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THE 
 
 RESOURCES OF CALIFOMIA: 
 
 COMPKISINCh 
 
 |igri.ralttt«, Pirattg, €l:^x^\l €lm\it, fy\mtm, h,, 
 
 PAST AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE. 
 By JOHN S. HITTELL. 
 
 FIFTH EDITIOiT, WITH AN APPENDIX 
 
 ON 
 
 OKEGOS, NEVADA, AND WASHISGTOJf TERRITORY. 
 
 ^^ . ^'■" 
 
 1^ 
 
 SAX FRANCISCO : 
 A. ROMAN^ AN^D C0MPA:N'Y. 
 
 NEW YORK : 27 HOWARD STREET. . 
 1869. 
 

 £5 
 
 Co^^^'A 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year, 1869, by A. Roman & 
 Co., Proprietors, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United 
 States, for the Northen? District of California. 
 
 By tranef^r frem. 
 fat. Office Lib. 
 
 April 1G14. 
 
 M'CUKA k MILLER, BTEEKOTTPEKft. 
 
PEEFAOE. 
 
 I (JNDERTAKE to write tlie resources of a state, wMcli, 
 tliough young in years, small in popiilation, and remote 
 from the chief centres of civilization, is yet known to the 
 furthest corners of the earth, and, during the last twelve 
 years, has had an influence upon the course of human life, 
 and the prosperity and trade of nations, more powerful than 
 that exerted during the same period by kingdoms whose 
 subjects are numbered by millions, whose history dates 
 back through thousands of years, and whose present stock 
 of wealth beo^an to accumulate before our continent was 
 discovered, or our language was formed. I write of a land 
 of wonders. I write of California, which has astonished 
 the world by the great migration that suddenly built up 
 the first large Caucasian community on the shores of the 
 North Pacific ; by her vast yield of gold, amounting within 
 thirteen years to $700,000,000, which has sensibly affected 
 the markets of labor and money in all the leading nations 
 of Christendom ; by the rapid development and great extent 
 of her commerce ; by the greatness of her chief port, which 
 at one time had more large ships at her anchorage than 
 were ever seen together in the harbor of either Liverpool, 
 New York, or London ; by the swift settlement of her remote 
 districts ; by the prompt organization of her government ; 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 by the liberality with, which the mines were thrown open. 
 and made free to all comers ; by the rush of adventurers 
 of every color and of every tongue ; by the prices of her 
 labor, and the rates of her interest for mone}^, double those of 
 the other American states, and quadruple those of Europe ; 
 by the vast extent of her gold-fields, and the facility with 
 which they could be worked ; by the auriferous rivers in 
 which fortunes could be made in a week ; by antediluvian 
 streams richer than those of the present era ; by beds of 
 lava, which, after filling up the beds of antediluvian rivers, 
 were left, by the washing away of the banks and adjacent 
 plains, to stand as mountains, marking the position of great 
 treasures beneath ; by nuggets each worth a fortune ; by 
 the peculiar nature of her mining industry ; by new and 
 strange inventions ; by the washing down of mountains ; 
 by filling the rivers of the Sacramento basin with thick 
 mud throughout the year ; by lifting a hundred mountains 
 from their beds ; by six thousand miles of mining ditches ; 
 by aqueducts less durable, but scarcely less w^onderful 
 than those of ancient Eome ;' by silver mines that promise 
 to rival those of Peru; by quicksilver mines surpassing 
 those of Spain ; by great deposits of sulphur and asphal- 
 tum ; by lakes of borax ; by mud volcanoes, geysers, and 
 natural bridges ; by a valley of romantic and sublime beauty, 
 shut in by walls nearly perpendicular and more than three- 
 quarters of a mile high, with half a dozen great cascades, 
 in one of which the water at two leaps falls more than the 
 third of a mile ; by a climate the most conducive to healthy 
 and the most favorable to mental and physical exertion — so 
 temperate on the middle coast that ice is never seen and 
 thin summer clothing never worn, and that January differs 
 in average temperature only eight degrees of Fahrenheit 
 from July; by a singular botany, including the most 
 splendid known group of coniferous trees, of which half a 
 
P REFACE. 
 
 dozen species grow to be more than two hundred and fifty 
 feet high, and one species has reached a height of four hun- 
 dred and fifty feet, and a diameter of forty feet in the trunk ; 
 by a peculiar zoology, composed chiefly of animals found 
 only on this coast, and including the largest bird north of 
 the equator, and the largest and most formidable quadruped 
 of the continent ; by the importation in early years of all 
 articles of food, and then by the speedy development of 
 agriculture, until her wheat and wine have gone to the 
 furthest cities in search of buyers, and until her markets 
 are unrivalled in the variety and magnificence of home- 
 grown fruits ; by the largest crop of grain, and the largest 
 specimens of fruits and vegetables on record ; by a society 
 where for years there was not one woman to a score of men, 
 and where all the men were in the bloom of manhood ; by 
 the first large migration of eastern Asiatics from their own 
 continent; by the first settlement of Chinamen among 
 white men ; by the entire lack of mendicants, paupers, and 
 alms-houses ; by the rapid fluctuations of trade ; by the ac- 
 cumulation of wealth in the hands of men, most of whom 
 came to the country poor ; by the practice, universal in 
 early years, of going armed ; by the multitude of deadly 
 affrays, and by extra-constitutional courts, which sometimes 
 punished villains with immediate execution, and sometimes 
 proceeded with a gravity and slow moderation that might 
 become the most august tribunals. I write of California 
 while she is still youthful, and full of marvels ; while her 
 population is still unsettled ; while her business is still 
 fluctuating, her wages high, her gold abi:Jndant, and her 
 birth still fresh in the memory of men and women who 
 have scarcely reached their majority ; and I write of her 
 while she still offers a wide field for the adventurous, the 
 enterprising, and the young, who have life before them, and 
 wish to commence it where they may have the freest career, 
 
Vi PREFACE. 
 
 in full siglit of tlie greatest rewards for success, and with 
 the fewest chances of failure. 
 
 The general public are aware that California is a peculiar 
 state, and their attention has often been called to certain 
 prominent points of wonder, like those to which I have 
 just referred ; but hitherto there has been no careful at- 
 tempt to sum up all that is known of her resources and 
 natural history. I have undertaken that task, and the re- 
 sult of my undertaking is in this book placed before the 
 ■••eader. I have been a Californian since 18^9, and expect 
 to be as long as I may live. All the most interesting as- 
 sociations of my life are connected with this state. I 
 arrived in the country while it was still under a territorial 
 government, and more than a year before it was organized 
 as a state under act of Congress. I saw the land in its 
 original wildness, and saw society, order, trade, industry 
 and polity developed ; and I now see about me the begin- 
 ■ nings and promises of science, art, literature, philosophy, 
 and whatever can enrich or honor humanity. I have seen 
 the state grow up, and its history is part of my life. The 
 land-marks of its chorography, and the prominent events of 
 its political, social, and industrial progress, mark epochs 
 in my memory. Many of the happiest days of my life 
 have been spent here, and here I hope to enjoy whatever 
 blessings the future may have in store for me. If then I 
 fail to do justice in my book to California, the failure will 
 not be for any lack of love of her. Neither will it be for 
 any lack of attention or industry. During the last nine 
 years, I have assiduously collected every thing within my 
 reach relative to the industry, resources, natural history and 
 population of the state. I have looked through all the 
 newspapers published between Crescent City and San Diego, 
 and have examined all the books written about the country, 
 Spanish, French and Grerman, as well as English. I have 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 Deen in the extreme north, and the extreme south ; I have 
 gone to both extremities by land and sea ; I have travelled 
 through the centre of her great basin ; I am intimately ac- 
 quainted with her richest agricultural districts ; I know 
 something of her mining and agriculture by experience and 
 practice ; and, finally, I have endeavored to compress into 
 this book all the important attainable facts. Amidst so 
 much information, there are undoubtedly some little errors ; 
 but the fair critic, before condemning and expatiating upon 
 minor faults, will pass judgment upon the'question whether 
 the book is or is not more comprehensive and instructive 
 than any other, or than all others relating to the same 
 subject. 
 
 Of course, when I quote from the writings of others, I 
 use quotation marks, and give credit according to the rules 
 of honorable authors ; but I have adopted, without quota- 
 tion marks, various passages from articles written by my- 
 self, and published in different newspapers and magazines. 
 Since the work is intended for popular use, and should be 
 free from every thing not intelligible and interesting to the 
 general reader, I have made no references to authorities ; 
 and, indeed, I have drawn my information from so great a 
 variety of sources (in many instances newspapers), that it 
 would have been very inconvenient for me, and cumber- 
 some to the book, to cite the authority for every statement. 
 In case, however, that the accuracy of any statement in the 
 work should be called in question, I think that I can pro- 
 duce in every case credible evidence, and in most cases the 
 conclusive proof While I have drawn my material from 
 many different sources, I claim as much originality as is 
 possible for so comprehensive a collection of facts, in so 
 many and so distinct branches of knowledge. 
 
 J. S. H. 
 
 San Francisco, March, 1862. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FOURTH EDITION. 18G 
 
 ^ 1. Preliminary. — Since the first edition of this book was prepared 
 for the press six years have elapsed, and in that time some progress has 
 been made by the industry of California, and some new light has been 
 thrown upon the resources and physical geography of the State. In this 
 introductory chapter, I shall try to state briefly the main points of tlie 
 additional information obtained since 1862. 
 
 § 2. The Caliform'an Alps. — The State Geological Survey discovered, 
 in the summer of 1864, that the Sierra Nevada, between latitudes 35° and 
 38°, has the wonderful mountain region of California. Shasta, which 
 towers in solitary grandeur 7,000 feet above every thing in its vicinity, 
 and shows its mantle of eternal snow to a wide area in three States, is no 
 longer our highest peak. Mt. Whitney, in latitude 36° 30', which is 
 surrounded by so many other peaks of nearly equal height as to attract 
 no special attention from a distance, rises to about 15,000 feet, while 
 Shasta is only 14,440. • 
 
 Not only is Shasta dethroned, but also Switzerland. The Helvetian 
 Republic has, for hundreds of years, had the fame of possessing the great- 
 est area of elevated land, and the largest number of great peaks within 
 the limit of high civilization, but the newly discovered mountain region 
 surpasses that of Sv/itzerland. That country has only four peaks above 
 13,000 feet, and not more than 150 square miles above 8,000 feet, while 
 we have LOG peaks above 13,000 feet and 300 or more square miles above 
 8,000 feet. 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This Alpine region of California occupies the upper part of the Sierra 
 Nevada, from Castle Peak to Kern Eiver, a distance of 200 miles ; and 
 throughout that distance all the main peaks rise to 13,000 feet or more. 
 The exact height of Mt. Whitney is not known. The surveying party 
 made two trials to get to the summit, but failed. C. R. King reached an 
 elevation of 14,730 feet, and was there arrested by a precipice. He 
 thought there were 300 or 400 feet of elevation above him. The main 
 Fork and the north Fork of Kern River rise on the southern and western 
 slopes of this mountain, and King's River on its northwestern slope. 
 The main Fork of Kern River runs southward for thirty miles through 
 a tremendous canon, in the upper part of which the river falls 10,000 feet 
 within six miles. A mountain whose summit is six miles east of Mono 
 Lake, and 7,000 feet above it — a pretty steep ascent — is called Mt. Dana. 
 A peak further south, with an elevation of 13,700 feet, is called Mt. Grant ; 
 another of 14,500 feet is called Mt. Tyndall; a third is styled Mt. Brewer. 
 From Castle Peak, in latitude 38°, for a distance of 200 miles along the 
 summit of the Sierra, there is no pass known that can be traversed by a 
 wagon, or less than 11,000 feet in altitude. It would not be safe to assert, 
 however, that no lower pass will be discovered. Much of the range has 
 not yet been examined. Throughout all this Alpine region the views are 
 very extensive, and the scenery grand beyond that of Switzerland, though 
 not so picturesque; that is, not sd beautiful in little places. At some 
 future time it will become a place of great resort for tourists and travelers. 
 
 § 3. The Great DrougJit— The winters of 1862-63 and 1864-65 proved 
 to be unusually dry, the former bringing only 15|- and the latter only 8^ 
 inches of rain at San Francisco, instead of the average of 21 inches. Two 
 such dry seasons coming together proved very disastrous, and there was 
 a general failure of crops, and a great mortality among cattle. It was esti- 
 mated that out of 3,000,000 horses, neat-cattle, and sheep that were in the 
 State in 1862, 800,000 perished by starvation within two years, and most 
 of those which survived had a very narrow escape. The southern coast 
 couniies suffered most severely, some of them losing two-thirds of their 
 cattle, which were the main stock of their wealth. The year 1865 is 
 known as the year of the great drought, and the native Californians say 
 that at no time within forty years had two consecutive seasons passed with 
 so Httle rain. 
 
 § 4. The EarthquaJce o/ 1865. —On the Sth October, 1865, San Francisco 
 was visited by an earthquake that surpassed in violence any shock felt 
 here within the recollection of the oldest inhabitants. It occurred on 
 
INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 Sunday at 12:45, P. M., just about the time when the morning services 
 were being closed in the churches. Two-thirds of the front of a new 
 four-story brick building on the corner of Third and Mission Streets (the 
 mortar of which had not had time to dry) was tlxrown down. Parts of the fire- 
 walls and chimneys of two dozen brick buildings were thrown down. The 
 walls of the City Hall, of the old Merchants' Exchange on Battery Street, 
 of California Engine House on Market Street, the Pennsylvania Engine 
 House on Jackson Street, the Market building at the corner of Pine and 
 Market Streets, besides a multitude of others, were badly cracked. Several 
 wooden buildings which were being raised, and were supported on tem- 
 porary scaffolding or blocks, were thrown down and demohshed. The 
 falling cornices and fire-walls filled some of the streets with dust, and fell 
 on four or five persons, some of whom were seriously hurt, though the 
 injuries did not prove fatal in any case. In those churches where the 
 services were not closed, the people rushed for the doors in a very dis- 
 orderly, manner. 
 
 § 5. Geological Survey. — A geological survey of the State was com- 
 menced in November, 1860, and continued until 1868, under charge of Prof. 
 J. D. Whitney. He has been assisted by "Wm. M. Gabb, in paleontology, 
 W. H. Brewer and H. X. Bolander in botany, J. G. Cooper in zoology, 
 A. Eemond and Clarence King in general geology, "Wm. Ashburner in 
 economical geology, C. F. Hoffman, V. "Wackenreuder, and J. T. Gardner 
 in topography. The expense of the work has so far been about $140,000. 
 Only two volumes of the report have been published, but others are ready 
 for the press. The following are some of the results of the survey. 
 
 The coast mountains rose from the sea before the Sierra Nevada, and 
 the latter range was for long after much lower than now ; and a vegeta- 
 tion, different from that which now flourishes here, covered the land. 
 Afterward came a series of great volcanic convulsions ; the Sierra Nevada 
 was lifted up on three successive occasions, separated by long intervals 
 A hundred volcanoes poured- out vast floods of liquid fire and of water 
 mixed with ashes. Mounts Shasta and Lassen, Pilot Peak, Spanish Peak, 
 Old Man Mountain, and Castle Peak, and a multitude of others for which 
 we have no names, were all ablaze at once. There were intervals of rest 
 between their periods of activity, and alternate beds of lava and of alluvial 
 gravel or soil exist on the hills as deposited in what were then valleys or 
 the beds of rivers. An area of not less than 20,000 square miles is now 
 covered with lava. The three periods of upheaval were first at the close 
 of the cretaceous era ; second after the deposition of the raiocene tertiary ; 
 
xii INTRODUCTION. . 
 
 and third after the later pliocene. This last upheaval is supposed to be 
 still in progress. 
 
 After the volcanic epoch came the glacial epoch, in which glaciers, far 
 grander than any that now exist in the Alps, were found in all the large 
 ravines on the high mountains, where their marks still remain, though 
 the rivers of ice gradually disappeared before the gradually increasing 
 warmth of the climate. The auriferous gravel in the ancient river-oeds 
 was deposited in the later pliocene, and it was followed by a great out- 
 break of volcanic energy, which covered the gravel with beds of lava and 
 other eruptive material. 
 
 The gold deposits of the State lie not in the silurian rocks, which were 
 previou"sly considered to be the basis of all rich auriferous regions, but in 
 the Jurassic or triassic lithological formations of later date. 
 
 The coal region of California lies not in the tertiary rocks, as was pre- 
 viously supposed, but in the cretaceous, the highest portion of the sec- 
 ondary era. 
 
 The limits of the Jurassic and cretaceous have been traced with toler- 
 able accuracy over most of the area of the State. 
 
 All the principal high points of the State, long known, have been as- 
 cended, their geological character examined, and their precise altitude 
 ascertained. 
 
 A large district, previously unheard of by the public, has been found 
 to rise to a height of eleven thousand feet or more, with a hundred peaks 
 that rise about thirteen thousand feet, and a general elevation, extent, and 
 grandeur of scenery, that surpass those of Switzerland. 
 
 The Big Tree has been found to exist, not merely in a few isolated 
 groves, as was supposed, but in extensive forests, with tens of thousands 
 of trees, along a considerable portion of the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 Large bodies of excellent pasturage were found in places previously un- 
 known to the whites. 
 
 An extensive collection of minerals, vegetables, and preserved or stuffed 
 animals, has been obtained, and will be prepared for exhibition so soon as 
 the State prepares a proper place for it. 
 
 § 6. Wheat — Within the last three years much larger crops of wheat 
 have been grown than ever before, and during 1867, San Francisco ex- 
 ported wheat and flour equivalent to 600,000,000 pounds of grain, the sale 
 price here being $12,600,000. The production of barley is about the same 
 as it was seven years ago, while tlie area sown in wheat has increased 
 
INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 considerably. Of late, many hills which were before untouched by the 
 plow, have been sown in wheat. 
 
 § 7. Fruit. — There has been a very slight increase in the number 
 "of apple, pear, and peach orchards since 1862, Gherries have been 
 very profitable near San Francisco, and a multitude of trees have been 
 planted in the vicinity of the bay. It has been found that some trees 
 which thrive in the coast valleys do not thrive in the Sierra Nevada. Mr. 
 "Weatherwax, an orchardist at Mud Springs, El Dorado County, has ascer- 
 tained, by trial, that the Benick is the most profitable apple there, and 
 after it come the Red Romanite, the Red Cheek Pippin, Prior's Red, the 
 BeUeflower and Esopus Spitzenberg. The most profitable pears are the 
 Bartlett, Easter Beurre, Yicar of Wakefield and Winter Nellis. Mr. Nick- 
 erson, of Placer County, obtained, as gross receipts from a year's crop on 
 his best trees, eiglit years old, the following prices, viz. : figs, $75 ; pear, 
 peach, apple and plum, each, $60; apricot, $50, and nectarine, $45. 
 
 § 8. The Grape. — The number of vineyards has increased greatly with- 
 in five years, especially in the counties north of the bay and in the Sierra 
 Nevada. According to the Report of the Surveyor-General of the State, 
 for 1866, in that year 1,312,730 gallons of wine were made, and there were 
 15,410,077 grape-vines in vineyard. It is not determined yet, by common 
 consent among wine-growers, what are the best wine grapes, but many of 
 the most intelligent viniculturists think that for light white wines, the best 
 grapes are the Golden Chasselas, the Burger, the White Rhenish Musca- 
 tella, the Riessliug, the Chasselas Fontainebleau, and the White Green ; 
 and for red wine, the Zenfenthal, the Black Malvoisie, the Black Burgundy, 
 the Running Burgundy, Black Cabrunet and the Traminer. For the table, 
 the White Muscat of Alexandria bears the best price ; and for raisins, the 
 White Malaga, called also the Fiherzagos, is preferred. 
 
 In the first and second editions of The Resources, the largest grape-vine 
 of the State was inadvertently passed over without notice. In 1795 
 Senora Dorainguez, a native of Mexico, and a resident of Santa Barbara 
 County, rode from Monterey to her home, and before starting she picked 
 up a grape-cutting for a switch. When she had ridden twenty miles she 
 saw that her switch was budding, so she took care of it, and after getting 
 to her house at Montecito, she planted it in the garden. The vine grew, 
 and now its trunk is 15 inches in diameter, and its branches are supported 
 by an arbor 114 feet long and 78 feet wide. Its annual yield of grapes is 
 three or four tons. Senora Dominguez, who planted it, died on the 9th 
 Vfay, 1865, at the age of 105 years, after having given more than 300 
 
XiV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 children, grand-children, great-grand-children, and great-great-grand-ehild- 
 ren to the State. The vine was watered from a mineral spring, and the 
 old lady said the grapes and the wine from it were better than any others 
 in the neighborhood, and that the superior excellence was due to the 
 mineral water. 
 
 E. M. Smith, in Coloma, has an Isabella vine which is now in its fifth 
 year, and in 1866 it bore 1,500 bunches of grapes, which weighed 420 
 pounds. He estimated the yield for 186*7 at 2,500 bunches and 1,000 
 pounds. I visited the vine and started to count the bunches, but gave it 
 up in despair, and determined to accept Mr. Smith's estimate. 
 
 The value of the wine exported in 1863 was $19,000 ; in 1864, $41,000 ; 
 in 1S65, $89,000; in 1866, $169,000; and in the first half of 1867, 
 $62,000. 
 
 § 9. Hop. — The cultivation of the hop on a large scale has been estab- 
 lished with profit. Several fields of cotton, of several hundred acres each, 
 were cultivated for two or three years during the war, but now the busi- 
 ness is less profitable, and most of those who engaged in it have abandoned 
 it. In 1866, 198 bales of Californian cotton were brought to San Francisco, 
 from Tulare and Los Angeles Counties. Flax-seed and the castor-oil are 
 both grown in the State now. 
 
 § 10. Silk - Worjns. — Extensive fields have been planted with the w-hite 
 mulberry, and the breeding of silk-worms has been commenced on an ex- 
 tensive scale, and a silk factory has been erected at San Jose. It is found 
 that the worms thrive wonderfully well in our climate, and are so heavy 
 that it is sufficient to feed them once a day, by giving them a big supply 
 in the morning. 
 
 § 11. Quartz Mining. — Quartz mining in California is in a very satis- 
 factory and progressive condition. The number of mines being opened 
 and mills being built is much larger than at any previous time ; and, what 
 is more important, the enterprises now in progress are in the hands of men 
 who, as a class, have more learning, more experience, and more prudence, 
 than those who erected quartz mills before the discovery of the Washoe 
 Mines. All the energy and capital of California were concentrated in 
 silver for four or five years, and we are now just getting to study gold- 
 quartz mining as a regular business. 
 
 Among the principal quartz mines of the State are the following : — The 
 Princeton Mine, which has produced $4,000,000 ; the Pine Tree and Joseph- 
 ine, which together produced $350,000 from the 1st May, 1860, to the 1st 
 May, 1863; the Mariposa Mine produced $84,948 in 18G4. Those four 
 
INTRODUCTION. xT 
 
 mines are in the Mariposa grant, and have all been idle since 1865, because 
 of mismanagement. The New Britain has yielded $52,000; the Sherman, 
 $200,000; the Hite's Cove yields $150 per ton; and the Potts' Mine, 
 $50,000 annually. 
 
 In Tuolumne County, the Soulsby yields $100,000 annually; the Piatt 
 has paid $40,000 profit ; the Grizzly has produced $125,000; the Excel- 
 sior, $300,000 ; the Sell & Martin, $150,000 ; the Tennessee, $60,000; the 
 Austrian, $100,000 ; and the Sophia, $45,000 ; the total yield of the App, 
 the Rcist, the Ileslep, and the Golden Rule have not been reported, but 
 they are doing a large amount of work, and are all valuable. 
 
 The Morgan Mine, on Carson Hill, in Calaveras County (according to the 
 statement of Thomas Dear, who is reputed to have better opportunities of 
 knowing than anybody else), produced $2,800,000 from February, 1850, 
 to December, 1851. Mr. Stevenot, however, who claimed an interest in 
 the mine, though he did not succeed in the courts, says the sum was 
 $1,500,000. At any rate, immense masses of gold were found, and the 
 town of Melones, at the foot of the hill, was the largest mining camp in 
 the State for a time. For sixteen years the title was in litigation and the 
 mine in idleness. Work has been resumed lately. The South Carolina 
 has yielded $400,000; the Reserve, $100,000; the Bovee, $600,000; 
 Hil"s Mine, $250,000; and the Cherokee, $100,000. 
 
 The Hayward Mine, in Amador County, has been reported to be the 
 most profitable mine in the State. About 24,000 tons are crushed in a 
 year, and there are 120,000 tons in sight. The present supply of ore is 
 obtained 1,200 feet below the surface, and 300 feet below the level of the 
 sea. The total yield, according to rumor, which no doubt exaggerates 
 greatly, has been $6,000,000, The Keystone, a mile and a half distant, 
 pays $80,000 a year in dividends. The Oneida, a mile and a half distant 
 in the other direction, has produced very large sums, and has in sight 
 90,000 tons of rock, expected to yield about $17 per ton. The total 
 expense is about $5 per ton. The Seaton Mine has yielded $100,000. 
 
 In El Dorado County, the richest mines have been the Pacific, which has 
 yielded $500,000; the TVoodside, which yielded $12,000, in specimens; 
 the Danes and the Shepard. 
 
 In Placer County, the Harpending, the Green Emigrant, and the 
 Schnable, are the most notable. 
 
 In Nevada County, the Eureka, reputed to be the best worked mine in 
 the State, has yield $1,500,000; the North Star, $500,000 profit; the 
 Allison, $2,300,000; the Massachusetts Hill, $5,600,000 ; New York Hill, 
 
ivi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 $500,000; Missouri, HiU, $200,000; the Fellows, $1,000,000; Norambagua, 
 $80,000; Gold Hill, $4,000,000; Union Hill $U, 000; Empire, $1,300,000; 
 Hueston Hill, $1,000,000 ; Osborne Hill, $1,000,000 ; Lone Jack, $500,000 ; 
 Gold Tunnel, $1,000,000; Nevada, $400,000; Sneath & Clay, $300,000; 
 Lecompton, §250,000; Wigham, $200,000, and Banner, $200,000. 
 
 The Sierra Buttes yielded $224,000 gross, and $154,000 net, in 1866; 
 and has three years' supply of ore in sight. This mine has paid more 
 regularly than any other in the State, and if the milling capacity were 
 increased, could be made to surpass any other mine in the State in yield. 
 The Independence, on the same vein, yielded $100,000, in 1866, and has 
 ore in sight to last three years. The Primrose, two miles distant, has 
 yielded $226,000— idle. The Union, one mile from Alleghany, yielded 
 $75,000 in a pocket. 
 
 In Plumas County, the Eureka has yielded $1,600,000; the Mammoth, 
 $1,000,000; the Crescent, $500,000; and the Whitney, $68,000. 
 
 In Yuba County, at Brown's Valley, twelve miles from Marysville, and 
 not more than 300 feet above the level of the sea, are the Pennsylvania, 
 which yields 1,000 tons and $10,000 net per month ; the Jefferson, which 
 has paid $250,000 of dividends ; and the Dannebroge, which has yielded 
 $250,000. 
 
 § 12. Sulphurets. — Most of the quartz mines, and especially the richer 
 ones, have in the rock from one to five per cent, of sulphurets of iron, 
 which contain from $20 to $1,000 per ton of gold. This can not be ob- 
 tained by amalgamation ; and the only resource is to separate the sulphu- 
 rets (the specific gravity of which is 5,) from the pulverized quartz, (the 
 specific gravity of which is 2^). This separation, called concentration, 
 must be done with the assistance of water. The long sluice is now con- 
 sidered the best machine for concentration. The sluice has a grade of 2 
 or 3 inches to 12 feet; and riffles half an inch thick are introduced gradu- 
 ally as the boxes fill up, the sand being occasionally stirred with a hoe. 
 "When the sand is eight inches deep, the riffles are gradually removed one 
 by one, and the sand again stirred up ; and in this way the sulphurets are 
 obtained in a very clean state. The sulphurets are then roasted and put 
 into a chlorine bath. The chlorine unites with the gold ; the chloride of 
 gold is dissolved in water; and the gold is precipitated by sulphate of iron. 
 This process costs usually about $20 per ton, although one superintend- 
 ent says the expense, exclusive of his own supervision, is only $9. The 
 cost of concentration is $10 per ton of sulphurets where the rock contains 
 one per cent. 
 
INTRODUCTION. xvii 
 
 § 13. Cement Mills. — Cement mills have been brought into use since 
 1862. At the bottom of some of the ancient channels, the richest pay is 
 found in a stratum of clay and gravel, so cemented together that it will 
 not dissolve in the sluice ; and the only mode of separating the gold from the 
 dirt, heretofore, has been crushing in a stamp mill. Many of these mills 
 are now in use, and their number is increasing rapidly. The gold is 
 usually coarse in the cement. The material is not so hard as quartz, nor 
 is it crushed so fine ; so the crushing does not usually cost over 50 cents 
 per ton. A pan has lately been invented for reducing cement. It is an 
 iron pan, six feet in diameter, and eighteen inches deep, in which four 
 iron rakes, radiating from the center, each with three strong teeth, revolve 
 rapidly. A large stream of water pours in, and the pulverized stuff is 
 carried off through small holes in the bottom. The large stones are dis- 
 charged through a gate. There are two sluices, one to carry off the stones, 
 and the other to carry off the dissolved clay. 
 
 § 14. Copper Mining. — Copper mining in California began in 1861, and 
 was very profitable for a time, but the price of the metal has fallen greatly 
 within the last year or two, and copper mining in this State has declined. 
 The amount of ore exported in 1862 was 3,660 tons ; in 1863, -5,553 tons ; 
 in 1864, 10,234 tons; in 1865, lt,78t tons; in 1866, 19,813 tons; and in 
 the first half of 1867, 3,542 tons. Besides this ore, about 200 tons of 
 metallic copper have been shipped. The ore exported contained on an 
 average about 14 per cent, of metal. 
 
 § 15. Coal Mining. — Coal mining, at Monte Diablo, in California, com- 
 menced in 1861, and advanced very rapidly. In 1862, 23,000 tons were 
 produced, and in 1866, 84,000 tons. It was at first supposed that the coal 
 was of very poor quality, and that the supply would soon give out ; but 
 these suppositions have proved to be erroneous. 
 
 § 16. Borax. — The production of borax was commenced in California 
 in 1865, in which year 1,707 cases, worth $22 per case, were exported; 
 in the next year, 3,171 cases were exported; and in the first half of 1867, 
 3,671 cases. 
 
 The borax is obtained from Borax Lake, which covers an area of 200 
 acres, one mile from the eastern end of Clear Lake, in Lake County. The 
 water of the lake is strong with borate of soda, and the mud at the bottom 
 of the lake is full of crystals of borax, nearly pure. 
 
 § 17. Other Minerals.— In 1866, 5,000 barrels of California petroleum 
 were produced. Several tons of sulphur were refined near Clear Lake; 
 and several tons of plumbago were refined at Sonora. An opal mine was 
 
XVm INTRODUCTION. 
 
 opened at Mokelumne Hill in 18G5, but proved unprofitable, and the work 
 has ceased. The stones are abundant, but common in quality. 
 
 § IS. Treasure Trade. — Up to the end of 1S61, the total amount of 
 treasure manifested at the San Francisco Custom House for exporta- 
 tion, as giv^en in section 177, was $551,603,904. Since '61 the following 
 sums have been shipped, viz.: in 1862, $45,561,761; in '63, $46,071,920. 
 in '64, $55,707,201; in '65, $44,984,546; in '66, $56,146,577; in '67,' 
 $48,069,236. Adding these sums to the total of 12 years before, we have 
 $845,346,245. It is well known, however, that large sums were exported 
 in early years without entry at the Custom House, and my estimate of 
 $700,000,000 for the total exportation previous to the 1st January, 1862, 
 has been considered, by business men and bankers, in San Francisco, to 
 be as near correct as any estimate could be, and we may assume that in 
 the last six years and a half the production has been greater by 
 $35,000,000 tlian the exportation; we have a total production of 
 $1,030,000,000 for the coast, up to the 1st January, 1868. 
 
 This production, however. Las not been exclusively from California. 
 In 1866, "Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Express, which carries all the treasure, 
 the transportation of which is published, received at San Francisco, 
 $24,055,381 from the Northern mines of Cahfornia, $5,415,711 from the 
 Southern mines, $15,215,218 from Nevada, $6,551,284 from the Northern 
 Coast, including Victoria, and $2,369,994 from foreign parts. During 
 1867 the Northern mines sent us $22,927,309, the Southern mines 
 $4,477,462, Nevada $18,000,000, and the Northern Coast, $5,829,522. 
 
 The yield of Nevada is rapidly increasing ; that of Idaho,, which supplies 
 most of the gold from the "Northern Coast," is either decreasing since 
 1864, or else the treasure is sent eastward overland. California supplies 
 about three-fifths of the treasure exported from San Francisco. One of 
 the main causes of the decrease in the gold production of this State is the 
 tax of $4 per month levied on Chinese miners. Not less than ten thou- 
 sand have left the placers of California within the last two years, either 
 for Idaho, Montana, or Nevada. 
 
 § 19. Shipping. — Previous to 1860 our imports exceeded our exports, 
 and ships came heavily laden, and went away in baUast. The tables are 
 now turned, and ships come in ballast to load with our grain, copper ores, 
 wines, wool, hides, horns, quicksilver, borax, and plumbago. In the first 
 half of 1867, 1,144 vessels, registering 391,000 tons, entered the port of 
 San Francisco, making the annual tonnage of the port about 800,000. 
 
 I 20. Population. — The population of the State has gained considera- 
 
INTRODTJCTION. XIX 
 
 bly during the last live years, but there is no method of ascertaining 
 the precise increase. The gain by excess of arrivals over departures 
 seaward, was 3,232 in 1853 ; 23,023 in '54; 6,300 in '55; 5,372 in '56; 
 6,088 in '57; 12,745 in '58 ; 13,402 in '59 ; 16,185 in 'GO ; 16,864 in '61 ; 
 16,150 in '62; 15,882 in '63 ; 9,773 in '64; 4,759 in '66; and 14,470 in 
 1867 ; malting a total gain of 165,245 in fourteen years. In 1865 there 
 was a decrease of 3,780, leaving a net gain of 161,405. The increase, by 
 birth has more than counterbalanced the loss by death and by emigration 
 overland to Nevada, Idaho, and Montana. In section 252 I estimated the 
 population at 400,000 ; and if that figure was correct for the 1st July, 
 1860, and I am inclined to think it was, then the present population of 
 <>alifornia is not far from 500,000. 
 
 § 21. Manufactures. — Since 1862, there has been a very rapid develop- 
 ment of the manufacturing industry of the country. Mills and factories 
 have been estabhshed, and are now in operation, making cotton goods, 
 powder, linseed and castor oils, ropes of iron and hemp, glass, shot, lead 
 pipe, boots and shoes, and brushes. Additional paper and woolen mills 
 have been buUt. A rolling mill is now in the course of erection. - These 
 manufactures are nearly all at San Francisco, which is likely to become 
 one of the chief manufacturing cities of the Union. Large quantities of 
 turpentine and rosin are made in Butte and Yuba Counties. In 1866, 18 
 vessels left San Francisco for the codfish banks of the North Pacific, and 
 they brought back fish which when dried weighed 900 tons. Tiiis fishery 
 began in 1864. The production of soap in San Francisco in 1866 was 
 13,000,000 pounds. 
 
 § 22. -San Francisco. — The growth of San Francisco has been steady 
 and rapid since 1862. Every year has witnessed great changes and vast 
 additions to the number of buildings. The city is truly metropolitan in 
 its appearance. Montgomery Street, as a fashionable retail street and 
 promenade, has no superior on the continent, save Broadway ; and Kearny 
 Street, which is now being widened, is rapidly advancing to rival Mont- 
 gomery. There are three hotels, which in size and style deserve to take 
 rank with the finest of New York. Five street railroads are ready to take 
 passengers to every part of the city. One of the largest and finest stone 
 dry-docks of the world is nearly completed, at Hunter's Point. The con- 
 struction of a sea-wall, to protect the harbor, has been commenced. 
 Splendid buildings have been erected by the Merchants' Exchange Associ- 
 ation, the Mercantile Library Association, and the Mechanics' Institute. 
 The silver mines of AYashoe, and the principal quartz mines of California, 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 are mostly owned here, and their wealth has contributed to beautify and 
 enrich the city. The establishment of a regular line of monthly steamers 
 to China and Japan, and the rapid progress of the Pacific Railway, with 
 the certainty of its speedy completion, have given confidence, attracted 
 population, and induced the investment of capital. Numerous branches 
 of manufacturing industry have been established. The commerce of the 
 city has continued to advance. The average number of houses erected 
 annually, during the last five years, has been about 1,500. It may safely 
 be said that no city shows greater signs of prosperity. San Francisco," in 
 proportion to size, is the busiest seaport in the world. The annual exports 
 are about $70,000,000 and the imports nearly as much; the manufactures 
 are worth nearly $20,000,000; the real estate sales amount to about 
 $12,000,000, and the cash value of land, building, and movable property, 
 is about $200,000,000, although assessed for taxation at only $80,000,000. 
 It sends away about forty tons of silver and six tons of gold every month — 
 the former metal in bars fifteen inches long and five inches square, the 
 latter in small bars about six inches long, three inches wide, and two inches 
 thick. Wagons loaded with the precious metals are seen in the streets 
 nearly every day. 
 
 Most of the towns of the interior have grown but little during the last 
 five years. Sacramento suffered so severely from the flood that she 
 has not yet recovered. The Central Pacific Railroad, the Sacramento 
 Valley Railroad, and the California Pacific Railroad (from YaUejo) center 
 here; and the Western Pacific, the buildings of which has been long de- 
 layed, is to terminate here. The new State House, to cost more than 
 $1,000,000, will not be finished for a year or two. 
 
 § 23. Vallejo. — The construction of the California Pacific, and Napa 
 Valley Railroads has given a stimulus to Vallejo, which seems to be on 
 the point of getting the benefit of the natural advantages of its position. 
 Those advantages could do nothing for it without the assistance of rail- 
 roads ; but now that the roads are to be built, Vallejo is certain to be one 
 of the leading towns of the coast. Its exemption from earthquakes, the 
 probability that it will be a brick-built town, the consequent security 
 against great fires, the freedom from a heavy debt, the promise of free 
 wharfage, the certainty that it will be the terminus of the railroads from 
 Humboldt Bay and Oregon, and that it will'attract much of the travel and 
 freight from Sacramento, and the possibility, or as many view it, the 
 probability, that it will be the main western terminus of the Pacific Rail- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2X1 
 
 road, are great considerations in its favor. Ttie town is groAivang rapidly 
 now, and land has increased greatly in value. 
 
 § 24. Legal matters. — Congress has granted to the State of California, 
 Yosemito Yalley and the Big Tree Grove of Mariposa; and has passed an 
 act providing for the sale of the quartz mines, on which work to the 
 amount of $1,000 has been done; and for the sale of the agricultural 
 lands in the mineral districts. 
 
 § 25. Communications. — In 1862, the only railway in the State was 
 the Sacramento Yalley road, 20 miles from Sacramento to Folsom. Now 
 we have the Central Pacific completed 95 miles, from Sacramento to 
 Cisco; the San Francisco and San Jose road, 50 miles; the Western 
 Pacific, completed from San Jose to Yallejo's mill, 20 mUes ; the Alameda 
 and Hay ward road, 15 miles; the Oakland and Brooklyn road, 4 miles; 
 the Napa Yalley road, 25 miles ; the Oroville and Marysville road, 25 
 miles ; the Central California road, from Folsom to Marysville (unfinished), 
 40 miles ; and the California Pacific, from Yallejo to Sacramento (un- 
 finished), 60 miles ; and the Folsom and Shingle Springs road, 40 miles. 
 
 A monthly line of steamers runs to China and Japan ; another to Mazat- 
 lan ; and a third is to be established to the Hawaiian Islands. There are 
 two lines of telegraph across the continent, placing us in instantaneous 
 communication with the Atlantic States and Europe. 
 
 § 26. Californian Books. — Considerable contributions to the literature 
 of California have been made during the last five years. Among the 
 books written in or about California, or published by Californians, arc : 
 the first volume of the Geology and volume first of the Paleontology of the 
 State Geological Survey; the Reports of the Pacific Railroad Survey; 
 the History of California, by Franklin Tuthill ; the History and Resources 
 of California (in French), by Ernest Frignet; the Resources, Society, and 
 Industry of California (in German), by Karl Ruehl ; a School History of 
 California, by Lucia Norman ; the Mineral Resources of the Pacific Slope, 
 by J. Ross Browne, U. S. Commissioner of Mining Statistics ; a Treatise 
 on Mining Law, by Gregory Yale ; a collection of California Poems, called 
 " Outcroppings ;" another styled "Poetry of the Pacific;" a volume of 
 poems, by Charles Y^arren Stoddart ; the Jumping Frog of Calaveras, by 
 Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens); Phoenixiana, by Lieut. Derby; the Ad- 
 ventures of James Capen Adams, the Grizzly Bear Hunter, by Theodore 
 H. Hittell ; and Treatises on Grape Culture and Y^ine-making, by A. Har- 
 aszthy and T. H. Hyatt, and a Manual of Silk Culture, by L. Prevost. 
 
 San Francisco, April 15, 1868, 
 
INTEODUCTION 
 
 THE FIFTH EDITION. 1869 
 
 The progress of California within the last year has been remarkable. The 
 rapid advance of the Middle Facific Kailroad, the probability that other 
 transcontinental railroads will soon be commenced, the construction of a 
 number of coast roads, the cultivation of large areas previously unoccupied, 
 the concurrence of large crops of grain with high prices, the doubling of the 
 wool clip within two years, the success of the mulberry plantations, the in- 
 creasing profits of the vineyards, and the discovery of the White Pine mines, 
 have contributed to make this a year of unexampled activity and prosperity. 
 
 Before this edition goes to press, the Middle Pacific Railroad will have 
 been completed, and the cars will run through from New York to Sacra- 
 mento, a distance of 3,181 miles. Of the Western Pacific, connecting Sacra- 
 mento with Oakland, twenty miles are in running order, and it is expected 
 that the remainmg 104 miles will be completed before the 1st of July, with 
 the exception of a small section at Livermore Pass, where there is a tunnel 
 that will probably not be cut through till August. The CaUfornia Pacific 
 Eailroad between Vallejo and Sacramento, has become one of the main lines 
 of travel in the State. The first section of the Southern Pacific Railroad, from 
 San Jose to Gilroy, thirty miles, the Napa Valley railroad from Adelante to 
 Calistoga, thirty-three miles, and the Central California road from Junction 
 (on the Central Pacific line) to Marysville, are finished. The roads now in 
 the course of construction, are the Marysville branch of the California Pacific, 
 forty-two miles, the Western Pacific from Cosumnes to Oakland, 104 miles, 
 the San Lorenzo road from Santa Cruz to Felton, 15 miles, the road from Los 
 Angeles to Wilmington, twenty miles, and the Petaluma and Santa Rosa 
 road, sixteen miles. Promises have been made that work shall soon be com- 
 menced on roads to connect Suscol with Santa Rosa, thirty miles, Stockton 
 with Paradise, twenty-five miles on the way to Visalia, and Marysville with 
 Chico, on the way to Oregon. 
 
 It has been discovered that the plains east of the San Joaquin river, long 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXlll 
 
 able quantities of rich argentiferous galena have been smelted out at CeiTO 
 Gordo, near Owen's Lake. The production of quicksilver was larger in 1868 
 than ever before, the exportation of the year having amounted to 43,000 
 flasks, or 3,268,000 lbs. The tin lode at Temascal has been well opened, and 
 found to be wide and rich; and preparations are being made to extract the 
 ore in large quantities. 
 
 The growth of San Francisco has been rapid. The population of the city 
 was 2,000 in July, 1849; 25,000 in December, 1850; 60,000 in December, 
 1855; 83,000 in August, 1861; 119,000 in August, 1865; 131,000 in July, 
 '1867; 150,000 in July, 1868, and it is 160,000 in March, 1869. In 1868, 
 59,000 passengers arrived at this port by sea, and 25,000 departed, leaving a 
 net gain of 34,000. The vessels which entered the harbor in the same pe. 
 riod numbered 3,300, and measured 1,000,000 tons. The exports of mer- 
 chandise and domestic produce were valued at $22,000,000. The sale of 
 real estate in San Francisco amounted to $27,000,000, and of mining and 
 other stock to $115,000,000. The mining and other companies incorporated 
 in San Francisco, paid $5,000,000 of dividends. The widening of Kearney 
 street has been completed ; the extension of Montgomery has been com- 
 menced ; the stone Dry Dock at Hunter's Point is in working order, and the 
 city is growing rapidly. Vallejo, Oakland, Sacramento, Stockton and Marys- 
 ville, are all more prosperous than they have been at any time within ten 
 years. 
 
IlsTDEX OF CHAPTEES. 
 
 Chapters. P^S^ 
 
 I. CnoRoaRAPnY 1 
 
 II, Climate 19 
 
 III. Geology 47 
 
 IV. Scenery *^2 
 
 Y. Botany 91 
 
 YI. Zoology ^08 
 
 YII. Agriculture 151 
 
 VIII. I^IINING 238 
 
 IX. Other Branches of Int)ustry 304 
 
 X. Commerce 326 
 
 XI. Constitution and Laws 349 
 
 XII. Society. 
 
 359 
 
 XIII. Topographical Names • 4:22 
 
 XIV. The Past and Future Development of the State 431 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Oregon 461 
 
 Washington Territory 415 
 
 Nevada 492 
 
 Index of Sections • 501 
 
HESOUPiCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHOROGRAPHY. 
 
 § 1. General Remarks. — California has a peculiar cho- 
 rography. No other country comprises within so small a 
 space, such various, so many, and such strongly-marked cho- 
 rographical divisions. Mountains the most steep, barren, and 
 rugged; valleys the most fertile and beautiful; deserts the 
 most sterile; spacious bays, magnificent rivers, imparalleled 
 waterfalls, picturesque lakes, extensive marshes, broad prairies, 
 and dense forests — all these are hers. 
 
 In general shape, California is a long parallelogram, extend- 
 ing from latitude 32° 45' to 42° north, seven hundred miles in 
 length by one hundred and eighty in breadth, the course of 
 the longitudinal axis being north-northwest by south-southeast. 
 The first topographical division of the state may be into the 
 Coast and Interior districts, separated from each other by the 
 main ridge of the Coast Mountains, which runs the whole 
 length of the state, nearly parallel with the ocean, and about 
 fifty miles from it. The Coast district may be subdivided into 
 the Coast 3fou7itains and the Coast Valleys. The Interior 
 district may be subdivided into the Sierra Nevada, the Sac- 
 1 
 
2 BESOTJKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ramento JBasin^ the Plateau of the Sierra Nevada^ the Kla 
 math Basin^ the Great Basin of Utah^ and the Colorado 
 Desert. 
 
 § 2. Coast Mountains. — The Coast range, though not so 
 high or so wide as the Sierra Nevada, may be considered 
 the main orographical feature of California, because it alone 
 extends through the whole length of the state. The height 
 of the range is from two thousand to six thousand feet; 
 its width from twenty to forty miles. South of 34° 20' the 
 spurs are short and run at right angles to the course of the 
 main divide, which is the easternmost ridge of the chain; 
 nearly all the spurs, v^alleys, and streams, run to the west- 
 ward. South of 34° 20' a plain from twenty-five to forty 
 miles wide lies between the momitains and the sea ; north of 
 that the spurs make up the greater part of the Coast line, 
 and, where they enter the ocean, form the headlands and 
 capes. The Santa Susanna spur starts from the main ridge in 
 34° 20' and runs west by south, and is separated by the valley 
 of the Santa Clara River from the Santa Inez ridge, which 
 starts in 34° 30' and runs west ; then continuing our course 
 northward, across the Santa Inez valley, we come to the Santa 
 Barbara ridge, which starts from the main ridge in 34° 40' and 
 runs west-northwest. The Cuyama valley separates the Santa 
 Barbara from the Santa Lucia ridge, which branches off at 
 35° in a northwestern direction, and forms the southern bound- 
 ary of the Salinas valley, whose northern boundary is the Gab- 
 ilan ridge, starting in 36° 10' and running north-northwest; 
 which is separated from the Contra Costa ridge, rising in 
 37° 10' by the Santa Clara valley, and the Contra Costa ridge 
 is separated from the main divide by the Amador and San 
 Ramon valleys. The Gabilan ridge forms the back-bone of 
 Santa Cruz, San Mateo, and San Francisco counties, each of 
 which gives its name to that portion within its borders. The 
 ridge is cut in two on the southern border of Santa Cruz 
 county by the Pajaro River, and the Alameda Creek breaks 
 through the Contra Ctosta ridge. North of the Golden Gate, 
 
CnOROGRAPH Y. 3 
 
 the Gabilan ridge reappears, and is separated by Petaluma 
 valley from the Sonoma ridge, that by Sonoma valley from the 
 Carneros ridge, and that by Napa valley from the main Coast 
 ridge. Farther north the spurs are so numerous, and con- 
 nected so closely together, that they are scarcely distinguished 
 by names ; and a large portion of the coast, from the main 
 ridge westward, is a mass of mountains. The Coast Moun- 
 tains are steep, rocky, rugged, and brown; north of 38° they 
 are covered with timber and brush ; south of that the ridges 
 nearest the ocean have some timber, those farther inland are 
 nearly bare. The main ridge near the head of the Sacramento 
 valley is called the Trinity ridge ; near Mount Diablo it is 
 called the Diablo ridge, or the Bolbones ridge ; south of 34° 
 it is called the San Bernardino ridge, and in one place the 
 Cuyamaca Mountain. 
 
 § 3. Coast Peaks and Passes. — The principal peaks of the 
 main ridge are Mount Linn, in 40° 10' ; Mount St. John, in 
 39° 25'; Mount Ripley, 7,500 feet high, in 39° 08'; Mount St. 
 Helena, 3,700 feet high, in 38° 40' ; Mount Diablo, 3,876 feet 
 high, in 37° 50'; Pacheco's Peak, 2,700 feet high, in 36° 57'; 
 Mount San Bernardino, 8,500 feet high, in 34° 20' ; and Mount 
 San Gorgonio, 7,000 feet high, in 33° 48'. In the Gabilan 
 ridge are the following peaks : the Chupadero, in 36° 35'; the 
 Gabilan, in 36° 50'; the Loma Prieta, 4,040 feet high, in 37° 
 08' ; and Table Mountain, or Tamalpais, in 37° 53'. The prin- 
 cipal passes in the main ridge are south of the outlet of the 
 Sacramento basin, and are — Livermore's Pass, 686 feet high, 
 in 37° 42'; Pacheco Pass, in 37° ; the Pass de los Robles, in 
 35° 20'; the Cajon de Tenoco, in 34° 40'; the 'Pass of San 
 Francisquito, 3,437 feet high, in 34° 35'; Williamson's Pass, 
 3,164 feet high, in 34° 30'; the Cajon Pass, 4,676 feet high, in 
 34° 10'; the San Gorgonio Pass, 2,808 feet high, in 33° 55'; 
 and Warner's Pass, 3,780 feet high, in 33° 10'. The Santa Mar- 
 garita Pass, with an altitude of 1,350 feet, leads across the 
 Santa Lucia ridge, in 35° 20' ; and the San Fernando I*ass, 
 1,956 feet high, crosses the Santa Susanna ridge, in 34° 20' 
 
4 EESOURCES OF C A L I F O E JS^ I A. 
 
 Having thus considered the mountains, let us look into the 
 valleys of the coast. The flat land west of the San Bernardino 
 Mountains, south of 34°, is rather composed of plains than of 
 valleys, though watered by the San Gabriel, Los Angeles, 
 Santa Ana, and other rivers. There are two of these plains : 
 the lower one about two hundred and fifty feet above the sea, 
 and skirting the coast ; the other one thousand or twelve hun- 
 dred feet high, nearer the mountains. On the lower plain are 
 Los Angeles, Anaheim, and San Pedro ; on the upper are San 
 Fernando, San Bernardino, Cocomongo, Jurupa, Temescal, 
 and Temecula. Northward of 34° we find long, flat, narrow, 
 fertile valleys, shut in by steep, rugged hills. We have already 
 mentioned the names of many of these valleys, as dividing cer- 
 tain ridges of the Coast Mountains from each other. South 
 of the Salinas all these valleys open upon the ocean, save the 
 Cuyama valley, the river of which runs in a caiion through 
 mountains as it approaches its mouth. The Pajaro River 
 breaks through the Gabilan Mountains, and makes a small but 
 rich valley. The average width of these coast valleys is five 
 miles at the mouth, with a length of from ten to forty miles, 
 narrowing to a point near the head in the mountains. The 
 Salinas valley, the .largest of all the coast valleys, is ninety 
 miles long, and from eight to fourteen wide. Three terraces 
 are distinctly traceable on each side of the river. The first 
 and lowest is about four miles wide, with a sort of a rich, 
 sandy loam ; the second rises with an abrupt edge, is eleven 
 feet higher, has about two miles of width on each side, and 
 has a coarser, poorer soil ; the third terrace is less regular in 
 height and width, and has a coarse, gravelly soil, scarcely fit 
 for cultivation. This terraced formation, with its variations 
 in richness of soil, is a strongly-marked feature of many valleys 
 in the state. Ordinarily, the coast valleys are separated from 
 each other by steep, rugged mountain-ridges, but there are 
 occasional exceptions. Thus, there is a low plain between 
 Russian River and Santa Rosa valley, which opens into Sono- 
 ma and Petulama valleys; and again, the Santa Clara and 
 
CHOEOGKAPHY. 5 
 
 Pajaro valleys are separated from each other by hills not more 
 than two hundred and fifty feet high ; and the valleys of the 
 Pajaro and the Salinas open into each other. So also the 
 divide between San Ramon and Amador valleys is so low as 
 to be scarcely noticed by the traveller ; and Amador valley is 
 connected, by a level road through a caiion, with Sunol valley, 
 and that by another caiion with the plain at San Jose Mission. 
 North of San Francisco Bay, the valleys of Suisan, Yaca, Pu- 
 tah, and Cache Creek, lie eastward from ISTapa valley. The 
 valley at the head of Putah Creek is sometimes called Berre- 
 yesa valley ; and that at the head of Cache Creek, Clear Lake 
 valley. North of Russian River there is little level land, and 
 that little is found in Eel River valley, about the shores of 
 Humboldt Bay, and about Crescent City. 
 
 § 4. Coast Rivers. — The rivers of the Coast Mountains have 
 necessarily but a short course. Those south of the bay of San 
 Francisco are the San Lorenzo, Pajaro, Sahnas, Cuyama, Santa 
 Inez, Santa Clara, Los Angeles, San Gabriel, Santa Ana, Santa 
 Margarita, San Luis Rey, San Diegaito, and San Diego. Some 
 of these are large streams in wet winters ; but, in the drought 
 of autumn, all those south of the Salinas are swallowed up in 
 the sands before reaching the ocean. Most of them are con- 
 stant streams to within ten or fifteen miles of their mouths. 
 The Santa Ana, the largest river on the southern coast, rises 
 in Mount San Bernardino, and is in its meanderings nearly one 
 hundred miles long, yet only in very wet seasons, once in six 
 or eight years, succeeds in getting to the sea. The San Gabriel 
 River sinks before reaching Monte, in Los Angeles county, 
 and, after passing three miles under ground, rises again. Tlie 
 intervening space, where there is no river, is very moist, sandy 
 ground, through which the water spreads and soaks. 
 
 W. H. Emory, in his report as member of the Mexican 
 Boundary Commission, writes thus ; 
 
 "The point at which water ceases to flow is quite variable ; 
 its more usual upward limit being marked at or near the pas- 
 sage of the stream from the first rocky ranges into the tertiary 
 
6 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 formation. The point, however, as before stated, is by no 
 means a fixed one : thus, during the night it extends farther 
 downward than in daytime ; in cloudy weather, for the same 
 reason, its course is more prolonged than under a clear sky. 
 In the stream-beds themselves, however dry, water is gener- 
 ally found a short distance below the surface. 
 
 " The descent of these streams in the rainy sea,son may be 
 either a gradual process in the progressive saturation of their 
 sandy beds, or, the saturation being accomplished by previous 
 showers, the irruption may be sudden. A fine example of this 
 sudden appearance was observed in the San Diego River, in 
 December, 1849 ; when, after a rainy night, by which its sandy 
 bed was completely saturated, the upper stream suddenly ap- 
 peared in the form of a foaming body of water^ moving onward 
 at the rate of a fast walk, curling round the river-bends, ab- 
 sorbing the pools, and soon filling its bed with a brimming, 
 swift current. An instance of the more gradual descent was 
 seen in the following season (December, 1850), when, from 
 the absence of local rain, its downward progress was slow and 
 interrupted." 
 
 The only navigable stream south of San Francisco Bay is 
 the Salinas, and that but for small vessels, and near its mouth. 
 
 North of San Francisco the main streams rising in the Coast 
 Mountains are the Russian, Eel, Elk, Mad, and Smith Rivers, 
 all permanent, but none navigable. 
 
 § 5. Coast Lakes. — The only large lake in the Coast district 
 is Clear Lake, which lies about eighty miles northward from 
 San Francisco. It is twenty miles long, and varies in breadth 
 from two to ten miles. Surrounded by a small valley of fer- 
 tile land, it lies in a deep basin bounded by high mountains, 
 with an outlet to the eastward, where its surplus waters are 
 carried off by Cache Creek to the Sacramento. The water of 
 Clear Lake is limpid; the vegetation on its banks abundant 
 and vigorous ; the scenery beautiful and romantic. In Ama- 
 dor valley, twenty-five miles eastward from San Francisco, 
 there is a small lake, covering a couple of hmidred acres. It 
 
CHOROGKAPHT. 7 
 
 lies in the course of the Alameda Creek. In the San Francis- 
 quito Pass, forty-five miles northward from Los Angeles, there 
 was a lake called Lake Elizabeth, covering several hundred 
 acres, but it has dried up of late. 
 
 These are the only lakes of note in the Coast district. Pre- 
 vious to 1860, there was a lake called the *'Laguna Sal," six 
 miles long and three wide, near Alamo, San Diego county; 
 but it entirely dried up in that year. The water had a strong 
 taste of alkali and sulphur. According to report, the lake was 
 formed about the year 1820. 
 
 § 6. Capes. — CaUfornia has two capes : Cape Mendocino, 
 in 40° 25'; and Point Conception, in 34° 25'. The former is 
 reputed to be the stormiest place on our coast ; the latter is 
 the southern limit of the cold fogs and cool summers. 
 
 § 7. Islands. — About forty miles westward from San Fran- 
 cisco are the Farallones, seven little islands of bare rocks, the 
 largest with an extent of a couple of acres, and of no signifi- 
 cance save as a danger to shipping, and as a point where a 
 large lighthouse is maintained. All the other islands of Cali- 
 fornia lie between 32° 50' ?,nd 04° 10', the farthest one being 
 about sixty miles from the mainland. They are named Santa 
 Cruz, Santa Catahna., San Clemente, Santa Rosa, San Nicolas, 
 Anacapa, and Santa Barbara. They are all hilly, rocky, bar- 
 ren, and of little value. Santa Cruz, the largest and best of 
 them, has good water and a few trees. It is twenty-one miles 
 long, with an average width of about three miles. All these 
 islands appear to be peaks of submerged mountain-ridges. Be- 
 tween them and the mainland lies the Santa Barbara channel. 
 
 § 8. Bays and Harbors. — California has four land-locked 
 bays — Humboldt, Tomales, San Francisco, and San Diego. 
 All of them are comparatively long and narrow, and separated 
 from the ocean by narrow peninsulas, their general course 
 being parallel with the coast. 
 
 Humboldt Bay is twelve miles long, from two to five miles 
 wide, and is separated from the ocean by two tongues of land, 
 which are covered by high and dense timber, and ofier an 
 
8 KESOTJRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 excellent protection against the strong winds of the coast. 
 The mouth of the bay, in latitude 40° 44', is a mile across, but 
 has breakers on each side ; and between them is a channel, a 
 quarter of a mile wide, with about eighteen feet of water at 
 loAV tide. The greater part of the bay is shallow, but there is 
 an abundance of deep water, with good anchorage and perfect 
 safety for shipping. The entrance is considered dangerous, 
 and a steam-tug escorts nearly all sailing-vessels in and out. 
 
 Tomales Bay is fourteen miles long and two miles wide, 
 separated from the ocean by a strip of land a mile and a half 
 wide. Its mouth is in 38° 15'. Its course is southeastward, 
 and it is open to the northwest winds. The water is about 
 twelve feet deep. Tomales Bay is surrounded by hiUs, and is 
 of little value for commerce. 
 
 San Francisco Bay, one of the finest bays in the world for 
 the purposes of commerce, is about eight miles wide and fifty 
 long, reaching from 37° 10' to 38°. Its entrance, called the 
 Golden Gate, or Chrysopylis, is a mile wide, between 37" 
 48' and 37° 49'. The peninsulas which separate the bay from 
 the ocean are from six to fifteen miles wide. The water on 
 the bar is thirty feet deep at low water ; inside much deeper, 
 with excellent holding-gromid, and room for all the shipping 
 of the world. 
 
 Connected with this bay are those of San Pablo and Suisun, 
 lying farther inland, on the course of the outlet of the waters 
 of the Sacramento basin. San Pablo Bay is nearly round, 
 about ten miles in diameter, and lies north of San Francisco 
 Bay, with which it is connected by an unnamed strait, about 
 three miles wide. Suisun Bay, about four miles wide by eight 
 long, lies eastward of San Pablo Bay, with which it is con- 
 nected by the strait of Carquinez, which is a mile wide. Both 
 bays are deep, but the water in the strait is only sixteen, feet 
 deep at low tide, and large vessels cannot ascend beyond it. 
 Benicia, on the bank of the strait, is the head of navigation, 
 and aspires to be the main port of the coast, but in vaia. Yal- 
 lejo, seven miles from Benicia, still has hopes of that kind. 
 
CHOEOGEAPHT. 9 
 
 The harbor of Yallcjo is excellent, lying between Mare Island 
 and the mainland. It is half a mile wide, by three miles long, 
 with four fathoms of water at low tide, excellent holding- 
 ground, and perfect protection against all winds. 
 
 The bay of San Diego is twelve miles long, from one to two 
 miles wide, and crescent-shaped, running from the entrance, 
 and then turnmg to the southeastward. A channel, thirty 
 feet deep and half a mile wide, extends more than half the 
 length of the bay from the entrance. The holding-ground is 
 good; the protection from the winds perfect. There is no 
 difficulty in entering at any time, but it is not safe for sailing- 
 vessels to go out during gales from the southeast. 
 
 In latitude 34° 38', thirty-five miles southeastward from Los 
 Angeles, is a land-locked estuary about eight miles long and 
 from half a mile to a mile wide. It has not been surveyed, and 
 its value for commerce is not known, but there has been some 
 talk lately of using it as a port for some of the adjacent towns. 
 The entrance is not more than ten feet deep, and probably not 
 so deep as that. 
 
 Of the open harbors, that of Crescent City is the most 
 northern, in latitude 41° 44'. It lies on the southern side of a 
 rocky point that juts out about half a mile in a westward 
 direction, at right angles to the general line of the coast. The 
 harbor is small and shallow, with a bottom of sand and rocks. 
 Vessels drawing twelve feet of water lie nearly half a mile 
 from the shore. The harbor is safe while the wind blows 
 from the north and northwest, but Tcry dangerous when it 
 blows from the southward. The harbor might be made much 
 more safe by a breakwater, at a cost of one or two millions 
 of dollars, but the trade of the place would never justify such 
 an expenditure. 
 
 Trijiidad, in 41° 03', is a very small harbor, open to the 
 south, with deep water and excellent holding-ground. 
 
 Bodega Bay, in 38° 18', has nine feet of wtttdi, and opens 
 to the southward, so that the anchorage is secure only while 
 the wind blows from the north. Tomales Bay, just opposite. 
 
10 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 opens into the southern part of Bodega Bay, and is only five 
 miles distant from the Bodega anchorage ; and, as one is secure 
 against nortliern and the other against southern winds, vessels 
 are safe in all weathers, because they can easily run across to 
 whichever may prove the sheltered side. 
 
 The bay of Sir Francis Drake, in latitude 38°, is small, open 
 to the south, and of no value to commerce. 
 
 Half Moon Bay is a small roadstead, eighteen miles south of 
 the Golden Gate. 
 
 Santa Cruz Harbor, on the northern side of Monterey Bay, 
 in 36° 57', is small, has four fathoms of water, a sandy bottom, 
 and is open to the south. 
 
 Twelve miles ftirther south is the mouth of the Salinas River, 
 which is about two hundred yards wide, and has seven feet of 
 water. It is entered by small schooners, with the help of a 
 steam-tug. 
 
 Eight miles farther to the southward is the harbor of Mon- 
 terey, which is large and deep, and has good holding-ground. 
 It is open to the north. 
 
 San Simeon Harbor, in 35° 38', has a good anchorage, and 
 is safe while the wind blows from the north, but it offers no 
 protection against storms from the southward. The bottom 
 is sandy. 
 
 San Luis Obispo Harbor, in 35° 10', has a good anchorage, 
 safe at all times, except during storms from the southward. 
 
 Santa Barbara, in 34° 24', has an open harbor, exposed to 
 the south winds. The water is deep, and the bottom hard. 
 
 San Pedro, in 33° 43', is open to the south, but probably 
 might be made secure by a breakwater, to cost one million of 
 dollars. The bottom is hard. 
 
 The difference between extreme high tide and extreme low 
 tide is about nine feet at Crescent City, and seven feet at San 
 Diego. At San Francisco, tiie establishment of the port is 
 ten hours. 
 
 § 9. Sacramento Basin. — The low land of the Sacramento 
 basin, bounded on the west by the Coast Mountains and on 
 
CHOEOGEAPHY. 11 
 
 the east by the Sierra Nevada, which ranges meet both at the 
 north and the south, is the heart of the state, four hundred 
 miles long by fifty wide, reaching from latitude 35° to 40° 30'. 
 It is drained by two rivers : the Sacramento, running from the 
 north ; and the San Joaquin, from the south. They meet and 
 unite in the centre of the basin, at 38°, and break throuo-h the 
 Coast range to the Pacific, forming the bays of Suisun, San 
 Pablo, and San Francisco, on their way. The mountains rise 
 steeply from the edge of the valley, which is nearly level, about 
 thirty feet above the level of the sea at the junction of the 
 rivers, and two hundred feet higher where they issue from the 
 mountains. Part of the Sacramento valley shows terraces, the 
 farthest from the river being a coarse gravel. The richest soil 
 is on the immediate bank. The great body of the valley is 
 bare of trees. Its even surface is broken in only one place, 
 by the " Buttes," a range of volcanic hills, six miles wide by 
 twelve long, with three peaks, about two thousand feet high, 
 which rise in lonely abruptness from the middle of the plain, 
 in 39° 20'. The general course of the two main rivers of the 
 basin lies nearly midway between the two mountain-chains, 
 but almost all their tributaries come from the Sierra Nevada, 
 which, Uke the Coast range, has most of its wealth on its western 
 slope. In the four hundred miles from Tejon to Shasta there 
 are a dozen creeks marked on the map as flowing eastward 
 from the Coast range to the San Joaquin and Sacramento ; but 
 during the summer, three-fourths of them are swallowed up 
 in the sands before reaching their mouths. Not one south of 
 38° is a permanent stream. From the Sierra Nevada a num- 
 ber of rivers run westward. Beginning at the north, we have 
 the Pit, Feather, Yuba, American, Cosumnes, Mokelumne, 
 Calaveras, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, Merced, San Joaquin, King's, 
 White, and Kern Rivers — all of them considerable streams, 
 though some of those in the southern part of the Sacramento 
 basin are swallowed up in the sands, in the dry seasons, before 
 reachmg their mouths. The San Joaquin River does not rise 
 at the extreme southern end of the basin, but one hundred 
 
12 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 miles northward from it, in the Sierra Nevada. After running 
 westward to the middle of the valley, it turns northward. 
 From its bend southward, the valley discharges no water to 
 the ocean during the summer ; but in wet winters there are 
 continuous sloughs, or pieces of marsh-like ground, from the 
 Tejon to the San Joaquin. In the dry season, no channel is 
 visible for the escape of the waters of Tulare and Kern Lakes. 
 
 § 10. Bivers of the Sacramento Basin. — The rivers flow- 
 ing down from the Sierra Nevada are about one hundred and 
 twenty miles long on an average, following their courses. The 
 upper half of their length is in the mountains, where they are 
 torrents, falling five thousand feet in fifty miles. Their beds 
 are in deep canons ; after reaching the plain their currents are 
 gentle, and they meander between low banks, fringed with 
 oaks, sycamores, cotton wood, and willows. In the south- 
 ern part of the Sacramento basin there are several large 
 streams, which, soon after issuing from the mountains, divide 
 into a number of channels, as do some large rivers which have 
 deltas near their entrance to the sea. King's River, which is 
 about eighty yards wide where it leaves the mountains, divides 
 into seven or eight channels, which all unite again. The Ca- 
 huilla or Pipiyuma River, also a large stream, divides into a 
 number of channels, which irrigate " the Four-Creek country," 
 and render it one of the most fruitful parts of the state. 
 
 The Sacramento River is navigable for steamers drawing 
 three feet of water, to Sacramento City, and to Red Bluff for 
 boats drawing fifteen inches. The Feather River is navigated 
 by steamers drawing fifteen inches, to Marysville, seventy-five 
 miles from Sacramento ; and boats have ascended to Oroville, 
 twenty-five miles farther. Steamers drawing five feet can run 
 regularly to Stockton, on the San Joaquin, a distance of one 
 hundred and thirty miles from San Francisco ; and in times of 
 higrh water, a boat drawino^ about fifteen inches ascends to 
 Fresno City, one hundred and fifty miles farther. A number 
 of sloughs or tide-water creeks, navigable for small vessels, 
 open into the bays of San Francisco, San Pablo, and Suisun. 
 
CHOEOGRAPnT. 13 
 
 The most notable of these are the Alviso or Guadalupe slough, 
 at the head of San Francisco Bay ; the San Antonio slongh, 
 opposite San Francisco city ; the Petaluma, Sonoma, and Napa 
 sloughs, opening into San Pablo Bay; and Suisun and Pacheco 
 sloughs, opening into Suisun Bay. 
 
 § 11. Tide-Land. — Along the borders of these bays, and of 
 the Tulare and Kern Lakes, and of the Sacramento and San 
 Joaquin Rivers, there are extensive tracts of swamp-lands, usu- 
 ally called "tule-lands," from the tule^ a species of rush which 
 grows on them. Nearly all the tule-land west of Sacramento 
 and Stockton, to which points the tides extend, are salt marsh- 
 es ; but north of Sacramento, and south of Stockton, the tule- 
 lands are fresh-water swamps. The extent of this marshy land 
 varies in different seasons ; but at my estimate, there are eighty 
 square miles on the borders of San Francisco Bay, eighty on 
 San Pablo Bay, sixty on Suisun Bay, two hundred on the Sac- 
 ramento River, one hundred on the San Joaquin, two hundred 
 on the Tulare Lake, and the slough leading from it, and one 
 hundred and twenty south of Tulare Lake — making eight 
 hundred and forty square miles in all. 
 
 § 12. Bierra Nevada. — The Sierra Nevada is four hundred 
 and fifty miles long (in California) and seventy wide, with a 
 height varying from five thousand to eight thousand feet above 
 the sea-level. Nearly its whole width is occupied with its 
 western slope, which descends to a level of three hundred feet 
 above the ocean ; whereas the slope on the eastern side is only 
 five or six miles wide, and terminates in the Great Basin, which 
 is itself from four thousand to five thousand feet above the sea. 
 Nearly all the snows and rains that visit the Sierra Nevada fall 
 on its western slope, which has all the large rivers. These 
 rivers run westward, at right angles to the course of the chain, 
 and cut it into steep hills and deep ravines, canons, and chasms. 
 The valleys are all small, and it is rare to see a hundred acres 
 of level, tillable land, even on the banks of the largest moun- 
 tain-streams. The greater pnrt of the Sierra Nevada is cov- 
 ered with timber. The oak, manzanita, and nut-pine, grow to 
 
14 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 about twenty-five hundred feet above the sea ; and then the 
 coniferous trees appear, and are found in dense forests to a 
 height of six thousand feet. 
 
 § 13. Peaks and Passes of' the Sierra. — Mount Shasta, 
 which rises, in 41° 30', high into the region of perpetual snow, 
 the loftiest peak in the state, may be treated as belonging to 
 the Sierra Nevada, though in fact it stands midway between 
 that range and the Coast Mountains, and is connected by high 
 mountain-ridges with both of them. Its height is given by 
 Wilkes (Exploring Expedition, vol. v., p. 240) at 14,390 feet. 
 Kearly a perpendicular mile of it is always covered with snow, 
 and it is visible in every direction for more than a hundred 
 miles, presenting to the traveller the most prominent landmark 
 of the state. It is of volcanic origin, and still emits sulphure- 
 ous vapors from its summit. Several parties have ascended to 
 its top. The other most notable peaks in the Sierra Nevada 
 are — Lassen's Peak, 9,000 feet high, in 40° 22', also of vol- 
 canic origin; the Donnieville Buttes, 8,500 feet high; Pilot 
 Peak, 7,300 feet high, in 39° 50; Castle Peak, 11,000 feet 
 high, in 38° 10' ; and Mount Breckenridge, 7,500 feet high, in 
 35° 20'. Mount Shasta is the only mountain which has snow 
 on its southern and southwestern slopes throughout the year ; 
 the other-mentioned peaks lose all their snow in September 
 and October, except in deep, shady ravines on their northern 
 slopes. 
 
 The most notable passes in the Sierra Nevada are the fol- 
 lowing: Lassen's, 7,000 feet high, in latitude 41° 50'; Fredo- 
 nyer's, 5,667 feet high, m 40° 47'; Beckworth's, in 39° 50'; 
 Kenness's, in 39° 30'; Truckey, 5,636 feet high, in 39° 25'; 
 Johnson's, 6,752 feet high, in 38° 50'; Carson's, 7,972 feet 
 high, in 38° 43'; Sonora, 10,132 feet high, in 38° 15'; Walk- 
 er's, 5,302 feet high, in 35° 40' ; Hum-pa-ya-mup, 5,356 feet 
 high, in 35° 35' ; Tehachepa, 4,020 feet high, in 35° 10' ; Tejon, 
 6,285 feet high, in 35° ; and Cajon de las Uvas, 4,256 feet high, 
 in 34° 50'. The last five passes are in the Sierra Nevada, south 
 of its bend, where it turns westward to meet the Coast range. 
 
CHOROGRAPHT. 15 
 
 Tlie Johnson Pass is used by most of the travel and traffic 
 between Sacramento and Utah ; the Henness Pass lies east of 
 jNIarysville, and is used by the people of that neighborhood ; 
 and the Cajon de las Uvas is used by travellers between the 
 San Joaquin valley and the Los Angeles district. 
 
 § 14. Lakes of the Sierra. — The Sierra Nevada has few 
 lakes. The most notable one is Lake Bigler, about twenty 
 miles long and ten wide, and six thousand feet above the level 
 of the sea, in latitude 39°, and on the eastern border of the 
 state. Part of the lake is in Utah. Its waters flow eastward 
 into Truckey River. In the eastern part of Nevada county 
 there is a group of two dozen lakes, called the Eureka Lakes ; 
 the largest are three miles long and a mile wide. 
 
 § 15. Plateau of the Sierra Nevada. — About latitude 40°, 
 the Sierra Nevada seems to divide or to fork — one branch run- 
 ning northward, in the line of the main chain ; the other north- 
 westward, to Mount Shasta. Between these two branches, 
 and between 40° and 42°, is a high table-land or plateau, about 
 one hundred and twenty miles long, and five thousand feet 
 above the ocean-level. This plateau is an independent basin, 
 and its waters never leave it, but flow into a few lakes, where 
 they are swallowed up in the sands. The district bears a 
 strong resemblance in many of its features to the Great Basin 
 of Utah, with which it should perhaps be classed. The main 
 stream is Susan River, which, after a course of forty miles in 
 an eastward direction, empties into Honey Lake, which is 
 twelve miles long by five wide — or was, for in 1859 the lake 
 dried up, and again dried up in 1860. The lake, when full, 
 was shallow, with thick, yellowish water, of a saline taste. 
 Northwestward from Honey Lake, and distant thirty miles 
 from it, is Eagle Lake, about half the size of the other. The 
 land is barren, and the vegetation scanty. Pit River starts in 
 the northeastern corner of the state, and breaks through the 
 plateau. North of the river are Wright Lake and Rhett Lake, 
 within five miles of the Oregon line ; and Goose Lake and Low- 
 er Klamath Lake, partly in Oregon and partly in California. 
 
16 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKXIA. 
 
 The largest is Goose Lake, ten miles long and five wide. All 
 are destitute of large tributaries, sweet water, and valuable 
 adjacent land. 
 
 § 16. Klamath Basin. — North of latitude 41° lies the basin 
 of the Klamath River, which rises in Oregon, crosses the Cali- 
 fornian line about eighty miles from the sea, then turns south- 
 westward, and, after a course of about one hundred and fifty 
 miles, empties into the Pacific in 41° 33'. The basin of the 
 Klamath is very rugged, particularly that part of it within 
 forty miles of the ocean. Along the main river there is no 
 valley, or bottom-land ; its whole length is between steep hills 
 and mountains, and through rocky caiions. Its largest tribu- 
 taries, the Trinity and Salmon, run through a country almost 
 as rugged as that bordering the main stream. Scott and Shasta 
 Rivers, which are the only other notable tributaries of the Kla- 
 math — they all flow from the southward — have valleys of 
 bottom-land, about five miles wide and forty long. 
 
 §17. TItah Basin. — A prominent feature of the North 
 American continent is the Great Basin of Utah, a triangular 
 district of country, bounded on the north by the basin of the 
 Columbia, on the southeast by the basin of the Colorado, and 
 on the southwest by the Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino 
 Mountains. This Great Basin — an elevated tract of laud, most 
 of which is four thousand or five thousand feet above the sea- 
 level, mountainous, barren, and cheerless, with no outlet for 
 its waters — extends into California, including a district about 
 two hundred miles long and one hundred wide, in the south- 
 eastern portion of the state. The Californian portion of the 
 Great Basin is one of the driest and most sterile parts of the 
 earth's surface, cut up by numerous irregular ridges of bare, 
 rocky mountains, with intervening valleys of sand and volcanic 
 scoriae, and occasional springs and little streams which termi- 
 nate in lakes, presenting a Avide extent of muddy salt water 
 after heavy rains, and, in the dry season, wide beds of dried 
 and cracked mud, covered with a white alkaline efflorescence. 
 The chief stream in the Californian portion of the Great Basin 
 
CHOROGRAPHY. 17 
 
 is the Mojave, which rises on the northern slope of Mount San 
 Bernardino, and, after running about one liundred miles in a 
 northeastward direction, sinks in the sand. The Mojave re- 
 ceives no tributaries after it leaves the side of Mount San Ber- 
 nardino. After sinldng, it rises again ; or rather pools of water 
 are found in the low places of its bed, the water evidently- 
 soaking through the sand and following the bed of the stream. 
 The next stream in importance is Owen's Kiver, which runs 
 southward seventy-five miles along the foot of the Sierra ISTe- 
 vada, and terminates in Owen Lake, which lies in latitude 36° 
 25', and is fifteen miles long by nine wide. Northward, one 
 hundred miles from Owen Lake, is Mono Lake, eight miles 
 long and six wide, sometimes called " the Dead Sea of Califor- 
 nia." No fish can live in the water, which is so heavy with 
 saline substances, that the human body floats in it very lightly ; 
 thongh it is so strongly alkaline, that it scalds the skin. In 
 the midst of the lake is an island, several miles long. While 
 the greater part of the Utah Basin is high above the level of 
 the sea, there is a portion of it, called " Death Valley," three 
 hundred and seventy-seven feet below the sea-level ; and, not- 
 withstanding its great depth, it is one of the driest and most 
 desolate parts of that basin of deserts. 
 
 § 18. Colorado Desert. — A district, about seventy miles 
 wide by one hundred and forty long, on the southeastern bor- 
 der of the state, belongs to the basin of the Colorado River. 
 It is usually called the " Colorado Desert," because of its bar- 
 ren, sandy soil, and scanty vegetation. In some places the 
 soil is composed of sand, packed together firmly, with a hard 
 and smooth surface, which reflects light like a mirror ; in other 
 places are niountains of loose sand, which are continually shift- 
 ing. In latitude 33° 20', and longitude 115° 50', is a district, 
 thirty miles square or more, which is seventy feet below the 
 level of the sea. It is supposed that at one time the Gulf of 
 California extended several hundred miles farther north than 
 it now does ; and that the Colorado River, in long ages, depos- 
 ited so much alluvium as to make banks down to the present 
 
18 EESOUECES OF CALIFORXIA. 
 
 head of the gulf, thus cutting off from its connection with the 
 ocean that part of the gulf now dry. The evaporation in this 
 desert far exceeds the fall of rain ; so it was not long before 
 this lake was dried up. When the Colorado River is very- 
 high, it breaks over its banks about forty miles southward 
 from Fort Yuma, and sends a large stream, called New River, 
 northwestward a distance of a hundred miles or more, to the 
 lowest portion of the desert. A proposition has been made 
 to cut a canal from the river to the low ground ; so that the 
 land, which is said to be of excellent quality, might be irri- 
 gated and cultivated : but no accurate survey has yet been 
 made of a route for the canal, or of the district to be irrigated. 
 The Colorado River is navigable to Fort Yuma, a distance of 
 seventy-five miles from its mouth. The average depth is ten 
 feet, but there are shoals which have not more than two feet 
 at low water ; the tide rises ten feet. The channel is crooked, 
 and the bottom is of sand, which is constantly changing posi- 
 tion. The banks of the river are low and muddy. The aver- 
 age current runs at the rate of two and a half miles per hour. 
 The river is high in July, when the snows of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains (in latitude 3 8°-44°) melt, and then the flood covers the 
 low bottom-land along the river-banks. 
 
 § 19. Area of the State. — The total area of the state amounts 
 to about 155,000 square miles, of which there are, at my esti- 
 mate, 42,000 in the mountains and valleys of the coast, 40,000 
 in the Sierra Nevada and its plateau, 20,000 in the low land 
 of the Sacramento Basin, 30,000 in the Great Basin of Utah, 
 15,000 in the Colorado Desert, and 8,000 in the Klamath Basin. 
 In the 42,000 square miles of the coast slope, 16,000 may be 
 put down as valley and 26,000 as mountain. 
 
CM.IMATP.. 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 § 20. General Remarks. — The climate of California is nn- 
 lite that of every other country, and particularly dissimilar to 
 that of the American states east of the Rocky Mountains. In 
 general character it resembles the climate of western Europe. 
 Its chief peculiarities, as distinguished from the Eastern states, 
 are, that the winters are warmer ; the summers — especially at 
 night — cooler ; the changes from heat to cold not so great nor 
 so frequent ; the quantity of rain less, and confined principally 
 to the winter and spring months ; the atmosphere drier ; the 
 cloudy days fewer ; thunder, lightning, hail, snow and ice, and 
 the aurora borealis, rarer ; the winds more regular — blowing 
 from the north for fair weather, and from the south for storms ; 
 and earthquakes more frequent. 
 
 The state reaches through nine and a quarter degrees of lati- 
 tude, from 32° 45' to 42°, San Diego being as far south as 
 Charleston, and Crescent City as far north as Providence. 
 Much of the Golden state has the winter of South Carolina, 
 and the summer of Rhode Island. The orange, the lemon, the 
 oUve, the fig, the pomegranate, the vine, the peach, the apple, 
 wheat, and barley, all find most congenial climes in Califor 
 nia. . 
 
 The state, indeed, has many climates : one for the western 
 slope of the Coast range between Point Conception and Cape 
 Mendocino ; another for the low land of the Sacramento Basin ; 
 
20 RESOTTECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 another for the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Basin ; another for 
 the Great Basin of Utah ; another for the coast south of Point 
 Conception ; and still another for the Colorado Desert. 
 
 The causes of these peculiarities of climate are chiefly to be 
 found in the position of the country — a narrow strip on the 
 western side of the continent, bounded on the east by a high 
 range of mountains that shuts the coast ofi* from all the influ- 
 ences of the interior; bordering on the w^ide Pacific Ocean, 
 washed by a warm current flowing across from the China Sea ; 
 with a shore line that runs nearly north and south, and is ex- 
 posed in all its length to the strong winds constantly blowing 
 southeastward over the ocean. 
 
 § 21. Temperature of the Middle Coast. — On the coast, 
 between latitudes 35° and 40°, there is little diflerence in the 
 temperatures of winter and summer. San Francisco is in the 
 same latitude with Washington and St. Louis, but knows nei- 
 ther the cold winters nor the hot summers which afflict those 
 places. Ice is rarely formed in the Californian metropolis, and 
 never more than an inch in thickness ; and the thermometer 
 never stays at the freezing point twenty-four consecutive hours. 
 The lowest point which the thermometer has ever reached in 
 San Francisco, since observations have been taken, was 22° 
 Fahrenheit in January, 1862 ; and previous to that time it had 
 never fallen below 25° ; while in St. Louis it goes down to 12° 
 every winter, and remains near that figure for many consecu- 
 tive days. The lowest figures which the mercury reached in 
 the daytime at San Francisco, in January of the years 1851, 
 '52, '53, '54, and '55, were respectively 30°, 35°, 41°, 25°, and 
 33°, showing that in thi-ee Januaries out of five no ice at all 
 was formed in the daytime ; and when the therm(^meter fell to 
 25° in 1854, the weather was declared to be colder than it had 
 ever been before, " witliin the memory of the oldest inhabit- 
 ant." During nine years' residence in the citA', I never have 
 seen ice formed here half an inch thick, and never saw the 
 slightest film of it formed on water in a house. Snow some- 
 times falls, but I have never seen the streets dressed in white. 
 
CLIMATE. 21 
 
 In St. Louis, the winter months rarely have a day which is 
 really comfortable in the open air ; while at least half the sea- 
 son is so in San Francisco, the sky being clear, the sun warm, 
 and the breezes gentle, so that the weather bears a strong re- 
 semblance in temperature to the Indi.^n summer in the upper 
 Mississippi basin. Our coldest winter days, at noon, are as 
 warm as the warmest in Philadelphia. 
 
 On the other hand, the summers are cool or cold. In No- 
 Tember, 1854, the lowest figure reached by the thermometer 
 in San Francisco, was 47°, while in July of the same year it 
 was at 46° — showing that at no time in the former month was it 
 so cold as at one time in the latter. The mean temperature of 
 July is 57°, twenty-one degrees lower than in Washington 
 city. There are not more than a dozen days in the year when 
 the thermometer rises above 80° — at which figure heat first 
 begins to be oppressive — while in St. Louis and at Washing- 
 ton there are in every year from sixty to ninety days that see 
 that height. No matter how warm the day at noon, the even- 
 ings and mornings are always cool, and blankets are necessary 
 — at least a pair of them — as a bed-covering, every night. 
 
 Although the mean temperature of summer differs little from 
 that of winter, yet there are sometimes very warm days, which 
 jnay be succeeded immediately by very cool nights. San Fran- 
 cisco never sees more than three hot days in succession. When 
 the sun has had an opportunity to rage for so long a period, 
 the air in the interior of the state becomes so hot, that it rises 
 rapidly ; and the ocean-winds, which must rush to supply the 
 place, never fail to bring cool weather to the vicinity of the 
 Golden Gate. Thus the mercury has risen (and that was its 
 highest) to 97°, and it often f dis in July to 46° ; and such a 
 change of fifty degrees might occur within twelve hours. The 
 average range of the thermometer in July and August is about 
 twenty degrees — from 50° to 70°. Yet, as the mornings and 
 evenings are invariably cool, and the noons are not always 
 warm, " summer clothing ' is seldom worn by men, and never 
 for twelve consecutive hours. The common custom is, to wear 
 
22 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 woollen coats and trousers of th^ same thickness in suminer 
 and winter. The persons who visit San Francisc6 during the 
 summer, from the interior of the state, where the climate from 
 May to October is much warmer, and where summer clothes 
 are worn, are much bothered at having to bring their winter 
 clothes with them. The editor of a Stockton paper, disgusted 
 with the climate of the metropolis in July, expressed himself 
 somewhat after this manner : " You go out in the morning 
 shivering, notwithstanding the fact that you are dressed in 
 heavy woollen clothing and under-clothing, and have a thick 
 overcoat buttoned up to your throat. At 8.30 you unbutton 
 two of the upper buttons; at 9 you unbutton the coat all the 
 way down; at 9.30 you take it off; at 10 you take off your 
 woollen coat, and put on a summer coat; at 11 you take off all 
 your woollen and put on light summer clothing : at 4 it begins 
 to grow cool, and you to put on your woollen again ; and by 
 7 o'clock your overcoat is buttoned to the chin, and you shiver 
 until bedtime." 
 
 The coolness of the summer is caused by the winds and 
 fogs which blow in from the ocean, whose temperature at the 
 Farallones never varies more than a degree or two from 42°. 
 A strong wind blows along the coast from the north and north- 
 west during almost the whole year ; and it blows strongly upon 
 the land for several hours after eleven o'clock in the morning 
 and after five in the evening, and not unfrequently it continues 
 the whole twenty-four hours. The common prevalence of this 
 wind during the afternoon renders the mornings the pleasant- 
 est part of the summer weather in San Francisco ; and tlie more 
 delicate and fashionable ladies habitually make their calls and 
 allow their children to go into the street only before mid-day. In 
 June, July, and August, heavy, wet, cold mists come up from 
 the sea at six in the evening, and continue until eight or nine 
 in the morning. In the winter, fogs are rarer, and do not 
 commence so early in the evenings, and the winds arc not so 
 strong ; so that, in these respects, the whiter is the plcasanter 
 season of the year. 
 
CLIMATE. 23 
 
 Dr. H. Gibbons, speaking of the mists and fogs at San Fran- 
 cisco, says : 
 
 " It is curious to observe the conflict between the absorbing 
 power of the air and the supplying power of the ocean, in re- 
 gard to moisture. Toward noon, w^hen the w^ind rises, huge 
 columns of mist may be seen piled along the coast, three or 
 four miles west of the city, and pouring in like a deluge upon 
 the land. But the air of the land, w^iich is always thirsty, 
 drinks it up Avith astonishing avidity; so that the impending 
 wave, though in a current moving from thirty to fifty miles an 
 hour, makes slow progress. By the middle of the afternoon 
 it is within a mile or tw^o of the city ; and there it stands, like 
 a solid mass of water several hundred feet in depth, rolling and 
 tumbling toward you (not without grandeur and majesty), and 
 threatening to overwhelm you in a few seconds. You await 
 its coming, but it comes not ; it even recedes, to return and 
 recede again. Not until the sun has lost his calorific power 
 does the atmosphere reach the ^^oint of saturation ; and then, 
 toward sunset or later, every thing is submerged by the va- 
 pory flood. In the course of the evening the wind falls. Dur- 
 ing the night the mist is gradually dissolved and disappears 
 from the lower stratum of air, while it forms a heavy cloud 
 above. About the middle of the forenoon the cloud is dis- 
 persed by the rays of the sun. The dispersion is rapid, tlie 
 sky often becoming entirely clear in less than half an hour. 
 
 " If it be possible to distinguish between fog and mist — re- 
 garding the former as impalpable, and the latter as composed 
 of palpable particles of moisture — I may remark that mist be- 
 longs only to the summer and fog to the winter climate of San 
 Francisco. There is no mist in winter, and no fog in summer. 
 At all seasons the drying tendency of the atmosphere is ob- 
 servable. You notice none of those phenomena which in other 
 climates depend on an excess of water in the air, and on sud- 
 den changes of temperature. The moisture does not condense 
 on your window^s, nor on the plastered walls ; salt does not 
 liquify, nor even exhibit the slightest dampness ; and the house- 
 
24 PvESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 wife has no trouble in drying her clothes, provided it should 
 not rain. In fact, the atmosphere of San Francisco, in spite of 
 sea winds and mists, is a dry atmosphere." 
 
 The mean temperatures of spring, summer, autumn, and win- 
 ter, are 54°, 57°, 56°, and 50° respectively, showing a difference 
 of only seven degrees between the average of winter and sum- 
 mer ; whereas a similar comparison in the climate of New York 
 city shows a difference of thirty-nine degrees. There is a range 
 of two degrees more in San Francisco by taking the months 
 separately — January, the coldest month, having a mean tem- 
 perature of 49°, and September, the warmest, a mean of 58°. 
 October is as warm as July, and in some years it has been 
 warmer. The mean of the whole year is 54°, a temperature 
 that requires heavy woollen clothing for comfort. For vigor- 
 ous, industrious men, the climate of San Francisco is the health- 
 iest and most agreeable in the Avorld. I prefer it to all others. 
 But, to enjoy it, a man should have warm blood, full veins, 
 and active habits ; if he is weak or idle, he w^ill find it too cool 
 for him. It is a climate that allows a person to be out in the 
 open air all the time ; no hour is lost because of either exces- 
 sive heat or excessive cold. Women do not like the climate 
 so well as men ; it is too cool for their less vigorous constitu- 
 tions and sedentary habits. 
 
 San Francisco does not lie immediately on the ocean, but 
 only six miles from it, and where there is a great gap to let in 
 the winds and fogs. The nearer the Pacific, the denser and 
 more frequent the fogs, the stronger the winds, the warmer 
 the winters, and the cooler the summers. The great ocean is 
 a powerful equalizer of climate : as you advance into the inte- 
 rior, the range of heat and cold becomes greater. In the coast 
 valleys you can choose your distance. San Rafael is ten miles 
 from the Pacific, Petaluma twenty, Sonoma thirty, Napa thir- 
 ty-five, Suisun forty-five, and Vaca valley fifty. Sonoma valley 
 has a delightful climate, free from fogs and cold winds, and 
 yet blessed with a sea-breeze which tempers the heat of every 
 summer day to the precise degree necessary to the perfect 
 
CLIMATE. 25 
 
 happiness of a man who wishes to take life easy, and do noth- 
 ing. Indeed, all the valleys embosomed in the Coast Moun- 
 tains, from Humboldt Bay to Santa Barbara, have beautiful 
 climes, which will compare favorably, I think, with the best 
 of Italy. The summer days are always warm, rarely hot ; the 
 mornings and evenings are clear and pleasant ; in winter, ice 
 never forms over two inches in thickness, and if snow falls, it 
 never lies twenty-four hours. 
 
 § 22. Clear Days. — On an average, there are two hundred 
 and twenty perfectly clear days in a year, without a cloud ; 
 eighty five days wherein clouds are seen, though in many of 
 them the sun is visible ; and sixty rainy. Italy cannot surpass 
 that. New York has scarcely half so many perfectly clear 
 days. From the first of April till the first of November, there 
 are in ordinary seasons fifteen cloudy days ; and from the first 
 of November till the first of April, half the days are clear. It 
 often happens that weeks upon weeks in winter, and months 
 upon months in summer, pass without a cloud ; that is, at a 
 distance of thirty miles from the ocean. Near the shore, coast- 
 clouds are frequently blown up from the sea, but they disap- 
 pear after ten o'clock in the morning. 
 
 § 23. TJie Sirocco. — One case, and only one, is on record, 
 of a sirocco, or burning-hot wind, visiting the coast. This one 
 was felt at the town of Santa Barbara, in latitude 34° 20', on 
 the ocean-shore, on the 17th of June, 1859. The Gazette news- 
 paper of that place, published six days afterward, said : 
 
 "Friday, 17th June, will be long remembered by the inhab- 
 itants of Santa Barbara, from the burning, blasting heat expe- 
 rienced that day, and the efiects thereof Indeed, it is said 
 that, for the space of thirty years, nothing in comparison has 
 been felt in this county, and, we doubt, in any other. The 
 sun rose like a ball of fire on that day ; but though quite warm, 
 no inconvenience was caused thereby until two o'clock, p. m., 
 when suddenly a blast of heated air swept through our streets, 
 followed quickly by others ; and shortly afterward the atmo- 
 sphere became so intensely heated, that no human being could 
 2 
 
26 EESOUBCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 withstand its force : all sought their dwellings, and had to shut 
 doors and windows, and remain for hours confined to their 
 houses. The effect of such intense and unparalleled heat was 
 demonstrated by the death of calves, rabbits, birds, etc. The 
 trees were all blasted ; and the fruit, such as pears and apples, 
 literally roasted on the trees ere they fell to the ground, and 
 the same as if they had been cast on live coals. But, strange to 
 say, they were only burned on one side — the direction whence 
 came the wind. All kinds of metal became so heated, that for 
 hours nothing of the kind could be touched with the naked 
 hands. The thermometer rose to nearly fever-heat — in the 
 shade. Near an open door, and during the prevalence of this 
 properly-called sirocco, the streets Avere filled with impene- 
 trable clouds of fine dust, or pulverized clay. Speculation has 
 been rife since to ascertain the cause of such a terrible phe- 
 nomenon ; but, though we have heard of many plausible theo- 
 ries thereon, we have not been fully convinced yet : however 
 that might be, we see its terrible effects all around us, in 
 blighted trees, ruined gardens, blasted fruit, and almost a gen- 
 eral destruction of the vegetable kingdom here. We hope we 
 will never see the like again." 
 
 A correspondent of a San Francisco paper wrote thus : " At 
 one o'clock in the afternoon of the 17th instant, a burning wind 
 came upon us from the northwest, and smote us with terror. 
 At two o'clock, the thermometer exposed to this wind rose to 
 133° of Fahrenheit; at five o'clock, it had fallen to 122° ; and 
 at seven o'clock, it stood at 77°, where it had been in the 
 morning. During the whole time of this visitation, every om3 
 stayed in the house, taking good care to keep doors and win- 
 dows closed. A fisherman who was out at sea came back with 
 liis arms all blistered. Many calves, rabbits, and birds, died 
 of suffocation. The greatest losses are among the vegetables. 
 The fruit-trees are all burned ; the peai's and apples have been 
 iiterally cooked." 
 
 No similar case is mentioned in history or tradition, nor is 
 there any explanation of this- 
 
CLIMATE. 27 
 
 § 24. Temjperatxire of the SoutherJi Coast. — The high moun- 
 tain-spur which projects into the ocean at Point Conception 
 seems to protect the coast south of it from the fogs, which are 
 much rarer and warmer at Los Angeles than at San Francisco. 
 But though the former is in latitude 34°, it is at times as cold in 
 winter as the latter (in 37° 48'), because it is farther from the 
 ocean, and is in sight of Mount San Bernardino and other high 
 mountains, some of which wear snow-caps during a large part 
 of the year. In summer, however, it is much warmer, even 
 oppressively hot. The nights are sometimes so warm, that a 
 sheet is as much covering as is necessary for comfort; but 
 blankets are usually required. 
 
 The coast north of latitude 40° is much colder and cloudier 
 in summer, and has more rain than any other part of the state. 
 
 § 25. Sacramento Basin. — The climate of the Sacramento 
 Basin differs from that of San Francisco in having no fogs, faint 
 sea-breezes, winters four degrees colder, and summers from six- 
 teen to twenty degrees warmer. The greater heat of summer is 
 owing to the want of ocean winds and fogs ; the greater cold of 
 winter is caused by the distance from the Pacific, and the prox- 
 imity of the snow-covered Sierra Nevada. While at San Fran- 
 cisco the thermometer usually stands at 70° at mid-day, it is 
 at 86° in Sacramento city at the same moment ; and these six- 
 teen degrees make a vast difference, for they change comfort 
 into oppression. And Sacramento city, lying near the great 
 gap in the Coast Mountains, is cooler in summer than either 
 end of the basin ; for the upper portions of both the Sacra- 
 mento and San Joaquin valleys, nearly every summer, see days 
 when the thermometer stands at over 100° in the shade. The 
 county assessor of Fresno countj stated, in his annual report 
 for 1857, that the mean temperature at Millerton during the 
 three summer months Avas 106°. The Stockton Argus spoke 
 thus of a great heat that was felt in Stanislaus county on the 
 23d of June, 1859: 
 
 "The thermometer was 113° in the shade. The wind was 
 avoided, as it was heated so, that it felt as if actually burning 
 
28 KESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 the flesh — as if rushing from a hot oven. In one team of ten 
 horses, three fell in the road, from heat ; two died, but the 
 other recovered by pouring sweet oil in its throat. The ani- 
 mal's throat was closed so that it could not drink, when the 
 oil was used so as to soften the throat and open it, that it 
 could swallow water, when it recovered. The two that died 
 expired before such aid could be used with them. At Burton's 
 public house, at Loving's Ferry, birds flew into the bar-room 
 to the pitcher to get water, so tame w^ere they made by the 
 thirst caused by extreme heat. Birds were seen to fall dead 
 ofi" the limbs of trees in the middle of the day, from the heat, 
 as if they were shot. The w^ind was of that burning heat never 
 before witnessed by the settlers there since their arrival in the 
 state." 
 
 In the Sierra Nevada, the heat of the summer at mid-day 
 is about the same as in the Sacramento valley ; but the winter 
 is cold, and the amount of rain greater in proportion to the 
 altitude above the sea. In places three thousand feet above 
 the ocean-level, ice forms five and six inches thick, and snow 
 deep enough for sleighing lies several weeks nearly every win- 
 ter. In towns six thousand feet above the sea, the snow falls 
 from five to ten feet deep, and covers the ground four or fivfr 
 months in the year. 
 
 In the Great Basin, the winters are cold and the summer 
 days very hot ; but there too the nights are always cool. 
 
 The Colorado Desert has exceedingly hot summer days and 
 -warm winters, but occasional frosts in the spring and fall as 
 w^ell as in the winter. 
 
