-committees. (g) The hoard of education should exercise legislative powers only. It should approve policies and programs initiated by educational experts who are em- ployed to study the local field and make recom- mendations. Executive functions should be left exclusively to the employed specialists, who should be selected with special reference to their ability to perform specific types of work. Diagram VI is an example of a city system of schools organized in harmony with the foregoing principles. The successful operation of a national system of education demands (1) the preservation of local initiative and control by means of legis- lation; (2) the development of a nation-wide professional interest by means of a national ed- ucation association and (3) the rigid applica- tion to all educational organizations and boards of certain fundamental principles of organiza- tion and administration which experience has shown to be essential to the most efficient school work. 67 CHAPTER IV A NATIONAL. SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION There are three possible methods of teach- ing religion to the American people : First, hy introducing religion into the curriculum of the public schools. Various attempts have been made to solve the problem by this method, but all have been found inadequate. It is a settled conviction of the American people that religion cannot be taught in the public schools without doing violence to the principle of the complete separation of church and state. Second, hy withdrawing our children from the public schools and placing them in parochial schools maintained hy the various denomina- tions. If all religious boards should adopt the parochial school method, the public schools would be destroyed and there would be no place in which our people could receive the common ideas, skills, attitudes and ideals necessary for the social solidarity of our democracy. The universal adoption of the parochial school sys- tem would, in the end, disrupt our democracy. 69 70 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Third, hy erecting a system of church schools, extending from our Christian homes to ow graduate schools of religion. These schools would complement and supplement the public schools and in no way become a competing school system. The first plan is inadequate and imprac- ticable; the second plan is unpatriotic and un- democratic; the third plan provides the only de- fensible method for the religious education of the American people. We must either adopt it or permit our citizens to go without adequate religious instruction and training. If religion is to be taught, under church aus- pices, in our homes, our churches and our com- munities, and if all ages from infancy to matu- rity are to receive such training and instruction, we must find some way to organize, systematize and administer such instruction and training. When we have done this, we wiU have a system of religious schools paralleling the public schools. The creation of such a system of schools is the greatest immediate task before the Protestant churches of this country. In this chapter we are to consider the forms of organization which would be appropriate for such a system of religious schools. In general, it may be said the principles of educational or- ganization and administration which have been t Q QC O CQ D CO o < u D O z o X CO z o u H tu z o > c z p c^ u 0) u u c < 2^ i 6 O n 3 o £ S R o 552 « ^ ^ a. fe*^ o OS s fe5 oe ax Z •* t 2 CD c/j 33 38 71 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 73 found necessary in secular education will be found most satisfactory in religious education. The one new factor which appears in this field is the presence of many religious denomina- tions, each justly claiming the right to direct the religious training of its own constituents. In creating a national system of religious educa- tion we must find a way to preserve denomina- tional initiative and control, as well as local initiative and control. This will make neces- sary interdenominational organization for the control of common enterprises, and denomina- tional organizations for the direction of the spe- cial interests of the various religious bodies. 1. Denominational. Educational Maohin- EEY. — A critical study of denominational educa- tional machinery will reveal the fact that there has been very little educational statesmanship on the part of denominational leaders. Spas- modic educational enterprises, springing up to meet certain apparent needs, have crystallized into static organizations which are not easily co- ordinated with the rest of the educational ma- chinery of the church. Modification and read- justment will of necessity be gradual. The transition may not be painless or noiseless. It should be accomplished in the presence of a statesmanlike program which will justify and determine every change. 