 § 26. ComjKirative Tables.— The follow^ing table shows the 
 mean temperature of every month, and the average of the 
 w^hole year, at San Francisco, Benicia, Sacramento, Fort Mil- 
 ler, Fort Reading, Fort Yuma, and also at various places in 
 other parts of the world, some of them (such as Funchal, Na- 
 ples, Honolulu, and Mexico) being famed for the beauty and 
 equability of their climates. In addition to the temperature, 
 the latitude of each place is given ; 
 

 
 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 t-t 
 
 ►^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 K 
 
 ^! tH 
 
 t> 
 
 '^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 AVER- 
 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 g 
 
 cr 
 
 p 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 •^ 
 
 p 
 
 ♦^ 
 
 aq 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 AGE. 
 
 LATITirOE. 
 
 Sau Fraucisco . . . 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 37° 48' 
 
 
 "47 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 57 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 73 
 
 66 
 73 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 
 62 
 64 
 
 54 
 52 
 
 47 
 45 
 
 58 
 59 
 
 58 03 
 38 34 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 67 71 
 
 Fort» Miller 
 
 47- 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 62 
 
 68 83 
 
 90 
 
 83 
 
 76 
 
 67 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 66 
 
 37 
 
 Fort Reading . . . 
 
 44 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 77;82 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 62 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 
 62 
 
 40 28 
 
 Fort Yuma 
 
 5G 
 
 58 
 
 66 
 
 73 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 73 
 
 32 43 
 
 New York 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 66 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 34 
 
 51 
 
 40 37 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 62 
 
 55 
 
 69 
 
 29 57 
 
 JSteilacoom 
 
 SS 
 
 40 
 40 
 54 
 
 42 
 42 
 61 
 
 48 
 46 
 63 
 
 55 
 53 
 
 66 
 
 60 
 58 
 65 
 
 64 
 62 
 65 
 
 63 
 62 
 64 
 
 57 
 57 
 64 
 
 52 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 39 
 40 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 49 
 60 
 
 47 10 
 51 29 
 19 26 
 
 London 
 
 37 
 52 
 
 City of Mexico . . . 
 
 Naples 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 69 
 
 61 
 
 53 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 40 52 
 
 Funchal 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 32 38 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 21 16 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 47 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 66 
 
 71 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 31 47 
 
 Canton 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 80 
 
 73 
 
 65 
 
 57 
 
 69 
 
 23 08 
 
 Nagasaki 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 77 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 78 
 
 66 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 32 45 
 
 By the study of this table, we can form an excellent idea of 
 the temperature of the different portions of the state, as com- 
 pared with each other, and as compared with those of some 
 other countries. So far as we know, San Francisco has the 
 most equable and the mildest climate in the world. Within 
 the tropics there are, no doubt, many places which have a 
 more equable temperature, but it is the equability of intense 
 heat. 
 
 Funchal, on the island of Madeira, has probably the mildest 
 climate in the world, but in equability it is inferior to San 
 Francisco. Benicia is thirty miles from the ocean, and has a 
 warmer summer and a colder winter than the immediate coast. 
 Sacramento has the climate of Naples and Jerusalem through- 
 out the year : its summer being the same as that of Xew York, 
 but its winter fourteen degrees warmer. Fort Reading and 
 Nagasaki have nearly the same figures. Fort Yuma, in the 
 Colorado Desert, in latitude 32° 45', is warmer than New Or- 
 leans, in 29° 57'. 
 
 A j-ailroad, one hundred and eighty miles long, running 
 eastward from Oakland, a suburb of San Francisco, passing 
 
30 EESOTJKCESOFCALIFOENIA. 
 
 through Stockton and Sonora, near the Mammoth Grove of 
 Mariposa and the Yosemite valley, to the summit of the Sierra 
 Nevada, would enable the people near the line to place them* 
 selves, every summer's day, in any tolerable degree of heat 
 or cold. 
 
 Fourteen miles west of Oakland is the ocean-beach, where 
 a chilling wind blows without ceasing. Going from the coast, 
 the traveller would gradually get into a warmer clime, until, 
 in Stockton, he would find the thermometer indicating 100°, 
 most of the summer noons ; and proceeding up the sides of the 
 Sierra, he would gradually rise into greater cold, to the eter- 
 nal frost on the summit. A branch road running south to Fort 
 Yuma would enable the traveller to enjoy almost as great a 
 variety of temperature in the winter. 
 
 § 27. Rain. — Nearly all the rain in California falls between 
 the first of November and the first of June — the period called 
 the " rainy season," as contradistinguished from the " dry sea- 
 son," which occupies the remainder of the year. Those names, 
 however, when applied to any special season, do not signify 
 an unchangeable number of months, but rather the term dur- 
 ing which the rain falls or the dry weather lasts. Thus, we 
 say that the rainy season of 1858-59 began in October, be- 
 cause in that month the first heavy rains fell ; the rainy season 
 of 1855-56 did not begin until December ; the dry season of 
 1857 began in March; and so forth. The rainy season is so 
 called, not because the rain falls then continuously, but because 
 it does not fiiU at any other time. There are occasional show- 
 ers in June, July, August, and September, but they are rare 
 and light. 
 
 The following table gives the average amount of rain, in 
 inches, which falls during the four seasons of spring, summer, 
 autumn, and winter, at various places in California, as com- 
 pared with the amount which falls in other places in the 
 United States 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 31 
 
 San Francisco . . 
 Sacramento . , . . 
 Fort Readinp:. . . 
 Fort Humboldt . 
 
 Fort Miller 
 
 Fort Yuma. . . . 
 
 San Diego 
 
 Astoria 
 
 Portland, Maine 
 New York citj. 
 Xew Orleans. , , 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Rome 
 
 Paris 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 SPUING. 
 
 BUMMER. 
 
 ATTTUMX. 
 
 WINTEK. 
 
 TEAK. 
 
 6.Gi 
 
 0.13 
 
 3.31 
 
 11.33 
 
 21.41 
 
 7.01 
 
 0.00 
 
 2.61 
 
 12.11 
 
 21.73 
 
 11.30 
 
 0.39 
 
 4.89 
 
 12.44 
 
 29.02 
 
 i:!.51 
 
 1.18 
 
 4.87 
 
 15.03 
 
 34.56 
 
 9.57 
 
 0.02 
 
 2.80 
 
 9.79 
 
 22.18 
 
 0.27 
 
 1.30 
 
 0.86 
 
 0.72 
 
 3.15 
 
 2.74 
 
 0.55 
 
 1.24 
 
 5.90 
 
 10.43 
 
 16.43 
 
 4.00 
 
 21.77 
 
 44.15 
 
 86.35 
 
 12.11 
 
 10.28 
 
 11.93 
 
 10.93 
 
 45.25 
 
 11.69 
 
 11.64 
 
 9.93 
 
 10.39 
 
 43.65 
 
 11.29 
 
 17.28 
 
 9.62 
 
 12.71 
 
 50.90 
 
 12.86 
 
 14.09 
 
 8. 71 
 
 6.29 
 
 41.95 
 
 7.27 
 
 3.39 
 
 10.89 
 
 9.31 
 
 30.86 
 
 5.53 
 
 5.92 
 
 6.51 
 
 4.68 
 
 22.64 
 
 6.19 
 
 9.78 
 
 10.81 
 
 7.32 
 
 34.10 
 
 From this table it appears that the amount of rain is about 
 one-half as gieat^in San Francisco as in any of the American 
 states east of the Mississippi. Here, all the rain falls in the 
 winter and spring; there, the amounts are nearly the same in 
 the four seasons. They have as much rain in their summer 
 and autumn as we in our winter and spring. We have less 
 rain than Liverpool and Rome, and about the same amount 
 with Paris. San Diego has only one-half and Fort Yuma one- 
 seventh the rain-fall of San Francisco, which latter place is 
 surpassed nearly seventy-five per cent, by Humboldt Bay. At 
 Fort Yuma, and all through the Colorado Desert, the rain 
 comes not in the rainy season of California, but chiefly in the 
 summer and fall, synchronous with the wet season of North- 
 western Mexico. Unfortunately, we have no statistics of the 
 rain-fall in the Sierra Nevada, or in the Great Basin, within 
 the limits of this state. 
 
 The least rain in San Francisco, during any rainy season 
 since 1852, has been 19 inches; the largest amount, 24 inches. 
 I obtain the following figures from statistics kept in this city 
 by Mr. Thomas Teimant, from 1850 to the present time: 
 
 The average rain-fall m January is 3.52 inches. The most 
 notable departures from that average were in 1858, when there 
 
32 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 were 9.40; in '59, only 1.28; in '60, 1.64; and in '62, 24.36 
 inches. 
 
 The average of February is 3.67 inches ; but in 1853, the fall 
 was 1.42 ; in '54, 8.04 ; in '56, 0.50 ; in '57, 8.59 ; in '58, 1.83 ; 
 in '59, 6.32 ; in '60, 1.60 ; in '61, 3.72 ; and in '62, 7.53 inches. 
 This shows a remarkable alternation. In only one year did 
 the amount approach the average; in the others (excluding 
 the last), the rains were very heavy and very light by turns. 
 A dry February, after a wet December and January, is one of 
 the pleasantest months of the year in California. 
 
 The average rain-fall of March is 3.38: in 1857, the amount 
 was 1.62; in '58, 5.55. 
 
 The average of April is 2.63: in 1855, the amount was 5 
 inches; in '57, nothing; in '58, 1.35 ; and in '59, 0.27. 
 
 The average of May is 0.63 : in 1857, the amount was 0.05 ; 
 and in '60, 2.86. 
 
 The average of June is 0.08 ; of July, 0.02 ; of August, 0.03 ; 
 and of September, 0.15. There are no large rains recorded in 
 any of these months. 
 
 The average of October is 0.66 : but in 1854, the amount was 
 2.41 ; and in '58, 2.74 ; in '55, nothing. 
 
 The average of November is 2.50 : in 1854, the amount was 
 0.34; in '59, 7.28; and in '60, 0.58. 
 
 The average of December is 4,49 : in 1854, the amount was 
 0.81 ; in '57, 8.08 ; in '59, 1.57 ; in '60, 6.16 ; and in '62, 9.54. 
 
 The rainy season of 1854-55 did not commence, it may be 
 said, until January; for although there were 2.41 inches of 
 rain in October, yet the amount was .only 0.34 in November, 
 and 0.81 in December: so that the moisture from the October 
 rain did no good to either the farmer or the miner, having 
 been completely dried out from the earth before the rains of 
 January came. 
 
 Let us now examine the rainy seasons since 1050, and see 
 in what months more thau three inches of rain fell. In 1851- 
 '52, these months were December and March ; in '52-'53, De- 
 cember, January, and March; in '53-54, January, February, 
 
CLIMATE. 33 
 
 March, and April ; in '54-55, January, February, March, and 
 April; in '55-56, December and January; in '56-'57, De- 
 cember and February; in '57-'58, December, January, and 
 March; in '58-59, December, February, and March; in '59- 
 '60, November, March, and April; in '60-'61, December and 
 February; and in '61-62, from ISTovember to February, in- 
 clusive. 
 
 The rain of California usually comes with gentleness, and 
 falls perpendicularly. The coast, above Humboldt Bay, re- 
 ceives a greater amount of rain than any other part of the 
 immediate shore ; and in this respect it resembles the humid 
 clime of Western Oregon. At Fort Yuma the amount of rain 
 is from one-fifth to one-seventh that at San Francisco, and it 
 all falls during the spring and summer ; for the rainy season 
 of the Colorado Desert does not come at the same time with 
 that of the remainder of the state, but is synchronous with the 
 rainy season of Northwestern Mexico. 
 
 The rain along the middle coast of California usually comes 
 slowly, and falls gently and perpendicularly. Here it is very 
 seldom that two inches of rain fall in a day, and three inches 
 have not fallen within twenty-four hours in ten years ; while 
 in the Eastern states the former figure is reached frequently, 
 and the latter every year — where also the rain is generally 
 accompanied with violent and long-continued storms of wind. 
 The rains of the Sierra Nevada are far more abundant in quan- 
 tity, and fiercer in the manner of their coming, than those 
 about the bay of San Francisco. It is established that the 
 amount of rain, and its equivalent snow, increases on the west- 
 ern slope of the Sierra Nevada with the elevation ; but our 
 statistics are not sufficiently extensive to enable us to deter- 
 mine whether the increase is in regular ratio to the altiti»le, or 
 what the proportions are between the snow and rain at difier- 
 ent heights. It is, however, an unquestioned fiict that, in or- 
 dinary seasons, the amount of rain at Sonora, two thousand 
 five hundred feet above the sea, is from twice to thrice as great 
 as in Stockton, only seventy miles distant, at the sea-level; 
 
3'i EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 and the same difference is observed between Nevada and Mar 
 rysville, wliich bear similar relations of distance and elevation 
 to each otlier. 
 
 The statistics given in the preceding part of this section 
 relative to the amount of rain-fall at San Francisco, are intend- 
 ed to represent ordinary years, such as all those between 1847 
 and 1860. But the winter of 1861-62 proved to be an ex- 
 traordinary season, the amount of rain being double that which 
 has fallen in any other winter since the American conquest. 
 The average rain-fiill during the winter months at San Fran- 
 cisco is about 12 inches; whereas, between the 1st of Novem- 
 ber, 1861, and the 1st of February, 1862, 37 inches fell in San 
 Francisco, and during the same period 101 mches fell in So- 
 nera, Tuolumne county. During the four months from the 1st 
 of November, 1861, to the 28th of February, 1862, inclusive, 
 45.53 inches of rain fell in San Francisco, viz. : 4.10 in Novem- 
 ber ; 9.54 in December ; 24.36 in January ; and 7.53 in Feb- 
 ruary. This rain caused a great flood, which did much damage 
 along most of the rivers, and especially in the Sacramento 
 Basin, where Sacramento City, Stockton, Marysville, and nu- 
 merous minor towns, were completely inundated, and the 
 whole central part of the basin, including an area one hundred 
 and fifty miles long and twenty miles wide, was converted 
 into a great lake, which covered the land to a depth varying 
 from two to ten feet for more than a month. The long dura- 
 tion of the flood, its great height, and the vast damage which 
 it did, will render it an epoch in the history of the state, and 
 make it well worthy of study, especially so for as relates to 
 the Sacramento Basin, where the most serious injury was done 
 — that basin extending north and south from Mount Shasta to 
 the Tejon Pass, a distance of four hundred and flky miles ; and 
 east and west from the summit of the Coast Range to that of 
 the Sierra Nevada, a distance of one hundred miles. These 
 two ranges unite at the two ends of the basin, w^hich has its 
 outlet in the middle, where the Sacramento from the north and 
 the San Joaquin from the south, having united their waters in 
 
CLIMATE. 35 
 
 blitude 39°, break through the Coast Mountains to reach the 
 Pacific. It may be said that the waters of these streams, aftei 
 their union, pass through three straits: one at the Golden 
 ihite, one hundred feet deep and a mile wide ; one at the 
 straits of Carquinez, fifteen feet deep and three-quarters of a 
 mile wide, thu'ty-five miles from the ocean ; and one near the ^ 
 head of Suisun Bay, half a mile wide and ten feet deep. The 
 Golden Gate and the straits of Carquinez afi:brd an abundant 
 outlet for all the water from the interior, but not so with the 
 pass at the head of Suisun Bay. The land at this place is low 
 — not more than six or eight feet above low-water mark — for 
 a width of three miles, beyond which there are hills, which 
 prevent the spreading of the water to a greater distance. The 
 river is shallow and crooked ; the banks lined with bushes and 
 covered with tules, which obstruct the passage of the water in 
 time of flood. 
 
 During the flood of January, 1862, there was very little 
 perceptible increase in the height of the water in San Fran- 
 cisco and Suisun Bays above the level of ordinary high tide. 
 But there was no flow of the tide ; a continual ebb of thick, 
 muddy water, poured out at the Golden Gate for weeks to- 
 gether, discoloring the sea to a distance of forty miles from 
 land. In the bays the water became almost fresh, and the 
 planted oysters were killed by it in their beds near Oak- 
 land. 
 
 We may presume, since thirty-six inches of water fell at 
 San Francisco from November to January inclusive, of 1861- 
 '62, that the same amount fell in all the low lands of the Sac- 
 ramento Basin, nearly one-half of its area. We may presume 
 further that the amount which fell at Sonora is a fair repre- 
 sentation of the amount which fell on the Sierra Nevada, one- 
 half of the area of the basin. But possibly snow, which has not 
 yet melted, formed one-third of the snow and rain which fell 
 on the Sierra Nevada. It is not, therefore, necessary to take 
 any account of that third, in this consideration of the flood of 
 1862 — written, as it is, before the waters have g;one down. 
 
36 EESOUUCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 There was, then, a f^ill of three feet of water over an area of 
 about twenty-two thousand five hundred square miles, and a 
 fall of eight and a half feet over an area of fifteen thousand 
 square miles. This would give us an average of five and one- 
 fourth feet over an area of thirty-seven thousand five hundred 
 square miles. The first foot was absorbed by the sand and 
 earth, dried during a very arid summer and fall; and then 
 there were four feet of water to escape through an outlet half 
 a mile wide, from an area nearly as large as England, or the 
 state of Ohio. 
 
 The outlet proved insufficient: the waters heaped them- 
 selves up in the lowest part of the Sacramento Basin, the size 
 of wliich low portion I have already given as one hundred and 
 fifty miles long and twenty wide, or an area of three thousand 
 square miles. Now, four feet of water over an area of thirty- 
 seven thousand five hundred square miles, Avill, if collected 
 within three thousand square miles, form a body forty-eight 
 feet deep ; and that figure represents the amount of water that 
 had to escape through the Sacramento River, below the mouth 
 of the San Joaquin. It is to be observed that, as the outlet of 
 the Sacramento Basin is in its centre, so the freshets come 
 simultaneously from the north and from the south. The rains 
 fall along the whole length of the Sierra Nevada at the same 
 time ; and as the mountain-streams are short and swift, they 
 pour down their floods immediately and all together. Such 
 are the circumstances which contributed to the great flood of 
 1862, and may contribute to other floods in the future. 
 
 During January, 1862, 24.36 inches of rain fell in San Fran- 
 cisco, according to records kept by Thomas Tennant, Esq. ; 
 8.66 inches fell in Sacramento, according to Dr. T. M. Logan ; 
 37.79 inches fell at Downieville, according to Dr. T. R. Kibbe ; 
 and 33.79 inches fell in Grass Valley, according to Mr. Atwood. 
 I presume that all these figures are correct save those for San 
 Francisco ; and while I admit the care and accuracy of Mr. 
 Tennant, I must suspect that somebody played tricks with his 
 gauge, upon which he could not keep a constant watch. 
 
CLIMATE. 37 
 
 Between the 1st of November, 1861, and the 1st of Febru- 
 ary, 1862, 37 inches of rain fell in San Francisco; 75.69 in 
 Grass Valley; 79.28 in Downieville ; 101 in Sonora; 42 hichei^ 
 of rain and 50 feet of snow (the snow probably equalling 60 
 inches of water) on the summit of the Sierra Nevada at Hcn- 
 ness Pass ; and 34 feet of snow and a great amount of rain 
 (not measured) on the summit of the same range at the Big- 
 Tree Road. The observations at the Ilenness Pass were kept 
 by Mr. S. R. Dunham; those at the Big-Tree Road by Mr. 
 Richey. 
 
 There have been " rainy seasons" in California which passed 
 without rain; and the grass, receiving no moisture in winter, 
 spring, or summer, has remained brown for a period of eigh- 
 teen months. But no drought — more fearful than the worst 
 of floods — has visited the country during the last twenty years, 
 nor have we any accurate information about those that are re- 
 ported to have happened before that time. 
 
 So long as the wind blows from the north, we expect fair 
 weather ; when it veers to the south, rain may be expected, 
 usually within forty-eight hours. Sometimes, after a rain, the 
 clouds near the earth move toward the south, while those 
 higher up are going in the contrary direction : in such case, 
 more rain may be expected. In no part of Europe or the 
 Atlantic states can the state of the weather be predicted or 
 guessed with so much reasonable confidence as in California. 
 Here it is almost a certainty that nineteen days out of twenty 
 in summer and fall, and that ten out of twenty on an average 
 in winter and spring, will be clear and warm. Many circum- 
 stances of value, in furnishing grounds for predicting the state 
 of the weather in other regions, are of no use here. In the 
 Mississippi valley, for instance, three consecutive frosty morn- 
 ings are considered as an almost certain indication of rain ; but 
 in California, frosts have no such significance : for a dozen 
 may occur successively in the coast valleys or foot-hills of the 
 Sierra Nevada, and nobody expects rain the more on that 
 account. 
 
88 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 28. Dryness of Climate. — The small amount of rain dur- 
 ing the winter, the entire want of it during the summer, the 
 warmth of the sun, and the great number of cloudless days, 
 render the climate a very dry one. As one conseqence or ac- 
 companiment of our dry climate and clear sky, it may be worth 
 while to observe that near the ocean the clouds are rarely pic- 
 turesque or sublimely beautiful. The magnificent sunsets, 
 where the god of light goes down amid curtains of gold and 
 crimson — those high-piled banks of clouds which adorn the 
 heavens before and after thunder-showers, in thp Mississippi 
 valley — are never seen near the coast. 
 
 Dew is very rare or slight over a great part of the state. 
 Durmg the summer and autumn, many of the rivers sink in 
 the sand soon after leaving the mountains in which they rise ; 
 the earth is dry and baked hard to a depth of many inches or 
 even feet ; the grass and herbage, except near springs, or on 
 swampy land, are dried up, and as brown as the soil on which 
 they grew. 
 
 It has been said that very hot days are less oppressive in 
 California than equal heat in the Eastern states, because the 
 cool nights serve to invigorate the system, and the extreme 
 dryness of the chmate favors the evaporation of sweat, and 
 thus keeps the body cooler than in districts where the earth is 
 always moist. Evaporation is so rapid, that a beefsteak hung 
 up in the air wiU dry before it can commence to putrefy. A 
 dead rat thrown into the street, where its body is crushed by 
 wagon-wheels so that its viscera are exposed to the air, will 
 " dry up," and its stiff hide and meat will lie during a whole 
 summer in a mumray-like condition. In many places, steel 
 may be exposed to the night air for weeks without getting a 
 touch of rust. 
 
 It is common to ascribe the effects of the dryness of the 
 atmosphere to the "purity" of the air; but it is rather the 
 absence of moisture. I know no reason for supposing that, 
 apart from its dryness, the air in California is purer than in 
 any other part of the continent. It may be, however, that the 
 
CLIMATE. 39 
 
 constant decomposition of animal and vegetable manner, lying 
 on wet ground, under a hot sun, causes the air in other states 
 to be filled with such gases as are not set free to an equal 
 extent here. 
 
 In May and June, all California " dries up" — the rivers, the 
 brooks, the springs, the ditches, the vegetation — and, with 
 them, many of the resources of the country. 
 
 § 29. Length of Days. — ^The shortest day in the year, the 
 20th of December, measures nine hours and four minutes be- 
 tween sunrise and sunset at Crescent City, and ten hours at 
 San Diego ; while the longest day, the 20th of June, measures 
 fifteen hours and seventeen minutes on the southern border, 
 and fourteen hours and nineteen minutes on the northei-n bor- 
 der of the state — or, measuring from the beginning of twilight 
 in the morning to the end of twilight -at night, the day meas- 
 ures nineteen hours and forty-seven minutes on the Siskiyon 
 Mountains, and seventeen hours and forty-three minutes at 
 Fort Yuma. 
 
 § 30. Thunder- Storms. — Thunder-storms are very rare iu 
 California. Lightning is not seen more than three or four 
 times a year at San Francisco, and then it is never near, but 
 far off, playing about the peak of Mount Diablo. Thunder is 
 still more rare. Indeed, many persons have been here for 
 years, and cannot say that they have ever seen the one or 
 heard the other. During eleven years' residence in the state, 
 I have never seen a brilliant flash of lightning or heard a loud 
 clap of thunder. Thunder-storms are sometimes witnessed 
 high up in the mountains, and in the Great Basin ; very rarely 
 in any of the low land of the state. In May, 1860, a house in 
 Sonora was struck by lightning; and in February, 1861, three 
 vessels in Humboldt Bay were struck in the same manner: 
 and, though there were persons in the house and on all the 
 vessels, no serious injury was done to either person or prop- 
 erty in any case. On the 25th of May, 1860, a Chinaman was 
 
40 P.ESOURCES OF CAJ^IFORNIA. 
 
 killed by lightning near the Lexington House, on the Coloma 
 road, in Sacramento county. 
 
 The weather never has that peculiar condition which isolates 
 everybody electrically, and then fills them with electricity. In 
 New York, on a dry winter evening, a man dressed in wool- 
 len and shod in w^oollen slippers, after sliding along on the 
 carpet a few steps, will accumulate so much electricity, that 
 when he thrusts his finger at another person, a visible spark 
 will fly off, and he can light gas with it ! But this amusing 
 experiment, common as it is in the Eastern states, never has 
 been successful, and probably never will be often practised, 
 here. 
 
 § 31. ITail. — Hail is a rarity; and instead of falling in July 
 and August, as is usual in the Eastern states and Europe, it is 
 seen in California only, between February and May. On the 
 10th of May, 1856, a storm of hail-stones, some of them weigh- 
 ing twelve pounds each, visited a small district at Butte Creek, 
 in Shasta county. It has several times happened that hail- 
 stones more than an inch in diameter have fallen in the Sacra- 
 mento valley. 
 
 The Aurora Borealis is seldom seen in California, perhaps 
 not more than half a dozen times w^ithin the last ten years. 
 The aurora of the 28th of August, 1859, seen over a great part 
 of the world, was plainly visible in this state. 
 
 § 32. Earthquahes. — Earthquakes are common in some 
 parts of California, and especially at San Francisco, Los An- 
 geles, and near the Tejon Pass, at the southern junction of the 
 Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains. They are rare at Sacra- 
 mento, Marysville, Vallejo, and Napa. As a general rule, they 
 are less frequent and less severe in the northe'-n than in the 
 southern part of the state. The vicinity ot Humboldt is more 
 often shaken than any other |)lace north of the bay of San 
 Francisco. About a dozen earthquakes are felt in a year at 
 difierent places in the state ; not so many at one place. Most 
 
CLIMATE. 41 
 
 of the shocks are so sliglit as to pass unnoticed by a great 
 majority of the people; and there are j^erj-ous who have i-e- 
 sided six or eight years in San Francisco, and many wlio have 
 resided ten years in other parts of the state, and say they have 
 never felt an earthquake. No person has been hurt, nor has 
 any strongly-built house been injured, by an earthquake in 
 California, north of latitude 35°, since the American conquest. 
 Several brick walls have been cracked in San Francisco, but 
 they were weak structures, built on "made ground," and 
 would perhaps have cracked by settling, of their own weight. 
 On three or four occasions, large four-story houses have been 
 so much shaken, that the inmates have run out in great alarm ; 
 but on examination it was found that the buildings were unin- 
 jured, even in the slightest perceptible manner. 
 
 On one such occasion, a friend of mine, who thought his life 
 in great danger, and ran to save it, observed before he left his 
 room that the water was splashed out of his basin by the 
 movement of the house. The basin was of earthen ware, about 
 fifteen inches in diameter at the top, six inches deep, half full 
 of water, and it stood on an ordinary wash-stand. He sup- 
 posed that, with another such a shock or two, the building 
 must be in ruins ; and he was very much astonished the next 
 morning to find that there was not the slightest crack in the 
 plastering. His room was in the fourth story of a biick hotel. 
 It seems that the whole building had moved together. 
 
 The fear of earthquakes prevents the erection of high struc- 
 tures for show ; and, for this reason, there is not a tall steeple 
 in San Francisco. The largest churches have been commenced 
 on such a plan that they might be crowned with lofty spires, 
 but it was thought more prudent to leave them with low tow- 
 ers. The same motive induces many wealthy families to reside 
 in wooden houses, which are considered better fitted to resist 
 the shocks of earthquakes. These wooden houses, it must be 
 kept in mind, are not "framed" with mortices and tenons, as 
 large wooden houses are usually erected in the Atlantic states, 
 but are "Cliicago frames," held together with nails. This 
 3* 
 
42 EESO URGES OF CALIFOKIilA. 
 
 styl-fj of building, though introduced solely because of its 
 cheapness and simplicity, is considered by far the most secure 
 against earthquakes. 
 
 No earthquake felt at San Francisco since 1846 has been 
 more severe than one which visited Buffalo, New York, in 
 1857, as described in the America7i Journal of Science and 
 Art for Se|)tember, 1858. On the 10th of July, 1855, an 
 earthquake cracked the walls of twenty-six houses in Los An- 
 geles; but no wall was thrown down, nor was any person 
 injured. 
 
 Most of the earthquakes of California are confined to very 
 email districts. Thus, not more than one in ten of those felt 
 in San Francisco is perceived in Sacramento. The most ex- 
 tensive Californian earthquake of which we have any record 
 was that of January 9th, 1857. It shook the earth from Fort 
 Yuma to Sacramento, a distance of live hundred miles, being 
 most severe at Fort Tejon, about half way between these two 
 points. Loud noises, either rumbling or like explosions, were 
 heard to accompany the shock at Tejon, San Bernardino, Visa- 
 lia, and in the Mojave valley. The waters of the Mokelumne 
 liiver were thrown upon the banks so as almost to leave the 
 bed bare in one place. The current of Kern River was turned 
 up-stream, and the water ran four feet deep over the bank. 
 The water of Tulare Lake was thrown upon its shores ; and 
 the Los Angeles Kiver was flung out of its bed. In Santa 
 Clara valley the artesian wells were much affected : some 
 ceased to run, and others had an increased supply of water. 
 Near San Fernando a large stream of water was found run- 
 ninsT from the mountains, where there was no water before. 
 In San Diego, and at San Fernando, several houses were 
 thrown down ; and at San Bueneventura the roof of the Mis- 
 sion Chui-ch fell in. Several new springs Avere formed near 
 Santa Barbara by the shock. In the San Gabriel valley the 
 earth opened in a gap several miles long ; and in one place 
 the river deserted its ancient bed, and followed this new open- 
 ing. In the valley of the Santa Clara liiver there were large 
 
CLIMATE. 43 
 
 cracks in the earth. A large fissure was made in the western 
 part of the town of San Bernardino. At Fort Tejon the shock 
 threw down nearly all the buildings ; snapped off large trees 
 close to the ground, and overthrew others, tearing them up by 
 the roots; and tore the earth apart in a fissure twenty fee C 
 wide and forty miles long, the sides of which rent then came 
 together with so much violence, that the earth was forced up 
 in a ridge ten feet wide and several feet higli. At Reed's 
 ranch, not far from Fort Tejon, a house was thrown down, 
 and a woman in it killed. 
 
 In September, 1812, on a Sunday, an earthquake threw 
 down the Mission Church at San Juan Capistrano, in latitude 
 33° 20', and thirty persons were killed. The church at Santa 
 Inez, in Santa Barbara county, was thrown down on the same 
 day; but the shock, according to report, was an hour later 
 than that at San Juan Capistrano, and there was nobody in the 
 church when it fell. At the same time the sea receded a lono- 
 distance from the ordinary place of the water's edge on the 
 beach of Santa Barbara ; and the people there, knowing that 
 it would soon rush upon the shore, fled to the higher ground, 
 and by that means alone saved their lives. These reports 
 made about this earthquake of 1812, to Dr. J. B. Trask, by 
 old residents, have never been contradicted, though published 
 six or eight years ago. 
 
 The old Mission Church at Santa Clara was thrown down 
 by an earthquake in 1818. On the 15th of May, 1851, a severe 
 shock was felt in San Francisco. Windows were broken ; mer- 
 chandise was thrown down from shelves in stores ; and vessels 
 in the harbor rolled heavily. On the 26th of November, 1858, 
 nenrly every brick building in San Jose was injured by an 
 earthquake. On the 3d of July, 1861, Amador valley, in Ala- 
 meda county, was severely shaken. Adobe houses were seri- 
 ously injured, chimneys toppled down, furniture was flung 
 from side to side of the houses and much broken, and men in 
 the fields were thrown down. 
 
 A severe shock of an earthquake was felt at Fort Yuma and 
 
44 EESOUECES OF CALTFORXIA. 
 
 vicinity on the 29th of Xovember, 1852. The low grounds 
 near the Colorado cracked open with long, wide fissures, from 
 which water, sand, and mud, spouted up. The fissures were 
 in some places so large, that they turned the river from its 
 course ; and the change was so sudden, that great multitudes 
 of fish were left to die in the mud. At the same time, the 
 mud-volcanoes of Lower California, distant forty-five miles 
 south westward from Fort Yuma, resumed their activity; for, 
 although there is no record of their pre\'ious action, yet they 
 probably existed before. A pool of hot, sulphurous water had 
 been observed at the place by Americans since 1849. Imme- 
 diately after the shock of 1852, the officers at Fort Yuma saw 
 a great body of steam shoot up at least one thousand feet in 
 the desert to the southwest ; and when, soon afterward, some 
 of them went out to examine into the cause of it, they found 
 the mud-volcanoes on the site of the old pool, throwing up 
 steam, boiling water, and mud, very much like the salses far- 
 ther north. 
 
 Earthquakes, according to the common theory of Califor- 
 nians, are electrical in their origin, or closely connected with 
 electrical influences. Many of the strongest shocks have been 
 preceded by a condition of the atmosphere vei-y similar to that 
 which precedes thunder-storms in other lands. When the 
 weather is sultry and oppressive in San Francisco, people say, 
 " Look out for an earthquake !" And it usually comes — per- 
 haps so faint as to be barely perceptible, and sometimes not 
 until several hours after a change in the weather. 
 
 The frequency of earthquakes in California has caused a 
 number of persons, perhaps a hundred or more, to leave the 
 state, and return to their former homes on the Atlantic side 
 of the continent. And yet there they are in more danger from 
 lightning than here from earthquakes, for there are fifty killed 
 by lightning in the Mississippi valley for one killed by an 
 earthquake in California. A year rarely passes that a dozen 
 persons are not struck by thunderbolts within three himdred 
 miles of St. Louis. [See A^ypendix, p. 464.] 
 
CLIMATE. 45 
 
 § 33. Sand- Storms. — In the Colorado Desert, and in some 
 other districts in the southern part of the state, sand-storms, 
 similar to the simooms of Africa, but not so dangerous, occa- 
 sionally occur. The sand, which forms the greater portion of 
 the soil, unprotected by sod, vegetation, or moisture, is swept 
 away in dense clouds by every high wind, and carried many 
 miles, a terror to man and beast. The storm stops the trav- 
 eller, because he dare not open his eyes to the little liinty par- 
 tides; nor can he eat, for the dust covers his food and fills his 
 mouth: and even in the most tightly-built houses the sand 
 penetrates and fills the air. 
 
 A newspaper correspondent speaks thus of a Colorado sand- 
 storm : 
 
 "Should the traveller happen to encounter a sand-storm, 
 however, he may not get along so smoothly. A huge, black 
 cloud, rising from the western horizon, warns him of its ap- 
 proach. Rapidly it spreads over the sky, darkens the sun, 
 and the fine particles of sand are swept before the gale in a 
 dense and sufibcating cloud ; even the larger gravel and peb- 
 bles are sometimes lifted from the plain and carried like hail 
 before the force of the blast. The horses are blinded, para- 
 lyzed with fear, and no urging can induce them to go forward. 
 Were it otherwise, to go on would be folly ; the road and sun 
 are hid from view ; no landmarks by which to be guided — 
 safety bids you remain. The traces are unhitched, and the 
 horses tethered to the wagon ; the only course is to securely 
 fasten down the sides to the wagon-top, and wait with what 
 patience one can command until the storm has passed, which 
 will be, doubtless, in from six to ten hours. 
 
 "Once the stage encountered a sand-storm while within 
 three hundred yards of a station ; the horses could not be in- 
 duced to move, and there was no remedy but to stay by them 
 till the gale had spent its force, though the station was even 
 in sight. 
 
 " T have found such a storm sufiiciently disagreeable while 
 housed by the river-side, the fine sand penetrathig everywhere, 
 
46 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 and have no ambition to encounter one upon the central des- 
 ert. Luckily, they are not very common in the severest aspect ; 
 in summer, quite rare." 
 
 Note. — The chief writers upon the Meteorology of CaUfornia have been, 
 Dr. Henry Gibbons, of Alameda, and Dr. T. M. Logan, of Sacramento, whose 
 writings have been published in the books of the Smithsonian Institute, and 
 in the newspapers of San Francisco and Sacramento. 
 
GEOLOGV, 47 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 § 34. General Geological Character. — California, geologi- 
 cally considered, belongs chiefly to the paleozoic and tertiary 
 epochs. The carboniferous rocks are wanting, or then* exist- 
 ence in the state is confined t,o a very small district, and has 
 not been demonstrated even there. A tertiary sandstone, some 
 of which is metamorphic, having lost its original stratification 
 under the influence of intense heat, underlies the valleys of the 
 Sacramento, the San Joaquin, and the coast, and is seen in the 
 Coast Mountains, the Great Basin, and the Colorado Desert. 
 Granite occupies the higher portions of all the mountainous 
 districts, and considerable portions of the Great Basin and the 
 borders of the Colorado Desert, The scarcity of stratified 
 rocks is plainly discoverable by the traveller in the number 
 and ruggedness of the mountains; only primary, eruptive, and 
 metamorphic rocks make such steep hill-sides. The thinly- 
 stratified rocks, with intervening layers of clay, are soon worn 
 down by the water mto gentle slopes, and covered with fertile 
 soil, every foot of which may be turned over by the plough, 
 and with profit. Such is not the character of California, nearly 
 all of which is primary or metamorphic. 
 
 Many rocks besides granite and tertiary sandstone appear 
 in irregularly-distributed patches. About Mounts Shasta and 
 Las^jon, Castle Peak, the Marysville Bnttes, in the plateau of 
 the Sierra Xevada, tlie Great Basin, and the Colorado Desert, 
 there are considei-able tracts of basalt, lava, trap, and trachyte; 
 and in other places there are small tracts. Some very remark- 
 able hills of basalt, cnlled "Table MouTitainB," are found in the 
 
45 RESOURCES OF CALlFORIiriA. 
 
 Sierra Nevada, The largest of these is in Tuolumne county, 
 about three thousand feet above the sea, and one hundred 
 miles eastward from San Francisco. It is thirty miles long, 
 three hundred to eight hundred feet high above the surround- 
 ing country, and about a quarter of a mile wide, in many places 
 less. The basaltic formation is evident at a distance, from the 
 perpendicularity of the sides near the top, and the flatness of 
 its summit, gently descending toward the west. Along the 
 sides of the Sierra Nevada, near the line of separation between 
 the sandstone of the valley and the granite of the higher parts 
 of the Sierra, are found various other rocks, among which 
 slate, quartz, and limestone, are prominent. The slates are 
 usually soft, their cleavage often perpendicular to the horizon. 
 Limestone is abundant about two thousand feet above the sea, 
 between latitudes 37° 30' and 39°. It is all metamorphic, and 
 some of it is a fine marble, which may prove of value for stat- 
 uary. Most of it is gray in color. Metamorphic limestone is 
 also found near Santa Cruz, near New Almaden, at Monte 
 Diablo, and in Shasta and Siskiyou counties. It is said that 
 some stratified secondary limestone has been found in Shasta 
 county, but this is a matter of doubt. No secondary coal has 
 been found in tlie state. Tertiary coal, much of it a lignite, 
 has been found at various places in San Diego, Santa Clara, 
 Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Contra Costa, and So- 
 noma counties, and much money has been spent in opening 
 veins. 
 
 § 35. Diluvium. — The Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys 
 are covered with a diluvium from four hundred to fifteen hun- 
 dred feet deep. It is composed of alternate layers of sand, 
 gravel, and clay. The most complete information w^hich we 
 have as to the nature of this diluvium is given in the report 
 of the boring of an artesian well, one thousand feet deep, at 
 Stockton. This is, I believe, the only artesian well in the Sac- 
 ramento Basin ; at least, it is the most notable one. An at- 
 tempt was made to bore an artesian well in Sacramento, but 
 the auger struck a stratum of boulders about four hundred feet 
 
GEOLOGY. 49 
 
 from the surface, and was unable to pass through it. The fol- 
 lowing is a statement of the different strata encountered in the 
 Stockton well, and the thickness of each in feet, beginning at 
 the surface : 
 
 Black loam, 6 ; red clay, 6 ; dark-red clay and sand, 18 ; blue 
 clay, mica, and sand, 10; blue clay, hard, highly stratified, 4; 
 blue clay, mica, and sand, 3 ; blue clay, hard, and highly strati- 
 fied, 4 ; green sandstone and clay, very hard, 29 ; blue clay, 
 sand, and gravel, slightly impregnated with gold, 2 ; blue clay, 
 sand, and gravel, 18 (100) ; green sandstone, clay, and mica, 
 hard, 15; fine gravel, 5; gray quicksand, 15; blue clay, 8; 
 gray sand and clay, 27; dark-blue clay and sand, 33 (203); 
 coarse gravel and pebble-stone, 27 ; blue clay, 7 ; gray sand, 
 13 ; blue clay and sand conglomerated, 12 ; light-gray sand, 3 ; 
 blue clay, 6 ; light sand, 9 ; blue clay, 1 ; fine gray sand, 12 ; 
 dark clay, 2 ; fine gray sand, 7 (302) ; clay and sand, 10 ; coarse 
 gray sand, 1; hght clay, 19; coarse sand, 14. (Note. — At 
 340 feet, in this stratum of sand, a red-wood stump was found, 
 and a stream of water ascended to within three feet of the 
 surface.) Light clay, 8; fine gray sand, li; light clay, r.O^ ; 
 coarse gray sand, 20 ; clay, very hard, 4 (400) ; gray sand and 
 clay, 5; clay, 20; coarse gray sand, 3; light clay, 15; line 
 gray sand, 4 ; light clay and sand, 1 ; coarse gray <.and and 
 clay, 1 ; light-blue clay, 11 ; gray sand and clay, 7; light blue 
 clay, 15; fine gravel, 1; light-blue clay and gravel, IP (496); 
 fine gravel, 25 ; clay and sand, 2 ; sand and clay, o : coarse 
 gray sand, 7 ; fine blue clay, 8 ; fine gray sand, 42. /'Fote.— 
 At 560 feet, in this stratum of sand, obtained a strean; of water, 
 rising five feet above the surface.) Gray sand and ciay, 15 
 (600) ; light clay and sand, 6 ; fine gray sand, 24 ; clay and 
 sand, 3 ; fine sand, 9 ; fine gravel, 3 ; fine gray sand, 5 ; coarse 
 sand, 2; blue clay and sand, 8; gray sand and clay, 8; ciay 
 and sand, 5 ; fine gray sand, 10 ; clay, 5 ; coarse gray sand, 2 ; 
 fine light-blue clay, 4 ; hard, chocolate-colored clay, 2 ; blue 
 day, 2 (698) ; fine gray sand, 30 ; clny and sand, 8 ; gray r^and, 
 4 ; light clay, 10 ; coarse sand, 6 ; blue clay, 4 ; dark clay, very 
 
50 EES0T7RCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 hard, 2 ; gray sand, 4 ; blue clay, 14 ; liglit-drab clay, 3 ; very 
 fine gray sand, 24 (807) ; light-drab clay, 1 ; light-gray sand, 
 very fine, 27; dark-gray clay, 17; light-blue clay, very hard, 
 22 ; light clay, 11 ; dark, chocolate-colored clay, very hard, 10 ; 
 light clay, very hard, 15 (910) ; fine gray sand— a good stream 
 of water, 2 ; clay and sand, 11. (Note. — A large stream of - 
 water was obtained in this stratum, rising seven feet above 
 the surface.) Fine sand and gravel, 10; blue clay, 20; sand 
 and gravel, 6 ; blue clay, 27 ; clay, gravel, and mica, 14 (1,000) ; 
 in sand, 2. 
 
 The depth of the well is 1,002 feet. The temperature of the 
 water, as it issues from the well-surface, is 77°, the atmosphere 
 beinc: 60° Fahrenheit. The water rises eleven feet above the 
 surface of the plain, and nine feet above the established grade 
 of the city. The quantity of water discharged is about sixty 
 thousand gallons in twenty-four hours. 
 
 The diluvium in the coast valleys bears a strong general re- 
 semblance, in its material and stratification, to that of the San 
 Joaquin valley. In many places where artesian wells have 
 been sunk, fossil wood and bone have been found three hun- 
 dred and four hundred feet below the surface of the ground, 
 and two hundred feet or more below the present level of the 
 sea. In the mountains there are also large bodies of diluvium, 
 but the material is coarser than in the valleys, being usually a 
 gravelly clay, deposited in distinctly-marked layers, with inter- 
 vening strata of sand and boulders. 
 
 § 36. Gold. — Gold is found in nearly all parts of California, 
 but is most abundant on the western slope of the Sierra Ne- 
 vada, between two thousand and six thousand feet above the 
 sea, from latitude 37° to 40° — a district two hundred and 
 twenty miles long by forty wide. This may be called the Sac- 
 ramento district. It is drained by the Feather, Yuba, Ameri- 
 can, Cosumnes, Calaveras, Stanislaus, and Tuolumne rivers. 
 The next district in importance is in the northwestern corner 
 of the state, including that part of the Sacramento Basin west 
 of Shasta, and the lower portion of the Klamath valley. Next 
 
GEOLOGY. 51 
 
 is the Kern River district, including White River between 
 35° and 36° on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. There 
 are gold diggings on the San Gabriel and Santa Anita Rivers, 
 and in the San Francisquito caiion in Los Angeles county. In 
 the Colorado valley, fifty miles above Fort Yuma, gold has 
 been found. IsTearly every one of the coast counties has more 
 or less gold : it has been found in the valleys of Russian River, 
 Putah Creek, Sequel Creek, Coyote Creek, the Salinas River, 
 and in the earth in wdiich the city of San Francisco is built. 
 
 § 37. Auriferous Lodes. — Gold is found fastened in stony 
 veins, and loose in earthy matter : the latter called placer dig- 
 gings, the former auriferous quartz lodes. 
 
 It is the accepted theory among geologists that all gold was 
 once enclosed in quartz lodes, and that the gold in the placers 
 Avas obtained from the disintegration or breaking up of the 
 lodes. The surface of the earth w^as once all rock* the earthy 
 matter was formed by the action of air and w^ater on this 
 rock. The earthy matter was then deposited in diluvium, 
 among which was the gold that had existed in the rock pre- 
 vious to its disintegration. 
 
 Gold is sometimes found in granite, syenite, limestone, slate, 
 and other rocks ; but the auriferous lodes, regularly worked, 
 are all of quartz. Most of the quartz veins run parallel with 
 the main divide of the Sierra — that is, north-northwest and 
 south-southeast — are from a line to thirty feet thick, and are 
 nearly perpendicular, dipping to the eastw^ard. They are be- 
 tween two thousand and six thousand feet above the sea. The 
 general color of the rock is white, occasionally bluish, fre- 
 quently reddish-brown, the color of iron-rust, derived from the 
 decomposition of iron pyrites. In some veins the rock is com- 
 pact, and then it is usually very white ; in others it is full of 
 cracks and crevices, and ready to break into small pieces with 
 a little pounding. Most of the veins have gold in them; only 
 a few have enough to pay for w^orking. The gold is in par- 
 ticles of irregular shape, but with some regularity of size, scat- 
 tered through tlie rock. The particles are seldom larger than 
 
62 EESOURCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 a pea, never weigh more thnn an ounce, and often are so fine 
 as to be invisible to the naked eye. 
 
 A lode has usually a peculiar kind of particles, either large 
 or small. Most of the gold in a lode is usually in a rich streak, 
 near the " foot wall" or lower side, as if the metal had settled 
 down by its gravity. The rock near the '• hanging wall" or 
 upper side of the lode is poorest. Occasionally several rich 
 streaks will be found in a lode — one streak with coarse par- 
 ticles of gold, another with fine. All parts of a lode are not 
 equally rich ; but the gold is found in spots. A lode which is 
 very rich in one place may be very poor in another not far 
 ofi"; indeed, there is no auriferous vein in the state known to 
 be regularly rich for a long distance on the surface. The gold 
 is found in streaks or pockets ; the rich streak nins downward, 
 and has a regular dip in the lode. It is a matter of very great 
 importance to the miner to ascertain the direction of this dip, 
 and here is the rule : Take out some of the vein stone, and 
 examine the wall rock carefully. In most veins it will be 
 found that the wall has little furrows, as though the lode had 
 been pushed upward. These farrows indicate the direction 
 of the dip of the rich streaks. Pockets may be considered as 
 interrupted streaks ; and when one rich pocket is discovered, 
 others may usually be found by going down into the vein in 
 the proper direction, and that is ascertained in the same man- 
 ner as for continuous streaks. This is an important rule, and 
 it is now published for the first time. I am indebted for it to 
 J. E. Clayton, Esq., mining engineer. 
 
 § 38. Placers. — The placers are of two kinds — diluvial^ or 
 those deposited under large bodies of water, as if in a deluge; 
 and alluvial^ or those deposited under the influence of streams 
 of water, such as the present rivers and brooks of the country. 
 It is evident, from an examination of the mining districts, that 
 large tracts of auriferous ground have been deposited under 
 diluvial influences. The same strata are found extending over 
 wide areas, and the deposition is difTerent from that made by 
 a river. The gold, being nineteen times heavier than water, 
 
GEOLOGY. 53 
 
 and from six to eight times heavier than the clay and stones 
 with which it is found, has sunk to the bottom of the dikivium. 
 Tlie best diggings are therefore near the "bed-rock." The 
 dirt in which the gold is found is usually a stiff clay, with 
 gravel and large stones intermixed. The common phrase 
 " golden sands" may mislead. Pure, fine sand rarely has any 
 gold in it ; and the richest deposits of the precious metal are 
 in a clay so tough as to give the miner much trouble to dis- 
 solve it, with stones in it weighing from a pound to several 
 hundred weight. The character of the pay-dirt varies greatly. 
 A hill of diluvium may be three hundred feet deep, with a 
 dozen strata of different material, and all of them auriferous in 
 different degrees. In some places the pay-dirt is full of boul- 
 ders, weighing several hundred pounds or more ; in other 
 places the stones are all about as large as a man's head ; in 
 others, as large as a hen's egg. In one stratum the dirt is 
 red, in another blue, in another brown. In some places the 
 dirt was deposited in basins of rock, four or five miles across, 
 and from ten to fifty feet deeper at the centre than at the rim. 
 
 The placer-diggings are all found in a very rough, mountain- 
 ous country. The gold has not been carried far ; its weight 
 has anchored it near its mother-vein. There may be much 
 gold in the Sacramento valley ; but if so, it is deposited be- 
 neath one thousand feet of diluvium, and nine hundred feet 
 below the level of the sea, where it will never be disturbed. 
 
 The diluvial placers are in what are called hill and flat dig- 
 gings; the alluvial, made by streams running through the 
 diluvium, are in rivei'-beds, bars, ravines, and gullies. The 
 alluvial placers, as a general rule, are richer than the diluvial. 
 The streams have carried away much of the dirt, and left 
 nearly all the metal. Most of the gold of the rivers comes 
 from gullies. There is a gully on a mountain : it is dry, ex- 
 cept during heavy rains ; it has steep sides. The rain comes ; 
 the water pours down its sides, fiercely sweeping clay, gravel, 
 and gold along. Tlie bed of the ravine is not so steep as the 
 Bides ; most of the gold stops there ; the dirt is carried away 
 
54 EESOUKCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 into the river, with a little gold. A thousand such gullies, 
 contributhig each a little gold, make a river rich. The heav- 
 ier particles are deposited in the middle of the river-bed ; many 
 of the smaller particles are deposited at the sides. The richest 
 spots in gullies are usually where the bed-rock is full of crev- 
 ices, as where slate, with perpendicular strata, crosses the 
 gully. In those parts of a gully where the bed is very steep, 
 there is usually less gold than in spots nearly level. In rivers, 
 the richest spots are usually just below canons, where bars are 
 formed. Wherever there are eddies at times of high water, 
 there the gravel, clay, and gold will be deposited; and when 
 the river falls, a bar is exposed. The richest bars of California 
 ^A)2i\Q been found at the mouths of canons. 
 /y/^ § 39. Mineralogy of Gold. — The particles of gold in quartz 
 ' are usually very rough in sha])e, but sometimes they are in 
 
 octahedral crystals, and at others in smooth, leaflike sheets. 
 "Very rarely specimens of crystals are found, clustered together 
 so as to resemble pieces of coral. 
 
 Placer-gold, called " gold dust," is fine and coarse. 
 
 The fine is in scales^ grains^ flour^ shot^ and icire. 
 
 Flour-gold is very fine dust. 
 
 Grain-gold is in particles about as large as the end of a pin. 
 
 Scale-gold is in scales from a sixteenth to an eighth of an 
 inch across, and as thick as heavy wrapping-paper. 
 
 Shot-gold is in roundish particles, the size of a pin-head. 
 
 Wire-gold is in small wires, from an eighth of an inch to an 
 inch long, and as thick as a pin. Sometimes the wires are 
 fluted, or hollow on one side ; and sometimes they are knotted 
 together. 
 
 Coarse gold is coarse-shot, pea, bean, moccasin, cucumber- 
 seed, pumpkin-seed, large wire, and miscellaneous coarse. 
 
 The pea, bean, cucumber-seed, and pumpkin-seed varieties 
 of gold, have particles resembling in shape the seeds whence 
 they derive their names. The coarse-shot is in particles re- 
 sembling coarse shot in shape and size. Moccasin-gold is in 
 pieces resembling a low shoe or moccasin in slinpe, ar.d about 
 
GEOLOGT. 55 
 
 half an inch long. Large wire-gold is in wirelike pieces, about 
 a sixteenth of an inch thick, and from a quarter of an inch to 
 an inch long. Miscellaneous coarse gold is in pieces of very 
 irregular shape and size. 
 
 Fine gold is often found without any admixture of coarse ; 
 coarse is rarely found without some admixture of fine. 
 
 The difierent varieties of gold are often found separate from 
 each other. One gully will have scale gold, another fine wire- 
 gold, another moccasin-gold, another pumpkin-seed gold, and 
 so on. These difierent varieties of gold are frequently found 
 very near to each other : a cucumber-seed gully will not be 
 more than a hundred yards from a pea gully. There is a small 
 hill in El Dorado county ; all the gold on one side is fine, all 
 on the other coarse. The gold as it originally comes from the 
 quartz is rough, but by friction among the gravel and sand it 
 becomes smooth. Where all the pieces of gold are rough, it 
 has not moved far from its maternal lode ; where all the par- 
 ticles are small and smooth, the presumption is that it has 
 moved a considerable distance. The larger the stream, the 
 finer and smoother its gold, as a general rule. 
 
 Most of the gold now obtained is miscellaneous coarse ; the 
 little gullies which yielded the delicate varieties are now nearly 
 all exhausted. 
 
 Most of the placer-gold is coarse, in pieces worth half a dol- 
 lar or more. Pieces worth five dollars are very common, and 
 numberless nuggets worth one hundred dollars or more have 
 been found in California. The largest nugget of gold on rec- 
 ord was found at Ballaarat, Australia, on the 9th of June, 
 1858 ; it weighed two hundred and twenty-four pounds Troy, 
 of nearly pure gold, and was called " The Welcome Nugget." 
 The next, weighing one hundred and ninety-five pounds Troy, 
 was found in Calaveras county, California, in November, 1854. 
 The third, called " The Blanche Barkly Nugget," weighed one 
 hundred and forty-five pounds Troy, and was also found m^- 
 Australia. Smaller lumps are too numerous to mention^^x^^f 
 placer-gold is called " dust," but the particles of the -da^are 
 
56 BESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sometimes pretty large. No satisfactory explanation has been 
 given of the fact that placer-gold is usually in particles so much 
 larger than that found in quartz. 
 
 Gold is fine and coarse mechanically — that is, in the size of 
 its particles — and chemically in its composition. Most metals 
 are found in ores, combined chemically with non-m,etallic sub- 
 stances which hide them. The ores have usually neither the 
 color, the specific gravity, the strength, nor the other peculiar 
 features of the metals. Native gold is never found as an ore ; 
 it is always in a metallic form. The reason of this is, that it 
 does not rust on exposure to the air, nor is it dissolved by any 
 of the simple acids. And yet it is never found pure, but always 
 mixed with silver, in nearly all possible proportions. Fre- 
 quently copper and lead are also found in native gold. The 
 amount of other metal in gold is designated by figures of fine- 
 ness, estimated according to thousandths. Perfectly pure gold 
 is 1,000 fine; gold containing one-tenth of its weight in silver 
 is 900 fine; that is, 900 parts in 1,000 are gold, and 100 are 
 silver. In gold 600 fine, 400 parts in 1,000 are of other 
 metal. 
 
 The native gold in California varies in fineness from 500 to 
 990, averaging about 880. One large piece, found at Downie- 
 ville, was 992 fine. In Mariposa, Fresno, and Buena Vista 
 counties, and at Mono Lake and Walker's River, east of the 
 Sierra Nevada, the fineness is very low. The gold of the Col- 
 orado is very fine. In other districts there are great variations 
 in the fineness within small distances. One has gold 900 fine ; 
 another, one hundred yards distant, has gold only 800 fine. 
 Ordinarily, all the gold in a gully or in a river-bar is of the 
 same fineness ; so also all the gold in a quartz-lode is of the 
 same fineness. But there are the same differences of fineness 
 between the gold taken from different quartz-lodes as in that 
 taken from difterent gullies. For these differences there is no 
 satisfactory explanation. 
 
 Let us now run through the list of the principal mining dis- 
 tricts of the state, giving the fineness of the placer-gold of each : 
 
GEOLOGY. 57 
 
 Tlie gold found in the bars and beds of the Klamath and 
 Sabnon Rivers is in coarse particles, averaging 868 fine, and 
 mixed with iridium. 
 
 The gold of Scott River is coarser and poorer. That of the 
 South Fork of Scott River is about 815 fine, and coarse. 
 
 The gold on Trinity River, near Weaverville, is in small 
 particles, from 885 to 940 fine. 
 
 Twenty miles below Weaverville, on the same river, the 
 gold is poorer — from 865 to 810. 
 
 Still farther down, iridium becomes so abundant, that the 
 gold is worth a dollar or a dollar and a half per ounce less 
 than it would be if clear of that metal. 
 
 In the gullies and hills near Weaverville there are rich dig- 
 gings of coarse gold, from 890 to 960 fine. 
 
 At Gold Blufi"the gold is 950 fine. 
 
 The gold found at Yuba is coarse, in rough, flat particles, from 
 820 to 830 fine. In some lumps from Yuba little pebbles have 
 been found hidden in their centre. 
 
 The gold of most of the creeks near Yuba is from 845 to 
 850 fine. 
 
 McAdam's Creek, near Shasta, yields gold from 875 to 885 
 fine. 
 
 Cottonwood Creek, near the Oregon line, yields gold of the 
 same fineness. 
 
 At Oro Fino, near Yuba, the gold is in wires, and, like all 
 w^iry gold, is of poor quality, from 760 to 780 fine. 
 
 The Shasta gold is generally coarse, ranging fi-om 865 to 
 925 fine, except at French Gulch, where it is only 830 fine. 
 
 The Pit River gold is coarse and poor, 830 fine. 
 
 The Feather River gold is all good, from 890 to 920 fine. 
 
 At Oroville it is from 920 to 940 fine. 
 
 At La Porte, Gibsonville, and Pine Grove, in Sierra county, 
 the diggings are deep, and the gold coarse, and from 915 to 
 970 fine. At Poor Man's Creek, the gold is coated with some- 
 thing like an enamel, the color of iron-rust. When the gold 
 is pounded, this enamel breaks off. 
 
 3 '"^ >»^' 
 
58 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The Downieville gold is coarse, and from 895 to 925 fine. 
 
 At Goodyear's Bar the fineness varies from 850 to 885. 
 
 At Foster's Bar, and farther down, from 890 to 900. 
 
 At Slate Creek and Canon Creek, from 900 to 910. 
 
 At Forbestown, in Yuba county, the gold is 890 fine. 
 
 At Camptonville, the fineness is from 920 to 970, except in 
 one hill, which has wiry gold, 870 fine. 
 
 The gold of the Middle Fork of the Yuba River is fine, from 
 885 to 890. 
 
 That of the creeks and ravines tributary to that stream is 
 still finer— from 900 to 920. 
 
 At North San Juan the fineness is from 960 to 965. 
 
 At French Corral it is 920 fine. 
 
 The ffold of the Southern Fork of the Yuba River is from 
 890 to 900 fine. 
 
 Every hill about the town of Nevada has a quality of gold 
 difiei'ing from that of other places in the vicinity. Some of it 
 is very good, but the general character is poor, from 800 to 
 850. Most of it is rough. 
 
 The Grass Valley gold is poor, from 800 to 840. 
 
 At Rough and Ready the gold varies as at Nevada. 
 
 The gold of Yuba county is good, from 940 to 970. 
 
 The Timbuctoo gold in Yuba county is 950 fine. 
 
 The gold of Park's Bar is 910 fine. 
 
 The North Fork of the American River has gold from 915 
 to 920 fine; the Middle Fork from 865 to 900; the South 
 Fork from 915 to 920. 
 
 At Iowa Hill, the gold is 900 fine ; at Michigan Blufi*, 930 ; 
 at Forest Hill, 900; at Yankee Jim's, from 890 to 910; at 
 Auburn, 860 ; below Auburn, and near Ophir, 820 ; and at 
 Secret Ravine, 780. All these placers are in Placer county. 
 At Gold Hill, in Placer county, iridium is found fastened in 
 with the gold; the only place on the coast where the two 
 metals are found fastened together. 
 
 Next we come to El Dorado comity. The Coloma gold is 
 good, about 915 fiu.ej' aod ^ome of the hill gold m the vicinity 
 
GEOLOGY. 59 
 
 of the town is from 920 to 930 fine. The Georgetown gold is 
 course, and from 890 to 920 fine. At Kelsey's Diggings the 
 fineness is 860. At Placerville the range is from 870 to 970. 
 Coon Hollow, near Placerville, produces gold 970 fine. At 
 Diamond Springs the fineness varies from 870 to 900. The 
 El Dorado or Mud Springs gold is 860 fine. The gold of the 
 Cosmnnes River varies from 865 to 875. 
 
 The gold along the American River, in Sacramento county, 
 is from 915 to 920 fine. 
 
 Most of the gold in Amador county is poor, from 865 to 
 920. The gold about Volcano averages 870 ; Jackson, 865 to 
 868 ; the Buttes, near Jackson, 920. 
 
 The gold of the Mokelumne River, above Mokelumne Hill, 
 varies from 850 to 910. At the hill, some of the gold has been 
 980 fine. At Campo Seco the fineness is 900. Along the Mo- 
 kelumne River are many placers where the gold is in coarse, 
 wiry pieces, and poor in quaUty. At Vallecito, the fineness is 
 915 ; at San Andres, 920 ; at Murphy's, 885 ; at Douglas Flat, 
 890; at AngeFs, 890; at Jesus Maria, from 858 to 860; and 
 at Carson, from 890 to 920. 
 
 The gold found along the Stanislaus River is from 875 to 
 880 fine. 
 
 Columbia, in Tuolumne county, is the best place for good 
 gold in the state ; it ranges from 930 to 970. There are many 
 other places where gold equally fine is obtained, but none 
 which produces so much gold of a high fineness, with so small 
 a proportion of poor gold. The average of the Sonora gold is 
 900 ; Jamestown, 870 ; Montezuma Flat, 900 ; ravines at Chi- 
 nese Camp, 950 ; the river and creek claims at Chinese Camp, 
 860 ; Don Pedro's Bar, 880 ; Big-Oak Flat, 800 ; and Garote, 
 810. 
 
 La Grange, in Stanislaus county, has gold 885 fine ; that of 
 the Merced River is from 845 to 860 fine. 
 
 The gold of Mariposa county is poor, and much of it wiry, 
 ranging from- 700 to 820 fine, averaging about 760. Some of 
 the gold of Mariposa county is coarse, and resembles that of 
 
60 KESOUKCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 high fineness from other districts, but, on assaying, it proves 
 to be poor. 
 
 The gold from the San Joaquin River is in small scales, and 
 about 800 fine. 
 
 The Kern River gold is 630 fine. 
 
 The Colorado gold is 930. 
 
 The Walker's River gold is 560 ; the Mono gold 600. 
 
 The above figures of the fineness of gold from various dis- 
 tricts refer only to the placer-gold. The gold from diff*erent 
 quartz-lodes also varies. As a general rule, the quartz-gold is 
 not so rich as the placer-gold; but some of the gold taken 
 from quartz is nearly as rich as any from the placers. 
 
 § 40. Silver. — A large amount of silver is found in Califor- 
 nia. One-tenth in weight of the gold-dust is silver. But it 
 was n'ot until 1860 that valuable veins of argentiferous ore 
 were discovered in the state. As gold predominates on the 
 western side of the main divide of the Sierra Nevada, so does 
 silver on the eastern side. The Washoe mines are not in Cali- 
 fornia ; but the Esmeralda and Coso districts are. 
 
 Esmeralda is in latitude 38° 15', about two hundred and fifty 
 miles in a direct line from San Francisco in an eastward direc- 
 tion, and just within the limits of the state, as is generally siip- 
 posed, though some persons assert that it is in Utah. The 
 country is mountainous ; the rock is porphyry and trap. The 
 argentiferous veins are of a bluish-white quartz, containing sul- 
 phuret of silver. The principal vein of the district runs north 
 and south, and this has very little gold ; many other veins, 
 containing considerable quantities of gold mixed with the sil- 
 ver, run east and west. The main vein is about twenty feet 
 wide. The ores assay from thirty to fifteen hundred dollars 
 per ton, but the latter figure was only obtained from picked 
 specimens. Timber suitable for firewood is abundant, and 
 there is sufficient water to supply the wants of a small town. 
 
 The Coso silver district is about one hundred and fifty miles 
 northward from Los Angeles, one hundred miles eastward from 
 Visalia, and twenty miles southeastward from Owen's Lake. 
 
GEOLOGY. 61 
 
 Wood and water are very scarce. Little is known about the 
 district as yet. The Coso and the Esmerelda districts are both 
 in the Great Basin of Utah, and about five thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 It is said that rich silver-mines have been discovered in the 
 valley of the Mojave River. 
 
 In the Coast Mountains, in Monterey county, a silver-mine 
 called Allisal has long been known to exist, but it is not rich 
 enough to pay. Similar veins are found in the Coast Moun- 
 tains, in Santa Cruz county. 
 
 Veins of silver ore are also found in Nevada county. 
 
 § 41. Platinutn. — Platinum, iridium, and osmium, are three 
 white metals resembling steel, often found in the placer mines 
 of California. They usually occur together ; and are found 
 more abundantly in the lower part of the Klamath valley than 
 in any other part of the state. In many districts tliey are 
 entirely lacking. Platinum is found in lumps by itself; iridi- 
 um and osmium are found united, and are then called irid- 
 osmium. These metals are found in small particles, usually 
 fine scales ; the largest piece was of irid-osmium, found on the 
 Lower Klamath, and weighed an ounce and a quarter. They 
 are not found separate from the gold, nor are they ever the 
 main object of search ; they are obtained in small quantities 
 only, and are rarely bought and sold in the state ; they have 
 no fixed market price. When mixed with gold-dust, they 
 mjure its value, and prevent its reception at the mint on de- 
 posit. 
 
 § 42. QuieJcsilver. — There is probably no country in the 
 world so rich in quicksilver as California. That metal is ob- 
 tained only from its sulphuret or cinnabar, of which extensive 
 deposits are found in Santa Clara county, about sixty miles 
 southward from San Francisco, and fifteen miles from San 
 Jose. There are three mines here — the New Almaden, the 
 Enriqueta, and the Guadalupe. The ore is found between trap 
 on one side, and metamorphic limestone on the other. The 
 mines are about one thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 
62 KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The gangue or vein-stone is quartz. The ore varies in rich- 
 ness from 5 to 70 per cent. : the ore of the Ahnaclen mine 
 averages 18 per cent. ; that of the Enriqueta mine is about the 
 same; that of the New Idria mine is about 8 per cent. The 
 lodes are extremely irregular ; sometimes there will be a mere 
 thread, which will widen out into a mass forty feet in breadth, 
 twenty high, and seventy long, of rich ore, and then diminish 
 again to a thread. The total annual production of the state 
 will probably amount to three million seven hundred thousand 
 pounds, of which two million four hundred thousand at least 
 will come from New Almaden. The New Idria mines, in the 
 Coast Mountains, about seventy-five miles southeastward from 
 8an Jose, furnish about three hundred and fifty thousand 
 pounds per annum. In Napa county, on the slopes of Mount St. 
 Helena, and in Sonoma county, in the Geyser Mountains, west 
 of Clear Lake, cinnabar has been found, and companies are 
 now at work opening the mines. Whether they will prove to 
 be of value is as yet a matter of doubt. It is a singular fea- 
 ture of the cinnabar veins in these two last-mentioned places, 
 that they are accompanied by a porous limestone w^hich is full 
 of pure quicksilver ; and when the stone is shaken or struck, 
 the liquid metal flies out in minute globules. There have been 
 rumors of discoveries of cinnabar in other parts of the state, 
 but they are not well authenticated. 
 
 § 43. Copper. — Copper ore has been found near Crescent 
 City ; at Copper Canon, in the southwestern corner of Calave- 
 ras county ; in San Diego county ; in Napa county ; six miles 
 below Grizzly Flat, in El Dorado county; near Svveetland, in 
 Nevada county ; and in Shasta county. Sulphuret of copper, 
 or copper pyrites, is found in auriferous quartz-lodes in nearly 
 all the mining counties. Near Sweetland, Nevada county, 
 there is a claim in which so much copper is found with the 
 gold, that the dust is w^orth only eleven dollars per ounce. 
 No copper has been smelted in the state; the only attempts 
 to mine for the ore have been at Copper Canon, and on the 
 bank of the Cosumnes River, below Grizzly Flat. Some of 
 
GEOLOGY. 63 
 
 the Copper Caiion ore has been exported. There are rich 
 veins of copper-ore near Crescent City, in Del Norte county ; 
 but, with the present high prices of labor and coal, they cannot 
 be profitably wrought. Vitreous copper is found at William- 
 son's Pass, sixty miles from Los Angeles. 
 
 § 44. Coal. — The old red sandstone and the " true carbon- 
 iferous" rocks, as they are called, are wanting in Cahfornia ; 
 and it was long supposed that no valuable coal would ever be 
 discovered in the state ; but within the last year some veins 
 of a very good quality have been found near Mount Diablo. 
 The mineral belongs to the tertiary epoch, but contains far 
 more solid combustible matter and less incombustible material 
 than most tertiary coal. In the strict geological meaning of 
 the terms, it is not " coal," but " hgnite," belonging to a later 
 date than the true coal, and lying in a different formation. 
 The rocks are sandstone and shale, of the upper tertiary or 
 pliocene age, and were formed by alternating depositions in 
 salt and fresh water. The coal-veins are situated on the north- 
 eastern slope of Mount Diablo, are from two to nine feet in 
 thickness, dip to the north at an average of 30°, and open on 
 the southern declivities of the hills. A chemical analysis of 
 some of the best specimens showed 50 per cent, of carbon, 46 
 per cent, of volatile bituminous substances, and 4 per cent, of 
 ashes. The coal is bituminous in character, breaks readily, 
 shows a bright surface where fractured, and burns with a 
 brilliant flame. The quantity is large, and it can be profitably 
 supplied in San Francisco at eight dollars per ton, whereas 
 imported coal has hitherto cost twice as much. 
 
 § 45. Asphaltum. — Bituminous springs are numerous near 
 the coast, from the northern line of Monterey county to San 
 Diego. They throw up a dark, pitch-like fluid, of a strong 
 odor, which on exposure to the air grows thick, and finally 
 solid. It collects in great masses about the sprimis, and in 
 some places covers several acres of ground. After being ex- 
 posed to the air for some time, it is called " asphaltum," which 
 is very hard in cold weather, but grows soft at about 75°, and 
 
64 EESOtTPvCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 becomes liquid at 85°. Some springs of it rise in the sea, near 
 San Diego, and others near Santa Barbara ; and masses of the 
 asphaltum are seen floating many miles from shore. The air 
 at sea is even scented with it, and on several occasions frights 
 on siiipboard have been caused by its odor, which was sup- 
 posed to come from some hidden fire. 
 
 The principal places in which these springs of asphaltum are 
 found are the following: 
 
 1. In the Santa Cruz Mountains, in the southeastern part of 
 Santa Clara county. A tract of twenty-five acres is here cov- 
 ered by the hardened asphaltum. 
 
 2. In San Luis Obispo valley. The asphaltum covers thirty 
 acres. 
 
 3. The Napoma ranch, in San Luis Obispo county. The 
 springs are small, and yield but little. 
 
 4. On the ranch of La Purissima, in Santa Barbara coun- 
 
 5. A place six miles west of the town of Santa Barbara. 
 The deposit of asphaltum covers three hundred acres from two 
 to eight feet thick. 
 
 6. Rincon of San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara county. 
 
 I. A place near the San Buenaventura River, twelve miles 
 from its mouth, in Santa Barbara county. 
 
 8. A place near the Santa Clara River, eighteen miles from 
 its mouth, in Santa Barbara county. 
 
 9. A place in the Sierra Santa Susanna, in Los Angeles 
 county. 
 
 10. In Los Angeles valley, Los Angeles county. 
 
 II. The San Pedro Hills, in Los Angeles county. 
 12. San Juan Capistrano, Los Angeles county. 
 
 One of the deposits in Santa Barbara is so near the sea, that 
 the mineral might be thrown w^th a shovel into a shute which 
 w^ould carry it into the hold of a vessel at anchor. 
 
 A spring of mineral oil has been found in Mattole valley, 
 Humboldt county. This is probably the same material with 
 that of the asphaltum springs of the southern coast. 
 
GEOLOGY. 65 
 
 Tlie asphaltum generally comes up through sandstone. The 
 springs of Santa Barbara seem to have ceased to flow, while 
 those in Los Angeles county are still active. It is supposed 
 that the amount lying on the surface at the various deposits is 
 not less than five thousand tons. 
 
 § 46. Other Minerals, — Iron pyrites, or the sulphuret of 
 iron, is found with gold in many of the quartz-veins. Iron is 
 found also in a number of chalybeate springs. Iron-ore con- 
 taining, it is said, 83 per cent, of metal, has been found near 
 Auburn, in Placer county ; and the assessor of Shasta county, 
 in his report for 1857, said "rich iron-ore" had been found in 
 that county. Magnetic iron-ore is found in the Canada de las 
 Uvas, and at Williamson's Pass. 
 
 Tin-ore, of the kind called " tin-stone," of a rich quality, has 
 been found in a large vein at Temascal, in San Bernardino 
 county ; and it is reported that another lode of similar charac- 
 ter has been found in the valley of White River, Buena Vista 
 county. 
 
 Galena has been found in Humbug valley, Siskiyou county ; 
 in Tuolumne county ; and on the banks of the Cosumnes River, 
 in El Dorado county. Plumbago has been discovered near 
 Columbia, Tuolumne county. 
 
 Cobalt is found, in various ores, in many counties in the 
 state. 
 
 At San Emidio, about twenty miles westward from Tejon 
 Pass, is a rich and large lode of sulphuret of antimony ; the 
 vein is from four to twelve feet thick, and is about six thou- 
 sand feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 Arsenic exists in many of the lodes of auriferous quartz, in 
 the argentiferous lodes at Esmeralda and Coso, and in the an- 
 timonial ore of San Emidio. 
 
 Sulphur is abundant in California. It exists in large beds 
 near the Geysers, in Sonoma county; near Clear Lake, in 
 Napa county ; in San Diego county, thirty miles northward 
 from the town of that name, and twelve miles from the sea; 
 near the sea-shore, fifteen miles eastward from Santa Barbara; 
 
66 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 in the valley of Santa Clara "River, near its head ; and near 
 San Juan Bautista, Monterey county. The most abundant and 
 most accessible supply is that near Clear Lake. 
 
 Alum is found in Santa Clara county, eastward of San Jose ; 
 near Lancha Plana and Campo Seco, in Calaveras county ; at 
 the Geysers, and at Owen's Lake. At the two last- named 
 places there are hot alum-springs. 
 
 Three miles above the forks of Clear Creek, in Shasta coun- 
 ty, there are twenty salt springs. 
 
 Springs stronj> with sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts, 
 are found at the Geysers. 
 
 Chalk is found in Amador county and in Sonoma county. 
 
 Suisun marble, the most beautiful form of sulphate of lime, 
 is found in Solano county. Gypsum is found in Santa Cruz 
 and Amador counties. Fine specimens of alabaster have been 
 obtained in El Dorado and Monterey counties. 
 
 Fine varieties of porcelain clay exist in many of the mining 
 counties, particularly in Tuolumne. Clay, suitable for making 
 lire-bi"ick, m:i-y be obtained, near Richmond, in Honey Lake 
 valley. 
 
 Chromium is found on the bank of Feather River, near the 
 mouth of Nelson Creek ; near the town of Nevada ; on the 
 bank of Bear River, above Anson's Ferry ; and on the ridge 
 between the North and Middle Forks of the American River. 
 Chrome iron is found in Monterey county. 
 
 During the summer and fall, in many parts of the state, a 
 saline efBlorescence covers the earth, or those low parts of it 
 where water collects during the rains of winter. This efflo- 
 rescence is composed chiefly of carbonate and borate of soda, 
 mixed with various other salts. The largest deposit of this 
 kind is probably found at Soda Lake, at the sink of the Mojave 
 River. 
 
 California is very rich in borax, and the day is probably not 
 flir distant when we shall supply a large amount of it to com- 
 merce. It is found in springs in Tehama county, and in springs 
 and lakes in Napa county. One of these lakes covers a hun- 
 
GEOLOGY. 67 
 
 clred and fifty acres of ground, and is strong with the sohition 
 In the mud at the bottom of this lake, the borax is found crys- 
 tallized in large quantities. Boracic acid has been discovered 
 ill the sea-water near the coast, 
 
 § 47. Artesian Wells. — There are a great number of art(?- 
 sian wells in California. In Santa Clara county, within a dis- 
 trict six miles wide by fifteen long, there are three hundred 
 and eighteen — more than are to be found in any other district 
 of equal size in the world. Their water is nearly all used to 
 irrigate land; some for manufacturing purposes. They supply 
 about two million gallons in twenty-four hours. The wells 
 aie from fifty to four hundred feet deep ; the bore varies from 
 six to nine inches. Only a small portion of Santa Clara valley 
 yields artesian water ; the artesian district lies north of a line 
 commencing at Mountain View ; thence running nine miles 
 with the road through the town of Santa Clara to San Jose ; 
 and thence southeast to the mountains. South of this line no 
 artesian water is found. 
 
 It is supposed that the water comes from certain subterra- 
 nean streams. One well has abundant water at one hundred 
 feet ; another, not more than one hundred yards distant, has 
 no water short of three hundred feet. The wells throw up 
 living fish and shell-fish, which are of difierent species in dif- 
 ferent wells. Some wells throw up soft-shell clams good to 
 eat, and of a kind not found in the superterrene waters of the 
 state, before the opening of these artesian supplies. One well 
 throws up a snail, with a long spiral shell ; another has snails 
 with flat shells; 4nd others have blind fish, evidently of a spe- 
 cies that has lived long in subterrene waters, and lost its eves 
 because it had no use for them. Like the fish of the Mammoth 
 Cave, in Kentucky, these artesian fish have the eye-socket and 
 a blind eye in it. The wells that produce these fish and shell- 
 fish are mostly shallow, not more than one hundi-ed and fifty 
 feet deep. If put into water fresh from wells two hundred 
 and fifty or three hundi'ed feet deep, they soon die, as do su- 
 perterrene fish ; either, it is supposed, because the water is 
 
68 RESOURCES OF CALIFORXIA. 
 
 too warm, or because it has not enough air in it. The deeper 
 the well, the warmer tlie water. 
 
 Many of the wells have gone dry — "been drained by other 
 wells," as people say ; but yet how can one well " drain" an- 
 other, the mouths of both being on a level with each other ? 
 The wells whose mouths are at a lower level may take water 
 from those farther up the valley ; but the theory that the 
 water deserts one well, to flow out of another of equal or 
 higher elevation, is not sound. There is very little difference 
 of elevation, perhaps ten feet, between San Jose and Alviso ; 
 and the wells near the latter place throw their water about 
 five feet higher above the surfoce than do those of the former. 
 One cause of the failure of the wells may be the filling up of 
 tlie pipes. From many of them great quantities of sand, 
 gravel, and stones half a foot in diameter, have been thrown 
 up ; and if a large stone should happen to lodge crosswise in 
 the l^ipe, other smaller stones and gravel might soon stop it 
 up entirely, or break the force of the current so that the water 
 could not rise to the top. In many cases the pipe has not 
 been driven down to the foundation ; and the water, whirling 
 round at the bottom of the pipe, has torn away the earth and 
 made an excavation, thus preparing the way for a caving in 
 of tbe ground, and filling up of the well. 
 
 It is tiie general opinion in Santa Clara valley that the arte- 
 sian wells have drained away the surface-water, and the soil is 
 much drier than it was before the wells were bored. In 1849, 
 Dr. Bascom found water west of Santa Clai-a by digging three 
 feet ; and since then he has been going deeper every year, un- 
 til now his surface-well is fifty feet deep. In Pellier's garden, 
 at San Jose, the surface-water was six feet below the surface 
 in 1849 ; now it is fourteen. Ten years ago, there was a con- 
 stant stream of water along the Alameda, between Santa Clara 
 and San Jose ; but that ditch has been entirely dry for several 
 years. A multitude of such observations are mentioned ; yet 
 there is no conclusive proof that the artesian wells have taken 
 avray the surface-water. It seems that the soil began to get 
 
GEOLOGY. 69 
 
 dry before these wells were bored. The artesian wells cannot 
 draw the water from the soil immediately around them, for 
 they throw their waters above the earth ; it may be, however, 
 that their supplies are derived from the soil in the upper part 
 of the valley — supplies which, if the wells were not there, 
 would not be drained away into subterranean channels, but 
 would go to moisteif the whole valley. It is to be observed 
 that, at the very time when the soil of the Santa Clara valley 
 was becoming so dry, a similar disappearance of the surface- 
 water was noticed far beyond the influence of the artesian wells 
 — Honey Lake, on the plateau of the Sierra Nevada, and Lake 
 Elizabeth, in the Great Basin, both disappearing about the 
 same time, in 1859; and several other little lakes and ponds 
 in other parts of the country following their example, soon 
 after. 
 
 There are artesian wells at various places in the state besides 
 Santa Clara valley, but they offer nothing new in a geological 
 point of view, 
 
 § 48. Paleontology. — It is a general rule, that the animals 
 of former geological eras, in any given district, appear to have 
 been the gigantic ancestors of those of the present time. Thus 
 the kangaroo and emu of Australia, found in no other part of 
 tlie world, were preceded by gigantic kangaroos and emus, 
 whose fossil remains are found in New Holland only. So, too, 
 South America, in antediluvian times, had gigantic sloths and 
 tapirs, akin to the animals now found within her limits. Each 
 continent has a fauna of its own, to which its antediluvian ani- 
 mals were nearly akin. Every continent has several zoological 
 districts ; and the ancient and modern fauna of these districts 
 are sometimes as clearly related to each other, and as distinctly 
 separate from those of other parts of the continent, as arc the 
 fauna of different continents from each other. But the ante- 
 diluvian animals of California possessed no peculiar relation- 
 ship to the animals now indigenous in the state : the former 
 fauna was totally distinct from that of the present age ; the 
 fossil bones found are not numerous, and no large and valuable 
 
70 EESOUKCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 skeletons have been brought to light — only fragments here and 
 there. Of quadrupeds, we have the remains of a mastodon, an 
 elephant, and a new species of horse. Of birds and reptiles, 
 nothing noteworthy has been found. We have no entire fossil 
 hshes, but a few teeth. Dr. W. O. Ayres found near Pit River 
 the teeth of a shark, of tlie genus Lamna — a genus now extinct 
 on this coast. There are luinierous beds of marine shells, the 
 most remarkable being on the shores of San Pablo Bay, on the 
 sides of Mount Diablo, and on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. 
 In the bluffs of the coast, near the Lake House, are sliells iden- 
 tical with those now^ found alive in the vicinity. All our fossils 
 are of the tertiary period, save a few ammonites of the second- 
 ary era, found in the northern part of the state. 
 
 § 49. Relics of Early Humanity. — In May, 1859, an Indian 
 arrow-head was found, eighty feet below the surface of the 
 earth, at Buckeye Hill, Nevada county. About the same time, 
 another arrow-head was found three feet deep, in undisturbed 
 alluvium, near Freeman's Crossing, in the same county. 
 
 In April, 1859, the skeleton of a man was found sixteen feet 
 deep, at Tehaehepe, in Los Angeles county. 
 
 In October, 1855, two stone mortars, such as were used by 
 the Indians for grinding acorns and grass-seeds, were found 
 near Diamond Springs, El Dorado county, at a depth of one 
 hundred feet below the surface. 
 
 In October, 1854, the skeletons of two men were found at 
 Rattlesnake Bar, fourteen feet below the surface, and under 
 ancient strata, which had apparently not been disturbed from 
 the time of their deposition. 
 
 These are a few only of the fossil evidences that California 
 has been inhabited by men many thousands of years. 
 
 § 50. Mineral Springs. — Mineral springs are very numer- 
 ous in California. The greatest number are found in the coast 
 valleys, from latitude 40° southward to 32°. Nearly every 
 little vale has one or more; many of them warm or hot. The 
 most common temperatures range from 60° to 120°. Some of 
 these springs yield a large quantity of water, and are in ro- 
 
GEOLOGY. 71 
 
 mantic sites, destined to become places of fashionable resort 
 when our pojnilation grows dense. There are so many of 
 these springs in the state that there is not room here to men- 
 tion them all. 
 
 In San Bernardino valley there are a number of warm 
 springs. Their temperatures are thus reported: 108°, 128°, 
 130°, 166°, 169°, and 172°. The heat of the springs at Aguas 
 Cahentes, in San Diego county, is thus given: 58°, 74°, 130°, 
 136°, and 140°. 
 
 Near Warner's ranch, in San Diego, is a spring with a tem- 
 perature of 135°, rising from a cleft in the granite rock. 
 
 § 51. Cortes Shoal. — About one hundred miles west of San 
 Diego is Cortes Shoal, twenty miles long and three miles 
 wide, with a depth of only fifteen feet in one place. This 
 shoal is evidently the summit of a submarine ridge of moun- 
 tains, parallel with the other ridges of tlie coast. The shoal 
 was discovered in December, 1852, by Captain Cropper, of the 
 steamship Cortes, who asserted that there was evidently a sub- 
 marine volcano in operation there. The water was in violent 
 commotion, and at intervals was thrown up into the air in col- 
 umns ; there was an escape of steam, and he suddenly found 
 the depth of water change from forty-five to nine fathoms. 
 He saw also light and smoke, and at one time the place looked 
 as though it were a ship on fire. The general opinion is, that 
 he saw only the Avaves breaking upon the Bishop Rocks, as the 
 rocks at the shallowest place are called ; but some persons ad- 
 here to his opinion of a submarine volcano. 
 
 XoTE. — The chief writers upon the Geology of CaHfornia are W. P. Blake, 
 J. S. Newberry, an l Jules Marcou, in the United States Pacific Railroad Sur- 
 vey reports, and Dr. J. B. Trask's reports to the state legislature, and Jules 
 Marcou's book on the Geoloary of North America, For the chemical fineness 
 of the gold in the various mining districts, I am indebted to Henry Van Yalk- 
 eaburg. 
 
72 KESOUKCES OF CALIFOEXIA, 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SCENERY. 
 
 § 52. Introductory. — California has much beautiful scenery. 
 The atmosphere is remarkably clear, giving the eye a wide 
 range. The mountainous character of the state not only pre- 
 vents monotony and secures a rich variety of landscapes, but 
 gives them extent and grandeur. The large rivers, the high 
 snow-peaks and ridges, wide bays, forests of the largest and 
 most graceful evergreens, parks of majestic oaks, natural mead- 
 ows covered in the spring with brilliant grasses and flowers, 
 are all magnificent in their kind. The valleys are mostly bare 
 of timber, with here and there a grove of oaks, and lines 
 of trees and bushes along the water courses. The coast val- 
 leys are very beautiful, and in the course of ten or fifteen 
 years, when ornamented with thorough cultivation, will be as 
 pretty as any places in the world. Sonoma, Napa, Amador, 
 San Ramon, and Sunol valleys may be made as beautiful as 
 any part of the world. 
 
 § 53. Coast Valleys. — Napa valley, which is now the most 
 beautiful of these valleys, because most thickly settled and 
 most thoroughly cultivated, is thirty miles long, five miles wide 
 at its mouth, gradually growing narrower toward the head. 
 Napa River, a small stream, runs through the whole length 
 of the valley, which is of level land, bounded on both sides by 
 steep mountains, about two thousand feet high. These moun- 
 tains, brown near the foreground and blue in the distance, oak 
 groves, brilliant laurel and madrona, fields of wheat and bar- 
 ley, ploughed fields, good fences, elegant farm-houses, and nu- 
 merous gardens and orchards, go to make up the landscape. 
 
SCENERY. 73 
 
 The valley should be seen from the mountain-top, whence it 
 appears spread out as level as a floor. The fields, differing in 
 color according to the season and their condition of cultiva- 
 tion, lie like a great checker-board, over which are scattered 
 numerous farm-houses, and irregular streaks of timber mark- 
 ing the position of the river and its tributaries. The oak-trees 
 form a most important part of the scene. They are wide in 
 proportion to their height, thick in the trunk, heavy in the 
 main boughs, many of which have a horizontal or downward 
 course. The top of the tree has the semicircular shape, and the 
 smaller branches have the pendant grace seen in the Eastern 
 states only in the elm. The large upper boughs of the Cali- 
 fornian white-oak have at their extremities some branches or 
 twigs that hang perpendicularly down from three to twenty 
 feet, and many of the trees for this reason look in the summer 
 as though they were covered with vines. Add to these pecu- 
 liarities the abundant gray Spanish moss, hanging Uke long 
 and venerable beards from all the twigs and boughs, and 
 the dark druidical mistletoe, and we have one of the most 
 important and characteristic features of the Californian land- 
 scape. 
 
 Suilol valley, a little dale about three miles in diameter, 
 nearly circular in shape, and shut in on all sides by mountains, 
 is destined to become famous at some future day for its beauty. 
 Now it is in a state of nature, but art will give it new charms. 
 
 The places in the state most visited on account of their nat- 
 ural scenery are the Yosemite valley, the big-tree groves, and 
 the Geysers. 
 
 54. Yosemite Valley. — Yosemite valley is a dell of match- 
 less cliffs and cascades, with more scenes of grandeur and 
 beauty than can be found within an equal space in any other 
 part of the world. Shut in closely by walls of rock almost 
 perpendicular, from two thousand to four thousand five hun- 
 dred feet high, it has within a radius of five miles five cas- 
 ca<]e:s, one of which is two thousand feet high, another nine 
 hundred and forty, another seven hundred, another six lum- 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
74. RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 dred, and another three hundred and fifty, and their waters 
 flow through a natural meadow ornamented by beautiful trees 
 and brilliant verdure. 
 
 The valley is a chasm in the Sierra Nevada, four thousand 
 feet above the level of the sea, and distant about one hundred 
 and twenty miles in a direct line from San Francisco, and in a 
 nearly due eastward direction. It is watered by the main 
 branch of the Merced River, which above and below makes 
 its way through the mountains in deep and dark gorges, the 
 bottom of which is rarely seen by the sunhght. The valley is 
 ten miles long and nearly three wide in the middle, from which 
 it decreases each way. It is bounded on all sides by Avails of 
 yellowish granite, from two thousand to four thousand feet 
 high, in some places perpendicular, and everywhere precipit- 
 ous. It is only at the ends of the valley that it is possible for 
 travellers to get in or out of it, and even there the entrance 
 and exit are difficult for horses and impossible for wagons. 
 
 The general course of the valley is east and west. The main 
 entrance is at the western end, where a steep path leads down 
 a descent of two thousand five hundred feet. The view from 
 the ridge overlooking the valley is splendid. The chasm is 
 seen winding away amidst the cliffs ; a cascade is in sight, and 
 numerous mountain-peaks rise in various directions. At the 
 bottom of the dell are seen the meandering river, the green 
 grass, and lofty trees diminished to the appearance of shrubs. 
 The waterfall seen on the right several miles distant, is a mere 
 white streak on the face of the rock, and does not appear grand 
 in the least, but it is nine hundred and forty feet high, and be- 
 comes imposing as the traveller approaches it. The body of 
 water is about seventy feet wide on the first of June. The fall 
 is called the Cascade of the Rainbow, from the beautiful colors 
 which always, in sunhght, adorn the mist floating about it. 
 
 Nearly opposite this cascade, on the northern side of the 
 valley, and about three-quarters of a mile distant, but apparently 
 much nearer when the tourist looks up at it, is the Capitan (or 
 Cnptain), a rock which projects nito the valley and rises up 
 
S C E X E R T . 75 
 
 perpendicularly from the level green-sward three thousand and 
 ninety feet. Continuing our course up the valley, we come 
 soon to another high peak on the same side of the valley, 
 known as the Signal Rock, two thousand nine hundred and 
 twenty-eight feet high. Four miles above the Rainbow cas- 
 cade we come to the great falls of the Yosemite, where tho 
 stream of that name, eighty feet wide, leaps down two thou- 
 sand and sixty-three feet in three falls, of which the first is 
 one thousand three hundred feet high, the next two hundred 
 and fifty, and the third four hundred and fifty. About three 
 hundred feet from the top of the upper fall there is a project- 
 ing ledge on which the stream breaks when the water is low, 
 but up to the middle of June, while the current is large and 
 swift with melted snow, the great body of the water leaps 
 clear of the ledge, and pitches sheer down into the hell of rocks 
 below. The Yosemite fill, sometimes calh d by the Indian 
 name of "Cholook," is, in so far as height is concerned, the 
 greatest cataract in the world; but it does not impress the 
 observer like Niagara. The body of water, never large, is 
 almost lost in spray before reaching the bottom ; and in the 
 late summer, the stream dries up entirely. Niagara is sublime, 
 overwhelming the soul with the idea of power ; Yosemite is 
 beautiful and romantic — that is all. The tremendous precipices 
 here, as throughout the valley, are greater and more impres- 
 sive than the cascades, which have not enough v/ater to con- 
 found. Besides, the falls cannot be approached from those 
 points whence they might be seen to the greatest advantage ; 
 and looking from a distance, the Yosemite somewhat resem- 
 bles a great sheet of white satin hanging over the cliff. But 
 inferior as this one cascade is to Niagara, the valley, taking 
 all its scenery together, is far superior in variety and romantic 
 beauty, and equal in grandeur. A day or two at Niagara is 
 enougli ; while a lover of nature may stay at Yosemite for 
 months and continually find new delights in the study of the 
 scenery. I have given the total height of the three falls of 
 the Yosemite, all of which are very near together, at two thou- 
 
76 EESOUCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sand and sixty-three feet, which is the figure given by the offi- 
 cial surveyor of that county ; but others have estimated the 
 height at two thousand three hundred and two thousand five 
 hundred feet. 
 
 Across from the Yosemite Falls, on the southern side of the 
 valley, is the Pyramid Rock, so named from the shape which 
 it bears when seen from some points of view. It is three 
 thousand two hundred feet high. Three miles further up and 
 at the head of the valley is " Mirror or Tocoya Lake," a beau- 
 tiful body of water covering about eight acres. The northern 
 side of this lake washes the foot of the North Dome, a huge 
 mountain of rock crowned with a dome-like knob, three thou- 
 sand six hundred and thirty feet high ; and near the southern 
 edge of the lake is the perpendicular flxce of the South Dome, 
 a still higher mountain, which rises up four thousand four hun- 
 dred and eighty-one feet, towering above all the peaks in the 
 vicinity. This peak is a sublime sight, with its perpendicular 
 wall, which, as you look up at it, seems as if it would keep 
 going up forever. 
 
 Winding back now along the southern side of the valley, we 
 soon come to the southern fork of the Merced River, which 
 rushes down through a gorge. We ascend this gorge on foot, 
 climbing with great labor over rocks and through the brush- 
 wood, and at the distance of a mile and a half come to the 
 Vernal or Canopah Falls, where the stream, about one hun- 
 dred feet wide, falls three hundred and fifty feet into a basin 
 surmounted by large evergreen trees. This cascade possesses 
 one great advantage over all the others of the Yosemite val- 
 ley, and that is, it can be approached from above, where we 
 look down upon it from the top of the granite cliff, leaning 
 over a natural parapet of rock, as convenient as though made 
 expressly for the accommodation of picturesque tourists. 
 
 About half a mile above the Vernal Fall the river takes a 
 another leap, called the Nevada or Awanee Falls, but it costs 
 a mile and a half of roundabout clambering to get to it. The 
 fall is seven hundred feet high, half of which the water shoots 
 
SCENERY. 77 
 
 plumb down through the air, and strikes the projecting rock, 
 breaking into spray. 
 
 About two miles west of Nevada Falls is the cascade of Tu- 
 sayac, about six hundred feet high, but it is very difficult of 
 acces4S. 
 
 A few hundred yards above Lake Tocoya is Lake Tesahae, 
 wiiicli has an area of about six acres, and is forty feet deep. 
 
 No description can convey a clear idea of the great variety 
 of scenery in the valley. There are a thousand nooks and cor- 
 ners and woody dells, full of enchanting picturesqueness. 
 The rocky cliffs take all manner of queer forms, resembling 
 pyramids, castles, and domes, chimneys and spires. In one 
 place there is a narrow cleft one hundred feet deep in one of 
 the rocks, as though some giant had commenced to split off 
 part of the mountain and had left his work unfinished. 
 
 The river, as it meanders through the valley, is a great ad- 
 dition to its beauty ; and its waters, as well as those of the 
 lakes, are clear as crystal in tlie summer, though turbid in the 
 spring- Mountain trout are found in all these streams. ' 
 
 The climate of the valley is cool. The numerous cascades 
 agitate the air, and near the fall there are often gusty winds. 
 
 There is much difference between the vegetation and teni- 
 peviiture of the two sides of the valley; the northern side, 
 where the sunshine is felt throughout the day, being m^ich 
 warmer than the shadows of the southern cliffs. Shrubs and 
 flowers are in the full glory of foliage, and flower along the 
 northern wall in May and June, while the same species are 
 still bare or budding a mile or two to the southward ; but the 
 more delicate annual shrubs are usually more healthy on the 
 southern than on the northern side of the stream, because 
 those in the warmer spots are stimulated to come out so early 
 as to be badly nipped by the frosts, which prevail here all 
 through the spring and into the summer. The valley is almost 
 inaccessible, on account of snow, before the middle of May, 
 and the best time for a visit is in June. In the late summer 
 and fall the quantity of water in these streams decreases 
 
IB KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 greatly, and the Yosemite cascade becomes a mere trickling 
 brooklet. 
 
 There are a couple of houses for the accommodation of trav- 
 ellers, but the fashionable way with those who visit the valley 
 is to go in parties on horseback, provided with pack animals, 
 carrying tent, bedding, provisions, and cooking utensils along. 
 Ladies dress in the Bloomer style. Wagons do not come 
 ■within forty miles of the valley. There are some quail and 
 hare, but no larger game. The dell was inhabited by a war- 
 like tribe of red men eight years ago, but they undertook to 
 fight with the whites and have all been cut off, and scarcely a 
 sign of their existence remains, save here and there the dim 
 vestige of a trail. 
 
 The valley was first entered by white men in 1848, if rumor 
 be true, and afterward in 1850 and 1852, but its wonders at- 
 tracted no notice from the press, and were unknown to the 
 public until 1854, and did not attract many visitors until 1856. 
 
 § 55. 3fmnrnoth Tree Gr(Tves. — The next great natural 
 wonder of California is the big-tree grove in Mariposa 
 county. It is a grove of four hundred and twenty-seven 
 mammoth trees, the largest of which are thirty feet in diame- 
 ter and three hundred feet in height. This is the largest spe- 
 cies of tree in the world, and this is the largest grove of them. 
 The grove is about twenty miles from the Yosemite valley, 
 and thirty miles southeast of the town of Mariposa, and about 
 four thousand five hundred feet high on the western slope of 
 the Sierra Nevada. When the traveller enters the grove he 
 sees on all sides of him numerous giants of the forest, varying 
 from twenty to thirty-four feet in diameter, and from two hun- 
 dred and seventy-five to three hundred and twenty-five feet 
 in heicjht. Sublime siorht ! Each tree fills him with wonder 
 as he looks at it. A glance at one of these immense trunks 
 conveys a new idea of the magnificence of nature ; " glorious 
 as the universe on creation's morn" is this grove. The Titans 
 and the gods fought with such tree-trunks as these for clubs, 
 when the attempt was made to carry heaven by storm, as re- 
 
SCENERY. 79 
 
 corded in Grecian mythology. The trees are so high that you 
 must look twice before you can see tlieir tops, and then you 
 must keep on looking before you can comprehend their height. 
 The best way to see them is to lie down and look up, and re- 
 member that the spire of the New York Trinity Church, which 
 is the highest artificial structure in the United States, tower- 
 ing far above all the rest of the American metropolis, though 
 two hundred and eighty-four feet high, would be entirely lost 
 to distant view if set down among these trees. 
 
 The grove covers a space half a mile wide and three-q-uar- 
 ters of a mile long. Classifying its trees according to their 
 size, we find that there is one tree thirty-four feet in diameter j 
 two trees of thirty-three feet; thirteen between twenty-fiv* 
 and thirty-three ; thirty-six between twenty and twenty-five; 
 eighty-two between fifteen and twenty ; making a total of one 
 hundred and thirty-four trees between fifteen and thirty-four 
 feet in diameter ; and then there are two hundred and ninety- 
 three between one and fifteen feet through. 
 
 One very large tree has fallen, and a considerable portion 
 of it has been burned ; but appearances indicate that it was ^ 
 nearly forty feet in diameter, and four hundred feet high. yy^ 
 
 The Mammoth Tree is a cone-bearing evergreen, belonging 
 to the botanical genus named Gupressus (cypress) by Linnaeus. 
 After the time of that naturalist, his genus of the Cupressus 
 was divided ; so that the Mammoth Tree would have come 
 under the head of the Taxodium^ which, about the year 1850, 
 was again divided by Endlicher, the German botanist, and the 
 redwood-tree was declared to belong to a new genus, called 
 Sequoia. 
 
 In 1853, the mammoth trees first came to the notice of the 
 public. The botanists in San Francisco, engaged in the tur- 
 moil of business, looked at the specimens, but had not time to 
 examine them, and supposed them to be of the same species 
 with the redwood, to which the mammoth tree certainly does 
 bear a very close resemblance. Thinking the tree, however, 
 to be very remarkable on account of its great size, they sent 
 
80 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 some of its cones, leaves, and wood, to botanists in New Yori, 
 but they were unfortunately lost on the way. A few months 
 later, an English collector sent some specimens to Professor 
 Lindley, who not only found the tree to be of a new species, 
 but determined to make a new genus of it, and he affixed to it 
 the name Wellingto?iia glgcmtea. When the news of the se- 
 lection of tliis name arrived in California, a foolish and preten- 
 tious fellow, who meddled with matters of science of which he 
 knew nothing, wrote a ranting article against Lindley, for try- 
 ing to confer the honor of the great tree of America upon a 
 Briton like Wellington, and declaring that the only proper 
 title for the tree would be Washingtonia gigantea. If there 
 had been any bad taste in conferring the name of a Tory and 
 a man of blood upon such a magnificent tree, still the rules of 
 botanical nomenclature are well estabhshed, and the matter of 
 the name is left entirely to the discretion of the man who first 
 gives a technical description of the plant and determines its 
 genus. American botanists, therefore, never recognized the 
 name Washingt07iia^ because Lindley's name w^as of undoubt- 
 ed priority ; and to acknowledge the priority, and yet recognize 
 the Washingtonia, would be equivalent to proving their own 
 stupidity. And yet English botanists have, in scientific rec- 
 ords, accused American botanists and "Americans" of making 
 an agitation to establish the name as Washingtonia. These 
 facts are part of the history of botany, and facts of interest 
 relating to the big trees. 
 
 The general opinion among botanists is, that Lindley was 
 wrong in declaring the mammoth tree to be of a new genus: 
 it is a /Sequoia., related in the closest manner to the redwood. 
 "When the redwood and the mammoth tree come to be held 
 as of a distinct genera, then nearly every difference heretofore 
 considered merely specific may be made the basis for establish- 
 ing new genera. Dr. Seeman called the mammoth tree the 
 /Sequoia gigantea^ and it bears that name with botanists gen- 
 erally. 
 
 The /Sequoias are found only in California; the Sequoia 
 
SCENERY 81 
 
 gigardea only on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, be- 
 tA\een latitudes 34° and 41°. The tree h.ns the great pecu- 
 liarity' that it bears two kinds of leaves : those on the young 
 trees, and on the lower branches of larger ones, are about five- 
 eighths of an inch long and an eighth wide, and are set in pairs 
 opposite each other, on little stems; the other kinds of leaves, 
 growing on the branches which have borne flowers, are trian- 
 gular, about an eighth of an inch long, and they lie close down 
 to the stem. The cones are not much larger than a hen's Qgg^ 
 whereas the cones of many smaller conifers of the coast are 
 larger than pine-apples. The seeds of the Sequoia gigantea 
 are not more than a quarter of an inch long, a sixth wide, and 
 almost as thin as writing-paper. The bark is reddish-brown 
 in color, of a coarse, dry, stringy, elastic substance, and very 
 thick — on the largest trees not less than eighteen inches. The 
 wood is soft, elastic, straight-grained, free-splitting, light when 
 dry, and red in color. It bears a close resemblance to red cedar, 
 but the grain is not quite so even. The wood is very durable^^ 
 The mammoth tree grows in a deep, fertile soil, and is al- 
 ways surrounded by a dense growth of other evergreens, such 
 as various species of pine, fir, v«;pruce, and Californian cedar. 
 The scenery in these forests is beautiful. The trees grow very 
 close together ; and the trunks, usually from a foot to two feet 
 in diameter, rise in perfect perpendicularity, and with little or 
 no diminution of size, more than a hundred feet without a 
 limb : and while all is perfect stillness and rest and shadow on 
 the ground, the traveller, looking to where the sunbeams are 
 perceptible here and there on the thick foliage, can see the 
 dexible tops swinging from side to side in the roaring moun- 
 tain-breeze. The soil, being never visited by the sun, is always 
 moist, and produces a luxuriant and beautiful little undergrowth 
 of mosses, flowers, and berries. When in such forests, I have 
 at times compared myself to a merman, who, while at the bot- 
 tom of the ocean, amid a large growth of queer sea-weed, and 
 surrounded by beautiful shells and the treasures of a thou- 
 sand wrecks, should look from his abode of peace, and see 
 4* ^ 
 
82 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the surface of the water, far above him, raging in a terrific 
 storm. 
 
 Many yomig trees of the Sequoia gigantea^ produced from 
 the seed, are growing in gardens in Cuhfornia, in the Eastern 
 states, and in Europe. 
 
 The mammoth tree is found only in a few small groves, of 
 which six or seven are known, though probably there are 
 many in unexplored parts of the Sierra iSTevada. Three of 
 these groves are in Mariposa county, one in Calaveras, one in 
 Tuolumne, and one in Tulare. 
 
 The three Mariposa groves are within two miles of each 
 other. The second one in size contains eighty-six trees ; the 
 third thirty-five. The Tuolumne grove contains ten trees, one 
 or two of which are said to be thirty-five feet in diameter. 
 ^.The Calaveras mammoth grove was the first discovered, and 
 attracts the o:reatest number of visitors. There are in this 
 grove ten trees thiity feet in diameter, and eighty -two between 
 fifteen and thirty, making ninety-two over fifteen feet through. 
 One of the trees, which is down, must have been four hundred 
 and fifty feet high and forty feet in diameter. The " Horse- 
 back ride," one of the notabilities of the place, is a hollow 
 trunk, which a man can ride upright through on horseback, 
 sevent;<^-five feet. 
 
 In lft04, one of the largest trees, ninety-two feet in circum- 
 feren'ie and three hundred feet high, was cut down. Five men 
 worked twenty-two days in cutting through it with large au- 
 gers. On the stump, which has been smoothed off", there have 
 been dancing-parties and theatrical pei-formances ; and for a 
 time a newspaper, called the £ig Tree Bulletin^ was printed 
 there. 
 
 At the same time that this tree was cut down, another was 
 stripped of its bark for a distance of one hundred and sixteen 
 feet from the ground. This tree continued green and flourish- 
 ing two and a half years after being thus denuded, and did not 
 begin to show signs of dying until a very hard frost came in 
 the winter of 1856-57. Although seven years have passed 
 
SCENERY. 83 
 
 since its bark was stripped off, some of its branches are yet 
 green. 
 
 A section of bark and part of the wood of tlic felled tree 
 are now in the Enghsh Crystal Palace. The rings of this tree 
 were counted ; and its age was variously estimated, according 
 to the difierent methods of counting, at from nineteen hundred 
 to three thousand years. Probably its age was about two 
 thousand years. It sprouted while Rome was in her glory. 
 It is older than any kingdom, language, or creed, of Europe 
 or America. It was a large tree before the foundation of the 
 Christian Church, and was fifteen hundred years old before 
 the period of modern civilization began. Twenty centuries 
 look down upon the tourist from the tops of the larger trees; 
 and some of the little ones will still flourish for a thousand 
 years from now, when all our present kingdoms and republics 
 shall have disappeared, and our political and social systems 
 shall have been swept away as full of evil, and replaced by 
 other and better systems, under which men will live in civUized 
 society without each being forced to rob his brother by means 
 more or less legal and respectable. 
 
 In many of the trees in all the groves, hollows are burned 
 at the foot, and some of them have been burned so as to stand 
 on three legs. One of these, in the Calaveras grove, called 
 " Uncle Tom's Cabin," has an open space under it of mora 
 than a dozen feet square. The largest trees seem to end ab- 
 ruptly at the top, having been broken off by the snow, which 
 often falls to a great depth so high up on the Sierra Nevada. 
 The trees, in some places, grow very near together ; in others, 
 they are comparatively far apart ; and occasionally two or three 
 will be seen which are united at the ground, although they 
 may have been twenty or thirty feet apart when they sprouted. 
 
 It is said that the big-tree grove of Tulare county is eight 
 miles long, and contains larger trees than either Calaveras or 
 •Mariposa, the largest measuring one hundred and twenty-three 
 feet in circumference twelve feet above the ground. We have, 
 however, no detailed description of this grove. 
 
84 ^^ -BESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 56. Geysers. — The Geysers, in the northern part of Sono- 
 nm county, are among the wonders of the state. They are in 
 a deep and steep ravine, amid a district filled with the marks 
 of violent volcanic action. Down the western slope of the 
 mountains which separate Clear Lake from the basin of Rus- 
 sian River, runs a stream called the Pluton River; and near 
 this are the Geysers, a multitude of springs, boiling with heat, 
 and emitting large quantities of steam, with a hissing, roaring, 
 and sputtering noise. ISTear them are many tepid and cold 
 springs, which add to the wonderful character of the place. 
 Hot and cold springs, quiet and boiling springs, are found 
 within a few feet of each other. And then the waters differ 
 as much in taste, odor, and color, as in temperature and action. 
 One is almost as fetid at times as rotten eggs ; another has 
 black water, resembling ink ; a third is called the " Eye-water 
 Spring," and its waters are reputed to be excellent for curing 
 sore eyes and cutaneous diseases ; and the waters of others 
 are strongly purgative. The ground in the ravine is in places 
 deeply covered with the minerals deposited by the springs : 
 among these, sulphur, sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), sul- 
 phate of aluminum (alum), and various salts of iron, predomi- 
 nate. 
 
 The chief feature of the Geysers is called "The Steampipe," 
 an orifice about eight inches in diameter, in the hill-side, from 
 vrhich rises a large volume of sieam to a height varying from 
 fifty to two hundred feet. The steam roars continuously, 
 sometimes bursting out in pufis louder than that made by the 
 general-escape pipe. It deposits flowers of sulphur on the 
 objects which come within its range. 
 
 " The Devil's Punch-Bowl," called also " The Witches' Caul- 
 dron," is in a large hole, six feet across, in the hill-side. The 
 liquid in the bowl is black and thick, and is always in commo- 
 tion with the heat, and the vapor from it deposits black flow- 
 ers of sulphur on the rocks around. 
 
 The sides of the canon are bare, and smoking with heat. 
 The Geysers are a favorite place of resort for pleasure-seekers 
 
SCENERY. 85 
 
 in the state. They are seventeen hundred feet above the levd 
 of the sea. >v 
 
 § 57. 3fud- Volcanoes. — In the Colorado Desert, about lati- 
 tude 33° 25', and longitude 115° 45', are some remarkable 
 mud-volcanoes. They are in that part of the desert below the 
 level of the sea; and if the water of the ocean were turned in 
 upon that low land, they would be lost to sight. As it is now, 
 they are very rarely visited, because they are in a region so 
 desolate, that an excursion to them is accompanied by serious 
 hardships. The volcanoes cover a space a quarter of a mile 
 long and an eighth of a mile wide ; this area is of soft mud, 
 through which hot water and steam are constantly escaping. 
 The noise can be heard at a distance of ten miles, and the 
 steam is visible at a greater distance. The quantity of water 
 thrown up is small ; that of the steam great. The vapor rises 
 steadily in some places, with a hissing noise ; in other places 
 it bursts out with the noise and action of an explosion, throw- 
 ing the mud a hundred feet into the air, with a loud report. 
 
 There are places where the mud is in constant movement? 
 and rises in great bubbles, and bursts as if boiling with intense 
 heat ; while in other places regular cones, apparently hardened 
 into permanency, and with shapes varying from low hillocks 
 to sharp points, have been formed. There are boiling springs 
 which throw up their water twenty or thirty feet ; and there 
 are large basins, one hundred feet across, and five or six feet 
 below the geiieral surface, in which a bluish paste is continu- 
 ally boiling. Some of the springs are surrounded by incrusta- 
 tions and arborescent concretions of carbonate of lime; others 
 are encircled by deposits of sulphur. The air blown from the 
 salses is fetid with sulphur. It is very dangerous to approach 
 the springs and cauldrons, because the whole earth is soft in 
 the vicinity of them, and frequently the crust is broken and 
 thrown up with great force, to establish new spiings, steam- 
 vents, and mud-cauldrons ; and the boiling slime or water 
 thrown up on these occasions would suffice to kill a man in a 
 few seconds. ^ 
 
86 EESOTJRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 58. Santa Cruz Ruins. — Fifteen miles northeastward from 
 the town of Santa Cruz are "The Ruins," as they are called — 
 forty and odd perpendicular cylinders of sandstone, from a foot 
 to two feet in diameter, with holes from six to fourteen inches 
 wide running through them. These cylinders were discovered 
 in 1855, in a bed of sand, on the side of a sandstone mountain, 
 and were at first supposed to be the remains of some work of 
 human hands: whence their name of. "The Ruins." Much 
 curiosity was excited by their discovery, and a number of men 
 were employed to dig away the sand, so as to expose the foun- 
 dation on which the cylinders stood. The excavation was car- 
 ried down in one place to the depth of forty feet, and the base 
 of the column was found to rest on the bed-rock sandstone. 
 The surfice of the rock was sloping and rough, and there was 
 nothing to indicate the work of man. It is now supposed that 
 the cylinders were deposited by mineral springs, although it is 
 believed that no similar columns have been formed elsewhere, 
 the elevations made by mineral springs being, with this excep- 
 tion alone, shaped like hillocks or cones — never like cylinders. 
 The theory of deposition by springs may be the best mode of 
 explaining their existence, but it is not satisfactory : the cyl- 
 inders rise perpendicularly, or nearly so, and are very little 
 thicker at the base than at the top ; some of them preserve the 
 same thickness from bottom to top. The material of the shafts 
 differs from that of the bed-rock by being coarser and darker. 
 And besides, the texture appears in places to have a spiral 
 form, as though it had been made of a thick paste, rolled up 
 spirally into a cylinder, and then hardened into a solid ; leav- 
 ing, however, a plain trace of the manner in which it was 
 made. And some pieces, which have been broken off, suggest 
 such a mode of formation. 
 
 § 59. Mirage. — Among the most remarkable scenes wit- 
 nessed in California are the illusions of the mirage in the des- 
 erts of the Colorado and the Great Basin. "All the phenomena 
 of mirage," says Professor W. P. Blake, " are exhibited on a 
 grand scale upon the Colorado Desert. Mountain-ranges, so 
 
SCENEKY. 87 
 
 far distant as to be below tlie horizon, are made to rise into 
 view in distorted and changing outlines. Inverted images of 
 smaller objects, and apparent lakes of clear water, are often 
 seen, and invite the traveller to turn aside for refreshment. 
 The first exhibition of mirage that was seen [by Blake's party] 
 was from the margin of the plain at Carriso Creek, looking 
 toward the Gila, about ninety miles distant. It was early in 
 the morning, and the eastern sky had that golden hue which 
 precedes the rising sun. Tall blue columns, and the spires of 
 churches, and overhanging precipices, seemed to stand upon 
 the verge of the plain. Their outlines were changing gradu- 
 ally, and, as the sun rose higher, they were slowly dissipated. 
 After reaching Fort Yuma, and witnessing the strangely pre- 
 cipitous and pinnacled outline of the mountains beyond, it was 
 at once apparent that the mirage consisted of their distorted 
 images. When we were upon the northern part of the desert, 
 the peak of Signal Mountain was often distorted and raised 
 above the horizon. The points of distant ranges also seemed 
 at times to be elevated above the surface, precisely as the 
 headlands of a coast sometimes appear to rise above the water 
 at sea. 
 
 " Many of the phenomena called mirage are not due to re- 
 fraction, but are believed to be the result of reflection from 
 the sand, or smooth surface of clay, or the polished pebbles. 
 The smooth clay forms an excellent reflector for all the rays 
 which are incident at a slight angle, and is most frequently 
 the cause of the appearance of water. The beautiful surface 
 of the pebbly plain may be regarded as a combination of myr- 
 iads of reflectors ; for each pebble is so highly polislied, that it 
 reflects light almost like a mirror. The reflection from such a 
 brilliant surface, when seen at a favorable angle, looks like a 
 sheet of water, the similarity being heightened by the motion 
 of the stratum of heated air in contact with the surface." 
 
 The phenomena of mirage are frequently witnessed in the 
 Sacramento Basin, and also in the coast valleys, on warm, dry 
 days. 
 
88 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 60. Caves. — There are a number of caves in California. 
 Of these the most noted are the Ahibaster Cave, seven miles 
 from Auburn, in Placer county ; the Bower Cave, twelve miles 
 from Coulterville, in Mariposa county ; the Cave of Skulls, in 
 Calaveras county ; and the Santa Cruz Cave, two miles from 
 the town of Santa Cruz. The Alabaster Cave has two cham- 
 bers : one about one hundred feet long by twenty-five wide ; 
 the other two hundred feet long by one hundred wide. It 
 contains a large number of brilliant stalactites and stalagmites. 
 The Bower Cave has a chamber one hundred feet long by 
 ninety wide; it is reached by an entrance seventy feet long, 
 and in one place only four feet wide. The Santa Cruz Cave 
 has no beauty to render it attractive. The Cave of Skulls is 
 remarkable for having contained, when first discovered, a num- 
 ber of human skulls and bones, all covered with layers of car- 
 bonate or sulphate of lime, from the thickness of a leaf to an 
 inch. These bones are now in the cabinet of the Smithsonian 
 Institute. At Cave City, and seven miles from Murphy's, in 
 Calaveras county, is a cave in which a Know-Nothing lodge 
 was accustomed to meet in 1855. In the bluff bank of the 
 Middle Fork of the Cosum'nes River, eighty feet above the 
 stream, is a cavern, called Limestone Cave, w^ith many intri- 
 cate passages and some fine stalactites. 
 
 § 61. 'Wate7'falls. — Besides the cascades of the Yosemite 
 valley, there are a number of others in the state. There is a 
 cataract, about five hundred feet high, on Fall River, which 
 empties into the Middle Fork of Feather River ; one of three 
 hundred and eighty feet, where the South Fork of the Ameri 
 can River slides down over a convex rock, looking Hke a streak 
 ' of snow when seen from a distance ; one of sixty feet, in the 
 San Antonio River, in Calaveras county ; another of seventy- 
 five, on the same stream, which falls fourteen hundred feet 
 within a mile ; and one of three hundred feet, called the " Riffle- 
 box Falls," in Deer Creek, Nevada county. 
 
 California has five natural bridges. The largest of these is 
 on a small creek emptying into the Hay Fork of the Trinit} 
 
SCENERY. 89 
 
 Kiver, where a ledge of rock three hundred feet wide crosses 
 tlie valley. Under this rock runs the creek, through an arcli 
 twenty feet high by eighty feet across. The rock above the 
 arch is one hundred and fifty feet deep. On Lost River, in 
 Siskiyou county, there are two natural bridges, about thirty 
 feet apart. The rock is a conglomerate sandstone, and each is 
 from ten to fifteen feet wide, and the distance across the stream 
 is about eighty feet. One of these bridges is used regularly 
 by travellers. On Coyote Creek, in Tuolumne county, teii 
 miles northward from Sonora, are two natural bridges, half a 
 mile apart. The upper bridge is two hundred and eighty -live 
 feet long with the course of the water, and thirty-six feet high, 
 with the rock thirty feet deep over the water. The lower 
 bridge is similar in size and height to the other. 
 
 § 62. Solfataras. — In the northeastern part of Plumas coun- 
 ty are many hot springs — perhaps numbering one thousand — 
 covering an area of ten acres. They roar and hiss so as to be 
 heard at a distance of a mile, and their steam can be seen from 
 a greater distance. The whole place smells strongly of sul- 
 phur, which mineral, as well as alum and various earthy salts, 
 abound in the soil about the springs. 
 
 In four or five places in California the earth is constantly 
 hot, and sulphureous gases and vapors are always escaping. 
 There is such a solfatara about fifteen miles eastward from 
 Santa Barbara; another near Owen's Lake; another near the 
 Geysers, in Sonoma ; and another near the hot springs in Plu- 
 mas county. It was rumored in 1858 that there was an active 
 volcano in Plumas county, near Lassen's Peak, but there is no 
 satisfactory proof of its existence, though there is a portion of 
 country in that vicinity of which very little is known. 
 
 § 63. Mount Shasta. — One of the best opportunities for ro- 
 mantic adventure in the state is in the ascent of Mount Shasta. 
 Several parties have gone to its summit — no trifling underta- 
 king. The ascent is very difficult ; the sides of the peak are 
 steep and rugged. The distance from the southern foot of the 
 mountain to the summit is estimated at fifteen miles. Four 
 
90 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 miles from the summit there is a bench of trap-rock : seven 
 miles farther is a second bench, of red cement or l:iva; thiee 
 miles farther is a third bench, of black lava and obsidian. 
 Near the second bench there are several lakes in cavities wnicn 
 were once probably craters. One of them certainly was once 
 the vent of volcanic action. On the extreme summit of tlie 
 mountain are a number of basaltic columns, looking like chim- 
 neys. The scenery is very grand ; for, as the peak is fourteen 
 thousand four hundred feet high, and towers far above all the 
 mountains around it, the view has no limit in any direction 
 save a very remote horizon. The Klamath, Trinity, Scott, 
 Rogue, Pit, and Sacramento valleys are all visible, besides 
 Lassen's Peak, the Downieville Buttes, the Marysville Buttes, 
 the Three Sisters in Oregon, and so on. About a hundred 
 yards w^est of the summit there are a dozen steaming-hot sul- 
 phur springs, and the earth about them is so hot as to be un- 
 pleasant. The air is so rare at the summit of Mount Shasta, 
 that some persons ascending it have been troubled while there 
 with dizziness, headache, spitting of blood, and difficulty of 
 breathing. 
 
BOTANY. 91 
 
 CHAPTER y. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 § 64. Peculiar Fauna and Flora, — California lias a botany- 
 arid zoology of her own. Her indigenous plants and animals 
 are peculiar to her soil. Her plants, her quadrupeds, her birds, 
 and her lishes, are diiierent from those of other countries. The 
 Californian vulture is, next to the condor of South America, 
 the largest bird that flies ; and he might easily migrate to other 
 parts of the continent, but he makes his home only in tliis 
 state, and is certainly never seen east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 The grizzly bear might travel almost as well, but he is found 
 only in California and Oregon. The Californian deer is differ- 
 ent from that of Virginia in horns, teeth, feet, color, and size. 
 The bird known as the roadrunner or paisano might fly to all 
 parts of the continent, but is found only west of the Sierra 
 Nevada. There is a blue-jay here, but it differs from the bird 
 known to the New-Englanders as the blue-jay. The robin of 
 New England difl'ers from the robin of Old England, and the 
 Californian robin differs from both. The sturgeon of the San 
 Francisco market are not the same with those eaten in New 
 York ; and one species found in California is not found in a 
 state so near as Oregon. Our trees are like, and yet are un- 
 like, those of the Atlantic states and Europe. We have oak 
 juid pine, spruce, sycamore, and horse-chestnut trees, and yet 
 any observant man sees at a glance that they differ in many 
 impoitant particulars from the trees known by those names 
 elsewhere. California, with a little of the country adjacent, is 
 a distinct botanical district. Her vegetation was first pro- 
 
92 KESOUECES OP CALIFOENIA. 
 
 duced on her own soil, and has not been derived from or com- 
 municated to any other district by the course of nature. 
 
 § 65. Distribution of Plants. — Most of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin valleys, the Colorado Desert, the eastern slopes 
 of the Coast Mountains, and the Coast Range south of latitude 
 35°, are treeless ; the Sierra Nevada and the western slopes of 
 the Coast Range north of 35°, have fine forests ; and in the 
 foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, and in the coast valleys, there 
 are beautiful open groves of oak-trees. The timber of the 
 Sierra is mainly spruce, pine, and fir ; that of the coast, north 
 of 37°, redwood; and spruce and pine south of that latitude. 
 
 § 66. Superiority of Co7iifers. — The botany of California is 
 remarkable for containing a number of the largest and most 
 beautiful coniferous trees in the world, growing to a height of 
 three hundred feet and a thickness of eight and ten feet in the 
 trunk, and some of them still larger. Among these gigantic 
 olories of the veo-etable kimrdom are the mammoth tree, the 
 redwood, the sugar-pine, the red fir, the yellow fir, and the 
 arbor-vitoe, or IViuja gigantea. Other large conifers contrib- 
 ute to the magnificence of our forests. We have the laurel, 
 the madrofia, the evergreen-oak, and the nut-pine (Pinus sa- 
 bifdcma)^ evergreen trees with a growth resembling that of 
 deciduous trees. Our deciduous trees are few, and of little 
 value to the mechanic. 
 
 The mammoth tree [Sequoia gigantea) wa5 described in the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 § 67. Redwood. — The redwood {Sequoia sempervirens) is 
 the second in size and the first in commercial value of all the 
 trees in California, though not much superior to the sugar-pine 
 in either respect. It grows only within thirty miles of the 
 ocean from Monterey to Crescent City, and is never found out 
 of the state. It bears a remarkable resemblance in color and 
 texture of wood and bark, and color, form and distribution of 
 foliage to the mammoth tree, to which it is not much inferior in 
 size. A redwood-tree called " Fremont's tree," in Santa Cruz 
 county, is two hundred and seventy-five feet high, and nineteen 
 
BOTANY. 93 
 
 feet in diameter six feet above the ground ; and others equally 
 large are found in the northwestern part of the state. Trees 
 two hundred and fifty feet high and eight feet through are 
 not rare. The wood is very straight-grained, free-splitting, 
 durable, soft, and light. So freely does it split, that boards 
 twenty feet long, eight inches wide, and an inch thick, are 
 sometimes made from it with the frow. No w^ood in the world 
 splits so beautifully and regularly. There is no better wood for 
 the general use of the farmer, and it is the chief building ma- 
 terial of the coast. No timber is more durable either above or 
 below ground. The color is a rich dark-red, which, when var- 
 nished, makes a fine appearance in furniture. The tree grows 
 in dense forests, which contain an immense amount of timber. 
 Thus, on the plain southeast of Crescent City, there are hun- 
 dreds of acres of land of which every fifteen feet square, on an 
 average, supports a tree three feet through and two hundred 
 and tw^enty-five feet high — a statement that may appear in- 
 credible to those who have seen only the forests east of the 
 Mississippi River. These trees will often furnish twenty saw- 
 logs, each ten feet long, and every acre wall supply material to 
 make one million feet of sawn lumber, which, at the low rate 
 of fifteen dollars per one thousand feet, is worth fifteen thou- 
 sand dollars. The redwood stump, after the tree has been 
 cut down, throws out a number of shoots, one or two of which 
 choke down the weaker ones and become large trees. A red- 
 wood forest is almost inexterminable. 
 
 § 68. Pines. — The sugar-pine (Plnus lamhertiana) is the 
 most magnificent tree of all the pine kind, and indeed it has no 
 superior in the vegetable creation, save the mammoth and the 
 redwood, the confessed monarchs of the plant kingdom. It is 
 closely related to the white pine {Pinus strohus) of the East- 
 ern states; "though," as Dr. Newberry says, "like all the 
 conifers on the Pacific coast, it exhibits a symmetry and perfec- 
 tion of figure, a healthfulness and vigor of growth not attained 
 by the trees of any other part of the Avorld," The mature tree 
 sometimes reaches a heii-ht of three hundred feet and a diam- 
 
94 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 eter of twenty, but it rarely exceeds two hundred and ten. 
 The young trees of the sugar-pine give early promise of thb 
 majesty to which they subsequently attain. They are unmis- 
 takably young giants; even when having a trunk a foot in 
 diameter, their remote and regnlarly-whorled branches, like the 
 stem covered w^ith a smooth, grayish-green bark, showing 
 tliat, although so large, the plant is still " in the milk," and 
 has only begun its life of many centuries. The sugar-pine 
 conspicuously exhibits one of the most geneijal and striking 
 characteristics of the conifers — the great development of the 
 trunk at the expense of the branches. Nearly the vx'hole 
 growth is thrown into the trunk, which generally stands with- 
 out a flaw or flexure, a perpendicular cone, all its transverse 
 sections accurately circular, sparsely set with branches, which, 
 m their insignificance, seem like the festoons of ivy wreathing 
 about the columns of some ancient ruin. The leaves are three 
 inches long, dark bluish-green in color, and they grow in 
 groups of five. The foliage is not dense. The cones are large, 
 sometimes eighteen inches long by four thick. The wood is 
 similar to that of the white pine — white, soft, homogeneous, 
 straight-grained, clear, and free-splitting. It furnishes the 
 best lumber in the state for the "inside work" of houses, and 
 is the chief building material used in the Sierra Nevada, Avhere 
 it grows. The tree derives its name from a sw^eet resin which 
 exudes from tlie duramen or hard wood of the tree. This 
 resin is sugar-like in appearance, granulation, and taste, and 
 could not be distinguished from the manna of the drug-stores 
 except by a slight terebinthine flavor. The pine sugar is ca- 
 thartic. It is found in small quantities only, though it is said 
 one hundred and fifty pounds of it were collected by a man 
 who devoted himself for a few weeks to the business of gath 
 ering it. 
 
 The Western yellow pine [Plnus jponderosd) is a noble tree, 
 next in size among the pines of California to the sugar-pine. 
 It so.iietimes reaches a diameter of seven feet. Its leaves 
 grow in threes at the ends of the branches, giving the foli 
 
BOTANY. 95 
 
 age a peculiarly tufted appeai-auce. The color of the leaves is 
 a dark yellowisii-green. The bark is of a light yellowish-brown 
 or cork color, and is divided into large, smooth plates from 
 four to eight inches wide and from twelve to twenty inches 
 long, whereby the tree may be recognized at a distance. The 
 tree is found near the snow-line in the Sierra Nevada, and 
 east of the summit, and northward to Washington Territory. 
 
 The nut-pine {Phius sabiniajia) is remarkable as a cornfer 
 for its spreading top, and for its large cones full of edible 
 seeds. It branches out somewhat after the manner of a ma- 
 ple ; rarely more than sixty feet high, thoagli often with a 
 trunk four feet through — a thickness of trunk that with most 
 other conifers would give more than double the height. 
 About half way from the ground to the top, the trunk divides 
 into a number of branches, which grow upward. The nut- 
 pine is found in the lower part of the Sierra Nevada, and in 
 the coast mountains near the head of the Sacramento valley. 
 The seeds are larger than the common white bean, and are 
 very palatable, with a slight terebinthine taste. The leaves 
 are from four to ten inches long, and grow in threes. The 
 foliage of the tree when seen from a distance, resembles that 
 of the willow, both in color and distribution. In places where 
 the nut-{)ine is found, the woodpeckers select them as store- 
 houses for their winter food, cutting holes in their bark and 
 putting an acorn in each. The Indians formerly relied upon 
 the nuts for a considerable portion of their food. They climbed 
 the tree by catching hold of the rough, strong bark with their 
 hands, then putting their feet against the tree, without touch- 
 ing it with their body or knees, they walked up till they reached 
 the limbs. 
 
 The twisted pine {Pinus contorta) is found in the northern 
 part of the state. The leaves are yellowish green in color, 
 about two inches long; and they grow in pairs. The tree 
 does not exceed sixty feet in height. 
 
 Coulter's pine {Pinus coidterii) grows in the Santa Lucia 
 mountains. It reaches a height of one hundred feet, and has 
 
96 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 a trunk three feet through. Its branches are large and spread- 
 ing, the leaves 2. foot long and pale sea-green in color; the 
 cones seventeen inches long, seven inches through, and like a 
 sugar-loaf in shppe. 
 
 § 69. Firs. — The red fir, or Douglas spruce {Abies douglasii)^ 
 is a tree of very large size, growing to be three hundred feet 
 high and ten feet thick in the trunk. It is, as Dr. Newberry 
 says, " one of the grandest of the group of giants which com- 
 bine to form the forests of the West." The wood is strong, 
 but coarse and uneven in grain ; the layers of each years 
 growth being soft on one side and very hard on the other. 
 The timber is much used for rough work in houses, and for 
 ship-building. The tree grows in dense foresies on the Sierra 
 Nevada and Cascade Mountains, from 35° to 49°, and near the 
 coast north of 39°. 
 
 The yellow-fir or Williamson's spruce [Abies williamsonii) 
 bears a close resemblance to the red fir, and the two trees are 
 usually found in company with each other. 
 
 The black fir {Abies menziesii) is smaller and of little value. 
 
 The Abies bracheata (Santa Lucia fir) grows in the Santa 
 Lucia mountains. The height is about one hundred feet, the 
 shape a perfect cone, the lowest branches resting on the ground. 
 The tree produces a resin used by the Catholic priests for in- 
 cense. 
 
 The Western balsam-fir {Picea grandis)^ or white fir, attains 
 a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and a diameter of seven 
 feet in the trunk. The bark on the trunks of the young trees 
 contains numerous cysts full of the resinous fluid called the 
 balsam of fir. 
 
 § 70. Cedars. — The Western juniper, or cedar {Juniperus 
 occidentalis), bears a strong resemblance to the juniper {tZu- 
 niperus virginianus) of the Eastern states. Its wood, however, 
 is white in color. It grows to be about thirty feet high. The 
 wood of a juniper-tree found near the quicksilver mines of New 
 Idria is so hard and fine in texture, that it would probably be 
 valuable to engravers. 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 97 
 
 The Californian white cedar {Lihocedwus decnrrens) grows 
 one hundred feet high, and seven feet thick in the trunk. It 
 is found from Mount Shasta to the Tejon Pass. The trunk is 
 usually angular. Many of the trees are affected with a dry-rot 
 which destroys their value as timber. 
 
 The fragrant-cedar (Ciq^ressus fragrcms) is found along the 
 northern coast of the state. It is a large tree, and produces a 
 white, clear lumber, valuable for furniture and the inside work 
 of houses. The wood has a strong, lasting, and not unpleas- 
 ant odor, half way between turpentine and ottar of roses. 
 
 Lawson's cedar {Cupressus lawsoniana) is a tree of little 
 
 value. 
 
 The arbor-vitai, also called cedar (Thuja giganted), is a most 
 symmetrical and graceful conifer, growing to be nearly three 
 hundred feet high. 
 
 § 71. Yew and N'utmeg.—Thii Western yew is an upright 
 tree, from fifty to seventy-five high, with thin and light foli- 
 age, the leaves being about an inch long. Its growth is 
 straighter, its branches fewer, and its foliage thinner, more 
 feathery, and fighter in color, than the European yew. It 
 grows on the Sierra Nevada from 34° northward to British 
 Columbia. 
 
 The coast cypress ( Cupressus macro-carpus) is found only 
 on Cedar Point, at Monterey, and there are not more than one 
 hundred trees of it there. The foHage is very dense. 
 
 The Cafifornian n aiiie. {Tor re'i a calif arnica) is a graceful 
 and beautiful evergreen found in the Coast Mountains near the 
 bay of San Francisco. It grows from fifty to seventy-five feet 
 high, and resembles the Western yew in foliage and general 
 form". The fruit is hke a nutmeg in size and shape, but it has 
 a disagreeable terebinthine taste, and is never used as a condi- 
 ment. 
 
 § 72. Laurel— "Th^ Californian laurel, or bay ( Oreodaphne 
 calif ornica), is one of the most common and beautiful trees of 
 the coast valleys. It is an evergreen, which grows to a height 
 of fifty feet, with a trunk sometimes thirty inches in diameter. 
 
98 EESOUKCESOFCALIFOKNIA. 
 
 The leaves are dark green, lustrous, four inches long, one inch 
 wide, sharp at both ends, with smooth edges. The foliage is 
 dense. The wood is grayish in color, very hard, durable, and 
 difficult to spHt. Both leaves and wood have an aromatic 
 odor, which is stronger in the former ; and becomes still 
 stronger when the leaves are bruised. The odor resembles 
 that of bay-rum. It gives the headache to some sensitive 
 persons. 
 
 § 73. Madrona. — ^The madrona (Arbutus menziesu) is one 
 of the most striking trees of the Californian forest. It is an 
 evergreen, with an open growth, somewhat like that of a 
 maple, bright-green and lustrous leaves, and a bright-red bark. 
 Its height is sometimes fifty feet ; its diameter in the trunk 
 two feet. The leaves are oval in shape, three inches long, 
 pea-green underneath, and dark and shining above. The bark 
 is smooth, and it peels off at regular seasons ; the new bark is 
 a pea-green, which changes to a bright red. The wood is very 
 hard, and is used to some extent in the arts, especially for ma- 
 king the wooden stirrups commonly used in the state. The 
 tree bears a bright-red berry in clusters, of which the birds 
 are fond. 
 
 § 74. Mcmzanita. — The manzanita [Arctostaphylos glauca), 
 another prominent feature in the Californian forest, is a dense, 
 clump-like shrub, which grows as high as twelve feet, and 
 nearly as broad as it is high. The trunk divides near the 
 ground into several or many branches, and these terminate in 
 a great multitude of twigs, so that the shrub is a dense mass 
 of branches and branchlets, all of which are very crooked. 
 The wood is dense, hard, and dark-red in color. The bark is 
 red and smooth, occasionally peeling off and exposing a new 
 Ught-grcen bark, which soon turns red. The leaves are regu- 
 kirly oval in form, about an inch and a half long, thick and 
 shining, and pea-green in color ; they set vertically upon their 
 stems. The manzanita bears a pinkish-white blossom in clus- 
 ters, and these are replaced by round red berries about half an 
 inch in diameter; they have a pleasant, acidulous taste, and 
 
BOTANY, 99 
 
 are often eaten by the Indians and grizzly bears, but there is 
 too little meat on them to pay white men for the trouble of 
 gathering them. The shrub grows in the coast valleys, and 
 in the Sierra Nevada, up near to the limit of perpetual snow. 
 The name means " little apple," manzana being the Spanish 
 for apple. 
 
 § V5. Gecmothiis. — The ceanothus, sometimes called the Cali- 
 fornian lilac, of which there are many species, is a beautiful 
 evergreen shrub, growing about ten feet high, with clusters 
 of hlac-like flowers, of various shades of blue, violet, and red, 
 according to the species. The tree produces a multitude of 
 little twigs, and a dense foliage, and may be trimmed into 
 almost any shape. 
 
 § 76. Oaks. — The Californian white oak ( Quercus hi7idsii)^ 
 or long-acorned oak, is a very large tree, and the characteristic 
 oak of California. It resembles the white oak of the Atlantic 
 slope in the color of its bark and the shape of its leaves ; but 
 its growth is very difierent. It seldom reaches a greater 
 height than sixty feet, and is often wider than high. Some- 
 times it measures one hundred and. twenty-five feet from side 
 to side. The trunk, which occasionally grows to be eight feet 
 through, throws out large horizontal boughs within ten feet 
 of the ground, and above that point the trunk is soon lost 
 among the large branches. The tree furnishes no straight 
 timber, and the wood is so soft and brittle as to be of no use 
 in the arts ; whereas the white oak of the Mississippi valley is 
 a most valuable tree, with a trunk so tall and straight, tlmt 
 sills and beams of it sixty feet long are common, and with a 
 wood so tough, that it supplies all the axles and plough-beams 
 of the country. The Californian white oak is not even tit for 
 fence-rails. The tree, however, is very beautiful and majestic, 
 and the open groves of it in the valleys and foot-hills form, as 
 Dr. Newberry says, "the most important element in those 
 scenes of quiet beauty which so often excite the admiration of 
 the traveller in California." The tree bears much resemblance 
 in form and size to the oak of England, the groves of it appear- 
 
100 EESOTTRCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ing like the English parks. At the ends of the large boughs 
 are branches which hang down hke vines — giving the tree, 
 when seen from a distance, something of the appearance of an 
 elm. The acorns are large, sometimes two and a half inches 
 long. They once formed the chief article of food of the Cali- 
 fornian Indians. 
 
 The evergreen oak ( Quercus agrifolia) is a low, spreading 
 tree, much like an apple-tree in size and shape. The foliage, 
 however, is darker and denser. The acorns are small, thin, 
 and sharp-pointed. The wood is hard, crooked in grain, and 
 valuable for knees in ship-building. 
 
 The Californian chestnut oak ( Quercus densiflora) is a low, 
 handsome evergreen tree, wdth a leaf very much like that of 
 the chestnut. The bark is very rich in tannin, and is exten- 
 sively used for the tanning of hides. The tree is rare north of 
 latitude 39°, and is most abundant in the mountains about 
 Santa Cruz. 
 
 The Western chinquapin ( Gastanea chrysophylla)^ or golden- 
 leaved chestnut, is an evergreen shrub that grows in the Sierra 
 Nevada. At the height of three feet it bears an edible and 
 palatable fruit, something like the beechnut in shape, but larger. 
 The flowers and ripe fruit are often found on the same bush. 
 The leaves are dark-green above, and covered Avith a yellowish 
 powder beneath. The Western chinquapin grows to be a tree 
 thirty feet high in some parts of Oregon. 
 
 The fulvous oak ( Quercus fulvescens) is a deciduous tree, 
 that grows about thirty feet high, with leaves somewhat like 
 those of the Western chinquapin. The acorn, when young, is 
 concealed in the cup, the two together resembling a little 
 wheel ; but the acorn, when mature, is an inch and a half long, 
 and projects considerably beyond the cup. The wood is tough- 
 er than that of most of the oaks of California. 
 
 Kellogg's oak ( Quercus kelloggii) is a large deciduous tree, 
 found only in California. Its leaves are deeply sinuate, with 
 three principal lobes on each side, terminating in several acute 
 points. It bears fruit only in alternate years, or at least mos*- 
 
BOTANY. 101 
 
 abundantly every other year. An idea prevails that the acorns 
 give to swine a disease of the kidneys. 
 
 The huckleberry -leafed oak ( Quercus vacci?ii folia) is a shrub, 
 from four to six feet high, which grows on the mountains in 
 the northern part of the state. Its leaves, in size and form, 
 resemble the huckleberry ; the acorn is of the size and shape 
 of a small hazel-nut. 
 
 § VY. Buckeye. — The Californian horse-chestnut, or buck- 
 eye {^sculus californica)^ is a shrub, or low, spreading tree, 
 abundant in the Sacramento, San Joaquin, and coast valleys. 
 It likes to grow about rocky ledges, in ravines, and on the 
 banks of streams. Sometimes it throws up a dozen stems, 
 which grow to a thickness of three or four inches each; but 
 usually it has one trunk, six or eight inches through. The 
 tree rarely exceeds fifteen feet in height, and it has a hemi- 
 spherical shape, very dense foliage, rising from the ground in 
 a globular form. It continues to put forth large clusters of 
 fragrant blossoms from early spring till late summer. The 
 leaves are among the first to open of the deciduous trees of 
 the state. Five leaves grow together on one stem. The fruit 
 has a close resemblance to that of the buckeye-tree of the Mis- 
 sissippi valley, but is larger and more abundant. It is a staple 
 article of food with those few Californian Indians who stiU 
 depend upon w^ild fruits and game for their subsistence. 
 
 § 78. Sycamore. — The Mexican sycamore [Platanus r^ct- 
 mosa) exhibits a striking resemblance to the Western s) ca- 
 more of the Atlantic slope. It has the same straggling, in eg- 
 ular growth; the same smooth, white, scaly bark; the same 
 large, yellowish leaf: but instead of having only one ball on a 
 stem, like the Atlantic sycamore, it has several, the stem run- 
 ning through one or two, and terminating in the last one. 
 
 § 79. Pitahaya. — The pitahaya ( Cereus giganteus)^ a gigan- 
 tic cactus, is one of the most prominent features of the botany 
 of the deserts in the southern part of California. It grows to 
 a height of fifty feet, with a trunk thirty inches in diameter. 
 Sometimes the trunk has no boughs, but usually it throw^s out 
 
102 EESOIJRCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 from two to six, which are about half the thickness of the 
 trunk ; they run out horizontally for a foot or two, and then 
 turn upward and rise parallel with the trunk. There are no 
 twigs or leaves, but flowers and fruit grow on the tops of the 
 trunk and branches. The whole plant resembles a huge can- 
 delabrum. The flowers are three inches long, as wide, with 
 stiff, curling,' and cream-colored petals. The fruit is as large 
 as a hen's egg^ and the meat is a red pulp, full of little seeds. 
 The taste is insipid ; but when the fruit is dried, according to 
 the Indian custom, it acquires a flavor somewhat like that of 
 afig. , 
 
 § 80. Yucca. — The yucca, or bayonet-tree, is a kind of palm, 
 — an endogenous tree that lives in the southern deserts. It 
 sometimes grows to be thirty-five feet in height, with a trunk 
 two feet through ; but usually it is about ten feet high, with a 
 trunk eight inches in diameter. It has no twigs or branches, 
 but sometimes it divides into two trunks. The foliage, con- 
 sisting of leaves eighteen inches long, and shaped like the 
 blade of a bayonet, hangs down from the tops of the trunks. 
 
 § 81. llezquit. — The mezquit {Algarohia glandidosa) is a 
 low tree of the Colorado Desert. It sometimes reaches a 
 height of twenty feet, with a trunk fifteen inches in diameter. 
 The lower branches are very near the ground, and the whole 
 tree has a very regular, semispherical form. The leaves are 
 like those of the black locust, and the foliage thin. The tree 
 bears numerous pods, from three to five inches long, full of 
 sweet, nourishing beans, about the size of the common white 
 bean. The mezquit-bean is often eaten by men, and horses 
 and mules are very fond of it. 
 
 The curly mezquit {Stromhocarpus puhescens) is a similar 
 shrub, and bears a crooked bean, called the " screw-bean." It 
 also grows only on the desert. 
 
 § 82. Miscellaneous Trees and Shrubs. — A few walnut-trees 
 crow alono- the Sacramciito Iliver, and it is said that some 
 chestnuts have been found in Mendocino county, but they are 
 unknown in the greater part of the state. We have no indi- 
 
BOTANY. 103 
 
 genous beech, elm, hickory, locust, acacia, or sassafras. Our 
 wild cherry and wild plum are bushes, but their fruits resem- 
 ble the wild plums and cherries of the East. We have willows 
 and Cottonwood, which differ little in appearance from those 
 of the Mississippi valley. There are wild grapes, blackberries, 
 gooseberries, huckleberries, raspberries, salmon-berries, and 
 strawberries. A truffle, or a root resembling it, is found in 
 the valleys of the coast and the Sierra N^evada. The grizzly 
 hear considers it a delicacy, and frequently digs it up. A 
 shrub called the "joint-fir" (a species oi Ephedra)^ sometimes 
 used for making tea, is found in Calaveras and Tuolumne coun- 
 ties. In the valleys of the Coast Mountains is found the yerba 
 huena (Spanish for "good herb"), a creeping vine, bearing 
 some resemblance in its leaf and vine to the wild strawberry. 
 It has a strong perfume, half-way between peppermint and 
 camphor. The yerba de la vibora (Spanish for " rattlesnake- 
 herb," known to botanists as the Dauciis 2:>usillus) is a carrot- 
 like vegetable, the leaves of which are said to be a specific for 
 the bite of the rattlesnake. 
 
 § 83. Poison OaJc. — The poison oak, or poison ivy {Rhus 
 toxicodendron)^ grows abundantly in the Sacramento Basin, 
 and along the coast. It thrives best on a moist soil, and in 
 the shade. In a thicket with other bushes it sends up many 
 thin stalks eight or ten feet high, with large, luxuriant leaves 
 at the top ; in the shade, the leaves are green. In the open, 
 dry ground, exposed to the sun, and without support from oth- 
 er bushes, the poison oak is a low, poverty-stricken little shrub, 
 with a few red leaves. If it can attach itself to an oak-tree, 
 it becomes a parasitic vine, and attains a thickness, though very 
 rarely, of four inches in the trunk, and climbs to a height of 
 forty feet. The touch of the leaf is poisonous, and causes a 
 very irritating eruption of the skin. It rapidly communicates 
 by the touch from one part of the body to another, causing 
 severe inflammations and swellings. The most delicate parts 
 of the body are most affected by the poison. The eyes are 
 sometimes closed up entirely by the swelling round them j and 
 
104 RESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 many cases are recorded of faces so swollen, that they could 
 not be recognized by intimate friends. Some persons are not 
 aftected by the touch of the Rhus ; but instances have occurred 
 wherein j^ersons supposing themselves, after long experience, 
 to be free from danger, have at last been poisoned : and when 
 the poison has once taken hold, the system is always very 
 easily affected from that time forward. Even passing to the 
 leeward of the bush on a windy day, or going through the 
 smoke of a fire in ivhich it is burning, will bring the poison to 
 the surface again. 
 
 § 84= Amole. — The amole {Chlorogalum lyomeridicmuin)^ or 
 soap-plant, lias an onion-like, bulbous root, which, "when rubbed 
 in water, makes a lather like soap, and is good for removing 
 dirt. It was extensively used for washing, by the Indians and 
 Spanish Cahfornians, previous to the American conquest. The 
 amole has a stalk four or five feet high, from which branches 
 about eighteen inches long spring out. The branches are cov- 
 ered with buds, which open in the night, beginning at the root 
 of the boughs, about four inches of a branch opening at a time. 
 The next night, the buds of another four inches open, and so 
 on. 
 
 § 85. Nutritious Herbage. — Of indigenous nutritious grasses 
 there are a number in the state. The wild oat, though not a 
 grass, may be mentioned under this head. It resembles the cul- 
 tivated oat so nearly, that there has been some doubt wiiether 
 they are not identical, but the opinion among botanists is that 
 they are distinct species. The wnld oat, in the year 1835, 
 was found only south of the bay of San Francisco ; but about 
 that time, when the Tvhite men crossed frequently from the 
 southern to the northern side of the bay, the oat was sowm in 
 a natural way by horses and cattle, and it spread rapidly over 
 the Sacramento valley and the coast region. It grew very 
 luxuriantly, and in some places surpassed in the height, size, 
 and abundance of stalks, any field of cultivated oats which I 
 have ever seen. It is said that in some localities the oat-stalks 
 were so high, that men sitting erect on horseback could not 
 
BOTANY. 105 
 
 see each other at a distance of ten feet. The soil and climate 
 were evidently very favorable to it. During the last six or 
 eight years, the wild oats have been eaten down so closely by 
 cattle, that in many places they have been killed out. They 
 are propagated from year to year, not by the roots, but by the 
 seeds, many of which fall into cracks in the earth, where they 
 lie in safety until the rains come, when the ground closes up 
 and the grain sprouts. The earth cracks in the summer, in 
 many parts of the state ; and in places where the wild oats 
 grow, the position of the cracks of one year may be traced the 
 next season by the position of the stalks of the grain. 
 
 The wild oat grows on hill and plain, and furnishes a large 
 part of the wild pasture of the state. It is wholesome, nutri- 
 tious, and palatable for cattle. Much of it is cut for hay. The 
 amount of grain which it furnishes is small in proportion to 
 the quantity of straw, and it is never threshed. 
 
 After the wild oats, in importance to the herdsman, comes 
 the "burr-clover," so named from a spherical burr, about a 
 quarter of an inch in diameter, which it bears in clusters of 
 three. This burr-clover is found in all the settled parts of the 
 state. Cattle do not like it when green ; but after it dries, 
 the burrs fall upon the ground, and are picked up by the cat- 
 tle, while the stranger is astonished at seeing them eating and 
 keeping fat on what appears to him to be bare earth. On ex- 
 amining the surface of the ground, he will find that it is cov- 
 ered with the dry stalks and burrs of the burr-clover. The 
 bloom consists of three very small yellow flowers. It is said 
 that the stalks of this clover take root whenever the joints 
 touch the ground. 
 
 The alfilerilla [Er odium cicutarium) is another indigenous 
 nutritious herb of much importance to the herdsman. It is 
 succulent, sweet, hardy, bearing clusters of spikes or pins an 
 inch and a half long. These spikes have given it the name of 
 pin-grass ; and the resemblance of its leaves to the geranium 
 has suggested the name of " wild geranium," by which title it 
 is also known to some persons. It has a large root, which it 
 5* 
 
106 RESOUECES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sends deep into the ground, thus enabling it to resist the 
 drought, while above the surface it puts forth a dense mass 
 of stalks and leaves, spreading out sometimes several feet in 
 every direction. Cattle prefer it to every other indigenous 
 herb of the state. The seeds seem to abound throughout the 
 soil, for wherever the earth is ploughed up for the first time, 
 there the alfilerilla appears, though it may never have been 
 seen there before. It is common in gardens, cultivated fields, 
 and fallow lands. 
 
 The white Californian clover has a large yell o wish- w^hite 
 bloom, from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, a beau- 
 tiful plant, well suited as an ornament for yards and gardens. 
 It grows very large, and two feet high in moist, favorable sit- 
 uations ; while in dry places it w^ill also mature its seed with- 
 out rising more than two or three inches above the ground. 
 It is very sweet, and it is often eaten by the Indians, w^io like 
 it both raw and boiled. Cattle are also extremely fond of it. 
 
 Another species of clover has a round bloom about a third 
 of an inch in diameter, composed of violet-tinged flowers. 
 
 Another clover has a bloom from a sixth to a quarter of an 
 inch in diameter, the flowers of which are subdued green, 
 tipp'^d with pink at the end. 
 
 The Melilotes officinalis^ another herb, commonly called a 
 closer, though not strictly entitled to that name, likes a very 
 moist soil, and then grows luxuriantly, crowding out nearly 
 every thing else. Its bloom consists of a drooping head about 
 an inch long and a sixth of an inch thick, hung with little yel- 
 low flowers. Cattle are not fond of this herlJ in any shape, but 
 they like it better in hay than when green. 
 
 Of nutritious grasses there are a number, but they do not 
 form a sod. The drought of summer and fall seems to kill the 
 roots. 
 
 Of wild flowers there are a great variety and abundance in 
 California, and they have their difierent seasons for blooming ; 
 and in caiions where the soil is always moist, flowers may be 
 seen in every month of the year. In the spring-time the hill- 
 
BOTANY. 107 
 
 sides are frequently covered with them, and their red, blue, or 
 yellow petals hide every thing else. Each month has its flow- 
 ers : in March the grass of a valley may be hidden under red, 
 in April under blue, and in May under yellow blossoms. There 
 is such a variety that within an hour I have counted twenty 
 species on a spot not more than twenty feet square. This was 
 on dry, sandy soil, in Sonoma valley, in the month of May. 
 None of the flowers are large, brilliant in color, or rich in 
 sweet, strong perfume. 
 
 The tule is a reed which covers all the large tracts of swamp 
 lands in the state. It has no leaf, but a plain, round stalk, va- 
 rying from half an inch to an inch and a half at the butt, and 
 tapering gradually to a point. It is usually not more than 
 eight or ten feet high, but at the Tulare Lake it grows to 
 fifteen or twenty feet. 
 
 The grass and herbage begin to grow and clothe the land- 
 scape in green after the first heavy rains of the rainy season. 
 These rains may come in December, January, or February; 
 and until they do come, the earth, in the districts not covered, 
 with timber, is brown. The grass continues green until June, 
 when it begins to dry up and turn yellow and brown, which 
 colors then predominate in the landscape until the rains come 
 again. The death of the grass, except at high elevations, is 
 caused not by the cold but by the drought ; and in those months 
 when the prairies of Indiana and Illinois are covered with 
 snow, the valleys of California are dressed in the brilHant 
 green of young grass. 
 
 The mistletoe grows abundantly on the oak-trees of Califor- 
 nia. The Spanish moss, which hangs in long lace-like gray 
 beards from the branches, also serves to give beauty to the 
 groves in the valleys. 
 
 Note. — Most of mj information about the botany of the state has been 
 derived from the reports of Dr. J. S. Newberry, in the United States Pacific 
 Railroad Survey, and from the conversation of Dr. A,. Kellogg, Dr. IL Behr, 
 and Mr. H. G. Bloomer, of San Francisco. 
 
108 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA, 
 
 CHAPTER YL 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 § 86. General List. — Among the indigenous animals of Oal- 
 ifoTnia are the grizzly bear; the black bear; the panther, the 
 wild-cat; the gray wolf; the coyote; three foxes; the badger; 
 the raccoon ; the opossum ; the mountain-cat ; the weasel ; two 
 skunks ; one porcupine ; three squirrels ; two spermophiles ; 
 two ground-squirrels ; three rats ; three jumping-rats ; one 
 jumping-mouse ; nine mice ; one mole ; the elk ; one deer ; 
 one antelope ; the mountain-sheep ; three hares ; two rabbits ; 
 the seal ; the sea-otter ; the sea-lion ; the beaver ; two vul- 
 tures ; the golden eagle ; the bald eagle ; the fishhawk ; 
 eighteen other hawks ; nine owls ; the road-runner ; twelve 
 woodpeckers ; four humming-birds ; eleven flycatchers ; one 
 hundred and nine singers ; one pigeon ; two doves ; three 
 grouse ; three quails ; one sandhill crane ; forty-one waders ; 
 sixty-six swimmers, including two swans and five geese ; about 
 two dozen snakes, including the rattlesnake ; half a dozen sal- 
 mon ; two codfish ; and one mackerel. 
 
 §87. ^ears. — The grizzly bear [Ursus horrihilis) is the 
 largest and most formidable of the quadrupeds of California. 
 He grows to be four feet high and seven feet long, with a 
 Aveight, when very large and fat, of two thousand pounds, be- 
 ing the largest of the carnivorous animals, and much heavier 
 than the lion or tiger ever get to be. The grizzly bear, how- 
 over, as ordinarily seen, does not exceed eight hundred oi 
 nine hundred pounds in weight. In color the body is a light 
 grayish-brown, dark brown about the ears and along the ridge 
 of the back, and nearly black on the legs. The hair is long, 
 
ZOOLOGY. 109 
 
 coarse, and wiry, and stiff on the top of the nect and between 
 the shoidders. The "grizzly," as he is usually called, is more 
 common in California than any other kind of bear, and was 
 at one time exceedingly numerous for so large an animal ; but 
 he offered so much meat for the hunters, and did so much 
 damage to the farmers, that he has been industriously hunted, 
 and his numbers have been greatly reduced. He ranges 
 throughout the state, but prefers to make his home in the 
 chaparral or bushes, whereas the black bear likes the heavy 
 timber. The grizzly is very tenacious of life, and he is sel- 
 dom immediately killed by a single bullet. His thick, wiry 
 hair, tough skin, heavy coats of fat when in good condition, 
 and large bones, go far to protect his vital organs ; but he 
 often seems to preserve all his strength and activity for an 
 hour or more after having been shot through the lungs and 
 liver with large rifle-balls. He is one of the most dangerous 
 animals to attack. There is much probability that when shot 
 he will not be killed outright. When merely wounded he is 
 ferocious ; his weight and strength are so great that he bears 
 down all opposition before him; and he is very quick, his 
 speed in running being nearly equal to that of the horse. In 
 attacking a man, he usually rises on his hind-legs, strikes his 
 enemy with one of his powerful fore-paws, and then commences 
 to bite him. If the man lies still, with his' flice down, the bear 
 will usually content himself with biting him for a while about 
 the aims and legs, and will then go off a few steps and watch 
 him. If the man lies still, the bear will beheve him dead, and 
 will soon get tired and go away. But let the man move, and 
 the bear is upon him again ; let him fight, and he will be in im- 
 minent danger of being torn to pieces. About half a dozen 
 men, on an average, are killed yearly in California by grizzly 
 bears, and as many more are cruelly mutilated. 
 
 Fortunately, the grizzly bear is not disposed to attack man, 
 and never makes the first assault unless driven by hunger or 
 maternal anxiety. The dam will attack any man who comes 
 near her cubs, and on this account it is dangerous to go in the 
 
110 KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 early summer afoot through chaparral where bears make their 
 home. Usually a grizzly will get out of the way when he sees 
 or hears a man, and sometimes, but rarely, will run when 
 wounded. It is said that grizzlies in seasons of scarcity, used 
 to break into the huts of the Indians and eat them. No in- 
 stance of this kind, however, has been reported for some years 
 past. 
 
 The greater portion of the food of the grizzly is vegetable, 
 such as grass, clover, berries, acorns, and roots. The manza- 
 nita, service, salmon, and whortleberries, are all favorites with 
 him. The roots which he eats are of many different species, 
 and it was from him that we learned the existence of a Cali- 
 fornian truffle, very similar to the European tuber of the same 
 name. The grizzly is very fond of fresh pork, at least after he 
 knows its taste, and if swine come within his reach, he soon 
 learns the taste. The farmers in those districts where the 
 bears are abundant, shut up their hogs every night in corrois 
 or pens, surrounded by very strong and high fences, which the 
 bears frequently tear down. After having killed a hog, if any 
 part of the carcass is left, the grizzly will return the next night 
 and feast upon the remains, and go until it becomes putrid. 
 He prefers, however, the fresh pork if it can be had. Not un- 
 frequently the grizzly discovers the carcasses of deer, elk, and 
 antelope, killed by hunters, who have gone off for horses to 
 carry their game home. In such case, the hunter usually finds 
 little left for him when he gets back. They do not like climb- 
 ing, and rarely attempt to ascend trees. The grizzly, though 
 he often moves about and feeds in the day, prefers the night, 
 and almost invariably selects it as the time for approaching 
 nouses, as he often does, in search of food. The cub is one of 
 the most playful, good-humored, and amusing of animals. He 
 will tumble somersets, sit up on his haunches and box, and in 
 some of his pranks will show a humor ai\d intelligence scarcely 
 inferior to that of very young children. The grizzly may easily 
 be tamed, and it becomes very fond of its master. Adams, the 
 Californian mountaineer and bear-hunter, trained several griz- 
 
ZOOLOGY. Ill 
 
 ?:lies so that they accompanied him in his hunting excursions, 
 defended him against wild animals, and carried burdens for 
 him. The meat of the young grizzly resembles pork in tex- 
 ture and taste, exceeding it in juiciness and greasiness ; but 
 the meat of the old he-bear is extremely strong, and to delicate 
 stomachs it is nauseating. 
 
 The black bear ( Ursus cmiericanus) is found in the timbered 
 portions of California, but is not abundant. It is more often 
 seen near the coast north of Bodega than in any other portion 
 of the state. Dr. IS[ewberry, speaking of the food of the black 
 bear on this coast, says : " The subsistence of the black bears 
 in the northern portion of California is evidently, for the most 
 part, vegetable. The manzanita, wild plum, and wild cherry, 
 which fruit profusely, and are very low, assist in making up 
 his bill of fixre. Karely, too, we saw trees of yellow-pine bear- 
 ing marks of bears' teeth, where they had torn off the outer 
 bark to get at the succulent inner layer, which is capable of 
 sustaining life, and to which the Indians very generally have 
 recourse when pressed with hunger." It is believed that nei- 
 ther the grizzly nor the black bear hybernates in California. 
 
 § 88. Panther and Wild- Cat. — The panther of California, 
 supposed by Dr. Newberry to be the Felis concolor — the same 
 with the panther found on the Atlantic slope of the continent 
 — has a body larger than that of the common sheep, and a tail 
 more than half the length of the body. Its color is dirty- white 
 on the belly, and elsewhere a brownish-yellow, mottled with 
 dark tips on all the hairs. The panther is a cowardly animal, 
 and, except when driven by some extraordinary motive, never 
 attacks man. A friend of mine, who was out hunting, dressed 
 in a buff coat, was creeping through some brush to get near a 
 deer, when he felt a heavy animal strike his back. He sprang 
 up very suddenly, and saw a panther, which had jumped down 
 upon him from a tree, probably mistaking him for a calf or a 
 deer. The brute seemed very much astonished and frightened 
 at seeing a man there, and immediately fled at full speed. The 
 panther is nocturnal in his habits, and always j^refers the night 
 
112 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 as a time for attacking colts, which are a favorite prey with 
 him. He is found in all parts of the state where there is tim- 
 ber, but he never stojDS long in any place, unless he can find 
 bushes to hide in. 
 
 The American wild- cat [Lynx rufus) is common in Califor- 
 nia, particularly in the vicinity of the bays of San Francisco 
 and San Pablo, where he often catches fish and water-fowl as 
 well as land-animals. His color is a light brown, with dim, 
 dark spots on the sides, and longitudinal lines along the middle 
 of the back. 
 
 § 89. Wolves and Foxes. — The gray wolf ( Ccinis occidenta- 
 lism is found in all the inhabited j)arts of California, but is not 
 abundant. 
 
 The coyote is very common in the state, and occupies the 
 same place here with that occupied in the Mississippi valley 
 by the prairie-wolf. Dr. Newberry thinks the two belong to 
 l^he same species ( Ganis latrans), but I am inclined to believe 
 that they are specifically different. The color of the coyote 
 has more of a reddish tinge, he howls more, does not bark so 
 much, and is more cunning. His food consists chiefly of rab- 
 bits, grouse, small birds, mice, lizards, and frogs ; and in time 
 of scarcity he will eat carrion, grasshoppers, and bugs. He is 
 very fond of poultry, pigs, and lambs, and will destroy almost 
 as many of them as would a fox. He is one of the worst ene- 
 mies and most troublesome pests of the farmer. His method 
 of catching chickens is to hide near the hen-roost about day- 
 light, and, as the hens come down, he pounces upon them from 
 his hiding-place ; and his motions are often so quick, that the 
 victim has not even time to squall before she dies. In the 
 spring and autumn, when wild geese and ducks are abundant, 
 many coyotes make their homes in the tules, where they catch 
 the birds which have been wounded by the hunters. 
 
 The coyote loves nothing better than a young pig. When 
 he sees an old sow with her young ones, he will hide, and wait 
 a long time, in hopes that a little one will come within his 
 reach ; but if there be no hiding-place, he goes up boldly. The 
 
ZOOLOGY. 113 
 
 SOW will at once face the assailant, and start to attack him. 
 He allows her to come up within a few feet of him, and then 
 moves off slowly ; and she, like a fool, thinking she Avill catch 
 him, continues the chase. While running, he keeps his head 
 turned to one side, partly to watch her, and partly to watch 
 the pigs ; and when he has seduced her far enough away, he 
 suddenly makes a dash at the pigs, and, getting one of them, 
 runs off with it, leaving the agonized and furious sow far. be- 
 hind. If the coyote does not succeed in getting a pig at the 
 first attempt — that is, if he does not lead the sow far enough 
 away — he tries it again and again, till he succeeds, the sow 
 being so stupid as to follow him, after having repeated oppor- 
 tunities to see his purpose. 
 
 The coyotes frequently go in packs, and sometimes will un- 
 dertake to attack a cow. On such occasions, they have a con- 
 certed plan of operations : they surround their intended victim, 
 and v>^hile those in front rush at her as a feint, those behind 
 attempt to cut her hamstrings. As their teeth are very sharp, 
 they often succeed. The cow's hamstrings once cut, she falls, 
 and is completely at their mercy ; and they quickly pick her 
 bones. 
 
 The coyote is a great thief, and will steal the pillow from 
 under a sleeping man's head ; for it happens in California that 
 bags of provisions are often used as pillows. Wlien the coyote 
 is hungry, he will gnaw any thing that is greasy, and for that 
 reason he frequently cuts off the hemp and raw-hide ropes 
 with which horses are tied out at night ; but he never bites 
 into hair-ropes, which for that reason were formerly used ex- 
 clusively for staking out horses. 
 
 The coyote is nocturnal in his habits, and is very fond ^ 
 howling or yelping. He begins with a shrill, quick bark, ana 
 follows up with a succession of yelps, ending in a long-drawn, 
 quavering, melancholy howl. When one begins, all others 
 within hearing take up the cry. Ten years ago, the traveller 
 in the Sacramento valley rarely passed a night without hearing 
 their music. They are not so nimierous now, but still they 
 
114 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 are frequently seen in the most densely-settled parts of tlie 
 country. 
 
 Tho red fox ( Vulpes fulviis macrourus) is found north of 
 latitude 37° ; the gray fox ( Vulpes virginianus) in all the tim- 
 bered parts of the state. The coast fox ( Vulpes littoralls) is 
 found only on the island of San Miguel, off the coast of Santa 
 Barbara. In its color it bears a great resemblance to the gray 
 fox, but it is not more than half as large, is less cunning, and 
 is slower in its motions. Its tail is only one-third the length 
 of its body. The specimens observed were very bold and 
 stupid, allowing themselves to be caught, over and over again, 
 in the same manner. 
 
 The desert fox ( Vulpes macrourus), which is found in the 
 central deserts of the continent, crosses the Sierra Nevada, and 
 is often killed in Calaveras and Tuolumne counties. 
 
 § 90. Badger, etc. — The American badger (Taxidea ameri- 
 cand) is abundant in the plateau of the Sierra Nevada, and is 
 occasionally found in other parts of the state. It is very shy, 
 and is rarely seen by the traveller. 
 
 The black-footed raccoon [Procyon hernandezii) is found in 
 the timbered portions of the Pacific slope of our continent from 
 Santa Barbara to British Columbia. It is longer than the At- 
 lantic raccoon [Procyo7i lotor), but resembles it very closely in 
 its mental character and capacity, habits and appearance. The 
 raccoon is fond of grapes, and when he enters a vineyard selects 
 those of the finest flavor. 
 
 An opossum {Didelphys californica) is found hi the wooded 
 portions of the state, but is not abundant. 
 
 The yellow-haired porcupine [Erethizon epixantlms), a na- 
 tive of California, is the largest of its genus. The spmes are 
 a couple of inches long, yellowish in color, with brown tips. 
 On the lower part of the sides the spines are replaced by long, 
 stiff bristles. 
 
 The mountain-cat, or striped bassaris {Bassaris astuta), is 
 abundant along the western base of the Sierra Nevada, be- 
 tween latitudes 36° and 39°. The body is about the size of 
 
ZOOLOGY. 115 
 
 that of the domestic cat, but the nose is very long and sharp, 
 and the tail very long and large. The color of the animal is 
 dark gray, with rings of black on the tail. The miners cull it 
 the " mountain-cat," and frequently tame it. It is a favorite 
 pet with them, becomes very playful and familiar, and is far 
 more afi'ectionate than the common cat, which it might replace, 
 for it is very good at catching mice. 
 
 The pine-marten (Mustela americana) is found in California, 
 but is rare. 
 
 The yellow-cheeked weasel {Putorius xanthogenys) is found 
 along the coast, in the vicinity of the bay of San Francisco. 
 
 The common mink [Putorius vison) has a skin as valuable 
 as that of the beaver ; the fur is of a dark, brownish, chestnut 
 color, with a white spot on the end of the chin. 
 
 California has two skunks (JiepA^Y^« occidentalis and Me- 
 phitis bicolor), very common animals. The Mephitis hicolor^ 
 or little striped skunk, is chiefly found south of latitude 39° ; 
 the other in the northern and central parts of the state. The 
 colors of both are black and white. 
 
 § 91. Tlie Squirrel Pltmily. — The Californian gray squirrel 
 (Sciurus jossoi'), the most beautiful and one of the largest ot 
 the squirrel genus, inhabits all the pine-forests of the state. Its 
 color on the back is a finely-grizzled bluish gray, and white 
 beneath. At the base of the ear is a little woolly tuft, of a 
 chestnut color. The sides of the feet are covered with hair in 
 the winter, but are bare in the summer ; the body is more slender 
 and delicate in shape than that of the Atlantic gray squirrel. 
 It sometimes grows to be twelve inches long in the head and 
 body, and fifteen inches long in the tail, making the entire 
 length twenty-seven inches. Dr. Newberry says: ''The Cali- 
 fornian gray squirrel is eminently a tree-squirrel, scarcely de- 
 scending to the ground but for food and water, and it subsists 
 ahnost exclusively on the seeds of the largest and loftiest pine 
 known [Pinus kmibertiana), the ' sugar-pine' of the Westeiii 
 coast. The cones of this magnificent tree are from twelve to 
 sixteen inches in length, and contain each one hundred or more 
 
116 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 seeds of the size and shape of the small white bean of com- 
 merce. These cones would be unmanageable by the squirrel 
 in the tree, and he has the habit, so common in the family, of 
 dropping them to the ground, where he can dissect them at 
 leisure. This he usually does early in the morning, climbing 
 to the extremities of the topmost branches, where the cones 
 hang, and cuttiug off a sufficient number to supply his wants 
 for the day. He then descends, and, commencing at the base 
 of the cone, tears off the scales in rapid succession, and skil- 
 fully possesses himself of the seeds which they conceal. He 
 is compelled, however, to supply other wants than his own, for 
 the smaller pine-squirrel {Sciurus douglasii) and the ground- 
 squirrel [Tamias townsendii) appropriate a large share of his 
 booty. When oak-trees are near, and acorns are ripe, he has 
 recourse to them for subsistence ; as often as opportunity offers, 
 robbing the woodpeckers of their stores, in which also he has 
 the active co-operation of his more diminutive congeners. 
 From the fact that he feeds upon the ground, it has been sup- 
 posed that he was less active and less fitted for climbing than 
 most tree-squirrels. This, I think, is not true. He is exceed- 
 ingly quick and graceful in his movements ; and if less fre- 
 quently seen to spring from tree to tree than the black and 
 gray squirrels of the eastern states, it is because he inhabits 
 coniferous trees, which are remarkable for the insignificance 
 of their branches compared with the size of the trunk, the 
 limbs never stretching out and interlocking, as those of the oak 
 and maple and other trees, in which our common species live." 
 The Californian pine-squirrel [Sciurus douglasii) inhabits the 
 pine and redwood forests of the state. He is gray above and 
 red beneath, with a black stripe separating the two colors. 
 He lives in a burrow or hollow log, but climbs well, and ob- 
 tains his food chiefly from the pine-cones, which he cuts off 
 in numbers at a time, and tears to pieces at his leisure, after 
 they have fallen to the ground. He lays up a store of the 
 seed in his burrow, for his winter supply. He is quick in his 
 motions, graceful in his attitudes, and shy in his habits. 
 
ZOOLOGY. 117 
 
 The Missouri striped ground-squirrel has five dark-brown 
 stripes on the back, separated by four gray stripes ; the sides 
 are rec^dish-brown, the belly grayish-white, and the tail rusty- 
 black above and rusty-brown beneath. The animal is four or 
 five inches long. It is found in the northern parts of the state. 
 It eats acorns and the seeds of the pine, manzanita, and ceano- 
 thus, in the thickets of which last-named bush it prefers to hide 
 its stores. 
 
 The Spermophile has two species in California, which resem- 
 ble each other so closely, that they are usually supposed to bo 
 the same ; they are popularly known as the Californian ground- 
 squirrels, the little pests which are so destructive to the grain- 
 crops. Their bodies are ten or eleven inches long in the largest 
 specimens ; the tail is eight inches long, and bushy ; the ears 
 large ; the cheeks pouched, and herein consists the chief difier- 
 ence between them and squirrels ; the color above black, yel- 
 lowish-brown, and brown, in indistinct mottlings, hoary-yel- 
 lowish on the sides of the head and neck, and pale yellowish- 
 brown on the under side of the body and legs. They dwell in 
 burrows, and usually live in communities in the open, fertile 
 valleys, preferring to make tlieir buri'ows under the shade of 
 an oak-ti'ee. Sometimes, however, single spermophiles will be 
 found living in a solitary manner, remote from tlieir fellows. 
 Their burrows, like those of the prairie-dog, are often used by 
 the rattlesnake and the little owl. Dr. Newberry says : " They 
 are very timid, starting at every noise, and on every intrusion 
 into their privacy dropping from the trees, or hurrying in from 
 their wanderings, and scudding to their holes with all possible 
 celerity ; arriving at the entrance, however, they stop to recon- 
 noitre, standing erect, as squirrels rarely and spermophiles 
 habitually do, and lookmg about to satisfy themselves of the 
 nature and designs of the intruder. Should this second view 
 justify their flight, or a motion or step forward still further 
 alarm them, with a peculiar movement, like that of a diving 
 duck, they plunge into their burrows, not to venture out till 
 all cause of fear is past. Should you in the mean time have 
 
118 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 seated yourself with your back against a tree, and have re- 
 mained for a time as immovable as the trunk against which 
 you lean, you will soon see sundry little heads protruding from 
 the burrows, with as many pairs of eyes and ears skilled to 
 detect the least sign of danger from then* equally-feared ene- 
 mies, the coyote, the Calil'ornian vulture, the red-shouldered 
 and red-tailed hawk, and man himself If, however, your si- 
 lence and quietness persuade them that you are none of these, 
 they will swarm forth from their holes, and at first timidly, 
 but, gaining confidence, more fearlessly, engage in all the 
 sports and antics for which the sciuridce are noted, and in 
 which none excel the species under consideration. It is a 
 l^retty sight, and one to which I have often treated myself, to 
 sit down quietly under these old oaks, and watch the squirrels 
 running about over the grass and trees, gambolling and play- 
 ing together. As far as the eye could reach through the vista» 
 the sprightly movements of these innocent animals could be 
 discerned." 
 
 The two species are called Beechey's spermophile (S2^ermO' 
 philus heecheyi) and Douglas's spermophile {Spermo2yhilus 
 douglasii). The size, habits, and general appearance of the 
 two species are the same, but they differ in the color of a stripe 
 along the spine from the base of the head to the middle of the 
 back: in Beechey's spermophile it is yellowish-hoary, in Doug- 
 las's it is dark-brown. The former species is found very abun- 
 dantly south of the straits of Carquinez; the latter north of it, 
 and fewer in number. 
 
 Beechey's spermophiles are among the most formidable ene- 
 mies of the farmer in those districts where they make their 
 homes. They increase very rapidly in the vicinity of farms, 
 and do great damage in grain-fields and gardens ; they eat 
 grain and garden vegetables in all stages of their growth; 
 they peel young fruit-trees and vines ; they are, in short, dan- 
 gerous to nearly every thing that is cultivated. They are very 
 industrious, and lay up large stores for the winter, spending 
 several hours every pleasant summer's day in gathering food. 
 
ZOOLOGY. 119 
 
 They go considerable distances to fields; and the traveller, 
 whose a]>proach scares them, sees them in hundreds rmming 
 across tlie road before him, with their tails erect, hurrying 
 from the field to hide themselves in their burrows. Many a 
 large wheat-held, which would have yielded forty bushels to 
 the acre if there had been no spermophiles to trouble it, is so 
 despoiled by them, that the crop will not pay for harvesting. 
 They are particularly abundant in the Santa Clara, Amador, 
 and Pajaro valleys ; and their number is an important consid- 
 eration in the estimate of the price of land. They will not 
 live in moist land, nor very near the ocean, where the fogs 
 prevail. They are poisoned with strychnine and phosphorus, 
 drowned by irrigation, and shut out by tight board-fences. 
 In wet winters many of them are drowned ; after a dry winter 
 they are'' always numerous. Away from cultivated fields they 
 depend for food chiefly upon grass-seeds, grass-roots, and 
 acorns. 
 
 The Californian gopher {Thomomys hulhivorus) is, next to 
 Beechey's spermophile, the most abundant and most trouble- 
 some rodent of the state. \^hen full grown, it has a body six 
 or eight inches long, Avith a tail of two inches. The back and 
 sides are of a chestnut-brown color, paler on the under parts 
 of the body and legs ; the tail and feet are grayish-white ; the 
 ears are very short. In the cheeks are large pouches, covered 
 with fur inside, white to their margin, which is dark-brown. 
 
 The gopher inhabits the fertile valleys of the coast from lati- 
 tude 34° to 39°. He spends nearly all his time under ground, 
 and does most of his mischief there, gnawing off" the roots of 
 fruit-trees and garden vegetables, eating newly-sown grain 
 and seeds, and nibbling at flowers and sweet bulbs. He is not 
 a climber, nor is he very agile : if he gets into a trench eight 
 inches wide and a foot deep, with perpendicular sides, he will 
 run a long distance in it rather than clamber out; and one of 
 the best methods of catching him is to make such a trench 
 round a field, and pjace square tin boxes, fifteen inches dtep, 
 eight inches square, and open at the top, in the bottom of the 
 
120 PwESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 trench, at regular intervals of about fifty yards. The gopher 
 frequently travels at night, and when he conies to this trench 
 he falls in. He then runs along in it, looking for a convenient 
 place to get out, and, coming to a tin box, lalls into that. He 
 can neither jump out nor gnaw through ; so he remains a pris- 
 oner till he starves to death, or the farmer comes along and 
 kills him. 
 
 The Colorado gopher [Thomomys fulmis) is found in that 
 portion of the state south of latitude 34°, but is not abundant. 
 It is smaller than the Californian gopher, and has more of a 
 reddish tinge in its colors. Its habits and appearance other- 
 wise are very similar to those of its northern congener. 
 
 The broad-headed gopher [Thomomys laticeps)^ found in 
 the vicinity of Humboldt Bay, is about five inches long. Its 
 color on the back, sides, and belly, is yellowish-brown, with a 
 reddish tinge between the fore legs. 
 
 § 92. The Rat Family. — California has a number of indi- 
 genous jumping-rats, jumping-mice, and other rats and mice, 
 too many and not sufiiciently singular, or interesting to the 
 general reader, to deserve a complete description here. I 
 shall content myself, therefore, with giving a simple list of 
 them, with the districts they inhabit, their entire length from 
 the point of the nose to the end of the tail, and the main color 
 of the back : 
 
 Philip's jerboa, or jumping-rat [Dipodomys philipi) ; Sac- 
 ramento Basin and the southern valleys ; twelve inches ; yel- 
 lowish-brown. 
 
 The dun jumping-rat {Dipodomys ay His) ; coast valleys 
 south of Saa Francisco ; twelve inches ; lead-color. 
 
 The Colorado j umping-rat [Perognathus 2)erdcillatus) ; Col- 
 orado Desert ; nine inches ; tawny. 
 
 The King's River jumping-rat [Peroynathus pa7^vus) ; King's 
 River valley ; four inches. 
 
 Hudson's jumping-mouse {Jacidiis Jiudsonii) ; valley of Ca- 
 noe Creek; eight inches; yellowish-brown. 
 
 Black rat {Mas rattus) ; coast from Humboldt Bay to San 
 
ZOOLOGY. 121 
 
 Diego ; fourteen inches. There is much doubt whether it is 
 indigenous. 
 
 The long-tailed mouse [Reithrodon longiccmda) ; coast near 
 S.ui Francisco ; five inches ; dark-bi-own. 
 
 Gambel's mouse i^He^peromys gamhelli) ; from Tomales 
 B y to Kern River; five inches; glossy-brown. 
 
 Boyle's mouse {Hesperomys hoylii) ; valley of the American 
 River; eight inches ; glossy-brown. 
 
 Californian mouse {Hesperomys caUfornicus) ; Santa Clara 
 valley ; six inches ; sooty-brown. 
 
 Desert-mouse {^Hesperomys eremieus) ; Colorado Desert ; 
 five inches ; grayish-yellow. 
 
 The bush rat {JS^eotoina mexicana) ; near San Diego and in 
 the Colorado desert ; thirteen inches ; yellowish brown. 
 
 The JSfeotoma fuscip)es^ a rat ; coast valleys, from 38° to 
 40° ; fifteen inches ; reddish above. 
 
 The Arvicola montana^ a mouse ; near Petaluma, Monte- 
 rey, and Lost River ; six inches ; yellowish brown. 
 
 The long-fiiced mouse (Arvicola lougirostris) ; Pit River 
 valley ; six inches ; yellowish brown. 
 
 The Californian ground-mouse {Arvicola edax) ; coast val- 
 leys south of San Francisco; six inches; yellowish brown. 
 
 The Arvicola californica^ a mouse much like the species 
 last named. 
 
 The Oregon mouse {Arvicola oregowi) ; near Tanales Bay; 
 four inches ; yellowish brown. 
 
 The Oregon mole {Sccdops tounsendii) is found near the 
 bay of San Francisco, and perhaps in other parts of the state. 
 It is six or seven inches long, nearly black in color, with faint- 
 purplish or sooty-black reflections in the hair. 
 
 § 93. The Deer Family. — The American elk {Cervus cana- 
 densis) is found in California as well as in many other parts 
 of the continent. The animal is nearly as large as a horse, 
 and has some resemblance to it in general shape, though 
 smaller, and slimmer in the head, neck, and legs. Its length 
 Irom the nose to the tail is seven feet ; its height five feet; its 
 6 
 
122 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 greatest weight one thousand pounds. The color is a chest- 
 nut brown, dark on the head, neck, and legs, lighter and yel- 
 lowish on the back and sides. The horns are very large, some- 
 times more than four feet long, three feet across from tip to 
 tip, measuring three inches in diameter above the burr, and 
 weighing, with the skull, exclusive of the lower jaw, forty 
 pounds. The horns of the old bucks have from seven to nine, 
 perhaps more, prongs, all growing forward, the main stem 
 running upward and backward. The elk were very abundant 
 in California previous to 1849, and they were frequently seen 
 in, large herds ; but within the last ten years they have become 
 rare, and before the close of another decade they will be ex- 
 tinct in our state. A few are found in the San Joaquin valley, 
 but the best place for hunting them is in Mendocino county. 
 Several hundred carcasses find their way every year to the 
 San Francisco market. The young fat elk furnishes a very 
 juicy and sweet venison. 
 
 The white-tailed Virginian deer, once common in the states 
 east of the Mississippi, is not found in California, but in its 
 place we have the black-tailed deer {Cei'vus columhianus)^ 
 which is a little larger and has brighter colors, but does not 
 furnish as good venison, the meat lacking the juiciness and 
 savory taste of the venison in the Mississippi valley. The av- 
 erage weight of the buck is about one hundred and twenty- 
 pounds, and of the doe one hundred pounds, but bucks have 
 been found to weigh two hundred and seventy-five pounds. 
 The summer-coat of the black-tailed deer is composed of rather 
 long and coarse hair, of a tawny brown, approaching chestnut 
 on the back. In September this hair begins to come ofi", expo- 
 sing what the hunters call the " blue coat," which is at first 
 fine and silky, and of a bluish-gray color, afterward becoming 
 chestnut brown, inclining to gray on the sides, and to black 
 along the back. Occasionally deer purely white are found. 
 The horn, when long, is about two feet long, and forks near 
 mid-length, and each prong forks again, making four points, to 
 which a little spur, issuing from near the base of the horn, may 
 
ZOOLOGY. 123 
 
 be added, making five in all. This is the general form of the 
 horn ; sometimes, however, old Lucks are found with but two 
 points. The deer likes the hills and the timber ; the prong- 
 horned antelope {Antilocapra anierlcana) loves the valley and 
 the open land. Before the Americans took California, the Sac- 
 ramento and San Joaquin valleys abounded with herds of an- 
 telope ; but now they are rare in the northern part of the state*, 
 and not abundant in the southern part. The traveller in the 
 Tulare valley and in the Great Basin near the Coast Moun- 
 tains, sees herds of them every day. Thousands are killed 
 yearly for the market. In size the antelope is not quite so 
 large as the Californian deer, which it resembles closely in form 
 and general appearance. They are distinguished at a distance 
 by their motion : the antelope canters, while the deer runs ; 
 the antelope go in herds, and move in a line following the lead 
 of an old buck, like sheep, to which they are related, while deer 
 more frequently are alone, and if in a herd they are more inde- 
 pendent, and move each in the way that suits him best. In color, 
 the back, upper part of the sides and outside of the thighs and 
 forelegs are yellowish brown ; the under parts, lower part of 
 the sides, and the buttocks as seen from behind, are white. 
 The hair is very coarse, thick, spongy, tubular, slightly crimped, 
 or waved, and like short lengths of coarse threads cut off 
 bluntly. The horns are very irregular in size and form, but 
 usually they are about eight inches long, rise almost perpen- 
 dicularl}^, have a short, blunt prong in front, several inches 
 from the base, and make a short backward crook at the top. 
 The female has horns as well as the male. The hoof is heart- 
 shaped, and its print upon the ground may be readily distin- 
 from the long, narrow track of the deer. The antelope is 
 about two feet and a half high, and four feet long from the 
 nose to the end of the tail. 
 
 The mountain sheep ( Ovis montana) is found on the Sierra 
 Nevada, from the Tejon Pass to the Oregon line, but it is a 
 rare and very shy animal, and is seldom killed. Its length is 
 about five feet, and its Tveijrht sometimes three hundred and 
 
124 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 fifty pounds, considerably greater than that of the deer or do- 
 mesticated sheep. The color is white beneath, grayish brown 
 elsewhere. The horns of the ram are very large, sometimes 
 five inches through at the base and three feet long. The 
 horns, after starting upward, turn backward, then downward, 
 and so round with a circular or spiral shape, the tip inclining 
 outward. Mountaineers assert that these horns are used by 
 the sheep in getting down from the high cliffs which he is fond 
 of frequenting. Instead of clambering down toilsomely over 
 the rugged and broken rocks, he makes an easy job of it by 
 leaping headlong, confidently down, over precipices fifty, yes, 
 one hundred feet high, and alights head first on his horns, 
 which are strong enough to be unbroken by the shock, and 
 elastic enough to throw him ten or fifteen feet into the air — 
 and the next time he alights on his feet all right. 
 
 § 94. The Hare Family. — The Californian hare, or "jackass 
 rabbit," as it is commonly called [Lepus callfornicus)^ is one 
 of the largest of its class, growing sometimes to be two feet 
 long from the nose to the end of the tail. Its ears are very 
 large, and have suggested the vulgar name. It was once 
 abundant in all the valleys from the Klamath to the Colorado ; 
 it is more rare now. The color beneath is a pale cinnamon ; 
 above it is mixed black and light cinnamon, the longest hairs 
 being of a light smoky-ash color for about half the length, 
 then dark sooty-brown, then pale cinnamon-red, and finally 
 black at the tip. 
 
 The prairie hare {Lepus campestris) also, one of the largest 
 hares, inhabits the plateau of the Sierra Nevada, Pit River 
 valley, and the country about the Klamath lakes. It is all 
 w^hite in winter ; in summer yellowish gray, with brownish 
 tinges above and white beneath. The length, from the tip of 
 the nose to the root of the tail, is from seventeen to twenty- 
 three inches ; and the tail and ear each measure about four 
 inches. 
 
 Audubon's hare [Lepus audabonil) inhabits the coast val- 
 leys from Petaluma to San Diego. It is fifteen inches long, 
 
ZOOLOGY. 126 
 
 with a tail measuring to the end of the hairs on it three inches. 
 The color is mixed yellowish-brown and black above, white 
 beneath, thighs and rump grayish. 
 
 Trowbridge's hare {Lepus trowhridgii) is found along the 
 coast southward from 39°. The length is from eleven to 
 fifteen inches ; the tail, with hair and all, less than an inch. 
 The back is yellowish brown mixed with dark brown, paler on 
 the sides, and ash-colored beneath. 
 
 The sage rabbit {Lepus artemisia) is found in all the open 
 parts of California north of the Straits of Carquinez. It is 
 from eleven to sixteen inches in length ; in color, brown above 
 and white beneath, with a yellowish tinge, the under part of 
 the neck a yellowish brown. The fur on ah parts of the body 
 is lead-colored at the base. 
 
 § 95. Aquatic Mammals. — The American beavers {Castor 
 canadensis) were once very abundant in all the large streams of 
 California, and it was chiefly for their sake that the first Ameri- 
 can trappers entered the country some thirty-five or forty years 
 ago. They are still found in nearly all parts of the state, and 
 even numerous, it may be said, in some of the sloughs near the 
 junction of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. They 
 rarely build dams in California, but live in burrows in the 
 banks. When they dive they slap the water with their tails, 
 making a noise that can be heard at a considerable distance in 
 a still night. Their skins, which once commanded very high 
 prices, have lost much of their value since the adoption of silk 
 for making hats. 
 
 The common mink {Putorlus vison) is found in California, 
 but is not abundant. The general color of the animal is dark 
 brownish-chestnut, with a white spot on the end of the chin. 
 The skin of the minl^^is as valuable as that of the beaver. 
 
 The Californian otter {Lutra callfornica) is found all along 
 this coast, and was formerly abundant on all the large streams. 
 It is carnivorous, living entirely on fish and shell-fish. It pre- 
 fers large streams and lakes for its home, while the plant-eating 
 beaver prefers small streams. The Californian otter is some- 
 
126 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 times five feet long from the point of the nose to the tip of 
 the tail. When in the water, its hair is at times beautifuUy 
 iridescent. 
 
 The sea-otter (EnJiydra marinci) is larger than the Califor 
 nian otter, and is also carnivorous. It generally makes its 
 home near islands, and roams about in the water within ten 
 or twenty miles of land. The sea-otter was at one time nq,xy 
 abundant along the coast of California, and it was one of the 
 attractions which induced the Russian Fur Company to estab- 
 lish a post at Fort Ross, in latitude 38° 30', Avhere a number 
 of Aleutian Indians were employed from 1812 to 1840 in the 
 otter fishery. They would start out in their little single ca- 
 noes, made water-proof with a covering of fish-bladders, so 
 that there was no danger of their sinking if the sea should 
 sweep over them, and thus they would go out fifty miles to 
 sea and travel up and down the coast, usually coming Iiome 
 well laden with sea-otter skins worth sixty or eighty dollars 
 each. The sea-otter is still abundant on the southern coast, 
 and there are men in Santa Barbara county who make it a 
 business to hunt them. 
 
 " The otter," says Mr. W. A. Wallace, " is very harmless, 
 and always seeks to escape from human observation. When 
 attacked they make no resistance, but endeavor to escape by 
 sinking in the sea. If closely pursued and there is no escape, 
 they scold and grin like an angry cat. If they escape the ene- 
 my, as soon as they are safe they turn and deride him with 
 various diverting tricks, such as standing on end in the water, 
 jumping over the waves, holding the paws over the eyes, as 
 if to shade them from the sun while looking at the enemy — 
 then lying flat upon the back and stroking the belly. In their 
 escape they carry their sucklings in their mouths, and drive 
 before them those not fully grown. They were formerly taken, 
 by the Russians and Indians, by means of nets, clubs, and 
 spears. The young are said to be delicate eating, the flesli 
 resembUng lamb. The flesh of the old ones is insipid and 
 tough. 
 
ZOOLOGY. 127 
 
 " The otter is never seen upon land. He is purely an aquatic 
 animal. AVhen he swims he turns upon his back and propels 
 himself with great rapidity. The fore-paws are rounded like 
 a cat's, but the claws of the older ones are generally worn off. 
 The hind-legs, or propellers, are broad and flat, like paddles, 
 and are used very dexterously. The seal much resembles the 
 otter, seen at a distance, but he swims upon his belly, and the 
 hunter seldom mistakes the one for the other. The otter 
 sleeps in the water, lying upon his back, and anchors himself 
 from the motions of winds and waves by drawing a string of 
 kelp across his breast, just below his fore-legs. "When discov- 
 ered in this position, they are often approached very near by 
 the hunters. They are very buoyant in the water, but when 
 the chase has been long continued, and the blood of the otter 
 becomes heated by the exercise, on being shot the body sinks 
 rapidly to the bottom, and never rises. More than half the 
 otters shot are lost in this way. 
 
 " Once a day the otter comes near the shore for food. He 
 eats every thing that grows in salt water, and is particularly 
 fond of abelones {haliotiis), mussels, and sea-eggs. At high 
 water the abelone loosens its shell from the rock, to receive 
 the nourishment which the overfloAving waters bring to it, and 
 it is then easily taken from the rock and removed from its 
 shell. The otter is well acquainted with all the peculiarities 
 of this fish, and this opportunity to capture it for food." 
 
 The common seal, a species of phoca, is abundant along the 
 coast. 
 
 The sea-lions, of the Otaria genus, frequent the coast from 
 May to November, making their homes during the winter in 
 some other cUme, but where is not known. They delight to 
 collect on clear summer days on rocks near the water's edge, 
 and bask in the sun. They may often be seen on the rocks 
 near the Golden Gate, and heard too, for they keep up a kind 
 of barking or growling in chorus, which grows louder as they 
 see any one approaching. They do not wait, however, to let 
 a man come near, but pitch off into the sei before he is within 
 
128 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 two hundred yards of them. Their color varies from light 
 yellowish-brown to dark brown. 
 
 § 96. Vultures. — The Californian Y\\\i\\v^ {Cathartes calif or- 
 ma77t/5), sometimes im])r()perly called "condor," the largest bird 
 on the continent, and next to tl.e condor the largest flying bird in 
 the world, inhabits all parts of the state, though it is not abun- 
 dant in any place. It is as prominent and peculiar a feature of 
 the birds of California as the grizzly bear among the quadru- 
 peds. It is very shy, and is rafely killed. The total length of 
 the Californian vulture is about four feet, and its width from tip 
 to tip of the outstretched wings, ten feet or more. Its color 
 is brownish black, with a white stripe across the wings. The 
 head and neck are bare, and red and yellow in color. The bill 
 is yellowish white, and the iris carmine. Dr. Newberry says : 
 *' A portion of every day's experience in our march through 
 the Sacramento valley, w^as a pleasure in Avatching the graceful 
 evolutions of this splendid bird. Its flight is easy and eflbrt- 
 less, almost beyond that of any other bird. As I sometimes 
 recall the characteristic scenery of California, those intermina- 
 ble stretches of waving grain, with here and there, between 
 the rounded hills, orchard-like clumps of oak, a scene so solitary 
 and yet so home-like, over these oat-covered plains and slopes, 
 golden yellow in the sunshine, always floats the shadow of the 
 vulture." 
 
 Dr. Ileermann, of the United States Pacific Railroad Sur- 
 vey, wrote thus: "Whilst unsuccessfully hunting in the Tejon 
 valley, we have often passed several hours without a single 
 one of this species being in sight, but on bringing down 
 any large game, ere the body had grown cold these birds 
 might be seen rising above the horizon and slowly sweeping 
 toward us, intent upon their share of the prey. Nor in the 
 absence of the hunter will his game be exempt from their rav- 
 enous appetite, though it be carefully hidden and covered by 
 shrubbery and heavy branches ; as I have known these marau- 
 ders to drag forth from its concealment and devour a deer 
 within an hour. Any article of clothing thrown over a carcass 
 
ZOOLOGY. 129 
 
 will shield it from a vulture, though not from the grizzly boar, 
 who little respects such flimsy protection. My coat, used on 
 one occasion to cover a deer, was found on our return torn by 
 bruin to shreds, and the game destroyed. The Californian 
 vulture joins to his rapacity an immense muscular power, as a 
 sample of which it will suffice to state that I have known four 
 of them, jointly, to drag off, over a space of two hundred 
 yards, the body of a young grizzly bear weighing upward of 
 one hundred pounds." 
 
 The turkey-buzzard, or turkey-vulture [Gathartes aura), 
 specifically the same with the bird known by that name in 
 the Atlantic states, is found in all parts of California. From 
 the tip of the bill to the end of the tail it is about thirty inches 
 long, and six feet from tip to tip of the outstretched wings. 
 The head and neck are bare, covered with a bright-red wrin- 
 kled skin. The plumage commences below that, with a circu- 
 lar ruff of projecting feathers. The color of the plumage is 
 black, with a purplish lustre, many of the feathers havhig a 
 pale border. The bill is yellowish in color. 
 
 § 97. The baffle Mmiily. — The golden eagle [Aquila can- 
 adensis) inhabits California, and indeed all parts of North 
 America. Its length is thirty or forty inches ; its color on the 
 head and neck is yellowish brown, white at the base of the 
 of the tail, and brown, varying to purplish brown, and black 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The bald eagle [Ilalicetus leucocephalos) was abundant in 
 California ten years ago, and is still often seen along the Sac- 
 ramento, San Joaquin, and Klamath Rivers. It frequents rap- 
 ids for the purpose of catching fish, which seem to furnish 
 the larger part of its food. It is from thirty to forty inches 
 long, white on the head and at the base of the tail, and brown- 
 ish black on the breast, wings, and back. 
 
 The fish-hawk {Pandio7i carolinensis) is found along all our 
 large rivers. It is from twenty to twenty-five inches long. The 
 head and under pai-ts are white, with pale yellowish-brown spots 
 on the breast. The back, wings, and tail are dark brown. 
 6* 
 
130 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 The goshawk (Astur atriccqnllus) is of the same size with 
 the lish-hawk, and in color is dark — a bhi'.sh-slate above, and 
 mottled- white and light ashy-brown beneath. 
 
 There are seventeen other hawks in the state, most of them 
 small and i-are. 
 
 § 98. Oiols. — California has nine species of owds, namely : 
 the barn, great-horned, screech, long-eared, short-eared, great 
 gray, saw- whet, burrowing, and pigmy owls. All of them are 
 found extensively on the continent, beyond the limits of our 
 state, and all save the last two are common east of the Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 The burrowing owl [Athene cunicularia) is ten inches long, 
 ashy-brown above and whitish-brown beneath, variegated by 
 spots and bands of white and dark-brown. Dr. Newberry 
 says : " The burrowing owl is found in many parts of Califor- 
 nia, where it shares the burrows of Beechey's and Douglas's 
 spermophiles. We usually saw them standing at the entrance 
 of their burrows. They often allowed us to approach within 
 shot, and, before taking flight, twisting their heads about, 
 bowed with many ludicrous gestures, thus apparently aiding 
 their imperfect sight, and getting a better view of the intruder. 
 When shot at and not killed, or when otherw^ise alarmed, they 
 fly with an irregular, jerking motion, dropping down much 
 like a w^oodcock at some other hole." 
 
 The pigmy owl ( Glaucidhim gnorna) is seven inches long, 
 and inhabits the w^ooded districts. It flies about actively in the 
 daytime, and appears to subsist chiefly on sparrows, which it 
 catches in daylight. The general color is brownish-olive above 
 and brownish- white beneath. 
 