74 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Diagram VII illustrates one of the most common forms of denominational organization. Organizations of this type sprang np from the denominational publishing interests. The Board of Publications created a Sunday school department. The educational secretary and his staff are employees of the publishing soci- ety. They are sent out into the churches to carry the educational ideals represented by the publications of the denominations. The con- trol in such cases rests in the hands of the de- nominational publishing agent. The colleges and other institutions of higher learning are or- ganized under an independent Church Board. Sometimes the publishing society organizes a separate Young People's Department, coordi- nated with the Sunday School Board. Some- times this department is created by the National Conference or Convention of the denomina- tion. Diagram VTII shows a similar form of organization in which the Sunday School Board is created by the Home Missionary Board. Both of these plans (1) project a di- vided educational program into the local church, (2) recognize a breach between elemen- tary and higher education, which is unfortu- nate, (3) place the direction of education in the hands of a Board which is not primarily re- sponsible for educational work, (4) subject the CO >- CO CO 00 o I— < o CO o .^ oe C9 2 -- 25:* M }!> M a H o s O) ca as a u> O X 5 UJ !?3 3 o ft 76 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 77 interests of the elementary schools to the po- litical and commercial combinations which grow out of the complicated interrelationships of overhead boards which have no primal respon- sibility for education. These two diagrams, VII and Vin, are comparable io Diagram V, which shows the unfortunate organization of the school system of San Francisco. With such forms of organization there are, under the best management, conditions that make aggressive and constructive educational work extremely difficult. Under poor manage- ment, disaster is inevitable. When the newer problems of week-day and vacation schools are added to the Sunday schools, these forms of or- ganizations will give increased evidence of their inefficiency. The conditions of fail- ure are in the form of organization. Change of - secretaries and managers does not cure the disease. Diagram IX shows the com- plicated forms of organization which some- times result from the use of the plans shown in Diagrams VII and VIII. These plans are the rule, rather than the exception. This fact indicates the tasks of reorganization which face the churches if they are to carry well their part of a national program of religious educa- tion. Under the forms of organization represented 78 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION by Diagrams VII, VIII and IX, it will be im- possible for the clmrch to develop a great edu- cational program. Men and women with edu- cational vision, technical skill and professional ideals will not be attracted to a system in which their talents and ideals are subordinated to com- mercial and missionary interests. Unless the church can assure its educators academic free- dom and a professional opportunity on a par with that offered in secular education, medi- cine, theology, law or the other learned profes- sions, it will be doomed to a mediocre educa- tional leadership. Men and women of out- standing ability will not waste their days try- ing to institute an educational program, as the under secretaries of other men who are not pro- fessionally competent to supervise them and whose major interest is not education. If the church is to develop great religious educators, it must furnish the conditions which will at- tract the strongest men and women of the coun- try to this field of service. Diagram X shows an organization of the newer type. There is evidence that several of the denominations are consciously attempting to adopt this form of organization. In this form the Board of Education is one of the va- rious coordinate boards of the church, deriving its authority direct from the General Confer- A SYSTEM OP RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 81 ence, Synod or Convention. It is co-equal with the other general boards of the church. Its au- thority and its resources are from the highest national body, and its responsibility is to that body and to no one else. This Board of Edu- cation is responsible for all the educational work of the denomination. It coordinates the Young People's work; it administers elemen- tary schools and schools of higher learning; it sends down to the local church a unified edu- cational program. In the local church there is a Committee on Education which is the local school board. This local board selects the di- rector of education, who in turn nominates the teachers and officers and recommends a pro- gram for the local church. This program is administered by principals of departments, as- sisted by supervisors and special secretaries. The principals reach the children through class teachers and leaders of coordinated clubs and societies. This diagram shows, roughly, how the educational program of the denomination would reach the children in the local church. This plan compares favorably with the plan shown in Diagram VI. 2. Provision for Professional Growth. — ^In this closely knit organization there is the possi- bility of bureaucratic control or secretarial dic- tation. Just the moment that administrative 82 