 § 99. Hoad-runner. — The paisano, or road-runner ( Geococcyx 
 calif ornianus)^ is one of the most remarkable birds of the state. 
 It hves almost entirely upon the ground, very rarely flies, and 
 frequents the highways, along which it will run from any one 
 approaching. Its speed is nearly equal to that of a common 
 horse, and it often furnishes an exciting chase to the solitary 
 rider. It is abundant in the valleys and low hills, and makes 
 
ZOOLOGY. 131 
 
 its home among the bushes. The bird is akin to the cuckoo, 
 ^ and its generic name signifies " ground-cuckoo." Its length is 
 from twenty to twentythree inches, of which twelve are taken 
 up by the tail. The general color is olive-green above and 
 white beneath; the central tail-feathers are olive-brown, the 
 others dark-green — all edged and (except the central two) 
 tipped w^ith white. Dr. Heerman says : " I have not witnessed 
 the follownig feat, but am assured by many old Californians 
 that this bird, on perceiving the rattlesnake coiled up asleep, 
 basking in the sun, will collect the cactus and hedge him 
 around wnth a circle, out of wdiich the reptile, unable to es- 
 cape, and enraged by the prickly points opposing him on every 
 side, strikes himself, and dies from the eifects of his self-inocu- 
 lated venom." 
 
 § 100. Woodpeckers. — There are eleven species of wood- 
 pecker in the state ; of which two, the Californian [3Iela7ier2)es 
 formicivorus) and Lewis's (Ifelanerpes torquatus), are worthy 
 of special mention. 
 
 The Californian woodpecker is called by the Spanish Cali- 
 fornians the carpintero, or carpenter, because he is in the habit 
 of boring holes with his beak in the bark of the nut-pine, red- 
 wood, Californian white oak, and Western yellow pine, and 
 then storing acorns in them for his winter use. The holes are 
 just large and deep enough to hold each an acorn, wdiich is 
 hammered in so that there is no danger of its falling out. The 
 acorns on the northern side of the trees, where they are joro- 
 tected from the rains, wdiich come from the southward, often 
 keep good for years. The bark of the nut-pine is preferred, 
 probably being softer and more regular in grain than other 
 bark. The holes are bored to within two or three feet of the 
 ground, and to a height of fifty feet — sometimes, but rarely, in 
 the limbs as well as the trunk. From thirty to fifty holes are 
 often found in a square foot. In seasons when or places where 
 acorns are rare, the woodpecker wiU put away hazel-nuts in the 
 same manner. The squirrels often plunder the stores, and then 
 the birds attack the thieves, darting down upon them and peck- 
 
132 KESOUKCES OF CA.LIFORNIA. 
 
 ing them with their Ijeaks. When the squirrel sees the prop- 
 erty-owner coming, he hurries to a hole, or gets under a hmb, 
 where the woodpecker cannot conveniently strike him. Some- 
 times Indians and even white men are glad to avail themselves 
 of the woodpecker's stores as a protection against starvation. 
 
 The length of the bird is nine inches ; the anterior part of 
 the body above and the tail are black ; the belly, rump, a patch 
 on the forehead, and a collar on the neck, white; and the 
 crown, and a short occipital crest, red. Dr. Newberry says : 
 "This beautiful bird, the rival and representative of the red- 
 headed woodpecker [of the Atlantic slope of the continent], is 
 an inseparable element of the scenery of the Sacramento val- 
 ley. While we were encamped under the wide-spreading oaks 
 of that region, I had a very good opportunity to study their 
 habits, as they would come into the trees in the shade of which 
 I was lying. They are not shy, and frequently came round in 
 considerable numbers. Their manners are the very counter- 
 part of the Eastern ' red-head,' and their rattling cry is not 
 unlike his. Like the ' red-head,' I have seen two or three of 
 them amuse themselves by playing 'hide and seek' around 
 some trunk or branch ; and like the ' red-head,' too, they de- 
 light to sit on the end of a dry limb, and fly ofi" in circles for 
 the insects which come near them." 
 
 Lewis's woodpecker is in color dark glossy green above and 
 gray beneath, with dark-crimson patches on the sides of the head 
 and belly. The feathers on the under part are bristle-like. It 
 prefers an elevated home, and is found ten and twelve thou- 
 sand feet above the sea. 
 
 § 101. Humming- Birds. — There are four humming-birds in 
 CaUfornia, all different from those found in the Atlantic states. 
 The white-throated swift, a bird resembling the swallow, but 
 smaller, is common in the Colorado Basin. We have a whip- 
 poor-will different fi-om the one known in the Eastern states. 
 Two night-hawks are found in our state, one of them appear- 
 ing on this slope of the continent only in the vicinity of tlie 
 Colorado, and on the other slope not extending far beyond the 
 
ZOOLOGY. 133 
 
 Rio Grande. The belted king-fisher {Cenjle aleyoii) is at 
 home in California as well as in all other parts of tlie conti 
 nent. 
 
 § 102. Fly-catcher. — The family of fiy-catehers [Colopteri- 
 dw), which connects the non-melodious with the true singing 
 birds, is represented in California by eleven species, most of 
 which are not seen in the Atlantic states. They are small 
 birds, from five to nine inches in length, and their colors are 
 usually dull. Most of them have their upper mandible bent 
 down abruptly at the tip ; and they always have twelve feath- 
 ers in the tail. One of the most common and the best-known 
 of the fly-catchers is the bird called the " pewee." 
 
 § 103. Singers. — The zoological sub-order called Oscmes, or 
 singers, has one hundred and nine species in our state, inclu- 
 ding two mocking-birds, three thrushes, two blue-birds, three 
 robins, three larks, five blackbirds, eleven finches, six wrens, 
 six swallows, six warblers, one martin, one bunting, six tit- 
 mouses, one snow-bird, two grosbeaks, one cow-bird, one ori- 
 ole, one crow, three ravens, three jays, one w\ater-ouzel, two 
 magpii;3s, and so on. Some of these birds are not called "sing- 
 ers" in common language, but they all belong to the Oscines 
 sub-order, which is marked by a peculiar muscular apparatus 
 for singing, composed of five pairs of muscles in the thi'oat. 
 Though there are many species of Oscines in the state, yet the 
 birds are not so numerous, so melodious, nor are they heard so 
 often, as the feathered songsters in the Eastern states. The 
 traveller may proceed for days in the Sacramento Basin, during 
 the summer season, without hearing more than a few chirps. 
 Our singing-birds have been multiplying very rapidly of late, 
 because of the settlement and cultivation of the land, whereby 
 their supply of wdiolesome and palatable food is much increased, 
 and their enemies the hawks are driven away. Most of our 
 swallows, one mocking-bird, one black-bird, and one raven, 
 found in California, are also seen east of the Mississippi ; but 
 all our jays, robins, blue birds, and magpies, and our oriole, 
 are, of species not found in the Atlantic states. The majority 
 
134 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 of the Oscines indigenous on this coast are unknown in the 
 older states. Our mocking-birds are never domesticated, and 
 are not to be compared to the mocking-bird of Virginia. 
 
 § 104. Scratchers. — The ornithological order oi Rasores, or 
 scratchers, is represented in California by eleven species, name- 
 ly : one pigeon, two doves, three grouse, two quails, one par- 
 tridge, and one sand-hill crane. The pigeon, partridge, grouse, 
 quails, and one of the doves, are specifically difierent from the 
 birds known by the same name east of the Mississippi. The 
 wild-turkey is not found in our state. 
 
 The most abundant and prominent of our scratchers, the 
 Californian quail [Lophortyx californicus), is found in all the 
 valleys of CaUfornia and Oregon. Its breast and upper parts 
 are lead-colored, with an olive-brown gloss on the back and 
 wings ; the chin and throat are black, with a white line run- 
 ning backward from the eye ; the forehead is brownish-yellow ; 
 the belly is pale-buff, wdth an orange-brown round spot in the 
 middle, changing to white at the sides ; the feathers on the 
 back and sides have a central streak of white, and those on 
 the top and sides of the neck have black edgings. The head 
 bears a crest numbering from three to six feathers, usually 
 five, about an inch and a half long. The shafts are bare, very 
 slender, and, though all are m a straight fine on the longitu- 
 dinal medial line of the head, they are so near together as to 
 look Hke but one shaft, more especially as the fine, fur-like 
 bushes at their tops all combine to form a compact little plume. 
 These feathers are usually erect, the plume leaning forward 
 when the bird is trying to look its best in the presence of com- 
 pany ; but when running about in the grass, and not thinking 
 of its appearance, the crest is lowered, falling forward over the 
 bill. 
 
 The Californian quail has two notes — the song and the call. 
 The song of the Atlantic quail is in two notes — the well-known 
 whistle, sounding like " Bob- White." The song of the Cali- 
 fornian quail has but one note, beginning like the " Bob" and 
 ending like the " White" of its Eastern relative. The calls ol 
 
ZOOLOGY. 135 
 
 tlie Atlantic and Pacific quails are nearly alike, and may be 
 represented by the syllables " hi-re-he." — " As a garae-bird," 
 says Dr. Newberry, " the Californian quail is inferior to the 
 Eastern one, though perhaps of equal excellence for the table. 
 It does not lie as Avell to the dog, and does not afibrd a good 
 sport. It also takes a tree more readily than the Atlantic 
 quail. Like its Eastern relative, the cock-bird is very fond of 
 sitting on some stump or log projecting above the grass and 
 weeds which conceal his mate and nest or brood, and espe- 
 cially in the early morning, uttering his peculiar cry." 
 
 The plumed quail {Oreortyx pictus)^ likewise called the 
 " mountain quail," while the Lophortyx callforniciis is often 
 styled, the " valley quail," is peculiar to this coast, and is one of 
 the most beautiful features of its ornithology. It is a partridge 
 ten inches long, very plump in shape, handsome in color, ma- 
 jestic in its bearing, and graceful in motion. Its head is sur- 
 mounted by a crest of two straight feathers, three and a half 
 inches long, which hang backward, one immediately over the 
 other. The breast and neck are lead-colored, the upper parts 
 generally olive-brown ; the throat, and head beneath the eyes, 
 orange-chestnut ; the abdomen white. There are numerous 
 variegations of white, black, and minor shades, on the plumage, 
 all contributing to heighten its beauty. 
 
 The mountain partridge lives in the hills and mountains, 
 from the Teion Pass to the Columbia River. Its sono^ sus;- 
 gests the sound represented by the word " whoit," whistled 
 fuller and louder than the song of the Californian quail. It 
 roosts upon the ground ; and if bushes be near, in which to 
 hide, it will rather run than fly from its enemies. It seldom 
 flies more than two hundred yards at a time. The cock is 
 equally attentive with the hen to the young brood, which usu- 
 ally varies from eight to twelve in number. The families seem 
 to be much attached to each other, and if they are scattered, 
 they are very uneasy until all are collected again. In such 
 cases, the hunter can entice them to come to him by imitating 
 the call of either old or young. They are easily domesticated 
 
136 KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 — more readily than their brethren of the valley. The moun- 
 tain i^artridge hates the quail, and when brought into its pres- 
 ence always attacks it; the smaller bird makes no resistance, 
 
 Gambel's quail {Lorphortyx gambelli) is a bird diiFering from 
 the Californian quail only in having duller colors, and is per- 
 haps specifically the same, the difference in color being a mere 
 accident of climate. Occasionally, white quails, very similar 
 in form and size to the Lophortyx calif ornicus^ are found near 
 Humboldt Bay. 
 
 The sage-cock, or cock of the plains ( Centrocercus iirophasi- 
 aniis), the largest of the American grouse, often weighing five 
 or six pounds, inhabits the dry plains in the vicinity of Pit 
 River. It is sometimes twenty-nine inches long, and forty-two 
 inches across from tip to tip of outstretched wings. Its color 
 above is variegated with black, brown, brownish-yelloAv, and 
 whitish-yellow ; its breast is white, its belly black. The male 
 has bare, flame-colored patches of skin on the neck, which are 
 ordinarily hidden by the feathers, but which are plainly visible 
 when he struts about before the hen, with his neck puffed out 
 like a pouter pigeon's. 
 
 The sharp-tailed grouse {Pedioccetes pliasianellus) is also 
 found in the northeastern corner of the state. It is eighteen 
 inches long, light brownish-yellow above, varied with black, 
 and white beneath, the feathers on the breast and sides having 
 brown marks shaped like a Y. The tail is long and sharp, the 
 central feathers and the others growing gradually shorter as 
 they approach the sides ; there are eighteen feathers in the 
 tail. 
 
 The dusky grouse (Tetrao ohscurus) inhabits the coniferous 
 forests of the Sierra Nevada, in the northeastern part of the 
 state. The cock, according to common report, is the hand- 
 somest of all the American grouse. It is twenty inches long, 
 dark-brown above, mottled with lead-color, and lead-color be- 
 neath. There are twenty feathers in the tail, which is broadly 
 tip))ed with a light slate-color. 
 
 The band-tailed pigeon ( Columba fasciata)^ the only wild 
 
ZOOLOGY. 137 
 
 pigeon found on the Pacific coast, bears a strong resemblance 
 in form, size, and color, to its congener in the Atlantic states, 
 and has similar habits, but is not numerous. Small flocks mi- 
 grate through the state every spring and autumn, and some 
 of them spend the summer here. 
 
 The white-winged dove [Mclophelia leiicoptera) has been 
 seen in the southern part of the state, but is very rare. It has 
 white spots on its wings, whence its common and technical 
 names are derived. 
 
 The common dove [Zenaidura carol'mensls) of the Atlantic 
 slope is found on the Pacific slope as well. 
 
 The sand-hill crane ( Grus canadensis) are found from the 
 meridian of Cincinnati to the Pacific, and are not rare in Cali- 
 fornia. They spend the winters in our valleys, and in the 
 spring migrate to the Klamath Lakes and farther north, where 
 they spend their summers and breed. Subsisting upon vege- 
 table food exclusively, they are themselves good to eat, and 
 are frequently seen in the San Francisco market. 
 
 § 105. Waders. — The order of waders (^Grallatores) is rep- 
 resented in California by forty-one species of birds, namely : 
 one crane, two herons, two bitterns, one fly-up-the-creek, one 
 ibis, six plovers, one oyster-catcher, two turnstones, one avoi- 
 set, three phalaropes, one stilt, one willet, one godwit, one 
 curlew, five snipes, five sand-pipers, one sanderling, three rails, 
 and one coot. The oyster -catcher, one turnstone, one plover, 
 and one heron, are the only species in the list not found east 
 of the Mississippi, and none of them have such value or pecu- 
 liarities as would give interest to a particular description of 
 them. 
 
 § 106. Swimmers. — California has sixty-six species of the 
 order of swimmers [Natatorcs) : of these there are two swans, 
 six geese, twenty-two ducks, four albatross, two petrels, seven 
 gulls, four terns, three pelicans, three cormorants, four guille- 
 mots, one loon, and various miscellaneous species. One swan, 
 all the albatrosses, five gulls, the two petrels, the loon, and one 
 guillemot, are found only on this coast. 
 
138 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The trumpeter-swan {Cygnus hiiacmator) is a very large 
 bird, measuring five feet from the point of the bill to the end of 
 the tail, and six feet across from tip to tip of the outstretched 
 wings. The plumage is snowy-white in color, its legs and bill 
 black. The name of " trumpeter" is given to it because of its 
 clarion-like scream, which is heard as it flies. It frequents the 
 lakes in the northern and northeastern parts of the state, and 
 is sometimes seen in the rivers. It is a shy bird, and is rarely 
 killed. 
 
 The American swan, founds also on the Atlantic slope of the 
 continent, is similar in appearance and size to the trumpeter, 
 but lacks its loud voice, and is otherwise distinguishable from 
 it chiefly by having an orange-colored spot on its bill in front 
 of the eye, whereas the bill of the Cygnus buccinator is en- 
 tirely black. 
 
 Wild geese are very abundant in California during the 
 sj)ring and fall, when they pass through on their migrations. 
 Among them are the Canada goose {Bernicla canadensis)^ the 
 snow-goose {Anser Jiyperboreus)^ the white-footed goose, or 
 " speckled belly" {Anser ergthrojms), Hutchins's goose (7?e?-- 
 nicla Imtchinsii), and the black brandt {JBcryiicla nigricans). 
 Hutchins's goose is more abundant than any of the others. 
 Some of them, Avhile in the state, get all their food in the tules ; 
 others in the spring resort to the fields of young grain, where 
 they pasture. Dr. Newberry says : " I was much interested in 
 noticing the perfect harmony of intercourse which seemed to ex- 
 ist among the smaller species. They intermingled freely while 
 feeding, and when alarmed arose without separation; and I 
 have seen a triangle flying steadily high over my head, com- 
 posed of individuals of three species, each plainly distinguish- 
 able by its plumage, but each holding its place in the geomet- 
 rical figure, as though it was composed of entirely homogene- 
 ous material ; perhaps unequal members of the darker species, 
 with three, four, or more pure snow-white geese flying togeth- 
 er somewhere in the converging lines." 
 
 AmoniT the ducks of California are the mallard and canvas- 
 
ZOOLOGY. ' 139 
 
 back. The meat of tlie latter has not so fine a flavor as in the 
 Eastern states, probably because it does not here find the wild 
 celery upon which it feeds along the streams of the middle 
 states. 
 
 Many of the geese and ducks pass the winter in California, 
 where they find an abundance of food in the gram-fields and 
 tules. 
 
 The murre, or foolish guillemot ( Zfria ringvin), is similar to 
 the gulls, seventeen inches long, dark-brown above and white 
 beneath, with transverse stripes of ashy-brown on its sides. Its 
 throat is brown in summer and white in winter. It frequents 
 the islands along the coast, and lays its eggs there on the bare 
 ground or rocks. These eggs are wonderfully irregular in 
 form, size, and color, but are generally about three and a half 
 inches long, sea-green in color, with dark-brown spots of angu- 
 lar shapes on them, Quantities of these eggs are obtained ev- 
 ery year at the Farallones, and are sold in the San Francisco 
 market at about half the price of hen's eggs per dozen, or, if 
 taken by weight, at one-fourth. Their taste, however, is rank, 
 and they are not used by those who can aftbrd to buy the 
 hen's eggs. 
 
 Dr. Heermann says: "At one o'clock every day during the 
 Qgg season, Sundays and Thursdays excepted (this is to give 
 the birds some little respite), the egg-hunters meet on the 
 south side of the island. The roll is called, to see that all are 
 present, that each one may have an equal chance in gathering 
 the spoil. The signal is given, every man starting off at a full 
 run for the most productive eggiug-grounds. The gulls {Larus 
 occidentalism Western gull), understanding, apparently, what is 
 about to occur, are on the alert, hovering overhead, and await- 
 ing only the advance of the party. The men rush eagerly into 
 the rookeries ; the aff"righted murres have scarcely risen from 
 their nests, before the gull, with remarkable instinct, not to 
 say almost reason, flying but a few paces ahead of the hunter, 
 alights on the ground, tapping such eggs as the short time 
 will allow, before the egger comes up with him. The broken 
 
140 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 eggs are passed by the men, who remove only those which are 
 sound. The gull, then returning to the field of its exploits, 
 procures a plentiful supply of its favorite food." 
 
 § 107. Fishes. — The fishes of the coast and rivers of Califor- 
 nia are all different from those of the Atlantic side of the conti- 
 nent, with the exception, perhaps, of one species of the halibut. 
 The cod and shad, two of the most important fishes of the sea 
 of the Eastern shore, and the lobster among crustaceans, are 
 here wanting, as also the cat-fish kind in the rivers. Otherwise 
 our waters are probably as rich in game for the fisherman as 
 those of any country. 
 
 § 108. Salmon. — The most important fish of California is the 
 quinnat salmon [Sahno quinnat)^ a species found from Point 
 Conception to the Columbia River. Its color above is oliva- 
 ceous browm, changing to salmon-color beneath. The largest 
 one ever caught Aveighed sixty-two pounds ; the common size 
 is from ten to thirty pounds. The salmon are born in the rivers, 
 but go down to the sea, where they spend part of every year. 
 They commence to enter the bay of San Francisco in Novem- 
 ber, and continue to come in for three or four months. They 
 ascend the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and some of 
 their smaller tributaries, deposit their spawn, and in .June go 
 out to sea again. They come in lean and go out lean, but in the 
 late winter and early spring they are fat. There are two com- 
 mon popular errors, that the salmon do not eat after leaving 
 the sea, and that they never get back alive. The former error 
 is owing to the fact that no large articles of food are found in 
 its stomach, and the latter to the fact that when going out all 
 are lean, and that many are found dead along the banks of 
 salmon-streams. But the salmon find their chief food in mi- 
 nute animalculas, and not in fish, for catching which they seem 
 to be so well fitted, with their large mouths and sharp teeth. 
 It is well known that the salmon bite like trout, and furnish 
 excellent sport in clear water to the skilful fisherman with the 
 fly. They dislike the mud with which the streams emptying 
 into San Francisco Bay are filled by the miners, and therefore 
 
ZOOLOGY. 141 
 
 do not go far from the sea or ascend the small tributaries ; but 
 elsewhere they ascend every little brook, up to points where 
 there is scarcely enough water for them to swim ; and in these 
 expeditions they are so much exhausted and bruised that they 
 soon die ; but the number thus killed is as nothing compared 
 w^ith those which go out to sea again. The female salmon 
 having found a suitable place, uses her nose to dig a trench in 
 the sand about six feet long, a foot wide, and three inches 
 deep, and having deposited her spawn in it, throws a little sand 
 over it wath her tail, and departs, leaving her eggs to be 
 hatched and the offspring to be fed as best they can. In the 
 month of May the young salmon are found on their way to the 
 sea, from three to six inches long. It is supposed that the 
 salmon always return to the river in which they were born ; 
 so that the salmon born in the Klamath River never enter San 
 Francisco Bay, nor do those born in the Sacramento and San 
 Joaquin Rivers ever enter Humboldt Bay. Although the sea- 
 son in which salmon are abundant in the rivers extends from 
 November to June, yet some of them are found in the streams 
 of California at all seasons, and they can be had fresh in the 
 San Francisco market every day in the year. 
 
 The quinnat is the chief salmon of all the streams and bays 
 of California, but Gairdner's salmon {Fario gairdneri) is found 
 in the Klamath River, and the stellatus salmon in Humboldt 
 Bay and its tributaries. Gairdner's salmon has a silvery-gray 
 back, silvery sides, and a yellowish-white belly. The body has 
 numerous indistinct, blackish spots. The stellatus salmon is 
 light-olive in the back, yellowish- white on the belly, and rarely 
 exceeds two or three pounds in w^eight. 
 
 § 109. Halibut. — There are two species of halibut on the 
 coast of California, the Californian {IIlj)2^oglossus califoriiicus) 
 and the common {Hlppoglossus vulgaris). There is some 
 doubt whether the latter species is properly named ; if it be, 
 then w^e have one species of fish found on the Atlantic coast. 
 The CaUfornian halibut is a slender fish, weighing at the 
 largest twenty-five pounds, in color grayish-brown above and 
 
142 EESOIJKCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 white below. The halibut prefer a colder climate, and are not 
 sufficiently abundant in this latitude to sustain a special fish- 
 ery ; but a few are in our market throughout the year. They 
 live in deep water, and in places where the bottom is rocky. 
 They eat little fish and shell-fish, and bite readily at the hook. 
 Their meat is very delicate. 
 
 § 110. Turhot. — The turbot { Pleuronychthys rugosus) is 
 the only large fiat-fish, except the halibut, found along our 
 shore. It sometimes grows to weigh twenty pounds, but the 
 common size is from three to ten pounds. The turbot inhabits 
 deep waters and rocky bottoms, eats fish, and bites readily at 
 the hook. It is one of the best fish in our market. 
 
 § 111. Sole. — We have four species of small flat-fish, com- 
 monly called soles [Psettlchthys sordid us, PseUichthys tnela- 
 nostictus, Parophrys vetidus, and Platessa bilineata). They 
 are so much alike, that they are not distinguished from one 
 another by fishermen generally. The Platessa bilineata is the 
 largest, sometimes weighing two i^ounds; the others rarely 
 exceed one pound. They frequent the shallow waters of the 
 bay of San Francisco, and are caught abundantly in nets at all 
 seasons of the year. The flat-fishes do not bury themselves in 
 the mud here through the winter, as they do in the North At- 
 lantic. The soles feed on Crustacea, little fishes, and marine 
 animalculae. 
 
 § 112. Mackerel. — The mackerel {Scomber dlego) is found 
 north of Point Conception. It is good, but not more than 
 half as large as the Atlantic mackerel. The Cahfornian mack- 
 erel rarely exceeds ten inches in length. It lies near the sur- 
 face of the water at sea, and is not fond of entering bays or 
 going very near the shore. Like its Eastern congener, it bites 
 readily at any white rag or shining w^hite substance jerked 
 through the w^ater. 
 
 § 113. Pock-Fish. — The rock-fish furnish the main supply 
 of fish in the San Francisco market. All belong to the genus 
 Sebastes, of which there are eight species, the most important 
 being the red (rosaceus), black {melano2^s), and wharf rock- 
 
ZOOLOGY. 143 
 
 fish {auriculatiis). The red rock-fish grows to weigh twenty 
 pounds ; the other species rarely exceed four or five. The 
 w^iarf rock-fish is the only one caught in the bay ; the others 
 live out at sea, in deep water and on rocky bottoms : they eat 
 crabs and shell-fish, and bite freely at hooks. They are always 
 m market, and their meat is excellent at all seasons. 
 
 § 114. Sturgeon. — We have three species of sturgeon, of 
 which the only important one is the Californian sturgeon [Aci- 
 penser brachyrinthus)^ which sometimes grows to be seven 
 feet long and to weigh two hundred pounds. The sturgeon 
 is a sea-fish, Avhich enters fresh water to spawn, but it is 
 caught in the bay of San Francisco and tributaries at all sea- 
 sons of the year ; whereas in the Eastern states there are sea- 
 sons for sturgeon in the market, as there are for beans and 
 peas. 
 
 The sturgeon eats the slimy matter, both animal and vege- 
 table, at the bottom of the sea. It never bites, its mouth 
 being circular in form, and fitted only for sucking. It has a 
 habit of shooting up from the bottom and springing out of 
 ^^'ater, and then falfing flat upon its belly, Tnaking a loud 
 splash — very difierent from the porpoise, wdiich also darts out 
 of the water, but always strikes head first, making little noise. 
 Some ichthyologists suppose that the object of the sturgeon in 
 thus falling on the water is to free itself from parasites ; others 
 that it is merely a kind of play. The spawning-season is not 
 known precisely, but it is probably from December to May. 
 The meat of the sturgeon is coarse, and in the market is worth 
 only about one-fourth or one-sixth of that of the better table 
 fishes ; but the sturgeon-fishery is profitable, because of the 
 abundance and large size of the fish. 
 
 § 115. Jew-Fish. — The Jew-fish [Stereolejns gigas), one of 
 the largest scale-fishes — weighing sometimes five hundred 
 pounds — is abundant south of Point Conception, and rarely 
 straggles as far north as San Fj-ancisco Bay. Only two have 
 been caught near the Golden Gate, and one of them filled the 
 city with wonder. It is a bottom-fish, living in deep and shoal 
 
144 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 water, and frequenting lagoons and kelp. It often comes to 
 the surface, and, xiccording to report, goes to sleep there. It 
 bites readily at the hook, and may be taken with harpoons. 
 The meat is very good. 
 
 §116, Sun-Fish — The sun-fish { Orthagorisciis analis) is 
 found occasionally south of Point Conception, where it is seen 
 floating on the surface, in accordance with the habits of the 
 genus everywhere. It weighs from one to a hundred pounds. 
 Its form suggests the idea that the body has been cut off near 
 the broadest part, and the tail sewed on. 
 
 § 117. Green-Fish. — The green-fish (^Opplomona panther i- 
 na)^ generally called cod in the San Francisco market, but 
 having no relationsliip to the true cod, is abundant along the 
 coast. It grows to be about two feet in length. The meat is 
 coarse, and green in color ; and the fish has little commercial 
 value. 
 
 § 118. Sea-Bass. — The sea-bass [Johiiius nohilis) is a plain, 
 oval fish, bluish-gray in color above, silvery below, weighing 
 from fifteen to forty pounds. It is closely related to the weak- 
 fish of the New York market. The meat is white and deli- 
 cate, and always commands a high price in the market. It is 
 a surface-fish, and sometimes enters the bays, but is not abun- 
 dant anywhere. It is caught from March to November. 
 
 § 119. Sheepshead. — The Californian sheepshead {Lahrus 
 pulcher) is a black fish, with a broad, bright-red band sur- 
 rounding the body, and weighs from one to twelve pounds. 
 It has white, broad, projecting teeth, like those of a sheep. It 
 has no relationship to the Atlantic sheepshead, but is a conge- 
 ner of the black-fish of the New York market. The meat has 
 a very fine flavor when fresh, but loses its delicacy after being 
 dead a day or two. It is found south of Point Conception, 
 on rocky and kelpy bottoms, from April to October. Its food 
 is chiefly shell-fish. 
 
 § 120. Smelts. — We have four species of fish called smelts 
 (^Atherinop)sis callforniensis., Atherinopsis affiiiis^ Osmerus 
 preciosus, and Osmerus similis). The Atheri?iopses are not 
 
ZOOLOGY. 145 
 
 true smelts, but belong to the same genus with the sandcr- 
 lings of the Atlantic, Avhich last are thrown away, or used only 
 as bait ; whereas our Atherinopses are valuable fishes. The 
 Athermojysis callforniensis forms the great bulk of the smelts 
 in our market. It is the largest of the Pacific smelts, some- 
 times reaching a length of fifteen inches, and a pound in weight. 
 The Osmerus species are small. All of them have bright silver 
 bands along their sides. The smelts are more abundant here 
 than on the Eastern coast, and are the best of our small fishes. 
 They are caught at all seasons of the year ; in the bays with 
 nets — never at sea, or witli hooks. 
 
 § 121. A72chovies. — ^There are two snachoYies ^{J^ngrauUs 
 mordax and JEnc/rcmlis 7iamis) on the coast of California. 
 They are so nearly alike, that they are undistinguishable ex- 
 cept by ichthyologists. Both are small, from four to six inches 
 long, very delicate in flav^or, but very bony. They are fully 
 equal to the European anchovy for the table. They feed on 
 minute animalculae, go in shoals, and are caught with nets in 
 the bays at all seasons of the year. 
 
 § 122. Sardine and Her ring. — The sardine [Meletta ceru- 
 lea) is abundant from Humboldt Bay to San Diego. It grows 
 to a length of eight or nine inches, and is therefore much larger 
 than the Mediterranean sardine, to which it is fully equal in 
 flavor. It is found along the coast from April to October, and 
 is caught in the bays with nets. 
 
 The herring {Clupea mirahilis) is not so abundant as the 
 Atlantic species, nor so large, but is equal in flavor. It comes 
 in the spring, and goes in the autumn. 
 
 § 123. Viviparous Fishes. — The viviparous or embiotocoid 
 fishes of this coast are a peculi:ir feature of its ichthyology. 
 They constitute, perlinps, the most remirkable natural group 
 of fishes in the world, and their discovery caused a m.ii ked 
 sensation nmong zoologists. Other vivij)arons fishes had been 
 previously known, but their young are brought forth in a very 
 inunature condition ; whereas the little embiotocoid fishes are 
 born with a fulness of development similar to that of warm- 
 
146 RESOURCES or CALIFORNIA. 
 
 blooded animals, and the moment after they leave the mother 
 they are seen swirammg and taking care of themselves. There 
 are seventeen or eighteen species belonging to the several 
 genera, among which the embiotoca and holconotis are promi- 
 nent. All are marine fishes save one, which is found in fresh 
 water. They weigh from half a pound to three pouuds, and 
 most of them are grayish brown above and silvery beneath. 
 They are abundant in the market at all seasons of the year, 
 and are called " perch" by the fishermen, though they have no 
 relationship to the true percli. The meat is not good. The 
 young are born from April to August. 
 
 § 124. Fresh- Water Fishes. — Among the fresh-water fishes 
 the most important is the brook-trout (Salar iridea)^ which is 
 found in all the mountain-streams of the state, and oflers fine 
 sport for fly-fishing. It not unfrequently grows to weigh two 
 pounds, and, if report is to be believed, sometimes reaches ten 
 and twelve pounds. In appearance and flavor it is similar to 
 the trout of other countries. 
 
 A fish called the salmon-trout \Ptychocheilus grandis)^ but 
 not related to the salmon, the trout, or the salmon-trout, is 
 found in all the large rivers and lakes of California. It grows 
 to weigh thirty pounds. Its teeth are not in the mouth, but 
 in the throat, where it crushes such shell-fish as it feeds upon. 
 It bites voraciously, and is caught with the hook and with 
 nets. The meat is poor, bony, and insipid. It is brought to 
 the market in winter. The small ones are called pikes. 
 
 A chub {Tygoma crasslcauda), and two suckers {Catosto- 
 mus lahiatus and Catostomus occidentalis)^ never weighing 
 more than three pounds, are also found in our rivers. They 
 are not valuable. 
 
 § 125. Shell- Fish and Crustaceans. — We have five species 
 of shell-fish valuable for the table : one oyster, two muscles, 
 one cockle, and a soft-shelled clam. The oysters are small, 
 not finely-flavored, nor abundant. We have no lobster, but a 
 prawn [Pallnuris)^ yerj similar to the lobster in size, color, 
 flavor, habits, and general appearance, except that it lacks the 
 
ZOOLOGY. 147 
 
 large claws. Crabs are abundant. The abelone or aulone 
 (Ilaliotis) is found as far north as Point Reyes, and abounds 
 south of Point Conception. It is a mollusk with one shell, 
 from five to seven inches across ; the shells are beautifully- 
 iridescent, and are much used in the arts for buttons, knife- 
 handles, inlaying, &g. Many vessels are engaged in fishing 
 for them. The abelones stick to the rocks and to each other, 
 collecting in some places in masses two feet thick ; the fi&Ler- 
 men break them ofi* from the rocks with a spade. When the 
 abelones do not suspect danger, they loosen their hold and 
 raise their shells from the rock, and then the fisherm.xu may 
 easily thrust his spade down along the surface of tho stone ; 
 but if he alarms the abelone beforehand, he finds the shells 
 fastened down to the rock with great power, and all the 
 strength of a man is scarcely sufficient to pry one of them off. 
 The meat of the abelone is eaten by the Chinese, who dry 
 them ; the dried meat resembles horn in its color and hard- 
 ness, and in shape looks as though it might be the hoof of a 
 colt. 
 
 The shrimp ( Crangon franciscorum) is found in the bays 
 of California, and was very abundant a few years ago, but 
 lately is getting scarce, at least in San Francisco Bay. 
 
 § 126. Reptiles. — The snakes of California are not large, 
 numerous, nor remarkable. Only one of them, the rattlesnake, 
 is poisonous. 
 
 The scorpion is found in the warmer portions of the state, 
 but is not abundant. 
 
 Tarantulas are common in Calaveras, Mariposa, Fresno, and 
 Tulare counties. They belong to the same genus with the 
 spiders, but the body growls to be three inches long and an 
 inch wide, and the entire length from end to end of out- 
 stretched legs is five inches. The body and legs are covered 
 with silky, brown hair. The tarantula eats little insects of 
 various kinds, but, unlike most other spiders, has no net. It 
 lives in a hole in the ground not much larger tlian itself when 
 pressed into the smallest compass, and the hole is covered by 
 
148 RESOURCES or CALIFORNIA. 
 
 a little door on a hinge, whicti closes by its own weight or by 
 a spring. In the top of the door are several little holes, into 
 which the tarantula can insert its claws when it wishes to en- 
 ter ; and so quick are its motions when terrified, that it often 
 disappears suddenly under the eyes of men pursuing it, and 
 they have great difficulty in finding its hiding-place-. The 
 door fits tightly, and is larger on the outside, so that it never 
 sticks fast. 
 
 The bite of the tarantula is poisonous, but not fatal — or at 
 least has never, so far as I know, proved fatal in California. It 
 rarely bites men, and generally flees when it discovers their 
 approach. The tarantulas have dangerous enemies in several 
 species of wasps, the females of which kill them by thrusting 
 eggs into their bodies. When the larvae of the wasp are 
 hatched, they make food of the carcass. So soon as the taran- 
 tula dies, the wasp drags it to her hole, usually the deserted 
 burrow of a spermophile, where she may collect twenty or 
 thirty dead tarantulas in one season. There are three differ- 
 ent species of these wasps ; one kind is blue, another yellow. 
 Sometimes the wasp darts down repeatedly upon the taran- 
 tula, and does not touch him except with her egg-planter, de- 
 positing an egg at every thrust. On other occasions the two 
 grapple, and the wasp continues to insert her eggs until the 
 tarantula dies. The editor of a newspaper of Mariposa thus 
 describes the killing of a tarantula : " Some of our readers may 
 have heard of the tenacity with which the venomous tarantula 
 is pursued by an inveterate enemy, in the form of a huge wasp 
 — invariably resulting in the defeat and death of the former. 
 ^ye were an eye-witness to one of these conflicts last week, 
 while on a ramble among the adjacent hills. This is the sea- 
 son when the poisonous tarantula leaves his well-fashioned 
 abode to perambulate the dusty roads and smooth paths so 
 often trod by the industrious miners, and about their haunts a 
 dozen or so may be seen any day, of this hideous enlargement 
 of the spider-race, within a circuit of a few yards, leisurely 
 wending their way along the roads and by-ways. Often have 
 
ZOOLOGY. 149 
 
 we marked, with attentive curiosity, his awkward gait while 
 lifting his long, unwieldy legs above the short blades of grass, 
 and wondered for what uses and purposes this ugly little mon- 
 ster was placed upon this beautiful globe. While attentively 
 watching the motions of one of these insects during our walk, 
 we were much surprised to see the object of our attractioit 
 suddenly stop short in his wanderings and raise itself up to its 
 full height, as though watching the coming of some unwelcome 
 visitor. We at first supposed that it had just espied us, and 
 was expecting danger at our hands ; but upon our retreating a 
 few steps, he quickly crouched behind a tuft of dried grass, and 
 remaining very quiet, seemed to make himself as small as pos- 
 sible. A slight buzzing was heard in the air, and in a moment 
 a wasp passed near, hovering on the wing over his trembling 
 victim, the much-dreaded tarantula. Like some bird of prey, 
 the wasp remained thus poised a moment, and then, quick as 
 thought, darted down upon the enemy, and stung him many 
 times with great rapidity. The tarantula, smarting under the 
 pain, began a retreat, with all the speed of which he was ca- 
 pable ; but the wasp hung over him with wonderful tenacity, 
 and again and again struck him with his venomous sting. 
 Gradually the flight of the tarantula became slower and more 
 irregular, and at length, under the repeated thrusts of his con- 
 queror, he died, biting the grass with his terrible fangs." 
 
 Locusts and grasshoppers are abundant in the valleys ; mus- 
 quitoes in the tules, and along the streams in the Sacramento 
 Basin ; and fleas everywhere. 
 
 § 127. Honey -Dew Aphis. — Among the noteworthy insects 
 of the state is one which secretes a sweet liquid called " honey- 
 dew," and deposits it on trees. It is transparent, thick like 
 honey, and sweet, sometimes with a bitter after-taste, but more 
 frequently having a flavor like parched corn. The leaves and 
 twigs are covered with it, the deposit usually being nearly 
 even, occasionally in spots or drops. The honey-dew is more 
 frequently found on oak-trees than on any other tree or bush ; 
 and oftener in dry seasons, and remote from the coast, than in 
 
150 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 wet weather or within the reach of the sea-fogs. A kind of 
 molasses may be made by breaking oft' the twigs covered with 
 the secretion, and boihng them in water. 
 
 Honey-dew is found in most countries where tlie soil is bar- 
 ren or the climate dry, and may be the same with the manna 
 of the Hebrews. It is known, too, that various insects secrete 
 sweet liquids ; and some of the Aphis genus are kept as milch- 
 cows by the ants, which stroke them dowm or tickle them witli 
 their antennae, when they want some of the sweet milk, and 
 the captive Aphis obligingly squeezes out the secretion through 
 her sides, which is industriously gathered by the milk-ants. 
 
 ]sroTE. — Nearly all the information about tlie quadrupeds and birds of Cali- 
 fornia, heretofore printed, may be found in the papers of Dr. J. S. Newberry 
 and Professor S. F. Baird, in the United States Pacific Railroad Survey Re- 
 ports. Most of my information about the fishes and fisheries, and much even 
 of the language, is derived from the conversation of Dr. W. 0. Ayres, of San 
 Francisco ; and I hope that, as he is the most competent man, he will some 
 day treat the subject in a special work. 
 
AOEIOULTUEB. 151 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 § 1-^8. General BemarJcs. — Of the 160,000 square miles in 
 the area of California, about 60,000 may be tillable; of which 
 16,000 are in the coast valleys, 30,000 in the low lands of the 
 Sacramento Basin, 12,000 in the Sierra Nevada, and 2,000 in 
 the Klamath Basin : while the 25,000 square miles of the Great 
 Basin, the 15,000 of the Colorado Desei't within the limits o± 
 this sUate, 30,000 of the Sierra Nevada, 26,000 of the Coast 
 Mountains, and 6,000 of the Klamath Basin, may be put down 
 as unfit for the plough. The 60,000 square miles of tillable 
 land contain nearly 40,000,000 acres, but only 1,000,000 are 
 cultivated in the state : of the remaining 39,000,000, one-fourth 
 have a soil very thin, or not fertile because of the presence of 
 alkaline substances ; one-half are too remote from market, even 
 where the soil is good ; and a considerable portion is tied up 
 in lawsuits, so that the ownership is doubtful, and the claim- 
 ants dare not improve it for fear of losing the improvements. 
 Only a small portion of the state is, therefore, fit for the plough. 
 Not more than one acre in ten could now be tilled profitably, 
 and I suppose that not more than one acre in four will be tilled 
 during this century. 
 
 As compared with the great agricultural states of the Mis- 
 sissippi valley, in so far as relates to the proportion of rich land 
 fit for the plough, California is at a great disadvantage, and is 
 probably inferior in this respect to every state on the Atlantic 
 slope of the continent. In Illinois and Indiana, nearly every 
 foot of land has a rich soil and a level position. Again, Cali- 
 
]52 FvESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ■* 
 
 fornia is at a great disadvantage as compared with her sister- 
 states east of the Rocky Mountains, in the proportion of land 
 fitted for growing a variety of crops. In the northern part of 
 the Mississippi Viilley, nearly every acre will produce all the 
 main articles of cultivation — fruits, maize, potatoes, and gar- 
 den vegetables, as well as wheat and oats. In this state, how- 
 ever, of the 40,000,000 tillable acres, at least 30,000,000 a^-e so 
 dry, that they cannot, because of the want of moisture, and 
 the impossibility of irrigation, be made to produce any crop 
 save small graiu ; and of the remaining 10,000,000 ncres, three- 
 fourths will not yield fruits, maize, potatoes, pumpkin**, or gar- 
 den vegetables, without irrigation. 
 
 These are undoubtedly vei-y serious drawbacks to the agri- 
 culture of the state, but we have great advantages in many 
 other points. The climate in the valleys, for instance, is so 
 warm and the sky so clear through the winter, that vegetable 
 life upon moist ground is almost as active in January as in 
 July ; and our trees and shrubs have nearly twice as much 
 time to grow and mature as in the free states of the East, 
 where frost reigns from October to May. It is a well-known 
 fact that California has produced larger specimens of garden 
 vegetables, more thrifty growth and rapid development of 
 fruit-trees, and larger crops of small grain to the acre, than 
 any state in the Union, and many persons have supposed our 
 soil to be richer. This supposition is erroneous, as I am satis- 
 fied ; the superiority of the Californian productions is owing to 
 the more favorable climate. I am not aware that any com- 
 parison of our soils has been made by chemical analysis with 
 those of Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio ; but the proba- 
 bility is, that the latter are more fertile. The loam is deeper ; ' 
 the vegetation has been greater, and it has enriched the soil 
 by the accumulation of its decomposed remains through thou- 
 sands of years ; whereas in the valleys of California, the vege- 
 tation is comparatively scanty, and the air is too dry to permit 
 a decomposition of wood or grass to enrich the soil. The bot- 
 tom-lands of the Sacramento and San Joaquin are far inferior 
 
AGRICULTURE, 153 
 
 in depth, blackness, and fertility of loam, to the valleys of the 
 Miami, Wabash, and Illinois Rivers. 
 
 § 129. Agricultural Districts. — Let us now consider the dif- 
 ferent districts in the state suitable for agriculture. These dis- 
 tricts, as I have said before, compose only a small part of Califor- 
 nia, and have strongly-marked boundaries. They are nearly 
 all valley-land, shut in by mountains. The Great Utah Basin 
 has very little tillable land in the state ; there are small patches 
 of fertile soil, but too slight to deserve special mention. The 
 Colorado Basin is in about the same condition. It is possible 
 that a considerable tract of land will be rendered fit for tillage 
 by turning the Colorado into the low part of the desert ; but 
 this is a remote contingency, and we have no accurate infor- 
 mation about the character of the soil which it is proposed to 
 irrigate in this manner. In a few little valleys, however, just 
 at the eastern foot of the Coast Range, the soil is fertile, and 
 the climate so warm, that fruits ripen six weeks earlier than 
 on the western side. 
 
 The largest tracts of tillable land in the Klamath Basin are 
 the Scott and Shasta valleys, each about thirty miles long and 
 four wide. They are elevated from three to four thousand 
 feet above the sea ; the winters are severe, and frosts common 
 in spring and autumn, and not rare in summer. Most of the 
 soil is a gravelly clay, with a rich, sandy loam, along the im- 
 mediate borders of the streams. Wheat, oats, apples, and. 
 potatoes, do well ; but maize, peaches, melons, tomatoes, and 
 sweet-potatoes, require a warmer climate. There is some level 
 land in the eastern part of the Klamath Basin, near the Kla- 
 math Lakes, but the soil is barren, and the vegetation like 
 that of a desert. Del Norte county, which may be said to 
 belong to the Klamath Basin, has 44,117 acres of land, of 
 which 15,240 are covered with redwood, '7,277 with spruce, 
 19,204 are prairie, 2,400 are sand-ridges, and 4,712 are in la- 
 goons. Most of the redwood land is level and fertile, but the 
 timber is dense almost beyond example, and could not be 
 cleared profitably, because all the redwood stumps throw out 
 
154 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Sprouts, which grow up to trees. Much of the prairie-land is 
 tei'tile and suitable for cultivation, but it is remote from the 
 market. Klamath and Trinity counties are almost destitute 
 of valley -land. Both, however, have numerous small spots of 
 rich soil in their mountains, and both have a mining popula- 
 tion who must be fed, and have the means and disposition to 
 pay well for the necessaries and delicacies of life. The farms 
 must be small, but the farmers are protected by the rugged 
 mountains from the competition of those in the large valleys. 
 Hay-Fork valley, one of the best little tracts of tillable land in 
 Trinity county, is three thousand six hundred feet above the 
 sea-level. 
 
 The largest tract of level land in the plateau of the Sierra 
 Nevada is the valley of Suisun River and Honey Lake, about 
 sixty miles long and ten wide. The elevation is about four 
 thousand five hundred feet above the sea; much of the soil is 
 sandy and alkaline, with no indigenous vegetation save the 
 worthless wild sage. Portions of the soil, however, are fertile, 
 and there are a number of farms under cultivation. Honey 
 Lake valley has the advantage of proximity to Washoe, and 
 good roads for comnmnication. There are 115,000 acres in 
 the valley, of which 20,000 are swampy, at least in wet sea- 
 sons. Eagle Lake valley is about one-third the size of Honey 
 Lake valley, and of similar soil. 
 
 All along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada there are 
 little spots of fertile soil, well suited for cultivation ; but with 
 the exception of a few, they are too small to deserve special 
 mention. The soil is usually a red clay or a black loam. The 
 largest tillable spots on the ^vestern descent of the Sierra Ne- 
 vada are in Plumas county. Sierra valley is forty-five miles 
 long by six wide, and is drahied by a tributary of Feather 
 River. Much of the land is barren sand ; much is tule-swamp, 
 and only a small portion is fit for tillage. No water flows from 
 the valley after July. The Big Meadows contain 100,000 
 acres ; Beckworth's valley, 90,000 ; Lidian valley, 20,000 ; 
 Mountain Meadows, Red Clover valley, and Mohawk valley, 
 
AGKICULTURE. 155 
 
 10,000 acres each ; and Americau valley, 5,000. In all of them 
 the soil is very sanely, but not barren. Tliey are from three to 
 five thousand feet above the sea ; all shut in by high moun- 
 tains; and all containing a considerable portion of swampy 
 land. 
 
 The low land of the Sacramento Basm comprises 20,000 
 square miles — about 3,000,000 acres. The Sacramento valley 
 has several benches. The lowest bench is about twenty feet 
 above the low-water mark of the river, and has a soil of sandy 
 loam, richer immediately along the stream tlian farther off. 
 The next bench, very irregular in height and width, has a soil 
 of red, gravelly clay, which extends back to the mountains. 
 In some places this clay becomes very soft in wet seasons — so 
 soft, that weak cattle may mire down in it and be miable to 
 extricate themselves. I knew a case where a team Of weak 
 oxen, exhausted by hard driving and scanty food, sank down 
 in a wet gravel-ridge, so that only their heads und a little of 
 their necks and shoulders appeared above-ground ; and passing 
 the place some months later, when the ground had become as 
 hard as clay and gravel ever are, I saw the six bare skulls of 
 the oxen resting with their chins on the earth where they had 
 sunk down, and behind them were the projecting spines of the 
 back-bone, with the yokes still on the necks of each pair of 
 oxen. This gravel is seldom cultivated at present, but in many 
 places it will produce good crops of barley. It forms at least 
 one-half of the Sacramento valley. Very little of it can be irri- 
 gated ; and the general belief is, that no corn, potatoes, garden 
 vegetables, fruit, or grapes, can be grown on it without irriga- 
 tion. The sandy loam produces large crops of wheat, barley, 
 and oats, without irrigation. Fruit-trees and grape-vines thrive 
 without it after they grow to be three or four years old, but 
 in most places require it till they have taken a good start. 
 Garden vegetables cannot be grown without irrigation, unless 
 planted very early, and of such kinds SkS ripen before July. In 
 the level valley there are no springs, nor are there any artesian 
 wells ; so the only method of getting water is by pumping it 
 
156 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 up from common wells, for which purpose windmills are ex- 
 tensively used, and thus most of the water used for irrigation 
 is obtained. A large part of the valley, especially of that near 
 the rivers, is subject to overflow ; and about once in five years 
 a flood comes, sweeping away houses, fences, and cattle, de- 
 stroying gardens, and covering the earth with a thick clay, 
 which, instead of enriching the soil, is far poorer than the an- 
 cient deposits of sandy loam, made before the miners had com- 
 menced to tear down the mountains for their golden treasures. 
 In these times of flood, so much of the valley is covered with 
 water, that it looks like a great lake, and the pilots of the river 
 steamers know the channel only by the rows of trees along the 
 banks, for the banks themselves are completely hidden from 
 sight. The flood rarely comes earlier than January or later 
 than March. 
 
 The bottom-lands along the Feather River are considered 
 richer than those near the banks of the Sacramento. Tribu- 
 tary to Sacramento valley on the western side is Cache Creek 
 valley, about twenty miles long by five wide ; and connected 
 with it is Clear Lake valley, a basin nearly circular in shape, 
 and twenty miles across, surrounded by mountains. The lake 
 is about one thousand feet above the sea. South of Cache 
 Creek, and also tributary to the Sacramento valley, is Putah 
 Creek, which drains Berreyesa valley, twenty miles long by 
 two wide. These little valleys have very rich land ; and being 
 shut in by near mountains, the soil is much moister than out 
 in the open plain. The nearer to the coast and the farther 
 north, the greater the moisture as a general rule ; and it may 
 almost be said that the value of the land depends upon the 
 moisture. 
 
 In the northwestern corner of the Sacramento Basin, along 
 the banks of Cottonwood Creek, there are some beautiful, 
 moist, and fertile little vales. The Sacramento valley has very 
 few trees, save along the banks of the streams and stream- 
 beds, where oaks, sycamores, laurels, willows, buckeyes, birch, 
 and wild grape, are the principal growth, marking in summer 
 
AGRICULTtTKE. 157 
 
 the places where the Avater runs in winter. The only trees 
 growing a\vay from the watercourses are oaks, whicli are 
 usually found in groves, and almost invariably Avithout under- 
 growth. 
 
 In the Sacramento valley there are about two hundred 
 square miles, or one hundred and twenty-eight thousand acres, 
 of tule-land, most of it above high tide, and covered by water 
 only in times of flood. Very little of it has been drained or 
 cultivated, and therefore we do not know its vaUie. All the 
 tule-land is covered five or six feet deep with water in times 
 of flood. 
 
 The northern part of the San Joaquin valley is much like 
 the southern part of the Sacramento valley. When the San 
 Joaquin River approaches within fifty miles of Suisun Bay, it 
 divides into three channels, which are separated from one an- 
 other by islands of low tule-land. In times of high flood, the 
 river spreads out and covers a space fifteen or twenty miles 
 Avide. There is less gravel and clay but more sand in the San 
 Joaquin valley than in the Sacramento valley ; the soil is drier, 
 and contains more of alkaline substances, and the vegetation 
 is more scanty. From Pacheco's Pass across to Firebaugh's 
 Ferry, a distance of about fifty miles, there is not a tree, and 
 in the autumn the country looks like a desert. At Fresno 
 City the soil is nearly a pure sand, and the river at Ioav Avater 
 is not more than six or eight feet below the surface of the 
 plain. From the bend of the San Joaquin River, southAvard, 
 a district sixty miles Avide by one hundred and fifty long, most 
 of the soil is a barren sand, in many places covered Avith au 
 alkaline efilorescence. 
 
 The country about Kern River is very desolate, and be- 
 tween that river and the Tejon Pass is a desert plain, covered 
 Avith a scanty and useless vegetation. East of Tulare Lake, 
 however, there is some rich soil, particularly in the " Four- 
 Creek country," Avhere the Cahuilla River, issuing from the 
 mountains, divides into half a dozen streams, Avhich spread out 
 over a space twelve miles Avide, and then unite again, filling a 
 
158 RESOTJKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 large tract of fertile land with abundant moisture. Tulare 
 Lake is fifty-seven feet above Fresno City, and might be 
 drained, and its land converted into cultivated fields, but 
 Avhether with a profit is a question now unanswerable. This 
 country is so remote from the main centres of population, that 
 probably the chief occupation for residents here must be the 
 breeding of sheep and cattle. 
 
 Turning our attention now to the valleys in the Coast Moun- 
 tains, we find that in all the low land between latitudes 39° 30' 
 and 40° 40', the soil is a rich and moist loam, very favorable 
 for pasture and for maize, but not so well suited for small 
 grain. In some valleys the season is six weeks later than it is 
 across the mountain in the Sacramento valley. Russian River 
 valley produces more maize than all the remainder of the state. 
 Lying between the bend of Russian River and the head of 
 Petal uma valley is Santa Rosa plain, which has a soil of rich 
 sandy loam, excellent for grain, and probably favorable for 
 the grape. Near the mouth of Russian River is the plain of 
 Bodega, the best place in the state for potatoes. The soil is a 
 light, sandy loam, which is kept moist by the sea-fogs. Peta- 
 luma valley is the chief dairy district of the state. The soil is 
 a rich, moist loam. Sonoma valley has a soil of red gravelly 
 clay near the mountains, and a warm, sandy loam near the 
 . creek. This is the chief grajDc district in the northern half of 
 the state. Much of the soil is too thin to produce good crops 
 of wheat. The grape is grown without irrigation, the distance 
 from the ocean (about twenty-five miles) not being so great as 
 entirely to cut oif the fogs. The bed-rock is in some places 
 trap, in others sandstone, and in others magnesian limestone. 
 The latter is supposed to be particularly favorable to the 
 growth of the grape. 
 
 Next to Sonoma valley is Napa, which has a deep, clayey 
 soil, the strongest in the state, and therefore the best for 
 wheat. In proportion to its size, it produces more wheat than 
 any other part of the state. The upper part of the valley has 
 a great deal of gravel, and may be good for grapes. A larger 
 
AGEICULTUKE. 159 
 
 proportion of the land is cultivated in IsTapa valley than in any- 
 other part of the state, and the cultivation is more thorough. 
 Suisun valley has a rich, sandy loam, good both for barley and 
 wheat. Vaca valley, a small vale near Suisun, has a very warm, 
 fertile soil, and is shut in by the hills from the wind. It will 
 be an excellent place for fruit, and every thing will ripen early 
 there. 
 
 South of the straits of Carquinez is Diablo valley, which 
 has an excellent soil for wheat and barley. So also has San 
 Ramon valley, but the fruit has been badly nipped by frost 
 during the last three or four years. Amador valley has a soil 
 of rich sand at the sides and strong loam in the centre, all of 
 it moist and fertile. Livermore valley, which may be consid- 
 ered as the eastern half of Amador, is a bed of gravel, of little 
 value for tillage. Suiiol valley has a rich, sandy loam. The 
 Alameda plain, on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay, from 
 San Pablo to San Jose, is one of the richest agricultural dis- 
 tricts in the state ; the soil is fertile — in some places clay, in 
 others sand. The soil on the western side of the bay is similar 
 in character, but there is not so much of it. The lower part of 
 Santa Clara valley has a fertile, black, sandless loam, changing 
 to sand and then to gravel, which last is abundant toward the 
 head of the valley, where very little of the land is tilled. The 
 principal fruit district in the state is in the vicinity of San Jose. 
 The plain east of Monterey Bay, in Santa Cruz county, has a 
 fertile soil, and a climate peculiarly favorable to beans ; excel- 
 lent crops of wheat and barley are also grown here. The soil 
 of Pajaro valley is one of the richest and strongest in the state, 
 and its crops of wheat and potatoes are unsurpassed. The Sa- 
 linas has a rich, sandy loam in the lower part of its valley and 
 near the river, but the sides and head of the vale contain much 
 gravel ; the climate and soil are very dry, and only a small por- 
 tion of the land is cultivated. The Cuyama, Santa Inez, and 
 Santa Clara River valleys, are sandy and dry, and have but 
 little tillage ; the last-named valley has a soil that is in places 
 almost pare sand, too thin to secure a covering of grass in a 
 
160 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 wet winter. Most of the level land in Los Angeles, San Ber- 
 nardino, and San Diego counties, is sandy and dry, and very 
 little of it is cuUivated. Irrigation is necessary for fruit, vines, 
 and vegetables. Wheat and barley do not produce well. Los 
 Angeles is the principal grape district in the state ; the largest 
 vineyards are planted in the bottom-lands of the Los Angeles, 
 San Gabriel, and Santa Ana Rivers, where the soil is almost 
 pure sand : and yet vineyards which have been in bearing 
 twenty-live years, and have never been manured, are now as 
 productive as ever. Allow a stream of water to run twenty- 
 four hours through a field, and at the end of that time the bot- 
 tom of the ditch will contain nothing but white sand, all the 
 earthy particles in the soil having been dissolved and carried 
 away. At the Monte the San Gabriel River sinks, and, after 
 flowing two or three miles under-ground, reappears. The 
 place where it sinks is very moist, covered with abundant 
 vegetation, and, after Russian River valley, is the best district 
 in the state for maize. 
 
 § 130. Agricultural Frodiice.—CaWiornm has 1,000,000 acres 
 of land in cultivation, about six-tenths of which are used for 
 growing grains and roots emi)loyed as food for men and do- 
 mestic animals. Of these grains and roots in 1860 (the agri- 
 cultural statistics for which year were more fully reported than 
 those of 1861) the following amounts were grown, namely: 
 6,700,000 bushels of barley; 5,000,000 of wheat; 1,500,000 
 of oats; 1,500,000 of potatoes; 500,000 of maize; 65,000 of 
 beans; 55,000 of peas; 55,000 of sweet potatoes; 50,000 of 
 buckwheat, and 40,000 of rye, making an aggregate of 14,- 
 470,000 bushels — an average of twenty-four bushels to the 
 acre, and, estimating the population of the state at 400,000, 
 an average of thirty-eight bushels to the person. I purposely 
 omit the consideration of all articles not enumerated in the 
 list, either because we have no statistics, or because the inser- 
 tion would serve rather to confuse than to instruct. We grow 
 very few roots of the turnip kind as food for cattle. 
 
 Examining, then, the amounts of the crops above mentionf<i 
 
AGRICULTURE. 161 
 
 in their proportion to the total 14,470,000 bushels, we find that 
 barley forms 39 per cent., wheat 34 per cent., oats 10 per cent., 
 potatoes 10 per cent., maize 3 per cent., and peas, beans, sweet 
 potatoes, buckwheat, and rye, about one-half of one per cent. 
 each. This proportion will be found to ditfer greatly from 
 that of any other country. Compare our state with Ohio, 
 which may fiii'ly be considered as a representative of the free 
 agricultui-al states of the Union, Ohio has 10,000,000 acres 
 under cultivation — that is, ten times as much as California — 
 and, accoi'diug to the census of 1850, in the previous year pro- 
 duced 92,644,000 bushels of the above-mentioned articles, six 
 times as much as California. The population of Ohio was then 
 1,980,000; so the yield was an average of forty-six bushels to 
 the person. Coming down to particulars, we find that in 1849 
 Ohio produced 59,000,000 bushels (or 63 per cent.) of maize; 
 14,000,000 bushels (15 per cent.) of wheat; 13,000,000 bushels 
 (14 per cent.) of oats; 5,000,000 bushels (5 per cent.) of pota- 
 toes; 638,000 bushels (one-half of 1 per cent.) of buckwheat; 
 425,000 bushels of rye, 354,000 of barley, 187,000 of sweet 
 potatoes, and 60,000 of peas and beans. Comparing the pro- 
 portion of the several items to the total of the crops, we find 
 that California grows eighty times as much barley as Ohio, 
 twice as much wheat and potatoes, twelve times as much peas 
 and beans, and only one-twentieth as much maize. The pro- 
 portion of oats, buckwdieat, and rye, is about the same in the 
 two states. 
 
 § 131. Rotation of Crojys. — Rotation of crops, as the phrase 
 is understood in the Atlantic states and Europe, receives very 
 little attention from the fixrmers of California, and indeed is im- 
 possible on the greater part of the land, because its dryness 
 will not permit the growth of roots or common grasses. The 
 soil is too dry for corn, potatoes, turnips, clover, and timothy 
 or herd's grass. Peas and beans yield well in only a few lo- 
 calities. Alfalfa or lucerne will thrive, but it needs several 
 years to get deep root and make a tliick sod. Horses and 
 cattle find food in the open plains and hills throughout the 
 
162 EF. SOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 year ; and the wild oat is cut for hay. The farmers generally 
 are anxious to make as much money as possible, and as soon 
 as possible, without regard to the future value of the land. 
 Some of them are not permanent residents of the state, and 
 intend to leave it so soon as they can get a certain number of 
 dollars together ; others are farming land the title of which is 
 in dispute, and, as they feel uncertain about its ownership, they 
 are indifferent to its exhaustion. Many of them come from 
 the Western states, where the land had not, previous to their 
 migration, become poor ; and as rotation of crops had never 
 been a necessity within their experience, they have never 
 adopted it. 
 
 The soil of California is not exhausted ; much of it will con- 
 tinue tc produce large crops of small grain without interrup- 
 tion and without manure for a score of years to come. Pre- 
 vious to 1853, the valleys were filled with cattle, and their 
 manure had contributed for a lonjy time — along the southern 
 coast for half a century — to enrich the soil. 
 
 The prominence of barley in Californian farming is owing to 
 the facts that it is an almost certain crop, produces largely, 
 can be grown on all the cultivated land in the state, yields 
 good volunteer crops, is excellent food for horses, can be kept 
 for years, and always commands a market abroad. 
 
 § 132. Ploughing. — Ploughing commences with the first 
 heavy rain. The heat and drought of summer and autumn 
 bake the ground, and render it too hard for the plough ; so 
 the farmer must wait for the rains. The sooner they come, 
 after the first of October, the more convenient for him, and the 
 more work he can do. The rain must be sufficient to wet the 
 earth down six or eight inches deep ; a little shower will not 
 suffice. The soils of loam and clay are so hard, that no ordi- 
 nary plough is strong enough to break through them ; and 
 ploughing would do no good, because the earth would be in 
 large clods, which would furnish little nutriment to the grain. 
 
 § 133. Advantages., etc. — ^The Californian farmer has a great 
 advantage over those of the Northern Atlantic states, in the 
 
AGEICULTUEE. 103 
 
 mildness of the winters. Here we have no snow or ice, and 
 no time is lost because of cold. Neither are our frosts so se- 
 vere as those east of the Mississippi. But, on the other hand, 
 farmers in other parts of the Union have a great advantage 
 over us in the security of title and the equal division of the 
 land among the tillers of the soil. Here most of the titles are 
 in dispute, and much of the land held under undoubted title is 
 owned in large tracts by a few persons. 
 
 Barns are not used in California. The grain, after cutting, 
 is put into a stack, or throAvn into a heap, until a threshing- 
 machine can be obtained, and the grain is then placed in the 
 granary. Between harvest and threshing-time there is little 
 danger of rain ; and to such slight danger as there is, every 
 farmer exposes himself. Barns in other countries are necessi- 
 ties ; here they could not be used if we had them. ]N"ot unfre- 
 quently the grain, within two weeks after cutting, is stored in 
 a wareliouse in San Francisco ; often it is left lying in sacks 
 upon the field until it is sold — a period of months. In August 
 and September, the square piles of white sacks in the stubble- 
 fields are a common and prominent feature of the Californian 
 landscape in the farming districts. 
 
 The straw, elsewhere saved, is usually burned here ; and a 
 most improvident practice it is. Not more than a dozen or 
 two of farmers save the straw. The others burn it after the 
 first rain, when there is no danger of the fire spreading ; and 
 the columns of smoke rising all over the country make a sin- 
 gular appearance. 
 
 Farms in California are usually larger than those in the East- 
 ern states, and many of the ranches — containing from ten to 
 fifty thousand acres — are large enough for principalities. 
 
 As our valleys are not covered with sod, so the first plough- 
 ing is nearly as easy as any of the subsequent ones ; and the 
 severe task of breaking prairie, so common in the states of the 
 upper Mississippi valley, is unknown here. 
 
 § 134. Fences. — In the matter of fences, the Californian 
 farmer is at a disadvantage, as compared with his Eastern 
 
164 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 brethren. Throughout the United States, the system has pre- 
 vailed of permitting horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, to run at 
 large, with no right of indemnity for any damage which they 
 might do in cultivated fields, unless surrounded by a " lawful 
 fence." This may be a good system for the pioneer, who tills 
 little land, and wishes his horses and cattle to have a wide 
 range ; and it was well suited to the pastoral life of the Span- 
 ish Californians previous to the American conquest: but it is 
 of doubtful policy as applied to the present condition of afiairs, 
 at least in the principal rigricultural valleys, where all the land 
 is under })lough. For instance, in the Alameda plain, along 
 the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay — a district fifty miles 
 long by three wide, and containing one hundred and fifty 
 square miles, of which one hundred and twenty-five are culti- 
 vated — there are five hundred farms, and probably two hun- 
 dred miles of fencing, made at a cost of one hundred thousand 
 dollars. This is a severe tax upon farming, and it is levied 
 chiefly to protect the grain and fruit-trees from the depreda- 
 tions of horses and cattle belonging to neighbors and strangers. 
 A farmer would rarely go to the expense of fencing his own 
 cattle and horses out : it Avould be much cheaper for him to 
 keep them in a yard or stable. 
 
 The legislature has prescribed what kind of a fence is "law- 
 ful ;" and if any domesticated animal breaks through a lawful 
 fence, its owner is liable for the damage done in the enclosure; 
 and if the trespass be repeated by any neglect of the owner of 
 the animal, he is liable for double damages. The farmer may 
 take up the trespassing animal as an estray; but if he injure 
 or kill it, he becomes responsible to the owner. The require- 
 ments of lawful fence are not the same in all parts of the state. 
 In the counties of Butte, Amador, Tuolumne, Calaveras, San 
 Diego, Nevada, San Bernardino, Colusi, Placer, Santa Barbara, 
 Yuba, Shasta, Klamath, Trinity, and Siskiyou, " every enclo- 
 sure" (I quote the words of the statute) " shall be deemed a 
 lawful fence which is four and a half feet high, if made of 
 stone ; and if made of rails, five and a half feet high ; if made 
 
AGRICULTURE. 165 
 
 upon the embankment of a ditch, three feet high from the bot- 
 tom of the ditch, the fence shall be two feet high ; said fence 
 to be substantial and reasonably strong, and made so strong 
 that stock cannot get their heads through it, and if made to 
 turn small stock [sheep, goats, hogs, &c.], sufficiently tight to 
 keep such stock out. A hedge-fence shall be considered a law- 
 ful fence, if five feet high and sufficiently close to turn stock." 
 In other counties the requirements are so complex and lengthy, 
 that I shall not try to describe them all. In Marin, Alameda, 
 Sacramento, San Francisco, Stanislaus, Yuba, Santa Clara, Yolo, 
 San Mateo, Santa Cruz, San Joaquin, San Bernardino, Sutter, 
 Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Los Angeles, Tuolumne, Te- 
 hama, Colusi, Butte, Napa, Humboldt, Merced, Trinity, Mon- 
 terey, and Solano, hogs are not permitted to run at large ; or 
 at least any person finding them trespassing upon his " prem- 
 ises" — which means land, whether enclosed or not — may take 
 them up, keep them at the expense of the owner, and treat 
 them as estrays. 
 
 Board-fences are the best. They are usually made five feet 
 high, with redwood posts set eight feet apart, and five spruce 
 boards six inches wide and an inch thick in each panel. Such 
 a fence, well made, costs five hundred dollars a mile. Worm 
 and post-and-rail fences are common near the redwood districts 
 — for instance, in Sonoma, Mendocino, Humboldt, Marin, Napa, 
 San Mateo, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz counties. The farmers 
 generally make their own fences of these kinds, and the cost is 
 of time, not money. When the work is done by the job, it 
 costs from three to six hundred dollars a mile, according to 
 the distance and position of the timber, and the quality of the 
 wood ; the price increasing in proportion as the trees are far 
 off, or situated in deep canons, and as the wood is tough and 
 cross-grained. Ditches are common in the tule-lands. Hedges 
 are made with willows and cactus in Los Angeles, San Ber- 
 nardino, and San Diego counties. There are a few^ hedges of 
 osage-orange and gorse, for ornament, in the counties about 
 San Francisco Bay, but few or none for use. The osage-orange 
 
166 RESOURCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 grows thriftily about San Jose, where it can be irrigated, but 
 hedges ai-e liable to much damage from gophers, which are 
 fond of the roots ; and if a hole is made, it is difficult to get 
 young plants to grow, the older ones choking them down. 
 After the third year irrigation is not necessary. In dry land, 
 where water is not abundant for irrigation, the hedges do not 
 grow up regularly. In the general opinion of farmers, osage- 
 orange hedges will not pay, even in the land best suited for 
 them : the labor of planting the seed, transplanting the sprouts, 
 irrigating, replanting, and trimming for three years, costs more 
 than a board-fence, which is useful from the first day, and is in 
 no danger from gophers, whereas the hedge is useless for three 
 years, and is in constant danger. 
 
 , The willow-hedge is the most common fence in Los Angeles 
 county, and is a prominent feature of the scenery near the 
 towns. The fence is made v/ith cuttings, the larger the better ; 
 the largest are three inches in diameter and eight feet long. 
 These are planted perpendicularly three feet deep and nine 
 inches apart, and then irrigated freely, when nearly all will 
 grov>^. If larger cuttings cannot be had, small ones, half an 
 inch thick and two feet long, are taken, and only an inch or 
 two is left above-ground. If the cuttings are of the largest 
 size, the fence is good in the second year; if small, four or 
 five years may be required to make a tight fence. Twigs and 
 poles are woven horizontally through the hedge. In the course 
 of eight or ten years, the willows grow to be trees, with trunks 
 five or six inches in diameter, and with dense tops from fifteen 
 to thirty feet high. They thus not only shut out trespassing 
 animals, but furnish a large amount of firewood, an item of no 
 small importance in the woodless plains of the south, and throw 
 a pleasant shade over the roads which they line. The willow- 
 fence requires frequent irrigation, for its growth will usually 
 depend upon the amount of water supplied to it. 
 
 The cactus was used extensively for fences at the old mis- 
 sions, and some fields are still enclosed with it. The plant is 
 merely thrown upon the ground, where it takes root, no matter 
 
AGKICULTURE. 1G7 
 
 how dry or barren the soil, and grows up in a dense mass of 
 thick leaves, six feet high and from five to ten feet wide. It 
 is covered with thorns, and is feared by all large animals, but 
 spermophiles and gophers are fond of burrowing imder it, 
 for it protects them against their enemies, and its leaves fur- 
 nish them with food. 
 
 Several machines have been made to cut ditches through the 
 tules, and throw the dirt up as an embankment on one side, 
 but none of them have been very successful ; and the spade is 
 stil] considered the best instrument for making fences in the 
 tules. 
 
 § 135. Barley. — ^The soil and climate of California appear to 
 be particularly favorable to the growth of barley, which forms 
 a larger proportion of agricultural produce here than in any 
 other part of the world. It is a hardy grain, preferring a sandy 
 or gravelly soil, and dry weather. Three kinds are grown in 
 California — the common, the ^Nepaul, and the chevalier. Only 
 a few acres of the Nepaul have been raised, as an experiment ; 
 the chevalier is cultivated to a small extent, and chiefly for 
 pearl-barley, of which a little is made in the country. The 
 yield of the chevalier is from ten to twenty per cent, less than 
 that of the common barley. 
 
 The sowing commences with the first heavy rain, which 
 comes in some years as early as the first of November, and 
 continues to the first of April. The ground used for small 
 grain bakes hard during the heat and drought of summer and 
 autumn ; and ploughing is not possible until the rain comes, 
 and rain enough to wet the earth thoroughly, at least six 
 inches deep. The ploughs are then set to work immediately, 
 running from four to eight inches deep. One ploughing is 
 usually considered sufficient. The grain is sown according to 
 convenience, soon after the ploughhig, or after the lapse of 
 weeks, and is immediately harrowed in. The amount of seetl 
 sown to the acre varies from a bushel and a half to two bush- 
 els. The sowing is usually done broadcast, but some fiirmers 
 prefer the drill. Early sowing gives the best yield, if the winter 
 
108 EESOITECES OF CALIFOE XIA. 
 
 rains be light ; but when the rains are abundant, the late-sown 
 fields are the best. There is always danger that small grain 
 in California, if sown early, will get more rain than it wants. 
 The same barley is sown early and late ; our farmers do not 
 know any thing of " winter barley" as distinct from " spring 
 barley" — a division fomiliar in the Atlantic states. 
 
 The harvest precedes that of wheat ; commencing in the Sac- 
 ramento Basin early in June, and in the coast valleys late in 
 the same month. The grain is all cut with reaping-machines, 
 and is never housed, but is threshed on the field, with or with- 
 out stacking. Sometimes it is bound ; frequently it is gath- 
 ered in a tight wagon-bed, and hauled into a pile in the centre 
 of the field, where it remains until the threshing-machine can 
 come. The rarity of rain from June to October renders this 
 course pretty safe; though it has happened, on one or two 
 occasions during the last ten years, that grain in the field has 
 been injured by September rains. The same land is cultivated 
 year after year in barley ; and there has been very little, if 
 any, decrease in crops during the last ten years. 
 
 When men are hired to plough and sow by the job, they 
 charge three dollars per acre ; reaping and binding cost two 
 dollars per acre ; threshing costs from one-twelfth to one-tenth 
 of the grain, and sacks holding one hundred pounds cost fif- 
 teen cents apiece. The common yield is from thirty to thirty- 
 five bushels per acre, and fifty per cent, more than the average 
 barley-crop in the Eastern states. In 1856, according to the 
 reports of the county assessors, the average yield of barley in 
 Alameda county was 45 bushels ; in Sonoma, 39 ; in Marin, 39 
 in Sacramento, 26 ; in Amador, 34 ; in Santa Cruz, 30. In 1857 
 according to the same authorities, the average yield in Alame 
 da was 40 bushels; Sonoma, 25; Marin, 39; Sacramento, 24 
 Amador, 25 ; and Santa Cruz, 30. In 1859, Alameda reported 
 an average of 29 bushels ; Contra Costa, 30 ; Napa, 25 ; San 
 Joaquin, 17; Sonoma, 40; Santa Cruz, 30; Yolo, 10; Sacra- 
 mento, 25. In 1860, the assessors' reports show an average 
 of 30 bushels for Alameda, 40 for Butte, 40 for Amador, 35 
 
AGRICULTURE. 169 
 
 for Calaveras, 40 for Fresno, 45 for Marin, 40 for Los Angeles, 
 20 for Mendocino, 31 for Merced, 33 for Monterey, 28 for Ne- 
 vada, 17 for Sacramento, 20 for San Joaqnin, 21 for Santa Clara, 
 30 for Santa Cruz, 16 for Shasta, 60 for Sonoma, 60 for Yolo, 
 and 40 for Yuba. 
 
 Many of these figures are merely guessed at by the asses- 
 sors, who, however, are compelled to travel all over their re- 
 spective counties, and converse with all the farmers. Their 
 conjectures, therefore, are worthy of respectful consideration. 
 But an average of sixty bushels per acre for a whole county 
 looks almost too large to be believed unless supported by some 
 special authentication more than we have. Nevertheless, crops 
 of sixty bushels to the acre are not rare. In 1853, a field of 
 one hundred acres in the valley of the Pajaro produced ninety 
 thousand bushels, and one acre of it yielded one hundred and 
 forty-nine bushels ! It was grown by J. B. Hill ; was men- 
 tioned as undoubtedly true by the assessor of Monterey coun- 
 ty in his official report ; and a prize was granted by an agri- 
 cultural society for the crop. The field which took the prize 
 of the State Agricultural Society, in 1859, yielded sixty-seven 
 bushels to the acre. The field was a large one, and ten acres 
 (a fair sample of the wliole) were measured. The crop which 
 takes that prize is not necessarily the largest crop in the state, 
 but only the largest among those ofi*ered for competition. No 
 doubt, many laiger crops were harvested in 1857. In 1859, 
 ninety bushels of Nepaul barley were grown to the acre by 
 Mr. Burrell, in Santa Cruz county, but in a small field. 
 
 There is probably no part of the world where volunteer 
 crops do so well as in California, and barley seems to produce 
 better on the volunteer system than any other grain. Volun- 
 teer crops are those grown from the seed which falls out in 
 harvesting; there is, therefore, no sowing or planting. Some- 
 times the land is ploughed and harrowed ; sometimes it is left 
 untouched. Large amounts of volunteer barley are grown 
 every year, and sometimes the yield is excellent. One case is 
 reported of a field in Yolo county which produced five siicces- 
 8 
 
170 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sive volunteer crops of barley, the last and least crop araount- 
 ing to thirty bushels per acre ! 
 
 In 1860, the largest barley counties of the state were — Yolo, 
 which produced 1,541,640 bushels; San Joaquin, 912,500 ; Al- 
 ameda, 630,750 ; Contra Costa, 350,000 ; Sacramento, 300,683 ; 
 Santa Clara, 300,000 ; Yuba, 243,761 ; Butte, 241, 340 ; Santa 
 Cruz, 212,000; and Nevada, 207,000. 
 
 § 136. IVyieat. — Many kinds of wheat are cultivated here, 
 of which the main are Chile, Australian, Odessa or Old Cali- 
 fornian, Ked Mediterranean, Sonora, Oregon White, Bald, and 
 Egyptian. The general division of wheat into " winter" and 
 *' spring," common in the wheat-growing districts of the East- 
 ern states, is unknown. All our wheat may be set down as 
 spring wheat. When winter wheat is brought here from 
 abroad, it does not thrive the first year ; but in the second 
 year, having been converted into spring wheat and acclimated, 
 it yields well. The Chile gives general satisfaction, and is 
 more cultivated than any of the others. The Australian has a 
 tendency to smut, but this is corrected with blue vitriol. 
 These two form three-fourths of the crop ; the other fourth is 
 made up chiefly of Mediterranean and Sonora. The Egyptian 
 yields largely, but has little gluten, and is fit only for coarse 
 bread or maccaroui. All the acclimated wheat of the state is 
 w^hite ; though imported red seed shows its color the first year, 
 but in the second year it loses its redness. 
 
 The qualities in which the best wheat excels are glutinous- 
 ness or strength, flintiness or dryness, whiteness of color, thin- 
 ness of skin, cleanness, plumpness and size of berry, and 
 Av eight. 
 
 The value of wheat depends, to a great extent, upon its 
 strength. In this point lies its chief diflerence from potatoes, 
 which always do and must occupy an inferior place upon our 
 tables. Much gluten in flour renders the dough tough, makes 
 handsome bread, with the air-bubbles in it small and uniform 
 in size, and retains moisture, so that the bread will weigh 
 much in proportion to the flour used ; while if the amount of 
 
AGRICULTURE. 171 
 
 gluten be small, the grain of the bread will be uneven, the 
 dough will give way in places, allowing the formation of large 
 cavities, and less moisture will be retained. The Avheat of dif- 
 ferent countries varies greatly in glutinousness, and California 
 occupies a very high position. Our wheat is far more glutin- 
 ous than that of any other North American state, and, although 
 I have no precise information, I am inclined to believe that we 
 have a like superiority in this respect over European countries. 
 The consequence is, that our wheat is now in demand in IsTew 
 York to mix with their weak grain, so that a tolerably strong- 
 flour may be made. 
 
 But the wheat of California is not all equally glutinous ; some 
 of it is much weaker than other. The most glutinous is that 
 grown in Santa Clara valley ; the southeastern part of San Ma- 
 teo county ; the southern part of Alameda county ; and Diablo, 
 San Ramon, and Suisun valleys. That of Santa Rosa, Pajaro, 
 Salinas, Petaluma, and Sonoma, is considerably inferior in glu- 
 tinousness, but is better than that of the Sacramento, San Joa- 
 quin, and Napa valleys, the vicinity of Half-Moon Bay, and 
 Alameda opposite the Golden Gate. The strongly glutinous 
 is about one-third of the crop of the state. It is not known 
 wdiy the wheat in one district is more glutinous than in another. 
 None of that grown very near the coast is strongly glutinous ; 
 so the moisture seems to be injurious. Napa wheat is inferior 
 in glutinousness to that of Sonoma, though farther from the 
 coast, and more free from ocean-fogs, but the soil of Napa is 
 much moister. 
 
 In Oregon and Washington, where the climate is very moist, 
 the wheat is as weak as at Half-Moon Bay. In the Mississippi 
 valley, where a great amount of rain falls, the wheat is also 
 weak ; and just in the Gallego and Haxall district, if report be 
 true, the rain-fall is less than in any wheat-district east of the 
 Alleghanies. And yet in the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 valleys, which are among the driest parts of California, the 
 wheat is very weak. This is accounted for — by those adopting 
 the theory that glutinousness depends entirely upon the ch- 
 
172 RESOURCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 mate — hj saying that those valleys are visited, while the grain 
 is in the milk, by weather so hot that the berries are burned, 
 and are prevented from attaining their perfect development. 
 It would be well if this matter were thoroughly studied, for it 
 is one of much importance to the merchant and ship-owner, as 
 well as to the farmer, the baker, and the consumer. 
 
 The wheat grown on the clayey loam about Alviso is not 
 so glutinous as that produced on the sandy loam about Santa 
 Clara and the gravelly clay in other parts of the valley. It is 
 worthy of remark that the soil of the Putah and Cache valleys, 
 tributary to the Sacramento, differs in no noteworthy particu- 
 lar from the soil in Suisun, Diablo, and San Ramon, which lat- 
 ter yield strong while the former produce weak wheat. It has 
 been observed that during the last three years the wheat of a 
 large farm in San Mateo county, said to be the best cultivated 
 in the state, has been gradually decreasing in strength. It is 
 not known whether the change is caused by a difference in the 
 seasons, or by a progressive exhaustion of the soil. So far as 
 observations have been made in California, the amount of glu- 
 ten is not affected by early or late sowing, thorough or careless 
 cultivation, largeness or smallness of the yield, or cleanness of 
 the crop. 
 
 In fiintiness or dryness, Californian wheat has no superior, 
 and no equal save in the Chilean. It may be stored in bulk, 
 or it may be thrown into the hold of a ship within two weeks 
 after harvest, and then sent twice through the tropics, and 
 there is no danger that it will heat or sweat. The same may 
 be said of its flour. No wheat or flour from the Atlantic 
 states is near it in this respect. In August, 1860, J. B. Fris- 
 bie loaded a vessel at Vallejo with wheat taken from the har- 
 vest-field — it had never been inside of a house, but had lain 
 upon the ground for several weeks after threshing — and that 
 cargo of wheat, when discharged at Liverpool, was as sweet 
 and clear from mustiness, mould, sprouting, or fermentation, 
 as it was when harvested. The Atlantic flour, when kiln-dried 
 and pressed, does not keep like ours as it comes from the mill, 
 
AGKICULTUEE. 173 
 
 after having gone there fresh from the threshing-machine and 
 the harvest-field. 
 
 The flour made from flinty wheat is peculiarly suited for 
 shipment to tropical countries, where the moister flour soon 
 ferments and sours. These are excellent markets, for they are 
 certain, they pay well, and there is little competition. Most 
 of the flour now exported to the West Indian islands and the 
 Malaysian archipelago is of the Gallego and Haxall brands, 
 which, because of their dryness and strength, are worth from 
 twenty to fifty per cent, more in the market than other flour. 
 California may not be able to supply the West Indian islands, 
 but she certainly has peculiar advantages for supplying the 
 tropical islands and shores of the Pacific. The flintiness of 
 our wheat is undoubtedly owing to the dryness of the climate, 
 and it is about the same in all the wheat-growing districts of 
 the state. There is no noteworthy difierence in this respect 
 between that of the Sacramento valley and that grown on the 
 immediate coast. It is all so dry as to keep well in any cli- 
 mate. Millers in New York and Liverpool make some objec- 
 tion to our wheat, that it is too hard for their millstones ; but 
 this is their misfortune, not our fault. The difiiculty is reme- 
 died by moistening the wheat before grinding. 
 
 Most of the wheat of this state is white, but it is not equal 
 in whiteness to that of the Genesee valley, Oregon, Washing- 
 ton, and some other districts of the United States ; yet is supe- 
 rior to the wheat of England and of most European countries. 
 The fogs give a dark color to the wheat grown at Half-Moon 
 Bay, in the Pajaro and Petal uma valleys, and on the Santa 
 Kosa plain ; but in the other districts a uniform whiteness pre- 
 ^ vails. 
 
 Our wheat generally has a thin skin, and does not make 
 much bran ; but in the same districts where the skin is dark- 
 ened by the fogs, there also it is thick. 
 
 Most of the Californian wheat is not well cleaned. It is 
 sent to the market containing oats, barley, chess, alfalfa-seed, 
 and dirt ; and when shipped to New York, must usually be 
 
174 RESOUKCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 cleaned there before it can be ground. Our farmers, however, 
 are gradually becoming more careful in cleaning their wheat. 
 
 In the plumpness and size of the berry, our wheat compares 
 well with that of Europe and the Atlantic states, but can per- 
 haps claim no decided superiority. Comparing the diiferent 
 districts of the state with one another on this point, Suscol 
 probably deserves the first place, and Napa the next. In the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the wheat is often shriv- 
 elled by hot winds, which blow for three or four successive days 
 while the grain is in the milk, and seem to blast it. Great 
 diiferences are observed, however, according to the season. 
 
 The weight of Californian wheat is usually sixty pounds j)er 
 bushel, seldom less — frequently sixty-two, and sometimes sixty- 
 five ; thus entithng our state to a high position in that respect. 
 
 The average yield of Californian wheat-fields is from twenty 
 to twenty-five bushels per acre, which is about thirty-three per 
 cent, more than in the states on the Atlantic slope. An old 
 Spanish book of records, of the mission of San Diego, states 
 that, in 1*778, twelve fanegas (a fanega is about two bushels) 
 of w^heat were sown, and three hundred and fifty fanegas were 
 harvested — an increase of thirty-fold. The next year, sixteen 
 fanegas were sown, and the yield was one hundred and sixty 
 fanegas. In 1780, twenty-four fanegas were sown, and eight 
 hundred harvested — an increase of thirty-three-fold. San Die- 
 go is far inferior for wheat-growing to the coast valleys about 
 San Francisco Bay; and previous to the coming of the Ameri- 
 cans the ground was not ploughed, but only scratched, and the 
 limb of a tree was used for a harrow. 
 
 Colton, in his "Three Years m CaKfornia" (page 442), states 
 that while the priests still had sole control of the missions and 
 mission-lands, previous to 1833, the mayordomo or steward of 
 the Mission of San Jose harvested 4,300 fanegas of wheat from 
 40 fanegas of seed ; and at the next harvest he had a volunteer 
 crop of 2,600 fanegas on the same land. The first year, ac- 
 cording to this report, the increase was 107-fold, and the next 
 year 65 -fold. At the Mission of Soledad, according to the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 17* 
 
 same author (page 445), 1,700 fanegas were harvested from 19 
 sown — an increase of 89-fold; and in 1827, an increase of 58- 
 fold was obtained at San Luis Obispo by scratching the seed 
 in with a harrow upon land unploughed, and not even touched 
 by the thing called a plough in those days. Not less than half 
 a fanega is sown to the acre ; so we may suppose that the fig- 
 ures which mdicate the increase of the crop over the seed also 
 indicate the number of bushels to the acre. Now, a tenfold 
 increase is considered a fair crop. Crops of 80 bushels to the 
 acre have often been grown in California. Mr. Hill harvested 
 82^ bushels from an acre in Pajaro valley in 1853, and obtained 
 660 bushels from 10 acres. In 1851, Mr. P. M. Scooffy har- 
 vested 88 bushels; and Mr. N. Carriger 80 bushels in Sonoma 
 valley. In 1853, J. M. Horner harvested 1,000 acres of wheat 
 near the Mission of San Jose, with an average of 40 bushels, 
 some of it producing 60 bushels to the acre. The next year 
 he had 2,000 acres, with an average of 40 bushels. Large 
 fields of wheat in Eel River valley, according to the report of 
 the assessor of Humboldt county, averaged 73 bushels to the 
 acre in 1857. 
 
 In the best wheat districts of the Mississippi valley, the 
 farmers generally believe, or did believe a few years ago, that 
 not more than 45 bushels of wheat ever had been or ever could 
 be grown upon an acre ; and when, on a visit from California, 
 I spoke to experienced and intelligent men among them of 60 
 bushels, I was told that not more than 50 bushels could possi- 
 bly stand upon the ground. In 1856, the average wheat-crop 
 per acre in California, according to the county assessors' reports, 
 was — 25 bushels in Amador and Santa Cruz counties, 30 in 
 Marin, 28 in San Francisco, 19 in Sacramento, 20 in San Joa- 
 quin, 15 in Sonoma, and 28 m Tuolumne. The next year it 
 was 35 in Amador, 40 in Del Norte, 20 in Alameda, Santa 
 Cruz, San Joaquin, and Tuolumne, 19 in Sacramento, and 30 
 in Sonoma. In 1859, the average was 30 bushels in San Ma- 
 teo, Santa Cruz, Siskiyou, Sonoma, and Yuba, 32 in Butte, 25 
 in Napa and Santa Clara, 20 in Contra Costa and Solano, 15 in 
 
17(5 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 San Joaquin, and 14 in Sacramento. In 1860, the reported 
 average was 45 bushels in San Luis Obispo, 35 in Yolo and 
 Calaveras, 34 in Placer, 30 in Sonoma, Stanislaus, Yuba, and 
 Amador, 27 in Santa Cruz, 26 in Fresno and Tulare, 25 in Te- 
 hama, Butte, Humboldt, and Napa, 24 in Nevada, 20 in San 
 Diego, Santa Clara, and Shasta, 18 in San Joaquin, and 15 in 
 Sacramento. 
 
 In 1855, the worst year for wheat w^e have ever known in 
 California, when both smut and rust raged from Siskiyou to 
 San Diego, the average crop of the state was put down as 15 
 bushels per acre. Of 12,233 acres sown in Sonoma county, 
 only 3,500 were harvested; and of 2,490 sown in Marin, all 
 but 462 went untouched by the reaper. 
 
 In Ohio, the average wheat-crop is about sixteen bushels per 
 acre; and in England, with all their manuring and careful 
 ploughing, twenty-one bushels. In California, no manure is 
 applied ; the soil is ploughed but once in most fields, and there 
 is little rest for the land by rotation of crops. 
 
 It is a singular fact that where wheat is sown under oak- 
 trees, the stalks are usually thicker and taller, and the grain 
 more abundant, than in other places. This may be owing to 
 the facts that the trees protect the ground under them from 
 the frost, and also retain the moisture; and that while the 
 country w^as in the hands of the Mexicans, the cattle had pos- 
 session of the valleys, and, collecting under the trees in the 
 summer-time, their manure enriched tiie soil there. The roots 
 of the oak-trees in the valleys do not run along the surface of 
 the ground, but go deeper for moisture, and thus the plough 
 can run up to the trunk, and put aU the land in order for grain. 
 
 The principal wheat-growing counties in the state are San' 
 Joaquin, which in 1860 produced 895,000 bushels; Napa, with 
 652,000 ; Yolo, with 459,000 ; Alameda, with 440,000 ; Santa 
 Clara, with 400,000 ; Yuba, with 223,000 ; Santa Cruz, with 
 243,000 ; Sonoma, with 275,000 ; and Contra Costa, with 
 450,000. 
 
 It is almost impossible that there should ever be an entire 
 
AGllICULTUEE. 177 
 
 failure of the wheat-crop in California, unless the rain should 
 completely fail. After wet winters, the dry lands and hills 
 will produce the best crops ; in seasons of light rain-fall, tlhi 
 low, moist lands will take the lead. There are so many soils 
 and so many climates in the state, that some must be favor- 
 able. There is no danger that the grain, when nearly ripe, 
 will be beaten down by the hail, as has happened in Europe 
 and the Atlantic states. On only one occasion, within my 
 knowledge or reading, has it happened that the grain has been 
 " lodged" or beaten down by rain, and that was at Suscol and 
 Napa in 1860; and the damage then was slight, for most of 
 the grain recovered, and all of it, if I remember rightly, was 
 reaped by macliines. 
 
 Wheat is sown from the first of November to the first of 
 April. The most certain crops are those sown early ; the 
 largest are those sown late in favorable years. If the amount 
 of rain is small or moderate, the earliest-sown fields are the 
 best ; but if the spring be wet, the early-sown fields are sur- 
 passed by those sown about the first of February. Wheat is 
 usually sown after barley and oats. The best farmers prefer 
 to sow between New-Year's Day and the middle of February. 
 Most of the sowing is done broadcast, but drills are used to a 
 considerable extent. One ploughing is, by most farmers, con- 
 sidered sufliicient. The harvest comes from the middle of June 
 to the middle of July. The expenses of sowing, harvesting, 
 and threshing, are the same as with barley. 
 
 § 137. Oats. — The principal varieties of oats cultivated in 
 California are the Australian, English, Bare, Feather, and Tuck- 
 er. The Bare and Tucker oats thrive best on a heavy soil ; 
 the Feather oat prefers a sandy loam. The indigenous wild 
 oat of California is never cultivated ; for, although it produces 
 large and tall stalks, they do not contain so much weight or 
 bear so much grain as the domesticated oat. The average 
 crop is from 30 to 40 bushels to the acre, 30 per cent, greater 
 than in the Atlantic states. The Crescent City Herald re- 
 ported in October, 1857, that Rigg and Reid, in Del Norte 
 8* 
 
178 KESOUPwCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 county, had grown 125 bushels of oats to tlie acre; and that 
 John A. Brown, of Crescent City, had a crop of 15^71 bushels 
 to the acre. According to the assessors' returns, the averaE^e 
 crop per acre of 1860 was — 50 bushels in Alameda and Yuba 
 counties; 40 in Butte, Placer, and Santa Cruz; 35 in Napa; 
 30 in Amador, Sacramento, and' Yolo ; 28 in Humboldt ; 25 in 
 San Joaquin ; and 20 in Klamath, Santa Clara, and Sonoma. 
 The largest oat-growing counties in the state are — Alame- 
 da, which in 1861 produced 449,000 bushels; Contra Costa, 
 300,000; Santa Cruz, 262,000; Sonoma, 187,000 , and Marin, 
 174,000. 
 
 § 138. JIaize. — Maize can be grown to advantage in only a 
 few places in California. Most of the land is too dry and the 
 summer nights too cool for it. The principal maize districts 
 are in the valleys of the upper coast, from Russian River to 
 Humboldt Bay; in Yuba county, upon the moist bottom-lands 
 of the Sacramento River ; and at the Monte, in Los Angeles 
 county, w^here the San Gabriel River sinks and fills the plain 
 with moisture. Sixty bushels to the acre is considered a large 
 crop; the average is not over thirty. Corn can be grov/n 
 wherever the land can be irrigated, but this is a troublesome 
 and expensive mode of cultivation, though it is not uncommon 
 in gardens near San FransiscO. Green maize, grown in the 
 open air, is in the market from June to September. 
 
 The cultivation of rye and buckwheat differs little from that 
 of the same grains in the Eastern states. 
 
 § 139. Potatoes. — The potato thrives wonderfully in a few 
 places in Cahfornia, particularly at Bodega, Tomales, and in 
 Pajaro valley. The average produce per acre is perhaps not 
 laro-er than in Ohio or England, but the tubers are larger in 
 size and smoother in skin. The average size of those sold in 
 the San Francisco market is probably fifty if not one hundred 
 per cent larger than of those sold in New York. Potatoes 
 six inches long by three niches through, and weighing a pound, 
 are not uncommon ; many have been seen to weigh four 
 pounds ; and one grew to weigh seven pounds. I saw a clus- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 179 
 
 ter that had grown together, eight inches long, six wide, and 
 four deep, that weighed eight pounds. 
 
 The soil at Bodega and Tomales, the chief potato district, 
 is a light, sandy loam, and the mists from the ocean supply the 
 ahiiiidant moisture which the plant loves. In 1860, k>onoma 
 produced 314,000 bushels, Sacramento 263,000, Marin 240,000, 
 and Alameda 73,000. The potato district of Sacramento coun- 
 ty is on the banks of the sloughs of the Sacramento River, near 
 its junction with the San Joaquin. The soil is a very light, 
 warm, rich loam, and the vegetables grown there are among 
 the earliest in the market. According to the assessors' reports, 
 the average crop of Sacramento county in 1860 was 390 bushels 
 l^er acre; of Sonoma county, 100 bushels; and of Marin, 80. 
 The Californian potatoes are mealy, sound, and palatable. The 
 potato-disease has never made its appearance in this state. 
 
 The immediate coast, at least north of Point Conception, is 
 too cold for the sweet potato, which thrives, however, in the 
 Sacramento valley, especially in the low land about the head 
 of Suisun Bay. The true sweet potato has grown here to 
 weigh fifteen pounds — much larger than any I have ever seen 
 in the states east of the Mississippi. The flavor is not equal 
 to those grown at the East. They lack the mealiness and deli- 
 cate taste which make the Eastern sweet potato so palatable in 
 its season. 
 
 § 140. Hay.— In 1860, California had 150,000 head of horses 
 and 1,100,000 head of neat cattle, and cut 200,000 tons of hay, 
 or one ton for six head of large stock. In 1849, Ohio had 
 463,000 horses and 1,350,000 cattle, and cut 1,500,000 tons of 
 hay, or five tons for six head of stock. Ohio, therefore, cuts 
 five times as much hay, in proportion to the number of her 
 horses and cattle, as does California ; and if we suppose that 
 she exports one-fourth of her hay to the slave states, she still 
 makes three times as much in proportion for home use as this 
 state. The cause is, that there every horse and cow must have 
 hay throughout the w^inter, and many of them through the 
 summer ; while here very few cattle are fed with hay at any 
 
180 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 season of the year, and horses not employed are usually turned 
 out into the open plain. The hay of Ohio is cut in cultivated 
 fields, from tame grasses ; that of California is made of wild 
 oats and indigenous grasses, which are grown in the open 
 valleys. 
 
 The haying season comes about the first of May. The old 
 adage, that "you must make hay while the sun shines," does 
 not apply in California, for here the sun shines all the time, 
 and the haymaker has ordinarily no fear of rain. It happened, 
 however, in 1860, that a considerable amount of hay was spoilt 
 by the late rains in June. The whole process of haymaking in 
 California is managed by machinery. It is cut with the ma- 
 chine-mower, raked together with horse-rakes into cocks or 
 windrows, and finally the cocks are hauled together on hay- 
 sleds which load themselves by slipping under the cocks. The 
 hay is not turned by hand, nor is the field raked by hand. 
 The hand must be used, however, when wagons are to be 
 loaded or stacks built. Hay is usually cured in the cock or 
 windrow. It is not necessary to turn it by hand, as is cus- 
 tomary in the Eastern states. One turning and one day in the 
 sun are enough, w^hen it is raked together and is ready for the 
 stack or the mow. 
 
 In Ohio, a good field of timothy will yield four tons of hay 
 to the acre ; in California, the wild oat stands so thick in a few 
 places as to yield as much, but the average crop is not over a 
 ton to the acre. The principal hay counties of the state are — 
 San Joaquin, which in 1860 made 37,000 tons; Santa Clara 
 and Yolo, 18,000 each; Sonoma, 17,000; Yuba, 14,000; Sac- 
 ramento, 13,000 ; and Contra Costa, 11,000. Very little maize- 
 fodder is used in the state. 
 
 Tame grasses occupy, at the present time, a very small place 
 in the agriculture of California. Not one-tenth of the farms 
 in the state have an acre of cultivated pasture ; and even in 
 the largest farms, containing from three hundred to a thou- 
 sand acres under plough, it is rare to find a field of timothy, 
 clover, or alfalfa. The last-mentioned will probably become 
 
AGEICULTUEE. 181 
 
 the principal grass grown in the state, since it is peculiarly 
 fitted to thrive in a climate and soil so dry as ours. 
 
 § 141. Tobacco^ Cotton^ Rice. — California produces tobac- 
 co of a fine quality, but the amount grown is small ; and the 
 experience of its cultivation is too brief to furnish much infor- 
 mation. It requires a moist soil, and most of the attempts to 
 cultivate it in dry places in the Sacramento valley and in the 
 vicinity of Los Angeles have failed. The best crops have been 
 ^rown near the coast, north of San Pablo Bay and about the 
 head of Suisun Bay. The tobacco-plant has been converted 
 into a perennial at San Francisco ; one specimen of it growing 
 up eight or ten feet high, like a tree. 
 