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION disapproval attaches to local initiative, inven- tion and originality ; just the moment that there ceases to be a place for professional growth through participation in the building of stand- ards and programs — at that moment the sys- tem has been Prussianized. There must, therefore, be in every denominational educa- tional organization an open forum for free dis- cussion, and a regularly recognized avenue by which the voice of the teachers and officers can be conveyed to the overhead officials without recourse to rebellion, insubordination or any other drastic method of procedure. In the local church there will be the council of teach- ers, officers and parents. This is the local unit in the denominational religious education as- sociation. Provision must be made for this prophetic element to permeate the entire de- nominational organization. 3. Intekdenominational Cooperation in Eeligioxjs Education. — It is self-evident that there are types of work which can best be done by the cooperative effort of all denominations. After ten years' experimentation with various forms of interdenominational organization, I wish to report a successful demonstration of community cooperation in religious education. This experiment is now widely known as the ''Maiden Plan." Maiden is a suburb of Bos- A STANDARD ORGANIZATION FOR REUGIOUS EDUCATION IN A REUaOUS DENOMINATION GENERAL CONVENTION, Conference, Synod, Etc. OEMSTMEMT Of MO SEOIHSMV EDUCATICK LOCAL CHURCH TDUfMtll — S(CDtT«J 7^ O ■ 11 II zf (f) cc o o o o z: < LU 2- o ID O cc UJ ^ ^ O ID o /« -^ LJ o Q U- H- CO •ZL UJ o Z =) E o UJ CO Q ^ S2 Q < o or < o ^ ^ O CO —i LU cr. ^"--^. -{=] \ I- V X 2^ o s ^ 101 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 103 nominational organizations. In the same com- munity there are churches (a and b) of differ- ent denominations. Each church is attached to its own National Conference, Convention, Synod, etc., through state or district and na- tional educational hoards. Members of churches (a) and (b), finding that they have certain common problems and common needs which can best be solved or met by federating their resources, unite in a local community council of religious education (c, also Diagram XI). When it becomes evident that the inter- ests of neighboring communities can be best served by creating an overhead state and na- tional association for purposes of standardiza- tion and unification, the local council will send delegates to a state council (d). In recognition of the interests which the various denomina- tional boards have in the local community, they may properly be allowed to have representa- tion on the controlling committee of the state council. In like manner, the state organizations would send delegates to form a national inter- denominational board (e) to which there may be added members to represent the various de- nominational boards. (The proposed reorgani- zation of the International Sunday School Association provides for equal denominational 104 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION and territorial representation on state and na^ tional executive committees.); The arrows running upward indicate tliat tlie delegates will carry from the lower to the higher bodies the fresh experiences of the workers who are doing the practical work in local churches and communities. The arrow mnning downward indicates that there will be administered from above only those general regulations which have been consciously handed up by the lower bodies. ( See Principle a, Chap- ter III.) In the same community in which churches (a) and (b) are located, there is located, be- sides a Community Council of Religious Edu- cation, a professional religious education association composed of all members of the community who are actively engaged in the work of religious education as voluntary or professional workers. [See (1), Chapter HI and (b). Chapter IV.] This local, professional association will affiliate itself with other local organizations of like nature through a state religious education association. The various state units will unite to form a national re- ligious education association. This national religious education association, with its various state and local units, will permeate every sec- tion of the nation and include in its member- n 2 S < a CO < O k. ■»-• c o o IS c o c £ o c 0) tp -t-» _c "D c .9 CO r.E 1 Q> o o c CO c o o <1> x: > Z D O I o National Department of Education 8 s w 3 0. 15 m National Education Association i| '15.2 0> T3 * Religious Education Association National Religious Education Association '"' * I o cr =) X ^ O £, _i '~' 5 o 6 UJ «5.2 £ c o| o National Denominational Educational Board W TO ffi I 1" > '5 c: 2 « o o o National Inter- denominational Educational Board or Council , •S" ^ * ^ ' , o .a o 3 O I c tS -a i 2 c Q> O £1 c o o I o o: rj X ^ o «^ _l 5 o 55S IS E "o z 2-S D o m y. 105 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 107 ship millions of members. Through this ma- chinery there will be found the correctives which will prevent denominational or interde- nominational machinery from growing static and bureaucratic. In this same community there is the public school with its state and national administra- tive contacts, and by the side of this public school system, there is the voluntary teachers' association and the voluntary parent-teachers' association with state and national connections. 2. The Coordination of a National System OF Public Schools with a National System of Religious Schools. — The principle of the com- plete separation of church and state places upon the educators of our country the task of finding a way of preserving the unity of the educative process and at the same time main- taining a dual system of organization and sup- port. Diagram XIII presents a plan for coordinating the work of church-supported and tax-supported schools. The four columns on the left of the shaded column in the center of the diagram represent the organization of the public school system which was discussed in Chapter 11. Column one (1) represents the system of schools for the masses, extending from the elementary schools upward to the graduate, professional and technical schools. 108 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Column two (2) represents the schools designed for the training of the teachers for the schools for the masses. Column three (3) represents the system of supervision extending from the village principal upward to the Secretary of Educa- tion in the president's cabinet. Column four (4) represents the professional educational as- sociations and the parent-teachers ' associations that are the necessary corollaries of a national system of public schools. On the right-hand side of the diagram there is shown the four elements which will enter into a national system of church schools. Column one (1') represents the religious schools for the masses. This system of church schools will in- clude elementary and secondary schools which will hold week-day and Sunday sessions. The local community will also conduct classes for adults, including courses in parent-training, Bible study and local church administration. Above the elementary schools there will be the Junior and Senior Church colleges. These colleges will rest upon the secondary church schools. They now, for the most part, rest upon the public secondary schools and ignore the elementary and secondary instruction given in churches. In the future these church colleges may be expected to take account of the week- day and Sunday instruction given in the church 2 8 X i I D X u 2 I I § V ^ a S t 8 I 3 1? S'^ § S55 ^5S § 11= 1^1. •» € -a , o a. a. CO o a: X o S)00i<3s tepiins psp^O I* -f. S £ I O Q- Q_ ^ S I fi o 109 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 111 schools. Church colleges should employ inspec- tors to go from local church to local church for the purpose of supervising and standardizing the work being done in elementary and secon- dary schools and accrediting these schools to the church colleges, just as state universities employ high school inspectors to visit and ac- credit public high schools. Above the church colleges will be the graduate schools of religion for research and for professional training. This system of schools for the masses is being gradually unified. Its leaders are visualizing the common task and there are evidences of a very rapid development in the form and struc- ture of each element in this system of church schools. Column two (2') represents a system of teacher-training for the church schools of all grades. The training of teachers is an aca- demic task which cannot be well performed by administrative and supervising agencies. In the past the denominational and interdenomi- national promotion agencies have been com- pelled to attempt the stupendous task of train- ing teachers for the religious schools of the nation. The meager results which have at- tended such efforts might have been expected, for these administrators had neither the re- sources nor the technical knowledge with which 112 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OP EDUCATION to do an educational task requiring the most highly specialized technique. The training of teachers of religion for the church is one of the primal responsibilities of the church col- lege. Through the organization of departments of religious education these institutions should establish teacher-training courses in the local churches of the territory contributing to the institution. These courses should be super- vised and standardized by college authorities and suitable academic credit given for the courses completed. It is my conviction that all denominational and interdenomina- tional teacher-training work should be stand- ardized and supervised by church colleges. Only the promotion of such courses or schools should be in the hands of administrative agencies. Column three (3') represents the dual super- vision of denominational and interdenomina- tional agencies discussed in the first part of this chapter. This system of supervision should be liberally supported. No special appeal will be necessary to secure adequate support for de- nominational supervision, but the need for in- terdenominational supervision is not so ap- parent, and there is great need of wide publicity in behalf of this type of supervision. Just as there is a place for large subsidies to equalize A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 113 the educational opportunity in secular fields, so there is equal need of large grants to equalize the opportunity for religious instruction in the waste places, and the congested, neglected and polyglot centers of population. A common car- rier is the only economical and efficient agency through which the churches can do this com- mon task. Column four (4') represents the national pro- fessional association which will guarantee the democracy and the progressive development of the whole system of church schools. 