 A little cotton of a good quality has been grown, but I think 
 its cultivation can never be extensive. The cotton states have 
 three times as much rain as California, and I presume that 
 only our moistest lands could produce a good crop of it — 
 such, for instance, as the tule-lands in the valley of the San 
 Joaquin. 
 
 The question whether rice can be cultivated in the tule-lands 
 has been much discussed, but is not yet decided, though it is 
 the general opinion that some of the tule-lands will produce 
 large and profitable crops. 
 
 § 142. Hop. — The hop growls luxuriantly and produces abun- 
 dantly in California ; and indeed there is good reason to doubt 
 whether any country has a climate and soil more favorable to 
 it than ours. We have no heavy dews or showers in summer 
 to w^ash ofi* the dust which contains the strength of the flow- 
 ers, or to cover the plant Avith blight. The failures of crops, 
 from these causes, so frequent in England and the Atlantic 
 states, w^ould never occur here. Not only is the crop certain, 
 but it can be cured here with more ease and in better condi- 
 tion than in other countries. The moisture of the air in Eng- 
 land compels the hop-growers to dry the flowers in the sun or 
 in kilns ; and if a rain fixll upon them while drying, they are 
 ruined : and they are injured by both the sun and kiln-drying. 
 In California, they may be dried in the open air, under sheds; 
 
182 EESOTJKCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 aiad thus prepared, they will be superior to any of the Euro- 
 pean hops. 
 
 The Chinese sugar-cane grows luxuriantly in this state, but 
 it is not extensively cultivated. 
 
 Flax, hemp, and the basket-willow, are not cultivated, or in 
 patches so small as to be unworthy of notice. 
 
 § 143. Kitchen Vegetables. — The vegetables for the kitchen 
 — such as cabbage, cauliflower, beets, parsnips, carrots, rad- 
 ishes, onions, melons, squashes, pumpkins, green j^eas, string- 
 beans, tomatoes, asparagus, rhubarb, okra, cucumbers, lettuce, 
 garden-egg, and so forth — thrive in Cahfornia, many of them 
 beyond example elsewhere. Cabbages weighing fifteen pounds 
 are wonders in the New York market ; in San Francisco they 
 are common. Whole fields of cabbage-heads, weighing twenty 
 pounds each, have been grown ; and hard, sohd heads, with no 
 loose leaves, weighing forty -five and fifty-three pounds each, 
 are on record. One cabbage, which did not make a head, 
 grew to be seven feet wide, throwing out leaves three and a 
 half feet long on each side. In many cases the cabbage has 
 been converted into a perennial, evergreen, tree-like plant, by 
 IDreventing it from going to seed. Several of these are now 
 growing in the state, with stalks from two to six feet high, 
 and a foliage that grows through winter and summer. 
 
 The largest squash or soft-skin pumpkin produced in Cali- 
 fornia weighed two hundred and sixty pounds, and the vine 
 which bore it had several others weighing over one hundred 
 pounds each; the total weight of its fruit being more than 
 eight hundred pounds ! Elsewhere, sixty pounds is a very large 
 pumpkin or squash ; and there is scarcely a record in the At- 
 lantic states of a greater weight than one hundred pounds, 
 which has been frequently surpassed here. In 1857, one 
 squash-vine on the ranch of James Simmons, in Yuba county, 
 produced one hundred and thirty squashes, weighing in all 
 twenty-six hundred and four pounds ! In the same year, J. Q. 
 A. Ballon, at San Jose, grew two squashes, weighing two hun- 
 ired and ten and two hundred and four pounds respectively. 
 
AGP.ICULTUPvE. 183 
 
 The largest Califomian onion weighed forty-seven ounces 
 avoirdupois, and measured twenty-two inches in circumference. 
 Our onions generally excel those of the Eastern states in size 
 and weight. 
 
 Our largest red beet weighed one hundred and eighteen 
 pounds — was five feet long, and a foot in diameter. It was 
 three years old. The first year it grew to weigh forty-eight 
 pounds, and because of its large size was reserved for seed ; 
 but it disappointed its owner, and, instead of producing seed 
 the next year, merely kept on growing, and reached the size 
 of eighty-six pounds; and the following year got to a hundred 
 and eighteen. Such beets can be grown in abundance. A beet 
 of twenty pounds is a wonder in Xew York or London ; here 
 it is too common to attract more than a glance. Beets fre- 
 quently are three feet long, so that it requires no little trouble 
 to dig them out. 
 
 Our largest common white turnip weighed, I believe, twenty- 
 six pounds ; our largest carrot, ten pounds ; our largest water- 
 melon, sixty-five pounds. 
 
 Our largest tomato measured twenty-six inches in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 Our kitchen vegetables, grown in the open air, are in the 
 market during a greater part of the year than in any state 
 east of the Mississippi. We have cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, 
 turnips, beets, carrots, parsnips, radishes, horseradish, celery, 
 green onions, leeks, salsify, and parsley, throughout the year; 
 green peas, string-beans, water-melons, cantaloupes, and nut- 
 meg-melons, from June to November inclusive ; tomatoes from 
 May to October; garden-eggs, green okra, Lima-beans, and 
 Califomian sweet potatoes, from July to September ; aspara- 
 gus from March to June ; and rhubarb from April to July — 
 the months being meant inclusively in every instance. These 
 seasons for the different species of vegetables are, on an aver- 
 age, twice as long as the seasons on the Atlantic slope of the 
 continent in the same latitude. Our tables are thus supplied 
 with a great variety of fresh and wholesome -vegetables 
 
184 EESOUKCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 throughout the year. Another advantage of our climate is, 
 that garden vegetables may be left in the ground all winter. 
 Potatoes are sometimes not dug until the first of January, and 
 turnips and beets are usually left in their beds until they are 
 to be sent to market ; there is never enough cold to freeze 
 them. Potatoes are never buried, but after they are dug are 
 piled up in bags under a shed, or are placed in a storehouse. 
 
 The cabbage likes a moist air and soil, and thrives best along 
 the coast, from Bodega to Santa Cruz. The melons and toma- 
 toes like a warm climate, and thrive best in the Sacramento 
 valley — and Putah valley, which is tributary to it — where 
 many of the early vegetables for the San Francisco market are 
 grown. 
 
 § 144. Fruit. — As a fruit-growing state, California takes a 
 high position. In this particular, as in so many others, her 
 climate gives her great advantages. In no part of the world 
 do fruit-trees grow so rapidly, bear so early, so regularly, and 
 so abundantly, and produce fruit of such large size. Nor is 
 there any other country where so great a variety of fruit can 
 be produced in high excellence. In the matter of flavor, our 
 apples, peaches, and strawberries, or most of them, are infe- 
 rior to Eastern fruit ; in the flavor of other species we are at 
 least equal to other countries. The pear, the plum, the apri- 
 cot, the grape, and the olive, are peculiarly thrifty, healthy, 
 and productive, as compared with the same kinds of fruit else- 
 where. 
 
 The Californian orchards are trained low, the lower limbs 
 being within a foot or at most two feet of the ground. All 
 kinds of fruit-trees are trained on the same principle. Men, 
 therefore, do not walk under the trees in an orchard, or climb 
 after the fruit. It would be as absurd to try to walk under or 
 to climb a bearing apple-tree in California as to walk under or 
 climb a gooseberry-bush. One fruit-tree in a hundred may be 
 trained high, not more. The advantages of low training are, 
 that the trees bear fruit earlier — a matter of the greatest im- 
 portance in CaUfornia, where the interest of money is so high, 
 
AGRICULTURE. 1^5 
 
 and the price of fruit rapidly falling from year to year ; the 
 trunk is shaded, and protected against the disease called the 
 sun-scald; the earth about the roots is kept moist; and the 
 trees are protected against the wind. 
 
 The trees are planted from one-sixth to one-half nearer to- 
 gether in the orchards than in the Eastern states. This is an 
 additional protection against sun and wind. The ground is 
 ploughed several times every summer, and kept clean ; whereas 
 in the Eastern orchards it is common to sow grass or cultivate 
 vegetables. Our apple-trees are free from the borers after the 
 first year, and our plum and cherry trees from the curculio, 
 though the plum suffers from the aphis or louse. 
 
 Fruit-trees in California are generally as large at two years 
 old as they are in New York at three and four years. The in- 
 stances of unusually rapid growth here are without parallel 
 elsewhere. Cherry-trees have grown to be fourteen feet high 
 in one year ; pear-trees ten feet high ; peach-trees to have 
 trunks from two to three inches in diameter. These were all 
 from buds on yearling stocks, and were well provided with 
 branches — not trimmed to gain height. These specimens of 
 rapid growth were observed on an island near the junction of 
 the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. At Petaluma, a 
 cherry-tree two years old from the graft, and three from the 
 seed, had a trunk seven inches and three-quarters round ; a 
 plum-tree, three years from the seed, was eleven feet high, and 
 had a trunk seven inches in circumference ; and a peach-tree, 
 one year from the bud, was eight feet high and eight and a 
 half inches round. 
 
 Mr. E. B. Crocker, of Sacramento, wrote thus in December, 
 1858: "In January, 1855, I planted a small almond-tree, with 
 a stem little larger than a goosequill, and which I cut down 
 within a few inches of the ground. It is now a tree twenty 
 feet high, sixteen feet through the top, with branches starting 
 from the surface of the earth. The body below the branches 
 
 is twenty-four inches in circumference A Glout Morceau 
 
 dwarf pear-tree, planted in 1855, when it had grown one year 
 
186 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 from the bud, is now ten feet high, four feet through the top, 
 and measures ten inches round the body at the ground, branch- 
 ing about one foot from the surflice. A Beurre Diel dwarf, 
 phmted in^ January, 1856, is now seven feet Ingh, three feet 
 through the top, and ten inches in circumference at the ground. 
 A dwarf May Duke cherry, planted in 1856, is now thirteen 
 feet high, and thirteen and a half inches in circumference at 
 the ground. An Old Mixon peach, planted in 1855, and cut 
 down within a few inches of the ground, is now twenty feet 
 high, twenty-two feet through the top, and the trunk twenty- 
 eight inches in circumference. A seedling peach, seed planted 
 in January, 1858, is now eight feet high and well branched, and 
 the trunk four and a half inches in circumference at the ground. 
 The growth of trees, vines, and shrubs, is about double that of 
 similar kinds on the rich prairie-soils of Northern Indiana." 
 
 In 1858, a sprig of a peach-tree, a foot long, was stuck into 
 the ground on the Bay-state ranch ; the next year it bore fruit. 
 It may be set down as a general rule that, previous to the time 
 of bearing fruit, trees in California make twice as much wood 
 in a year as they do in the middle states. 
 
 In Alameda county, plum-trees have grown twelve feet in 
 one year from the bud. 
 
 The trees commence to bear fruit at about half the age at 
 which they bear in the Atlantic states. An apple-orchard in 
 New York begins to bear in its fifth or sixth year ; in Califor- 
 nia, in its second or third. 
 
 The variety of climates, and the freedom from frosts, severe 
 cold, and furious storms, protect us against a failure of the 
 fruit-crop. 
 
 Our apples, pears, apricots, and plums, are larger than the 
 same varieties usually are elsewhere; other fruits are about 
 the same in size. 
 
 § 145. A2Jples. — The Spanish Californians had a few apple- 
 trees, but they were seedlings of a poor class. The first good 
 apples were imported from Oregon in 1849 ; but the varieties 
 were few, and the trees did not thrive. Either the stock was 
 
AGEICFLTTJEE. 187 
 
 not the best, or the change of climate had an injurious influ- 
 ence on them. In 1852, a few trees were imported by way 
 of the isthmus of Panama ; other importations followed very 
 rapidly ; and now the state has millions of trees in nursery, and 
 about eight hundred thousand bearing trees in orchard, inclu- 
 ding two hundred varieties, the best of Europe and the Atlan- 
 tic states, both standard and dwarf trees. 
 
 Apple-trees are usually planted from twelve to thirty feet 
 apart, fourteen or sixteen being the more common distances. 
 This is much closer together than is customary in the Atlantic 
 states ; the reasons for the denser planting here being to pre- 
 vent injury by the wind, and to keep the earth moist by sha- 
 ding it against the sun. The apple-tree comes into bearing in 
 the third year in California, about two years earlier than in 
 the Eastern states. It also grows more rapidly, a yearling tree 
 here being as large as a two-year-old tree in Ohio. Grafts on 
 yearling stocks have been known to grow six and eight feet in 
 a season — twice as long as similar grafts will grovv^ in the mid- 
 dle states. The fruit usually grows larger here than elsewhere. 
 The Gloria Mundl apple, which elsewhere seldom exceeds 
 fourteen ounces in weight, in California frequently reaches 
 twenty ounces, and some have attained the great size of two 
 and even two and a half pounds. 
 
 The climate seems to have a tendency to ripen apples more 
 thoroughly here than in other states. Those varieties which 
 are grow^n for winter use elsewhere, are here generally con- 
 verted into autumn apples, and only a few will keep to New- 
 Year's Day. A fruit-grower in Alameda has succeeded in 
 keeping several kinds until June. Our list of winter apples is 
 very short, and some years will pass before w^e can in this re- 
 spect equal the middle states. Some varieties have been intro- 
 duced here from Georgia and other Southern states, but we 
 do not yet know how they will succeed. 
 
 The flavor of our apples is not equal, as a general rule, to 
 that of the apples grown on the Atlantic slope. They are less 
 juicy, and more mealy. Some varieties, however, are better 
 
188 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 here than in the Eastern states. Great variations are observed 
 in different parts of the state ; an apple may be excellent when 
 the tree grows in the hot summer and cold winter high up on 
 the Sierra Nevada ; and be of poor quality if grown in the 
 equable temperature of the coast. 
 
 The best varieties, so far as ascertained, about the bay of 
 San Francisco, are the Summer Pearmain, Red Astrakhan, Red 
 June, and Early Harvest, for early apples ; the Porter, Graven- 
 stein, and Summer Queen, for late summer apples ; the Bald- 
 win, Roxbury Russet, and Rhode Island Greening, for fall 
 apples; the Golden Russet, the Northern Spy, the Yellow 
 Kewtown Pippin, the White Winter Pearmain, and the Spitz- 
 enberg, for winter apples. The best cider apple is the Smith's 
 Cider. 
 
 The leading counties in the production of apples are Santa 
 Clara, Sacramento, Alameda, Sonoma, Napa, Marin, Yolo, Yuba, 
 and El Dorado. 
 
 The trees grow so rapidly and bear so abundantly, that some 
 persons suppose our orchards must be short-lived ; and the old- 
 est American orchard in the state — at the Mission of San Jose 
 — is cited as proof of this theory. That orchard is evidently 
 dying, though only eleven years old ; but its unhealthiness is 
 owing to some influences peculiar to that spot. It has been 
 gradually dying for four or five years, while other orchards six 
 and eight years old are in perfect health. Besides, the fruit- 
 trees of the old missions, many of them thirty years old, are 
 still in excellent health and full bearing, and have not failed at 
 any season during the last score of years to produce a good 
 crop. The indigenous trees in our valleys have a thriftiness 
 of growth and a precocity of development similar to our cul- 
 tivated fruit-trees, and yet have a longevity equal to that of 
 the similar species east of the Mississippi, where the summers 
 are shorter, the winters colder, the annual growth less, and 
 the development of tlie reproductive power later. 
 
 § 146. Peaches. — ^The peach-tree grows very rapidly, comes 
 into bearing very early, and produces abundantly, in California; 
 
AGRICULTURE 189 
 
 but nearly all varieties suffer with "the curl," which has given 
 so much trouble during the last two years, that many of the or- 
 chards have been cut down. The varieties most ft-ee from the 
 curl are the Late and Early Crawford, the Late Admirable, and 
 the Smock. In the valleys and near the ocean, the peaches are 
 not equal, either in size or flavor, to the same varieties on the 
 Atlantic slope ; but in the Sierra Nevada they are fully equal 
 to the Eastern fruit. The peach does not thrive in the high 
 winds which prevail about San Francisco Bay. The trees are 
 usually set out in orchard when one year old from the graft or 
 bud ; in the second year after that, they begin to bear. 
 
 § 147. Pears. — The pear is the most productive and healthy 
 of the fruit-trees of California. It thrives in all parts of the 
 state, and everywhere its fruit is delicate in flavor and large in 
 size. There are pear-trees at San Jose which produce twenty- 
 five hundred pounds or forty bushels each of fruit annually. 
 The pear was more cultivated by the Spanish Californians than 
 any other fruit ; but their varieties were not good, and most of 
 the old trees have been grafted with varieties brought from 
 the Atlantic states during the last eight years. The varieties 
 most prized are the Madeline, Bloodgood, Diane d'ete. Dear- 
 born's Seedling, and Bartlett, for summer pears ; and the Win- 
 ter Nelis, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, and Pear d' Albert, 
 for winter. 
 
 Neither tree nor fruit is troubled by any bug, fire-blight, 
 sun, or rain. 
 
 § 148. Apricots and Plums. — The apricot thrives well and 
 bears abundantly, especially in the warmer parts of the state. 
 The fruit, however, in some places is much eaten by bugs and 
 bees. The bugs — some of them of the kind commonly called 
 *' Lady-bug," and others similar in appearance and size — eat 
 holes in the apricots before they are ripe ; and the bees, which 
 never break the skin, eat at the hoh^s which the bugs have 
 commenced. The apricot-tree is more healthy than the peach, 
 and produces more abundantly ; and its fruit supplies the place 
 of the peach m many districts. 
 
190 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The nectarine is affected by the curl, and is not much culti 
 vated. 
 
 If the cnrculio should not be introduced, the plum will oc 
 cupy a very prominent place in the horticulture of the state. 
 The tree is healthy ; and the fruit is large, finely-flavored, and 
 abundant. The climate is very favorable to drying fruit, and 
 prunes might be made here with a profit. 
 
 The cherry and the soft-shell almond thrive in all the valleys 
 of the state. 
 
 The fig-tree is cultivated from Shasta to San Diego, but 
 does not produce abundantly north of latitude 35°. In the 
 vicinity of Los Angeles it is a very thrifty and productive tree. 
 It produces two crops of fruit annually. North of 37° the sec- 
 ond crop is usually killed by the frost or stunted by the cold. 
 
 The almond and the English walnut both grow Avell and 
 l^roduce abundantly about Los Angeles, but do not thrive so 
 well north of Santa Barbara. The almond suffers, and loses 
 its fruit, with a slight touch of frost. 
 
 Tlie pomegranate is a healthy and productive bush in Cali- 
 fornia, but its fruit is not profitable. It is cultivated to a 
 small extent in all the large fruit-gardens, 
 
 § 149. Olives. — For the cultivation of the olive, California 
 has great advantages. The tree is very healthy, and always 
 bears abundantly ; whereas in Italy and Greece, whence most 
 of our olive-oil comes, the crop is frequently destroyed by sum- 
 mer rains, blight, and insects, all of which causes of trouble are 
 unknown here. There it is expected that the crop will fail 
 one year in three, whereas here no failure has ever been known. 
 The number of our olive-trees is small, most of those in bear- 
 ing having been planted half a century ago. Nor is it likely 
 that there will be a rapid increase. The tree does not come 
 into bearing until ten years of age, at least not in Europe ; and 
 although it may live and continue in bearing for five or six 
 centuries, the possibility of a steady income to our remote 
 posterity will not j^ay Californians for investing their money 
 in a business that will yield no income for a decade of years. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 101 
 
 Most of the bearing olive-trees are in the town of Los An- 
 geles, and at the Missions of San Fernando, San Gabriel, and 
 San Juan Capistrano. 
 
 The oliv e-tree resembles a willow in the form and color of 
 its bark, the shape and proportions of its trunk and branches, 
 and the size, color, and distribution of its leaves. The trees 
 are grown from cutthigs or shoots, which latter frequently 
 sprout from the large trees near the surface of the ground. A 
 large olive-orchard in full bearing would prove an excellent 
 income, for the fruit and the oil are in demand. 
 
 § 150. Oranges. — The orange is cultivated in Los Angeles ; 
 and, although the trees now there are covered with insects to 
 such an extent, that most of them bear no fruit, yet I think 
 til ere is reason to hope that the fruit will, at no distant day, be 
 cultivated extensively and profitably. 
 
 A warmer clime than that of this state is undoubtedly more 
 congenial to the orange than ours ; but in those lands where 
 the climate is warmer, the men are less industrious and intelli- 
 gent. Cultivation, which is the first element in the develop- 
 ment of every species of fruit, is wanting there, while here 
 there is no lack. Not that our cHmate is so cold as to make 
 it doubtful whether we can cultivate the orange in the open 
 air : long experience has settled the fact that the orange-tree 
 will thrive and produce well from Santa Barbara southward. 
 
 We have no exact information as to the time when the or- 
 ange was introduced into California, nor from what stock the 
 old orange-trees came. Probably tlie first missionaries brought 
 orange-seeds with them from Lower California, that stock hav- 
 ing come from the indigenous trees along the western coast of 
 Mexico. The seeds were planted at various old missions, such 
 as San Diego, San Fernando, San Juan Capistrano, and so forth. 
 The trees grew, were planted out, bore well, received little at- 
 tention or cultivation, and some of them are still standing as 
 monuments to the industry and enterprise of the old priests. 
 
 There are now, so far as I can learn, about twenty-five hun- 
 dred orange-trees set out in orchard in the state, more than 
 
192 KESO URGES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 two-thirds of them being in the orchard of William Wolfskill, 
 in the town of Los Angeles. About four hundred of the 
 orange-trees in the state are old — from ten to fifty years of 
 age ; the remainder are young, from six to eight years old, at 
 which age they begin to come into bearing. 
 
 The proper way to raise orange-trees is to make a bed about 
 three feet wide and twenty long, with the earth in it Avell pul- 
 verized ; and in January or February plant this bed with seeds, 
 in rows a foot apart, and the seeds six inches apart in the rows, 
 and about six inches deep. The bed should be weeded care- 
 fully, and kept constantly moist. If in the dry sand of Los 
 Angeles county, the bed should be irrigated once a week. At 
 the end of three years the trees will be four feet high and an 
 inch and a half thick in the trunk. They should then be set 
 out in the orchard where they are to stand, and be planted 
 twenty-five or thirty feet apart each way. The transplanting 
 should be done in any of the spring months, the earlier the 
 better, and should be immediately followed by irrigation. The 
 transplanting should not take place when the young trees are 
 growing, and therefore the trees should not be irrigated be- 
 fore transplanting, especially if the weather be warm ; for 
 warmth and irrigation would have a tendency to start the 
 shoots. 
 
 The trees begin to bear in their seventh year, when they are 
 about ten feet high, and the trunks from three to five inches 
 thick. At fourteen, years they are in full bearing, and they 
 continue to bear till they are at least fifty years of age, proba- 
 bly much longer. In full bearing, every tree will produce at 
 least one thousand oranges a year, and some trees will regu- 
 larly produce two or three thousand. The tree grows to , be 
 thirty feet high, the top spreading out thirty feet wide. It 
 blossoms early in the spring, and the fruit is ripe in the follow- 
 ing February, although it looks ripe in December. The or- 
 anges will keep well until May, if left on the tree. The fruit 
 is always in demand, and always commands a high price; and 
 previous to 1857, Mr. Wolfskill made more than one hundred 
 
AGRICULTURE. 193 
 
 dollars apiece annually from his bearing trees; but since that 
 time the bugs have injured the crop seriously. 
 
 Tlie tree is very beautiful, and grows continuously. The 
 wood is hard and valuable. The tops grow very bushy, and 
 frequently branches have to be cut out to allow the air to have 
 access to the fruit and leaves ; and sometimes the trees have 
 to be supported, to save them from breaking down under the 
 weight of their fruit. The trees, after setting out in the or- 
 chard, should be irrigated thrice every summer, and, unless 
 the land is rich, should be flianured. 
 
 The bug, a species of Aphis, has fixed itself in most of the 
 bearing trees in the state ; and unless some remedy not now 
 in use be applied, it will probably kill all the trees. Many 
 devices to drive away the pest have been tried in vain. But 
 there must be a bane for this bug : when that bane is once 
 found, the cultivation of the orange will take an important 
 place in the horticulture of the southern part of the state, and 
 therefore every good citizen is interested in finding it. 
 
 § 151. The Grape. — California is a favorite land of the 
 grape; and indeed many of our vine-growers suppose it to be 
 the best grape country in the world. 
 
 The grape region of California extends from the southern 
 boundary, at latitude 32° 30', to 41°, a distance of five hundred 
 and ninety-five miles from north to south, with an average 
 breadth fiom east to west of about one hundred miles. The 
 Los Angeles grape district is in an open plain about seventy 
 miles long, and reaching back thirty miles from the ocean — 
 bounded on the east by barren, rugged mountains. The So- 
 noma, Napa, and Santa Clara grape districts, are in flat, nar- 
 row valleys, shut in by steep, rugged ridges of the Coast 
 Mountains, between latitude 37° 30' and 39°. The Sacramento 
 grape district is in a flat valley, about half way between moun- 
 tain-ranges fifty miles apart. The graj^e districts of the Sierra 
 Nevada are situated on the western slopes of those high mt.nn- 
 tains, usually in very small dales. 
 
 The soil of the vineyards at Los Angeles and Anaheim is a 
 9 
 
194 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 deep, light, warm sand, which, to the inexperieneed eye, looks 
 as though it were too poor to produce any valuable vegetable 
 growth. In those places where water runs through it for a 
 few days, all the mould is dissolved and carried off, leaving a 
 white and almost pure sand. The soil is so dry, that cultiva- 
 tion^is possible only with the assistance of irrigation. In So- 
 nora and Napa valleys the vineyards are planted in a red, 
 gravelly clay near the foot of the mountains, or in a light, sandy 
 loam in the centre of the valley. Of late, the vine-growers of 
 these valleys have done without irrigation. In Santa Clara 
 valley most of the vines have been placed in a rich, black 
 loam, but their vineyards are unhealthy. The Sacramento 
 vineyards are planted in sandy loam ; those of the Sierra Ne- 
 vada in sandy loam or in gravelly clay. 
 
 The vine was brought to California by the Spanish mission- 
 aries about the year 1770. So far as is known, only one vari- 
 ety — that now known as the Los Angeles grape — was brought 
 by them in the last century. It is the vine found in all the old 
 vineyards and in most of the new ones south of the bay of San 
 Francisco. It fills three-fourths of the vineyards in the state. 
 The berry is round, reddish-brown while ripening, and nearly 
 black when fully ripe, about five-eighths of an inch in diame- 
 tar at its largest size, covered by a strong skin, possessing an 
 abundance of thick and very sweet juice, with little meat, but 
 with no fruitiness of flavor. It has been asserted that this grape 
 is of the Malaga variety ; but if so, it has changed so much — 
 perhaps while under cultivation in Mexico, whence the first 
 cuttings that came to California were probably obtained — that 
 it no longer resembles its parent stock. 
 
 About 1820, when the missions were established north of 
 the bay of San Francisco, a new variety, now called the So- 
 noma grape, and said by General Yallejo to be of the Madeira 
 stock, was introduced. It is now extensively cultivated in 
 Sonoma and Napa counties and in the Sacramento valley, and 
 is also found in a few vineyards south of the bay of San Fran- 
 cisco. The berry is bluish-black in color; is covered, when 
 
AGlilCULTURE. 195 
 
 ripe, with a grayish dust, which brushes off, leaving a glossy, 
 smooth skin ; is about half an inch in diameter at its largest 
 size ; has a thin, sweet juice, with more meat and a little fruiti- 
 ness of a flavor. 
 
 The Sonoma grape makes a light wine, resembling claret ; 
 the Los Angeles grape makes a strong wine, resembling port 
 and sherry. The two grapes are classed together as the " Mis- 
 sion," " jS'ative," or " Cahfornian" grapes, and were the only 
 varieties cultivated here previous to 1853. In that year the 
 importation of foreign grapes commenced, and now about two 
 hundred varieties are cultivated. The Mission grapes are 
 hardy, healthy, long-lived, productive, and early in coming into 
 bearing ; but they are surpassed in flavor, hardiness, produc- 
 tiveness, earliness of ripening, and earliness of bearing, by 
 many foreign varieties, Avhich, so far as is known, are not infe- 
 rior in any respect. The latter have been tried, however, only 
 three or four years, and therefore we cannot speak positively 
 whether they will prove so long-lived, or whether they will be 
 equal in some other points to the Mission grapes. 
 
 Still, the superiority of the foreign grapes is so great, that 
 no reasonable man, acquainted with the subject, doubts that 
 they will drive the Mission grapes out of the market. Flavor 
 is a matter of vast importance in fresh fruit, and the want of it 
 is the great defect of the Mission grape, which will not com- 
 mand more than six or eight cents per pound in the San Fran- 
 cisco market, at the very time that fine foreign varieties bring 
 twenty-five and thirty-seven cents. Cuttings of the Mission 
 grapes can now be had for ten dollars per thousand, a price 
 that will not more than pay for prej^aring them for market ; 
 while those of the foreign cost from forty to one hundred and 
 fifty dollars per thousand. For wine, the foreign grape has an 
 equal or still greater advantage. Flavor and fruitiness are no\ 
 less needed there than in fruit to be eaten fresh at the table. 
 The lack of fruitiness is the great misfortune of the wine made 
 from the Colifornian grape, and the evil can only be remedied 
 by the use of the foreign grape. 
 
196 EESOURCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 For raisins the Mission grape is unsuited, because it is all 
 juice and lacks meat. Again, we want various kinds of grapes 
 to make different kinds of wine, and to give variety to our 
 tables ; and we wish also to have early and late grapes, so that 
 our wine-making may extend through a long season, and that 
 our tables may have grapes upon them from August to Decem- 
 ber. The foreign grapes, it has been observed, are stronger to 
 resist the frost than the Mission grape. The latter is there- 
 fore doomed, if not to destruction, at least to a subordinate 
 position. 
 
 About two hundred varieties of grape are cultivated in Cali- 
 fornia, including the most noted stocks of Spain, France, Ger- 
 many, Hungary, and the Eastern states. Nearly all of them 
 thrive, and it can scarcely be said authoritatively that any one 
 of them has proved a failure. The Catawba and Isabella do 
 well; the latter furnishing our finest table-grape for some 
 tastes, while others prefer some of the Muscatels. 
 
 The total number of grape-vines planted in vineyard in the 
 state is about nine and a half millions, or ten thousand five 
 hundred acres, of which more than one-third are in Los An- 
 geles county. One-fifteenth of these may be foreign vines, of 
 which one-half are in Sonoma county. There were probably 
 two hundred thousand bearing vines in the state in 1 848, and 
 they still continue productive. Yery little was done to increase 
 their number until 1856, and then the business of grape-grow- 
 ing and making wine for the market was commenced. The 
 new vineyards then set out were planted with Mission grapes, 
 the only variety of which cuttings in large quantities could be 
 obtained. A few foreign vines had been imported in 1853, 
 '54, and '55, by nurserymen, but there was little demand for 
 them. When it became clear that California would produce 
 wine largely, the foreign varieties came into demand. It was 
 not until 1859 that the superiority of the foreign grapes as a 
 class over the Mission grape was established by trial. 
 
 The advantages of California for the cultivation of the grape 
 are the following : 
 
AGRICULTURE. 197 
 
 1. Californian vineyards produce ordinarily twice as much as 
 the vineyards of any other grape distiict, if general report be 
 true. Here, twelve thousand pounds of grapes per acre is a crop 
 as common as six thousand in France, Germany, or Ohio, Why 
 our vineyards should produce so much more than those else- 
 where I know not, but the fact is indubitable. Crops of twenty 
 thousand pounds per acre have been seen here, but never else- 
 where, if witnesses, generally considered credible, are to be 
 believed. 
 
 2. The grape-crop never fails, as it does in every other coun- 
 try. This is owing partly to the fact that we have no severe 
 frosts, no hail, and no storms of rain and electricity from the 
 time the vine buds until the grape is gathered, each of which 
 often causes a total loss of the crops in Europe. There is abun- 
 dant time for gathering the grape, while in other vine coun- 
 tries the rain and frost destroy the fruit after it is ripe. The 
 oidium — the disease which has done such o-reat dama^^e in 
 France — appeared in 1859, but has done no injury as yet save 
 in a iQ,\Y small, young vineyards. I have heard of it only in 
 Santa Clara, Sonoma, and Alameda counties, where the vines 
 are planted in a Avet, black loam, or stilf clay. Bugs and in- 
 sects, which do much harm in European vineyards, have as 
 yet done no injury worthy of note in California. 
 
 3. Vineyards in other countries require more labor than in 
 California. In Europe, the vine is trained with a stalk four 
 feet high, and supported by a pole, which has to be set down 
 every year, and to which the vine is tied. Here the stalk 
 stands alone. 
 
 4. The equability and warmth of the climate render it easy 
 to make wine by fermentation without artificial heat during 
 the winter ; whereas in other grape countries fires must be 
 kept up in the cellars through the winter. 
 
 5. The great variety of grapes which thrive here as com- 
 pared with every other grape country. 
 
 The disadvantages of California consist in the high price of 
 labor (three times as high as in Ohio, and four times as high 
 
198 EESOTJRCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 as in Europe), the ignorance of the people of the arts of vine- 
 growing and wine-making, the dearness of casks (costing from 
 five to twenty cents per gallon), and the necessity of irriga- 
 tion. 
 
 Land suitable for vineyards costs from twenty to one hun- 
 dred dollars per acre, whereas it is worth several times as much 
 in France ; but there is a counterbalancing difference in the 
 interest of money, so that the French vine-land at four hundred 
 dollars per acre, bought with money borrow^ed at six per cent, 
 a year, costs little more than a Californian vineyard bought for 
 one hundred dollars, with money at twenty-seven per cent. 
 
 The vine likes a sandy or gravelly (not very moist) soil, and 
 never thrives in wet, loamy, or stiff clay soil. In California, 
 neariy all the vineyards are planted on flat land ; in Europe, 
 hills are preferred, and in Germany the name for a vineyard is 
 " Weinberg" — a vine-hill. 
 
 Vineyards are planted with cuttings or with rooted vines. 
 The cuttings are obtained at the annual pruning in January or 
 February, are about thirty inches long, and are all of wood 
 less than a year old. They should be taken from vines not 
 less than four years old. The rooted vines are cuttings which 
 are planted in the nursery and allowed to grow there through 
 one season. These latter may be planted out from November 
 to March, inclusive ; cuttings from January to March. It is 
 not usual to plough more than once before planting, but sev- 
 eral ploughings would be better. The vines are planted either 
 six and a half or eight feet apart each way : the former distance 
 giving one thousand vines to the acre, is customary at Los An- 
 geles ; the latter, giving six hundred and eighty vines to the 
 acre, is preferred in Sonoma and Napa. The vines are planted 
 about two feet deep, perpendicularly, leaving about three or 
 four inches with two buds above the surface. The holes are 
 usually made with a crowbar, and after the vine is thrust down 
 into it, a httle loose sand or pulverized dirt is poured in to fill 
 up the hole. Sometimes holes are dug with the spade. Unless 
 the ground is very moist, the newly-planted vineyard is ii'ri- 
 
^ A G R 1 C U L T L K E . 199 
 
 gated ; for the vine, when takiiig root, likes water. During 
 the first year after planting, the vine-grower has nothing to do 
 save to irrigate twice, to plough several times, and to hoe 
 down such weeds as cannot be reached with the plough. 
 
 There is very little growth of wood the first year, but it fre- 
 quently happens that cuttings bear grapes — one bunch, it may 
 be, to a dozen vines. Rooted vines do not bear the first year. 
 The next year the ground should be kept loose and clean by 
 ploughing and hoeing twice or thrice. Any suckers springing 
 out from buds beneath the surface must be broken off, and a 
 little pruning is done. In pruning, regard is had to the form 
 which the stalk is to have. 
 
 The vine bears fruit on new wood ; that is, on twigs pro- 
 duced in the same season with the grape. All the twigs are 
 cut off every year, leaving a bare stalk. In the old vineyards 
 of California the stalks are from three to five feet high. Of 
 late, the more general custom is to make the stalks about fif- 
 teen inches high. It is observed that the nearer the grapes to 
 the ground, the earlier they ripen, and the less liable they are 
 to injury from frost and wind. The strongest shoot is selected 
 to make the stalk, and it is tied to a little stake stuck into the 
 ground at its side, and the other shoots are cut off. It is a 
 matter of importance to use the stake so that the vines may 
 grow straight up. Vineyards planted with cuttings bear no 
 grapes the second year ; those planted with rooted vines may 
 bear a few. In the southern part of the state the vineyard 
 must be irrigated at least twice every summer ; in many locali- 
 ties in the northern and middle districts, irrigation is consid- 
 ered unnecessary, though it would undoubtedly be beneficial 
 during the first year. 
 
 The third year, the ploughing and hoeing is the same as the 
 second. More attention must be given to the pruning. All 
 the twigs are cut off save two or three, which sprout from the 
 top of the stalk, and these are pruned so as to leave but two 
 buds on each, which are to produce all the wood and fruit of 
 the season. This year the vines should produce three or four 
 
200 KESO URGES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 pounds of grapes each ; some vineyards have averaged twelve 
 pounds to the stalk the third year. 
 
 The fourth year, the live or six twigs all starting from the 
 top of the stalk are left with two eyes each ; and this year the 
 yield should be six or eight pounds per vine. The fifth year, 
 there should be seven or eight twigs, with two eyes each, and 
 the grape-yield should be ten pounds per vine. The sixth year, 
 the vine is in full growth, and there should be eight or ten 
 twigs, and from ten to fifteen pounds of fruit per vine. About 
 the fortieth year the vine begins to decay. After the third or 
 fourth year, if the vine has been well trained, it needs no stake 
 for support, but stands alone. 
 
 The towns most notable for the cultivation of the vine in 
 California are Los Angeles, Anaheim, and Sonoma — all grape- 
 towns, and the only towns which depend chiefly on the grape 
 for their revenue. Los Angeleshas about 1,900,000 vines, Ana- 
 heim 400,000, and Sonoma 1,500,000. Many of the vines of So- 
 noma are not yet old enough to bear ; those of Anaheim are 
 all now (1862) in their fourth year; while more than one-half 
 of those of Los Angeles have been in full bearing for several 
 years. The Cocomongo ranch, in San Bernardino county, 
 owned by J. Rains, has a vineyard of 165,000 vines, most of 
 them very young yet. This ranch is one thousand feet above 
 the sea-level, and has the reputation of producing the best wine 
 in the state. Hock farm, in Sutter county, has a large vine- 
 yard, owned by Emil Sutter, a son of Captain J. A. Sutter, 
 and the wine produced there has an excellent reputation. 
 
 Among the largest vineyards in the state are the following: 
 
 A. Haraszthy, Sonoma 500,000 vines. 
 
 John Rains, Cocomongo 165,000 vines. 
 
 B. D. Wilson, San Gabriel 100,000 vines. 
 
 "William Wolfskill, Los Angeles 85,000 vines. 
 
 C- H. S. Williams, Sonoma 68,000 vines. 
 
 Matthew Keller, Los Angeles 61,000 vines. 
 
 Corbett and Dibblee, Santa Anita 60,000 vines. 
 
 T. J. White, Los Angeles 50,000 vines. 
 
 J. R. Scott, Los Angeles 50,000 vines. 
 
AGEICULTUKE. liOl 
 
 There are many vineyards in the mining counties, but they 
 are small and young. In 1858, an acre of bearing vineyard was 
 worth a thousand dollars ; but since then the supply of grapes 
 and native wines has increased to such an extent, that the vine- 
 yards have depreciated fifty per cent. The profits of wine- 
 making several years ago, induced the vine-growers to make 
 their wine hastily and carelessly, and much of it is poor stufli", 
 that has brought all native wines into discredit. The wine- 
 business, just now depressed, will in a year or tw^o become 
 better, and then vine-planting will take a new start, and vine- 
 yards will rise in value. 
 
 § 152. Wine-makiJig. — The making of wine is considered a 
 a branch of agriculture. In 1861, California probably made 
 about a million gallons of wine, and the amount Avill increase 
 within five years to three million gallons. The best wines are 
 made from foreign grapes, of which, however, not many are as 
 yet produced in the state ; so that the Mission grapes yield 
 the chief supply. The principal classifications of wane are into 
 red and white, light and heavy, still and sparkling. 
 
 Wine making commences with the ripening of the grapes, 
 about the middle of September. The berry is considered to 
 be fully ripe when the heart has taken a tinge resembling the 
 darkness of the skin ; when the berry is perfectly sweet, and 
 comes off easily from the stem, leaving no juice upon it; and 
 when, on holding a bunch up to the sun, the fibres running 
 from the stem into the berry are nearly or quite invisible. 
 
 The branches are cut off w^ith a knife, after the dew or fog 
 (if any) has been dispelled, put into a basket, and carried to 
 the press. Here the rotten and unripe berries are carefully 
 picked, out, and the bunches are then thrown upon a coarse 
 wire sieve. A man presses the bunches upon this sieve, 
 through which the grapes fdl, some broken and others un- 
 broken, while the large stems and leaves will not pass, and are 
 thrown away. Below the sieve is the masher, composed of 
 two rollers, ten inches in diameter and three feet long, made 
 of iron or wood. These rollers, turning toward each other, 
 9* 
 
202 RES0T7ECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 crush the berries, but do not bruise the seeds, which, if crushed, 
 would give a bitter taste to the wine. If the wine is to be 
 white, the pulp is pressed as it comes from the masher ; if it 
 is to be red, the pulp is left to stand for six or eight days, so 
 that the red color of the skins may be communicated to the 
 juice. This is the only mode in which wines are colored. 
 The juice as it comes from the fresh berry is never red, but 
 some varieties of grape make a yellowish juice. 
 
 After the pressing, the red and. white wines are treated in 
 the same manner. The juice is put into large casks, usually 
 those of one hundred and forty gallons each, and about one 
 hundred and fifteen gallons are put in each. The casks are 
 thus not filled entirely, but a considerable surface of the wine 
 is left exposed to the air. This is to favor fermentation, to 
 which the atmosphere is necessary. The cask lies upon its 
 side, the bunghole is left open, and in three or four days the fer- 
 mentation begins ; in three or four more its period of greatest 
 activity has passed. The temperature is a matter of the ut- 
 most importance to fermentation, the proper degree being 
 about 65° Fahrenheit ; and if the liquid be kept either warmer 
 or colder than that figure, it will be in great danger of spoil- 
 ing. The fermentation is accompanied by a rising of little air- 
 bubbles to the surface, where they burst, making a noise that 
 may be heard by applying the ear to the bunghole, and which 
 is sometimes so loud as to be heard in the cellar at a distance 
 of ten or twenty feet from the barrel. 
 
 After the fermentation has been in progress three or four 
 days, the wine-maker pours in six or eight gallons of fresh 
 juice every day, until the cask is full ; and for several days 
 after that he leaves the bunghole still open, and throws out 
 all scum that rises to the surface there. When the scum has 
 ceased to rise, the barrel is closed, and not disturbed for a pe- 
 riod which should not be less than three weeks nor more than 
 three months. After this, comes the " racking off." All the 
 liquor, except about four inches at the bottom, containing sedi- 
 ment, is drawn off through a siphon, or a cock placed above 
 
AG EI CULTURE. 203 
 
 the level of the sediment. The remamder is filtered through 
 a doubled cotton cloth, and is then poured in with the clear 
 liquor, or used in making brandy. The sediment deposited in 
 the bottom of the cask within the first three months is about 
 one-twentieth in weight of the juice as it comes from the press. 
 After the first racking, the new cask is filled up, the bung is 
 put in, and the wine is not disturbed till March or April, when 
 it begins to feel a more lively fermentation, for that process 
 never ceases entirely. 
 
 It is said that the wine sympathizes with the vine, and that 
 whenever the latter is in active development, the former feels 
 a peculiar impulse also. Thus, the periods when the vine 
 sprouts in March or April, when it blossoms in June, and when 
 the grape ripens in September, are also the times when the fer- 
 mentation is the most active. At those seasons the bungs must 
 be taken ofi*, or at least loosened, and the barrels must not bo 
 moved. 
 
 It is an important point with wine-makers to avoid disturb- 
 ing the process of fermentation. Between times, when the 
 wine is at rest, it should be racked off, and placed in a clean 
 cask. At the end of a year and a half the wine has become 
 clear, but it continues to grow better with age for about a 
 score of years, about the expiration of which period it has ac- 
 quired a mellowness and delicacy of flavor and an oiliness of 
 consistency wliich neither gain nor lose by longer preserva- 
 tion. 
 
 Many kinds of wine are made in California. The light wines 
 come in this state, as in other parts of the world, from the 
 northern, and the strong wines from the southern districts. 
 The wines of Los Angelica have a body like those of Spain, 
 and the wines of Sonoma and the upper Sacramento valley re- 
 semble claret and hock. A wine similar to port is made in 
 the southern part of the state, by leaving tlie grapes on the 
 vines until they are " dead ripe," and somewhat shrivelled by 
 the sun. The juice is then very strong, and, being left with 
 the pulp ten days or two weeks, takes a strong, dark-red color. 
 
204 EESOUBCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Wine is defined to be "the fermented juice of the grape," 
 and therefore "Angelica" is not properly a wine, though it is 
 usually classed under that title. It is made by mixing brandy, 
 in proportions varying from one-fifth to one-third, with the 
 grape-juice fresh from the press or but a few hours old. The 
 brandy prevents fermentation. Angelica is a sweet liquor, 
 and is usually considered a proper drink for women ; but it is 
 really stronger than the fermented whines. 
 
 The wine made of the juice that drips from the masher, or 
 of the first drainings from the press, is considered superior to 
 that obtained by severe pressure from the pulp. After the 
 pulp has been pressed, it is sometimes covered with water, 
 allowed to stand a few days, and pressed again ; and the wine 
 made of this liquor is called " Piquet," a very light w^ne, and 
 generally sourish in taste. 
 
 Some sparkling wine has been made in California, but thus 
 far without great success. The only house which has engaged 
 extensively in the business is that of Sainsevain Bi-others, w^ho 
 brought an experienced Avorkman from the champagne district 
 of France. They own a large vineyard at Los Angeles, and 
 another at San Jose, and have a large capital invested in the 
 wine-business. Their failure in making the " sparkling Cali- 
 fornia," as they call their effervescent wine, was owing to the 
 strength of the Los Angeles grape, and the " earthiness" of its 
 taste, which earthiness is stronger in the sparkling than in the 
 still liquid. Effervescent wines should not be strong ; and the 
 grapes grown at Los Angeles, or at least the Mission grapes 
 grown there, are too strong. I speak of the experiment as a 
 " failure," meaning thereby that the Sainsevains have not made 
 an article equal to the best brands of imported champagnes; 
 but, for all that, it is a passably good wane. Attempts are to 
 be made this year, and for several years to come, with the 
 lio-hter wines made in the middle and northern parts of the 
 state, and there is good reason to believe that the experiment 
 will prove entirely successful. 
 
 Sparkling wine is treated like still wine until after the first 
 
AGRICULTURE. 205 
 
 fermentation, except that it receives much more attention, and 
 is made from a more careful selection of berries, than any other 
 kind of wine. After the first fermentation, the wine is put in 
 bottles, and tliese are placed in racks with tlieir necks down, 
 the racks being made so that the bottles can be raised and 
 lowered ; and the position of the bottles is changed from time 
 to time, to assist fermentation, which continues, though in a 
 suppressed form — the carbonic acid gas being retained in the 
 wine, instead of escaping as it does during the fermentation 
 of still wines in the open barrel. The management of spark- 
 ling wines is very complicated. It varies greatly in different 
 places, and is usually kept as secret as possible. Thus, the 
 Sainsevains keep their process to themselves. 
 
 Wliite grapes will not make a red wine ; but the skins, if 
 left to ferment with the juice, will give it a dirty-yellow or 
 light-brown color. 
 
 The general custom, in making wine, is to use the pure juice 
 of the grape, but wine-makers consider it not unwholesome or 
 disreputable to put sugar, water, or brandy, into certain kinds 
 of wines ; all of which, however, are unnecessary and injurious 
 to the finer kinds of still wines. Sugar and water endanger 
 the keeping qualities of the wine, and brandy spoils the flavor. 
 In France, it is common to put sugar or rock-candy "j/(/j wine 
 intended for the sweet tastes of the Americans ; ar.d in bad 
 years, when the grapes are sourish, they sweeten a little for 
 home consumption. Brandy is sometimes used to prevent 
 wine from turning into vine2:ar ; but the mixturj, if stroncj 
 enough to have the desired effect, deserves rathtr the name 
 of adulterated brandy than of wine. Different kinds of pure 
 wines may be mixed without impropriety, but the label sliould 
 not misrepresent the nature of the mixture. It is a fraud to 
 mix a bad wine wdth a fine article, and then sell it by the name 
 of the latter. If a wine-maker sends his wine into the market 
 under his own name, no other person can honevdy nil^ any 
 thing else with it, and still preserve the name of the < rlginal 
 maker. 
 
206 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Most of the wines hitherto made in California have been 
 pure, but not fine in flavor. The Mission grape lacks delicacy 
 and fruitiness of taste, and gives an earthiness or harshness to 
 the wine. These defects will probably be remedied by the 
 use of the foreign grapes, and their mixture with the native 
 Mission grape. Still wines, equal to the best still wines of 
 France, have been made from foreign grapes in California; 
 and we presume that we can make equally as good wine, in 
 very large quantities, so soon as we have the grapes. Only 
 about one-tenth of the foreign vines planted in the state are 
 now in bearing. 
 
 The skin of the grape probably contains tannin, for the red 
 wines have an astringent taste not common to the white. 
 
 The cellar is a matter of great importance to the wine- 
 maker. From the moment when the grape-juice comes from 
 the press until the wine is brought upon the table to be drunk, 
 it should be kept in a cellar ; and it is only in a cellar that the 
 equability and coolness of temperature proper to favor fermen- 
 tation can be obtained. In France and Germany, it is often 
 necessary to have fires in the cellars; and it would be well to 
 have them occasionally in California. Indeed, wine-makers 
 generally have no cellars, but only houses. In Los Angeles 
 county, most of the wine is kept in adobe houses. The sandi- 
 ness of the land, the frequent irrigation, and the proximity of 
 the vines to the places where the wine is stored, would lead to 
 the filling of deep cellars with water ; so the cellars are dug 
 only three or four feet into the ground ; and an adobe wall 
 three feet thick, and a thick covering, render the cellars pretty 
 cool. In Sonoma, Colonel Haraszthy has dug a wine-cellar in 
 the side of a hill of magnesian limestone. The wine-cellar 
 should be used for wine alone, because the presence of other 
 things — especially salt meat, leather, and putrefying vegetables 
 — may spoil the flavor of the wine. 
 
 It is probable that, in many of the vineyards, the soil will 
 not produce a first-rate wine. In Europe, the wines from the 
 fiat lands are generally of an inferior quahty. To what extent 
 
AGRICITLTUEE. 207 
 
 this rule prevails here, cannot be ascertained until we have 
 given the finer foreign grapes a fair trial. Certainly the Mis- 
 sion grape takes up in most of the vineyards an earthiness of 
 taste which must never be found in wines of the best quality. 
 We cannot yet tell what are our best grape-soils, or how they 
 differ from one another in their influences on the wine. It is 
 certainly no easy matter to make fine wine out of the Mission 
 grape, and most of our wine-makers have little experience in 
 the business. Again, they send their wine to the market too 
 soon after it is made. They often use old barrels and bottles, 
 which may give a taste to the wine. They have also been too 
 careless in pressing grapes before they were fully ripe, and 
 without picking out the green and rotten fruit. 
 
 § 153. Berries. — Alameda county cultivates, chiefly for the 
 San Francisco market, four hundred and fifty acres of straw- 
 berries, one hundred of raspberries, and thirty of blackberries 
 — more than all the remainder of the state. The varieties of 
 strawberries most prized are the British Queen and Long- 
 worth's Prolific. They are planted in rows, thirty inches 
 apart, and the plants are a foot apart in the rows. The straw- 
 berry comes into the market in April, and continues abundant 
 till July, but it may be obtained in any month in the year ; 
 and the only reason why large quantities are not grown from 
 August to October inclusive, is, that they are not in demand, 
 because of the abundance of cheaper fruits. It must always 
 be costly as compared with the tree-fruits, because it is more 
 perishable, requires greater cultivation, costs more for pick- 
 ing, and produces less to the acre. The picking alone costs 
 about two cents a pound, being done by Chinamen, who pick 
 forty pounds in a day, and are paid seventy-five cents a day, 
 they providing their own food. The average yield per acre is 
 about one thousand pounds, and the average wholesale price 
 in 1861, during the season of their abundance, nine cents per 
 pound, making a gross yield of one hundred and twenty dol- 
 lars to the acre. The largest field of strawberries contains 
 eighty acres, the second seventy, and the third sixteen. Yery 
 
208 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 few strawberries are preserved, or used in any way save to be 
 eaten fresh on the table. 
 
 Most of the raspberry-fields of California are in Oakland and 
 its immediate vicinity. The land about a mile northward from 
 the Oakland wharf is said to be peculiarly favorable to the 
 raspberry. .The average yield is about fifteen hundred pounds 
 per acre, and the wholesale price in 1861 was ten cents per 
 pound. The picking is done by Chinamen, and costs from 
 three to four cents a pound. The bushes are planted in rows 
 five feet apart, and one foot apart in the row. The berries are 
 produced on wood a year old, and at the end of every season 
 all the wood that has borne is cut away. It is not known how 
 long the raspberry-bush will continue to bear, but probably 
 ten years at the least. The largest raspberry-field in the state 
 contains twenty acres. 
 
 An excellent wine is made of raspberries, and some of the 
 Oakland people have gone into the business, hoping to derive 
 a large profit from it. The berries are bruised, a gallon of 
 water is poured on for three pounds of berries, and after three 
 days the berries are pressed ; three pounds of sugar are added 
 for every gallon of the liquid, which is then put into barrels, 
 and allowed to stand, with the bung open, until active fermen- 
 tation has ceased — a period varying from five weeks to two 
 mouths — and the wine is ready for use, though the longer it 
 stands the better it becomes. Soft water is better than hard 
 for putting on the berries, and hard water should not be used 
 without boiling. An acre of raspberries will }ield six hundred 
 gallons of wine, which, if well made, is worth a dollar or a dol- 
 lar and a half a gallon at wholesale. The raspberry cultivated 
 at Oakland is the Fastolf variety. The fruit ripens during June 
 and July. 
 
 The Lawton blackberry is also cultivated, about Oakland. 
 The rows are from six to eight feet apart, and the plants from 
 four to six feet apart in the row. The yield of the blackberry 
 and the cost of picking are about the same with the raspberry, 
 but the price is much higher, the blackberry selling at whole 
 
AGRICULTURE. 209 
 
 sale in 1S61 at twenty -five cents per pound. It is in the mar- 
 ket from the first of July to the middle of September. Wine 
 is made from the blackberry in the same manner as from the 
 raspberry, and sometimes the two berries are combined to- 
 gether. 
 
 § 154. Ornamental Shrubs. — Professional gardeners say that 
 California is better fitted by Nature than any part of Europe 
 or the Atlantic slopes to have beautiful ornamental gardens. 
 Our shrubs are more numerous, grow larger, remain green 
 longer, and have a longer blooming season, than those of other 
 states. The mayo and malva trees, the rose, the daisy, the 
 pansy, the oelyssum, the clyantlius punceus, the flowering ver- 
 bena, the hollyhock, and the calla or Ethiopian lily, bloom here 
 in the open air every month in the year. The honeysuckle, 
 metrosideros, and myrtle, bloom from March to December ; 
 the geranium and snow-ball from April to October; the violet 
 from October to May ; the pittosporum from November to 
 March ; the spireas and flowering almond from March to June ; 
 and the camelia japonica from January to May, all in the open 
 air. Persons at all familiar with the cultivation of these flow- 
 ers in New York will observe that the blooming season here 
 is, on an average, fully double its length there. Not only do 
 they bloom in the open air, but they retain their leaves through 
 most of the Avinter months, so that our gardens are never bare 
 and clieerless as they are in the Atlantic winters. I have seen 
 a rosebush bearing twenty full-blown roses in January, and 
 that in the open air, with no assistance from artificial heat, and 
 no protection save that of clambering up a brick wall on the 
 southern side of an unoccupied house. Our roses are larger as 
 well as more abundant than in the Eastern states, but their 
 perfume is not so strong. 
 
 A marked feature of our ornamental gardening is our ability 
 to cultivate in the open air many plants which can only be pre- 
 served in this latitude east of the Rocky Mountains under glass 
 and with the aid of artificial heat. These plants are too nu- 
 merous to be all specially named here ; but some of the more 
 
210 RESOURCES OF CALIFOEXIA. 
 
 important are the orange, camelia japonica, laurastinus, myo- 
 poriim, ericas, casuarina, daphne, eucalyptus, metrosideros, and 
 thirty varieties of acacia, twenty of them from Austraha. It 
 might be ahnost said that we have no hot-houses in the state, 
 but only green-houses, for it is scarcely ever necessary to make 
 a fire, even to protect the most dehcate of tropical plants. 
 
 Our climate is very favorable to the growth of evergreens, 
 especially to those strange and beautiful ones from Austraha, 
 w^ith the graceful growth and the brilliant, feathery foliage. 
 Two of the most striking features of our ornamental horticul- 
 ture are the malva and mayo trees. The former, a native of 
 the southern part of this state, grows to be about fifteen feet 
 high, continues green throughout the year, and is always cov- 
 ered with abundant foliage and a wreath of lai'ge crimson flow- 
 ers, resembling the flowers of the crimson hollyhock in size, 
 shape, and color. The mayo-tree is an evergreen, originally 
 from Chile, always brilliant with abundant yellow flowers. 
 
 Among the most common and beautiful creeping vines 
 grown in California is the Australian bean, which has a dense, 
 bright, evergreen foliage, and abundant flowers throughout the 
 year. It climbs strings, and is therefore well suited to shade 
 verandas and to grow in the front of porticoes. 
 
 The rose, the honeysuckle, the veronica, the oleander, the 
 laurastinus, the euonimus japonica, and the verbenas — espe- 
 cially the lemon verbena — may safely be said to make twice as 
 nmch wood in a year as they do on the Atlantic coast. The 
 geraniums in San Francisco are almost trees. Rose-sprouts 
 often grow twenty feet in a season, and other plants in propor- 
 tion. There is scarcely any tree or shrub cultivated in the At- 
 lantic states which does not thrive equally as well here, except 
 the weeping willow. 
 
 California has thus far furnished very little for our gardens. 
 There are many singular plants in our mountains, but few 
 have found favor with our gardeners. The malva and the ce- 
 anothus are the chief ornamental shrubs, indigenous in Califor- 
 nia, adopted for cultivation. 
 
AGKICULTURE. 211 
 
 We liave not yet had time to produce many ornamental 
 gardens ; but I think the time is not far distant when no place 
 in the world will, within so small a district, have so many fine 
 gardens as the valleys round San Francisco Bay. 
 
 § 155. Pests of the Farnier. — Certain "pests" of the farmer 
 must be mentioned here, among which are the spermophile, 
 gopher, grasshopper, locust, grape-bug, orange-bug, army- 
 Avorm, Canada thistle, mullen, dock, fern, and so forth. Of 
 the spermophiles and their habits I have spoken in the chapter 
 on the zoology of the state. The amount of mischief which 
 they do is very great. The most effective means of driving 
 them off are poisons, chiefly strychnine and phosphorus. About 
 a> drachm of strychnine is dissolved in a quart of whiskey, and 
 then the solution is poured over dry wheat in such quantity, 
 that the surface of the liquid is just on a level with the top of 
 the grain. In the course of twelve hours the wheat absorbs 
 all the liquor, and a fe\r grains may then be thrown in front 
 of every squirrel-hole. When phosphorus is to be used, the 
 wheat is soaked in boiling water until it is soft, when the wa- 
 ter is drawn off, and the wheat in a pan is put in or over boil- 
 ing water to keep it near the boiling heat. A stick of phos- 
 phorus three inches long is put into the hot wheat, melts in ten 
 minutes, and the wheat is stirred about well, so that the melted 
 phosphorus will touch every grain. The wheat is then poured 
 upon some bran in which it is rolled so that every kernel may 
 be covered, and the grain is ready for its purposes of destruc- 
 tion. A couple of kernels will kill a squirrel ; and if a cat eats 
 the squirrel, it will kill him ; and if a raven picks out the eyes 
 of the cat, he will die too : and such a progressive destruction 
 has been observed more than once in California. 
 
 The gopher is more readily caught with traps than the sper- 
 
 ''mophile. In the chapter on zoology I have described the 
 
 trench used for keeping gophers out of orchards and gardens, 
 
 and for catching them. Several traps are in common use, but 
 
 it is not easy to describe them ; so I will not attem|)t it. 
 
 The grasshoppers are the greatest pests of the farmer in 
 
212 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 California, and I fear thai we have not yet seen the worst of 
 them, though several times during the last fifteen years they 
 have eaten every green thing within large districts. They 
 come in milhons upon millions, and darken the air, moving for- 
 ward at the rate of a mile or two a day, and leaving no grass 
 or leaf behind them. Grains, grass, weeds, kitchen vegetables, 
 and fruit-trees, are alike eaten bare of every green particle. 
 Grasshoppers are abundant in countries where the summers are 
 dry, the winters warm, and the vegetation vigorous ; and if a 
 large extent of land be uncultivated, they will occasionally be 
 so numerous as to destroy every green thing. They are bred 
 in the hills of California, and after dry winters descend into 
 the valleys, usually content to eat the wild grasses, but some- 
 times attack the cultivated fields. There is no known method 
 of killing them after they have entered a field, or of driving 
 them away from it ; but they may be kept out by digging a 
 trench, putting straw in it, wiih some moist straw on top, and 
 then setting fire to it. The grasshoppers do not like the fire 
 and smoke, and will try to avoid them. 
 
 Under the head of the grape and the orange, I have spoken 
 of tha bugs which infest them. The army-worm has been seen 
 in California, but has done little damage as yet. The curculio 
 and weevil are not known in the state. The Canada thistle, 
 the muUen, and the dock, have been introduced, but have not 
 yet given much trouble. 
 
 § 156. Neat Cattle. — California has 1,100,000 neat cattle, 
 900,000 sheep, and 150,000 horses, nearly all bred in the open 
 air and open plains, and fed only on wild grasses. The system 
 of breeding live-stock difi"ers much in California from that 
 which prevails in the Atlantic states, where cattle are kept in 
 fields and stables all the time, and fed with cultivated food. 
 Here domestic animals grow more rapidly, and reach their full 
 develojmient earlier, than east of the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 § 157. Spanish Cattle. — Most of our neat cattle are of the 
 old Californian breed, brought hither by the Spanish mission- 
 aries from Mexico, about 1770. At what time their stock 
 
AGKICULTURE. 213 
 
 came originally to Mexico is not precisely knoAvn, but without 
 doubt it was in the seventeenth century, soon after the con- 
 quest by Cortes, and they must have been imported from 
 Spain. They are called " Spanish cattle." In Mexico, as sub- 
 sequently in California, they were allowed to run almost wild, 
 and they took something of the appearance of wild animals. 
 They have nearly the same range of colors as the neat cattle 
 of Europe ; but mouse, dun, and brindle colors — almost infal- 
 lible signs of " scrub" blood — are more frequent ; and the deep 
 red, fine cream-color, and delicate mottling of deep red and 
 white, found only in animals of high blood, are entirely want- 
 ing. Their legs are long and thin, their noses sharp, their 
 forms graceful, their heads high, their horns long, slender, and 
 wide-spread ; and they have a duskiness about the ,eyes and 
 nostrils similar to that of the deer, between Avhich animal and 
 a young Spanish cow there are many points of resemblance. 
 The general carriage of the Spanish cow is like that of a wild 
 animal : she is quick, uneasy, restless, frequently on the look- 
 out for danger, snuffing the air, moving with a high and elastic 
 trot, and excited at the sight of a man, particularly if afoot, 
 when she will often attack him. In some counties it is, for this 
 reason, unsafe to go about on foot. The native Californians 
 are ahvays mounted, and to these the cattle are accustomed; 
 but a man afoot is considered to be a dangerous animal, de- 
 serving of the same treatment with wolves and coyotes. The 
 Spanish cow is small, does not fatten readily, produces little 
 milk, and her meat is not so tender and juicy as that of Amer- 
 ican cattle. 
 
 The breeding of neat cattle was almost the only business of 
 the country previous to the American conquest, and they were 
 killed for their hides and tallow, which were the chief exports. 
 The meat went to enrich the land ; there was too much of it 
 to be eaten. The breeding of cattle, being the chief occupa- 
 tion of the Californians, determined their mode of life, the 
 structure of their society, and the size of their ranches. No- 
 body wanted to own less than a square league (four thousand 
 
214 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 four hundred and thirty-eight acres) of land; and the govern 
 ment granted it away without charge, in tracts varying from 
 one to eleven leagues, to anybody who would undertake to 
 erect a house and put a hundred head of cattle on the place. 
 It was common for one man to own five thousand head of cat- 
 tle. The cows were kept for breeding, and the steers were 
 regularly killed as they reached the age of three or four years. 
 All had the freedom of the country, and ranged where they 
 pleased, except that several times a year every man collected 
 his own upon his ranch. There was about one bull to fifty 
 cows. No attempt was made to improve the breed, nor was 
 any profit to be obtained from an improvement. Most of the 
 calves were born about the beginning of the year, and in March 
 the ^rsi^rodeo was held. 
 
 § 158. Rodeos. — The word rodeo comes from the same root 
 with "rotate," and means a surrounding, a gathering of all 
 the cattle on a ranch, and the separation and removal of those 
 belonging to other ranches. There are general and special 
 rodeos. A rodeo may be for one ranch, or for several ; but 
 every ranchero owning a large ranch and many cattle has his 
 own rodeo. Every large ranchero must have at least one 
 rodeo in the spring, and another in the fall. The general rodeo 
 is held for the benefit of all the cattle-owners in the neighbor- 
 hood ; the special rodeo is held for the benefit of some partic- 
 ular person or persons who desire an opportunity to remove 
 their cattle from a ranch. Every owner of a rancho is required 
 by law to give a general rodeo every spring. 
 
 When a general rodeo is to be held, the ranchero sends no- 
 tice several days or weeks irf advance to the cattle-owners in 
 the vicinity; and in the cattle-districts the neighborhood ex- 
 tends forty or fifty miles, for cattle will stray that distance. 
 On the day appointed, the ranchero having selected some 
 j^lace where the cattle are to be collected, sends out his mount- 
 ed vaqueros or herdsmen at daylight to drive the cattle to the 
 appointed place, where they are gathered at ten o'clock. By 
 that time, the interested rancheros with their vaqueros have 
 
AGRICULTTJRE. 215 
 
 made their appearance, and are on tbe ground, all mounted, 
 and prepared for the day's work. 
 
 The ranchero who gives the rodeo is present to entertain his 
 visitors, and his men are instructed to keep the cattle together. 
 The herd may be very large. I have seen eight thousand head 
 of cattle in a rodeo, forming a solid body about a quarter of a 
 mile in diameter in every direction. The visiting rancheros 
 who have come from the greatest distance are permitted to 
 enter the mass first, select their cattle, and drive them out. 
 Each man has a position chosen at a distance of half a mile or 
 a mile, whither he drives his cattle ; and there are several men 
 there mounted, to prevent them from returning to the main 
 herd. When a ranchero sees one of his cows in the herd, he 
 calls to a friend, and the two chase her out. She does not 
 wish to go, and tries to hide herself among the other cattle. 
 The horses, accustomed to the rodeo, soon recognize the cow 
 that is to be parted out, and enjoy the work. They turn 
 with every turn of hers, and she is soon tired and compelled 
 to go out. If the cow be accompanied by a large unmarked 
 calf, the latter is often caught with the lasso, thrown down, 
 and then marked with the knife. While these rancheros are 
 riding about among the herd and seeking their own, the cattle 
 are driven by a few vaqueros belonging to the ranch so as to 
 move about in a circular manner. As the cattle are thus 
 moving round in one direction, the rancheros of the immediate 
 neighborhood, whose time has not yet come for entering the 
 centre of the rodeo, ride round in a direction contrary to the 
 course of the herd, and thus are enabled to see them to more 
 advantage than if they were standing still. After the ranche- 
 ros from a distance have parted out all their cattle, those of the 
 vicinity ride in, and the whole day is thus spent in racing and 
 chasing after cattle. 
 
 The man who gives the rodeo does not attempt to examine 
 the cattle which are taken away. He takes it for granted that 
 every one will drive off only his own animals. Sometimes sev- 
 eral days are necessary to complete the general rodeo of a 
 
216 BESOURCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 ranch, and the work is continued from day to day until fin- 
 ished. All the rodeos of a neighborhood are usually held in a 
 regular and close connection. The rancheros from a distance, 
 therefore, stay imtil they have attended all the rodeos in a 
 district to which they suppose that any of their cattle have 
 strayed ; and they are usually the guests of the man upon 
 Avhose ranch the rodeo is given. 
 
 When a cow is driven out, her calf follows. Every ran- 
 chero knows his cattle by the brand, which law and custom re- 
 quire him to use. Of course, when a man has four or five thou- 
 sand head of cattle, he cannot recognize them all by sight; he 
 can only distinguish them by marks. He knows his cows by 
 their brands, and his calves by their follo\ying the cows. 
 
 The spring rodeos are the busiest seasons of the rancheros, 
 and are for them the chief occasions of general meeting, exci- 
 ting adventure, conversation, and festivity, in the course of the 
 year. Frequently three or four hundred men will meet at these 
 places, mounted on their best horses, and ready for fun. All 
 the work of the rodeo is exciting. Lively scenes are enacting 
 at every moment, and in every direction. Calves will try to 
 get away from the herd, and escape to the hills. Cows which 
 have been driven out will endeavor to get back. These nmst 
 be chased by the horsemen. Frequently the lasso must be 
 used. Many of the vaqueros are fond of showing their skill 
 before so many spectators, and astonishing feats of horseman- 
 ship are performed. 
 
 When a ranchero returns from a rodeo, with his cattle which 
 had strayed away, he drives them into his corral, and brands and 
 marks his calves; so that if they should return to their former 
 range, he will know them the next year. If those that have been 
 on other ranches are too numerous to he branded and marked 
 in one day, some of his vaqueros stay with them on horseback, 
 and herd them until all can be marked. When a cow has be- 
 come accustomed to a ranch, she likes to return to it. After all 
 the calves are marked, the owner does not care much whither 
 they go, provided that they do not stray beyond the limits of 
 
AGKICULTURE. 217 
 
 the ranches, the rodeos of which he attends. It is only in 
 times of extraordinary scarcity of grass, that the rancheros are 
 particular to drive tlie cattle of other owners off their lands. 
 
 The rodeo season being over — that is, when the ranchero 
 has all his cattle on his own ranch, and his alone — he com- 
 mences the work of branding. His vaqueros drive about two 
 hundred cows with their calves into the corral every morning, 
 and two or three good vaqueros will brand these calves in a 
 day. The vaqueros enter the corral with their horses, which 
 they need when the calves are large and strong, for many of 
 them are three and four months old. If the calf be small, the 
 vaquero may be afoot to lasso him. One vaquero throws a reata 
 over the calf's head, and another catches him by the leg ; they 
 throw him down, and one holds him, while the other gets a 
 hot branding-iron and burns the owner's mark upon its hip. 
 Thus the woi-k goes on from day to day, and from week to 
 week, until every calf on the ranch is marked. 
 
 § 159. brands. — The law requires that every horse and cow 
 shall be branded, with a brand belonging to their owner. The 
 brand is made of iron, sometimes representing one or two let- 
 ters, sometimes other arbitrary signs, such as a cross, a circle, 
 a triangle, or any other design. Tiie brand may be six inches 
 long by four wide, and tlie thickness of the iron is about a 
 third of an inch. There is an iron handle, with a wooden 
 crosvs-piore ut the end, so that the brand can be handled when 
 hot, and held down tirndy upon the prostrate calf, until the 
 figure is indeiibly burned into the skin. A copy of every brand 
 must be burned upon leather, and deposited in the county re- 
 corder's ofllce. Every miiior and servant on a ranch must use 
 the brand of the ov/uer of the ranch. The brand must be 
 burned, under j)enalLy, i,j)on all horses and neat cattle, before 
 the age of eighteen mo:.ths. The braiul is buru'-d upon the 
 hip, and inilicates ownership; when the animal is soM, the 
 brand is burned upon the shouhlei', and indicates sale. The 
 purchaser then jjiits his brand upon the hip; and thus the skin 
 of a Californian horse or cow contains the history of its owner- 
 10 
 
218 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ship. Many of the brands are well known to the rancheros 
 over a large portion of the state ; and by looking at the ani- 
 mal, they will tell where it was born, and who have owned it 
 at different times. The hips and shoulders on both sides are 
 often covered with brands. Sometimes the brands grow with 
 the animals ; in other cases they remain nearly of their original 
 size. A brand well burned into the skin is perceptible as long 
 as the animal lives, though it grows less and less distinct witn 
 the advance of years. 
 
 In the fall there is another season of rodeos, to brand such 
 calves as may have escaped notice at the spring rodeos, or may 
 have been too small to be branded. 
 
 The rancheros sometimes have a mark in addition to their 
 brand, such as slitting the ear or cutting a notch in the dew- 
 lap. A drawing of the mark must be deposited in the county 
 recorder's office. It is contrary to law to cut off the end of 
 the ear, or to cut it on both sides so as to bring it to a point ; 
 for those modes of marking would give opportunities to cut 
 away the marks of other people. The bull-calves are usually 
 altered at the rodeos, as well as branded and marked. The 
 cattle on many ranches are touched only twice in their lives 
 by the hand of man — first, when they are branded ; and next, 
 when they are slaughtered. 
 
 § 160. Early Maturity of Calif ornian Coics. — The cows 
 calve almost invariably before they are two years old, frequent- 
 ly before they are eighteen months, and sometimes before four- 
 teen months. They generally arrive at maternity a year sooner 
 than in the Atlantic states. It is said that suckling heifers 
 have been seen to take the bull. The Spanish rancheros have 
 eight or ten bulls to a hundred cows ; the Americans usually 
 four or five. The calves suckle from six to ten months ; that 
 is, from January or February, when they are born, until No- 
 vember, when the pasturage is very scanty. The Spanish cows 
 have small udders, and yield httle milk ; and notwithstanding 
 their great number in the country, butter, milk, and cheese 
 were very rarely seen on the table previous to the coming of 
 
AGRICULTURE. 219 
 
 the Americans. American cows are the only ones used for the 
 dairy, but many of them are now kept also for breeding alone, 
 and, like the Spanish cows, they are never milked. 
 
 § 161. Corral and Reata. — The corral is an important part 
 of all cattle-ranchos, and on many of them it is the only enclo- 
 sure. It is a pen, from thirty to fifty yards square, surrounded 
 by a high, strong fence. It is used whenever horses or cattle 
 are to be branded. 
 
 The reata^ used for lassoing, is a rawhide rope, about five- 
 eighths of an inch in diameter and thirty yards long. It is 
 made of four strips of cowhide, from which the hair has been 
 scraped ; and after plaiting, it is greased and dragged along 
 on the ground after a saddle, to render it pliable. Rawhide 
 is better than any other material, because it has just the proper 
 w^eight and stiffness for the purpose. A running noose, which 
 slips very easily, is arranged at one end. When the reata is 
 to be used, the noose is made from four to six feet long ; one 
 side of the noose and the reata just outside are taken in the 
 right hand, so that while in the hand the noose will not slip ; 
 the remainder of the reata is held coiled up in the left hand, 
 ready to be let go. The vaquero swmgs the noose round his 
 head, in such a way as to keep it open ; and when he has a 
 good swing, he lets go, and away it Avill fly, its whole length. 
 If it catches the object aimed at, the noose draws tight. It is 
 not an uncommon thing for a vaquero to catch a cow at a dis- 
 tance of thirty feet, while she and his horse are both running 
 rapidly ; but usually he will get within fifteen or twenty feet, 
 if he can, before throwing his reata. A good vaquero, stand- 
 ing in front of another man, can push the latter back, and the 
 moment his foot leaves the ground, throw a reata under it, 
 and thus lasso him by the leg. When cattle or horses are to 
 be branded, they must be thrown down ; and this is generally 
 accomplished by catching the head with one reata, and a hind- 
 leg with another. 
 
 § 162. Occasional Starvation. — Nineteen out of twenty of 
 the cattle of California never get any food, save such as grows 
 
220 EESOUECES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 indigenously in the open country, and they always suffer for 
 it. From March to July the pasture is abundant and ex- 
 cellent, and the cattle are fat ; from July to October, in ordi- 
 nary years, the grasses and clovers, though dry and brown, are 
 nutritious, and the cattle still remain in good condition ; but 
 from October to January they grow lean rapidly, and almost 
 every year a considerable number of them die by starvation. 
 Either the grass may be all consumed, or it may be deprived 
 of its nutriment. The first case happens when the grass is 
 very scanty, because of a small fall of rain during the winter ; 
 the second occurs when a heavy rain, lasting a day or two, 
 comes before New Year's day, and is followed by cold dry 
 weather. The rain takes away the palatable and nutritious 
 qualities of the old grass, and the cold and dry weather pre- 
 vents the starting of the new grass, and between the two the 
 cattle suffer. In 1856, seventy thousand head of cattle died in 
 Los Angeles county alone by starvation, one-third of the entire 
 "uumber in the county. The state has not one large cattle-ranch 
 surrounded by fence, and therefore, if a man owns good pas- 
 ture land, the cattle of other people come and eat the grass, 
 and later in the season his own must suffer. It is impossible 
 for the vaqiieros to drive away the strange cattle, because they 
 enter the ranch on every side every day, and if the grass be 
 much better than on adjoining ranches, they will, if driven 
 away one day, return the next. The j^roper and profitable 
 method of managing an extensive cattle-ranch, is to have it all 
 fenced in and divided ofi' into a few large fields, in which the 
 cattle could be pastured at different seasons. It would also be 
 a source of profit to have hay for them or green alfalfx in the 
 early winter, so that there would be no danger of a reduction 
 to skin and bone : for it costs thrice as much to replace as to 
 preserve a pound of flesh. Spanish cattle, when slaughtered 
 between September and February, are usually very thin, and 
 in the Atlantic States it would be grossly impolitic to send 
 such animals to the market. 
 
 § 163. Imported Cattle. — The great majority of the cattle 
 
AGKIOITLTURE. 221 
 
 in the state are of pure Spanish blood, but there is a consider- 
 able number of American cows and half-bloods, which are 
 constantly increasing in number, while the Spanish cattle are 
 decreasing. Most of the American cattle are in the Sacra- 
 mento basin and the coast valleys north of Monterey, while 
 along the southern coast they are very few in number. 
 
 During the last four or live years about seventy-five pure- 
 blood Durhams, twenty-five Devons, and four Ayrshire bulls and 
 cows, have been imported across the Isthmus of Panama. The 
 freight on the steamer and railroad, from New York to San 
 Francisco, for a bull or cow, is two hundred and seventy-five 
 dollars. The food is carried free of charge, but the owner must 
 find a person to feed and take care of the animal during the 
 voyage. Some of these imported animals are of the best English 
 stock. The better the blood the larger the beeves grow, and 
 the more readily and rapidly they fatten. The Spanish cattle are 
 too uneasy ; they run about so much that they lose flesh. The 
 half breed American cattle are more quiet, the full-blood Ameri^ 
 can still more quiet, and the Durham the best of all. But as our 
 beef cattle get no food save such as they pick up in the open 
 country, I doubt whether it will pay to import these pure-blood 
 Durhams to improve the breed. The excellence of the Durham 
 is caused by care in breeding, protection against the weather, and 
 an abundance of good food ; and the excellence cannot be main- 
 tained without a continuance of the same system of manage- 
 ment. The Durham will, in a few generations, cease to be a 
 Durham, if he gets no food save such as he can pick up in the 
 valleys and hills ; but if carefully fed, he will, of course, do as 
 well here as elsewhere. It is said that the Durham needs suc- 
 culent food ; if so, the blood will soon degenerate on the dry 
 grasses of California. The Devon stock, which has been praised 
 by the importers of it as peculiarly fitted to thrive on our in- 
 digenous grasses, has not found much favor. Our dairy cows 
 are the only ones which are well taken care of; and therefore 
 the Ayrshire blood is really more needed, and likely to be 
 better preserved, than either the Durham or Devon. Roots 
 
222 EESOUECES OP CALIFORN-IA. 
 
 are seldom cultivated for cattle ; hay, barley, and wlieat-bran, 
 are used for feeding them when kept in the yard. Beeves are 
 never stall-fed in California. 
 
 § 164. Dairies. — The chief dairy districts of the state are 
 the valleys in the vicinity of the bay of San Francisco. The 
 business is very profitable, but requires a considerable capital. 
 
 The climate near the coast is very favorable for making 
 butter and cheese. 
 
 In 1860, according to the assessors' reports, Santa Clara 
 county produced 220,000 lbs. of butter and 300,000 lbs. of 
 cheese; Marin, 226,000 lbs. of butter and 170,000 lbs. of 
 cheese; Sonoma, 220,000 lbs. of butter and 103,000 lbs. of 
 cheese; Sacramento, 148,000 lbs. of butter and 122,000 lbs. of 
 cheese ; Yuba, 92,000 lbs. of butter and 5,745 lbs. of cheese ; 
 and Alameda, 79,000 lbs. of butter and 103,000 lbs. of cheese. 
 
 § 165. S^Kcnish Horses. — California has about one hundred 
 and fifty thousand horses, of which about one-tliird are Ameii- 
 can ; one-third wild Spanish ; and one-third tame Spanish. 
 The Spanish horses are of the old stock imported, sent early in 
 the sixteenth century from Spain to Mexico, and thence brought 
 to California about eighty years ago. Like the neat cattle, the 
 Spanish horses run wild, and partake, to some extent, of the 
 wild nature. They show their base blood by their colors — 
 mouse color, dull duns of various shades, and calico color, or 
 mixtures of white with red or black, in numerous large spots 
 or blotches, are common ; while chestnut, bright sorrel, blood- 
 bay, and dappled gray, are very rare among them. They are 
 quick, tough, healthy, and unsurpassable for the uses of the 
 rider and the vaquero; but small, lacking in weight, strength, 
 and beauty, and unfitted for the heavy, steady work of the 
 plough, cart, or wagon. They are wanting in the docility, 
 kindly disposition and steadiness of the Avell-bred horse ; and 
 they have little of that kind of sense which leads an American 
 horse to be quiet and gentle, even in circumstances strange to 
 him. For California, as it was in 1845, there were no better 
 horses than the Spanish-Mexican. They have a wonderful tough- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 223 
 
 ness, and some of their exploits in the way of travelling are un- 
 surpassed in the annals of the turf A number of instances are 
 on record where Californian horses have carried a rider one 
 hundred miles in a day, and that with no food save grass. 
 Sixty miles a day is not an uncommon ride, nor is it considered 
 a, severe one. Fremont, on one occasion, rode four hundred 
 miles in four days, riding different horses, but driving them 
 before bim from the beginning to the end of the journey. 
 
 More than half of the brood-mares of the state are wild 
 Spanish ; that is, they live entirely m the open plain, are un- 
 broken, and many of them have never been touched save when 
 they vforr. to be branded. They are in bands called manadas^ 
 numb<;^ri^g from thirty to sixty mares, which are under the 
 guidance of one stallion or garanon. He knows every one of 
 his band, kee])s them together, conducts them to what he 
 considers the best pastures, and drives away geldings, stallions, 
 mules, and whatever animals he may dislike. When a vaquero 
 tries to drive the manada into a corral for the purpose of catch- 
 ing some of the band, the garanon will frequently divide them 
 and scatter them about, and render it impossible for the vaquero 
 to get them together ; for while he drives in one place, the 
 stallion is equally busy at another, and the mares fear his teeth 
 and heels as much as the swinging reata of the horseman. The 
 garaiion is usually from five to nine years of age. He guards 
 his manada with the most jealous care. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that one garanon tries to take away a mare from the 
 band of another, and then a fight ensues, in which the weaker 
 has to suffer a severe biting and kicking, and then lose the ob- 
 ject of the battle too. The manada keeps together for year 
 after year, but when it gets too large, the vaquero will divide 
 it and give a portion to the chargeof another garanon. All the 
 mares foal before they are three years old, whereas in the 
 Atlantic States they seldom foal until a year later. They also 
 breed more regularly than elsewhere, for when mares are kept 
 in stables, they frequently pass seasons without breeding. 
 The foals are branded at the age of three or four months, and 
 
224 EESOUP. CES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 are weaned at the a^e of eight or ten months. The fillies con- 
 tinue to run with the nianada, and become part of it. The 
 colts are altered when branded, and continue to run with the 
 manada until they are three or four years of age, Avhen they 
 are broken and put into the caballada^ or herd of broken horses. 
 The Mexicans never broke their mares, and considered it dis- 
 creditable and a mark of great poverty to ride one. 
 
 § 166. Ilorse-hreakinrj. — Tiie jMexican system of breaking 
 horses is peculiar. They are broken only to the saddle; for 
 horses were never used before wagons by the Spanish-Califor- 
 nians. The horse having ran free all his life, is too wild to be 
 caught without a lasso, or to be approached at iirst while he is 
 on his feet. He is therefore caught by the neck with one reata, 
 by a hind-foot with another, and then thrown down by pulling 
 the reatas in different directions. Avaquero goes to the horse 
 as be lies down and puts d^jaqulma^ or a kind of halter, on his 
 head. The jaquima is provided with a piece of leather, which 
 can be pulled over the eyes so as to blind the horse, but it is 
 first lifted to let him see. The reatas are taken from the 
 neck and leg of the prostrate horse, and a long rope having 
 been fastened to the jaquima, he is allowed to rise. This is 
 the first time he has been haltered and he dislikes the restraint, » 
 but he exerts himself in vain to get loose. After he has tired, 
 himself in vain efforts, the vaquero goes up for the purpose of 
 pulling down the blind. The horse is terrified at so near an 
 approach of a man, and trembles with excitement. If he pulls 
 back hard the vaquero sees there is little danger, and slowly 
 advancing and putting his hand to the blind pulls it down over 
 the horse's eyes. But if the horse stand up, it is probable that 
 he will rear up when the vaquero comes near, or strike at hitn 
 with a fore-foot. Such animals are very dangerous, and are 
 usually allowed to tire themselves by standing without food, 
 or else they are drawn up to a fence or tree, behind which the 
 vaquero can protect himself So soon as the blind is down, 
 the horse is perfectly quiet. Pie can be rubbed, and saddled, 
 and. mounted without a motion. The first thino: after blind- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 225 
 
 ino- is to put a saddle on liim. It is fastened well, the blind is 
 raised, and the full length of the rope given to him. He does 
 not understand the saddle. It may be a carnivorous beast for 
 all he knows. He is terrified at it. He jumps, and snorts, and 
 kicks, rears and pitches, throws himself down, worries himself 
 out, and falls into an agony of despair. After an hour or so 
 of such work, the vaquero advances again, puts down the 
 blind, and the horse stands trembling with fear and exhaus- 
 tion. He is now to be ridden. The rope is fastened under the 
 chin, so that it can be used for a bridle-rein ; the horse's ears 
 are pushed down under the upper part of the jaquima, so that 
 he shall be deaf as well as blind; the saddle-girth is tightened, 
 and the rider mounts. Over the saddle he has a second girth, 
 which is loose enough to allow him to get the point of his knee, 
 bent at right angles, under it. This girth ties him upon the horse. 
 The more he presses the knee outward, the tighter the girth 
 holds him ; whereas by turning his knees inward and straight- 
 ening his legs, he can be free in an instant. Having put his 
 knees under the girth (he does not care for the stirrups and 
 cannot use them) he reaches forward, takes the ears out from 
 under the jaquima, and raises the blind. The horse, as soon as 
 he sees the man on his back, is stricken with a new terror. He 
 immediately commences to jump stiff-legged. He springs up 
 into the air and comes down on his fore-feet with his legs stiff. 
 This is the way in which horses try to shake off panthers, and 
 they resort to the same method with men. The shock would 
 be severe if the man were not tied down to the saddle, but he 
 moves with the horse and is not hurt with the shock. Some- 
 times a horse will jump thus for hour after hour, and the rider 
 is very well satisfied, for there is no danger in the jumping, and 
 it is very tiresome to the animal. Some horses, after jumping 
 for a few minutes, will commence to run. To this the rider 
 makes no opposition, but practises the horse with the reins to 
 accustom him to guidance. The most dangerous horses are 
 those which rear up and fall backward. In such case the 
 vaquero must be ready to throw off the girth from his knees, 
 10* 
 
226 EESOTJRCES OF CALITOKNIA. 
 
 and alight upon his feet as the horse fells. After riding for a 
 couple of hours, the vaquero reaches forward, pushes the blind 
 down over the horse's eyes and dismounts. To dismount with- 
 out first putting down the blind would be very dangerous, for 
 the horse would probably kick him. He takes off the saddle, 
 hoists the blind, ties him to a fence or a tree with his head up, 
 and gives him neither food nor water. The next morning he 
 is very stiff and hungry. The vaquero does not feed him, but 
 pulls down the blind, puts on the saddle, mounts him again, 
 and the scenes of the previous day are re-enacted, though the 
 jumping is less furious. After a couple of hours of exercise, 
 the horse is tied where he can get water and grass. Every day 
 he is ridden. In five or six days he quits jumping. In three 
 months the blind is laid aside. In four months a bit is put in 
 his mouth. This is strange to him, and he jumps stiff-legged. 
 If the first bit used is American, he will jump again when the 
 harsher Spanish bit is used. When any thing is wrong he jumps 
 stiff-legged. During the first month or two his nose will be 
 very sore where the jaquima or halter crosses it, caused by the 
 pulling of the halter in holding and guiding the animal. At the 
 end of a couple of months he learns to follow the guidance of 
 the jaquima almost as readily as afterward the bit. After he 
 has been ridden daily for six months, he has become tame and 
 quiet, and he commences to fatten up again ; for during the 
 first three or four weeks he worries himself so much, with his 
 vain plungings, that he loses flesh rapidly. The Californian 
 horse, when once broken, is kindly in disposition. He rarely 
 bites or kicks, no matter how roughly he may be used. 
 
 After having been broken to the saddle, he must be taught 
 the uses of the reata. The vaquero always carries his reata 
 with him, and the horse soon learns to see it swinging about 
 the rider's head. The reata is first thrown at small calves and 
 then at larger ones, and the horse gradually learns that he can 
 best hold a lassoed animal by presenting his head toward it, 
 and bracing himself back with his fore-feet. The reata is fast- 
 ened to the horn of a saddle, strong enough to hold a bulL 
 
AGKICTJLTUEE, 22 1 
 
 The horse learns to watch the reata ; if it catches, he slackens 
 his pace, or stops suddenly ; if it does not catch, he continues 
 al full speed, while the vaquero pulls up the reata and prepares 
 to throw it again. The saddle and bridle are both pecuhar, 
 and necessary to the trade of the vaquero. The saddle-tree, or 
 fuste^ is made of four pieces of wood, two of which are longi- 
 tudinal and rest on the sides of the horse ; one forms a high 
 back ; and the fourth is a fork, which rises in a large strong 
 horn. The pieces are strongly fastened together, and the 
 whole framework is covered with wet rawhide, which shrinks 
 when dry, and contributes much to its strength. A good fuste 
 is stout enough to hold the strongest bull. The girth is four 
 inches wide, and is made of a number of little ropes of horse- 
 hair, connecting two iron rings four inches in diameter. One 
 of these .rings is fastened on the right side of the saddle, by 
 straps running over the front and back of the fuste ; and a 
 similar ring is fastened in like manner on the left side of the 
 fuste. In this latter ring is a rawhide strap three feet long. 
 When the saddle is to be fastened, this strap runs through the 
 ring at the loose end of the girth, then through the upper ring, 
 then down to the girth ring again ; and the vaquero pulls, and 
 usually draws so tightly that the wide girth cuts into the 
 horse's belly and evidently displaces its contents. When a 
 vaquero is preparing for a day of lassoing, there is no danger 
 that the saddle will slip. The girth has no buckle about it, 
 and is made wide to give it strength and to prevent it from 
 hurting the horse. It is placed farther back than in American 
 saddles, and rarely cuts the skin, just behind the fore-legs. 
 Sometimes in lassoing, the animal caught will get off sideways 
 from the horse, and the saddle must be so firmly in its place, 
 that it cannot move ; and sometimes the vaquero will drop his 
 reata after having caught his cow or horse, and then while his 
 horse is going at full speed he must reach down, supporting 
 himself with one hand on the horn of the saddle and with the 
 other seize the reata. For such feats, the girth must not bo 
 loose. The stirrups are of wood, about three inches wide, and 
 
228 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 are covered in front with pieces of thick leather, called tapW' 
 deras^ which prevent the feet from slipping through. The 
 fiiste is usually covered by large flaps of leather called mochilas, 
 and along the stirrup-straps are pieces of leather called suda- 
 deras^ to protect the legs of the rider from the sweat of the 
 horse's side. Cruppers and martingales are never used by the 
 Spanish-Californians. The bridle is so made that a hard pull 
 ,on the rein hurts the horse, and a severe jerk will throw him 
 back on his haunches. The bit has an arm projecting about 
 two inches up in the mouth. On ordinary occasions this arm 
 lies flat on the tongue, but when the rein is pulled it rises and 
 presses against the roof of the mouth. The slightest pull, 
 therefore, on a Spanish bridle is felt by the horse, and he will 
 stop instantaneously, though at full speed, if the reins be jerked 
 severely. It may be cruel to the horse, but it is very conve- 
 nient to the rider, and necessary to the vaquei'o. 
 
 The common gait of the Californian horse under the saddle 
 is the gallop. He never paces or racks, and rarely tries a 
 sharp trot, but rests himself with a walk or a slow trot. His 
 gallop has an easy motion which does not tire the rider in fifty 
 miles. He has an excellent speed for a race of a quarter a mile, 
 but he cannot run two-mile heats with the thoroughbred, though 
 for a gallop of a hundred miles he has probably no superior. 
 
 Many of the Californian horses have of late years been bro- 
 ken to the wagon and the plough, and they do very well for 
 farm work, though not equal to American horses. 
 
 § 167. Blood-horses. — The American horses, that is the com- 
 mon stock of horses brought from the Atlantic States within 
 the last twelve years, and their oftspring, are large, fine animals, 
 not so healthy and tough as the Californian horses, but larger, 
 more active, stronger and more handsome in shape and color. 
 
 A large number of stallions and mares of fine blood have 
 been imported, including about fifty thoroughbreds or English 
 racers, two dozen Morgans or American trotters, and a dozen 
 Clydesdale and Flemish, or heavy cart and truck horses. Some 
 of these horses are valued as high as ten thousand dollars 
 
AGKICULTURE. 229 
 
 apiece. The Clydesdale and Flemish are considered the most 
 valuable for crossing with the Californian mares, the offspring 
 being lai'ge, strong farm-horses, worth twice as much in the 
 market as the pure Californian. The thoroughbred horses in 
 California are of the purest blood, and some of them have few 
 superiors in speed in any country. 
 
 § 168. 3£ules. — Nearly all the farm work of California, 
 where draught animals are necessary, is done with horses. 
 Mules are too dear and oxen are too slow. A great number 
 of mules and horses are used in packing merchandise in those 
 districts where there are no good wagon-roads. For the or- 
 dinary uses of the farm the mule is preferable to the horse, 
 being longer-lived, more healthy, not so much injured physi- 
 cally or morally by ill-treatment, and contented Avith much 
 cheaper and simpler food. But the mule is not considered 
 handsome, and the small farmer wants a horse which he can 
 ride, and with which he can take his fixmily out, so he never 
 gets a mule. Mules are now used on very few farms, but I 
 think they will gradually gain in fovor. Few mules are bred 
 in the state at present, but there are some excellent jacks in 
 Contra Costa county and in the San Joaquin valley. 
 
 § 169. Camels. — Some camels have been introduced into 
 California, but they are as yet few in number, and have been 
 here but a short time. Our experience with them is therefore 
 small, and we do not know what value they are to have in the 
 future. They a^-e healthy, increase, thrive on our wild pas- 
 tures, are strong and active, climb our rugged mountains as 
 well as horses or mules, carry loads of one thousand pounds 
 each, go three or four days at a time without water, and are 
 readily managed ; but they have not been tried in a regular 
 business way, and such trial is necessary before we can tell 
 what they are to be. 
 
 § 170. Sheep. — The climate of California is peculinrly favor- 
 able to the growth, increase, and health of the sheep. Our 
 mild winters permit them to grow throughout tlie year; and 
 it is an accepted principle : mong those familiar with the sub- 
 
230 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 ject, tiiat a sheep, born and bred in California, is, at two years 
 of age, usually as large and heavy as one of three years, born 
 and bred in the Atlantic States. The ewes produce twins and 
 triplets more frequently here than east of the Kocky Moun- 
 tains. The health of the herds is better. 'No fatal disease has 
 ever prevailed to any serious extent. The " scab" exists in 
 many herds, but in a mild form, and few have died of it. It is 
 the general opinion of sheep-breeders that the sheep bred in 
 Cahfornia will produce more wool than those of other states. 
 The heaviest unwashed fleece on record, is that of " Grizzly," 
 a French Merino buck. It was fourteen months old, weighed 
 forty-two pounds, and was sheared by Flint, Bixby & Co., in 
 Monterey county, in 1859. 
 
 Sheep in California are never kept under shelter, and except 
 a few of fine blood, seldom get any food save such as they 
 can pick up on the open hills and plains. Sometimes lambs 
 are lost with cold, but this is very rare when they are well 
 managed. At night the herds are driven into corrals or pens, 
 to protect them against the coyotes, and to keep them from 
 being lost. On the large sheep ranches, one herdsman is em- 
 ployed for a thousand sheep. There are a few shepherd-dogs 
 in the state, some brought from Australia, others from Scot- 
 land. The word " corral" is understood by these dogs, and 
 when they hear it, they immediately drive the herd to the 
 corral. At the sight of a wolf, they hastily collect the sheep 
 into a dense body, with their tails out and the lambs in the 
 centre. If a sheep turns his head out, the dog bites his knees 
 and makes him turn about. The dog seems to understand 
 that the wolf cannot do much harm by biting the rump of a 
 sheep, but would soon kill it after catching its throat. 
 
 In most other sheep countries, tlie sheep-breeder is at great 
 disadvantages as compared with California ; the land is dear ; 
 it must be cultivated ; the sheep must be fed by hand every 
 day during a considerable part of the year ; the herds must be 
 under shelter in the winter ; four or five men are required, on 
 an average, to attend to a thousand sheep ; the herds are not 
 
AGKICULTURE. 231 
 
 SO healthy, do not increase so rapidly, do not grow so large 
 within the first two years, and do not produce so much wool. 
 The land of the sheep ranches in California is not worth more 
 than five dollars per acre, on an average probably not more 
 than three dollars. It follows that sheep-breeding should be 
 very profitable here, and so it is. The ewes, when properly 
 taken cai'e of, have lambs before they are a year old — increase 
 one hundred per cent, every year. The cost of keeping large 
 herds is variously estimated from thirty-seven to fifty cents 
 per head annually, exclusive of the interest of the land used 
 for pasturage. The wool of a good sheej) will pay twice the 
 cost of keeping it ; and the wool and lamb together, of a fine- 
 blood ewe, are worth eight or ten times the cost. It is the 
 present custom to sell the wethers for mutton when a year old, 
 but this is bad policy, save with the poorest sheep. 
 
 The old missions had large herds of sheep, but after the 
 management of those large establislnnents was taken from 
 the priests and given to civil officers, in 1833, the sheep were 
 neglected and most of them were killed. Twenty years 
 later very few were left in the state, but there was a demand 
 for mutton, so large herds were driven from New Mexico. 
 These were a very poor stock, but they were for a long time 
 the only sheep that could be had, and they now form the great 
 majority of the sheep in the state. The first attempt to breed 
 sheep as an exclusive business in California, since the Ameri- 
 can conquest, was commenced in 1853, by a poor man who 
 had nothing save nine hundred ewes ; and they increased so 
 rapidly and proved so profitable, that now, if report be true, 
 he has ten thousand sheep, sixteen thousand acres of land, and 
 other property to the value of one hundred thousand dollars. 
 Within the last three years many sheep of fine blood have been 
 imported, and these will gradually swallow up the Mexican 
 stock. The imported kinds are American, Southdown, Aus- 
 tralian Merino, Fiench Merino, and Spanish Merino. Of the 
 two latter varieties there are few save bucks. The prices of 
 sheep fluctuate, but the relative prices of the different breeds 
 
232 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 remain about the same. Thus when a Mexican ewe is worth 
 about three dolkirs, an American is worth five dollars, a half- 
 Merino six dollars, a Southdown six dollars, and an Australian 
 Merino twelve dollars. The Mexican sheep produces on an 
 average two pounds of wool per year, worth from five to 
 seven cents per pound ; the American four pounds, worth from 
 fifteen to twenty cents ; the half-Merino six pounds, worth 
 from eighteen to twenty-four cents; the Southdown five pounds, 
 worth twenty or twenty-one cents; the Australian Merino 
 seven pounds, worth twenty or twenty-one cents. These 
 weights indicate the weights of the unwashed fleeces, and the 
 prices paid in this market for unwashed wool. The Californian 
 wool, especially that grown in the southern part of the state, 
 is filled with grease, dust, and sand. In one case, a fleece 
 weighing sixteen pounds was reduced by washing to six 
 ]^ounds. The finer the wool, and the forther south it is grown, 
 the greater the proportion of dirt. The wool grown in the 
 northern part of the Sacramento valley, is cleaner than that 
 of Alameda county, and that of the latter place is superior to 
 the wool of San Luis Obispo. There are a few Chinese sheep in 
 the state, and much value was for a time attached to them, 
 because the ewes very frequently produce triplets, but it re- 
 quires a good ewe to suckle two lambs well, and twins are 
 sufliciently abundant among American sheep. Sheep-growers 
 are divided in opinion as to whether the Fi-ench or Spanish 
 Merino be the best sheep for the state. The French Merino 
 grows large, and averages more wool to the sheep than any 
 other kind, but it is said that the Spanish Mei'ino, though 
 smaller, will produce more wool to the acre. About a thou- 
 sand sheep are kept in a herd. One sheep-owner in Monterey 
 county has 30,000 head ; and others have 15,000 and 20,000 
 head each. The largest sheep county is Monterey, which has 
 about 150,000; Solano has nearly as many, and after these 
 come Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Luis Obispo. 
 There are about 900,000 sheep in the state, and their number 
 is rapidly increasing. One of the drawbacks of wool-growing 
 
AG lil CU LTU KE. 233 
 
 in California is, that in tlie summer the wool gets full of the 
 little burs of the bur-clover, which gives much trouble in wash- 
 ing and carding. By sheering early this trouble is to some 
 extent avoided. Of course the sheep gi'ow lean in the late 
 f:il!, as do the horses and neat cattle, and some of tliem die of 
 starvation. The same remarks may apply to high-bk)od sheep 
 as to other high-blood animals — they must degenerate if they 
 get no cultivated food ; but the stock may be kept up by cross- 
 ing with high-fed bucks of pure blood. 
 