3. The Necessity for Fusion of Oureicula. — The subject-matter and the discipline fur- nished by the tax-supported schools will issue in behavior. If the curriculum of the church school is to determine the conduct of our people, it must not neglect the content of the curriculum of the public schools. The curriculum for our church schools should be constructed with a full recognition of the work which is being given in corresponding grades in the public schools. Courses in map making and in geography in the Intermediate grades of the public school should be met with work in Biblical geography in the church school. Courses in Greek, Roman, As- syrian and Babylonian history in the high school should be carried over into the church school and woven into the history and litera- 114 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION ture of the Bible. It is possible to secure essen- tial unity of the two systems of instruction without uniting the systems of administration or support. 4. Eelation op Pbotestant, Jewish and Catholic Schools to the Public Schools. — ^It is the duty of all religious bodies to send their children to the public schools and to support these schools with such liberality that they will be able to give to our citizenship the common elements necessary to guarantee the social soli- darity of our democracy. Diagram XIII shows how any church may coordinate its schools with those of the state. It also shows how a group of denominations may cooperate in maintaining a system of church schools which will cooperate with the public schools. The de- nomination which cannot unite with its religious neighbors in conducting an adequate system of schools for its children is under obligation to build its own schools and operate them in such relation to the public schools that their children can attend both systems. It is not expected that the Protestant, Jewish and Catholic Churches will, in the near future, be able to operate a common system of religious schools. It has already been demonstrated, however, that the largest branches of the Prot- estant Church can agree upon a common cur- > 116 A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 117 riculum for week-day religious schools, reserv- ing certain special denominational instruction for the Sunday session of their local church schools. Diagram XIV suggests the relation- ship which the public schools should hold to the three dominant religious groups. Democracy has a right, in the interest of its own perpetu- ity, to compel this form of cooperation of its schools with the schools of all religious bodies. When this form of cooperation becomes ef- fective, the teachers employed in the public schools will be the product of the dual system of training. So also will the teachers in the church schools be the product of state and church institutions. 5. Leadership. — The building of this dual system of schools for the United States of America will demand unprecedented sums of money and undreamed of numbers of tech- nically trained men and women, but it will pro- duce a people which can lead the nations of the world in the pursuits of happiness and univer- sal peace. A conservative estimate of the num- ber of professionally trained college graduates that will be demanded by the church schools during the next five years is one hundred thou- sand. To supply this demand will tax the re- sources of all the institutions of training to their full capacity. 118 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 6. SuMMABY. (a) Universal education is the only guarantee of democratic government. — The fundamental elements of a nation's strength are the intelligence and moral insight of its people. The democratic state has estab- lished the machinery for the administration of justice and equal rights, and for the transmis- sion of intellectual and vocational values to pos- terity. Local governments are kept close to the people and voluntary associations are active agents in preventing maladministration and initiating new and better methods for promot- ing the well-being of society. The machinery with which a democracy sets each new genera- tion on the shoulders of the race aiid thus per- petuates the intellectual, vocational and social achievements of the race is the public school system. Compulsory attendance laws and an enlightened public sentiment bring the children and the schools together, and a continuity of national and racial achievement is secured. The democratic state has the machinery to guar- antee to the future an intelligent and indus- trially efficient citizenship. Through the public schools the state secures an efficient, socially-minded, homogeneous citi- zenship. It develops common skills, common ideals and common attitudes. Its curriculum, besides providing for individual needs, contains A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 119 common elements which become the basis of the likemindedness of the people and insures united and collective activity. It is thus that social solidarity is secured in a democracy. (b) The present emiergency in Amencan ed- ucation constitutes a national crisis. — The ef- fect of the war on the public schools has been the withdrawal of teachers in ever increasing numbers, the falling off of the enrollment of the normal schools and other institutions for the preparation of teachers, the shortening of courses and the lowering of standards, and the growing difficulty of securing adequate reve- nues through the forms of taxation upon which the public schools have depended for support. The World War revealed many defects in our educational system. It has clearly sho^vn the importance of rural education, the necessity for a complete program of physical and health ed- ucation, the need of radical measures to reduce adult illiteracy, the necessity for the prepara- tion and supply of competent teachers, and the equalizing of educational opportunities through a national department of education. (c) The united strength of Protestant Christianity should be used to promote the provisions of the Smith-Toivner Bill. — This bill creates a department of education in our national government and places a secretary of 120 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION education in the president's cabinet. It, for the first time in our national life, provides a national educational policy. This is done with- out limiting the local initiative and self- government of states and cities. Protestant Christianity should put itself on record as the ardent champion of the public schools. (d) To supplement the system of schools which the state will build for the secular train- ing of its citizens, the church must project a parallel system of religious schools. — Such a system of religious schools would involve : (1) The securing and training of an army of religious teachers, both professional and vol- untary. This would mean (a) The establishing of research and graduate schools in religious ed- ucation. (b) The creating of departments of re- ligious education in church col- leges. (e) The founding of a system of teacher training schools and in- stitutes for the training of the voluntary workers. (d) The creating of professional associations for the self-devel- opment of both voluntary and professional workers. A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 121 (2) The creation of a curriculum for all grades of church schools. (3) The establishing of week-day and vaca- tion schools of religion. (4) The strengthening and vitalizing of the educational program of each local church. (5) The establishing of parent-training courses in the interest of religious education in the home. (6) The creation of community programs of religious education through which the church will use music, art, drama and recreation as agencies for the spiritualizing of the ideals of the whole community. (7) The creation of a system of organiza- tion and support which will be adequate to sus- tain a school system, involving thousands of teachers and millions of students and costing billions of dollars. (8) The creating of a system of supervision and control which will preserve denominational and local autonomy and still secure essential unity of program and policy for the entire na- tion. An exhaustive survey is now being conducted under ^he auspices of the Interchurch World Movement for the purpose of securing the factual basis upon which such a statesmanlike program for religious education can be built. 122 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION The seriousness with which both the church and the state are attacking their educational prob- lems gives large promise that the present period of stress and storm will issue in a program of education for the American people which will insure a cultured, efficient and righteous citi- zenship. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. On Educational Organization and Adminis- tration Allen, AVilliam H. : The United States Bureau of Education as Educational Supervisor and Sur- veyor, in Educational Administration and Super- vision, 3 :9, pp. 548-552, November, 1917, Athearn, Walter S. : Religious Education and American Democracy, pp. 143-155, 239-248. Ayer, L. p. : School Orgamzaiion and Administra- tion. Bagley, W. C. : The Training of Teachers as a Phase of Democracy's Educational Program, in Educational Administration and Supervision, 4:1, pp. 49-53, January, 1918. Ballow, Frank W. : Efficient Finance in a City School System, in Educational Administration and Supervision, 4:3, pp. 121-133, March, 1918. Briqgs, Thomas H. : A National Program of Sec- ondary Education, in School and Society, 7:168, pp. 301, 306, March 16, 1918. Coe, George A.: A Social Theory of Religious Ed- ucation. Cook, Albert