 § I7l. Swine. — Swine are not favorite animals in Califor- 
 nia. They increase rapidly and are healthy, and their meat 
 commands a high price, but they do not thrive upon the dry- 
 pastures ; they are not permitted to run at large in many coun- 
 ties ; the mast is scanty in the agricultural counties, and grain 
 suital)!e for feed is dear. It is probable that in a few years 
 gi'eat numbers of swine will be bred in the tules, the roots of 
 wiiich they like to eat ; but the tule-lands at present are in 
 wide undivided tracts, and the swine which have access to 
 them soon get lost. The present number of swine in the state 
 is about six hundred thousand. 
 
 § 172. Poultry. — Poultry command very high prices in this 
 state, but all attempts to breed them on a large scale, have 
 proved unprofitable. Hens are worth from fifty to seventy- 
 five cents each, and eggs from twenty-five to fifty cents per 
 dozen. Chickens are healthy and increase rapidly in small 
 poultry-yards or farms ; but when more than five hundred are 
 collected a fatal epidemic appears, and they die off. The dis- 
 ease seems to be a kind of apoplexy, for it attacks the fattest 
 chickens, and they die suddenly. One large hennery, on the 
 French plan, has been established about eight miles from Oak- 
 land, and it contains one thousand five hundred hens, with 
 accommodations for five thousand. The poultry-yard covers 
 four acres of ground, and one acre of it is separated from the 
 remainder. The hens lay in the lower story of a frame house, 
 which is open on one side. The nests are in a long trough, a 
 foot square, open on top, and separated into nests by partitions. 
 
234 EESOFRCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 Each nest has some hay in it and a mock egg of porcelain. 
 Several times in the course of a day, the eggs are taken out 
 and placed in a covered box near at hand. Four or five hens 
 may use the same nest in the course of a day, and if the eggs 
 were left in the nest the warmth might start the development 
 of the chick, and injure the egg for either hatching or eating. 
 It is considered bad policy to let a hen sit on eggs while lay- 
 ing, even if she is to hatch them herself, for some will be far- 
 ther advanced in incubation than others, and then the propor- 
 tion of loss will be great. Over the laying department is the 
 roosting place, which is eighteen feet high, and his the perches 
 so fixed that the droppings of one hen do not fall on another 
 A stairway leads up from the ground to the roosting chamber 
 In the lower story of another house is the hatching dejDart- 
 ment, with nests for six hundred hens. The nests are about a 
 foot square, with a door in front, opening on a level with the 
 floor. They are numbered and divided into sections, each of 
 which has one door, and has hens which commenced sitting at 
 the same date. The hens are fed by sections ; ten, twenty or 
 thirty being let out at a time, and called to eat. When first 
 called they do not understand it, and after they have eaten, 
 they have difficulty in finding their places ; but in three or four 
 days they come out immediately as soon as the door is opened, 
 and when the signal for closing is given, they go to their places 
 without the least confusion. About a dozen eggs, usually not 
 more than four, and never more than ten days old, are given to 
 each sitting hen, and of this dozen, nine or ten are hatched on 
 an average. Every nest has snuff" in the bottom of it to keep out 
 the lice. When the hen has hatched out her bi'ood, she and 
 they are transferred to the "young-chick room," over the 
 hatching room, where every hen is put in a pen. During the 
 first twenty-four hours the little chicks get nothing to eat ; 
 then they are fed twice on fine bread, after that on boiled rice 
 and corn-meal. They are fed four times a day. When five 
 days old, the chicks, with their mother, are placed in the 
 smaller enclosure of the poultry-yard, which has several 
 
ageicultijRe. 235 
 
 streams of clear water running through it, bushes andmustard- 
 phmts for shade, and boxes into which the hens can retire for 
 protection against the cokl and rain. AVhen the young brood 
 enters the yard, the oldei- occupants, or some of them, make war 
 on it, and one chick in a dozen is slain in these hostilities. After 
 the hen has proved by fighting her right to be there, peace is 
 restored, and she and her little ones are ready to make war on 
 any subsequent intruders. After the chickens are three months 
 old, they are turned into the large yard, where tliey have to 
 struggle for their food and lives, with all the old hens and 
 cocks on the place. In the large yard the chickens are fed 
 twice a day, and four ounces to each chicken per day. The 
 food is wheat, rice, oats, barley, raw meat, cabbage-leaves, 
 sorrel, chalk, oyster-shells, and green mustard. Regularity in 
 the time of feeding is considered a matter of much import- 
 ance. There should be one cock to a dozen hens. The hens 
 commence laying when about eight months old and lay most 
 in their second year. They will continue laying till their fifth 
 or sixth year, but they are usually killed about the end of the 
 fourth year. Hens that eat eggs and that crow are killed. 
 Hens which want to sit when their services are not needed in 
 that way, are shut up in the callaboose, kept there one or two 
 days, with no food save green vegetables, ducked several times 
 in cold water and then let out cured. In eight or ten days 
 they are ready to commence laying again. A hen will lay 
 fifteen or eighteen eggs before wanting to sit. 
 
 One man near Oakland, devotes himself entirely to the busi- 
 ness of breeding rabbits, and according to rumor, finds it very 
 profitable. 
 
 Goats, pigeons, and pheasants are bred in California, but on 
 only a small scale. 
 
 § 1*73. Bees. — There were no bees in California until witliin 
 the last seven years, and it was supposed they could not live 
 here, because of the dryness of the vegetation during the last 
 half of the year ; but for these insects, as for larger animals, 
 it was found on trial, that our climate is peculiarly favorable, 
 
236 RESOURCES OF CALIEOENIA. 
 
 and that they thrive better here than east of the mountains. 
 A good hive here will make two hundred pounds of honey, or 
 may be made to produce twenty swarms in a season, an in- 
 crease ten times as great, and a production of honey five times 
 as large as that in the Eastern States. Mr. H. Hamilton, a 
 bee-keeper of Stockton, reports that he had thirty-five swarms 
 of bees on the first of February, 1860 ; and by the first of 
 October, they had increased to five hundred hives, and pro- 
 duced twenty thousand and seventy-five pounds of honey ; a 
 production said to be witliout parallel. Bees are not idle during 
 six months of the year, as in New York, but busy during nine 
 or ten months. They find their food in wild and cultivated 
 flowers, in the blossoms of manzanita bushes, fruit-trees, grasses, 
 clovers, and grains, in grapes, fruits, and honey-dew. They 
 ^seem to thrive in the driest portions of the state, where there 
 are no cultivated fields and no flowers or green herbage. They 
 are very fond of apricots, which they eat in places where the 
 skin has been previously cut through by bugs. When the 
 latter have made a hole, the bees come and eat side by side 
 with the bugs, which are of the "lady-bug" kind, and other 
 similar species. Many of the bees lose their lives in conse- 
 quence of their fondness for the apricot. Either they eat too 
 much, or they eat the meat after it has passed into the alco- 
 holic fermentation ; but whether intoxicated or surfeited, they 
 are unable to get home, and they perish during the night. In 
 places where the honey-dew is abundant, especially in the 
 mountains on the eastern border of the Tulare valley, the 
 bees make honey very rapidly. When the food for bees was 
 becomins: scarce in the midsummer of 1860, in the Santa Clara 
 valley, a man owning seventy hives sent them to the vicinity 
 of Yisalia, so that they could get honey-dew. Indeed it is the 
 custom of several bee-keepers in California, to move their bees 
 about from place to place, according to the pasture and the 
 season. Hitherto little honey has been sold in the market, the 
 chief object of bee-keepers being to produce swarms, which 
 for a time were worth one hundred dollars each This busi- 
 
AGEICULTUKE. CS7 
 
 ness yielded so large a profit that a dozen men devoted them- 
 selves to it exclusively, and some of them, who commenced 
 five years ago with only three or four hives, now have com- 
 fortable f( rtunes. The liives have increased so rapidly, how- 
 ever, that they have fallen greatly in value, and are now worth 
 from ten to thirty dollars each ; and honey, M^hich is worth one 
 dollar per pound, will come into the market. The honey made 
 in the mountains is very similar in quality to that of the East- 
 ern sta^yfs ; that made in the valleys is not so good. Many 
 swarm.fl. have gone off and found homes for themselves in the 
 woods, so it is not rare to find " bee-trees." Most of the bees 
 in th'i Sacramento basin during 1861, were destroyed by the 
 floo'J of 1862. 
 
 § 1 74. Silkicorms. — A few silkworms have been hatched in 
 California, and have been found to thrive extremely well, but 
 the high price of labor has prevented any extensive experi- 
 ment in the production of silk. Our climate is very favorable 
 to them in three respects, equability of temperature, exemption 
 from electrical convulsions, and dryness in summer. The silk- 
 worms should be kept at a temperature of about 75° Fahren- 
 heit, and this is very near the summer temperature of some of 
 the valleys near the coast. Extreme heat and extreme cold 
 are both very prejudicial to them. A considerable pi'oportion of 
 them will die if the thermometer falls to 45° or rises to 100° ; 
 thunderstorms kill a large portion of the worms every year 
 in France, Italy, and China ; in California such storms are un- 
 known. In all the countries where silk is now produced ex- 
 tensively, there are showers which wet the mulberi-y leaves, 
 and this moisture gives a diarrhoea to the worms whereby 
 many are killed. These are important advantages, and may 
 enable us to compete soon with Europe and China in the 2:)ro- 
 duction of silk. 
 
 Note. — I owe acknowledgments for information about grain to J. W. Os- 
 born, of Napa; about fruit to A. A. Cohen, of Alameda; about the grape to 
 Charles Kohler; about the orange to John Frohling; and about the quality 
 of wheat from different districts to Isaac Friedlander, of San Francisco. 
 
!38 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MINING. 
 
 §175. Chief Lidustry. — Mining is the chief industry of 
 California. It employs more men and pays larger average 
 wages, than any other branch of physical labor. Although it 
 has been gradually decreasing in the amount of its production, 
 in the profits to the individuals engaged in it, and in its rela- 
 tive importance in the business of the state, it is yet and will 
 long continue to be the largest source of our wealth, and the 
 basis to support the other kinds of occupation. 
 
 § 176. 3Ietals obtained. — Our mines now wrought are of 
 gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, and coal. Ores of tin, lead, 
 and antimony in large veins, beds of sulphur, alum, and as- 
 phaltum ; lakes of borax and springs of sulphate of magnesia, 
 are also found in the state, but they are not wrought at the 
 present time, though they will probably all become valuable 
 in a few years. Platinum, iridium, and osmium are obtained 
 with the gold in some of the placer mines, but are never found 
 alone, nor are they ever the main object sought by the miner. 
 The annual yield of our gold mines is about forty millions of 
 dollars, of our quicksilver two millions of dollars. Our silver, 
 copper, and coal mines have been opened within a year, and 
 their value is yet unknown. All our other mining is of little 
 importance as compared with the gold. 
 
 § 177. Gold Mines. — Our gold mines are divided into pla- 
 cer and quartz. In the former, the metal is found imbedded in 
 layers of earthy matter, such as clay, sand, and gravel ; in the 
 latter it is incased in veins of rock. The methods of mining 
 must be adapted to the size of the particles of gold, and the 
 
MINING. 239 
 
 nature of the material in which they are found. In placer 
 mining, the earthy matter containing the gold, called the " pay- 
 dirt," is washed in water, which dissolves the clay and carries 
 it off in solution, and the current sweeps away the sand, gravel, 
 and stones, while the gold, by reason of the higher specific 
 gravity, remains in the channel or is caught with quicksilver. 
 In quartz mining the auriferous rock is ground to a, very fine 
 powder, the gold in which is caught in quicksilver, or on the 
 rough surface of a blanket, over which the fine material is 
 borne by a stream of water. About two-thirds of our gold is 
 obtained from the placers, and one-third from the quartz. 
 
 A mine is defined and generally understood to mean " a 
 subterraneous work or excavation for obtaining metals, metallic 
 ores or mineral substances ;" but this definition does not apply 
 to our placer mines, which are places where gold is taken from 
 diluvial or alluvial deposits. Most of the work is not subter- 
 raneous ; it is done in the full light of day. In some of the 
 claims the pay-dirt lies within two feet of the surface ; in 
 others it lies much deeper, but all the superincumbent matter 
 is swept away. 
 
 "Water is the great agent of the placer miner ; it is the ele- 
 ment of his power ; its amount is the measure of his work, 
 and its cost is the measure of his profit. With an abundance 
 of water he can wash every thing ; without water he can do 
 little or nothing. Placer mining is almost entirely mechanical, 
 and of such a kind that no accuracy of workmanship or scien- 
 tific or literary education is necessary to mastery in it. Amal- 
 gamation is a chemical process it is true, but it is so simple 
 that after a few days' experience, the rudest laborer will man- 
 age it as well as the most thorough chemist. 
 
 It is impossible to ascertain the amount of gold which 
 has been taken from the mines of California. Records have 
 been kept of the sums manifested at the San Francisco Custom 
 House, for exportation, and deposited for coinage in the mints 
 of the United States ; and there is also some knowledge of 
 the amounts sent in bars and dust to England ; but we have 
 
240 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 no account of the sums carried by passengers to foreign coun- 
 tries and coined elsewhere than at London, or used as jewelry, 
 or of the amount now in circulation in this state. According 
 to the books of the custom-house of San Francisco, the sums 
 manifested for export were as follows : 
 
 In 1840, $4,921,250; in 1850, |2'7,676,346 ; in 1851, $42,- 
 582,695; in 1852, $46,586,134 ; in 1853, $57,331,034 ; in 1854, 
 $51,328,653; in 1855, $45,182,631 ; in 1856, $48,887,543; in 
 1857, $48,976,697 ; in 1858, $47,548,025 ; in 1859, $47,640,462 ; 
 in 1860, $42,303,345; in 1861, $40,639,089; a total of $551,603,- 
 904 in twelve years. 
 
 The exportation of gold commenced in 1848, but we have 
 no record of the sums sent aw^ay in that year. Previous to 
 1854 very large sums were carried away by pnssengers, who 
 gave no statement at the custom-house ; since that year, the 
 manifests show the exportation correctly within a few millions. 
 I am entirely satisfied that the total gold yield of California 
 has been not less than seven hundred millions of dollars ; but 
 I have not room here to state the reasons for this opinion. My 
 estimate is considerably less than that of most business men 
 of the state, and less than that made by Hunt's Merchants' 
 Magazine. There Avas undoubtedly a regular increase in the 
 annual yield of the mines from 1848 to the end of 1853 ; and 
 there has been a gradual decrease since the beginning of 1854 
 — a decrease perhaps not very regular but still certain. Since 
 1854 considerable sums exported from San Francisco and in- 
 cluded in our tables, came from mines beyond the limits of 
 California, such as the mines in Southern Oregon, in the east- 
 ern part of Washington Territory, in British Columbia, auil 
 in Nevada Territory ; and while the Californian gold yield has 
 been decreasing, these extraneous sui>plies have been incre: s- 
 ing. Several millions must be deducted from the annual 
 shipments since 1858, for foreign gold. The gold yield wii 
 undoubtedly continue to fill, but to what point and at what 
 rate no one can knoAV. I believe that in 1870, the yield will 
 not exceed thirtv millions of dollars. 
 
MINTING. 241 
 
 § ITS. Placer M'mes. — Placer mines are divided into many 
 classifications. The first and most important is into deep and 
 shallow. In the former the pay-dirt is found deep, twenty 
 feet or more beneath the surface ; in the latter, near the sur- 
 face. The shallow or surface diggings are chiefly found in the 
 beds of ravines and gullies, in the bars of rivers, and in shal- 
 low flats ; the deep diggings are in hills and deep flats. The 
 pay-dirt is usually covered by layers of barren dirt, which is 
 sometimes washed, and sometimes left undisturbed, while the 
 pay-diit is taken out from beneath it through tunnels or shafts. 
 So far as our present information goes, we have reason to be- 
 lieve that no gold country ever possessed so large an extent 
 of paying placer mines, with the pay-dirt so near the surface, 
 and with so many facilities for working them as California. 
 In Australia the diggings nre very deep and spotted, that is, 
 the gold is unevenly distributed, and the supply of water for 
 mining is scanty. In Siberia the winter is terribly cold during 
 six months of the year. In Brazil the diggings were not so 
 extensive nor so rich as in this state. Here we have numerous 
 large streams coming down through the mining districts, very 
 large bodies of pay-dirt, and a mild climate. 
 
 After dividing placers into deep and shallow, the next clas- 
 sification will be according to their topographical position, as 
 into hill, flat, bench, bar, river-bed, ancient river-bed, and 
 gulch mines. Hill diggings are tliose where the pay-dirt is 
 in or under a hill. Flat diggings are in a flat. Bench dig- 
 gings are in a " bench" or narrow table on the side of a hill 
 a- ove a river. Benches of this kind are not uncommon in 
 California, and they often indicate the place where the stream 
 ran in some very remote age. Bars are low collections of 
 s.uid an<l gravel at the side of a river and above its surface at 
 low water. River-bed claims are those beneath the surface of 
 the river at low water, and access is obtained to them only by 
 removing the water fi-om the bed by flumes or ditches. An- 
 cient river-bed claims are those of which the gold was deposited 
 b V streams in places where no streams now exist. Gulch claims 
 11 
 
242 KESOUllCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 are those in gullies which have no water, save during a small 
 part of the year. A " claim" is the mining land owned or 
 held by one man or a company. 
 
 The placer mines are again classified according to the man- 
 ner in which, or the instruments with which they are wrought. 
 There are sluice claims, hydraulic claims, tunnel claims, dry 
 w^ashing, dry digging, and knife claims. In 1849 and 1850, 
 the main classification of the placers was into wet diggings 
 and dry diggings, the former meaning mines in the bars and 
 beds of rivers, and dry diggings were those in gullies and flats 
 where water could be obtained only part of the year or not at 
 all. That classification was made while nearly all the mining 
 was done near the surface, before the great deposits of pay- 
 dirt in the hills had been discovered, and before ditches, sluices, 
 and the hydraulic process had been introduced. The class of 
 mines then known as the " dry diggings," and which for 
 several years furnished nearly half of the gold yield of the 
 state, are now, with a few unimportant exceptions, exhausted, 
 or left to the attention of the Chinamen. 
 
 The purpose of all placer miners is not to catch all the gold 
 in the dirt which they wash, but to catch the greatest possible 
 quantity within a given time. It is not supposed that any 
 process used in gold mining catches all the metal. Part of it is 
 lost ; in some processes a considerable j)roportion. The general 
 estimate in California is, that one-twentieth of the gold in the 
 dirt which is washed is lost. Many of the particles are so 
 very small as to be invisible to the naked eye, and so light 
 that their specific gravity does not avail to prevent them from 
 being carried away by the water like sand. The larger pieces 
 will sink to the bottom and resist the force of the water ; the 
 smaller the particles, the greater the danger that it will be 
 borne away. Many devices have been tried to catch all the 
 gold, but none have succeeded perfectly, and some which have 
 caught a portion of what escaped from the ordinary modes of 
 mining, have been found to cost more than their yield. The 
 miner does not grieve about that which he cannot catch. Ho 
 
MINIXG. 243 
 
 is not careful to catch all tliat he could. His purpose is to 
 draw the largest possible revenue per day from his claim. He 
 does not intend to spend many years in mining, or if he does 
 he has become thriftless and improvident. In cither case, he 
 wislies to derive the utmost immediate profit from his mine. 
 If his claim contain a dollar to the ton, and he can save five 
 dollars by slowly washing only six tons in a day, while he 
 might make ten dollars by rapidly washing fifteen tons in a 
 day, he ^vi\\ prefer the latter result, though he will lose twice 
 as much of the precious metal by the fast as by the slow mode 
 of working. The object of the miner is the practical dispatch 
 of Avork, and his success will depend to a great extent upon 
 the amount of dirt which he can wash within a given space of 
 time. He regrets that any of the gold should be w^asted, but 
 his regret is because it escapes from his sluice and his pocket, 
 rather than because it is lost to industry and commerce. 
 
 § 179. T/ie Sluice. — The board-sluice is a long wooden 
 trough, through which a constant stream of water runs, and 
 into which the auriferous dirt is thrown. The water carries 
 away the clay, sand, gravel, and stones, and leaves the gold in 
 the bottom of the sluice, w^here it is caught by its gravity and 
 by quicksilver. The board-sluice is the great washing ma- 
 chine, and the most important instrument used in the placer 
 mining of Oalirornia. It washes nearly all the dirt and catches 
 nearly all the placer gold of the country. It w^as invented 
 here, although it had previously been used elsewhere ; it has 
 been more extensively employed here than in any other country, 
 and it can be used here to more advantage than elsewhere. It 
 is not less than fifty feet long, nor less than a foot wide, made 
 of boards. The w idth is usually sixteen or eighteen inches ; 
 and never exceeds five feet. The length is ordinarily several 
 .hundred and sometimes several thousand feet. It is made 
 in sections or "boxes" twelve or fourteen feet long. The 
 boards are an inch and a half thick, and are sawn for that 
 special purpose, the bottom boards being four inches wider at 
 one end than the other. The narrow end of one box therefore 
 
244 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Its in the wide end of another, and in that way the shiice is 
 put together, a long succession of boxes, the lower end of 
 each resting in the upper end of another, and not fastened 
 together otherwise. These boxes stand upon trestles, with a 
 descent varying from eight to eighteen inches in twelve feet. 
 It is therefore an easy matter to put up or take down a sluice 
 after the boxes are made, and it is not uncommon for the 
 miners to haul their boxes from one claim to another. The 
 descent of a sluice is usually the same throughout its length, 
 and is called its " grade." If there be a fall of eight inches 
 in twelve feet, the sluice has an " eight-inch grade," and if the 
 fall be twice as great, it is a " sixteen-inch grade." The grade 
 depends upon the character of the pay-dirt, the length of the 
 sluice, and its position. The steeper the descent, the more 
 rapidly the dirt is dissolved, but the greater the danger also 
 that the fine particles of gold will be carried away by the 
 water. The tougher the dirt, that is, the greater its resistance 
 to the dissolving power of the water, the steeper, other things 
 being equal, should be the sluice. A slow current does not 
 dissolve tough clay, and that is the greater part of the pay- 
 dirt, so rapidly as a swift one. The shorter the sluice, other 
 things being equal, the smaller the grade should be. There is 
 more danger that the fine particles of gold will be lost by a 
 short sluice than by a longer one, and to diminish this danger, 
 the rapidity of the current must be reduced by a small grade. 
 The greater the amount of dirt to be washed, other things 
 being equal, the steeper should be the grade ; for a swift cur- 
 rent will wash more dirt than a sIoav one. In many claims 
 the pay-dirt is full of large stones and boulders, weighing from 
 one hundred to five hundred pounds each, all of which must be 
 carried away through the sluice. Some are sent down whole, 
 and others are broken into pieces Avith sledge-hammers before 
 they are thrown into the box. These require a swift current 
 and a large body of water. The larger the supply of water, 
 the steeper the sluice is made, other things being equal. Of 
 course economy and convenience of working require that the 
 
MINING. 245 
 
 sluice should be near the level of the ground, and as that may 
 be steep or level below the claim, the grade of the sluice must 
 to some extent conform to it. There are thus a multitude of 
 points to be taken into consideration in fixing the grade of a 
 sluice ; but a fall of less than eight or more than twenty inches, 
 in a box of twelve feet, would be considered as unsuitable for 
 the board-sluice. Sometimes the upper part of the sluice is 
 made steeper so as to dissolve the dirt, and the lower jiart has 
 a small grade to catch the gold. The clayey matter of ordi- 
 nary pay-dirt is fully dissolved in a sluice two hundred feet 
 long with a low grade, so the use of the boxes beyond that 
 length is merely to catch the gold. There are claims however 
 in which the clay is so extremely tough that it will roll in 
 large balls more than a quarter of a mile through a steep sluice 
 with a large head of water, and come out at the lower end 
 scarcely diminished in size. 
 
 The gold is caught in the sluice-boxes by false bottoms of 
 various kinds. It would not do to leave the smooth boards, 
 for the water would sweep all the gold away, and the boards 
 themselves would soon be worn through. The most common 
 false bottom is the longitudinal riffle-bar, which is from two to 
 four inches thick, from three to seven inches wide, and six feet 
 long. Two sets of these riffle-bars go into each sluice-box, the 
 box being twice as long as the bar. A set of riffle-bars is as 
 many as fill one-half of a box. They are wedged in, from an inch 
 to two inches apart ; the wedging being used, because the bars 
 can more readily be fastened in their places, and more easily 
 taken up, than if nails Avere used. Before the work of sluicing 
 commences, all the boxes are fitted with riffle-bars, and the 
 bottom of the sluice is therefore full of holes from one to two 
 inches wide, from three to seven inches deep, and six feet long. 
 These are the places in which the gold, quicksilver, and amal- 
 gam are caught. Quicksilver is used now in nearly all the sluices, 
 and is the more necessary the smaller the particles of gold. 
 The large pieces of the metal would all be caught by their 
 specific gravity without the aid of amalgamation. 
 
246 EESOUKCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 The sluice-boxes having been made, and set up with th 
 proper grade, the water is turned in. The boxes are made ot 
 the rough boards as they come from the saw, and the joints are 
 not waterproof, but the leaks are soon stopped by the swelling 
 of the wood, or by the dirt. The stream of water in the sluici 
 is at least two inches deep over the bottom. The height of 
 the sides of the boxes is from eight inches to two feet. The 
 sluice usually runs through the claim, and the auriferous dirt 
 is thrown in with shovels, of which from four to twenty are 
 constantly at work. A man will throw in from two to five 
 cubic yards of dirt in one day. The water rushing over the 
 dirt as it lies in the box, rapidly dissolves the clay and loam, 
 and then sweeps the sand, gravel, and stones down. The first 
 dirt in the box goes to fill the spaces between the rifiie-bars. 
 After the sluicing has been in progress a couple of hours, some 
 quicksilver is put in at the head of the sluice, and it gradually 
 finds its way downward, most of it stopping, however, near 
 where it is put in. 
 
 § 180. Atnalgamatio7i. — There are a few metals, including 
 gold, silver, copper, and tin, which, with quicksilver, form a 
 peculiar chemical union called amalgamation, a process of great 
 importance to the gold miner. When a piece of gold or silver 
 is placed in mercury, the latter metal gradually penetrates 
 through it, destroys the coherence of its particles, and forms 
 with it a mass like dough. A lump of gold as large as a bean 
 will be soaked through in three or four days ; with silver and 
 copper the process is slower, but they are affected in the same 
 manner. Amalgamation, though a union of a sohd with a 
 liquid, differs much from a solution. In the latter the union is 
 mechanical ; in the former it its chemical. In the latter the 
 solid is reduced to particles of impalpable fineness ; in the 
 former it is not. An ounce of salt will be dissolved in, and 
 nearly equally diffused through, a pint of water ; but if an ounce 
 of gold be thrown into a pint of quicksilver, it will, after forming 
 an amalgam with the quicksilver, remain at the bottom. We 
 have no texture so fine that it wiU strain salt out of water ; but 
 
MINING. 247 
 
 the particles of gold are so coarse in amalgam that they can 
 easily be strained out by means of buckskin or tight cloths. 
 However a little gold will remain in the quicksilver — about 
 the fiftieth part of an ounce of gold in every pound of quick- 
 silver ; and the only method of obtaining this gold is by re- 
 torting. 
 
 Quicksilver is used in gold mining for catching the small 
 particles of metal ; the large ones are caught by their weight. 
 But many of the particles are so small that they are almost in- 
 visible to the naked eye, and when in moving water they 
 float. Miners frequently show visitors the fineness of their gold 
 by putting some of the dust in a vial with water ; and upon 
 shaking, the particles of metal can be seen floating about in 
 the clear water. Riffles, and all the devices to get the benefit 
 of specific gravity, are of httle use to arrest this " float-gold," 
 so amalgamation is employed. If a bit of quicksilver is put in 
 the w^ay of the fine gold, the two metals unite at once and 
 make a larger bulk, which can be caught. 
 
 There is no such attraction between gold and quicksilver as 
 there is between the magnet and iron ; but when the two for- 
 mer metals once touch, an amalgam is immediately formed, and 
 if the proportions of the metals be about even, they in time 
 make a hard mass. Some gold does not amalgamate readily ; 
 in various diggings of Siskiyou county, the gold has a red- 
 dish coating, which prevents amalgamation. Grease or resin 
 in the water used for washing, is also unfavorable. So is cold. 
 Heat is favorable, and therefore less gold is lost in summer 
 than in winter. Quicksilver that has been once used is consid- 
 ered better than tliat fresh from the flask. 
 
 No tinned iron or copper vessel should be used for holding 
 or panning out amalgam, or dirt containing amalgam ; since 
 quicksilver forms an amalgam with tin and copper, and will 
 stick to the sides of a tinned or copper pan. 
 
 In most sluices, the quicksilver is put in above the riffle- 
 bars at various places along in the boxes, with a confidence 
 that the great specific gravity of the metal will prevent it from 
 
248 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 being lost. The greater the qnaiitity and proportion of fine 
 go](], the greater the importance of the quicksilver. 
 
 The best method of catching very fine gold by amalgama- 
 tion is to cover a large copper plate with mercury, and let tlie 
 dirt and water, in a thickness of not more than a quarter of an 
 inch, pass over it slowly. There are various methods of cover- 
 ing copper plates Avith quicksilver. The first thing, in every 
 case, is to wash the copper with diluted nitric acid, so as to 
 remove all dirt and grease. The quicksilver may then be 
 rubbed on with a rag ; or, still better, it may be dissolved in 
 nitric acid, and the liquid nitrate of quicksilver may be applied 
 with a rag. The nitric acid will attack the copper, and leave the 
 quicksilver as an amalgam on the surface of the copper. This 
 is the most common process, but the nitrate of copper con- 
 tiniies for a long time to come up through the quicksilver and 
 interfere with the catching of the gold. When the nitrate of 
 copper appears — it is a green slime — it should be scraped oif 
 and the place rubbed over with quicksilver. When a plate is 
 once covered with mercury, the operation need never be re- 
 peated ; but more mercury must be sprinkled on as the gold 
 collects and forms a solid amalgam. The plate is usually three 
 feet wide and six feet long, and is set nearly level. In very 
 large sluices the stream should be divided so as to run over 
 difterent plates. The slowness of the current and the shallow- 
 ness of the water are important, for with a swift current or 
 deep water many of the particles of float-gold may escape 
 without touching the quicksilver. Wherever a speck of gold 
 has fixed itself on the plate, there others will collect about it, 
 evidently preferring to fix themselves in a neighborhood rather 
 than in a waste place. The more gold there is on a plate, the 
 better it is considered to be. The seasons for cleaning up are 
 usually determined by the danger of theft. Miners do not like 
 to leave their gold out in quantities so large as to attract 
 thieves. The amalgam is spmetimes half an inch thick, and 
 is usually, at cleanijig-up time, a hard mass, which must be 
 loosened by heat. The plate is put on a fire, and when it gets 
 
MINING, 
 
 249 
 
 so warm that the hand can scarcely bear it, the amalgam is 
 softened and loosened, so that it can be scraped off readily. 
 The ))late is then sprinkled anew with quicksilver, and is ready 
 for use ai^ain. Mercury does not amalgamate with copper so 
 readily as with gold or silver. A copper plate, the sixteenth 
 of an inch tldck, may be used for at least five years, and per- 
 haps for ten ; whereas a gold pLate of equal thickness wouhl, 
 if exposed to the action of quicksilver in the same manner, iall 
 to pieces in a few weeks. After a time the quicksilver per- 
 vades the copper, and gives it a silvery whiteness all through 
 on the under side. It is said that a solution of cyanuret or 
 prussiate of potash, is used instead of nitric acid in applying 
 mercury to copperplates, and that it is still better, there being 
 then no trouble with the green spots of nitrate of copper. 
 
 A good amalgamated copper plate is considered as service- 
 able as a bed of quicksilver of equal size, and it is very much 
 cheaper and more convenient to manage. 
 
 The dirt and water should be admitted to the copper plate, 
 by falUng first through a sheet-iron plate, pierced with holes 
 half an Inch long and a sixteenth of an inch wide. Some 
 miners place this sheet-iron plate immediately over the copper. 
 Very soon after the water and dirt commence to run in the 
 sluice, all the spaces between the riffle-bars are filled with 
 sand, gravel, and dirt; which, however, present many little 
 inequalities of surface, sufficient to catch all the particles of 
 -old larger than a pin-head. The largest gold is caught near 
 the head of the sluice; and the farther down the sluice, the 
 finer the gold. In some sluices, where the pay-dirt contains 
 much coarse gold, the quicksilver is introduced from thirty to 
 sixty yards below the head, so as to catch only the fine par- 
 ticles of metal. « 
 
 § 181. Cleaning 7/^.— The separation of the gold, amalgam, 
 and quicksilver, from the dirt in the bottom of the sluice, is 
 called "cleaning up;" and the period between one "clean- 
 in-" up and another is called a "run." A run m a common 
 bo'ard-sluice usually lasts from six to ten days. Ordmarily the 
 
 IP 
 
250 EESOURCES OF CALIF OKNIA. 
 
 sluice runs only during daylight, but in some claims the work 
 continues night and day. Cleaning up occupies from half a 
 day to a day, and therefore must not be repeated too often, 
 because it consumes too much time. In some sluices the clean- 
 ing up does not occur until the riffle-bars have been worn out 
 or much bruised by the wear of the stones and gravel. Clean- 
 ing up is considered light and pleasant work as compared with 
 other sluicing, and is often reserved for Sunday. At the time 
 fixed, the throwing in of dirt ceases, and the water runs until 
 it becomes clear. Five or six sets of riffle-bars, a distance of 
 thirty or thirty-five feet, are taken up at the head of the sluice, 
 and the dirt between the bars is washed down, while the gold 
 and amalgam lodge above the first remaining set of riffle-bars, 
 whence it is taken out with a scoop or large spoon, and put 
 mto a pan. Five or six more sets of bars are taken up, and 
 so on down. Sometimes all the riffle-bars are taken up at 
 once, save one set in every thirty-six feet, and then the work 
 of cleaning up is dispatched much more rapidly. 
 
 The quicksilver and amalgam taken from the sluice are put 
 into a buckskin or cloth, and pressed, so that the liquid metal 
 passes through, and the amalgam is retained. The amalgam, 
 is then heated, to drive off the mercury. This may be done 
 either in an open pan or in a close retort. In the former, the 
 quicksilver is lost; in the latter, it is saved. The pan is gen- 
 erally preferred. Often a shovel or plate of iron is used. 
 Three pounds of amalgam, from which the liquid metal has 
 been carefully pressed out, will yield one pound of gold. The 
 gold remaining after the quicksilver has been driven off by 
 heat from the amalgam, is a porous mass, somewhat resem- 
 bling sponge-cake in appearance. 
 
 § 1 82. Riffle- Bars. — The riffle-bars are usually sawn longi- 
 tudhially with the grain of the wood, but "block riffle-bars" 
 are considered preferable ; the latter are cut across the tree, 
 and the grain stands upright in the sluice-box. The block 
 riffle-bars are three times more durable than the longitudinal ; 
 and as the latter kind are worn out in a week in some large 
 
MINING. 251 
 
 sluices, there is a considerable saving in using the former. 
 The block riffle-bars are only two or three feet long. 
 
 In some small sluices the riffle-bars are not placed in the 
 boxes longitudinally, nor in sets ; but one bar near the head 
 runs downward at an angle of forty-five degrees to the course 
 of the box, not touching its lower end to the side of the box, 
 but leaving an open space of an inch there. Just below this 
 open space another bar starts from the side of the box and 
 runs downward at right angles to the course of the first bar, 
 and an open space is again left at the end of this bar ; and so 
 on down to near the lower end of the sluice, where there are 
 longitudinal riffle-bars in sets as described in the preceding 
 paragraj^hs. The consequence of using this Idnd of riffle-bar 
 is, that though much of the water and light dirt runs straight 
 over the bars, the heavier material runs down from side to side 
 in a zigzag course. Near the head of the sluice is a vessel, 
 from which quicksilver falls by drops into the box ; and it fol- 
 lows the course of riffle-bars, overtaking the gold which takes 
 the same route. These zigzag riffle-bars are nailed down. In 
 all sluices, men must keep watch to see that the boxes do not 
 choke ; that is, that the dirt and stones do not collect in one 
 place, so as to make a dam, and cause the water to run over 
 the sides, and thus waste the gold. 
 
 There are small sluices, from which all stones as large as a 
 doubled fist are thrown out. For this purpose the miner uses 
 a sluice-fork, which is like a large manure-fork or garden-fork, 
 but has tines which are blunt and of equal width all the way 
 down ; the bluntness being intended to prevent the tines from 
 catching in the wood, and the equality of width to prevent the 
 stones from getting fast in the fork. 
 
 In some sluices, the "block riffle-bars" — that is, bars cut 
 across the grain of the tree — are set transversely in the boxes, 
 and about two inches apart. 
 
 Another device is, to fill the pores of such riffle-bars with 
 quicksilver. This is done by driving an iron cylinder with 
 a sharp edge into the surface of the bar, then putting mercury 
 
252 BESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 into tne cylinder, and pressing it into the wood. The quick- 
 silver, thus fastened in the wood, catches particles of gold, 
 wi}ich must be scraped off when the time for " cleaning up" 
 comes. 
 
 § 183. Double Sluices. — Sluices are sometimes made double 
 — that is, wdth a longitudinal division through the middle, so 
 that there are two distinct sluice-boxes side by side. Two 
 companies may be working side by side, so that it will be 
 cheaper for them to build their sluices jointly. In some places 
 the amount of water varies greatly ; so that in the winter there 
 is enough to run two sluices, and in the summer only one. And 
 there are companies w^hich wish to continue washing without 
 interruption ; so they wash first on one side and then on the 
 other, and clean up without any interruption to the process of 
 washing. 
 
 Another device for saving gold in sluices is the " under-cur- 
 rent box." There is a grating of iron bars in the bottom of a 
 box, near the lower end of a sluice ; and under this grating is 
 another sluice, wdth an additional supply of clean water, and 
 w^ith a lower grade. The grating allows only the fine mate- 
 rial to fall through; and the current of water being moderate, 
 many particles of gold, that w^ould otherw^ise be lost, are saved. 
 Sometimes the matter from the under-current box is led back 
 to the main sluice. 
 
 § 184. Hock- Sluices. — Large sluices are frequently paved 
 with stone, which makes a more durable false bottom than 
 wood, and catches fine gold better than rifile-bars. The stone 
 bottoms have another advantage — that it is not so easy for 
 thieves to come and clean up at night, as is often done in rifile- 
 bar sluices. But, on the other hand, cleaning up is more difii- 
 cult and tedious in a rock-sluice, and so is the putting down of 
 the false bottom after cleaning up. The stones used are cob- 
 bles, six or eight inches through at the greatest diameter, and 
 usually flattish. A good workman will pave eight hundred 
 square feet of sluice-box with them in a day ; and after the wa- 
 ller and dirt have run over them for an hour, they are fastened 
 
MINING. 253 
 
 very tightly l»y the sand collected between them. In large 
 sluices, wooden riffle-bars are worn away very rapidly — the 
 expense amounting sometimes, in very large and long sluices, 
 to twenty or thirty dollars a day ; and in this point tliere is an 
 important saving by using the stone bottoms. They are used 
 only in large sluices, and they generally have a grade of twelve 
 or fourteen inches to tlie box of twelve feet. 
 
 § 185. Hydraulic Mining. — After the board-sluice, with its 
 various adjuncts of rifflc?-b:irs, stone bottoms, co})per plates, 
 and so forth, the next instrument of importance in the gold- 
 mining of California is the hydraulic hose, used to let water 
 down from a considerable height, and throw it under the press- 
 ure of its own weight against the pay-dirt, which is thus torn 
 dowoi, broken up, dissolved, and carried into the sluice below. 
 The sluice is a necessary part of hydraulic mining. The hose 
 is used, not to wash the dirt, but to save digging with shovels, 
 and to carry it to the sluice. 
 
 The hydraulic process is applied only in claims where the 
 dirt is deep and where the water is abundant. If the dirt 
 were shallow in the claim and its vicinity, the necessary head 
 of water could not be obtained. Hydraulic claims are usually 
 in hills. The water is led along on the hill at a height varying 
 from fifty to two hundred feet above the bed-rock, to the claim 
 at the end or side of the hill, where the water, playing against 
 the dirt, soon cuts a large hole, with perpendicular or at least 
 steep banks. At the top of the bank is a little reservoir, con- 
 taining perhaps not more than a hundred gallons, into which 
 the water runs constantly, and from which the hose extends 
 down to the bottom of the claim. The hose is of heavy duck, 
 sometimes double, sewn by machine. This hose when full is 
 from four to ten inches in diameter, and will bear a perpendic- 
 ular column of water fifty feet high ; but a greater height will 
 burst it. Xow, as the force of the stream increases with the 
 height of the water, it is a matter of great importance to have 
 the hose as strong as possible ; and for this purpose, in some 
 claims, it is surrounded by iron bands, which are about two 
 
254 BESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 inches wide, and are connected by four ropes which run per- 
 pendicularly down. The rings are about three inches apart. 
 The " crinoline hose," thus made, is very flexible, and will sup- 
 port a column of water one hundred and fifty or two hundred 
 feet high. The pipe at the end of the hose is like the pipe of 
 a fire-engine hose, though usually larger. Sometimes the pipe 
 wall be eight inches in diameter where it connects with the 
 hose, and not more than two inches at the mouth ; and the 
 force with which the stream rushes from it is so great, that it 
 wall kill a man instantaneously, and tear down a hill more rap- 
 idly than could a hundred men with shovels. 
 
 One or two men are required to hold the pipe. They usu- 
 ally turn the stream upon the bank near its bottom until a 
 large mass of dirt tumbles dow^n, and then they wash this all 
 away into the sluice ; when they commence at the bottom of 
 the bank again, and so on. If the bank is one hundred and 
 fifty feet high, the mass of earth that tumbles down is of 
 course immense, and the pipemen must stand far off, for fear 
 that they will be caught in the avalanche. Such accidents are 
 of daily occurrence, and the deaths from this cause probably 
 are not less than threescore every year in the state. Often 
 legs are broken ; still more frequently the pipemen have warn- 
 ing, and escape in time. When men are buried in the falling 
 dirt, the water is used to wash them out. In some claims, the 
 pipe will tear down more dirt than the sluice can wash ; in 
 other claims, the sluice always demands more dirt than the 
 pipe can bring dow^n. In the latter case, blasting may be used 
 to loosen the dirt, or the miners may undermine the bank, 
 leaving a few columns of dirt for support ; and then these be- 
 ing washed away by the pipe, the whole bank comes tumbling 
 down. 
 
 In hydraulic claims, all the dirt is washed; in all other 
 kinds of claims, such dirt as contains no gold is thrown to one 
 side, or "stripped off." — "Hydraulic mining" is the highest 
 branch of placer mining ; it washes more dirt, and requires 
 more water, and a larger sluice, than any other kind of mining. 
 
MINING. 255 
 
 The number of men employed in a hydraulic claim, however, 
 is usually small, from three to six, the water doing nearly all 
 the work. In some claims a man is constantly employed with 
 a heavy sledge-hammer in breaking up large stones, so that 
 the pieces may be sent down the sluice. One man attends to 
 the sluice, and sees that the dirt does not choke up in the 
 sluice, or in the claim above it. 
 
 The quantity of dirt that can be washed with a hydraulic 
 pipe depends upon various circumstances — such as the sup- 
 ply of water, the height of its fall, the toughness of the dirt, 
 and the amount of moisture in it. More can be washed in win- 
 ter than in summer, because the dirt is then moister, and re- 
 quires less water to loosen and dissolve it. The quantity of 
 water used in a hydraulic claim is from forty to two hundred 
 inclies. With one hundred inches, at least thirty cubic yards 
 can be washed in ten hours, on an average ; and three men 
 can do all the work. If there were a cent's worth of gold in 
 each cubic foot, the thirty cubic yards would yield eight dol- 
 lars and ten cents per day, or two dollars and seventy cents to 
 the man, exclusive of the cost of w\ater. But, as a matter of 
 fact, nearly all the hydraulic claims pay more than that, and 
 they will average at least three cents to the cubic foot, and 
 many of them yield five cents. The water usually costs twen- 
 ty cents an inch per day, so that one hundred inches would 
 cost twenty dollars. Allowing for the water at that rate, a 
 claim in which thirty cubic yards could be washed in a day 
 with one hundred inches of water, and in which the dirt con- 
 tained five cents to the cubic foot, would leave a net pay of six 
 dollars and sixty-six cents to each man per day. 
 
 One hydraulic company, of whose labors I have a note, 
 washed two hundred and twenty-four thousand cubic feet of 
 dirt in six days, using two hundred inches of water, and em- 
 ploying ten men. The wages of the men amounted, at four 
 dollars per day each, to two hundred and forty dollars ; the 
 water cost three hundred dollars ; and the waste of quicksilver, 
 and wear of sluice, perhaps one hundred dollars more, making 
 
256 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 a total expenditure of six hundred and forty dollars: and the 
 gold obtained \vas three thousand dollars, leaving a clear profit 
 of twenty-three hundred and fifcy dollars. The dirt contained 
 one cent and a fifth of cold in a cubic foot. The greater the 
 amount of water used, the greater tlie proportionate amount 
 of dirt that can be washed, and the greater the pi-o])ortionate 
 profits. It is far more profitable to have a large sluice than a 
 little one, if the water and dirt can be obtained in abundance. 
 
 Usually, in a hydraulic claim, the dirt is washed down to 
 the bed-rock; but in some places the washing stops far above 
 the bed-rock, because there is no outlet for the water. 
 
 § 186. Blasting, — In some hydraulic claims, the dirt, in dry 
 seasons, is blasted, so as to loosen it. A drift or hole is cut 
 into the bottom of a hill one or two hundred feet high, and a 
 number of kegs of j^owder (from twenty to two hundred) are 
 introduced, and they are fired with a slow match. The explo- 
 sion makes an earthquake in the vicinity ; and the ground is 
 loosened to such an extent that there is a great saving of labor. 
 The breaking up of the dirt and the exposure to the air are 
 supposed to facilitate the washing greatly. 
 
 More water is required for piping down banks than for 
 washing the dirt ; ?.nd often the sluice is almost idle for want 
 of dirt, while the water, after being thrown against the hill- 
 side, runs away without doing any service at washing. Blast- 
 ing, therefore, by loosening the earth, enables the hydraulic 
 miner to have an abundant and regular supply of dirt in his 
 sluice, at an expense much less than the cost of manual labor 
 to dig the bank down with pick and shovel. 
 
 § 187. Tail-Sluice. — The tail-sluice is a large sluice made 
 for rewashing the tailings or dirt which has previously passed 
 through other sluices. It is placed ordinarily in the bed of a 
 ravine or creek through which tailings run, and it receives no 
 attention for weeks or months at a time, save to keep it from 
 choking. The sluices emptying into it furnish both dirt and 
 water, and in the dirt there is always a large amount of fine 
 gold, as is plainly proved by the fact that some of the tail- 
 
MINING. 25V 
 
 sluices have paid large profits to their owners. Tail-sluices 
 are always large, louu:, and paved with stones; and sometimes 
 they are double, so that one side m:\j be cleaned up while the 
 other continues washing. In a branch of the Yuba there is, 
 or was not long since, a tail-sluice twenty feet wide. 
 
 § 188. Tunnel- Sluice. — A tunnel-sluice is a sluice in a tun- 
 nel. It sometimes happens that a considerable body of water 
 runs out through a tunnel; and in such case, a sluice at the 
 bottom of the tunnel offers the easiest method of getting out 
 and wasliing the dirt. Tlie tunnels are never cut level, but 
 with a slightly-ascending grade, so that the water will always 
 run out. The grade is so low, that transverse riffle-bars must 
 be used ; for with longitudinal riffle-bars or stones, there would 
 be too much danger of choking. These tvmnel-sliiices, because 
 of their low grades, require much more attention than any 
 other kind of sluices. 
 
 § 189. Ground- Sluice. — All the sluices hitherto mentioned 
 and described have wooden boxes, but the ground-sluice has no 
 box : the water runs on the ground. The place selected for the 
 ground-sluice is some spot where there is a considerable supply 
 of water, a steep descent for it, and much poor dirt. The stream 
 is turned through a little ditch, ^vhicli the miners labor to deepen 
 and enlarge, and when it is deep they prize oif the high banks 
 so that the dirt may fall down into the ditch. This is a very 
 cheap and expeditious way of w^ashing, but it is not applied 
 extensively. It is used to the most advantage for washing 
 where the water is abundant for only a few weeks after heavy 
 rains, and where it would not pay to erect large sluices. A 
 few cobble-stones should be left or thrown at intervals in the 
 bed of the ground-sluice to arrest the gold, for if the bed were 
 smooth clay, the precious metal might all be carried off. 
 Quicksilver is not used in the ground-sluice. After the dirt 
 has all been put through the ground-sluice, it is cleaned up in a 
 short board-sluice, or a tom. 
 
 190. Long T'om. — The tom or long tom, an instrument ex- 
 tensively used in the Californian mines in 1851 and 1852, but 
 
258 KESO URGES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 now rarely seen, is a wooden trough about twelve feet long, 
 eighteen inches wide at the upper end, and widening at the 
 lower to thirty inches, with sides eight inches high. It is used 
 like a board-sluice, but has no riffle-bars, and at the lower end 
 its bottom is of sheet-iron, perforated with holes half an inch 
 in diameter. This sheet-iron is turned up at the lower end, so 
 that the water never runs over there, but always drops down 
 through the perforated sheet-iron or riddle, into a little riffle- 
 box, containing transverse riffle-bars. A stream of water of 
 about ten inches makes a " tom-head" — or the amount con- 
 sidered necessary for a tom — through the tom, which has a 
 grade similar to that of a board-sluice. The dirt is thrown in 
 at the head of the tom, and a man is constantly employed in 
 moving the dirt with a shovel, throwing back such pieces of 
 clay as are not dissolved, to the head of the tom, and throw- 
 ing out stones. From two to four men can work with a tom ; 
 but the amount of diit that can be washed is not half that of 
 a sluice. The tom may be used to advantage in» diggings 
 where the amount of pay-dirt is small and the gold coarse. 
 The riffle-box contains quicksilver, and as the dirt in it is kept 
 loose by the water falling down on it from the riddle above, a 
 large part of the gold is caught ; but where the particles are 
 fine, much must be lost. 
 
 § 191. Cradle. — The rocker or cradle is still less than the 
 torn and inferior in capacity. It bears some resemblance in 
 shape and size to a child's cradle, and rests upon similar rockers. 
 The cradle-box is about forty inches long, twenty wide, and 
 four high, and it stands with the upper end about two feet 
 higher than the lower end, which is open so that the tailings 
 can run oat. On the upper end of the cradle-box stands a 
 hopper or riddle-box twenty inches square with sides four 
 inches high. The bottom of this riddle-box is of sheet-iron, 
 perforated with holes half an inch in diameter. The riddle- 
 box is not nailed to the cradle-box, but can be lifted off with- 
 out difficulty. Under the riddle is an "apron" of wood or 
 cloth, fastened to the sides of the cradle-box and sloping down 
 
MINING. 259 
 
 to the upper end of it. Across the bottom of the cradle-box 
 are two riffle-bars about an inch square, one in the middle, tlie 
 other at the end of the box. The dirt is shovelled into the 
 hojipcr, the " cradler" sits doAvn beside his machine, and while 
 with one hand with a ladle he pours water from a pool at his 
 side upon the dirt, with the other he rocks the cradle. With 
 the water and the motion the dirt is dissolved, and carried 
 down throug-h the riddle, falling upon the apron which carries 
 it to the head of the cradle-box, whence it runs downward 
 and out, leaving its gold, black sand, and heavier particles of 
 sand and gravel behind the riffle-bars. The man who rocks a 
 cradle learns to appreciate the fact, that the " golden sands" 
 of California are not pure sand, but are often extremely tough 
 clay, a hopperful of which must be shaken about for ten 
 miiuites before it will dissolve under a constant pouring of 
 water. Many large stones are found in the pay-dirt. Such 
 as give an unpleasant shock to the cradle, as they roll from 
 side to side of the riddle-box are pitched out by hand, and 
 after a glance to see that no gold sticks to their sides, are 
 thrown away ; but the smaller ones are left until the hopper- 
 ful has been washed, so that nothing but clean stones remain 
 in the riddle, and then the cradler rises from his seat, lifts up 
 his hopper, and with a jerk throws all the stones out. The 
 Avater and the rocking are both necessary. Without the 
 water, the dirt could not be washed ; and without the rocking, 
 the dirt would dissolve very slowly, and the gold would 
 most of it be lost. The rocking keeps the dirt in the bottom 
 of the cradle more or less loose, so that the particles of 
 gold can sink down in it, whereas if the cradle stood still 
 the sand there would almost immediately pack down into a 
 hard floor, over which the gold would run almost as readi- 
 ly as over a board. The whole business of washing Avith a 
 cradle is a repetition of the process already described — some 
 dirt, about one-third or one-fourth of what the hoj^per would 
 hold, if full, is put into the hopper, and while the cradle is 
 rocked Avith one hand, the other pours in the Avater. The 
 
260 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 cradle is cleaned up two or four times m a day. The clean- 
 ing up is done by lifting the hopper, taking out the apron, 
 sci-aping up all the dirt in the bottom of the cradle with an 
 iron spoon, putting it into a pan and washing out the dirt, so 
 that only the gold will be left. This last process is called 
 panning out, and will be described in the next section. Most 
 of the gold collects above the upper riffle-bar, including all the 
 larger lumps. If the apron be of rough woollen cloth, some of 
 the fine gold will be caught there. In diggings where the 
 gold is very fine, the hopper is sometime? placed over the 
 lower end of the cradle, and the apron is made twice as long, 
 and with a lower inclination than in the more common foi-m 
 of the rocker. The water for the cradle should be supplied by 
 a little ditch, with a reservoir at the head of the cradle, to 
 contain five or six gallons. The dipper should be of tin, 
 shaped like a basin, hold about a gallon Avhen full, and have a 
 handle an inch and a half in diameter, and eight inches long. 
 The difference of height between the upper and lower ends of 
 the cradle should not be more than two inches : a steeper in- 
 clination will make the current running through it too strong, 
 and the gold will be carried off"; and, on the other hand, if 
 the cradle be nearer a level it will be hard to rock, and the 
 dirt in the bottom will pack more rapidly. The amount of dirt 
 that can be washed in a day with a cradle, varies from one to 
 three cubic yards. The dirt is usually shovelled into a pan or 
 bucket, from which it is thrown into the hopper. The miners 
 usually measure the amount of dirt washed by the number of 
 "pans." One man Avorldng alone with a cradle ought to 
 wash from seventy five to one hundred and fifty pans in a day, 
 and two men will wash twice as much. A pan may contain 
 one-third or one-half of a cubic foot. Two men can work more 
 conveniently with the rocker than one. There is enough work 
 to give constant employment to a cradler and a shoveller. The 
 latter has a couple of buckets or pans, which he fills alter- 
 nately, always keeping one full and near the cradler, so that 
 without moving his feet he can pick it up and empty it into 
 
MINING. 2G1 
 
 tlie n«l(]le-box. If the rocker hnve only one man, lie must 
 stop rocking after washing every pan and get more dirt. This 
 delay is injurious to tiie i)roce.ss of washing, because it allows 
 the dirt in the bottom of the cradle to harden and pack, and 
 Bome gold is always lost as a consequence. If the dirt and 
 water be convenient not more than two men can work to a 
 profit with a rocker. But sometimes it happens that water 
 cannot be led to the claim, and in such case the dirt must be 
 carried to the water, a greater w^eight of which is used than 
 of dirt. At least three times as much water as dirt is required 
 for Avashing. If the distance from the hole to the water be 
 not over ten or twenty feet, the miners will usually carry the 
 dirt in buckets ; if farther they will use wheelbaiTows ; and 
 sometimes for greater distances pack-mules or wagons. The 
 greater the distance, the more the men required for carrying 
 the dirt. Sometimes, too, it happens that the claim is troubled 
 by water, and then one man may be constantly employed in 
 baling. 
 
 It is of great importance in mining with the cradle, to have 
 the cradle placed within four or five feet of the hole from 
 which the pay-dirt is obtained, and to have a good supply of 
 water at the head of the cradle, and then to have a good de- 
 scent below the cradle, so that the tailings may all be carried 
 away by the water, so as not to accumulate. The rocker 
 washes about one-half the amount of dirt that can be washed 
 by an equal number of men with the tom, one-fourth of w^hat 
 can be washed with the sluice, and one-hundredth of the 
 amount that can be Avashed Avith the hydraulic process; but it 
 is peculiarly fitted for some kinds of diggings. Many little 
 gullies, containing coarse gold in their beds, cannot obtain 
 water for washing except during rains, and then only for a feAV 
 days at a time. In these gullies the cradle can be used to the 
 best advantage, for it can easily be transported, and it is very 
 good for saving coarse gold. While dirt that would pay 
 from ten to tAventy-five cents, Avas abundant at the surface of 
 the earth in the Cahfornian mines, the cradle Avas extensively 
 
262 EESOUr. CES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 used, but now it has been abandoned by the whites, and is left 
 to the Chinamen, who think themselves doing well if they make 
 seventy-five cents or one dollar per day. 
 
 The great difficulty in mining with the cradle, is that the 
 sand will " pack," or make a hard mass on a level with the 
 top of the riffle-bars, and the gold then is lost. So long as the 
 cradle is in motion the dirt does not pack, but when the rock- 
 ing ceases, the mass hardens in a iew minutes. If the miner 
 leaves his cradle standing for fifteen minutes, he stirs up the 
 dirt with his spoon before commencing again to wash. One 
 device to prevent packing is to put a little block under each 
 end of the rockers, so that at the end of every motion the cradle 
 receives a shock. Quicksilver is sometimes used in cradles, 
 but not usually. 
 
 § 192. JPan. — The pan is used in all branches of gold min- 
 ing, either as an instrument for washing, or as a receptacle for 
 gold, amalgam, or rich dirt. It is made of stiff tin or sheet- 
 iron, with a flat bottom about a foot across, and with sides six 
 inches high, rising at an angle of forty-five degrees. A little 
 variation in the size or shape of the pan will not injure its 
 value for washing. Sheet- iron is preferable to tin, because it 
 is usually stronger and does not amalgamate with mercury. 
 The pan is the simplest of all instruments used for washing 
 auriferous dirt. Some dirt, not enough to fill it full, is put in, 
 and the pan is then put under water. The water ought to be 
 not more than a foot deep, so that the pan may rest on the 
 bottom, while the miner inserts his fingers in and under the 
 dirt and lifts it up a little, so that the whole mass is wet. If 
 the water be deep, the pan may be held in one hand while the 
 other is used to stir up the dirt, but it is more convenient to 
 take both. The dirt having been filled with water, the miner 
 catches the pan at the sides, raises that part toward his body, and 
 lowers the outer edge a little, and commences to shake the pan 
 from side to side, holding it so that all the dirt is under water, 
 and so that a little of the dirt can escape over the outer edge. 
 The earthy part of the dirt is rapidly dissolved by the water, 
 
MINING. 263 
 
 assisted by the shaking of the pan and the rolling of the 
 gravel from side to side, and forms a mud which runs out while 
 clean water runs in. The light sand flows out with the thin 
 mud, while the lumps of tough clay and the large stones remain. 
 The stones collect on the top of the clay, and they are scraped 
 together with the fingers and thrown out. This process con- 
 tinues, the pan being gradually raised in the water, and its 
 outer edge depressed, until all the earthy matter has been dis- 
 solved, and that as well as the stones swept away by the 
 water, while the gold remains at the bottom. Panning is not 
 difficult, but it requires practice to learn the degree of shaking 
 which dissolves the dirt and throws out the stones most rapidly 
 without losing the gold. If the shaking be too mild and slow, 
 the process consumes too much time ; whereas if it be too 
 rapid and violent, the gold is carried off with the stones. 
 Sometimes the pan is shaken so that the dirt receives a rotary 
 motion. This is the most rapid method of washing dirt, but 
 also the most dangerous. The pan must always be used in 
 cleaning up the dirt which collects in the cradle, in prospect- 
 ing, and frequently in washing small quantities of dirt col- 
 lected in other kinds of placer mining. Amalgam can be sepa- 
 rated from dirt by washing, almost as well as gold. In panning 
 out, it frequently happens that considerable amounts of black 
 sand containing fine particles of gold are obtained, and this 
 sand is so heavy that it cannot be separated from the gold by 
 w^ashing, while it is easily separated by that process from 
 gravel, stones, and common dirt. The black sand is dried, 
 and a small quantity of it is placed in a " blower," a shallow tin 
 dish open at one end. The miner then holding the pan with 
 the open end from him, blows out the sand, leaving the par- 
 ticles of gold. lie must blow gently, just strong enough to 
 blow out the sand, and no stronger. From time to time he 
 must shake the blower so as to change the position of the 
 particles, and bring all the sand in the range of his breath. 
 The gold cannot be cleansed perfectly in this manner, but the 
 sand contains iron, and the Uttle of it remaining is easily re- 
 
264 RESOURCES OF CALIFOKXIA. 
 
 moved by a magnet. The blower should be very smooth, and 
 made of either tin, bi-ass, or copper. 
 
 § 193. Dry Wasliing. — Dry washing is a method of win- 
 nowing gold from dirt. In many parts of tlie minhig districts 
 of California, water cannot be obtained during the summer for 
 mining purposes. The miner therefore manages to wash his 
 dirt without water, fie takes only rich dirt, and putting it on 
 a rawhide, he pulverizes all the lumps and picks out the large 
 stones. He then with a large flat basin throws the dirt up 
 into the air, catches it as it comes down, throws it up again, 
 and repeats this oj)eration until nothing but the gold remains. 
 Of course a pleasant breeze, that will carry away the dust, is 
 a great assistance to the operation. Sometimes two men have 
 a hide or a blanket, with which they throw up the dirt. The 
 process is very similar to the ancient method of separating 
 grain from chaff. The miner who devotes himself to dry 
 washing must be very particular to take only rich dirt, so he 
 scrapes the bed-rock carefully. He never digs very deep — not 
 more then twenty feet ; and when he goes beyond seven or 
 eight feet he " coyotes," or burrows after the pay-dirt. He 
 may coyote into the side of a hill, or sink a shaft and coyote 
 in all directions from it. This style of mining is named from 
 the resemblance of the holes to the burrows of the coyote, or 
 Californian wolf. Coyoting is not confined to the dry wash- 
 ing, but is used also by miners washing with the pan and 
 cradle. One of the Congressmen elected some years ago to 
 represent California at Washington, was a miner at the time 
 of his nomination, and was so fond of coyoting, that he was 
 generally known as " Coyote Joe." 
 
 § 194. Dry Digging. — Dry digging is that mining Avhere 
 the miner, after using the shovel to strip off the barren dirt, 
 scrapes the pay-dirt over with a knife, picking out the particles 
 of gold as he comes to them, and throwing away the earthy 
 matter. This is a slow process, but in rich placers may be 
 profitable. The miner is, of course, particular to examine all 
 the crevices .in the bed-rock ; and if the material be slate, he 
 
MINING. 205 
 
 digs up part of it, to see whether the gold has not found its 
 way into cracks scarcely perceptible on the surface. " Dry 
 digging," as a mode of mining, must not be confounded with 
 "dry diggings," a kind of mining-ground which has been de- 
 scribed neai- the beginning of this chapter. 
 
 Knife-mining differs a little from dry digging. In the latter, 
 a shovel is used to strip off the barren dirt ; whereas the knife- 
 mining is practised in those places where the gold is deposited 
 in crevices in rocks along the banks of streams, without any 
 covering of barren dirt, so that the knife rlone is used in sera 
 ping out the dirt ; and afterward the dirt, being placed in a 
 pan, may be washed in water, which is never used in dry dig- 
 ging. 
 
 § 195. Puddling -Box. — The puddling-box is a rough Wood- 
 en box, about a foot deep and six feet square, and is used for 
 dissolving very tough clay. The clay is thrown into the box, 
 with water, and a miner stirs the stuff with a hoe until the' 
 clay is all thoroughly dissolved, when he tak^s a plug from an 
 auger-hole about four inches from the bottom, and lets the thin 
 solution of the clay run off, while the heavier material, inclu- 
 ding the gold, remains at the bottom. He then puts iti the 
 plug again, fills up the box Avith water, throws in more clay, 
 and repeats the process again and again until night, when he' 
 cleans up with a cradle or pan. The puddling-box is used' 
 only in small mining operations, and never with the sluice, or 
 iu hydraulic claims. 
 
 § 19G. Quicksilver-Machine. -^l^hoi quicksilver-machine, or 
 B:iike rocker, is a cradle about seven feet long, two feet wide, 
 an<l two feet high. In the bottom are a number of compart- 
 ments, all containing quicksilver. One man rocks the machine 
 without cessation. A constant stream of water pours into the 
 machine at its head. The riddle extends the whole length of 
 the machine; and the stones, after being washed clean, fall off 
 the riddle at the lower end. • One man is employed constantly 
 vv'orking with a shovel to keep the dirt on the riddle under the 
 stream of water, and in throwing off the big stones. K the 
 12 
 
266 EESOUECES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 pay-dirt is very convenient, two men can shOvel enough to 
 keep the machine in operation. The Burke rocker was exten- 
 sively used in CalifoiTiia eight and ten years ago, but now it is 
 a great rarity. 
 
 § ]97. Timnd-Mining. — A tunnel, in Califomian mining, is 
 an adit or drift entering a hill-side, or running out from a shaft. 
 Mining-tunnels are usually nearly horizontal — those entering 
 hill-sides having a slight ascent, for the double purpose of 
 draining the mine, and to facilitate the removal of the pay- 
 dirt. In a few hills the tunnels run downward at an angle of 
 twenty degrees or more, to avoid veins or ledges of rock, 
 which would have to be blasted through if the tunnel were 
 cut horizontally ; but this can only be done with safety in hills 
 which are drained by older horizontal tunnels. 
 
 The mining-tunnel does not nm through a hill, but only into 
 it. The length of tunnels varies greatly ; the longest are about 
 a mile. The usual height is seven feet, the width five feet. 
 Ordinarily the top must be supported by timbers, to prevent 
 it from flilling in, and not unfrequently the sides must also be 
 protected by boards. The cost of cutting a tunnel varies from 
 two to forty dollars a longitudinal foot, according to the nature 
 of the ground, the cost of getting timbers, &c. Tunnels are 
 usually made by companies of eight or ten men, of whom one- 
 half may be merchants, lawyers, physicians, or office-holders, 
 and the remainder laboring miners. The latter class do the 
 work ; the former furnish provisions and tools, and a certain 
 amount of cash weekly until the pay-dirt is reached. Two or 
 three men work at a time cutting a tunnel ; one or two to dig 
 the dirt ; and one or two to haul it out. The dirt of the first 
 fifty yards is hauled out in a wheelbarrow ; beyond that dis- 
 tance a httle tram-way or railroad is laid down, and the dirt is 
 hauled out in cars, pushed by the miners. It is not customary 
 to use horses. It is common to have two relays of laborers — 
 one set working from noon to midnight, the other from mid- 
 night to noon. Work in a tunnel is as pleasant at night as in 
 the da^^inie. When a company is rich, or has many laborers, it 
 
MIXING. 267 
 
 may have three relays, each to work eight hours in the twenty- 
 four. 
 
 It is not uncommon for two companies, owning adjacent 
 claims iii a hill, to unite and cut a tunnel on joint account along 
 the dividing line. They go in until they reach the pay-dirt, 
 and then a surveyor is employed to run the line between their 
 claims, and the tunnel is continued through the pay-dirt. The 
 dirt from the tunnel is washed for the joint account of the two 
 companies. After the dividing line has been established, each 
 company keeps on its own side, and each has its time to use 
 the tram-way. They may also have a joint-stock sluice at the 
 mouth of the tunnel — one company having the privilege of 
 using the sluice one week, and the other the next. All tho 
 dirt brought out in a week can readily be washed in a day. 
 The work of taking out the pay-dirt after the main tunnel has 
 been cut, is called " drifting ;" and the holes made by the men 
 engaged in it are termed " drifts." The drifts are usually not 
 so high as the tunnels. The large stones and barren dirt ob- 
 tained in the drifts are piled up here and there to sustain the 
 earth overhead. Sometimes wooden posts are likewise neces- 
 sary. 
 
 § 198. Shafts. — Shafts are used in prospecting, and also in 
 mining, where the claims are deep and cannot be reached by 
 either the hydraulic process or the tunnel. The prospecting 
 shaft is sometimes sunk into hills supposed to be auriferous, 
 where the shaft is far less expensive than the tunnel. After 
 the shaft demonstrates that the dirt is rich, and precisely the 
 altitude at which it lies, a tunnel is cut to strike it. The shaft 
 may be the cheaper for prospecting, but the tunnel is usually 
 the cheaper if any large amount of dirt is to be taken out. 
 
 The shaft is dug by one man in the hole, and one or two are 
 employed at a windlass in hauling up the dirt. Mining-shafts 
 in placer diggings are rarely over one hundred feet deep; but 
 one was dug in Trinity county to the depth of six hundred feet, 
 for the purpose of prospecting, but it found neither pay-dirt 
 nor the bed-rock. 
 
268 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 199. JRiver-31i7img. — River-mining is mining for gold in 
 the beds of rivers, below low-water mark. The only practi- 
 cable method of doing this is by damming the stream, and 
 taking the water out of its bed in a ditch or flume. It has 
 been proposed by persons who never saw the mines, to get the 
 o-old by dredging, or w^ith a diving-bell ; but such schemes are 
 absurd in the eyes of miners. The rivers in w^hich the gold is 
 found are mountain-torrents, in which a canoe can scarcely 
 float in summer, much less a dredging-machine ; and any large 
 scoop w^orking under w^ater w^ould miss the crevices and cor- 
 ners in the rocks, w^here most of the gold is found. As the 
 water is very seldom more than a couple of feet deep, a diving- 
 bell would be of little service. The flume, the ditch, and the 
 w^inor-dam, are the chief tasks of the river-miner. The ditch is 
 rarely used, because the banks of the mining-streams are usu- 
 ally so steep, high, rocky, and crooked, that a flume is cheaper. 
 The wing- dam is not often used, because the river-beds are in 
 most places too narrow. The flume is almost universally em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The work of river-mining can be done only during the sum- 
 mer and fall, while the water is low, and while the pjiner can 
 have confidence that it w^ill not rise. It may be as low in Jan- 
 uary as in August, but the winter is the season of rains ; and 
 Avhen the flood comes, it sweeps dams, flumes, and every thing 
 before it. If the dam and flume be commenced too early in 
 the season, they may be carried ofl" before they are finished ; 
 and it frequently happens that they are destroyed in the fall 
 just when the miners are commencing to reap the reward of 
 their summer's labor. 
 
 River-mining has many disadvantages, as compared with 
 other branches of mining. The miner cannot work at it more 
 than half the year ; he cannot prospect the dirt wiiich is hid- 
 den under water ; he must erect expensive dams and flumes, 
 which can be used for only a few months ; and then he is ex- 
 posed to floods which may come and destroy all his work 
 before he has commenced to wash. These disadvantages, and 
 
MiiSriNG. 269 
 
 the exhaustion of most of the river-diggings in the state, have 
 ahnost put an end to river-mining in. Cahfornia. In a few 
 castas, extensive fluming enterprises have proved profitable; 
 but, as a general rule, river-mining in this state has cost more 
 than it has produced. A river is seldom flumed for less than 
 three hundred yards, and sometimes for a mile ; and the lum- 
 ber and labor required to make so long a flume, and one large 
 enough to hold all the water of a river, are very expensive. 
 The dam will always leak, and water will run into the bed 
 from the adjacent hills and mountains, and this water must be 
 lifted out by pumps driven by wheels placed in the flume. 
 The river-beds are full of large rocks, weighing from one to 
 ten tons, and these must be moved by machinery, to allow the 
 dirt to be taken out. 
 
 River-mining is now never undertaken by an individual, but 
 always by large associations, generally called "fluming com- 
 pauies," sometimes composed of miners exclusively, sometimes 
 of miners and all the principal business-men living near the 
 place where the work is to be done. The lawyers, doctors, 
 and office-holders, pay their assessments in cash; the mer- 
 chants furnish provisions, the lumbermen supply lumber, and 
 the miners make the dam, and help the carpenters build the 
 flume. 
 
 §200. Beach' Mining. — Beach-mining is the business of ' 
 v/ashing the sands of the ocean-beach. Between Point Men- 
 docino, in California, and the mouth of the Umpqua River, in 
 Oregon, the beach-sand contains gold, and in some places it is 
 very rich. The beach is narrow, and lies at the foot of a blufi* 
 bank of auriferous sand. In times of storm, the waves wash 
 'against this bank, undermine it, sweep away the pieces which 
 tumble down, leaving the gold on the beach. The gold is in 
 very fine particles, and it moves with the heavier sand, which 
 alters its position frequently under the influence of the waves 
 and surf One day, the beach will have six feet depth of sand ; 
 the next, there will be nothing save bare rocks. The sand 
 difiers greatly in richness at various times : one day, it will bo 
 
270 EESOTJRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 full of golden specks ; a few days later, at the same place it 
 will be barren. The sand in the mean time has been moved 
 by the waves, and replaced by other sand. * 
 
 It is a very difficult matter to know where the sand is rich 
 and where it is not. The companies employed in mining on 
 the beach number about ten men ; and there is a foreman who 
 rides out early every morning, following the beach about two 
 miles to the northward and two miles to the southward of the 
 camp, for the purpose of finding where the sand is the best. 
 So changeable is the sand, that a new examination is made 
 every day ; and only three or four men are supposed to be 
 good judges of the quahty of sand, from its appearance. 
 
 When the foreman has selected a place, he orders all the 
 men to it, and they go with twenty pack-mules, which carry 
 the sand in alforjas^ or rawhide sacks, to the place of washing, 
 which is up on the blufi", probably a mile or more distant from 
 the spot where the sand is obtained. It happens occasionally 
 that the foreman rides long distances on the beach, and some- 
 times he will order the sand to be obtained ten miles from the 
 washing-place. The sand must, of course, be very rich, to pay 
 for such transportation, but the beach-sand at times in the sun- 
 light is said to be actually dazzling yellow with gold. The 
 purpose of going upon the bluff to wash it is to get fresh water 
 for washing ; foi the sea-water is not so good, nor can it be 
 obtained conveniently. The richest dirt is that the farthest 
 down on the beach, so still weather and low tide are the best 
 times for getting it. When a rich place is discovered low 
 down on the beach, great exertions are made to get as much 
 of the sand as possible before the tide rises. When high tide 
 and storm come together, little can be done. The sand, hav- 
 ing been separated from all clay and soluble matter by the 
 action of the sea, is very easily washed, and all collected in a 
 month can be washed in two days in a sluice. 
 
 § 201. Mining-Ditches. — The placer-mines of California 
 -svould yield very little gold, were it not for the numerous 
 ditches which supply them with water for washing. The au- 
 
MINING. 271 
 
 riferous districts are very dry in summer, and in some places 
 tliere is not a spring nor a brook within many miles. The 
 artificial ditch supplies the want. The ditches are made by 
 large companies, which sell the water by the "inch." An 
 inch of water is as much as will run out of an orifice an inch 
 square, with the water standing six or seven inches deep in 
 the flume over the orifice. The depth of water over the orifice 
 is called the " head." The orifice is usually two inches high, 
 and as long as necessary to give the amount of water desired. 
 Nobody wants less than ten or twelve inches for mining : a 
 "sluice-head" is about eighteen inches; a "hydraulic head" is 
 from forty to two hundred inches. The water, however, is 
 not measured accurately. Of course, the amount which runs 
 through the orifice will depend to a considerable extent upon 
 the " head," which is usually greater in the morning than at 
 night. At sunrise there may be fifteen inches head, and at 
 sunset only three. The water collects during the night, and 
 is exhausted during the day. The price of water is in no 
 place less than ten cents an inch per day ; in some places it is 
 forty cents ; the average is about twenty cents. 
 
 Many of these ditches are extensive enterprises, and have 
 cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. When they cross ra- 
 vines and valleys, large flumes — wonders of carpentry — must 
 be built. Some of these are two hundred feet high and a mile 
 long, and so large that a horse and wagon can be driven 
 through them. In all, save length and durability, they are as 
 wonderful as the great Roman aqueducts, whose tall ruins still 
 stand in the Campagna, near the Eternal City. In some cases 
 iron tubes have been used, and, although they are very expen- 
 sive, yet they may pay for themselves, by preventing evapora- 
 tion, leaking, and soaking, which take away much of the water 
 from flumes and ditches. 
 
 § 202. Prospecting, — "Prospecting" is the search for gold. 
 The instruments used by the prospector for placer-mines are 
 usually the pan, pick, and shovel. He should be familiar with 
 the general laws of the distribution of gold, and then try the 
 
2V2 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 dirt in the most favorable places. If there is any gold in a 
 district, he can scarcely fail to find specks of it by washing dirt 
 from the bed-rock in the ravines, and in bars. The existence 
 of gold in a district having been established, close observation 
 will suggest to the prospector where he may reasonably expect 
 to find the best diggings. It is usually found that placer-gold 
 is collected in those places where, if he had been familiar with 
 the ancient topography of the country, he should have had 
 reason to suppose that it would be. 
 
 § 203. Quartz Mining. — Quartz mining differs much from 
 placer mining. For the former, more capital, more experience, 
 more complicated machinery and richer material are required 
 than for the latter. The placer miner throws the dirt into the 
 water, which then does the work ; whereas the pulverizing of 
 rock is a nice operation, requiring constant attention. Quartz 
 requires a mill and water power ; placer dirt is washed in a 
 simple sluice. Dirt containing ten cents in the cubic yard may 
 pay the hydraulic miner, but the quartz miner must have a 
 hundred times as much in a cubic yard of vein-stone, or he 
 cannot work. The placer gold, when freed from the baser 
 material surrounding it, is much of it in coarse particles, which 
 are easily caught by their specific gravity; the quartz gold 
 must be reduced to a fine powder before it can be set free from 
 Its gangue, and with the fineness of the particles increases 
 the difticulty of catching them. 
 
 Auriferous quartz lodes are often found by accident, i^ot 
 unfrequently it happens that a rich streak of pay-dirt in a placer 
 claim is followed up to the quartz vein from which it came. 
 While miners are out walking or hunting, they occasionally 
 will come upon lodes in which the gold is seen sparkling. 
 Some good leads have been found by men employed in making 
 roads and cutting ditches. The quartz might be covered with 
 soil, but the pick and shovel revealed its position and wealth. 
 In Tuolumne county in 1858, a hunter shot a grizzly bear on 
 the side of a steep canon, and the animal tumbling down, was 
 caught by a projecting point of rock. The hunter followed 
 
MIXING. 2*73 
 
 bis game, and while skinning the animal, discovered that the 
 point of rock was auriferous quartz. In Mariposa county in 
 1855, a robber attacked a miner, and the latter saw the rock 
 behind his assailant sparkle in the sunlight, at a sput where a 
 bullet struck a wall of rock. He killed the robber, and found 
 that the rock was gold-bearing quartz. In Nevada county- 
 several years ago, a couple of unfortunate miners who had 
 jDrepared to leave California, and were out on a drunken frolic, 
 started a large boulder down a steep hill. On its way down, 
 it struck a brown rock and broke a portion of it oiF — exposing 
 a vein of white quartz which proved to be auriferous, induced 
 the disappointed miners to remain some months longer in the 
 state, and paid them well for remaining. Science and experi- 
 ence do not appear to give much assistance in prospecting for 
 quartz lodes. Chemists, geologists, mineralogists, and old 
 miners, have not done better than ignorant men and new- 
 comers. Most of the best veins have been discovered by poor 
 and ignorant men. Not one has been found by a man of high 
 education as a miner, or geologist. IsTo doubt geological 
 knowledge is valuable to a miner, and it should assist him in 
 prospecting ; but it has never yet enabled any body to find a 
 valuable claim. 
 
 § 204. Dhtribution of Gold in Quartz. — The rich quartz- 
 veins of California extend from Kern River to the Siskiyou, 
 are found on hills, in canons and in vales. They are at least 
 two thousand feet above the level of the sea, and not more 
 than ten thousand feet above it. Their course is generally 
 from north-northwest to south-southeast, and they dip steeply 
 to the eastward, sometimes being nearly perpendicular. They 
 differ in thickness from a line to sixty feet. Quartz veins are 
 very numerous in most of the mining districts, so the task is 
 not to find the veins, but rather to find those which are gold- 
 bearing. It is supposed that nearly all large veins come to 
 the surface of tlie bed rock or " country ;" but many of them 
 are covered with soil and thus are hidden. Hidden veins are 
 called *' blind ;" those plainly visible on the surface are called 
 
 TO* 
 
271: KESOUKCES OP GALIFOKXIA. 
 
 "croppings veins," because their position is shown by the out- 
 croppings. Experience has not ascertained whether large or 
 small veins are more likely to contain gold. It is found in 
 both. The porous quartz, or that containing many cavities, is 
 more frequently found auriferous and richly auriferous, than 
 the very compact quartz. The best gold-bearing veins are 
 usually yellowish or brownish in tinge, hear the surface at 
 least ; but very rich specimens are found in white and bhiish- 
 white rock. Most quartz veins in California contain a little 
 gold ; the metal seems to have been distributed most lavishly, 
 but unfortunately in nine-tenths of the veins, the proportion 
 of metal is too small to pay. Most of the large veins are sup- 
 posed to run for miles upon miles, though they can rarely be 
 traced clearly on the surface for more than a furlong. The 
 auriferous veins vary much in richness. No vein is wrought 
 for more than a few hundred feet. Beyond that, it is either 
 too poor to pay, or the vein is hidden. Some persons have 
 supposed that there is one great gold-bearing quartz vein run- 
 ning along the side of the Sierra Nevada, from Mariposa to 
 Plumas county, and that many of the richest claims are really 
 in this one vein ; but this is a supposition which cannot be 
 proved now. Sometimes a vein seems to spread out and di- 
 vide into a number of smaller veins, all of which afterward 
 unite again. These points of junction, and the narrower places 
 in the vein, are usually richer than other parts of it. When 
 two veins cross each other, one may be auriferous on one side 
 of the intersection and not on the other ; but in this case the 
 other vein will be auriferous on both sides. It is as though 
 they were streams, one rich, the other barren, and that after 
 meeting, the wealth of the one was divided between them. 
 It is a general rule that metalliferous veins running parallel 
 with the strata of the bed-rock or country are not extensive. 
 In fact they are rather deposits than veins, and though often 
 extremely rich are soon exhausted, while the lodes which run 
 across the stratification run far and deep, and have a regular 
 and straight course and dip. Lodes lying between two different 
 
MINING. 275 
 
 ^inds of rock, are usually richer than those which have the 
 same kind of rock on both sides. Thus it is said that the richest 
 veins of auriferous quartz in California, have been discovered 
 at the intersection of trap and serpentine, and the richest places 
 in veins are where they cross from one kind of bed-rock 
 into another. The richest part of a lode of auriferous quartz 
 is almost invariably on the lower side of the vein, near the 
 foot-wall. All these are facts to be remembered by the pro- 
 spector as a guide, and an assistance to him in his search for 
 a rich gold-bearing vein. If the lode is covered with earthy 
 matter, he may sometimes trace its course by the difference in 
 the color of the dirt and stones over it from that elsewhere. 
 When the prospector finds dirt and stones on a vein, evidently 
 disintegrated portions of it, he should wash some of the dirt 
 in a pan, and if he finds no gold, there is a strong presumption 
 that the vein is barren. 
 
 § 205. Prospecting Quartz Rock. — After finding a gold- 
 bearing vein, the question arises whether it will pay. Great 
 sums are lost in gold-mining countries by injudicious invest- 
 ments in mills and machinery to work the auriferous rock, and 
 persons going into the business should be particularly careful 
 not to commit this great error. The business of quartz min- 
 ing has great profits but also great pecuniary dangers con- 
 nected with it. It is rarely that all the rock of a vein will 
 pay for working. In some lodes, the vein-stone will average 
 one hundred dollars to the ton, for all the stone found in a cer- 
 tain part of the lode, but beyond that the rock may be poor 
 or worthless. Picked specimens may be worth several thou- 
 sand dollars to the ton, but perhaps not more than a ton of 
 such specimens has been obtained in the best lode ever opened 
 in the state. The most profitable lodes are those which have 
 a large supply of rock, easily to be obtained, and all of it yielding 
 something above the cost of working. The common method 
 of ascertaining whether rock will pay, is to pulverize a little of 
 it and wash it in a horn spoon. In taking out the quartz rock 
 in large lodes, it is important to take out only that Avhich wiU 
 
276 KESOUKCES or califokxia. 
 
 pay, and to determine this, the superintendent of the quarry-raen 
 must occasionally test the vein-stone. He takes several little 
 pieces of it, average specimens, places them on a hard, smooth, 
 fiat stone about afoot square, on which he crushes them with a 
 stone muller four inches square, and then by rubbing with the 
 muller he reduces them to a fine powder. He has a horn 
 spoon, made of a large ox-horn, with a bowl about three inches 
 wide and eight inches long, being merely one-half of the horn 
 in its natural shape. With this spoon he washes out the pow- 
 der in water, and if he does not find a speck of gold or a 
 *' color," as it is called, in a pound of the rock, he infers that 
 it will not pay. The three principal quartz mines in the state 
 are those of Fremont in Mariposa county, of the Allison com- 
 pany in Nevada county, and of the Sierra Butte company in 
 Sierra county. The first has produced $75,000 in a month, the 
 second $60,000, and the third $20,000, but the average is prob- 
 ably thirty per cent, less, and the expenses about thirty pei 
 cent, of the total product. The average yield of the Fremont 
 rock is fourteen dollars to the ton, of the Sierra Butte rock 
 eighteen dollars, and that of the Allison company, according 
 to report, has for more than a year at a time been one hundred 
 dollars per ton. The cost of working quartz rock, including 
 quarrying, crushing, and amalgamating, is in the best mills 
 from five to ten dollars per ton. The width of the vein, the 
 softness of the rock, the amount of work done, and the skill 
 and industry of the workmen, all are items of great importance 
 in estimating the cost of quartz mining. It is a business which 
 the owner of the mill ought to understand. The cost of 
 quarrying common quartz rock is about two dollars per ton, 
 that is, for mill-owners that understand the business and super- 
 intend the labor themselves. When given out by the job, it 
 usually costs more. When quartz is crushed in a custom mill, 
 that is, a mill built to crush for all applicants, the cost is rarely 
 less than five dollars per ton, and in Washoe, the price was at 
 one time thirty dollars per ton ; but in the large mills, wliere 
 many tons are crushed every day, is about two dollars j^er ton. 
 
MINING. 277 
 
 § 206. TJie Divining Bod. — In prospecting for auriferous 
 quartz, use is sometimes made of the divining rod, a practice 
 not without credit with some good miners. The rod is a fork 
 of a green hazel-bush, shaped like a V, with the arms about a 
 foot long. The prospector holds the end of an arm in each 
 hand, w^ith the point of the V directed forward horizontally, 
 and as he walks along, the point turns down whenever he 
 comes over a metalliferous vein, metallic body or water. It is 
 supposed that very few persons can use the divining rod effec- 
 tually ; for most men it refuses to turn. It is used in nearly 
 every civilized country, especially by miners, and is generally 
 considered superstitious, because it is employed by ignorant 
 people, and because there has been no generally accepted 
 scientilic exphmation of the manner in which a stick could be 
 inliuenced by a metal hidden under ground. A scientific ex- 
 planation of the principle of the divining rod has been offered 
 to the world, by Baron Reichenbach (see page sixty of his 
 Odic-Magupiic Letters^ translated by John S. Ilittell). 
 
 § 207. Quarrying Quartz. — The quarrying of quartz rock 
 differs little from the quarrying of other metalliferous vein- 
 stones. The lode descends steeply, and the excavation n:nst 
 follow its course. Sometimes the quartz is so soft that it ma^ 
 easily be loosened yv'wh. the pick. The harder rock is blasted. 
 Soft quartz is that which is penetrated by numerous cavities, 
 though the lumps between the cavities may be very hard. 
 Some quartz on exposure to the air crumbles into sand, tliough 
 hard when first taken from the vein. In narrow lodes, some 
 of the wall-rock must be cut away to get room for the work- 
 men. In wide lodes, that part oi' the vein-stone which docs 
 not p:iy is left. Sometimes the gold from the lode peneti-ates 
 a little way into the foot-wall, and in that case the quarrying 
 must extend beyond the vein-stone. The quartz loosened in 
 the vein, must either be hoisted perpendicularly in a bucket 
 with a windlass, or be hauled out thi-ougli a tunnel. The com- 
 mon method is to hoist the rock with a windlass. Most o^'ihe 
 veins are in such places that shafts are more easily dug than 
 
2^8 KESOFRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 tunnels. After the excavation has extended twenty or thirty 
 feet below the surface, it is usual to dig a perpendicular shaft, 
 so as to strike the vein sixty or seventy feet below the surface, 
 and from this point the miner or " drifter" w^orks upward, and 
 as he loosens the rock it falls to the bottom of the shaft, where 
 it is put in the bucket to be hoisted to the surface. Our quartz 
 mines are generally in dry hills, so that they are not troubled 
 much by water ; but there are a few shafts where steam-pumps 
 are constantly at work to carry off the water. 
 
 Occasionally the miners find small quantities of auriferous 
 quartz which are so easily broken up, and the pieces of gold in 
 which are so coarse, that after the rock has been pounded a 
 little in a mortar, the metal can easily be picked out with the 
 fingers. 
 
 § 208. Arastra. — Quartz is pulverized either in an arastra, 
 or Chilean mill, or by stamps. 
 
 The arastra is the simplest instrument for grinding aurifer- 
 ous quartz. It is a circular bed of stone, from eight to twenty 
 feet in diameter, on which the quartz is ground by a large 
 stone dragged round and round by horse or mule power. 
 There are two kinds of arastras, the rude or improved. The 
 rude arastra is made with a pavement of unhewn flat stones, 
 which are usually laid dow' n in clay. The pavement of the 
 improved arastra is made of hewn stone, cut very accurately 
 and laid down in cement. In the centre of the bed of the 
 arastra is an upright post w^hich turns on a pivot, and running 
 through the post is a horizontal bar, projecting on each side to 
 the outer edge of the pavement. On each arm of this bar is 
 attached by a chain a large flat stone or muller, weighing from 
 three hundred to five hundred pounds. It is so hung that the 
 forward end is about an inch above the bed, and the hind end 
 drags on the bed. A mule hitched to one arm will drag two 
 such mullers. In some arastras there are four mullers and two 
 mules. Outside of the pavement is a Avail of stone a foot high 
 to keep the quartz within reach of the mullers. About four 
 hundred pounds of quartz, previously broken into pieces about 
 
MINING. 279 
 
 the size of a pigeon's egg, are called a " charge" for an arastra 
 ten feet in diameter, and are put in at a time. Tiie mule is 
 started and in four or five hours the quartz is pulverized. 
 Water is now poured in until the powder is thoroughly mixed 
 with it, and the mass has the consistence of thick cream. Care 
 is taken that the mixture be not too thin, for the thickness 
 of it is important to the amalgamation. The paste being all 
 right, some quicksilver (an ounce and a quarter of it for every 
 ounce of gold in the quartz, and the amount of gold is guessed 
 at from the appearance of the rock) is scattered over the aras- 
 tra. The grinding continues for about two hours more, dur- 
 ing which time it is supposed the quicksilver is divided up into 
 very fine globules and mixed all through the paste (which is so 
 stift'that the metal does not sink in it to the bottom), and that 
 all the particles of gold are caught and amalgamated. The 
 amalgamation having been completed, some water is let in 
 three or four inches deep over the paste, and the mule is made 
 to move slowly. The paste is thus dissolved in the water, and 
 the gold, quicksilver, and amalgam have an opportunity to fall 
 to the bottom. At the end of half an hour, or sooner, the 
 thin mud of the arastra is allowed to run off, leaving the pre- 
 cious material at the bottom. Another charge of broken 
 quartz is now put in and the process is repeated, and so on. 
 The length of a "run," or the period from one cleaning up to 
 another, varies much in different places. In the rude arastra 
 a run is seldom less than a week, and sometimes three or four. 
 The amalgam having settled down between the paving stones, 
 the bed must be dug up and all the dirt between them carefully 
 washed. In the improved arastra the paving fits so closely 
 together, that the quicksilver and amalgam do not get down 
 between them, but remain on the surface, and can readily be 
 brushed up into a little pan, and therefore cleaning up is much 
 less troublesome and is more frequently repeated than in the 
 rude arastras ; besides there is a greater need of frequent 
 cleaning up in the improved arastras, because the amount of 
 work done within a given time is usually greater. 
 
280 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The arastra is a slow instrument, but in some important re- 
 spects it is superior to any other method of working auriferous 
 quartz. It grinds the quartz well, is unsurpassable as an amal- 
 gamator, is very cheap and simple, requires no chemical knowl- 
 edge or peculiar mechanical skill in the work, requires but little 
 power, and very little water — all of them important consider- 
 ations. In many places, the scarcity of water alone is enough 
 to enable the arastra to pay a larger profit than any other 
 method. Again, if a miner finds a rich spot in a lode, he may 
 be doubtful as to the amount of paying rock which he can ob- 
 tain. Such cases very frequently happen in California, and 
 the arastra is just the thing for the case ; for then if the 
 amount of paying rock is small, nothing is lost, whereas the 
 erection of a stamping-mill would cost much time and money, 
 and before it could get into smooth operation the rich rock 
 would be exhausted, and the mill perhaps become worthless. 
 No other simple process of amalgamation is equal to that of 
 the arastra ; and it has on various occasions happened in 
 California, that Mexicans making from fifty to sixty dollars 
 per ton from quartz, have sold out to Americans Avho have 
 erected large mills at great expense, with patent amalgama- 
 tors, and have not been able to get more than ten or fifteen 
 dollars from a ton. The arastra is sometimes used for amalga- 
 mating tailings which have passed through stamping-mills. 
 
 § 209. Chilean Mill. — The Chilean mill has a circular bed 
 like the arastra, but much smaller, and the quartz is crushed 
 by two lai'ge stone wheels which roll round on tlK'ir edges. 
 In the centre of the bed is an upright post, the top of 
 which serves as a pivot for the axle on which both of the 
 stones revolve. A mule is usually hitched to the end of one 
 of the axles. The methods of managing the rook and anialga- 
 matino- Avith the Chilean mill, are very similar to those of the 
 arastra. The Chile.;n mill, however, is rarely used in Califor- 
 nia ; the arastra being considered far preferable, 
 
 § 210. Stam2)S. — Nii:e-tenths of the quartz crushed in Cali- 
 fornia is pulverized by stamps, of which there are two kinds, 
 
MINING. 281 
 
 the square and rotary. The square stamp has a perpendicular 
 wooden shaft, six or eight feet long, and six or eight inches 
 square, with an iron shoe, weighing from a hundred to a 
 thousand pounds. The wooden shaft has a mortice in front 
 near the top, and a cam on a revolving horizontal shaft enters 
 this mortice at every revolution. Vv'hen the cam slips out of 
 tlie mortice, the stamp falls with all its weight upon the 
 quartz in the " battery" or " stamping-box." The rotary 
 stamp has a shaft of wrought iron about two inches in diam- 
 eter, and just before falling this shaft receives a whirling mo- 
 tion, which is continued by the shoe as it strikes the quartz. 
 The rotary stamp is considered superior to the square, its ad- 
 vantage being that it crushes more rock with the same power, 
 that it crushes more within the same space, and that it wears 
 away less of the shoe in proportion to the amount of rock 
 crushed. There are usually half a dozen square stamps or 
 more, standing side by side in a square-stamp mill, and these 
 do not all fall at the same moment, but successively, running 
 from the head to the foot of the " battery." The quartz is put 
 in at the head of the battery and is gradually driven to the 
 foot. The rotary stamps sometimes stand side by side, and 
 sometimes in a circle. The battery of both rotary and square 
 stamps is surrounded by wire gauze, or a perforated iron 
 plate, allowing the finely pulverized quartz to escape, and re- 
 taining the coarser particles. Quartz is crushed wet and dry. 
 In wet crushing a little stream of water runs into the battery 
 on one side and escapes on the other, carrying all the fine 
 quartz with it. 
 
 § 211. Separation. — After pulverization comes the separa- 
 tion of the gold from the rocky portion of the powder. The 
 means of separation are mechanical or chemical. The chemical 
 process is amalgamation ; the mechanical are those wherein the 
 gold is caught on a rough suriace with the aid of its specific 
 gravity. The chief reliance is upon amalgamation, and in some 
 large quartz-mills mechanical apj:)liances are not used at all for 
 catching the particles of gold, but only for catching amalgam. 
 
282 BESOUECES OF CALIEOEXIA. 
 
 The mechanical appliances used in quartz-raills in separating 
 the gold from the pulverized rock, are the blanket, the sluice, 
 and the rawhide. 
 
 The blanket is a coarse, rough, gray blanket, which is laid 
 down in a trough sixteen inches wide and six feet long. The 
 pulverized quartz is carried over this by a stream of water, 
 and the particles of gold are caught in the wool. The blanket 
 is taken up and washed, at intervals depending upon the 
 amount of gold deposited. In some mills where a large 
 amount of rock is crushed, and where the powder is taken 
 over the blanket before trying any other process of separation, 
 the washing takes place every half-hour. In mills where the 
 pulverized quartz is exposed to amalgamation first, the blanket 
 may be washed three or four times a day. The washing is 
 done in a vat, kept for that especial purpose. 
 
 The sluice used in quartz-mills is similar to the placer board- 
 sluice, but the amount of matter to be washed is less, and there 
 is no dirt to be dissolved, and there are no large stones, and 
 therefore the sluice is not so large, so strong, or so steep in 
 grade, as the placer-sluice, and the riffle-bars are not so deep. 
 In some quartz-mill sluices there are transverse riffle-bars. If 
 the quartz has much iron or copper pyrites, the sluice is used 
 to collect this material and save it for separation at some future 
 time. The pyrites ordinarily contains, or is accompanied by 
 much gold, which it protects from amalgamation. This separa- 
 tion of the pyrites from the pulverized rock is called " concen- 
 trating the tailings," and the material collected is called " con- 
 centrated tailings." In the sluices of some quartz-mills cast-iron 
 riffle-bars are used ; cast in sections about fifteen inches square, 
 and about an inch deep. Much study has been devoted to the 
 subject of making these riffle-bars in such a manner that the 
 dirt will not pack in them, but will always remain loose, and 
 keep in constant motion under the influence of the water run- 
 ning over them; but the object has never been fully attained. 
 Quicksilver is used in nearly all quartz-mill sluices. 
 
 The rawhide used in separatmg gold from the pulverized 
 
MINING. 283 
 
 quartz is a common cowhide, laid down in a trough with the 
 hairy side up, and the grain of the hair against the course of 
 the water. The gold is then caught in the hair. Sheep-hides 
 have been used in the same manner, recalling to mind the 
 Golden Fleece. The hides, however, are inferior to the 
 blankets for this pur230se, and are never used in the best mills. 
 
 The methods of amalgamating are numerous. Among them 
 are amalgamation in the battery, amalgamation Avith the cop- 
 per plate, amalgamating bowls, and patent amalgamation of 
 many kinds. 
 
 In many mills quicksilver is placed in the battery, two 
 ounces of quicksilver for one of gold ; and about two-thirds of 
 the gold is caught thus. The copper plate in quartz-mills is 
 made in the same manner as in placer-sluices, under which 
 head a description of the plate may be found. Some amalga- 
 mating bowls or basins are little Chilean mills and arastras, 
 made of cast-iron. One plan of amalgamation is to use a cast- 
 iron bowl about four feet in diameter and a foot deep. Near 
 the bottom are horizontal iron arms, which revoh^e and stir 
 the quicksilver and pulverized quartz together. Four or five 
 of these bowls sit in a row but at different levels : the bottom 
 of the first bowd being level with the top of the second, and so 
 on. The pulverized quartz passes through them all. Under 
 each bowl a fire is kept up, because heat forms the action of 
 amalgamation. If there be any pyrites in the quartz, some 
 common salt is thrown in to assist in releasing the gold from 
 the embraces of the sulphurets, and preparing it to be seized 
 by the mercury. Another amalgamating bowl revolves on an 
 axis that stands at an angle of about seventy-five degrees to 
 the horizon, so that the material in the bowl is continually 
 moving ; and the bottom is divided by little compartments, 
 which make a constant riffle. In other bowls the pulverized 
 quartz is forced with water through the mercury. The methods 
 of amalgamation differ very much, and a book might be filled 
 with a description and discussion of the processes used at 
 different quartz-mills ia California. 
 
284 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 212. Sulphurets. — Many auriferous quartz veins contain 
 considerable quantities of sulphurets or pyrites of iron, cop- 
 per and lead, and their presence prevents amalgamation, and 
 thus causes a great loss of gold. It is said that on some occa- 
 sions in good mills, not more than twenty or thirty dollars 
 have been obtained from a ton of vein-stone which had seven 
 or eight hundred dollars of gold in every ton. The best 
 method of treating the quartz containing pyrites, is to roast it, 
 and thus drive off the sulphur, but this process is so expensive 
 that it is seldom used ; and the common practice is to crush 
 and amalgamate the rock, and save the concentrated tailings for 
 some future time, when there may be a sale for them, or when 
 it will be cheaper to reduce them. The pulverized sulphurets 
 are decomposed by exposure to the air, and after the tailings 
 have been preserved for a time, they may pay better at the 
 second amalgamation than at the first. A mixture of common 
 salt assists the decomposition of the pyrites. 
 
 § 213. Chief Quariz-JSIilh. — The most productive quartz- 
 mill in the state is the Benton mill, on Fremont's Itant-h, in 
 Mariposa county. It is also the largest, having forty-eight 
 stamps. There are four mills on the esta.te, with ninety-one 
 sta;n[)S in all, and their average yield per month is sixty thou- 
 sand dollars. A railroad four miles long conveys the quartz 
 from the lode to the mills. The Allison quartz mine in Nevada 
 county produces forty thousand dollars per month. The Sierra 
 Buttes quartz-mill, twelve miles from Downieville, yields about 
 lifteen thousand dollars per month. These last mills run 
 night and day, and crush and amalgamate ten thousand tons 
 of rock a year or tAventy-eight tons per day. Forty men are 
 employed, twenty-five to quarry the rock, five in the mill to 
 attend to the stamps and amalgamation, one to do carpentry, 
 one for blacksmithing, and eight for getting out timber, trans- 
 porting qua^'tz, and so forth. The cost of quarrying, crush- 
 ing, and amalgamating a ton of rock is six dollars. The wages 
 of the men are from fifty to seventy dollars per month wiih 
 boarding. The average wages is sixty dollars About ten 
 
MINING. 2S5 
 
 miles eastward of Sonora, in Tuolumne county, are some rich 
 veins of auriferous quartz, the most prominent of which are 
 the Soulsby and Blakeslee lodes. The Soulsby mill produced 
 forty thousand dollars in three weeks, when it commenced 
 work in 1858, but it has not been so profitable of late. 
 
 § 214. Silver Mming. — Silver mining has not yet been 
 established fairly as a business in California. The silver ores 
 of Washoe were discovered in 1859, and mining has been 
 fairly commenced there, but the mines of Esmeralda and Coso, 
 w^ithin the limits of tliis state, were not found until the sum- 
 mer of 1860, and up the present time no mills have been 
 established there. 
 
 Silver mining differs much from gold mining. Gold is always 
 found as a metal, never as an ore, and the separation from the 
 accompanying vein-stone with which it is mixed mechanically, is 
 much more simple and easy than the reduction of the ar^entif- 
 erous ores in which the silver is chemically combined with 
 base substances, for which it has a strong affinity. Chemical 
 knowledge and chemical processes are more necessary in min- 
 ing for silver than for gold ; and while all auriferous quartz is of 
 the same kind, and may be treated in the same manner, there 
 are many difterent kinds of silver ores, each of which requires 
 a peculiar treatment. The reduction of silver ore costs on an 
 average, from three to five times as much as the reduction of 
 auriferous quartz. 
 
 Tlie silver ore of Esmeralda and Coso is a sulphuret of 
 silver, nearly all the veins having the same material, though the 
 amount of it scattered through the vein-stone difi^ers greatly 
 in difierent lodes. In some veins there is much free gold, that 
 is, little specks of metalHc gold which can be -separated from 
 the other material in the same manner that gold is separated 
 from auriferous quartz. The methods of reducing silver ore 
 are so numerous and complex, and vary so much in difterent 
 districts and imder different circumstances, that it is impossi- 
 ble to know now what process will be used in Esmeralda and 
 Coso, the resources of which places have been so little studied. 
 
286 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Besides it is said that new processes for reducing; silver ore 
 have been invented, far superior to all the old methods ; and 
 these processes are kept secret. It is therefore unnecessary 
 that I should go into a long description of the various pro- 
 cesses practised elsewhere. Silver ore after pulverization is 
 smelted by mixing with it fifty per cent, of lead in metal or 
 ore, and ten per cent, of iron, and exposing the whole to a 
 heat sufficient to melt the silver Avhich runs off. The metal 
 thus obtained is not pure but contains much lead, which is 
 driven off by heat while the silver is kept in a molten condition 
 for a period of four or six hours. Tlie cost of smelting in 
 California at present, is about one hundred and twenty-five 
 dollars per ton. In most of the other methods of reducing 
 silver ore, the ore is roasted to drive off the sulphur. In the 
 barrel amalgamation, which has been used at Washoe, and will 
 probably be used at Esmeralda also, half a ton of ore, after 
 being pulverized and roasted, three hundred pounds of water, 
 and one hundred pounds of wrought iron, in little fragments, 
 are put into a barrel, which revolves on a perpendicular axis. 
 At th(; end of two hours the mass has taken the consistence of 
 thick cream, when five hundred pounds of quicksilver are put 
 in, and after the barrel has revolved four hours more, the 
 amalgamation is complete. More water is now poured in; 
 the barrel revolves very slowly to let the amalgam all settle to 
 the bottom, the mud runs off through a cock four inches above 
 the bottom and the mercury and amalgam are then drawn off 
 through a little hole in the bottom of the barrel. 
 
 § 215. Quicksilver Mining. — The ore from which quick- 
 silver is obtained is a sulphuret. The sulphur is driven off by 
 heat, and the metal, which rises in fumes from the ore, is col- 
 lected by condensation. The miners are Cornishmen and 
 Mexicans. The ore is in large masses underground, not in a 
 connected vein of regular thickness ; and after one mass is ex- 
 hausted, much labor is often vainly spent in search of another. 
 There are, however, usually little seams of ore running from 
 one large deposit to another, and it is the business of the 
 
MINING. 287 
 
 mining captains to observe these veins closely, and trace them 
 np when a "fault" occurs. There are no scientific rules for 
 finding the ore ; and the business of searching for the large 
 deposits is never intrusted to educated mining engineers, but 
 ahviiys to mining captains, who have themselves been laborers, 
 and have learned by experience where to seek. The New 
 Almaden mine produces two hundred and twenty thousand 
 pounds of metal in a month. The hacienda^ or reducing estab- 
 lishment of the mining company, has fourteen brick furnaces, 
 each fifty feet long, twelve feet high, and twelve feet wide. At 
 one end of each furnace is the fire chamber, which maybe nine 
 cubic feet inside ; next that is the ore chamber of about the 
 same size ; and beyond that is the condensing chamber in 
 which there are a number of partitions alternately running up 
 from the bottom and down from the top, with a space for the 
 fumes to pass, their course being up and down, and up and 
 down again, and so on, for a distance of thirty feet to the 
 chimney, which is forty feet high. In the bottom of the con- 
 densing chamber is water. The walls between the fire cham- 
 ber and the ore chamber, and between the latter and the con- 
 densing chamber, are built with open spaces, so that the heat, 
 smoke, and fumes can pass through. The ore is placed in the 
 ore chamber in such a manner as to leave many open spaces. 
 The heat drives off the sulphur and mercury of the ore in 
 fumes, which in passing through the condensing chambers, de- 
 posit the mercury, and the smoke and sulphur escape through 
 the chimney. In the Enriqueta and Guadalupe mines the 
 quicksilver is condensed in a close iron retort, and the sulphur 
 is absorbed by quicklime. 
 
 Copper ore is dug from several mines in California, but it is 
 all exported to be smelted elsewhere. 
 
 § 216. Platinum. — Platinum, iridium, and osmium, three 
 white metals of about the same specific gravity with gold, are 
 found with the latter metal in the placers in the basin of 
 the Klamath and Trinity Rivers. Their particles are usually 
 fine scales, very rarely reaching a quarter of an ounce in weight, 
 
288 RESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 and the largest piece of either ever found was less than an 
 ounce and a half. They, cannot be separated from the gold by 
 washing, but they do not unite with quicksilver, and therefore 
 they are separated from the more precious metal by amalga- 
 mation. They have no regular market in the state ; miners 
 never make them the chief object of search, and they have 
 not been studied, so it is not known to what extent they might 
 be obtained. 
 
 § 217. Del JSforte and Klamath.— Jy^X Norte county in the 
 northwestern corner of the state, is about forty miles long 
 from east to west by thirty from north to south. The mining 
 population in it is sir.nll. Most of the mining is done along the 
 banks of the Klamath River, which runs about twenty miles 
 thiough the southeastern portion of the county. There are 
 some miners on the head-waters of Althoupe Creek, Avhich runs 
 northward into Oregon. The county assessor, in his I'epor; for 
 1860, does not mention the existence of any quartz-mill or 
 mining-ditch in the county. The mining districts are very 
 mountainous and difficult of access. They obtain most of their 
 s>]pplies from Crescent City. The mining is chiefly in shallow 
 placers, in deep and narrow ravines, and on bars of the KM- 
 math River. 
 
 Klamath county lies immediately south of Del ISTorte, and is 
 about the same size. It is almost exclusively a milling county, 
 and has a population of about eighteen hundied. The diggings 
 ai-e placers in the bars and banks of the Klamath River and 
 its tributnries, the Trinity and Salmon Rivers, and many small 
 creeks. The principal mining places are Orleans Bar, Gullion's 
 Bar, Negro Flat, Cecilville, Weitspeck, and Red Cap. The 
 whole county is very rugged and mountainous, and much of it 
 is covered with heavy timber. The diggings are so difficult 
 of access, and are so protected by mountains against ditches, 
 that they will last for many years. There is probably no part 
 of the state where the single miner, without capital, has a 
 better clmnce to dig gold with a profit. Nearly the whole 
 beach of the county is auriferous. 
 
MINING. 289 
 
 § 218. SisJdyou. — Siskiyou county lies east of Del Norte 
 and Klamath, is forty miles wide from north to south, one 
 hundred miles long from east to west, and reaches to the 
 eastern boundary of the state. It has a population of 7,629, 
 the large majority of whom are engaged in mining. The 
 mining district is all in the western end of the county, along 
 the banks of the Klamath River and its tributaries the Scott 
 and Shasta Rivers. The Klamath runs through a deep canon . 
 the Scott and Shasta Rivers have pleasant open valleys, but the 
 diggings along their banks are chiefly among the canons near 
 the Klamath. Hydraulic and tunnel claims are rare. There 
 are six quartz- mills in the county and fifteen mining-ditches, 
 of which last the principal is the Yreka canal, forty miles long, 
 brhiging water from the head of Shasta River to the town of 
 Yreka. In 1859 there were four quartz-mills in the county, 
 one of which was at Muggins ville, one in Scott's valley and 
 two in Quartz valley. I have no information about the situa- 
 tion of the two built since that time. The principal mining 
 towns are Yreka, Scott's Bar, Hawkinsville, Johnson's Bar, 
 Deatlwood, and Cottonwood. 
 
 § 219. Trinity and /S/u(sta. — South of the western part of 
 Siskiyou and the eastern part of Klamath, lies Trinity county, 
 ninety milts long from north to south, and about twenty milef- 
 wide on an a\ erage. The northern part of the county is the 
 basin of the Trinity River, and is aurifei-ous. From the count} 
 Assessor's report for 1860, it is to be inferred that there is not 
 a quartz-mill or a mining-ditch in the state. The county is 
 very mountainous, and most of the mining is done in rugged 
 canons along the Trinity River. The cliief mining towns are 
 Weavei ville, Cox's Bar, Big Bar, Arkansas Flat, Mooney's 
 Flat, and Trinity Centre. 
 
 South pf Siskiyou and east of Trinity lies Shasta county, 
 which is on an average forty miles wide from north to south, 
 and one hundi-ed miles long, reaching to the eastern border of 
 the state. There is a rich auriferous district about twenty 
 miles square, in the vicinity of the town of Shasta, in the 
 13 
 
290 KESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 southwestern part of the county. The diggings are mostly in 
 the basins of Clear Creek, Cottonwood Creek, Rock Creek, 
 and Salt Creek, all of which enter into the Sacramento. There 
 are four quartz-mills in the county, one at French Gulch, one 
 at Middle Creek, one at Muletown, and one at Old Diggings. 
 The county has twenty-seven mining ditches, with a joint length 
 of one hundred and forty-one miles, an average of five miles 
 each. The chief mining towns are Shasta, Horsetown, French 
 Gulch, Muletown, Briggsville, Whiskey, and Middletown. 
 
 § 220. Plumas and Sierra. — South of the eastern part of 
 Shasta county lies Plumas, which is about seventy miles square. 
 About one-third of the county, in the southwestern part of it, 
 comprising that portion drained by the head-waters of Feather 
 River, is auriferous. It lies high above the level of the sea, 
 and the work of mining is interrupted during a considerable 
 portion of the winter, by cold, snow, and ice. Hydraulic and 
 tunnel claims in deep hills, furnish a large portion of the gold 
 yield of the county. There are five quartz-mills, one at Eliza- 
 bethtown, one at Eureka Lake, and three at Jamison Creek. 
 The principal mining towns are Quincy, Jamison City, Indian 
 Bar, Nelson's Point, and Poorman's Creek. 
 
 South of Plumas is Sierra county, which is fifty miles long 
 from east to west and twenty miles wide from north to south. 
 The North Fork of the Yuba River runs through its cen- 
 tre, and the Middle Fork is its southern boundary. Though 
 small, it is one of the richest mining counties of the state, and 
 in proportion to the extent of its mining ground, is much 
 richer than any other county. All its territory is four thou- 
 sand feet above the sea-level, at the lowest. Most of the min- 
 ing is done in hydraulic and tunnel claims in deep hills. Near 
 the centre of the county is a mountain called the Downieville 
 Butte, or the Yuba Butte, eight thousand eight hundred and 
 forty-six feet high, on the sides of which are found some rich 
 quartz leads. In 1859 there were eleven quartz-mills in Sierra 
 county, of which seven are at the Butte, two at Downieville, 
 one at the Mountain House, and one at Sierra City. The 
 
MINING. 291 
 
 principal mining towns are Downieville, Monte Cristo, Pine 
 Grove, St. Louis, La Porte, Poker Flat, Eureka City, Forest 
 City, Alleghany Town, and Cox's Bar. One of the most re- 
 markable features of the placers of the state is the blue lead, 
 which was first discovered in Sierra county, and has been more 
 thoroughly examined there than elsewhere. The " blue lead" 
 is a stratum of bhie clay very rich in gold. It is found deep 
 under other strata. The general opinion is, that the blue lead 
 occupies the bed of a large antediluvian river, w^hich ran parallel 
 with the Sacramento and about sixty miles eastward of it. It 
 has been traced twenty miles or more, passing near Monte 
 Cristo, Alleghany Town, Forest City, Chip's Flat, and Zion Hill. 
 Mr. C. S. Capp wrote thus to the San Francisco Bulletin : 
 
 " This is not one of the many petty leads, an inch or two in 
 breadth and thickness, which, after being traced a few hundred 
 feet, end as suddenly and mysteriously as they commence ; but 
 it is, evidently, the bed of some ancient river. It is often hun- 
 dreds of feet in width, and extends for miles and miles, a thou- 
 sand feet below the summits of high mountains, and entirely 
 through them. Now it crops out where the deep channels of 
 some of the rivers and ravines of the present day have cut it 
 asunder ; and then, hidden beneath the rocks and strata above 
 it, it only emerges again miles and miles away. Wherever its 
 continuity has been destroyed, the river or gulch which has 
 washed a portion of it away, was found to be immensely rich 
 for some distance below, and the materials of wliich the lead, is 
 composed are found with the gold in the bed of the stream. 
 It is evidently the bed of some ancient stream, because it is 
 walled in by steep banks of hard bed-rock, precisely like the 
 banks of rivers and ravines in which water now runs, and be- 
 cause it is composed of clay which is evidently a sedimentary 
 deposit, and of pebbles of black and white quartz, which 
 could only be rounded and polished as they are by the long- 
 continued action of swiftly running water. The bed-rock in 
 the bottom of this lead is worn into long smooth channels, and 
 also has its roughnesses and crevices like other river-beds. 
 
292 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The lighter and poorer qualities of gold are found nearest to 
 its edges, while the heavier and finer portions have found their 
 way to the deeper places, near the centre. Trees and pieces 
 of wood, more or less petrified and changed in their nature, 
 which once floated in its waters, are also everywhere encoun- 
 tered throughout this stratum. 
 
 " The clay and fine gravel in which these pebbles and boul- 
 ders are found to be tightly packed, is of a light-blue color, 
 which gives the name to the lead. Much of this clay is re- 
 markably fine and free from coarse particles, and is smooth and 
 unctuous to the touch. It is said to be strongly impregnated 
 with arsenic, as was shown by chemical analysis, and contains 
 large quantities of iron and sulphur in solution, for pyrites and 
 sulphurets of iron are deposited in shining metallic crystals in 
 every vacant crevice. Fine gold is found among this clay, and 
 the heavier particles beneath it, upon the bed-rock. This stra- 
 tum varies in thickness from eighteen inches to eight or ten 
 feet, while the whole lead varies in width from a hundred and 
 fifty to five hundred feet. 
 
 " The same lead has been found at Sebastopol, four miles 
 above Monte Cristo, and also higher up among the mountains. 
 It appears at Monte Cristo, which is four miles above the high- 
 lying Downieville, and over three thousand feet above it, and 
 at Chapparal Hill on the side of a deep ravine ; then at the 
 City of Six, which is also on very high land, about four milea 
 from Downieville, across the North Yuba. It is next found 
 at Forest City, on both sides of a creek, and is there traced 
 directly through the mountain to Alleghany Town and Smith's 
 Flat, on the opposite side. There it is again cut in twain by 
 a deep ravine. It crops out on the other side at Chip's Flat, 
 Avhere it has been followed by tunnels passing completely 
 through the mountain to Centreville and Minnesota on the 
 other side. Here it is obliterated by the Middle Fork of the 
 Yuba, but it is believed to be again found at Snow Point, on 
 the opposite side of the river ; and again at Zion Hill, several 
 miles beyond. There is no reason for doubting that after thus 
 
MINING. 293 
 
 reaching over twenty miles, it still extends further. Hundreds 
 of tunnels have been run in search of it. Where the line it 
 follows was adhered to, they have always found it, and have 
 been well rewarded for their labor. Millions of dollars have 
 been taken from this lead, and its richness, even in portions 
 longest worked, is yet undiminished. These tunnels have cost 
 from $20,000 to $100,000 each, and interests in the claims 
 they enter sell readily at from $1,000 to $20,000, in proportion 
 to the amount of ground within them remaining untouched, 
 and the facilities which exist for working it. Many of these 
 claims will yet afibrd from five to ten or more years' profitable 
 labor to their owners, before the lead itself within them is 
 exhausted. As in some of them quartz veins and poorer pay- 
 ing gravel have been found, many of them may be valuable to 
 work from the top down as hydraulic claims." 
 
 This idea that the blue lead occupies the bed of an an- 
 tediluvian river is however not universally accepted. Mr. 
 B. P. Avery, who has written numerous newspaper articles 
 upon the mineral deposits, asserts that the " blue lead," as 
 it is called, is not a " lead" but an extensive stratum which 
 is many miles wide, and is found all the way from the foot hills 
 to the summit of the Sierra Nevada. In reply to this, it is 
 said that while a bluish stratum of clay similar to that of the 
 blue lead is found over a wide district, that it is evidently 
 different in origin from the blue lead itself, which is confined 
 to a narrow bed, and marked by the signs found in all the other 
 ancient river-beds of the state. 
 
 The Sierra Butte Quartz Mining Company has some of the 
 best auriferous quartz lodes in the state. One lode called the 
 Cliff" Ledge, is twenty-five feet wide ; and another called the 
 Aerial Ledge, is about three feet wide. In the Cliff" Ledge, the 
 paying rock averages about six feet in thickness next the foot- 
 wall. The average yield is eighteen dollars per ton. The 
 quartz is bluish-white in color, and very hard when first taken 
 from the lode, but on exposure to the air it slowly crumbles 
 into sand. 
 
294 KESOUKCES OF CALIFOEXIA. 
 
 § 221. Yuba andJButte. — West of Sierra county, and drained 
 by the same streams, is Yuba, which reaches to the Sacramento 
 River, lying half in the mountains and half in the plain, the 
 mining district being in the former half. The principal min- 
 ing towns are Camptonville, Timbuctoo, Foster's Bar, Texas 
 Bar, and Long's Bar. In 1859 there were nine quartz-mills in 
 the county, three at Brown's valley, and one each at Camp- 
 tonville, Dobbin's Ranch, Dry Creek, Honcut, Indiana Creek, 
 and Robbin's Creek. The assessor in 1860 reported only two 
 quartz-mills in the county. There are twenty-two ditches 
 in the county, with an aggregate length of nine hundred and 
 fifty-two miles, an average of forty-three miles each. The most 
 important ditch, called "Bovyer's," supplies Timbuctoo with 
 five thousand inches of water in the winter, less in the summer. 
 The diggings at Timbuctoo are in a deep hill, which is washed 
 away by the hydraulic process. 
 
 West of Yuba and Plumas counties lies Butte, which is 
 drained by the Feather River. The principal mining towns 
 are Oroville, Bidwell's Bar, Forbestown, jSTatchez, and White- 
 rock. In 1859 there were seventeen quartz-mills in the county, 
 of which four were at Oregon Gulch, at Columbiaville and 
 Hansonville three each, two at Yankee Hill, and at Evansville, 
 Gold Run, Long Bar, Nesbitt's Flat, and Spring valley, one 
 each. The assessor reports for 1860, twenty -nine quartz- 
 mills, worth fifty thousand dollars, and crushing in the aggre- 
 gate one hundred and sixty-two and a half tons per day. 
 There are sixty-four mining-ditches, with an aggregate length 
 of five hundred and eighty-three miles. The bars and beds of 
 Feather River were once very rich, and some of the most ex- 
 tensive enterprises of river mining in the state have been 
 undertaken within the limits of Butte county. The greatest 
 flume ever built in California was that of the Cape Claim 
 Company, near Oroville, in 1857. It was three-quarters of a 
 mile long and twenty feet wide, and furnished employment for 
 two hundred and fifty men from May till November. The 
 expenditures during that period were $176,985, and the re- 
 
MINING. 295 
 
 ceipts $251,426, showing a clear profit of $74,441. The next 
 year, after the water had fallen, the company commenced its 
 labors again ; spent $160,000 and received $115,000, and thus 
 lost $45,000. North of Oroville is a " table-mountain" with 
 a top of basalt, covering a rich deposit of auriferous clay. 
 
 § 222. Nevada and Placer. — South of Yuba and Butte is 
 Nevada, the richest mining county of the state. Within its 
 limits the tom, sluice, under-current sluice, and crinoline hose 
 were invented, and the ditch and hydraulic power were first 
 applied to placer-mining ; and quartz-mining was first under- 
 taken extensively. In 1859 there were thirty-two quartz-mills 
 in the county, and twenty-eight mining-ditches, with an aggre- 
 gate length of three hundred and ninety-four miles. No part 
 of the mineral region of the state is better supplied with water 
 than Nevada county. The richest quartz district is in the 
 vicinity of Nevada City, which has fifteen mills, and Grass 
 Valley, five miles distant, has seventeen. The great Allison 
 mine, which has the richest lode in the state, is in Grass 
 Valley. 
 
 The quartz mines here are much troubled with water, 
 and during the winter of 1860-'61 many of the mills were 
 compelled to stop for weeks until the shafts could be drained 
 by steam-engines, after having been filled by a long and heavy 
 rain. The annual gold yield of Grass Valley has been estimated 
 at four millions of dollars. North San Juan has the finest hy- 
 draulic claims, and Sweetland the largest tail-sluices. The 
 Eureka Lake Ditch Company has more ditching and water 
 than any other company in the state. Their main ditch is 
 seventy-five miles long, and there are one hundred and ninety 
 miles of branches, making a total of two hundred and sixty- 
 five miles, which have cost nine hundred thousand dollars. 
 The daily sale of water is six thousand inches, with a weekly 
 income of six thousand dollars. The principal mining towns 
 arc Nevada, Grass Valley, North San Juan, Rough and Ready, 
 Orleans Flat, Moore's Flat, and Humbug City. 
 
 Placer county lies next to Nevada going southward. Tbo 
 
296 EESOUllCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Kcrtli Fork of the American River runs through the middle of 
 the comity, and the Middle Fork forms its southern boundary. 
 The principal mining towns are Auburn, Yankee Jim's, Gold 
 Hill, Dutch Flat, Todd's valley, Michigan City, Iowa Hill, 
 Bath and Wisconsin Hill. Two-thirds of the present gold yield 
 of the county is derived from hydraulic claims. 
 
 Some of the placer diggings near Bath are found in a peculiar 
 formation. The principal deposit is in a deep hill, at the bot- 
 tom of which is a stratum of pay-dirt, consisting of a fine sandy 
 sediment, with pebbles and pieces of quartz. The gold is 
 round and coarse. Above that is a stratum of blue gravel, 
 which varies from twenty to one hundred and fifty feet in 
 thickness. This blue gravel is " spoted ;" that is, in places it 
 pays well ; in other places it does not pay at all. Above this 
 stratum is another layer of pay-dirt composed of a reddish 
 gravel, which is about three feet thick on an average, and con- 
 tains little scales of gold. The top of the ridge is composed 
 of a whitish cement or tough clay, which, where exposed to 
 the air, is reddish in color, and resembles the red gravelly clay 
 found in most of the hills in the rich mining districts. 
 
 § 223. El Dorado and Amador. — El Dorado county ad- 
 joins Placer on the south, and is drained by the South Fork 
 of the American River, which runs through its centre, the 
 Middle Fork, which is its northern boundary, and the Cosum- 
 nes its southern boundary. It is the oldest placer-mining 
 county of the Sacramento basin, Marshall having made his 
 discovery within its limits ; and ten years ago it was called 
 the " Empire County," because it cast the largest vote in the 
 state, but it has now lost much of its population and fallen be- 
 hind several others. The principal mining towns are Flacer- 
 ville, Coloma, Georgetown, Diamond Springs, El Dorado, 
 Spanish Bar, and Indian Diggings. In 1859 there were forty 
 quartz-mills in the county, of which six are at El Dorado, 
 three at Steeley's Fork, at Placerville, Nashville, Grizzly 
 Flat, Loafer Hollow, and Logtown two each, and the others 
 are scattered about. The county has fifty-one ditches, twelve 
 
MIXING. 297 
 
 hundred and fifty miles in aggregate length, the average 
 length being twenty-four miles. 
 
 " Indian Diggings," says Mr. Capp, " is a mining village 
 twenty-five miles southeastward from Placerville, on the bank 
 of Indian Creek. In this district, a belt of limestone, or blue 
 and white marble, rises m ridges through the slate bed-rock, 
 and is in places cut by the water into long and deep channels, 
 some of which serve as natural tail-races for the miners, but it 
 oftener renders large amounts of blasting necessary. The 
 claims in the bed of the creek formerly paid well, as the tail- 
 ings waslied down from the hydrauhc claims above continually 
 enriched them. In some of the creek claims, in the middle of 
 the channel, deep holes were found, filled with a kind of dirt 
 different from that above it. This wns sometimes extremely 
 rich, and in one claim a single panful paid three dollars. An- 
 other singular feature connected with these deep places, is that 
 they seem to have subterranean outlets, for in one instance a 
 hundred inches of w^ater poured in for three days, with all the 
 dirt it washed down, failed to have any perceptible effect in 
 filling it up. It was finally stopped with bushes and gravel, 
 and the water turned oflT. A mile or more above this, in an- 
 other claim, a similar hole was discovered, and forty inches of 
 water poured in for several hours produced no visible progress 
 toward filling it. Here the miner was in doubt whether there 
 w^as a rich deposit of gold awaiting him down there, or w^hether 
 the bottom of his claim had fallen out altogether." 
 
 Amador county adjoins El Dorado, with the Cosumnes for 
 its northern boundary and the Mokelumne for the soutliern. 
 The principal mining towns are Jackson, Volcano, Butte City, 
 Dryton, Fiddletown, Sutter Creek, and Lancha Plana. Much 
 of the bed-rock is marble. The county is rich in auriferous 
 quartz, and has thirty-two mills, of which six are at Sutter 
 Creek, five at Amador City, four at Dry Creek, at Volcano, 
 Clinton, Contreras, and North Fork of the Mokelumne, two 
 each, and at Big Bar Bridge, Butte City, Drytown, Grass 
 Valley, Gales' Ranch, Herbertsville, Oneida, and Raucheria 
 13* 
 
298 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Creek one each. The county has eight mining-ditches, with an 
 aggregate length of one hundred and sixty-seven miles. 
 
 § 224. Calaveras and Tuolumne. — Next to Amador is Cala- 
 veras county, bounded on the north by the Mokelumne River, 
 on the south by the Stanislaus River, with the Calaveras River 
 running between them. The principal mining towns are Moke- 
 lumne Hill, San Andres, Murphy's, Angel's, Vallecito, West 
 Point, Campo Secho, Douglass' Flat, Carson, Jesus Maria, and 
 Esperanza. The county has thirty-three quartz-mills, of whicli 
 twelve are at Angel's, at Carson and the South Fork of the Mok- 
 elumne River four each, three at the North Fork of the Mok- 
 elumne, at West Point, Rich Gulch, Murray's Creek and the 
 Middle Fork of the Mokelumne, two each, and at Bear Creek 
 and McKinney's Humbug one each. Mr. Capp says, " The main 
 wealth of the district about West Point consists in its quartz 
 leads, which are so numerous that several of the residents in- 
 formed me, that starting three miles north of West Point, and 
 proceeding south for a distance of nine miles to the junction 
 of the forks of the Mokelumne, a person would cross a quartz 
 vein in every hundred yards. About one hundred of these veins 
 have been prospected upon the surface, and scarcely any have 
 been found that did not prove to contain gold. As a proof of 
 the richness of the veins of this district, it would be sufficient to 
 state that large numbers of Mexicans and other Spaniards are 
 now working them successfully, although they pay from one 
 dollar to one dollar and fifty cents per cargo of three hundred 
 pounds, to have the rock ground in arastras, to which freight 
 from the leads to the mills along the river has also to be added. 
 Mexicans who do their own work, cannot possibly afford to 
 work rock that does not at least pay three dollars per cargo, 
 or twenty dollars per ton, and in fact they seldom do work 
 rock that pays less than six dollars per cargo and forty dollars 
 per ton. 
 
 " There is very little slate in this district, and nearly all the 
 quartz veins are encased in granite, which is usually much de- 
 composed. Occasionally, the granite appears to 'pinch' the 
 
MIXING. 299 
 
 quartz leads u^itil they become very thin, but by tracing them 
 on further, or downwards, they again swell out to their origi- 
 nal size, and sometimes bulge out beyond it. In such places, 
 and at the intersection of small veins, very rich deposits of 
 gold are frequently found, which, from their narrowness and 
 the depth to which they extend, the Spaniards call clavos or 
 nails. The principal portion of the rock about Angel's is of a 
 greenish and gray color, and contains large quantities of the 
 fiulphuret of iron. Mixed with this are streaks and veins of 
 white quartz or limestone. The sulphurets are found, either in 
 irregular bright crystaUine masses, or small threads and veins. 
 Some of these veins are as much as eight inches in thickness. 
 In other portions of the green rock, the sulphurets are scat- 
 tered all through it, as separate and minute square crystals. 
 The whole formation will probably become one solid vein when 
 any considerable depth is reached ; but near the surface it is 
 cut up into separate veins by streaks and wedges of slate, 
 wiiich do not appear to contain any gold. These streaks of 
 slate are from a few inches to several feet in thickness. The 
 poorer portions of the rock contain from twelve to sixteen per 
 cent, of the sulphurets, while the richest are nearly pure 
 crystals, among which the gold is seen shining in small par- 
 ticles and scales." 
 
 In the southeastern corner of Calaveras county, thirty-five 
 miles from Stockton, are mines of carbonate and sulphuret of 
 copper. During the first three months of 1861, four hundred 
 tons of ore, containing about thirty-three per cent, of metal, 
 were taken out, and one-half the amount was shipped to the 
 Eastern states. The cost of getting the ore out and hauling 
 it to Stockton has been eight dollars per ton. 
 
 Tuolumne adjoins Calaveras county,, and is bounded by the 
 Stanislaus River on the north, and the divide between the 
 Tuolumne and Merced Rivers on the south, the former stream 
 being within the limits of the county. The principal mining 
 towns are Sonora, Columbia, Springfield, Shaw's Flat, James- 
 town, Chinese Camp, Big Oak Flat, Garrote, Don Pedro's 
 
300 KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Bar, and Pine Log. The first four are' within a circle with a 
 radius of five miles, a district which has been extremely rich 
 in placer diggings, and especially in large nuggets. In 1850 
 two lumps of twenty-three pounds, one each of eighteen, thir- 
 teen, ten, five, four, and three pounds, were found; in 1851 
 one each of twenty-eight, twenty-four, twenty-three, and five 
 pounds; in 1852 one each of nine and five pounds ; in 1853 
 one each of twenty, ten, nine, eight, seven, and six pounds ; in 
 1854 one each of seventy-two, twenty-seven, sixteen, and seven- 
 teen pounds; in 1855 one of thirty pounds ; and in 1858 one 
 of thirty-three pounds. Two of the largest mining ditches in 
 the state supply water to the miners in the vicinity of Sonora 
 and Columbia. The number of mining ditches in the county 
 is twenty-one, and their aggregate length two hundred and 
 seventy miles. There are thirty quartz-mills, of which four are 
 at Quartz Hill, four at Tuttletown, three on the banks of the 
 Tuolumne River, and as many on Turnback Creek, at Colum- 
 bia, Soulsby's Ranch, and Wood's Creek two each, and at Bald 
 mountain. Big Oak Flat, Italian Camp, Jackson Flat, Moc- 
 casin Creek, Rawhide Ranch, Sonora, Whiskey Hill, Wood's 
 Crossing, and Yankee Hill, one each. The table-mountain in 
 Tuolumne county is the most remarkable elevation of its kind 
 in the state. It has an average height of five hundred feet, an 
 average w^dth of four hundred yards, a length of thirty miles, 
 and a surface almost perfectly flat, slightly descending toward 
 the west. It was evidently formed by an immense stream of 
 lava, which was once confined between banks higher than its 
 own surface, which banks have since been washed away, leav- 
 ing the stream of lava standing like a mountain above the level 
 of the adjacent country. The sides near the top are perpen- 
 dicular and of solid basalt ; farther down they are sloping, and 
 composed of dirt and fragments of basalt that have fallen from 
 above. Under the basalt lie the gravel and sand of the ancient 
 river-bed, enclosed at the sides by ridges of rock, which rise 
 above the level of the adjacent plain. When therefore the mm- 
 ers first wished to reach the auriferous deposits under the moun- 
 
MINING. 301 
 
 tain, it was necessary for them to cut tunnels through a rim of 
 rock ; but now that many of the tunnels have drained away all 
 the water, they are started up on the hill-side above the rock, and 
 cut in sloping downward, so that the hard bed-rock is avoided, 
 and in many places the tunnels made on this plan may run all 
 the way through soft dirt. It is established beyond all reason- 
 able doubt, that the auriferous deposit under the basalt was 
 once the bed of an ancient river. Every mark indicates it. 
 The wide water-worn bed, the bends, the bars, the deposits of 
 gravel in eddies, the collection of coarse gold in the centre, 
 the position of the large flat stones, all pointing down stream, 
 the remains of fresh-water mollusks, and the beds of little 
 tributary streams — all these are conclusive proof that a large 
 river once ran where this mountain now stands. The pay-dirt 
 is a tough clay filled with large stones, and is from a foot to 
 six feet deep. In one placpe a claim one hundred superficial 
 feet square yielded seventy-five thousand dollars. The dis- 
 tance from the outside of the mountain to the pay-dirt, varies 
 from six to twelve hundred feet. About ten miles east of 
 Sonora is the Soulsby quartz lead, one of the richest in the 
 state. 
 
 § 225. Mono and Mariposa. — Eastward of Tuolumne, east 
 of the summit of the Sierra Nevada, and within the limits of 
 the Great Basin, lies the county of Mono, which contains the 
 gold placers of Mono Lake and Walker Rivei', and the silver 
 lodes of Esmeralda. The placers of Walker and Mono are 
 neither extensive nor rich ; water is scarce ; and the winters 
 are so cold that mining is necessarily interrupted. The Walker 
 diggings are seventy-five miles southward from Carson City, 
 and the Mono placers are twenty-five miles further in the same 
 direction. The Esmeralda mines are in a nest of mountains of 
 the same name, most of the ridges of which run north and 
 south, and are composed of eruptive rocks, such as trap and 
 basalt, with occasional greenstone and porphyry. The argen- 
 tiferous region lies in a rugged part of the mountains, about 
 five thousand feet above the level of the sea. The ore is all a 
 
302 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sulpliuret of silver, in a gangue of gray quartz, running through 
 trap and porphyritic greenstone. The lode called the Esmer- 
 alda, the most prom_nent and apparently the mother lode of 
 the district, runs with the meridian, and contains very little 
 or no gold, while other leads, running at right-angles to it, con- 
 tain much free gold ; that is, particles of metallic gold which 
 have formed no chemical union w^ith the silver ore. The Esmer- 
 alda mines "svere discovered in August, 1860, by J. M. Cory; 
 not much of the ore has been taken out, no mills have been 
 erected, little of the ore has been reduced, and therefore not 
 much is known of the real wealth of the district, although little 
 doubt is entertained that it will in time produce much silver. 
 There are several small ditches at the Mono placers, but the 
 county has no quartz-mills, and thus far no auriferous quartz 
 has been discovered. 
 
 South of Tuolumne lies Mariposa county, w^hich is drained 
 by the Mariposa and Merced Rivers. The mines are shallow 
 placers and quartz. There is, I belieTCj not a hydraulic or 
 tunnel claim in the county, and the mining-ditches are few. 
 The towns are small ; the population in the placers unsteady 
 and irregular in their mode of life ; and the county, taken as a 
 whole, is considered one of the most unpleasant parts of the 
 state for the home of a family. In consequence of the scarcity 
 of ditches there is no water in summer, and the placer miners 
 therefore lie idle during a great part of th^ year, and either go 
 to other counties or spend their time in dissipation. The 
 county assessor reports five mining-ditches with a total length 
 of forty- two miles. The quartz lodes are numerous and rich. 
 There are thirty-four quartz-mills, of which four are on Fre- 
 mont's ranch; four at Coulterville ; at Gentry's Gulch and 
 Whitlock Creek three each ; at Agua Fria, Bean's Creek, Bear 
 valley. Burns' Creek, Mariposa Town, Mariposa Creek and 
 Stockton Creek tw^o each ; and at Bull Creek, Corbett's Creek, 
 Guadalupe, Mount Ophir, North Fork, Quartzburg, and Sax- 
 ton's Creek one each. The Fremont ranch, which contains 
 forty-eight thousand acres, is the most valuable mineral estate 
 
MINING. 303 
 
 in California, and includes Bear valley, one of the richest 
 quartz districts in the world. There are two principal lodes, 
 called the Pine-Tree and Josephine, which unite and form a 
 vein thirty feet wide. The rock crushed at the mills of the 
 estate averages fourteen dollars to the ton. 
 
 § 226. Fresno^ etc. — Fresno county, south of Mariposa, has 
 the Chowchilla River for its northern boundary, and the Fresno 
 and head-waters of the San Joaquin within its limits. These 
 streams are all auriferous, but the diggings are not rich, and 
 the gold is not fine in quality. There are no mining towns of 
 note in this county. 
 
 Between the San Joaquin River and White River, a distance 
 of one hundred miles, the Sierra Nevada is barren of gold. 
 White River is in Buena Vista county, and is not rich, but has 
 some small districts of placer mines and a little quartz. 
 
 Kern River in the same county has a small extent of placer 
 ground and a good deal of auriferous quartz, most of which is 
 crushed and amalgamated with the arastra. 
 
 In latitude 86° 20', east of the Sierra Nevada and Owen's 
 Mountains, lies the Coso argentiferous district, a region of 
 which very little is known as yet. 
 
 Gold placers are found in the San Francisquito Pass, forty- 
 five miles northward from Los Angeles, in the San Gabriel 
 yanon, twenty miles northeastward from the Mission of San 
 Gabriel in Bear valley, fifteen miles eastward of San Bernar- 
 dino, on the banks of the Colorado, twenty miles north of Fort 
 Yuma, and in the Sierra of Santa Lucia, near the Mission of 
 San Antonio. It is said that veins of auriferous and argen- 
 tiferous quartz are also found in Bear valley, and in Holcomb 
 valley in the slopes of Mount San Bernardino, and that there 
 is rich auriferous quartz at Amargosa in the valley of the 
 Mohave, north of the sink of that river. 
 
 Note. — The statement of the number of quartz-mills and mining canals in 
 the several counties, is taken from H. G. Langley's State Register. 
 
304 EESOFRCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OTHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 
 
 § 227. High Wages. — There are two great difficulties in the 
 way of the productive industry of California, the high prices 
 of labor and the high rates of interest. These may be bless- 
 ings to certain classes of individuals, and perhaps even to the 
 population generally, but they render it impossible for Califor- 
 nia to compete with foreign manufiicturers in many branches 
 of employment. The great distance of our state from Europe 
 and Atlantic ports — San Francisco is about nineteen thousand 
 miles from New York, by the route followed by the sailing 
 vessels ordinarily — and the high freight on merchandise, is a 
 great protection to our home industry, and the Federal tariff 
 gives us a further protection on many articles ; but neverthe- 
 less, a large proportion of the manufictured goods consumed 
 here are imported from abroad, and probably will be for many 
 years to come. We have no secondary coal in the state, and 
 cannot expect to smelt iron ore, or to make cutlery or fine 
 articles of hardware. Some cotton is produced on the shores 
 of China and is now shipped to England ; perhaps we may at 
 some future day be able to import it raw and manufacture it 
 here, but of this there is no certainty. We cannot hope to 
 obtain much cotton from this side of the Pacific, for the west- 
 ern slope of the North American continent is not suited to 
 cotton growing. Now coal, iron, and cotton are the raw ma- 
 terial for a large share of the most profitable manufactures of 
 our age. We shall produce a large quantity of fine wool, and 
 it will in time be spun and woven here with a profit. Lum- 
 ber is so bulky that it cannot well be imported from abroad, 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 305 
 
 and our forests are so extensive and convenient to the market, 
 that we can make our lumber as cheap as that made elsewhere. 
 We have extensive fisheries and they must be developed. We 
 must build our own houses, and construct our own roads, rail- 
 ways, mining-ditches, and flumes. We now imi)ort all our 
 hardware, glassware, porcelain, stationery, silks, cottons, fine 
 w^ooUcn goods, and nearly all our clothing, boots, shoes, and 
 fine furniture, and many of our agricultural implements, me- 
 chanical tools, wagons, and carriages. 
 
 There has been a gradual fall in the wages of labor since 
 1849. For instance, in that year the wages of good carpen- 
 ters were sixteen dollars per day; in 1851, ten dollars; in 
 1853, seven dollars; in 1856, five dollars; and now four dol- 
 lars ; and there has been a similar decrease of wages in all 
 those branches of labor much in demand. Tailors, shoemakers, 
 and cabinet-makers have never received high wages, because 
 little is done in their trades. Millers, calkers, and ship-wrights 
 noAV get from four to six dollars per day ; bricklayers, stone 
 masons and plasterers from four to five dollars ; boiler-makers, 
 machinists, and pattern-makers four dollars ; carpenters, black- 
 smiths, and carriage-makers from three to four dollars ; house- 
 painters, paper-hangers, and stevedores three dollars; hod- 
 men and washerwomen two dollars ; common laborers one dol- 
 lar and seventy-five cents. Of such persons as are hired by 
 the month and boarded, gardeners get thirty-five dollars ; farm- 
 ers, teamsters, waiters, sailors, chambermaids, and seamstresses 
 twenty-five dollars. Clerks in stores get from thirty to sixty 
 dollars with boarding ; from fifty to one hundred dollars with- 
 out boarding. The best miners, of the class called " drifters," 
 w^ho cut and blast tunnels and dig shafts, get four dollars per 
 day ; common miners get fifty dollars a month and boarding. 
 Th"e wages of labor in California are now higher than in any 
 other pai t of the world. 
 
 § 228. Lumbering.— Lwrnharmg, or the preparation of forest 
 timber for industrial purposes, is an important branch of the 
 industry, and the sale of lumber is an important branch of the 
 
306 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 trade of the state. Our houses are built of himber, our streets 
 are planked with lumber, our fields are fenced with lumber, 
 and our flumes and sluices are made of lumber. And some 
 parts of the state are very rich in timber and can readily 
 supply the whole demand. Lumber is of three kinds, sawn, 
 hewn, and split ; the last two kinds being very small in im- 
 portance as compared with the first. About one hundred and 
 seventy millions of feet of lumber are sawn annually in Cali- 
 fornia, and at the average price of twenty dollars per one 
 thousand feet at the mill, the total amount of the lumber trade 
 may be estimated at three millions of dollars. The chief lum- 
 bering districts are in the Sierra Nevada, and very near the 
 coast. Mendocino is the largest lumbering county of the state, 
 and according to the assessor's report for 1860, produced thirty- 
 five millions of feet in that year. The mills are at Timber 
 Cove and the mouths of the ISToyo, Albion, and Big Rivers ; 
 and the tiuiber is nearly all redwood. Humboldt occupies 
 the next place, sawing thirty million feet per annum ; and 
 Santa Cruz county next, with ten million feet annually. All 
 the timber cut in Santa Cruz is redwood ; in Humboldt there 
 are about equal amounts of redwood, spruce, and fir, and a 
 little fragrant cedar. Santa Cruz ships much lumber to the 
 southern part of the state, and Mendocino and Humboldt 
 supply most of the redwood lumber for the San Francisco 
 m;irket. The lumber cut in the mining counties is mostly used 
 near home, large amounts being consumed for sluices, flumes, 
 and in other mining enterprises. 
 
 The method of getting the logs to the mills in Humboldt 
 county is peculiar. The mills are all on the shores of Hum- 
 boldt Bay, which is surrounded by flat land six or eight 
 miles wide. Through this flat land run tide-water sloughs or 
 channels, into which brooks run from ravines in the hills. The 
 land in this county has all been Federal property, and has been 
 open to pre-emption ; and most of the lumbermen have laid 
 claim to the tracts where they work, or have bought them 
 with state-school warrants, under which any of the Federal 
 
OTHER BEANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 307 
 
 land in tlie state open to pre-emption, may be purchased. The 
 himbermen owning claims along the sloughs, drag their logs 
 to the water and tumble them in. Those owning claims along 
 the ravines, at the heads of the sloughs, have a wooden tram- 
 way made by laying down long poles, about six inches in 
 diameter and four feet apart. On this tramway runs a wagon 
 with four wheels, each wheel of solid wood eight inches wide, 
 and from two to three feet in diameter, made of a transverse 
 section of a tree. On this wagon one or two logs are placed 
 at a time, and two mules easily haul the load down hill to the 
 slough, and then haul the empty wagon back again. The 
 slope in these little ravines is very gradual, so there is no diffi- 
 culty either in hauling the load down, or the. wagon up. The 
 thickness of the logs varies from sixteen inches (nothing 
 smaller is sawn) to nine feet. The average thickness is four 
 feet and a half; seven feet is a common thickness in redwood. 
 Of pine and spruce logs the largest are five feet through ; the 
 average thickness is three feet. The greater the thickness of 
 a log, the shorter it is cut. The ordinary lengths of saw-logs 
 are fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, twenty, twenty-four, and thirty- 
 two feet. Redwood is rarely sawn more tlian twenty feet 
 long ; spruce and pine usually of that length or longer. A 
 good lumberman will cut down a redwood tree three feet in 
 diameter in an hour ; a tree five feet in diameter in three 
 hours and a half ; a tree seven feet in diameter in six hours. 
 Ordinarily two choppers work together, one on each side of 
 the tree, and then, of course, they fell it in half the time that 
 would be required for one man alone. They use the Ameri- 
 can axe and American axe-handle ; the handle being about a 
 foot longer than is used in common chopping. After the tree 
 is down, it is cut into saw-logs with a cross-cut saw, managed 
 by one man. It has been found that one man can make a 
 longer stroke than two, and the length of the stroke is a mat- 
 ter of much importance to " clear the saw," or throw out the 
 saw-dust ; so the handle at one end of the common cross-cut 
 saw is knocked ofi', and it is then held like the ordinary hand- 
 
308 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 saw. The logs in the ravines are all cut within a hundred 
 yards of the tram-way, to which they are dragged by oxen. 
 The logs once thrown into the slough, are made into rafts 
 from fifty to one hundred yards long, and from ten to forty feet 
 wide. The outer logs of the rafts are fastened to each other 
 at the ends, by a little chain with a tooth or dog at each end, 
 and one dog is driven into each log. There are then ropes 
 running across in several places to keep it from spreading out 
 in the middle. This is a very easy and simple method of mak- 
 ing a raft and the logs are not injured in the least. When the 
 raft is all complete, the lumbei-men get on it, and float with 
 the tide down to the mills, which are on the shore of the bay 
 near the mouth of the slough. The distance from the point 
 where the rafts are made to the mills, varies from three to 
 eight miles. When the tide turns, the raft is made fast to a 
 tree or stump on the shore, and the loggers wait until the ebb 
 commences again. Two tides will usually carry a raft to the 
 mill. Every mill has a boom or enclosure for logs. This en- 
 closure consists merely of large and long logs chained together 
 and floating on the surface of the water, of a small slough or 
 cove. When the raft arrives the boom is opened, the raft 
 pulled in and surveyed. The logs are generally cut by com- 
 panies of " loggers" who devote themselves to that business, 
 and sell their logs to the mills. The survey is made by a 
 surveyor, a public oflicer of the county, who is under bonds. 
 He receives ten cents per one thousand feet of lumber, board 
 measure, one-half to be paid by the loggers and one-half by 
 the mill. The thickness of the log is taken at the small end, 
 and one-fourth is thrown off" for waste. The large logs will 
 usually produce more lumber, and the small ones less than the 
 amount indicated by this mode of measurement. In some places 
 along the streams it is not convenient to make tram-ways, so the 
 logs are cut in the summer and are piled up on the bank until 
 the heavy rains of winter come, when there is enough water 
 to carry the logs down, and then they are thrown in. The 
 current carries them down to the slough, where the channel is 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OE INDUSTRY. 309 
 
 wide and the current more moderate, and there they are 
 caught by a boom, which is made by driving a heavy pile into 
 the bank on each side, and chaining a large and long log to it. 
 These two logs are chained together at their lower ends, and 
 thus hold all the logs coming down from above. The boom 
 logs may be three or four feet in diameter, and seventy-five feet 
 in length. A little stream, a foot deep and three feet wide in 
 the summer, will increase its volume of water a hundred-fold 
 in winter, and carry down logs ten feet in diameter. Such a 
 brook often supplies five million feet (board measure) of logs 
 in a season. 
 
 There is no place in the world where the average thickness 
 of the logs sawn in the saw-mills, is so large as in Humboldt 
 county, and the mills are built with special reference to the 
 size of the logs. The frames are made very large and strong, 
 and the saws are of proportionate length. The i>aws used in 
 the mills are of four kinds : the single-gate saw, the gang-saws 
 in a gate, the muley-saw, and the circular saw. The single- 
 gate saw is fastened in a frame or gate, which plays up and 
 down. This saw is used for sawing small logs, and is not 
 found in very large mills. The gang-saws are a set of saws 
 fastened in a frame parallel to each other. In some gangs 
 there are twenty-four saws side by side, and they cut a log 
 mto boards at one movement. The gang-saws move slowly and 
 make smooth lumber. All the boards, plank, joists, rafters, 
 and studding, are cut with gang-saws. The largest legs cut 
 with gang-saws are not more than three feet and a half through. 
 The muley-saw is an upright saw, which is fastened at the 
 lower end to a shaft connecting with the steam-engine or 
 water-power, and the upper end is loose, though it plays in a 
 groove to keep it straight. The muley is used for cutting the 
 largest logs into bolts, and taking ofi" slabs, so as to reduce 
 the logs to a size suitable for other saws to work upon. The 
 muley-saw makes three hundred strokes in a minute, whereas 
 the gate-saw makes only about one hundi-ed. The gate of 
 a gate-saw large enough to saw logs nine feet in diameter, 
 
310 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 would be too heavy for convenience or quick work. The cir- 
 cular saws are used for cutting all the thin siding, pickets, and 
 laths. The largest circular saws are fifty-two inches in diam- 
 eter, leaving about twenty-four inches on each side of the axle. 
 When large logs are to be sawn with circular saws, one saw 
 is put above the other, and one cuts into the log from above, 
 and the other from below, so that they can saw a log four feet 
 in diameter. The frame-work for the circular-saw mills is 
 lighter than that necessary for the upright saAVS ; and circular- 
 saw mills are not unfrequently moved about on wagons from 
 one place to another. The circular saw is used almost exclu- 
 sively in the Sierra Nevada. In Mendocino county and at 
 Santa Cruz, the muley and circular saws are used without the 
 gang-saws. The cost of sawing lumber is about the same 
 with the circular saw as with the upright saw. The circular 
 saw is more dangerous to the sawyer, and requires more skill 
 in mechanics, so the wages of a man to manage a circular saw 
 are one hundred and fifty dollars per month, while the wages 
 of a man for an upright saw are only sixty dollars. The bark 
 of the redwood is always taken ofi" before the log is put into 
 the mill. A tree seven feet in diameter will make four thou- 
 sand feet of lumber, on an average. In Mendocino county 
 the logs are cut in the summer along the littfe streams, aud in 
 the winter they are carried down by the high water to the 
 mills, where they are caught by large booms, but as the rivers 
 are large with fierce currents, these booms are sometimes 
 broken, when millions of feet of logs are swept out to sea and 
 lost. The lumber after being sawn, is shipped to San Fran- 
 cisco in schooners, varying from one hundred and fifty to 
 three hundred tons burden. The freight is eight or nine dol- 
 lars per one thousand feet. Most of the trees convenient for 
 the lumbermen near the mills in Mendocino county, have been 
 cut away ; but about Humboldt Bay the supply will last many 
 years. In the Sierra Nevada, the circular-saw mills ordinarily 
 move from place to place, so as to have the timber near at 
 hand. In the valleys of Eel River there are hundreds of red- 
 
OTHER BKANCIIES OF IXDUSTRT. 311 
 
 Avood trees twenty feet in diameter, and one measuring twenty- 
 ei^bt feet. On the trail from Humboldt Bay to Trinidad, tbere 
 are very large trees, and indeed all along the coast, from Eel 
 River to tbe Klamath, there are numerous trees of mammoth 
 size. 
 
 The spruce cut at Humboldt Bay is light and is used for 
 packing-boxes. The redwood is used for siding, furniture, 
 raih'oad-sleepers, telegraph-poles, fence-posts, and all kinds of 
 house-work, inside and out. The fragrant cedar has an odor 
 suggestive of a mixture of turpentine and ottar of roses, and is 
 used for cupboards, clothes-presses, and inside-work of houses. 
 Fir is used for fence-boards, studding, rafters, joists, and 
 plank, but the grain is too coarse for inside-work of houses. 
 Most of the lumber cut in the Sierra Nevada is sugar-pine, a 
 clear, good wood, which is the chief material for inside work 
 and furniture in the mining districts. 
 
 The principal kinds of split lumber produced in California, 
 are fence-posts, rails, pickets, and shingles. The redwood-tree 
 splits very freely, smoothly, and straight ; and furnishes nearly 
 all the split lumber of the coast. It is a favorite tree for fence- 
 posts, telegraph-poles, and railroad-sleepers, because of its 
 great durability under ground, lasting three or four times as 
 long as any other wood in common use. For split lumber, the 
 tree is cut down and divided with a cross-cut saw, in the same 
 manner as for saw-logs. The choice of the trees for splitting 
 is important, as they differ greatly in the straightness of the 
 grain, and the facility of splitting. Those trees which grow 
 in places exposed to the wind are often twisted, and the wood 
 is full of curls, and will not open without splintering. Where 
 the wood twists, indications of the course of the grain will 
 usually be found in the course of the seams in the bark. The 
 best trees are those with a straight, perpendicular growth, 
 preserving nearly the same thickness one hundred feet up, as 
 at the surface of the ground, with no limbs for one hundred 
 and fifty feet, with thin, smooth bark, seamed with perpendic- 
 ular lines. It is a pleasure to strike an axe into such a tree. 
 
312 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The length of the log depends npon the kind of lumber wanted. 
 Posts are seven feet long ; fence-rails ten or twelve feet ; 
 pickets from five to seven feet ; rafters, joists, and boards from 
 twelve to twenty feet. The work of splitting usually com- 
 mences at the end nearest the root of the tree. The lumber- 
 man draws a straight line with a pencil across the end of the 
 log, and through the centre, avoiding any knot or curl appa- 
 rent in the wood. He then sets his axe in this line and drives 
 it with a stroke or tw^o of the maul half an inch into the wood, 
 takes it out, and moves a little further along till he has opened 
 the line across the log. Then he sets the axe in the log near 
 the centre, and drives it in with the maul several inches deep ; 
 then takes another axe and drives it in on the other side of 
 the centre, and when the second axe has entered two inches, 
 the log, if a good one, will split across the end. He introduces 
 iron Avedges in the end and drives them in, and takes out the 
 axes ; and then uses w^ooden wedges or gluts, first at the end, 
 and then at the side of the log. In subdividing the log, he 
 always tries to have as much wood on one side of the wedge 
 as on the other ; for if there be more than an equal share of 
 wood on one side of the wedge, the split will not run straight 
 with the grain, but will gradually approach the weaker side, 
 so that the piece split off will be smaller at one end than at 
 the other. The redw^ood when well managed splits so beauti- 
 fully, that boards are frequently made twelve feet long, a foot 
 wide and an inch thick, and almost as smooth as if sawn. One 
 of the most important places in the state for the manufacture 
 of split lumber is Lexington, on the Santa Cruz mountain, fif- 
 teen miles south westward from San Jose. Fence-posts made 
 four inches thick, six inches wide, and seven feet long ; fence- 
 rails ten or twelve feet long, tw^o or three inches thick, and 
 six inches wide ; pickets six and a half feet long, three inches 
 square ; and shingles eighteen inches long. The posts and 
 rails are sold at eight cents apiece ; the pickets at twenty five 
 dollars per thousand ; and the shingles at four dollars and fifty 
 cents per thousand. 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 813 
 
 § 229. Fishing. — The rivers of California and the waters of 
 tlie ocean near its coast abound with fish. Trout are cauglit 
 in the little streams, salmon in the Sacramento, and San Joa- 
 quin, and the rivers emptying into the ocean north of San Fran- 
 cisco Bay, and a great variety of fish are caught in the ocean. 
 
 Our fisheries are as yet so limited in extent that few fish 
 are salted, nearly all going while fresh to supply the market 
 of the towns on the coast. Salmon is the only fish salted 
 for export. The species of salmon caught in our waters is 
 called the Quinnat salmon. They are born in the rivers, go 
 out to sea when three or four months old, stay out at sea 
 some months, probably not less than fifteen months, and then 
 return to the river in which they were born, there to spawn. 
 The Quinnat salmon, as found in our waters, averages ten 
 pounds in weight and sometimes grows to sixty pounds. It 
 enters our rivers in November and remains about four months. 
 Before our rivers were kept in a continual state of muddiness 
 by the gold miners, the salmon ascended every brook in the 
 Sierra Nevada, large enough for a fish to swim in, but now 
 they do not leave the large rivers nor ascend them far. The 
 salmon in clear Avater offer fine sport to the fisherman with the 
 fly, but in California they are caught only as a matter of busi- 
 ness, and always in the gill-net, A\^iich has meshes just large 
 enough to let the fish get his head in, and then the twine 
 catches him behind the gills and holds him. The net is not 
 dragged, but is stretched across or partly across the river and 
 is allowed to drift with the current down stream, a distance 
 of some hundreds of yards, perhaps a quarter or even half ft, 
 mile, the fishermen accompanying it in a boat. The net has 
 lead sinkers at the bottom and cork floats at the top, so as to 
 keep it upright, and it is not so deep as to catch on the bottom. 
 Tlie fish are swimming up the river, so they of course run into 
 the net. A large number of salmon are taken in Eel River, 
 llun.boldt county, and great quantities might be caught in the 
 Klamath and other streams along the northern coast. A few 
 young salmon varying from three to six inches in length, are 
 J4 
 
314 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 caught while on their way out to sea, with fine nets in the shal- 
 low waters of San Francisco Bay. The Quinnat salmon is fat 
 when it enters the fresh waters from the ocean, but gradually 
 grows lean, and the color, which is light yellowish-red, changes 
 to a deeper shade as it ascends the rivers. The meat becomes 
 leaner, poorer in flavor, and redder in color in proportion to 
 the length of time that it remains in fresh water; but the 
 little ones, which have never seen the salt water, have a more 
 delicate meat than the larger ones fresh from the ocean. No 
 attempt has yet been made to breed fish for our rivers, though 
 it might evidently be done to a profit in many of the streams ; 
 but whether in the Sierra Nevada, where the mud abounds, is 
 doubtful. Yet the probabilities of success are sufiicient to 
 justify the trial. Fifteen years ago the salmon regularly as- 
 cended all, or nearly all, the mountain streams to points above 
 any of the present mining camps, where the waters are as clear 
 now as they were in 1847. The rule is known to be general 
 and supposed to be universal, that the salmon leave the ocean 
 in the stream from which they entered it ; and it is supposed 
 further that they go to the very branch or brook in which they 
 were born. It is well known that there is a salmon in the Kla- 
 math River never seen in Humboldt Bay, and various species 
 in the Columbia never fou^d in the waters of California, and 
 salmon in the Quiniault River, Washington territory, not found 
 yet in any other stream ; and the Indians of Oregon say that 
 certain tributaries of the Columbia have species never caught 
 in any other place. K then a million of eggs were hatched at 
 the head- waters of the Sacramento River, there would be reason 
 to hope that they would return to spawn there. 
 
 The legislature has passed an act in regard to the salmon 
 fishery. It provides that the run of salmon shall not be ob- 
 structed by any dam, weir, fence, or fixed stop-net ; and that 
 no person shall catch with a net in the San Joaquin River, or 
 any tributary, in August, September, and the first half of Oc- 
 tober ; or in any other salmon stream of the state in August, 
 October, December, and January ; nor shall any person, save 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY. 315 
 
 Indians, sell fresh salmon during the season when fishing with 
 the net is prohibited. There is no legal prohibition against 
 taking other lish, or shell-fish at any season of the year. 
 
 The halibut are not sufiiciently abundant on the coast to 
 make the fishery for them a distinct branch of business. They 
 are caught with a hook at sea in water varying from thirty to 
 fifty fathoms deep, on rocky bottoms. The line called a " trawl- 
 line" is about six hundred yards along, with numerous shoit 
 lines and hooks, and is left six or eight hours in a place, and 
 when drawn up has halibut, flounders, rock-fish, turbot, cod, 
 and nearly all the large biting fish that come to the market. 
 The bait used is chiefly sardines and herrings. 
 
 The mackerel [Scomber cUego), a good fish, but smaller than 
 the Atlantic mackerel, is caught with a hook ofl" the coast 
 south of Point Conception. It is a surface fish, and bites 
 greedily at a bit of white rag or shining fish-skin jerked 
 through the water. It does not frequent bays, but is caught 
 in the harbors of Catalina Island. A number of vessels are 
 now employed in the mackerel fishery of California. 
 
 The httle brown rock-fish (Sebastes auriculatus)^ is caught 
 in San Francisco Bay about the wharves ; but the other 
 species are only found out in the open sea. They stay 
 where the bottom is rocky, eat crabs and shell-fish, and bite 
 freely at hooks. Most of them are caught near Punta Reyes 
 and the Farallone Islands. The rock-fish are in the market 
 and of equally good quality throughout the year. 
 
 The turbot is caught with the trawl-line throughout the 
 year. Soles are caught with small mesh-nets in the shallow 
 waters of the bay of San Francisco at all seasons of the year. 
 There is no separate fishery for them ; they are caught with 
 numerous other species of small fishes, among which the 
 smelts have an important place". The smelts are much more 
 abundant than on the Atlantic coast, go in large shoals, and 
 are cauglit at all seasons. A large business might be done in 
 salting them, but they are caught only for the fresh market. 
 The anchovies are very numerous in San Francisco Bay, where 
 
316 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 they try to keep in shoals by themselves, but do not succeed, 
 and are caught with other small fishes in nets. They are 
 fully equal to the European anchovy, and will soon become an 
 important article of commerce. At present most of those 
 taken are eaten fresh, and only a few are potted. They are 
 caught at all seasons of the year. Sardines are also abundant, 
 and of a flavor equal to those on the coast of France, but 
 larger. They are found in all the bays along the coast froni 
 May to October. An attempt was made several years ago to 
 pickle sardines for the market, but it failed. The herring is not 
 abundant on the coast of California, or at least is not found 
 here in such dense shoals as in the Atlantic, and our species is 
 smaller. It is caught with a net in the shallow waters of the 
 bays. There are no shad in the waters of California. Shrimps 
 are caught in the shallow waters of the bay of San Francisco 
 wdth small mesh-nets, but are becoming very scarce. The 
 sturgeon visits the rivers of the Atlantic states for only a 
 couple of months in a year, but it is abundant in the Califor- 
 nian rivers at all seasons. It never bites, the mouth being a 
 round hole, always open, surrounded with gristle. In the 
 Eastern states the sturgeon is often harpooned, but here it is 
 caught only with nets. The meat is coarse, and is sold at one- 
 fourth or one-sixth the price demanded for the meat of other 
 fishes. The sturgeon might be salted, but nothing has been 
 done in that business yet. An attempt was made several 
 years ago in San Francisco to establish the business of prepar- 
 ing caviare from the roe of the sturgeon, but it did not prove 
 profitable and it was abandoned. Sea-bass, a fish of fine, deli- 
 cate flavor, and highly prized by epicures, is caught with hand- 
 lines outside the heads of San Francisco Bay, and in the bay 
 near Saucelito with nets during the spring and summer. It is 
 not abundant. The sheepshead, an excellent fish, is caught ofi" 
 Santa Barbara with hand-lines during the summer. It should 
 be brought to the market alive in smacks, for it loses its deli- 
 , cacy of flavor soon after death. The jewfish is abundant 
 south of Point Conception, and may easily be taken with a 
 
OiHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 317 
 
 hook or harpoon. It spends most of its time at the bottom in 
 both deep and shoal water, but frequently comes to the surface, 
 and according to report sleeps there. It also goes into lagoons, 
 and likes to be near the kelp. They grow very large, some- 
 times to weigh five hundred pounds, and as their flesh is very 
 good, a profitable business might be made of fishing for them. 
 
 Sharks are taken by Chinamen for food and by Americans 
 for their oil. The common sharks caught by the Chinamen, 
 perhaps more properly called " dog-fish"" [Acanthea sucJdeyi 
 and Triakis fasciatus)^ are taken in nets during the summer 
 months and are dried in the sun. They are from tliree to five 
 feet loHg, and contain a large amount of meat, which is never 
 eaten by white men, but seems to have favor among the 
 Mongols. The fish is cut open by a dexterous and quick 
 stroke of a large knife along the back-bone, and is then dried 
 vvdthout the use of salt. The fins are considered a delicacy. 
 In Humboldt Bay the true shark {N^otorhynchus maculatus)^ 
 from five to twelve feet in length, is taken with spears. Three 
 men have a flat-bottomed boat twenty feet long and four feet 
 wide, with which they go into the shallow waters of the bay, 
 whither the sharks resort in pursuit of the sardines. The 
 liver is taken from the shark and the remainder thrown away. 
 Each liver yields from one to eight pounds of oil. The spears 
 have a handle eight feet long, which is loose and comes out 
 of the spear-head after the shark is struck. If the handle Avere 
 fastened in the spear-head, it would be broken by the struggles 
 of the fish. A rope attached to the spear-head suffices to hold 
 the sliark, and by its means he is drawn up to the side of the 
 boat, where he is struck by an axe on the head, and thus 
 dispatched. The shark season lasts only about two months, 
 during July and August. The oil is used for lubricating the 
 machinery of the saw-mills about the bay, and sells for one 
 dollar per gallon ; and so long as the season lasts the fisher- 
 men make from five to ten dollars per day. 
 
 § 230. Hunting. — The principal game quadrupeds and birds 
 of California are grizzly bear, elk, deer, antelope, hare, rabbit ; 
 
318 EESOTJRCES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 the gray Canada brant, the white goose; tho canvas-back, 
 mallard, sprigtail, spoonbill, and summer ducks , the widgeon, 
 the teal, the English black-breasted, sand, and iowiches snipe ; 
 the curlew, the mountain partridge, the vail ?y quail, and vari- 
 ous kinds of grouse. Nobody makes a business of hunting 
 the grizzly bear ; to attack him is so dangerous and to kill him 
 so difficult, that many hunters will not shoot at him even when 
 he comes in their way. A large number of them, however, 
 are killed every year, and their carcasses are seen in the meat 
 markets of San Francisco at all seasons of the year. The meat 
 resembles pork in its greasiness, but it is coarser in texture 
 and rank in flavor. It nauseates some delicate stomachs. 
 The Spanish-Californians sometimes lasso the bear. When 
 four or five of them, well mounted and provided with good 
 saddles and reatas, surprise a bear in an open plain, they all 
 beset him at once, and while one throws the lasso over his 
 head, another catches him by a hind-leg, and a third by a fore- 
 leg, and then two horses in front, but at a little distance from 
 each other, drag him along, and the third and perhaps a fourth 
 horse follows him, each one keeping his lasso stretched, so that 
 even if the bear should succeed in breaking one reata or slip- 
 ping it off, he will still be held fast by several others. He is 
 thus dragged to a pen, where he is kept for a bull-fight or 
 some other amusement. 
 
 It is only a few years since the elk were abundant on the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin, but they have now disappeared 
 in those places, and are found in small numbers along the 
 northern coast, where they will soon be exterminated. The 
 meat resembles that of the deer, but is a little coarser in grain. 
 The elk are shy animals, have a very quick ear, and are more 
 difficult to approach than any other game animal in the state, 
 unless the mountain sheep be excepted. They ordinarily lie 
 hidden in thickets during the middle of the day, and feed 
 about sunrise and sunset, at which times the hunters seek 
 them. 
 
 The black-tailed deer are good game for the hunter. They 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OP HSDCTSTRY. 319 
 
 may be approached with more ease than the Virginia deer, run 
 with a steady gait, and when disturbed do not run so far. 
 The deer east of the Mississippi go with a run and a jump; 
 the Pacific deer move with a steady run. Their meat is not 
 so sweet as that of their eastern congeners. The deer live 
 near the timber, and are found along the coast and in the 
 Sierra Nevada. They were at one time very abundant but 
 are now rapidly decreasing. The best place for hunting them 
 is in Mendocino county. There is no deer-hunting on horse- 
 back, nor by large parties. The hunters go out alone or in 
 small parties. Occasionally a deer is caught with the lasso, 
 but this requires an excellent horse, a first-rate vaquero, and 
 a good piece of open ground where the horse can have a fair 
 chase and the vaquero can swing his reata. 
 
 The antelope lives in the open plain and in the desert. The 
 valley of the San Joaquin was once full of great herds of them, 
 but they, like other large game, have become rare now. They 
 are shy, but inquisitive also, and are easily enticed to approach 
 the hunter, who hides himself behind a rock, and fastening a 
 white handkerchief to his ramrod, waves it back and forth. 
 The antelope, like the deer, is occasionally caught with the 
 reata, but these occasions do not occur once in the year, and, 
 when they do occur, they establish the fame of the horse and 
 rider engaged in the exploit. 
 
 There is one pack of hounds in the state, and they are some- 
 times, but rarely, used for hunting coyotes and foxes, as well 
 as deer. 
 
 The wild geese and ducks are very abundant in California 
 from September to March. They spend the winter in the tules 
 of San Francisco Bay and tributary waters, and in the spring 
 they migrate to the north. While here, they afiEbrd profitable 
 employment to a number of hunters, who are of two classes — 
 the " boat-shooters" and the " ox-shooters." The boat-shooters 
 go in parties of two or three, each party having a sloop of its 
 own. The sloop goes to the slough where the game abounds, 
 and there every man starts in his skiff, with three double-bar- 
 
320 KESOUECES OF CALlPOIcNIA. 
 
 relied shot-guns. He usiially shoots first at the ducks or geese 
 while they are in the water, and afterward again and again as 
 they rise and fly. Sometimes he goes ashore, to shoot them 
 while feeding. The geese spend the night in the water — gen- 
 erally in a slough or pond — and rise about daybreak, to feed 
 in the fields of grain, grass, or wild oats. They remain there 
 during a considerable part of the morning, return to spend the 
 middle of ihe day in the water, go back to the fields in the 
 afternoon, and at sunset take to the water again for the night. 
 The ducks get most of their food in the tules, and are not 
 often shot on the land. 
 
 The ox-shooter stalks his game. He has a trained ox, which 
 walks before him and hides him from the geese or ducks until 
 •within good shooting-distance. The boat-shooters average 
 thirty ducks a day during the season ; and a good ox-shooter 
 will sometimes kill one hundred and fifty geese in a day. 
 
 Snipe, curlew, and quail, are the game for sportsmen who 
 hunt for their amusement, and the modes of hunting them are 
 the same as those in the Eastern states. 
 
 Hunting is an unimportant interest in California as com- 
 pared with fishing, and must continually decrease in impor- 
 tance, while the fisheries will increase. 
 
 A game-law prohibits the killing of quail, partridge, mallard 
 and summer duck, from the 1st of March to the 15th of Sep- 
 tember ; and elk, deer, and antelope, during the first half of 
 the year ; and prohibits the selling of the game slain during 
 the forbidden season. 
 
 § 231. House-building. — In the building of houses, the Cali- 
 fornians, like Americans generally, are expert and quick. It 
 is not uncommon to see a wooden dwelling-house commenced 
 and finished within a month. Brick houses are built so fast, 
 that the mortar has scarcely time to dry and harden as the 
 walls go up. Most of the houses are of wood, aud of the kind 
 called " Balloon" or " Chicago" frames, fistened together with 
 nails, without tenons and mortices, and with no upright posts 
 thicker than two by four inches. This kind of a frame, called 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 321 
 
 *' Balloon" from its lightness, and " Chicago" because they first 
 came extensively into use in that place about fifteen years ago, 
 appears very strange to a carpenter familiar only with the old- 
 fashioned frames held together by tenons and mortices ; but 
 weak as the balloon-franie appears, it is really the strongest 
 kind of a wooden building ; and it is not unfrequently made 
 four or five stories high, whereas the heavier frame very rarely 
 reaches three stories. 
 
 In the balloon-frame, the sills, instead of being eight, ten, or 
 twelve inches square, are only two or three inches by six or 
 eight ; and they rest on numerous studs, which again rest on 
 the ground. The sills are nailed together at the corners. The 
 studs are not morticed into the sills, but nailed upon them. 
 The lower joists stand upon the sills, and the upper ones rest 
 upon an inch board "let into" the studs to which they are 
 nailed. On the top of the studs is no heavy plate, but only a 
 board. At the corners two studs are put side by side. Each 
 stud is hoisted to its place separately, so there is no " raising." 
 Wooden houses are all covered with shingles. White pine, 
 imported from the Eastern states, is used to a considerable 
 extent for the frames and casings of doors and windows, and 
 for other inside-work ; and nearly all the doors and window- 
 sashes are imported ready made. 
 
 Three-fourths of the houses in the state are of w^ood ; the 
 other fourth are of brick and adobes. Stone houses are very 
 rare. Brick buildings are numerous in the business-streets of 
 the cities and towns. Every town of note has its fire-proof 
 brick stores, with iron doors and window-shutters, and its 
 roof of brick laid in mortar. The bricks are made in this 
 state, and the lime is burned here. Brick buildings not con- 
 structed to be fire-proof, have shingled roofs. There are a 
 few buildings with fronts of granite, which for one house was 
 brought from China, and that for others from the Eastern states. 
 
 Stone houses are very rare in California ; it would almost be 
 possible to count all of them on the fingers. Nearly all the 
 dwelUngs in the counties bordering on the coast, from Monte- 
 14* 
 
322 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 rey southward, are made of adobes, or sun-dried bricks ; but 
 most of the houses built of late, and all the elegant structures, 
 are of wood or brick. 
 
 When an adobe house is to be built, the adobes are made 
 very near the place, for they are too heavy to be hauled far. 
 The earth to make adobes should be a sandy or gravelly clay, 
 which will not crack in drying. A pure loam or pure clay 
 will not do. The material having been found, it is dug up, 
 and mixed with water and some straw, until it makes a thick 
 mud. Not far from the pit the earth is levelled off, as a yard 
 where the adobes are to be dried. The adobe is from three 
 to six inches thick, from ten to twenty inches wide, and from 
 a foot to two feet long. The mould is made of the size which 
 the adobes are to have, without top or bottom. It is placed 
 on the ground ; the mud is thrown in, until the mould is filled ; 
 the top is scraped off level with a board ; and the mould is 
 lifted up, and moved to another place. The mud must be so 
 thick, that it will retain its shape after the mould is removed. 
 In twenty-four hours the adobe is so hard, that it will stand 
 on one side, and in three or four days it is dry enough to be 
 used for building. Its sides are rough and its corners broken, 
 but it serves to make a house. Adobe walls are often made 
 three feet thick, rarely less than a foot and a half The mortar 
 used is of the same mud of which the adobes were made. The 
 walls are usually protected by wide eaves, and sometimes the 
 roof projects six or eight feet, so as to make a corridor running 
 entirely round the house. If the adobes be exposed to the 
 rain, they are soon washed down. The walls have a founda- 
 tion of stone laid about eight inches high on the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 In many of the adobe houses there is no floor save the bare 
 earth. These dwellings are very cool in summer and w^arm in 
 winter ; and in old times, when the work was all done by In- 
 dians, they were cheap, but now it costs more to build a neat 
 house of adobes than of wood. Many of the old adobe houses 
 are still covered with the tiles baked by the Mexicans ; those 
 
OTHER BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 323 
 
 built of late have nearly all shingle roofs. In Los Angeles 
 county, the roofs are generally made of asphaltum, obtained 
 from the bituminous springs, of which there are a number 
 alonor the southern coast. The rafters are covered with boards 
 or cane, upon which earth is thrown, and upon that the asphal- 
 tum is placed. Sometimes the asphaltum is poured upon the 
 earth in a melted condition; sometimes it is thrown on in 
 hard lumps during the summer, and the melting is left to the 
 heat of the sun. The asphaltum cracks in the cold and melts 
 in the sun ; so the eaves are dripping in July and August, and 
 in the winter, if a rain comes immediately after a severe cold, 
 the roofs are certain to leak. The cracks are always filled up 
 again when a hot sun shines on the roof and melts the asphal- 
 tum. Most of the dwelUngs are surrounded by verandas or 
 corridors, which are the most pleasant parts of the houses in 
 the summer-time. Some of the dwellings are built in the form 
 of a hollow square, with a paved court inside, planted with 
 trees, and with a corridor running round. This corridor is the 
 favorite place for spending the day, and here visitors are gen- 
 erally received. 
 
 § 232. Furniture^ etc. — Nearly all the fine furniture of the 
 state is imported. The cabinet-makers' shops are few and 
 small. The costly articles of fine wood- work, made on a large 
 scale in California, are the billiard-tables ; and these are made 
 of unsurpassable excellence and with unsurpassed elegance. 
 Our agricultural implements, wagons, carriages, omnibuses, 
 and coaches, are mostly imported ; and when they are made 
 here, imported wood is used. No hubs, spokes, or felloes, are 
 made in the state. It may be that all our agricultural imple- 
 ments will soon be manufactured at home, for a contract has 
 lately been made to employ one hundred of the state-piison 
 convicts in this labor ; but we shall probably continue to im- 
 port our wagon-lumber, for very little of the Californian tim- 
 ber is strong enough for such uses. Our tubs are mostly made 
 here, and are of good quality. We have many well-built 
 wooden bridges in the state. 
 
S24 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 California has built many schooners, and one war-vessel of 
 fifteen hundred tons, but will never construct many ships. Her 
 evergreen-oak, laurel, and madrona, are good for ships' knees 
 and frames ; but the trees are rare and costly, and far from 
 the shipyards : while Puget Sound is so near, and has such 
 very great advantages over us, that we cannot compete with 
 Washington territory. 
 
 There are a great many excellent roads in the mountainous 
 districts of the state, but the general character of our high- 
 ways is poor — muddy in winter and dusty in summer. Mac- 
 adamized roads are few. Slowly we are getting railroads. 
 There is one, twenty miles long, between Sacramento and 
 Folsom ; another, forty-five miles long, is being made from 
 Folsom to Marysville ; one has been commenced between Val- 
 lejo and Marysville ; and another is to be soon begun between 
 San Francisco and San Jose. 
 
 All our cotton and cotton goods are imported. There is 
 not a cotton-carding machine, spinning-jenny, or loom, in the 
 state. No linen is grown or manufactured here. All our fine 
 woollen goods are imported. We have only two woollen- mills 
 in the state, and they make only blankets and coarse cloths. 
 
 Large quantities of leather are tanned in California, but it is 
 all heavy. We tan no fine calfskin, morocco, or kid. Nearly 
 all our boots and shoes for men's wear, and all for women, are 
 imported. There are small shops where men's boots and shoes 
 are made by the single pair to order after measure taken, and 
 the customers in most cases are desirous of having a very ele- 
 gant fit ; but there are no large factories to make boots by the 
 thousand. 
 
 We make no gunpowder, fire-works, fire-crackers, pitch, tar, 
 or turpentine. It is said that our pine-trees do not contain the 
 resinous sap to make turpentine, pitch, and rosin, and therefore 
 we shall always have to import these articles. 
 
 There are two paper-mills in California, one of which makes 
 printing-paper and the other straw wrapping-paper. We still 
 import much of our printing and wrapping paper, and all of 
 
OTHISR BRANCHES OF INDUSTET. ^23 
 
 our writing-paper. Much of our coarse soap is made here , all 
 line soaps are imported. Nearly all our candles are imported. 
 We have no furnaces for smelting iron-ore, and no forges to 
 make wrought iron or steel. All our cutlery, stoves, cast iron, 
 firearms, cooking-utensils, nails, screws, locks, hhiges, tin-ware, 
 copper, and copper-ware, are imported. So also are all our 
 lead and shot, wire, tin, zinc, solder, and sheathing-metal. All 
 our bottles are imported. A bottle-factory was established in 
 San Francisco, to make bottles out of broken glass, of which 
 much could be obtained in the large towns. This factory, 
 however, was shortly abandoned ; but there is a report that 
 it will soon be established again. 
 
S26 RESOUKCES OP CALIFORITIA. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 § 233. General Advantages. — California is now the most 
 important commercial state on the shores of the North Pacitic, 
 and it will continue to hold its present relative position. Near- 
 ly all the foreign commerce will be done by San Francisco, 
 which has advantages superior to those of any other j^lace on 
 the coast between the Isthmus of Panama and Puget Sound, 
 or on the coast of Asia. Her only equal, in the waters of the 
 Pacific, is Melbourne. Several ports of China and Japan may 
 have as much shipping ; but the people of those countries are 
 only semi-civihzed, and we shall take their trade, and make 
 them tributary to us. 
 
 In estimating the commercial advantages of California, we 
 must consider the yield of our gold, silver, and quicksilver 
 mines ; the produce of our grain-fields, vineyards, orchards, 
 and saw-miUs ; the mineral resources of Western Mexico ; the 
 lumber and fisheries of Washington territory and Oregon ; the 
 gold of British Columbia ; the whale-oil and whale-bone of the 
 North Pacific ; and the industrial products of China and Japan. 
 California is in the position to be the common carrier for all 
 the countries bordering on the North Pacific. Between Puget 
 Sound and Valparaiso there is on this coast no port that can 
 prove a dangerous rival to San Francisco. As the population, 
 wealth, and industry of this coast increase, and as the foreign 
 commerce of China and Japan becomes more extended, the 
 trade of San Francisco must continue to grow in at least an 
 equal ratio. The increase, in every event, is certain. 
 
COMMERCE. 327 
 
 Our chief commercial city is forty days' sail from China, and 
 fifteen from Honolulu. It has been proposed to establish a 
 line of steamers between San Francisco and Shanghae, but I 
 doubt the necessity of such a line. Whenever the trade will 
 justify it, there will be a line of swift-sailing packets, which 
 can make almost as good time as steamers. There is no sea 
 where sailing-vessels can make such regular and swift passages 
 throughout the year as on the North Pacific, particularly if 
 they sail across it from east to west or from west to east. The 
 trade-winds, which blow over it toward the south, are constant, 
 and equally favorable for vessels bound in either direction. 
 Side-wheel steamers would be entirely unsuited for the route, 
 because the wind is always from the north, and one wheel 
 Avould be out of water nearly all the time ; but propellers, to 
 be used when the wind is low, might be of service ; though 
 there is reason to doubt whether they would be of suflficient 
 service to justify the additional expense. Six or seven years 
 ago, a steam-propeller was employed between San Francisco 
 and Honolulu, but it was soon driven off by the sailing-vessels, 
 which made the trip ordinarily in about the same time, and on 
 several occasions beat the steamer. 
 
 We cannot foresee clearly the manner and rapidity of the 
 development of the foreign commerce of China and Japan, but 
 that it will reach a high development is certain. Three hun- 
 dred and fifty millions of industrious people are not to be shut 
 out from intercourse with Christendom. They have wants 
 which must be supplied, and which white men alone can sup- 
 ply ; and as California is the nearest state containing a large 
 white population, and having a large commerce, we must have 
 much to do with the business of supplying them. 
 
 § 234. Tributary Population. — The present population of 
 Nevada territory is about six thousand men, and the yield of 
 silver and gold is estimated to amount to about one milHon 
 dollars per year. It is now the general and confident opinion 
 of Californians that the population and silver production of that 
 territory will rapidly increase, and of course the increase must 
 
328 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 have a relatively favorable influence upon the commerce of 
 California, from which Nevada will obtain all her supplies. 
 
 Oregon has a coast line of two hundred and seventy-five 
 miles, from latitude 42° to 46°, and extends nearly four hun- 
 dred miles from east to west. AD that portion lying east of 
 the Cascade Mountains (which are a continuation of the Sierra 
 Nevada), comprising about two-thirds of the state, is barren, 
 or nearly so. It may contain good pasture-lands and valuable 
 minerals ; but, with the exception of a few fertile valleys and 
 bottom-lands near the Columbia River, these have not as yet 
 been discovered, or at least not occupied by white men. The 
 western part of the state contains some rich placers, fine for- 
 ests, and valuable land for farming, but the country is difBcalt 
 of access. The only entrance to it from the sea is by the Co- 
 lumbia River, the mouth of which is dangerous to shipping. 
 There is a land entrance to Oregon from California on the 
 south, and from Washington territory on the north. Oregon 
 has a population of some fifty thousand, and produces about 
 one million dollars in gold-dust annually. 
 
 Washington territory has a sea-coast of two hundred miles, 
 and extends six hundred miles eastward to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. The fertile strip of the territory is only about one hun- 
 dred and twenty miles wide, along the Pacific ; the eastern 
 portion is for the most part barren, bat it contains extensive 
 placers of gold, which yield about three hundred thousand dol- 
 lars annually, and, if reports be true, will soon yield much 
 more. The population numbers about ten thousand. The fer- 
 tile district west of the Cascade Mountains is penetrated to a 
 depth of one hundred miles by Puget Sound and Hood's Canal, 
 the finest bodies of land-locked tide-water, for the purposes of 
 internal navigation, in the world. The timber of the territory 
 is very valuable, abundant, and accessible, and is now shipped 
 to all quarters of the globe. No country can furnish large 
 spars in such great abundance, or at so cheap a rate; and this 
 resource, if there were no other, would secure wealth to Wash- 
 ington. Yet, in addition to these, she has extensive fisheries, 
 
COMMEKCE. 329 
 
 fine farming-lands, and great facilities for commerce. For these 
 reasons, Washington will occupy an important place on the 
 Pacific, will have a dense population, and v/ill contribute much 
 to build up the commerce and increase the wealth of Califor- 
 nia. The climate of the western district of Washington is very 
 moist throughout the year — cool in summer, and not cold in 
 winter. Ice seldom forms more than two inches in thick- 
 ness, or remains more than two or three days ; but the sun is 
 hidden nearly every winter by fogs and clouds, for weeks at a 
 time. The climate of Washington bears as close a resemblance 
 to that of England as does the climate of Calilbrnia to that of 
 Itnly. 
 
 British Columbia has a population of six thousand, yields 
 about one million dollars in gold-dust annually, and has fine 
 forests of ship-timber along the shores of the Gulf of Georgia. 
 The soil is not rich, either on the mainland or on Vancouver 
 Island, and the land will not be extensively cultivated there 
 until after the richer land of Washmgton territory has been 
 occupied. 
 
 The western part of New Mexico and Arizona is a barren 
 country, unfit for tillage, but rich in minerals, which may at 
 some day attract a large population. At present, its white 
 inhabitants, west of the Rocky Mountains, do not number more 
 than one thousand. The present silver production of Arizona 
 may amount to ten thousand dollars per month. Western Ari- 
 zona and New Mexico obtain most of their imported goods 
 from San Francisco. 
 
 The population of Utah is about forty-five thousand, and 
 they do much of their trading with Placerville and Los An- 
 geles. 
 
 The western coast of Mexico, from San Bias north Avard, has 
 a population of about a miUion and a half, and these obtain 
 many of their imported goods from San Francisco. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands have a population of seventy thou- 
 sand, including two thousand whites, and they obtain most of 
 their imported goods from San Francisco. 
 
330 BESOURCES OF CALIFOP.NIA. 
 
 Adding together the inhabitants of Nevada, Oregon, Wash- 
 ington, the western parts of New Mexico and Arizona, the 
 northwestern part of Mexico, British Columbia, Vancouver 
 Island, and the Hawaiian Ishmds, we have a total of about one 
 niilhon seven hundred thousand people ; and mineral, commer- 
 cial, and industrial resources and advantages that must attract 
 many more inhabitants at no distant day. 
 
 § 235. Imports. — The imports of California are about $55,- 
 000,000 per year; that is, we import about as much as we 
 export ; and our exports amount, with gold, silver, grain, avooI, 
 wine, and sundries, to $55,000,000 annually. We have, how- 
 ever, no exact table of our imports, for most of them come 
 from New York, and, if of foreign production, have paid duty 
 there, and no report of their class and value is made at the 
 custom-house in San Francisco. Therefore, we cannot obtain 
 such tables of the imports into our chief port as are made at 
 New York, where all the foreign goods are received direct. 
 In the absence of accurate statistics, I must make an estimate 
 of the values of the several classes of imported articles, which, 
 while confessedly inexact, may yet serve to convey informa- 
 tion to those who know nothing of the subject : 
 
 The clothing and material for clothing imported in a year 
 may cost us $15,000,000; provisions (among which butter is 
 perhaps the most important), coffee, tea, and spices, $3,000,000.; 
 tobacco, $3,000,000 ; cutlery, hardware, and metallic articles, 
 $4,000,000 ; articles of wood, such as wagons, agricultural im- 
 plements, &c., $1,000,000 ; drugs, $1,000,000 ; boots and shoes, 
 $3,000,000; jewelry, $1,000,000; coal, $1,000,000; liquors, 
 $2,000,000; and sundries, $2,000,000: total, $36,000,000. For 
 freight on imported goods we pay $4,000,000 ; for insurance to 
 foreign companies, $1,000,000 ; for interest-money on foreign 
 capital, $1,000,000; for passenger-fares, $2,000,000— making a 
 total sum of $44,000,000, which is less by several niillions than 
 the amount of annual exports. 
 
 § 236. Exports. — Gold has the first place, but the exact 
 amount exported is not known, for considerable quantities not 
 
COMMERCE. 331 
 
 reported ut the eiistom-liouse, are taken away by passengers ; 
 and in the amount of treasure reported by manifest for exporta- 
 tion, the gold is not distinguished from the silver. The amount 
 of treasure exported in 1861 was $40,639,089 57; and proba- 
 bly not more than ^1,000,000 of silver is included in the sum. 
 Of this treasure, $32,628,010 were sent to Xew York, $4,054,- 
 436 to England, $3,525,325 to China, $338,536 to Panama, 
 $58,220 to Japan, $12,459 to Honolulu, $9,000 to Manilla, $6,000 
 to Singapore, and $7,100 to Mexico. As compared with pre- 
 vious years, the export of treasure in 1861 shows a falling off 
 from 1860 of $1,664,256 ; of $7,025,908 from 1859; $6,908,936 
 from 1858; $8,337,608 from 1857; $8,247,454 from 1856; 
 $4,543,542 from 1855; $10,689,564 from 1854; $16,691,935 
 from 1853; $5,947,055 from 1852; and $1,943,606 as com- 
 pared with 1851. The total treasure export in 1850 was $27,r 
 676,346, and $4,921,250 in 1849, as manifested at the custom- 
 house. From 1848 to 1854, large sums were carried away by 
 passengers. 
 
 After the gold, in importance as an export, we may place 
 silver ; which, however, is not all produced within the borders 
 of California, and Avhich is surpassed in value by wheat. But 
 as one of the permanent exports of San Francisco, silver will 
 undoubtedly have the next place to gold. The silver contained 
 in the gold of California amounts to about $200,000 annually; 
 and that produced by Washoe may have amounted in 1861 to 
 $2,500,000. Hitherto very little silver has been exported ; but 
 it is accumulating so rapidly, and it is so inconvenient, in a 
 country where so little small coin is used, that it must be sent 
 away hereafter. It is already at a discount of two per cent. 
 
 For several years past, California has exported large quan- 
 tities of wheat and flour. In 1861, we exported 1,350,783 
 sacks of wheat and 170,562 barrels of flour, worth together 
 $3,500,000. In 1860, the value was about $2,500,000 ; in 1859, 
 about $1,100,000; in 1858, about $120,000; in 1857, about 
 $70,000. However, we cannot expect that this ratio of in- 
 crease can be maintained ; we have now reached the summit, 
 
332 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 and the statistics of ]862 will show a large decrease as com- 
 pared with the previous year, and perhaps an entire stoppage 
 of exportation. 
 
 The quicksilver exported in 1861 amounted to 35,995 flasks, 
 containing 2,699,625 pounds of metal, worth $1,0'79,850. The 
 export w^as 9,348 flasks in 1860, 3,399 in 1859, 24,132 in 1858, 
 27,262 in 1857, 23,740 in 1856, and 27,165 in 1855. The great 
 f\\Uing off in 1859 and 1860 was caused by the closing of the 
 New Almaden mine, under an injunction issued at the instance 
 of the federal government. 
 
 Among the other exports of 1861 w^ere 181,166 hides, worth 
 $554,951 ; 3,721,998 pounds of wool, worth $507,297 ; 373,852 
 sacks of barley, valued at $355,224 ; silver-ore, valued at $188,- 
 815; copper-ore, worth $122,580; lumber, valued at $76,748 ; 
 tallow, worth $65,982; and wine, worth $12,399. 
 
 The total value of the exports in 1861, other than treasure, 
 was $6,988,375 ; of which we sent $2,744,537 to New York, 
 $1,283,391 to England, $1,078,118 to Australia, $566,860 to 
 China, and $453,953 to Mexico. 
 
 § 237. Shipping. — In 1861, there were 1,981 arrivals of 
 vessels, with an aggregate of 599,233 tons, at San Francisco. 
 Of these, 1,538 vessels, with an aggregate measurement of 
 267,698 tons, were from ports of California, Oregon, and 
 Washington (domestic Pacific ports) ; 106 vessels, Avith 121,342 
 tons, w^ere from domestic Atlantic ports; 42 vessels (25 from 
 Great Britain, 11 from France, 4 from Hamburg, and 2 from 
 Malaga), with 30,573 tons, from Europe; 31 vessels, with 12,- 
 334 tons, from Australia; 27 vessels, with 28,286 tons, from 
 China; 54 vessels, with 15,704 tons, from Mexico; 41 vessels 
 from Vancouver Island, 17 from the Hawaiian Islands, 13 from 
 the Society Islands, 7 from Japan, 17 from Chili, 11 from the 
 Russian possessions in America, and 15 from whaling-voyages. 
 The average size of the vessels which arrived from domestic 
 Atlantic ports was 1,144 tons ; of those from China, 1,047 tons ; 
 of those from Europe, 745 tons ; and of those from domestic 
 Pacific ports, 174 tons, most of the latter being little schooners, 
 
COMMERCE. 333 
 
 while those from New York, Boston, and China, are chiefly 
 American clipper-ships, the finest cLass of saihng-vessels in the 
 world. 
 
 § 238. Unsteadiness of Business. — The mercantile business 
 is very lively and fluctuating in California. There is no peo- 
 ple in the world who, in proportion to their numbers, import 
 so largely of foreign goods, or who pay such high prices for 
 them. The amount consumed is not very great, the supplies 
 are irregular, and the time required to obtain shipments round 
 Cape Horn about four months, and therefore it is not a very 
 diflicult matter to forestall the market ; and it is a frequent 
 occun-ence that a few wealthy men combine together and try 
 to buy up all of a certain kind of merchandise, and then con- 
 trol the market and raise the price. In other countries it is 
 impossible to get any accurate information about the supply 
 of an article, which is stored in large quantities in fifty cities 
 and owned by hundreds of merchants and ^^roducers ; but in 
 California the main stock of all imported goods is stored in 
 San Francisco and is held by a few men. Our business of 
 dealing in merchandising is therefore full of speculations, 
 which, though dangerous, particularly to the stupid, are agree- 
 able to the bold and enterprising, and contribute to render 
 our trade peculiar and different from that of other states. 
 
 The business of California is conducted boldly. Men make 
 money rapidly, spend it freely and hastily. Changes in occu- 
 ])at)on are frequent, and in wealth rapid. Hazardous specula- 
 tion is the body of our commercial system. Most of our busi- 
 ness men are young, and they still are under the influence of 
 the feverish times of ^9. Our business is unsteady. Heredi- 
 tary wealth is unknown. Our rich men all came to California 
 poor, and they are prominent advertisements of the victories 
 that may be achieved by enterprise and bold speculation. We 
 are speculators by our very position. The people Avho come 
 to California are bold adventurers naturally. We were dis- 
 satisfied with life in Euro])e and the Eastern states, because it 
 was too slow. We came here to enjoy an exciting life and to 
 
334 KESOUKCES OF CALIF OKXIA. 
 
 make money rapidly. Slow and sure plans are unsuited to us, 
 and besides, from the unsettled nature of our trade, there is not 
 the same sureness about slow modes of doing business as in 
 older states. In any little random gathering of a dozen men in 
 San Francisco, you will probably find some among them who 
 have worked in the mines, and this amongst the wealthiest and 
 most intelligent, as well as among the poorest. It is no un- 
 common thing to see men who have been wealthy on three or 
 four difierent occasions and then poor again. " A fire," " an 
 unfortunate speculation in merchandise," " a revulsion in real 
 estate," " a crash among the banks," " an unlucky investment 
 in a flume," these are phrases used every day to explain the 
 fact, that this or that man of your familiar acquaintance, though 
 once rich, is now poor. When men fail they do not despair — 
 and least of all those who have been rich and have failed by 
 some sudden turn in business — they hope to be rich again. A 
 number of the prominent business men in San Francisco have 
 been insolvent within the last five years. 
 
 § 239. Insolvencies. — Insolvencies, legally declared and can- 
 celled by the courts, are more frequent in San Francisco, in jDro- 
 portion to its population, than in any other part of the world. 
 Our laws provide that any man who declares himself unable 
 to pay his debts, and petitions to be released from them, may 
 obtain a judicial discharge, unless he has been guilty of fraud ; 
 and as the fraud must be distinctly proved upon him before the 
 discharge will be denied, the release is almost invariably ob- 
 tained. The number of suits brought (with their debts and 
 assets) in 1860, as conipared with each of the five preceding 
 years, has been as follows : 
 
 Ykax. No. Suits. Debts. Assets. Deficit. 
 
 1855 197 $8,377,827 $1,519,175 $6,858,652 
 
 1856 146 3,401,042 657,908 2,743,134 
 
 1857 125 2,375,899 812,417 1,563,482 
 
 1858 96 1.940,662 658,782 1,281,880 
 
 1859 60 706,219 208,044 498,175 
 
 I860 68 1,019,416 76,787 942,629 
 
 Total 6 years, 692 $17,821,065 $3,933,113 $13,887,952 
 
COMMERCE. 335 
 
 The display looks very serious. There was a regular de- 
 crease from 1855, when the great failures began, down to 
 1859, and then the increase began again. The amount of 
 assets is proportionably smaller for 1860 than at any previous 
 time, but in fact the assets are almost invariably nominal, con- 
 sisting of bad debts that never can be collected, and property 
 estimated at cost, but worthless in the market. It is rarely 
 that a man declares himself insolvent so long as he has prop- 
 erty wliich he can turn into money. Our insolvent law is 
 very liberal to debtors, and no doubt that contributes, with 
 the very speculative temper of our population, the facility for 
 getting credit, and the unsteady course of our trade, to make 
 our insolvent lists so large. 
 