S. : Centralizing Tendencies in Edu- cational Administration : The County as a Unit for 123 124 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Local Administration. In Educational Adminis- tration and Supervision, 4:3, pp. 133-41, March, 1918. CuBBEELEY, E. P. : PuhUc School Administration. CuBBEELEY, E. P.: Scho'ol Organization and Admin- istration. Dewey, John: Organization of American Educa- tion, Teachers' College Record, March, 1916, pp. 127-141. DiPFENBAUGH, W. S. : School Administration in the Smaller Cities, in United States Bureau of Educa- tion Bulletin, 1915, No. 44. Davis, H. B.: Reorganization in Municipal Admin- istration in School and Society, 10:240, pp. 121- 128, August 2, 1919. FuLLEE, Edwaed H. : Educational Associations and Organizations in the United States in Educational Review, 55 :4, pp. 300-326, April, 1918. FuEST, Clyde: The Place of the Educational Foundation in American Education, in School amd Society, 7 :170, pp. 364-9, March 30, 1918. HoLLiSTER, H. A. : The Administration of Education in a Democracy. KoLBE, Paeke E. : War Work of the United States Bureau of Education, in School and Society, 7 :178, pp. 606-609, May 25, 1918. KoLBE, Paeke R. : Cooperative Agreement Between the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Education, and the Federal Board for Vocational Education, in School and Society, 7:178, pp. 610, 611, May 25, 1918. BIBLIOGRAPHY 125 Lane, Secretary : Illiteracy in the United States, in School and Society, 7:107, pp. 374-5, March 30, 1918. Linn, Louis P. : Organization Powers Accorded City School Siiperintenents by General Laws, in School and Societxj, 7 :178, pp. 601-606, May 25, 1918. Linn, Louis P.: The Federal Interests in Educa- tion, in School and Society, 7 :173, pp. 472-3, April 20, 1918. Macdowell, T. L. : State Against Local Control of Elementary Education, in United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 22. Mead, Cyrus W.: The Best Methods of Selecting Text-Books, in EducatioTial Administration and Supervision, 4:2, pp. 61, 70, February, 1918. MoNAHAN, A. C. : County-Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools, United States Bu^ reau of Educoiion Bulletin, 1914, No. 44. Payson, Smith: Limitations of State Control in Education, in School and Society, 7:171, pp. 391- 394, April 6, 1918. Proctor, William M. : Union Versus Single District High Schools, in Educatiomal Admiwistration and Supervision, 4:3, pp. 146-155, March, 1918. RoBBiNS, Charles L. : The School as a Social Insti- tution, Chapters X, XI. Sharp, L. A.: Who Has the Big Job in School Su- pervision? In Educational Administration and Supervision, 4:3, pp. 141-146, March, 1918. Snedden, David: The Professional Improvement of Te-achers and Teaching Through Organization, in 126 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION School md Society, 10:254, pp. 531-540, Novem- ber 8, 1919. Wheeler, Benjamin Ide: The Place of the State University in American Education, in School amd Society, 7:170, pp. 361-4, March 30, 1918. Winchester, B. S. : Religions Education and De- mocracy. 2. On the English Education Bill RoscoE, Frank : Educational Reconstruction in Eng- land, School and Society, 8:189, pp. 164-166, Au- gust 10, 1918. Educational Plank of the Resolutions of Recon- struction of the British Labor Party, School and Society, 8 :193, pp. 294-295, September, 1918. The English Education Bill, The School Review, 26.7, pp. 538-539, September, 1918. A Critical Review of the English Education Bill, School and Society, 8:187, pp. 116, 117, July 27, 1918. 3. On the Evolution op the Public School Sys- tem OP the United States Alexander, Thomas: The Prussian Elementary Schools. Bunker, Fran'^ F. : Reorganization of the Public School System, in United States Bureau of Edu- cation Bulletin, 1916, No. 8. JuDD, C. H. : Prussia and Our Schools, New Re- public, 14:181, pp. 347-349, April 20, 1918. BIBLIOGRAPHY 127 — Shall We Continue to Imitate Prussia? in School and Socuty, 7 :183, pp. 751-754, June 29, 1918. — The Evolution of a Democratic School System. Jones, Arthur J. : Are Our Schools Prussian in Origin? In Educaiional Review, 56:4, pp. 271- 294, November, 1918. McCoNAUGHY, James L. : Have We an Educational Debt to Germany? In Educational Review, 55:5, pp. 361-377, May, 1918. McCoNAUGHY, James L. : Germany 's Educational Failure, in School Review, June, 1918. Monroe, Paul: Further Consideration of Prussia and Our Schools, School and Society, 7:181, pp. 691-694, June 15, 1918. — Shall We Continue to Advocate Reforms by False Arguments? in School and Society, 8:193, pp. 290- 294, September 7, 1918. 4. On Present Educational Tendencies Bagley, William C. : The National Problem, in The New Republic, pp. 87-92, December 17, 1919. Bruere, Robert W. : A New Nationalism and Edu- cation, in Harper's Magazine. 139:830, pp. 174- 182, July, 1919. Butler, Nicholas Murray: Education After the War, in Educational Review, 57 :1, pp. 64-80, Jan- uary, 1919. Darrah, David: Field Work as a New Educational Principle, in Educational Revietv, 55:1. pp. 20-30, January, 1918. 128 A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Elwood, Charles A.: Reconstruction of Educa- tion upon a Social Basis, in Educational Review, 57 :2, pp. 91-110, February, 1919. — Educational Reform in Germany, in Educational Beview, 56:5, pp. 405-415, December, 1918, also in the London Times, September 19 and 28, 1918. Finney, Ross L. : Sociological Principles Funda- mental to Pedagogical Method, in Educational Be- view, 55 :2, pp. 91-111, February, 1918. Gosling, T. W. : Educational Reconstruction in the Junior High School in Educational Beview, 57 :5, pp. 376-387, May, 1919. Hill, Howard C: The Social Sciences in the Uni- versity High School, in The School Beview, 27:9, pp. 680-694, November, 1919. Jordan, Virgil : The New Psychology and the Social Problem, in The Dial, 67 :802, pp. 863-369, Novem- ber 1, 1919. Kandel, J. L. : The Nation and the Crisis in the Schools, in Educational Beview, 56:5, pp. 361-374, December, 1918. Morrison, H, C. : Present-day Needs in Higher Ed- ucation, in The School Beview, 27:9, pp. 653-670, November, 1919. Moore, E. C. : Educational Reconstruction, in In- ternational Journal of Ethics, 29:3, pp. 350-364, April, 1919. Moore, Harry H.: A High School Course in So- ciology, in Educational Beview, 57:3, pp. 181-194, March, 1919. BIBLIOGRAPHY 129 Sharpe, Dallas Lore: Patrons of Democracy, in Atla/ntic Monthly, pp. 649-660, November, 1919. RosENSTEiN, David: Recent Development in Educa- tion, in School and Society, 10:241, April, 1919. Smith, Walter K. : A Program for Socializing Ed- ucation, in Ediicaiionol Review, 56:3, pp. 199-215, October, 1918. Sterling, Henry: Labor's Attitude Towards Edu- cation, in School and Society, 10:240, pp. 128-132, August 2, 1919. Waters, Henry J.: Educational Readjustment from the Farmer's Standpoint, in School and Sof- ciety, 10 :241, pp. 151-155, August 9, 1919. INDEX Academic freedom, 61, 62 Academy, American, 38 Administration, problems of, 57-67 Arnold, Matthew, 38 Bibliography: on organization and admin- istration. 123-126 on English education bill, 126 on evolution of public school system, 126-127 on present educational ten- dencies, 128-129 Board of education, powers of, 66 denominational, 78, 79, 81 Bolshevism, 24 Boy scouts, 21 Briggs, Thomas H., quoted, 59 Bureau of education, 20 Bureaucracy, 54 Camp Fire Girls, 21 Catholic schools, 118 Christian associations, 21 Christian citizenship the basis of local control, 95-98 Church board of education, 78-81 Church colleges, 108-111 Church schools system of, 31 Commissioner of education, U. S.. 25 Committee on education, 81 Community Council of Re- ligious Education, 104 Community music, 88 Community responsibility, 65 Community surveys, 92 Cooperation in religious edu- cation, 82-95 Correlation of denominational and interde- nominational machinery, 100-107. Ill, 112 Correlation of public schools and church schools, 107-117 schools, colleges and agen- cies, 46-49 Curriculum evolution of, 49 fusion of, 113 modification of, 14 f. secularization of, 22, 51, 52 social case of, 18 Denominational educational machinery, 73, 112 Denominational ideals, 97 Education bureau of, 20 dual system of, 35, 39, 45 equalization of opportuni- ties for, 27, 28 financial support of, 62-65 health, 14 industrial and vocational, 15 mllitarj', 14 national department of, 26 national system of, 25 place of religious, 29-31 present emergency in, 119 present tendencies in, 13-31 secretary of, 26 secularization of, 51, 52 social, 17 two theories of, 21-23 English free schools, 37 English labor education bill, 38 Girl scouts. 21 Gymnasium, 34, 37 Health education, 14 Herbart, 22 High school universalized, 19 development of, 19-2J Home missionary board, 74 131 1S2 INDEX Interchurch world movement, 121 Interdenominational coopera- tion, 82-95, 111, 112 Interlocking boards, 79 Indoctrination, place of, 23, 24 Industrial education, 15 Jewish schools, 114 Kindergarten, 43, 46 Latin schools, 42, 46 Leadership, 117 Lehrersemmas, 33, 45, 46 Maiden plan, 82-95 Mann, Horace, 42 Materialistic theory of educa- tion, 22-24, 54 National Education Associa- tion, 55-57, 107 National religious education association, 104 National system of education, 25-29, 107 National system of religious education, 69-122, 107 Naturalistic theory of educa- tion, 22-24, 54 Pageantry, 89 Parochial schools, 69 Paternalism, 54 Principles of organization, 57- 67 Professional growth, 81, 120 Prussia, ultimate sin of, 33 effect of educational sys- tem, 55, 82 Public schools, system of, 32-52 Raikes, Robert, 37 Religious education, as missionary extension, 75 place of, 29-31 program of, 52 standard organization for, 83 subordinate to publicity, 71 system of, 69-122 San Francisco, 63, 65, 77 Secondary schools, 37 Secretary of education, 26, Secularization of public schools, 51-52 Smith, Payson, quoted, 58 Smith-Hughes Bill, 16, 45 Smith-Towner Bill, 26-28, 55, 119 Social education, 17 Social solidarity, 49, 50 Sunday school, 22, 24, 37, 52 Sunday school board, 74 Teacher-training schools, 49, 111, 112 Territorial relationships, 99 Text books, 59, 61, 62 Theories of education, 20-25 Three methods of teaching re- ligion, 69 Tolstoi, 24 Unit of organization, 57 Vacation Bible schools, 95 Vocational education, 15 VolJcsschule, 32, 33, 37, 45 Week-day religious schools, 95, 108 Young People's Board, 74, 75, 81