 § 240. Interest of Money. — Again, in the matter of the in- 
 terest of money, California occupies a peculiar position. The 
 current rates are higher here than in any other Christian land. 
 The common rate on long terms and the best security is one 
 and a half per cent, per month, for interest is always calcu- 
 lated by the month. On short loans, or with security in the 
 least doubtful, the interest is from two to two and a half per 
 cent, per month. The laws place no more restriction upon con- 
 tracts for interest than for any other commercial contracts. 
 The man who promises to pay interest must do so at his 
 own risk ; for the law will not assist in any plans to violate 
 his bargain. The high interest of money is owing in part to 
 the unsettled character of the people, many of whom have no 
 permanent abode, and wish to have their money so that they 
 can get it at any time. The fluctuations of the market present 
 numerous speculations to merchants. The titles to real estate 
 are, in many cases, questionable, and the capitalist may not 
 like to buy, and will demand a high rate of interest if he must 
 take a mortgage on a doubtful title. Capital always makes an 
 extra charge for running a risk. It is a general rule that in- 
 terest will be high where wages are high. There are then 
 many people who can afford to pay interest, and many people 
 who will wish to obtain those comforts and luxuries only to 
 
3f!6 KESOIinCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 be purchased by the investment of considerable sums of money. 
 The wages of common laborers and mechanics are very high 
 in California, and a large portion of the people are in hopes to 
 attain wealth, and many of them make a practice of engaging 
 in speculations, to do which they must borrow money. The 
 high rate of wages, the unsettled habits of the people, the 
 questionable character of land-titles generally, and the fluctu- 
 ating nature of our commerce, all contribute to keep the rate 
 of interest at a high figure. In San Francisco a peculiar 
 custom prevails of loaning money from " steamer-day" to 
 "steamer-day." Steamer-day is the business-day which pre- 
 cedes the sailing of the steamer for Panama, which steamer 
 always carries away a shipment of about a million dollars. As 
 the steamer starts early in the morning, all the business in 
 arranging the shipments must be done on the previous day, 
 and then importers must send their money to the Eastern 
 houses from which they obtain their supplies, and they must 
 then dun their customers, the jobbers ; and the jobbers must 
 dun their customers, the retailers ; and the retailers must dun 
 every body. So steamer-day is aigreat day for the payment of 
 money, and as every body expects to get his money on steamer- 
 day, so he borrows promising to pay then. There are men 
 who make it a business to lend money from steamer-day to 
 steamer-day, a period of ten or fourteen days, the rate for that 
 period being from one to two per cent., almost invariably with 
 '-' collateral security" of merchandise, which is on deposit in a 
 warehouse, and is transferred by warehouse receipt to the 
 money lender. Nearly every body borrows and lends money 
 in California. It is no disgrace to lend money for high inter- 
 est, nor is it ever considered bad management for a mer- 
 chant to borrow and pay high rates; that is, if the amount be 
 small or the term brief. But as a general rule, the merchants 
 of California borrow altogether too much money. There are 
 not less than fifty mercantile houses in San Francisco, that have 
 paid more than ten thousand dollars each of interest on money 
 borrowed during the last ten years, and of one house which 
 
COMMEKCE. , 33T 
 
 lately failed it was asserted that they had paid one hundred, 
 and eighty thousand dollars of interest. It is a general prac- 
 tice among farmers to borrow money, and, if before harvest, 
 give a mortgage on the crops ; if after harvest, store the grain 
 in the lender's warehouse as security. One of the most profit- 
 able branches of business in the state is " grain commission." 
 The commission merchant has a quantity of ready money 
 which he loans to the needy farmer, who stores his grain with 
 the lender, and the latter charges about two per cent, a month 
 for the money, a dollar a ton per month for storage, and two 
 per cent, commission for selling. 
 
 § 241. Speculation in Land. — Speculation in land is one of 
 the most important branches of business in the United States, 
 and the increase in the value of land has been one of the main 
 sources of the wealth of the country. The American ftirmer 
 going into a new district, expects to purchase his land at a low 
 price and see it gradually rise in value, until it makes him, if 
 not wealthy, at least comfortable. Lands in Illinois which, 
 twelve years ago, were to be obtained from the government 
 at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, are now worth 
 thirty and forty dollars per acre ; and a similar remark will 
 apply to most of the land in the Western states, though the 
 average increase has not been so great. This increase has been 
 one of the greatest inducements to the rapid settlement of the 
 Mississippi Valley. Unfortunately, Cali-fornia has not been per- 
 mitted to derive much benefit from this source of wealth. The 
 fertile valleys near the coast had been granted away in large 
 ranclios by the Mexican government, and the American gov- 
 ernment refuses to sell the land in the mineral districts. 
 
 It appears to me a matter of the utmost importance to the 
 welfare of California, that the land in the mineral districts 
 should be sold. Not more than one acre in forty within 
 the limits of the mineral region is now occupied for mining 
 purposes, and not more than one acre in ten will ever be 
 worked. 
 
 § 242. No Paper Money. — There is no paper money in Cali- 
 15 
 
338 EESOURCES OF CALIFORXIA. 
 
 fornia. The Constitution of t"he state prohibits " banking,'' 
 and "the creation of paper to circulate as money." No bank- 
 notes have ever been current in this state or on this coast ; nor 
 are bank-notes used on any part of the coast betvreen Aca- 
 pulco and Sitka, and we are so far from the countries in which 
 paper money is current, that no attempt is made to introduce 
 it here. In our banks there are great piles of double eagles, 
 but no bank-notes are visible. Wherever you go, or whatever 
 you buy, you see only gold and silver ; people do not think of 
 paper. All large sums are paid in double eagles, and three- 
 fourths, if not nine-tenths, of our coin is of that size, which is far 
 more convenient than the smaller coins common in other coun- 
 tries. A large proportion of our shipment of treasure abroad 
 is in double eagles, and nine-tenths of the gold coined at the San 
 Francisco Mint is in pieces of that size. In 1860, $11, 1*78,000 
 of gold were coined, and $10,899,000 were in double eagles. 
 The general character of our coin is large. No copper money 
 is current, nor can any thing be bought with a cent. The 
 smallest coin commonly used is a dime ; half-dimes are rarely 
 seen, and when used two of them are ordinarily put together 
 to make a dime. The general sentiment among the people is 
 opposed to the use of any coin less than a ten-cent piece ; they 
 like high wages and high prices, and think that the introduc- 
 tion of half-dimes and cents would have a tendency to make 
 us feel poor and to introduce low wages. Many retail dealers, 
 even in the sale of candies and fruits, will therefore not take 
 a half-dime, and not a few persons would be ashamed to offer 
 to purchase half a dime's worth of any thing. A half-dime is 
 looked upon with more contempt and is far more rare in Cali- 
 fornia than a cent in New York. During the last three months, 
 for instance, though I purchase little articles every day, I have 
 not seen a half-dime. That coin is not made in our mint, nor 
 is there any demand for it. Three-cent pieces, coppers, and 
 nickels are never seen here except as curiosities, and are of no 
 value to make purchases. 
 
 § 243. Opportunities for Investment. — The opportunities 
 
COMMERCE. 339 
 
 for investing money securely in California are few compared 
 with other countries, and the chief causes of the difference are 
 to be found in the defects of our land-titles, and the unsteadi- 
 ness of business. There is no place where capital needs the 
 constant attention of a prudent manager more than in this 
 state. There are so many revolutions in business, that a brief 
 neglect may cause the loss of a fortune. It is a very unsafe 
 country for money left in the charge of agents. Their com- 
 mission is high, and they will usually give much less atten- 
 tion to a bailor's property than to their own. The interest of 
 money is too high for investment in state stocks. The bonds 
 of the state of California are all sold in New York, and the 
 interest is made payable there, and nearly all are held there or 
 in Europe. Most of these bonds bear only seven per cent, in- 
 terest annually, not half the current rates here. So of the 
 bonds of our towns and counties, for nearly every town and 
 county has its debt, the bonds are mostly held abroad, and the 
 interest is too low for the demands of capital in California. 
 There are then no state stocks that can be owned here, and 
 thus we are cut off from one of the best and most extensive 
 fields of investment. Labor is so high that we have few fac- 
 tories. The titles of farming-land are as a general thing inse- 
 cure. Farming, as a business conducted on a large scale, is 
 extremely uncertain. Our population is so small that the 
 market is easily overstocked, and freight to Europe and the 
 Atlantic states is so expensive, that a surplus can only be sent 
 away with difficulty ; and we are so remote that any shipment 
 is accompanied by many risks, for between the time when the 
 vessel sails from San Francisco and the time when she arrives 
 at Liverpool, there is an interval of three or four months, dur- 
 ing which period a ruinous depreciation may occur. The flue 
 tuations which occur in the grain market, have their parallels 
 in all other kinds of agricultural products : cattle, sheep, and 
 wine. There is no title to mineral land save occupation ; and 
 mining on a large scale is more dangerous than farming. 
 Whenever any branch of business becomes so established as 
 
340 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 to be permanent and to yield a certain profit, capitalists abroad 
 will wish to take possession of it, and they can afford to pay 
 more for it than we can, because our money is dearer than 
 theirs. A man in New York can afford to pay more for stocks 
 than we can in San Francisco. He gets his money for six per 
 cent, per annum while we pay eighteen. Whenever therefore 
 any large railroad or any extensive improvement, that will 
 certainly be permanently profitable, is established in Cahfornia, 
 foreign capitalists will buy it up. We cannot compete with 
 them until our money becomes cheaper. Our ocean steam- 
 ships are owned in New York. Our river steamboats are 
 mostly owned by a large association, called the California 
 Steam Navigation Company, but the stock is very fluctuating 
 and dangerous as an investment. There is no purchasable 
 bank-stock in California. Most of the capitalists of San Fran- 
 cisco either invest their money in houses and lots, or let it out 
 at interest under bond and mortgage. The taxes are very 
 high in California, in no county less than one per cent, a year, 
 and in some places four per cent. Indeed, when streets are 
 repaired in the large towns, the taxes sometimes amount to 
 ten per cent, on the value of the property. There is a consid- 
 erable amount of French and Swiss capital invested in San 
 Francisco, most of it loaned on mortgage, and under the charge 
 of French and Swiss bankers. 
 
 In no part of the United States is there so small an invest- 
 ment of capital, and so small an amount of real and personal 
 l^roperty held in fee simple, by individuals and local corpora- 
 tions, in proportion to the area, population and amount of busi- 
 ness done, as in the gold mining districts of California. The 
 custom-house manifests show, that during the last fourteen 
 years, we have exported $550,000,000 of gold, and no person 
 at all familiar with the business and history of the state, will 
 estimate the amount of exportation, not manifested, at less 
 than $150,000,000 ; and yet what is there to show in the min- 
 ing districts for all that immense wealth ? There are many 
 fine mountain roads, and yet they are few, and bad, as com- 
 
COMMERCE. 341 
 
 pared with the number that there should be; and even those 
 which we have, are mostly private property, and are made the 
 means of levying severe taxes upon all travellers and merchan- 
 dise passing over them. The counties have no fine roads, no 
 large or durable bridges. There are great ditches — with a 
 total length of six thousand miles — and wonderful flumes, but 
 they are made as cheaply as possible for use, during a few 
 years — not more than five or ten — and in too many cases, 
 cheapness has not been found to agree Avith durability. Im- 
 mense labors of many kinds have been undertaken, but simply 
 with a view to present profit, and without conferring any per- 
 manent benefit, or beautifying the country. There is scarcely 
 an elegant county building in the state. The mining towns 
 contain many fire-proof brick buildings and elegant residences, 
 and yet any mining town set down in New York or Ohio, 
 would be considered a very shabby village. Wherever we 
 turn, in the mining districts, we see no investment of capital 
 at all commensurate to the wants of the state. 
 
 The whole policy of the federal and state governments, in 
 regard to the mineral districts of California, has been not to 
 enrich the state, but to benefit individuals who did not and do 
 not intend to be permanent residents, whose interests are ad- 
 verse to those of the state, and to whom no inducements are 
 offered to become permanent residents. Rather the induce- 
 ments are on the other side, and obstructions are thrown in 
 the way of establishing homes. The improvements which 
 should have been made in previous years are wanted, but the 
 capital is not so abundant now. The main body of wealth 
 has been transferred to the agricultural counties and commer- 
 cial towns. The mining districts, instead of growing richer, 
 from their immense treasures, are growing poorer every year, 
 all of them comparatively — many of them absolutely. 
 
 Miners come to capitalists residing out of the mineral dis- 
 tricts, and invite them to invest money in gold-mining enter- 
 prises. The investments would furnish employment to labor- 
 ers, increase the production of gold, and benefit the state in 
 
342 EESOUJiCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 many ways, but the capitalists refuse because of alleged inse- 
 curity. The miners must abandon their schemes, and leave 
 the wealth of the mines undeveloped, or obtain money in their 
 own neighborhood, at rates of interest two or three times 
 higher than those prevalent in larger cities, where undoubted 
 security is given. Hence, serious obstacles to the develop- 
 ment of all branches of industry, and to the establishment of 
 that well-ordered society, made up of permanent residents, 
 dwelling in homesteads fixed for life, with a proper proportion 
 of women and children. The least of all the evils is, that the 
 mining counties contribute far less than they should to the 
 treasury of the state. 
 
 The main object of a government should always be to build 
 up a permanent, dense, intelligent, industrious and moral pop- 
 ulation, skilled in the mechanic arts, and so employed that 
 their capital increases rapidly and regularly. Such is the con- 
 dition of all the most prosperous countries, and such would 
 have been the condition of California now, if she had been 
 properly governed. 
 
 If application be made to a San Francisco capitalist to buy 
 a gold mine, or loan money on the security of a gold mine, or 
 invest money in any gold mining operation, an offer of sale 
 will be received with the same refusal. A promise of ten per 
 cent, a month will not induce him to examine the proiDosition. 
 He will reply, that all gold mining is insecure. He treats 
 quartz-mining, ditching, hydraulic claims and sluice, alike ; 
 different as they are from one another, he makes no distinction 
 between them ; they are alike, and equally dangerous. If he 
 be asked how he knows that they are insecure, he will say 
 that he lost an investment some years ago, or, that this and 
 that friend of his lost investments in gold mines, and every- 
 body says they are insecure, and that is enough for him. He 
 cannot afford to travel through the mines and investigate the 
 matter. He can find what he considers safe investments in 
 San Francisco, in agricultural lands, from Sonoma to San 
 Diego, and in Washoe silver mines. There is now more San 
 
COMMERCE. 343 
 
 Francisco capital invested in Santa Clara county alone than in 
 all the gold mines of the state. There is scarcely a county 
 near the coast, between latitude 40° and 33°, in which there is 
 not a large amount of capital invested by non-residents, to 
 the evident benefit of the county. Although gold mining has 
 been the chief industry of the state for fourteen years, and 
 although Washoe is of late discovery, and has less population 
 than single counties of California, yet more San Francisco 
 capital is invested in Washoe silver leads than in all the gold 
 mines of the state. 
 
 There is a great difference of opinion among business men in 
 regard to the causes of this alleged insecurity. One will say 
 that the cause is in the want of fee-simple titles ; that the 
 ownership of mining claims depends upon possession, and is a 
 kind of personal property with a still w^eaker title, for a man 
 may lay his purse down, or let his horse go, and both will 
 belong to him in law for years ; but when he shoulders his 
 pick and blankets, and leaves his claim for three days in the 
 w^orking season, he has not the least interest in it. Another 
 consideration, however, will show that this cause alone, al- 
 though it may contribute much to the general result, is not 
 sufficient in itself to render gold-mining investments insecure, 
 even in any one case of note. Most of the valuable mines in 
 the world are held by mere possession, and abandonment or 
 cessation of work w^ould lead to a forfeiture of title. This 
 is the rule throughout the rich mineral districts of Spanish 
 America, in most of the countries of Europe, and even in 
 Washoe; and yet the value of these mines, w^hose title depends 
 only on undisputed possession, is almost as good as if held in 
 fee simple, for it is plain that so long as the mine is profitable 
 there will be no cessation of work. 
 
 Another theory to explain the aversion entertained by capi- 
 tal for gold-mining enterprises is, that the business is too un- 
 certain as to its profits ; that prudent business men avoid great 
 risks, and will not venture their principal ; and that they cannot 
 invest in gold mines without the greatest perils, because it is 
 
344 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 impossible for them to know beforehand whether a mine con- 
 tains much rich ore or dirt. But if we look a little further at 
 this explanation, we shall iind that it has no good foundation. 
 It is not true that the prudent business man always avoids great 
 risks ; in other words, prudent business men often make in- 
 vestments with a probability that the entire investment will 
 be lost, but in clear view of a possibility that' an immense 
 profit may be made. 
 
 It is a mark of sound judgment and prudence in a business 
 man to avoid risks that may much endanger the loss of his 
 whole fortune, but he will not necessarily refuse to venture a 
 tenth part of his fortune, if he see a possibility — as of one 
 chance in five — of making a profit of a hundred-fold. It is 
 under the guidance of principles like these — stating the risk 
 in its least favorable aspect — that mining for gold and silver 
 is conducted throughout the world, to the great general profit 
 of those engaged in the business, and it is in view of princi- 
 ples like these that mines of all kinds have a certain market 
 value. They may be hidden hundreds offset under the earth, 
 but there is a probability that a metalliferous vein, if tolerably 
 rich, and similar to other veins not far distant, and found to 
 be rich through a considerable extent, will also be rich in like 
 manner in other parts out of reach. There is such a chance 
 for profit that a high value attaches to mines where there is 
 not even a regular vein or layer of mineral to guide the miner. 
 For instance, cinnabar is not found in veins, but in masses, 
 usually connected with each other by little seams. At New 
 Almaden, sometimes a mass of ore is found ten feet cubic, and 
 when it is worked out, only a little seam indicates where other 
 masses may he. Whether they do lie there is a matter no 
 way certain. The Enriqueta mine, which promised about two 
 years since to rival the Almaden, has fallen to the level of the 
 Guadalupe. Some rich masses were found ; and more may be 
 found, but nobody knows whether they will be, and so with 
 the New Almaden ; and though these facts are perfectly 
 understood, the latter mine is worth millions in the market. 
 
COMMERCE. 345 
 
 Tliere is such a presumption of the richness of its unexplored 
 portions, that a man worth one hundred thousand dollars can 
 be justified in venturing an investment of fifty thousand dol- 
 lars of it in New Almaden stock at the market price. Any 
 })iece of property having a steady market price, promises se- 
 cui'ity to justify the investment of money. This theory, there- 
 fore, is not satisfactory ; it explains nothing. 
 
 A third theory adduced in explanation is the natural dis- 
 honesty of men, and the peculiar facilities with which dishon- 
 esty may be practised in gold mining. It is said that if a 
 mine is found to be valuable, the resident shareholders keep 
 the knowledge to themselves, levy heavy assessments upon 
 remote partners or stockholders, and take care that no divi- 
 dends shall be declared, by which policy all who do not know 
 the mine are at last driven to sell, and usually at a sacrifice. 
 The managers of the mine are, of course, either directly or 
 indirectly the purchasers. This system of management is 
 neither imaginary nor rare; it is familiarly known as "freez- 
 ing out," and is not confined to gold mining, but extends to 
 silver mines, and commercial corporations. In mining for gold, 
 however, there are greater opportunities and more speedy re- 
 wards for this kind of fraud than in any other kind of busi- 
 ness ; but whether the frauds are more numerous or greater 
 may well be doubted. Theft is another form in which dis- 
 honesty is dangerous to the owners of valuable mines. In all 
 those mining enterprises where considerable amounts of capi- 
 tal are invested, numerous laborers must be hired ; and in 
 California most of these men are strangers to their employers, 
 without family, permanent home, or any tie that can give se- 
 curity for their good conduct. The great value of gold as 
 compared with the space it occupies, gives the thief fine op- 
 portunities for seizing and hiding it. Neither placer nor quartz 
 mines are exempt from this clanger. The laborer employed 
 in deep hydraulic claims, or fixr from the daylight in shafts or 
 drifts, cannot fail to see the large lumps or the rich portions 
 of the auriferous rock. He has abundant means of hiding 
 15* 
 
346 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 enough every day to equal his wage's, and as no one else saw 
 the piece previous to the time when he took it, it is almost 
 impossible to prove theft, even if found upon him. But it is 
 not customary to search laborers when they leave their work, 
 for the honest men would probably not submit to the humilia- 
 tion. In quartz mines the term " knocking down" is given to 
 the system of theft of rich bits of the rocks by the laborers, 
 and it is said that some mines where the rock is very rich, are 
 plundered so extensively that they are far less profitable than 
 those wherein the metal is equally diifused through a wide 
 vein, so that the workmen can find no small pieces worth 
 stealing. To what extent the influence of such dishonesty — 
 the existence of which, as I have said, is recognized in the 
 popular speech — may go, we have no information or estimate ; 
 but I am satisfied that though they may be serious, they are 
 in themselves far from sufficient to account for the utter dis- 
 trust with which capitalists look upon enterprises for the de- 
 veloping of our auriferous wealth. 
 
 I have thus mentioned three theories which, in my view, 
 whether considered each separately or all jointly, are unsatis- 
 factory and insufficient to account for the evil. If there be 
 any other theory I have not heard of it, or it does not occur 
 to me now. I have already spoken of the greatness of the 
 evil ; it strikes at the veiy basis of our prosperity as a state, 
 destroys the field of labor, drives our capital away, renders 
 trade unsteady, and contributes to deter immigration and to 
 make our mining population a set of wanderers.* 
 
 There is something radically wrong in the financial and in- 
 dustrial condition of that country where the capital is not 
 invested in the main branch of industry. So it is in Cali- 
 fornia. Many important improvements are needed in the 
 mineral regions, but the money cannot be obtained to make 
 them. We send away $40,000,000 annually, because people 
 abroad are not satisfied with the security which we offer, 
 though we would, and could with advantage, pay three times 
 as much interest as it can earn in the Atlantic states or Europe. 
 
COMMERCE. 347 
 
 Great numbers of poor men seek employment, but the capital 
 is not here to pay them. The invested capital does not bear a 
 proper proportion to the population and labor. The lack of 
 regular employment makes business unsteady, population un- 
 settled, exposes the state to desertion at every cry of rich dig- 
 gings at Cariboo or Salmon River, and prevents immigration, 
 which we should by this time understand, is one of the great- 
 est sources of wealth and prosperity. It is, or at least, previ- 
 ous to the great rebellion, was a common assertion, that Cali- 
 fornia was nX) place for a poor man ; that it was far inferior to 
 the younger states east of the Rocky Mountains, in the proba- 
 bilities of steady employment, and the opportunities of grad- 
 ually acquiring a capital of five or ten thousand dollars, such 
 as a large proportion of those who were poor men in the states 
 in the Mississippi Basin, a score of years ago, have in that in- 
 terval collected together. 
 
 Is this complaint about the insecurity of the gold mines, as 
 a sphere for the investment of capital, true ? If so, why and 
 how ? Is it equally true about the quartz-mining, the placer- 
 mining and ditching? Certainly it cannot be true in the 
 same manner, for the three branches of industry are very dif- 
 ferent from one another. If it be true, is there a remedy ? 
 These are questions which private enterprise has not solved, 
 and for the solution of which a good government should make 
 some provision. If we can but show how capital can be invested 
 securely here, it will be invested, and population, industry, 
 and the prosperity of residents and the state will swiftly follow. 
 
 § 244. Assurance. — The assurance of property against fire 
 on land and against wreck at sea, has come to be an extensive 
 branch of modern business. It is one of the chief channek 
 through which capital runs to the great centres of trade. It 
 is a legitimate, safe, and profitable investment. It is managed 
 on careful principles. All its operations are based on, statistics^ 
 collected in the course of many years. The prenaiums are 
 always set at such a figure that according to the ordinary 
 course of human events, the company must realiiie a profit io 
 
848 KESOTJECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the long run. The occasional losses are more than covered by 
 tl^e regular collection of the premiums. The amount of tjje 
 premium is determmed by the risk, and the risk is known from 
 long observation to within a very small percentage. 
 
 We have only two small assurance companies in California, 
 and nearly all our assurance business is done by companies of 
 the Eastern states and Europe, represented by agents here. 
 These agents do a very large and profitable business, a busi- 
 ness w^hicli ought to be done by companies organized in our 
 own state. Not less than $600,000 are annually sent fi*om 
 this state for assurance premiums, and the total losses do not 
 exceed $200,000, leaving a clear profit of $400,000, or sixty- 
 six per cent, to the assurers. These figures are not extrava- 
 gant estimates, made without a knowledge of the subject ; if 
 there be any error, they represent the profits less than they 
 really are. Nearly all the policies, for w^hich these $600,000 
 of premium are obtained, are issued on property in San Fran- 
 cisco, and the losses by fire in 1860 were $162,000, an unusually 
 large amount, the average during the previous five years hav- 
 ing been $105,000, or thereabouts. 
 
 The average premium paid is about one and one-half per 
 cent., the lowest being three-quarters of one per cent., and the 
 highest three, or even four per cent., whereas one-quarter ol 
 one per cent, on an average would pay the losses. 
 
CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 849 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 CONSTITUTIOK AND LAWS. 
 
 § 245. Outlmes of Co77Stitution.— Calif orn'm is a state, and 
 a member of the United States of America, with rights equal 
 to those of the other states. The sovereignty of government 
 is divided between the federation and the state, the former 
 taking precedence. Every officer of the state, before entering 
 npon the duties of his position, must take an oath to " support 
 the constitution of the United States, and the constitution of 
 the state of California." A double allegiance is thus imposed, 
 that due to the state authorities being secondary to that due 
 to the authorities of the nation at large. The Union has ex- 
 clusive power to regulate commerce, naturalize foreigners, 
 coin money, make treaties, declare war, make peace, and main- 
 tain an army and navy. Beyond these powers, the state is 
 sovereign. The state government is republican. All the offi- 
 cers of the government are chosen by the people. The legis- 
 lature is composed of two houses, which sit separately, and 
 the consent of both is necessary to the passage of any bill. 
 The longest: term of office for any important executive or 
 legislative position is two years ; the members of the assembly 
 and many of the county officers being elected annually. The 
 voters thus have an immediate control over the government. 
 The judges of the Supreme Court and of the District Courts 
 are elected by the people, and the term of office is six years. 
 Suffrage is universal; that is, every sane, adult, white male 
 citizen, not a felon, may vote at every election. No owner- 
 ship of property or payment of taxes is required as a qualifi- 
 cation for voting or holding office. 
 
?50 KE SOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 246. Inferiority of Colored Persons. — All white male 
 citizens are equal before the law of California ; but negroes, 
 Indians, and Chinamen are not permitted to vote or to testify 
 in the courts against white men. In a criminal case, one- 
 eighth negro blood and one-half of Indian blood, in civil cases 
 one-half of either, disqualifies a witness for testifying against a 
 white man. Slavery is forbidden by the constitution. 
 
 § 247. Laics Favorable to Debtors. — The laws of California 
 relating to the collection of debts are very favorable to the 
 debtor. His homestead, the property owned by his wife pre- 
 vious to marriage, that given to her afterward, his household 
 furniture to the value of two hundred dollars, his tools, if a 
 mechanic, his horse and wagon, if a mechanic, and his library, 
 if a lawyer, are exempt from execution. A married man, a 
 widow, or widower with children, or any head of a family, is 
 entitled to a homestead worth five thousand dollars, secure 
 against creditors. An unmarried person may have a home- 
 stead worth one thousand dollars. Such laws may prevent 
 much oppression of poor people, but they also protect and en- 
 courage much rascality. A man may own a homestead worth 
 five thousand dollars, and that may include a very elegant 
 dwelling. His household furniture, worth as much more, may 
 have been presented by some friend to his wife after marriage. 
 She may have a separate estate of one hundred thousand 
 dollars, and may derive an annual income of ten or twenty 
 thousand dollars from it, and both may live in an extravagant 
 style, and yet creditors have no hold upon him whatever. 
 There is no imprisonment for debt except in cases of fraud, and 
 that the laws are so drawn that it is almost impossible to prove. 
 One important class of testimony, admissible to prove a man a 
 thief or murderer, is not admissible if he be accused of fraud 
 in contracting a debt. In trials for obtaining money by false 
 pretenses— the most common kind of fraud in contracting 
 debts — the oral testimony of witnesses, as to the representa- 
 tions made by the accused, is not sufficient to convict ; there 
 must be some writing or token furnished by the defendant 
 
CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 351 
 
 In many ways the debtor is fenced about, so that the laws seem 
 to have been devised by men who had had experience in swind- 
 ling creditors, and wished to secure themselves against trouble 
 in the future. Every j^recaution is taken against the creditor, 
 as though he were a public enemy ; while the men who do 
 not pay their debts are treated as though they were the soul 
 of the state, and as though their mode of doing business should 
 be encouraged at all costs. When a man gets in debt, he can 
 get out again without difficulty. Our insolvent law provides 
 that he has only to petition a court for release, set forth his 
 debts and assets, swear that he cannot pay his debts and give 
 up his assets. Unless the creditors can then prove that he 
 has committed fraud, either in contracting the debts or in con- 
 cealing his property from his creditors, he is entitled to be 
 released. He may go through this process repeatedly ; and 
 many cases have occurred of two discharges in insolvency 
 granted to one person within two years. The favor shown by 
 our laws to debtors, is, I think, a grave error, and contributes 
 much to establish a dishonest tone in general society, and to 
 encourage dishonest actions. On every side can be seen men 
 who have swindled creditors out of large amounts of money, 
 and are themselves now living in extravagant, or at least 
 luxurious style. Such laws encourage habits of rash specula- 
 tion, with the expectation that riches will come with success, 
 and no discredit or loss to any one save creditors, with failure. 
 Honest and prudent men suffer, business is thrown into disor- 
 der, and reckless adventurers and knaves get positions and in- 
 fluence which they never should have. 
 
 The property owned by either the husband or wife before 
 marriage, and by gift, bequest, or inheritance after marriage, 
 belongs to each separately ; and the property acquired after 
 marriage, by other means than gift, bequest, or inheritance, is 
 common property belonging in equal shares to both. The 
 husband, however, has sole control of it. The wife has no 
 right of dower, and the husband has sole control of the com- 
 mon property, and may sell, without the consent of the wife, 
 
352 EESOUECES OF CALIFOENIA. 
 
 any of it except the homestead ; a deed or mortgage for which 
 without her signature and seal, is absolutely void. The hus- 
 band cannot convey his interest unless she conveys her in- 
 terest at the same time. The husband has the management 
 of the separate property of the wife too, but, if she desire it, 
 she may ajDply to a court and have the property placed in the 
 charge of any trustee whom she may select. For a valid sale 
 of the wife's separate property, husband and wife must join. 
 
 The laws of California, like the customs and trade, do not 
 favor the perpetuation of wealth in families. There is no right 
 of primogeniture. All children inherit equally. The eldest 
 son gets no more than the youngest. Public opinion runs 
 with the law. The rich man who should express an intention 
 to give all his property to his eldest son, merely because of 
 his seniority, would be hated. Entails are forbidden. A man 
 cannot tie up lands in the country for more than ten years, or 
 town lots for more than twenty. How different is all this 
 from the state of affairs in Europe ! There, at least in some 
 parts of the continent, all the property goes to the eldest son ; 
 property is entailed in the family for many generations ; the 
 debtor is subject to imprisonment ; there is no release for in- 
 solvents ; the property of the woman is by marriage vested 
 absolutely in the husband, and does not revert by inheritance 
 to her blood relatives by her death ; the limitations for com- 
 mencing law-suits are very long, and sales, if not made at the 
 market price, or contracts, if made so that one party appears 
 to have obtained an advantage of the other, may be rescinded. 
 The habits and opinions of the people give strength to their 
 laws ; and wealth once in a family is almost as certain to be 
 transmitted through many generations by inheritance in Eu- 
 rope, as its loss in the second or third generation is certain in 
 the new states of America. 
 
 § 248. Tenure 0/ ianc/.— Four-fifths of the land in Califor- 
 nia is owned by the federal government, which acquired it 
 from Mexico by treaty. This federal land lies in the mineral 
 regions, and in all the unsettled districts of the state. Most of 
 
CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 353 
 
 it has been surveyed, and, with the exception of the Lind intlie 
 mineral districts, is offei'ed for sale at one dollar and twenty- 
 five cents cash per acre, in lots of forty acres, or tracts of any 
 size of which forty is a multiple. There is no hmit to the 
 amount which one man may buy. Any man may occupy any 
 of the federal land. It is open to the use of the public. The 
 tule land, of which there are about eight hundred square 
 miles, belongs to the state, and that is oftered for sale at one 
 dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, but the payment may be 
 made in instalments at long intervals. One-eighteenth of the 
 land has been given to the state for school pui-poses, and this 
 is also for sale at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre 
 in instalments. 
 
 Most of the land held in private ownership in the state, is under 
 grants made by Mexico previous to 1846. Of these grants there 
 are eight hundred and thirteen, covering a total of 9,828,181 
 acres. Of these claims about one hundred and fifty, covering 
 about 3,000,000 acres, have been finally rejected, and a number 
 are as yet undecided. The grants were for large tracts called 
 ranchos, intended to be used chiefly or exclusively for pastur- 
 age, and the average size was about 12,000 acres, or three 
 square leagues. The grants were made, not by the acre or by 
 the mile, but by the square league, containing 4,438 acres and 
 a fraction, or, to be precise, 4,438.083 acres. Every ranch had 
 its name, for it was a kind of principality, and these names 
 have in many cases been transferred to towns and townships 
 under the American dominion. 
 
 The common tenure of land in California is fee-simple. Such 
 conditional tenures as are common in Europe are very rare 
 here, and many of them are prohibited by our laws. We 
 have no life estates, nor is any lease or limited conveyance of 
 land good for a longer period than ten years, unless it be a 
 town lot, and then the limit is twenty year.s. All conveyances 
 of real estate are placed upon record in a government office, 
 and without such record they are not valid as against persons 
 not parties to the conveyance. 
 
354 EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 249. Ownersliip of Minerals. — It lias been a much dis- 
 puted question whether the owner of land, under a Mexican 
 title, owns the minerals in the soil. Under the Mexican law 
 l)e did not ; but the latest decision of the highest court of 
 California is, that the owner of the land owns all the minerals 
 in it. The Mexican and Spanish law is unsuited to the Ameri- 
 can system. By law the mines are open to everybody. Any 
 man or w^oman, citizen or alien, white, black, or yellow^, may 
 lay claim to an unoccupied tract of auriferous quartz or dirt, 
 and if his claim be not larger than is customary, he has a good 
 legal title so long as he may w^ork it, provided that, if an aUen, 
 he shall pay a license of four dollars per month. However, 
 although he may have a good legal title, the white miners in 
 some districts will not permit Chinamen to come among them, 
 and their legal right is of no value against the omnipotent 
 mob. There is no express law throwing the mines open to all 
 the world ; but the intent of the government is plainly to be 
 inferred from the debates of Congress, and the fact that no re- 
 straint has been placed upon mining. All the federal land in 
 the state, save that in the mining districts, is thrown open to 
 pre-emption for agricultural purposes ; but the mines are re- 
 served, and evidently for the miners, from whom the federal 
 government has never demanded any tax or share of the gold 
 obtained. The state legislature has imposed a tax of four 
 dollars per month on all alien miners, and has promised that 
 all who pay that tax shall be permitted to mine as freely as 
 citizens ; but that promise is not kept. 
 
 § 250. Titles of Mining Claims. — The miners do not own 
 the land on w^hich they work ; they only have a right of pos- 
 session so long as they occupy it ; and their right is called a 
 " claim." The size of the claims varies in different districts, 
 and depends entirely upon the regulations or custom of the 
 district. Every district has a written code of regulations, 
 determining, among other points, the size of mining claims ; 
 and these regulations are recognized by the state as valid, so 
 far as thev are not in conflict with the statutes or constitution. 
 
CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 355 
 
 Quartz claims are usually two hundred feet long, following the 
 course of the lode. In some districts the miner holds one 
 hundred feet of ground on each side of his lode, so that he can- 
 not be disturbed by other persons in his vicinity ; in others he 
 holds only the width of his lode, and if another lode, or placer 
 diggings, be found within a few feet of his place of working, 
 other claimants may come so near as to interfere greatly witli 
 his convenience. Placer claims vary in size, according to the 
 nature of the ground. On bars, a claim usually has a front of 
 fifty, a hundred, or two hundred feet on the river, and runs 
 back across \he whole width of the bar. Tunnel claims have 
 a front of fifty, a hundred, or two hundred feet on a hill-side, 
 and run transversely to the middle of the hill, or entirely 
 across it, parallel with the direction in which the tunnel is 
 commenced. Ravine claims include the bed of a ravine for a 
 distance of not more than three hundred feet. Placer claims 
 not on bars or ravines, or in hills that must be tunnelled, are 
 usually rectangular, containing as much as one hundred or two 
 hundred feet square. Persons who discover new placers or 
 auriferous quartz veins are entitled to two claims. 
 
 The method of getting a claim is very simple. The miner 
 finds a piece of unoccupied ground that suits him; drives stakes 
 at the corners ; fastens on one of these stakes a piece of paper, 
 containing a written notice similar to the following : 
 
 "I hereby lay claim, for mining purposes, to a piece of 
 ground a hundred feet square, of which this is the northeast- 
 ern corner, the other corners being marked by stakes. 
 
 "John Smith." 
 
 He then goes to the mining recorder of the district, requests 
 him to record the claim in his book, and pays a fee of half a 
 dollar. In some districts the recorder must go out and look 
 at the claim, to see that it is not on ground previously claimed. 
 In other districts one of the stakes must have a piece of tin on 
 it, marked with the number which the claim has on the record- 
 er's books. In other districts it is necessary to mark the 
 
356 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 limits of claims with a trench. But the common custom is to 
 require only a notice of the simplest intelligible form and a 
 record ; and by these the miner acquires a perfect title as 
 against all other persons, so long as he continues to work the 
 claim. But if he does, not work the claim, he forfeits his title. 
 The time within Avhich work must be done to j^reserve the title 
 good, varies greatly in different districts — from three days to 
 a month. The period is usually brief in proportion to the shal- 
 lowness of the diggings and the ease of working them. In 
 most districts no amount of work will secure a claim against 
 forfeiture. A miner may work his claim every day for years, 
 and then, if he deserts it for a day beyond the period allowed 
 in the mining regulations of the district, it is legally forfeited, 
 and may be taken by the first comer. There are certain classes 
 of diggings which can only be worked during half of the year, 
 and in these, claims are subject to forfeiture only during the 
 Avorkable season. It is not expected that a miner will work 
 a dry ravine claim in the summer, or a bar claim in the winter ; 
 and the mining regulations, being based on reason, and well 
 designed for the convenience of the miners and the develop- 
 ment of the mining interest, impose no penalty upon such 
 actions as would be approved by industrious, prudent men. 
 There are deep diggings where all the claims cannot be worked 
 at once : those in front, or nearest the place where there is an 
 outlet for the water, must be worked out before the miner can 
 begin on those behind. In such cases, the claims in the " back- 
 ground" will not be foi'feited until there is a possibility of 
 working them, even though years elapse. The mining regula- 
 tions impose no penalty for a neglect to do impossible things. 
 Among the claims which may be left unworked for a long 
 time without danger of forfeiture, are claims for mining pur- 
 poses to land occupied by other parties for tailings. A miner 
 may hold a tailing claim merely for the purpose of preserving his 
 tailings, and with no intention to wash the natural dirt; and 
 another miner may lay claim to the same place for mining pur- 
 poses, but he must wait until the prior occupant has removed 
 
CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 357 
 
 his tailings, and until such removal the title is not subject to 
 forfeiture. And the prior occupant is under no obligation to 
 be in haste ; he can take the same time to remove the tailings 
 that he would have taken if no claim for mining purposes had 
 been made to the land. It is not necessary that the owner of 
 a claim should work upon it in person ; the labor of a hired 
 man is as good to maintain occupation and secure title as any- 
 other labor. In the Esmeralda silver district, work to the 
 value of seventy-five dollars secures the title forever, according 
 to the mining regulations. 
 
 A company of miners may take up as much ground as the 
 aggregate amount which they could take up separately ; and 
 when a company takes a claim, every member has an equal 
 and undivided interest in every part of it. When a claim is 
 to be taken for a company, it is sufficient that one member of 
 the company should appear at the recorder's office, demand 
 that the claim be recorded, and offer to i>ay the fees. The re- 
 corder has no right to make any preliminary inquiries as to 
 who the people are, or where they live, or whether they live 
 at all. One man, finding a good tract of rich ground, may 
 Avrite down the names of a dozen persons living at a distance, 
 and, without consulting them, have their names recorded as 
 members of a company owning a large and valuable claim, 
 and by such record their title becomes good. 
 
 In most districts a miner may hold only one claim by his 
 own original location, but an unlimited number by purchase. 
 In districts where there are both dry ravine and bar-clnims, he 
 may at the same time hold one bar-claim and one ravine clahn 
 by original location, the former being workable in summer and 
 the latter in the winter. After having exhausted or abandoned 
 one claim, the miner may always take up another. 
 
 The manner of taking up claims in the argentiferous and 
 quicksilver districts, is the same as in the gold districts. 
 
 The water in the mineral districts is also subject to claim. 
 The streams may be diverted from their courses and used for 
 washing dirt, driving saw-mills, grist-mills, and quartz-mills, or 
 
358 RESOURCES OF CALIFOKNIA. 
 
 irrigating tilled fields. The first claimant has the prior right, 
 no matter for what industrial purpose he wishes to use the 
 water. Miners have no monopoly of the water in the mineral 
 regions, nor even a prior right. There is no limit to the 
 amount which a man may claim. He may take the largest 
 river in the mountains ; he may take a dozen of them and 
 hold them all. He may not only take all their water, but he 
 may take all the land necessary to use it. He may make res- 
 ervoirs covering hundreds of acres. He may make ditches a 
 hundred miles long. All that is necessary to give him a pos- 
 sessory title to the water and land, is that he should drive 
 stakes along the route of the ditch, post up notices of his inten- 
 tion, and commence work in building the dam and cutting the 
 ditch. However, while the custom of the country would per- 
 mit a man to become the owner of such extensive works, the 
 practical result is, that the large ditches are almost invariably 
 made by companies. 
 
 § 251. Marriage. — Marriage, by the law of California, is 
 a civil contract, which is complete with the consent of the 
 man over twenty-one years of age, and of the woman over 
 eighteen. No ceremonial form, license, publication of bans, 
 consent of parents, blessing of priest, seal of magistrate, or 
 presence of witness, is necessary to give validity to the con- 
 tract. If either party be under the age mentioned, then the 
 consent of the parent or guardian is necessary. Although the 
 law does not require a ceremony, yet custom does, and the 
 priests and preachers are usually called in to perform it. 
 Divorce may be granted for adultery, habitual intemperance, 
 extreme cruelty, desertion for two years, conviction of a felony, 
 and impotence. There has been much complaint that the law 
 renders divorce too easy, but the general opinion of California 
 is favorable to the law as it is. 
 
GOCIETT. 859 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SOCIETY. 
 
 § 252. Population. — The total population of Califoroia is 
 reported by the census of 1860 to be 380,015; of whom 
 •333,530 are white, and 46,485 are colored. This census, how- 
 ever, Avas not taken with proper care, and I am confident that 
 the total population is not less than 400,000, of whom about 
 340,000 are white, and 60,000 colored. Of the colored, 50,000 
 are Chinamen, 3,000 are negroes and raulattoes, and 7,000 are 
 Indians. Most of the Indians live far from white men, and in 
 a state of complete savageness ; the negroes are mostly in the 
 large towns ; the Chinamen are mostly in the mines and in 
 San Francisco. The details of the census have not yet been 
 published, so I must guess at them. I suppose that the white 
 population is made up of 155,000 men, 95,000 w^omen, and 
 90,000 children or minors. Of the men, there may be 130,000 
 citizens and 25,000 aliens. The aliens may be composed of 
 12,000 Frenchmen, 3,000 Englishmen and Scotchmen, 2,000 
 Irishmen, 3,000 Italians, 2,000 Spanish Americans and 3,000 
 Germans, &c. Putting white and colored adults together, 
 there are about 110,000 women and 200,000 men in the state. 
 The men are about equally divided between the mining and 
 farming districts of the state, but the proportion of women is 
 much larger in the lattei" than in the former. The minors are 
 about equally divided between boys and girls ; and the chil- 
 dren, under ten years of age, have a large majority over those 
 between ten and twenty-one. Of the nativity of voters I 
 make the following estimate : 50,000 Americans from the free 
 states, 30,000 Americans from the slave states, 20,000 Irish- 
 
UGO 
 
 RESOURCES OF CAf.IFORNlA. 
 
 men, 15,000 Germans, and 15,000 miscellaneous, including 
 Canadians, Britons, Hungarians, Spaniards, Danes, &c. The 
 most populous counties, according to the census report, have 
 the numbers of inhabitants, and, at the presidential election of 
 1860, cast the number of votes, indicated in the following 
 table ; 
 
 Counties. Population. Votes. 
 
 San Francisco 56,805 14,415 
 
 Sacramento .' 24,145 7,542 
 
 El Dorado 20,562 7,049 
 
 Nevada 16,447 6,965 
 
 Tuolumne 16,229 5,547 
 
 Calaveras 16.302 4,815 
 
 Yuba 13,671 5,058 
 
 Placer 13,270 5,824 
 
 Butte 12,107 4,438 
 
 173,538 61,653 
 
 The following is a statement of the population of the state 
 by counties, as rejDorted in the census of 1860 : — 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Alameda 
 
 Amador* .... 
 
 Butte* 
 
 Calaveras* . . 
 Contra Costa. 
 
 Colusa 
 
 Del Norte... . 
 El Dorado*.. . 
 
 Fresno* 
 
 Humboldt. . . . 
 Klamath * . . . 
 Los Angeles.. 
 
 Mariij 
 
 Mariposa* . . . 
 Mendocino . . . 
 
 Merced 
 
 Monterey . . . . 
 
 Napa 
 
 Nevada* . . . . 
 
 Placer* 
 
 Plumas* .... 
 Sacramento. . 
 S. Bernardino. 
 
 White. 
 
 Cord. 
 
 Total. 
 
 8,581 
 
 346 
 
 8,927 
 
 8,392 
 
 2,541 
 
 10,933 
 
 9,718 
 
 2,389 
 
 12,107 
 
 12,579 
 
 3,723 
 
 16.302 
 
 5,186 
 
 142 
 
 5,328 
 
 2,157 
 
 117 
 
 2,274 
 
 1,374 
 
 618 
 
 1,992 
 
 14,695 
 
 5,867 
 
 20,562 
 
 4,-025 
 
 580 
 
 4,605 
 
 2,502 
 
 192 
 
 2,694 
 
 1,315 
 
 588 
 
 1,803 
 
 9,919 
 
 1,417 
 
 11,336 
 
 3,042 
 
 292 
 
 3.334 
 
 4,215 
 
 2,028 
 
 6,243 
 
 2,881 
 
 1,086 
 
 3,967 
 
 1,114 
 
 27 
 
 1,141 
 
 4,147 
 
 592 
 
 4,739 
 
 5,454 
 
 61 
 
 5,515 
 
 14,236 
 
 2,211 
 
 16,447 
 
 11.104 
 
 2,166 
 
 1.3,270 
 
 3,730 
 
 633 
 
 4,363 
 
 22,761 
 
 1,384 
 
 24,145 
 
 4,860 
 
 694 
 
 5,554 
 
 1 
 
 Counties. 
 San Diego. . . . 
 San Francisco 
 San Joaquin. . 
 S. Luis Obispo. 
 San Mateo . . . 
 Santa Barbara 
 Santa Clara. . . 
 Santa Cruz . . . 
 
 Shasta* 
 
 Sierra* 
 
 Siskiyou*;, . . . 
 
 Solane 
 
 Sonoma 
 
 Stanislaus.. . . 
 
 Sutter 
 
 Tehama 
 
 Tulare and 
 Buena Vista . . 
 
 Trinity* 
 
 Tuolumne*. • . 
 
 Yolo 
 
 Yuba 
 
 yVhite. 
 3,785 
 
 Cord. . 
 541 
 
 52,955 
 
 3,850 
 
 9,171 
 
 263 
 
 1,560 
 
 222 
 
 3,138 
 
 76 
 
 3,100 
 
 443 
 
 11,683 
 
 229 
 
 4,327 
 
 618 
 
 3,922 
 
 438 
 
 9,574 
 
 1,815 
 
 7,056 
 
 573 
 
 7,132 
 
 38 
 
 11.672 
 
 195 
 
 2,022 
 
 203 
 
 3,358 
 
 42 
 
 3,288 
 
 756 
 
 4,059 
 
 579 
 
 3,318 
 
 1,807 
 
 14,277 
 
 1,952 
 
 4,679 
 
 37 
 
 11,557 
 
 2,114 
 
 333,530 
 
 46,485 
 
 4,326 
 
 56,805 
 9,434 
 1,782 
 3,214 
 3,543 
 
 11,912 
 4,945 
 4,360 
 
 11,389 
 7,629 
 7,170 
 
 11,867 
 2,245 
 3,390 
 4,044 
 
 4,038 
 5,125 
 
 16,229 
 4,716 
 
 13,671 
 
SOCIETY. 361 
 
 In the counties marked with asterisks the population is chiefly 
 occupied with mining ; and there is some mining in Sacra- 
 mento, Yuba, Del Norte, Los Angeles, Buena Vista, and San 
 Bernardino counties. Since the census was taken, the eastern 
 part of Calaveras has been organized into Mono county, and 
 the northern part of Napa into Lake county. 
 
 § 253. JS'ativities. — In January, 1848, thirteen years ago, 
 the total white population of California did not exceed 15,000 
 in number, of whom two-thirds were Spanish American. Of 
 the 340,000 present white inhabitants, therefore, 325,000 are 
 immigrants or miners. Of the adult population not more than 
 one in twenty is a native of the state. The migration has 
 not been for a short distance. It was from one side of the 
 world to the other — a long and for most an eventful journey. 
 Of the children, about half were born in California. The aver- 
 age time that the immigrants have spent in California may be 
 six years. During the last twelve years not less than 250,000 
 persons who had made their homes in California for a year or 
 more, have left the state, and they are now scattered all over 
 the civilized world. The Americans in California represent 
 every state in the Union, and representatives from every state 
 may be found in many of the counties tnken separately. In 
 the public schools of San Francisco during 1860, there were 
 1,454 children born in the state of New York, 1,176 born in 
 California, QQ*1 from Massachusetts, 245 from Louisiana, 194 
 from Pennsylvania, 149 from Maine, 72 from Missouri, 70 from 
 Ohio, 61 from Maryland, 49 from Illinois, 47 from New Jer- 
 sey, 46 from Rhode Island, 44 from Connecticut, 41 from 
 New Hampshire, 36 fj-om Kentucky, and a few from Vermont, 
 Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, 
 Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, AVisconsin, Oregon, the District of 
 Columbia, New Mexico, and L^tah. Of foreign countries there 
 were 214 from Germany, 150 from Australia, 121 from Eng- 
 land, 77 from China, 54 from France, 51 from Ireland, 29 from 
 Canada, 27 from Scotland, 25 from Chili, 16 from New Zea- 
 16 
 
362 EESOUECES OF CALIFOKXIA. 
 
 land, 13 born at sea, and others from Poland, Tahiti, Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, Cuba, Spain, West Indies, Russia, 
 Holland, Hawaiian Islands, Norway, Italy, Tasmania, Belgium, 
 Panama, Sweden, Switzerland, and Peru. The children from 
 Ireland, France, and Spanish America are few, because most 
 of them are sent to the Catholic schools. Otherwise the table 
 presents a pretty fair indication of the mixed character of the 
 population, and the brief period of its residence in this state. 
 The proportions are, however, not the same in all the counties. 
 The proportion of people from the maritime states of New 
 York and New England is larger in San Francisco than in any 
 other county ; whereas Missouri is the leading state in Sonoma, 
 Napa, Yolo and Santa Clara counties, which are agricultural. 
 Texas has probably furnished more citizens to Tulare county 
 than any other state of the Union ; and Illinois and Iowa have 
 furnished a considerable proportion of the residents of Siskiyou 
 and Shasta counties. 
 
 § 254. Liberal Tone of Society. — As a body, the people of 
 California are intelligent. It is very rare to find a white man 
 who cannot read. They have travelled far to reach this coast, 
 and the journey required from most of them a considerable ex- 
 penditure of money and an enterprising spirit. Many of them 
 had seen much of the world before coming to California, and 
 have travelled considerably since their arrival. They are in- 
 dustrious, energetic, brave, quick in speaking, ready to avenge 
 an insult, accustomed to carry pistols and knives, quick to use 
 them in quarrel, affable, unceremonious, and unreserved in their 
 intercourse with acquaintances or strangers. These remarks 
 will not apply to all individuals, but to the people generally, 
 as compared with the people of other states and countries. 
 The state has not yet had time to build up a national character 
 among natives, but the people are different from all other 
 people. They have much of the general traits of Americanism, 
 but the traits are more striking because so many of the popu- 
 lation are men, and men in the most vigorous period of man- 
 hood, and bold, adventurous men, who have seen strange ups 
 
SOCIETY. 363 
 
 and downs of life, and seen much of foreign lands and strange 
 jDeoples. In their own state they meet and are thrown into 
 familiar intercourse with intelligent representatives of all climes 
 and continents. The consequence is, that there is no popula- 
 tion more cosmopolitan than the Californians. They have no 
 provincial stiffness ; there is nothing of the little village about 
 them. 
 
 In no place is society more free and cordial, and ready to 
 give a friendly reception to a stranger than in California. The 
 new-comer is looked upon with favor ; nobody cares whether 
 he belongs to a distinguished family, has moved in a fashion- 
 able circle, or possesses wealthy or influential friends or rela- 
 tives. The great question is, "Is he or she well educated, 
 polished, and entertaining?" Of course Californians are not 
 entirely above such considerations as govern society elsewhere, 
 but they are influenced by them far less than people in other 
 states. The course of business is such that no profession has 
 all the wealth. There are rich men of all occupations, and 
 some of the mechanical trades are now as profitable, on the 
 average to those engaged in them, as are the learned profes- 
 sions. Those who were rich in the older states, and received 
 a thorough education and a polished training, may here be 
 poor, while those who came hither poor and ignorant may now 
 be rich. Besides, the changes are so rapid that our neighbor 
 who is poor to-day may be rich to-morrow, and the neighbor 
 who is rich to-day may be poor to-morrow. Again, California 
 is pre-eminently a country of business. People came here to 
 make money, and everybody tries to make it ; and in a state 
 where wages are high, and profits large, a man's business de- 
 pends to a considerable extent on the multitude of his friends, 
 so everybody wishes to make a friend of everybody else. The 
 millionaire in Europe may treat his tenant as an inferior ; in 
 California the wealthiest land-owner is expected to treat his 
 tenant as an equal. All these things have their influence in 
 preventing the separation of our society into those classes 
 which prevail elsewhere. 
 
364 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 In no part of the world is the individual more free from re- 
 straint. Men, women, and cliildren are permitted to do near- 
 ly as they please. High wages, migratory habits, and bache- 
 lor life, are not favorable to the maintenance of stiiF social 
 rules among men, and the tone of society among women must 
 partake, to a considerable extent, of that among men, especi- 
 ally in a country where the women are in a small minority, 
 and therefore are much courted. Public opinion, which as a 
 guardian of pubhc morals is more powerful than the forms of 
 law, loses much of its power in a community where the inhab- 
 itants are not permanent residents. A large portion of the 
 men in California live alone, either in cabins or in hotels, re- 
 mote from women relatives, and therefore uninfluenced by the 
 powers of a " home." It is not uncommon for married women 
 to go to parties and balls in company with young bachelor 
 friends. The girls commence going into " society " about fif- 
 teen, and then receive company alone, and go out alone with 
 young men to dances and other places of amusement. In this 
 there is a great error ; too much liberty is allowed to the girls 
 in the states on the Atlantic slope, and still greater liberty is 
 given here, where, as they ripen earlier, they should be more 
 guarded. 
 
 The absence of restraint in society, the exciting character of 
 business, the mildness of the climate, the interesting associa- 
 tions of hfe, in a state where a man lives more and sees more 
 in a year than he would see in a lustrum in older countries, 
 have given the people who have resided here an attachment 
 for California. It has been observed that a large proportion 
 of those who have left the state, intending to spend the remain- 
 der of their lives in their native places, have returned, declar- 
 ing that they could not accommodate themselves to the slow, 
 quiet, dull ways of more antiquated states. 
 
 §255. Publicity of Life. — Life in California is very public. 
 Many of the people live in hotels and at large boarding-houses. 
 Travellers are numerous ; theatres and balls are abundant and 
 well attended; celebrations and festivals are frequent; the 
 
SOCIETY 365 
 
 population is excitable; all take the newspapers, and all are 
 interested in the events of the day ; and the history of the 
 country is full of eventful incidents, which always present 
 fruitful topics for discussion. Money is abundant, and is easily 
 earned, and of course it is spent freely; and the favorite 
 method of spending is in public festivities and attending places 
 of amusement. In "no part of the United States is so much of 
 life public, and so little of it private. 
 
 § 256. Amiise'me7it8. — San Francisco is a city of public shows 
 and processions. Dancing is almost universal. The children 
 of every public school in our chief city must have picnics and 
 dances in May and at Christmas. Some of the Sunday schools 
 do without the dance ; others have as many as the common 
 schools. One has four dances every year. The regular dances, 
 picnics, and festivals of various schools and associations in San 
 Francisco, will average several for every w^eek in the year. 
 Theatres and operas are most liberally patronized, in propor- 
 tion to the population. But perhaps the amusement which has 
 found the most favor in California is billiard-playing. Billiard- 
 tables are found everywhere. In many little villages where 
 there is but one inn a fine billiard-table will be found. In San 
 Francisco there are numerous large billiard-saloons, containing 
 each from eight to twelve of the largest and most elegant bil- 
 liard-tables, at which men are constantly playing. The climate 
 along the coast is peculiarly fiivorable to dancing, for, as the 
 evenings and nights are always cold, it is as pleasant to dance 
 in the summer as in the winter. Amono^ the other rescular 
 amusements o^ Californians is that of "going east." About 
 ten thousand of them go to the Eastern states every year, to 
 make visits and see their relatives. Among the fashionable 
 places of resort in the state are the Yosemite Falls, the Mam- 
 moth Groves of Calaveras and Mariposa counties, the Alabas- 
 ter Cave in El Dorado county, the Geysers in Sonoma county, 
 the Sulphur Springs in Napa county, the Warm Springs in 
 Alameda county; and in September and October, when the 
 grapes are ripe, the towns of Sonoma and Los Angeles. G^m- 
 
366 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 bling was in 1854 commonly and openly practised in all the 
 towns of the state ; now it is prohibited as a crime, and is 
 practised only in secret, and is a rare offence save in the 
 mining towns. Horse-racing is common, and the state has 
 some of the best thorough-bred horses in the world. Gam- 
 bling was from 1849 to 1854 a common public amusement in 
 all the towns and mining camps. In San Francisco a dozen of 
 the largest and finest halls on the first floor, with doors always 
 open to the street, and in several cases extending across whole 
 blocks and opening upon two opposite streets, were occupied 
 by gamblers, and were filled by crowds of people every day — 
 no exception for Sunday — from dark until long after midnight. 
 Fine bands of music and voluptuous pictures were among the 
 common attractions of these places, and some of the tables had 
 handsome women to deal the cards or gather in the money. 
 Gambling is now prohibited by law, but is practised openly in 
 the little mining towns. 
 
 Some years ago bull-fights and fights of bears against bulls 
 were not uncommon, but they have gone out of favor, and 
 nothing is heard of such exhibitions now. 
 
 § 257. Luxurious Living. — The mode of living among Cali- 
 fornians is luxurious. They all try to make the most of life. 
 Everybody wants a neat house, elegant tableware, fine ma- 
 hogany furniture, Brussels carpets, and a good table. In the 
 towns especially, the people live well, even the poorer me- 
 chanics and common laborers. Every man dresses in broad- 
 cloth, and nearly every woman in silk. The exceptions are so 
 few as scarcely to be worthy of notice. Gold watches are 
 worn by draymen and washerwomen. In every occupation 
 men get rich, and stingy men and misers are rare. 
 
 § 258. Health. — Of the Americans in California, it may be 
 remarked that they generally have the same marks as the 
 Americans in the Eastern states. Their eyes are deep set, 
 their foreheads high, their features regular and finely cut, their 
 faces expressive and free from grimace, their lips thin, their 
 mouths grim, their bodies tall, slim, and slightly bent in the 
 
SOCIETY. ?67 
 
 shoulders, thin in the chest, the voice loud, the enunciation 
 slow and clear, with little modulation. These general chai'ac- 
 teristics of the nation, as compared with Europeans, are not 
 wanting in California. However, the Californians of the third 
 or fourth generation will be different from those of the present 
 day ; they will be a heavier, and healthier, and probably a taller 
 race. The tendencies in this direction are, I think, already 
 evident, in the forms and growth of the children ; and such 
 influences might be inferred from the vigorous development, 
 in this state, of the forms of animal and vegetable life generally. 
 Most parts of the state, especially those near the coast, are 
 very healthy. Indeed I do not think that in any part of the 
 w^orld is nature more favorable to long life than in California 
 from Sonoma to Santa Barbara, within thirty miles of the ocean. 
 The regularity of the temperature, and the entire absence of 
 both extreme heat and extreme cold, with a clear sky, a dry 
 atmosphere, and a constant breeze, are the conditions most 
 favorable to health, and they are nowhere more happily united 
 than here. In the low land of the Sacramento and Colorado 
 basins, where the summers are very hot, and in the high land 
 of the Sierra Nevada, where the winters are very cold, the 
 health of the inhabitants is not so good. In many of the 
 mining towns, where much vi^ater escapes from the ditches, 
 and keeps the earth constantly moist, and where new ground 
 is thrown up every day, fever and ague are common. That 
 disease prevails also in the moist lands along the Sacramento 
 and San Joaquin Rivers, and about the Four Creeks, in Tulare 
 county. Rheumatism is very common in the mines, and neu- 
 ralgia throughout the state. Whether this latter disease is 
 more common here than in the Eastern states, is a matter of 
 dispute, but certainly I never heard so much of it elsewhere as 
 I have heard in California. Diseases of the eyes are common 
 here, caused probably by the dust, the dryness of the atmos- 
 phere, the glare of the sun, and the evaporation of mercury 
 in open pans, by miners. The dense fogs which visit the coast 
 render the climate unfavorable to persons afflicted with con- 
 
368 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 sumption ; while I presume a residence in the mountains, high 
 above the sea, would be very likely to cure that disease, at 
 least in its early stages. 
 
 The American women of California are not healthy, as a 
 class. Tliey are trained up in the dark and in idleness, as 
 though sunshine and work would ruin them. Pastry, pickles, 
 and sweetmeats form a considerable portion of their food, 
 and they are taught to abhor coarse strength and robustness 
 as worse than sins. Of course they cannot, as women, be 
 healthy. The girls are beautiful — beautiful as angels, but at 
 twenty-five the women begin to wither, and at thirty-five they 
 lose nearly every trace of physical beauty. The diseases pe- 
 culiar to women are very common, and whether from this 
 reason or some other cause, it is very frequent to see women 
 of thirty or thirty-five, who have one or two children ten or 
 twelve years old, and none younger. The native Californian 
 and Irish women have large famihes ; the American ^vomen 
 have but few, and yet there is no country where children are, 
 on an average, so large at birth (if the opinion of some experi- 
 enced physicians of my acquaintance be suflicient authority to 
 establish the fact), or where so many twins are born. It has 
 been remarked that a multitude of instances have occurred of 
 couples who, after having lived childless for ten, fifteen, or 
 twenty years in 'other countries, before coming to California, 
 in a year after their arrival here have had children. Travel- 
 ling and a change of climate will no doubt always have a favor- 
 able influence in this respect, but perhaps the extraordinary 
 productiveness of California may be perceptible here too. 
 
 § 259. Proportion of the Sexes. — There are not enough 
 women for the men in California. The relation between the 
 sexes is unsound. Unfortunate women are numerous, and 
 separations and divorces between married couples frequent. 
 No civilized country can equal us in the proportionate number 
 of divorces. Our laws are not so lax as those of several of 
 the states east of the Mississippi, but the circumstances of life 
 are more favorable to separation. The small proportion of 
 
SOCIETY. 369 
 
 women makes a demand for the sex, and so when a woman is 
 oppressed by her husband, she can generally find somebody 
 else who will not oppress her, andslie will apply for a divorce; 
 whereas, in another state she would submit to much harsher 
 treatment and not demand a separation. The abundance of 
 money is here felt also. To prosecute a divorce suit costs 
 money, and many cannot pay the expense in poorer countries. 
 During ISCO eighty-five divorce suits were commenced in San 
 Francisco, and in sixty-one of these, or three-fourths of the 
 cases, the wives were the plaintiffs. During the six years from 
 1855 to 1860, inclusive, the number of divorce suits commenced 
 in San Francisco was four hundred and forty-seven, and in 
 more than three-fourths of the suits divorces were granted, 
 and divorces were denied in very few. Some of the suits were 
 discontinued or abandoned. The proportion is probably about 
 the same in other parts of the state. 
 
 § 2G0. Education. — The state has made a liberal provision 
 for education. Common schools, free to all white children, are 
 maintained by the public treasury, and the large fund provided 
 for their support is declared in the constitution to be inviolable. 
 The common schools in San Francisco are as good as any com- 
 mon schools in the world. Those in the country districts are 
 not so good, and yet will compare favorably with most country 
 schools. Boys and girls are taught together in these schools — 
 an arrangement which is thought, by many parents, to be bad 
 for girls over twelve ; and therefore private schools for girls 
 have many pupils. The Catholics in San Francisco have their 
 own schools, and support them with their own money. They 
 dislike the common schools, because pupils are not required 
 to study the Catholic catechism there. The state constitution 
 provides that there shall be a state university, but it has not 
 yet been organized, nor is it likely to be for some years to come. 
 There are a number of high schools called "colleges" and "uni- 
 versities," mostly maintained by religious sects, but they have 
 jiot yet become so large or strong as to deserve special mention. 
 
 § 261. Vigilance Comuxittees. — In the last chapter I spoke of 
 16* 
 
370 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the constitution and laws of the state, here I must speak of the . 
 assumption of unconstitutional and illegal powers by the Cali- 
 fornians, in a manner unexampled in other parts of the Union. 
 The vigilance committees of San Francisco are famous the world 
 over. There were two of these organizations, one in 1851, the 
 other in 1856, the latter being a revival of the former. The 
 laws for the punishment of crime in California are so loose and 
 so favorable to criminals, and the officers of justice have been so 
 corrupt, that the people have at several periods felt that the 
 only safe method of having justice executed, was to take the 
 matter into their own hands. The vigilance committee of 
 1851 was in existence but a short time, and did nothing save 
 execute a few thieves. That of 1856 was the more important 
 organization by far, and a brief statement of its actions may 
 be necessary to a proper understanding of the character of the 
 people. Under the American system of universal suffrage, the 
 control of the government must fall into the hands of a polit- 
 ical party, which again must be managed by a few individ- 
 uals, and these, especially in large cities, are often base men 
 who make a business of politics. It is so in New York city ; 
 and it was so in San Francisco in 1855 and the early part of 
 1856. The party then in power did not hesitate to elect to 
 high office men entirely unfit to be seen in decent society — 
 men of notoriously bad character, guilty of numerous crimes. 
 Many of the officers of elections were scoundrels, who, after 
 the polls were closed, threw away the genuine ballots and sub- 
 stituted others in their place, and thus declared their own men 
 elected to office. Such conduct was not the exception but the 
 rule ; it was practised in many districts and for year after year, 
 and the men guilty of it were patronized and protected by men 
 high in office. Among the ballot-box stuffers, one of the bas- 
 est and most prominent was James Casey, a man who had 
 been convicted in New York of grand larceny, and had been 
 punished by a term of imprisonment in the state prison. lie 
 had a little education, some experience in the management of 
 political meetings, much tact, and a ready tongue. In San 
 
SOCIETT. 371 
 
 Francisco be became a politician, and obtained tbe position of 
 inspector of elections in one of tbe wards ; and tbere be bad 
 complete control of tbe ballot-box, and used it to keep bimself 
 in office and elect bis friends or tbose wbo paid bim. In tbe 
 fall of 1855 Casey managed to be elected member of tbe board 
 of supervisors (wbicb board bas the same powers in San Fran- 
 cisco as tbe common council bas in most cities), and tbis election 
 was conducted in sucb a manner tbat tbere was no doubt in tbe 
 mind of any reasonable man tbat tbe whole affair was fraudu- 
 lent. This man Casey shot a San Francisco editor wbo had de- 
 nounced bim as a convict, a ballot-box stuffer, and a scoundrel. 
 The shooting took place in tbe street in open day, and the 
 wound was mortal. The editor had made bimself prominent 
 and popular by exposing various abuses, and no sooner was it 
 announced that he was shot, than a great excitement arose, 
 men collected by thousands in tbe street, and acted with a 
 passion little short of raving. The vigilance committee, which 
 had been dissolved for six years, was reorganized. Out of 
 twelve thousand white male citizens nine thousand enrolled 
 themselves as members of tbe committee. They formed them- 
 selves into military companies, obtained arms, chose officers, 
 and established aji armory and a fon. Tbe governor ordered 
 them to disband, and threatened to use tbe military power of 
 the state against them, but they set bim at defiance, invested 
 the Jail, took from it Casey and another man, who bad com- 
 mitted homicide, imprisoned them in their fort, and subse- 
 quently hanged them, after trying them secretly. Tbe com- 
 mittee arrested a large number of persons on charges of vari- 
 ous crimes, executed two others for murder, banished about 
 a dozen, and maintained their fort and their military organiza- 
 tion for eight months, during which time they were really 
 masters of the city. They inflicted no punishment with- 
 out trial, held all their trials with much deliberation, and 
 were in no haste to execute their sentences. The governor 
 tried to call out tbe militia of tbe state, but the people gener- 
 ally sympathized with tbe movement, so neither the militia nor 
 
372 RESOTJKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the legislature would do any thing. A few troops were col- 
 lected in San Francisco, but the vigilance committee took them 
 prisoners and deprived them of their arms. The governor 
 applied to the federal government for assistance, but the au- 
 thorities at Washington decided that they would not interfere, 
 except at the joint request of the governor and legislature. 
 The governor was thus left powerless, and the committee 
 maintained their fort and their military organization, and really 
 had control of the city for eight months. No judicial pro- 
 cess was of any service to release a man whom they had im- 
 prisoned. They hanged a-fev>^ scoundrels, drove others from 
 the country, frightened still more, destroyed the influence of 
 bad men, rendered life and property secure, gave good men an 
 influence in the city government, purifled the elections, gave a 
 better tone to society, commenced a new era of decent man- 
 agement of the municipal finances, and gave respectability to 
 the city. It is perhaps not more than proper that I should add 
 here, that I personally was neither a member of the vigilance 
 committee nor an advocate of its policy of setting the laws at 
 defiance. This vigilance committee transacted all its business 
 secretly, and no record of its transactions has yet been pub- 
 lished. It is universally understood that tjie whole control 
 of the committee was vested in a secret executive commit- 
 tee of thirty-three, who had been chosen at one of the first 
 meetings after the reorganization began, when there were 
 but few members present. After the time when they were 
 chosen, their names were never submitted for approval to 
 the great majority of the vigilance committee, who joined sub- 
 sequently, nor were their names ever announced to the citi- 
 zens by authority, nor did they ever appear in such a manner 
 that either the general public or the members of the vigilance 
 committee could know the names of this executive committee, 
 which was thus vested with an u-responsible and absolute 
 power. The meetings of the executive committee were secret, 
 and the greater part of their proceedings was never reported 
 even to their constituents. When any military or other action 
 
SOCIETY. 3V3 
 
 was to be taken, nothing of the main purpose was communi- 
 cated, save to a few officers. The executive committee had 
 really an absolute power. Their orders were implicitly 
 obeyed. Whom they ordered into arrest, was arrested ; whom 
 they ordered into banishment, was banished. Their trials were 
 secret ; a counsellor was granted to the accused, but a coun- 
 sellor who was himself a member of the executive committee, 
 and of course bound to sustain his associates. The executive 
 committee exercised these great powers with great modera- 
 tion and wisdom, and without pay ; and all the men whom 
 they executed or banished, undoubtedly deserved all the 
 punishment inflicted on tliem. After the vigilance committee 
 was disbanded, the executive committee lost all its powers, 
 and returned to the position of simple citizens. Such is a brief 
 statement of the character of the vigilance committee of San 
 Francisco, an organization without its like in American his- 
 tory ; a secret society, ruled by a secret executive committee, 
 whose names were unknown to the public, and even to the men 
 pledged to obey them, whose meetings were secret, and of 
 whose proceedings no report was published eitlier at that 
 time or since. The maintenance of the organization in defi- 
 ance of the law, was expensive and troublesome, and it is not 
 expected that it will ever be revived ; yet the temper of the 
 people is such that, rather than submit to the sway of ruffians, 
 who had power in San Francisco in 1855, they w^ould certainly 
 re-establish the vigilance committee. 
 
 § 262. Lynch Executions. — No association similar to the 
 vigilance committee has ever been formed in California out- 
 side of San Francisco. There have been many executions by 
 l}nch law, but there was no permanent organization, delib- 
 erate trial of the accused, and delay in the execution of the 
 sentence, which marked the proceedings at San Francisco. In 
 the interior, the lynching is always done by a mob ; they may 
 act without much noise, and give the accused several iiours' 
 respite before swinging him up, but it is only a mob after all. 
 The people come together in a state of excitement, and dis- 
 
374 KESOFRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 patch the offender while their blood is still hot. These scenes 
 have been comparatively rare of late, but they happen at least 
 several times in the course of a year. In the year 1855, no 
 less than forty-seven men were executed by mobs in Califor- 
 nia, twenty-four for theft, nineteen for murder, one for arson, 
 one for rape, and two Indians, for being spies to watch the 
 movements of some white men who were making war on their 
 tribe in Northern California. In nearly every instance when 
 a man is executed by mob law in California, he gets his deserts. 
 There may be exceptions, of course, but all the probabilities 
 are against the victim. Though the mob are excited, they are 
 by no means unreasonable ; they frequently give a man a for- 
 mal trial, hear the testimony against him, and do not execute 
 him until a jury has rendered a verdict against him. Some- 
 times the execution is hasty, but in such cases either the crime 
 is great and indubitable or there is danger that the offender 
 will be rescued by the officers of the law. The method of 
 procedure at a lynching is simple. The people collect about 
 the place where the prisoner is kept ; if he is in jail and the 
 jailor refuses to give him up, they break the door open with 
 crowbars, and take the prisoner out to a tree. If they have 
 leisure, a jury is organized and put under oath or promise to 
 give the accused a fair trial. Some one, no matter whether a 
 lawyer or not, is appointed to examine the witnesses for the 
 prosecution, and another for the defence ; and after a brief 
 hearing of the testimony a verdict is rendered, and in nineteen 
 cases out of twenty, the accused must swing. Hanging is 
 always used as the mode of execution. The main excuse for 
 these lynchings is, that the law is so badly administered that 
 there is no security that a criminal will be punished ; but as the 
 population becomes more permanent, there is less foundation 
 for this plea, and the lynch executions become less frequent. 
 They are confined altogether to the remote places in the state, 
 and in a few years they will entirely cease. 
 
 § 263. Squatter Jjeague. — There is now, and has for years 
 been, a squatter league secret society, with hundreds of mem- 
 
SOCIETY. 375 
 
 bers, organized for the purpose of defeating Spanish land 
 claims on which squatters have settled, and for the purpose of 
 resisting the ejectment of squatters when possible. This se- 
 cret society has the support of thousands of squatters wlio 
 are not members. In May, 1861, these squatters refused to 
 allow some trespassers to be ejected under legal process from 
 the Chaboya rancho near San Jose. Fifteen hundred armed 
 men collected to set the law at defiance, and when the gov- 
 ernor proposed to send troops, the squatters of Sacramento, 
 Sonoma and Marin counties promised to send two armed men 
 for every soldier. At one time there was serious danger of 
 bloodshed, but the affair was settled by granting some squat- 
 ter demands not at all consistent with the dignity of the gov- 
 ernment. This secret organization, and the seditious feeling 
 among a multitude of persons not members, still exist, and 
 may yet cause serious trouble. 
 
 § 264. Ariti- Chinese Moh. — The white miners have a great 
 dislike to Chinamen, who are frequently driven away from 
 their claims, and expelled from districts by mobs. In such 
 cases the officers of the law do not ordinarily interfere, and no 
 matter how much the unfortunate yellow men may be beaten 
 or despoiled, the law does not attempt to restore them to their 
 rights or avenge their wrongs. 
 
 § 265. Deeds of Blood. — California has obtained a sad no- 
 toriety for its deeds of blood, and although the number of 
 these has very much decreased, still fatal affrays are common. 
 During 1855 a list was kept of all the homicides in the state, 
 and no list has been kept since that year, and therefore I refer 
 to a time so remote for statistics. It appears, then, from the 
 records of that year, that five hundred and thirty-eight persons 
 died by violence. Of these three hundred and fifty-seven were 
 whites, one hundred and thirty-three Indians, thirty-two Chi- 
 namen, and three negroes. The number of Indians killed by 
 the whites was no doubt much greater, for the two races were 
 at war in various parts of the state, and the skirmishes, which 
 almost invariably proved disastrous to the red men, were in 
 
37c EESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 many cases not reported in the papers. Exclnsive of the In- 
 dians slain tliere were four liundred and live homicides. In 
 many instances no particulars of the killing were given, but of 
 those cases where the mode of death was well ascertained, 
 there were forty-seven executed by mobs, nine were executed 
 according to law, ten were criminals killed by sheriffs or police- 
 men in attempting to arrest or detain them, six were foreign- 
 ers killed by the collectors of the foreign mhiers' license, 
 thirty-two were killed by Indians, seventeen were killed in jus- 
 tifiable homicide by men who were compelled to defend them- 
 selves, twelve were killed in fights about mining claims, eight 
 were killed in fights at gambling tables, sixteen were mur- 
 dered for purposes of robbery, and forty-six were found nmr- 
 dered under circumstances that did not indicate whether the 
 motive was deliberate murder, sudden anger, robbery, or self- 
 defence. These homicides occurred in nearly equal propor- 
 tions in the four seasons of the year, and in the different popu- 
 lated districts of the state. The homicides of each year 
 between 1850 and 1855 were at least as numerous as those of 
 the last-named year, but since then there has been a great fall- 
 ing off, and now I think the number does not exceed seventy- 
 five in a year, exclusive of the Indians, of whom the yearly 
 average slain since 1856 has not been less than one hundred. 
 It may appear a very singular and rapid change, that the an- 
 nual number of liomicides in a state should decrease eighty per 
 cent, within a period of six years, but it must be remembered 
 that California is in a condition of swift transition, and that 
 our society is far more stable now than it was in 1855. 
 
 Why is it that there are so many bloody aft'rays in Cali- 
 fornia ? The first and great cause is the high temper of the 
 people. The Americans are an arrogant race. Every man 
 thinks himself as good as his neighbor, if not better. They 
 are a people who will not be insulted. They consider harsh 
 words insulting. They are fond of using harsh words to one 
 another. Custom authorizes them to apply the word "liar" 
 frequently, and custom justifies a man called " liar" in repay- 
 
SOCIETY. 377 
 
 ing tlic epitlict witli a blow; and the same custom justifies a 
 man who is attacked with the fist, in defe^nding himself with a 
 pistol or knife. In the mining districts, many of the men arc 
 constantly armed, so that the weapons of death are rarely out 
 of reach. The Californians are reckless of life ; and the men, 
 living alone, free from the influence of family and relatives, 
 are dissipated, and when heated with Hquor and excited by 
 gambling, are easily provoked to settle every little quarrel 
 with blood. The wild condition of affairs in the early times 
 has been impressed upon our society, and we have not yet 
 been able to reform it altogether. The multitude of people 
 from the cotton states have introduced among us their views 
 and practices in regard to the use of deadly weapons, and the 
 leaven has attached itself to the mass. The majority may 
 have different opinions, but one quarrelsome man can compel a 
 dozen to carry arms for self-defence. Adultery is held by pub- 
 lic opinion to be a justification of homicide, and this is a fruit- 
 ful source of deadly quarrels. And then it is to be remem- 
 bered, too, that many of the residents of California are men 
 who have committed crimes in the Eastern states, in Australia 
 and Europe, and have fled hither to escape punishment. Such 
 persons, although they may form a small proportion of the 
 population, contribute to give trouble. As compared with the 
 total number of homicides, the assassinations for revenge, and 
 the murders for mone^^, are few. Previous to 1856, street 
 fights were among the institutions of San Francisco. It would 
 frequently be announced by conversation, or even by the news- 
 papers in the morning, that a street fight might be expected that 
 day between two men whose names were mentioned ; and the 
 curious would collect on Montgomery street, the main business 
 street, to see the fun. The belligerents, armed each with a 
 concealed revolver and a bowie-knife, would walk along the 
 street, and on coming near each other would draw their re- 
 volvers, and, with or without speaking, would commence firing. 
 The fight would be strictly one of self-defence on both sides. 
 In the use of deadly weapons, California resembles the Gulf 
 
378 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 States far more than the N'orth. The wild condition of af- 
 fairs in the early times has been impressed upon our society, 
 and we have not yet been able to reform it altogether ; and 
 in the matter of carrying deadly weapons and in street fights, 
 we have imitated the example of the cotton states. So, too, 
 in the matter of duels, of which there have been many in 
 California, and some of them of a character so remarkable as 
 to attract attention all over the civilized world. Duelling is 
 forbidden by the law of the state, and is made punishable as a 
 felony by imprisonment for not more than two years, and if 
 either party be killed the survivor may be imprisoned not less 
 than one nor more than seven years in the state prison ; and 
 the constitution of the state provides that no person who has 
 been a principal or a second in a duel shall be allowed to vote 
 or hold office in the state ; but a hundred duels have been 
 fought in the state, and about one-third of them have proved 
 fatal to one of the principals, and yet no man has been legally 
 punished for duelling, nor has any one been prevented from 
 voting or holding office for that reason ; on the contrary, many 
 of the duellists have until within a late date held offices among 
 the most honorable and profitable in the state. 
 
 § 266. Religion. — We have no accurate statistics of the 
 churches and church memberships in California. Of the 
 155,000 white men in the state, I presume that 10,000 are 
 communicants of some Protestant church ; 10,000 of the 
 Catholic church ; 2,000 are Jews, and 1,000 are Mormons, 
 making 23,000 in all, or 14 per cent. Of the other 86 per 
 cent., two-thirds never go near a church, and scarcely claim to 
 be Christians ; while the remaining third go to church occa- 
 sionally, some of them regularly. The principal Protestant 
 churches are the Methodist Church (North), which has about 
 3,000 communicants, 60 churches, and 65 preachers ; the Meth 
 odist Church (South) has about 1,000 communicants, 20 church- 
 es, and 40 preachers ; the Old School Presbyterian Church has 
 1,000 communicants, 15 churches, and 17 clergymen ; the New 
 School Presbyterian Church has 500 communicants, 11 church- 
 
SOCIETY. 379 
 
 es, and 13 clergymen; the Congregatioiialists have 600 com- 
 miniicants, 11 churches, and 12 preachers; the Cumberland 
 Presbyterians have 800 communicants and 28 preachers; the 
 Baptists have 1,000 communicants, 42 churches, and 30 
 preachers ; the EpiscopaUans have 600 communicants, 20 
 churches, and 18 clergymen ; the Unitarians have 100 com- 
 municants, with one church, and one preacher. The total 
 number of communicants, as mentioned in this list, including 
 women, who are a majority, is less than 10,000 ; but there are 
 many persons staying temporarily in the state, and claiming 
 membership in congregations in the Eastern states. 
 
 The Catholic priests claim to have 80,000 communicants in 
 their church ; and they have 10 churches, and 75 priests. 
 The Cathohcs are more attentive to the forms of their faith 
 than are the Protestants. 
 
 There are many Mormons in Cahfornia, but they are scat- 
 tered about, and have no meetings or church organization. 
 Almost the entire population of the town of San Bernardino 
 was once made up of them, but they abandoned the place, at 
 the order of Brigham Young, and went to Salt Lake. Such 
 Mormons as there may be in the state, are generally consid- 
 ered to be industrious and good citizens. 
 
 There are 10,000 Jews in the state, and they have three 
 synagogues, and two rabbles. The Jews of California are di- 
 vided into two main classes, the German Jews and the Polish 
 Jews ; and in San Francisco each class has its own synagogue, 
 cemetery, and benevolent society. The German Jews are in- 
 fected by the progressive spirit of the age, and have adopted 
 a reformed ritual ; whereas the Polish Jews adhere to the old 
 forms and ceremonies. The Chinamen are, with the exception 
 of three or four score Christians, all Buddhists. Buddhism, 
 which has been called "the Christianity of the east," and in its 
 purer forms is not unworthy of the name, is with them a gross 
 superstition, accompanied by idol worship and meaningless 
 ceremonies, with no accompanying conception of high spiritual 
 truths. The Chi iimen have several places of worship in Cali- 
 
380 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 fornia, where, at least once a year, public ceremonies are held. 
 One of these places in San Francisco, a chapel about eighteen 
 feet wide, by thirty long, and t\\^lve high, has at one end an 
 idol of life-size in a squatting position, painted with Venetian 
 red. Around this idol are placed banners and curtains of silk, 
 and boards with inscriptions painted and carved in Chinese 
 characters. In front of the idol is a table, on which are lighted 
 candles, sticks of incense burning without a blaze, and filling 
 the place with smoke, and various fantastically shaped dishes 
 of white metal and brass. On anothei; table are placed flow- 
 ers, vegetables, and various articles of food, such as pieces of 
 roast pig and chicken, fish, and other articles, the names of 
 which are unknown to Americans. The ceremonies are per- 
 formed by men dressed in long robes and acting as priests, 
 who march round the room, make genuflexions and bows be- 
 fore the idol, and occasionally kneel and recite forms of prayer. 
 Many of the Chinamen have in their dwellings little images of 
 Buddha, before which \ hey keep tapers burning. Once a year 
 they go out in procession with music to the public cemetery, 
 where their dead are buried, and set a table there as a feast for 
 the spirits of the deceased. 
 
 The wild Indians have no clearly defined religious ideas ; and 
 the tame ones, or those who live among the whites, are so igno- 
 rant that their faith is little better than a gross superstition. 
 
 § 267. Galifornia7iis7ns. — The Californians have introduced 
 certain words into the English language, or at least have adopt- 
 ed them in common use in the state, and a list of them, with 
 their pronunciation and definition, may not be out of place here : 
 
 Aparejo (a par ay' ho), a Mexican pack-saddle. 
 
 Adobe (a do' ba), a large sun-dried, unburned brick, some- 
 times two feet long, a foot wide, and four inches thick. 
 
 Arroyo (ar ro' yo), a brook, or the dry bed of a brook or 
 small river. 
 
 Arastra (a ras' tra), a primitive mill for crushing quartz. 
 
 Alforja (al for' hah), a bag, usually made of raw cowhide, 
 used for holding the articles to be carried by a pack-horse. 
 
SOCIETY. 3S1 
 
 JBar. — A low bank of sand or gravel, at the side of a river, 
 deposited by the stream. 
 
 Bummer. — An idle, worthless fellow, who does no work 
 and has no visible means of support. The word " loafer," like 
 "lounger," does not designate the general conduct or perma- 
 nent character of a man, but only a temporary idleness. A re- 
 spectable, industrious man may become a " loafer" by making 
 idle, impertinent visits in business places during business hours ; 
 but the word " bummer" implies a low, lazy character. It is 
 probably derived from the vulgar German words Bummeln 
 and Bumnieler, which are about equivalent to "loafer" and 
 " loa:'V' Its origin has been attributed to Boehmen, the Ger- 
 man name of Bohemia, a nation celebrated for the number of 
 its sharpers and adventurers. The Gipsies are called BoJiemi- 
 ens in France, because of their roving lives and worthless char- 
 acter. " Bummer" is generally supposed here to be a Califor- 
 nianism. 
 
 Bumming., acting the bummer, used in such phrases as " he 
 is bumming around." 
 
 Cahallada (ca bal yah' da), a herd of broken horses. 
 
 Canada (can yah' da), a small canon, a deep ravine, a nar- 
 row valley with steep sides. 
 
 Canon (can' yon), originally a tube, and hence applied to 
 mean a deep gorge with high, steep walls. Comparatively few 
 caiions and canadas are to be found in that portion of the Unit- 
 ed States east of the Mississippi, but they are abundant in Cal- 
 ifornia. The Spaniards place the accent on the last syllable ot 
 canon (can yone'), but in ordinary American usage the accent 
 is on the first syllable. It is frequently spelt " canyon," and 
 " kanyon." 
 
 Corral (cor ral') a pen into which a herd of cattle or horses 
 is driven, when one is to be caught. 
 
 To corral, to drive into a corral ; to drive a person into a 
 position from which he cannot escape. 
 
 To coyote., a mining term, to dig a hole resembling the bur- 
 row of the coyote., or small California wolf. 
 
3Si2 
 
 BESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA, 
 
 Claim^ the tract of land claimed for mining purposes by a 
 man or party. There are various kinds of claims, such as 
 bank, bar, hill, tunnel, flat, &c. 
 
 Color^ a visible quantity of gold found m prospecting. If 
 the prospector finds one or more particles of gold in his search, 
 he says he has found the color. 
 
 To dry up^ a slang phrase, meaning to stop, fail, disappear, 
 become silent. It is very expressive to Californians accus- 
 tomed to see the whole face of the country dry up in the sum- 
 mer season. 
 
 Digjings^ a general name for placer gold mines. TFe^ dig- 
 gings are in the banks and bars of creeks or rivers ; dry 
 diggings are in flats or the beds of gullies, which are dry the 
 greater portion of the year. 
 
 JEspediente^ the original papers relating to some government 
 business, filed in a public ofiice. 
 
 Emharcadero (em bar ca day' ro), a landing-place. 
 
 To freeze out^ a miner's phrase, used to express the policy 
 whereby stockholders or partners in mines are driven to sell 
 out. For instance, if some rich men, owning part of a mine, 
 discover that it is very valuable, they may conceal that fact, 
 and at the same time levy heavy assessments for works which 
 can bring no speedy return ; and thus the poorer shareholders 
 will be burdened and discouraged, and induced to sell out at a 
 low price. 
 
 Fuste (foos' te), a strong saddle-tree, made of wood and cov- 
 ered with raw cowhide, used for lassoing. 
 
 Gidch^ a gully. 
 
 Hdbilitation^ from the Spanish habilitacion^ a certificate, or 
 stamp on paper, which authorized it to be used for certain pur- 
 poses. To habilitate paper, to place the mark of habilitation 
 upon it. 
 
 To hydraulic^ a mining term, to wash dirt by throwing a 
 stream of water upon it through a hose and pipe. 
 
 Jaquima (hack' ee ma), a head-stall used in breaking wild 
 horses. 
 
SOCIETY. 383 
 
 To knock down^ a miner's phrase, meaning to steal rich 
 pieces of auriferous quartz from the lode. 
 
 Manada (ma nah' da), a herd of breeding mares under the 
 lead of a stallion. 
 
 Mecate (may cah' te), a rope of hair, used for tying horses. 
 
 Mochilas (mo chee' las), large leathern flaps for covering a 
 fuste. 
 
 Plaza., a public square in a town. 
 
 Playa^ a beach. 
 
 Pozo, a spring or well. 
 
 Pueblo^ a town. 
 
 To ^np^i to wash dirt by the hydraulic process. 
 
 Pay 'Dirt., auriferous dirt rich enough to pay the miner. 
 
 Placer., from the Spanish, a place where gold is found in 
 dirt near the surface of the ground. 
 
 To prospect., to hunt for gold diggings ; to examine ground 
 or rock for the purpose of finding whether it contains gold, 
 and how much. 
 
 Prospect., the discovery made by prospecting. 
 
 Podeo (ro day' o), a collection of wild or half-wild cattle, 
 made for the purpose of separating or marking them. 
 
 Pecojida (ray co hee' da), a similar collection of horses. 
 
 Pancho (ran' tsho), before the Americans took California, 
 meant a tract of land used almost entirely for pasturage, rare- 
 ly less than four square miles in extent, sometimes as much as 
 ninety-nine square miles, and in most cases not less than thirty 
 square miles. Since the conquest, rancho., and its American 
 derivation " ranch," are often applied to small farms, and 
 sometimes, in the way of slang, to single houses, tents, and 
 liquor shops. " Ranch" is sometimes used as a verb ; thus a 
 man who opens a farm, according to common parlance, "has 
 gone to ranching." 
 
 Panchero (ran tsha' ro), a man who owns and lives upon a 
 rancho. It is usually understood to mean a Spanish Califor- 
 niart 
 
 Pancheria, an Indian hut or a village. 
 
384 EESOTJPwCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Reata (ray ah' ta), a rawhide rope, used for lassoing. 
 
 Ruhric^ a flourish, which Mexicans and native Californians 
 append to their signatures, and which, in fact, they consider 
 as an important part of their signatures, and the most difiicult 
 to imitate or counterfeit. They often use their " rubrics" alone 
 as signatures. To rubricate, to sign with a rubric. 
 
 Sluice, a wooden trough about fourteen inches wide, and 
 ten deep, and not less than thirty feet long, used for washing 
 pay-dirt. 
 
 Ground- Sluice, a trough cut in the ground for washing pay- 
 dirt. 
 
 Tail-Sluice, a sluice put in below a number of other sluices, 
 and depending on them for its supply of dirt and water. 
 
 Sluice-Fork^ a fork similar to a manure fork, but with blunt 
 prongs, as wide at the point as at the heel. The fork is used 
 for throwing stones out of the sluices. 
 
 Sluice-Head, the quantity of water used in a sluice ; a 
 constant stream of w^ater running through au aperture, usually 
 tw^o inches high, and from five to fifteen inches long, under a 
 pressure of seven inches. 
 
 Slum, slimy mud. 
 
 To strip, to throw off worthless dirt from the top of pay- 
 dirt. 
 
 Sierra (see er' ra), originally a saw", a chain of mountains. 
 
 Square Meal, a good meal at a table, as distinguished from 
 such meals as men make when they are short of provisions, a 
 condition not uncommon among men who make adventurous 
 trips into the mountains. 
 
 Tailings, the waste of a sluice, tom, rocker, or quartz-mill. 
 
 Tom, a wooden trough, from ten to fifteen feet long, for 
 washing pay-dirt. 
 
 Tom-Stream, or Tom-Head, the amount of water used in a 
 tom. 
 
 Rocker, or Cradle, a machine resembhng a domestic cradle, 
 for washing pay-dirt. 
 
 Wvig-Dam, a dam in a creek or river, running partly across 
 
SOCIETY. 385 
 
 its bed and then down stream so as to shut out the water from 
 part of the bed. 
 
 Vaquero (va kay' ro — vulgarly pronounced buc ca' ry), a 
 herdsman. 
 
 Zanja (zan' ha), a ditch for irrigating agricultural land. 
 
 Zanjero (zan hay' ro) a person whose duty it is to keep irri- 
 gating ditches in order. Among the officers of the city of Los 
 Angeles is a Zanjero. 
 
 § 268. Germans and French. — The Germans of California 
 have generally become citizens and permanent residents of the 
 state, and most of them have learned the English language. 
 They have gymnastic clubs and singing societies in all the 
 larger towns. Most of the brewers and professional musicians 
 in the state are Germans ; and the Germans occupy a large 
 place among the cultivators of the vine. The town of Ana- 
 heim, in Los Angeles county, was laid out by Germans, and 
 is almost exclusively populated by them. 
 
 The French in California, as a body, are not citizens, or per- 
 manent residents, and have not learned English. Some of the 
 largest bankers in San Francisco are Frenchmen, and the city 
 owes to Mr. Fioche, a French capitalist, some of its most val- 
 uable public enterprises, such as the Mission Railroad, the 
 Si)ring Valley Water Works, and the pleasure resorts of 
 Hayes' Park and the Willows. 
 
 § 269. Spanish Calif ornians. — The people of Spanish blood 
 in the state are mostly natives of California, IMexico, and Chile. 
 As a class, they are poor and ignorant. The Mexicans and 
 Spaniards who came to California while Spain held dominion 
 of the country, brought few women with them, but took In- 
 dian women for wives ; and the descendajits of these women 
 form a large majority of the Spanish Californians. Amowg 
 the wealthier families, the Indian cast of countenance has al- 
 most disai^p^ared. Although the features are thick, the expres- 
 sion of the face is mild and pleasant. The complexion is dark, 
 and 2:rows darker with age; the hair is black and straight, the 
 eyes black, the cheeks ruddy. Many of the men are hand- 
 
 ir 
 
38G PwESO URGES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 some, tall, broad-shouldered, larg'^-boned, big-bellied, strong, 
 healthy, and long-lived. They grow fleshy as they grow old ; 
 and the same remark applies to the women. They are a good- 
 natured race, very kind and obliging to their friends, but out 
 of place among Americans, who are too sharp for them in 
 trading. Instead of increasing in wealth with the develop- 
 ment of the country, the Spanish Californians have been raj> 
 idly growing poorer, and now they own scarcely one-tenth of 
 the landed property which they had in 1 848. Then they owned 
 nearly every thing ; now there is not a leading merchant or 
 millionaire among them. They regret the conquest of their 
 country. They lived in a very simple manner under the 
 Mexican dominion, but they were secure in their property, and 
 were the political masters. Now they form a small and pow- 
 erless minority, among a people far superior to them in agri- 
 cultural and mechanical skill and business knowledge — a peo- 
 ple who are absorbing all their wealth, and who look upon 
 them and treat them as inferiors. Although some of the Span- 
 ish Californians are content with the change of. dominion, yet 
 many hate the Americans, and hate them so bitterly that they 
 would resort to civil war if there were any hope of success. 
 Indeed, the condition of affairs, in some of the counties where 
 the Spanish population is most numerous, was near civil war 
 at various periods between 1851 and 1854. Most of the Span- 
 ish Californians live in the country ; their chief wealth is in 
 land and cattle, and the chief occupation of the poorer classes 
 is herding cattle. Their dwellings are adobe houses, usually 
 of one story, often with no floor save the bare earth, and with- 
 out chairs. 
 
 § 270. Chinamen. — The Chinamen in California are nearly 
 all very ignorant and very poor. Their number is about fifty 
 thousand, of whom more than half have been six or seven 
 years in the state. Most of them are engaged in mining ; and 
 the remainder are merchants, fishermen, washermen, and a few 
 are employed as cooks in hotels, and as farm laborers on farms 
 owned by white men. Most of them come from Southern 
 
SOCIETY. 387 
 
 China, and nearly all of them are members of five great com- 
 panies, called the Yung-Wo, the Sze-yap, the Sam-yap, the 
 Yan-wo, and Ning-yeung companies. These companies have 
 each a large building in San Francisco, where they lodge and 
 feed all the members of their company when they arrive from 
 China, or when they come on a visit from the interior. The 
 companies are benevolent associations, and take care of their 
 indigent and sick. There are no Chinese beggars in the 
 streets, and no Chinese patients in the public hospitals. The 
 common laborers are brought to the state under contract to 
 work for several years at a low rate of wages (from four to 
 eight dollars) per month ; and they usually keep these con- 
 tracts faithfully. The employers in these cases are either the 
 companies or associations of Chinese capitalists. The China- 
 men generally are very industrious ; indeed they are the most 
 industrious class of our popuLation, and also the most humble, 
 quiet, and peaceful. The merchants are considered to be very 
 faithful to their promises, and in San Francisco they can get 
 credit among their acquaintances quite as readily as other men 
 in similar branches of business. In the mines, the Chinamen 
 work in the poorest class of diggings. They own no ditches, 
 large flumes, hydraulic claims, or tunnel claims. The white 
 miners have a violent antipathy to them, will not permit them 
 to work in many districts, and will often drive them from their 
 best claims in the districts where they are permitted to work. 
 Sometimes the celestials venture to dam a stream, but not often. 
 They use the rocker more than any other class of miners. 
 
 In San Francisco, the merchants are usually in partner- 
 ships, with not less than three nor more than ten partners ; all 
 of whom live in the store, and deal chiefly in Chinese silks, 
 teas, rice, and dried fish. The two latter articles form a large 
 portion of the food of the Chinamen in the state. They have 
 not learned to use bread instead of rice. Those who can af- 
 ford it, eat pork, chickens, and ducks. Beef, and most of our 
 garden vegetables, do not find much favor with them, even 
 among the wealthiest. The washermen are usually in compa- 
 
388 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA, 
 
 nies of two or three, and they have numerous little shops in 
 the streets of San Francisco, and in the smaller towns. They 
 sprinkle their clothes previous to ironing, by filling the mouth 
 with water and then blowing it over them. For ironing, in- 
 stead of a flat-iron, they use an iron pan with a smooth bottom, 
 and kept full of burning charcoal. There are not more than 
 one thousand Chinese women in the state, and nine-tenths of 
 them are prostitutes of the lowest class. The Chinese children 
 are few. 
 
 The Chinese men, women, and children learn English very 
 slowly ; most of those who have been five or six years in the 
 state cannot understand the most common English words. All 
 the Chinamen in California adhere to their national costume, 
 with some slight variations. They wear their hair long, use 
 no white mushn or linen next the skin, and never put on a 
 dress coat or stove-pipe hat. In the cities, they ordinarily use 
 wooden-soled shoes, with thin cotton uppers. Instead of a 
 coat, they have a short blouse, generally of dark-blue cotton, 
 fitting close up to the neck. The wealthy have this blouse 
 made of sUk or fur. In cold weather, if of silk or cotton, it is 
 wadded. The legs and lower part of the body are enclosed in 
 breeches of cotton or silk, tight from the thigh down, and loose 
 above. Some of the poorer men find trousers of the European 
 pattern more convenient, and wear them. The miners gener- 
 ally wear coarse boots or shoes. 
 
 § 271. Indians. — The Indians are a miserable race, destined 
 to speedy extinction. Fifteen years ago they numbered fifty 
 thousand or more ; now there may be seven thousand of them. 
 They were driven from tlieir hunting-grounds and fishing- 
 places by the whites, and they stole cattle for food; and to 
 punish and prevent their stealing, the whites made war on 
 them and slew them. Such has been the origin of most of the 
 Indian wars which have raged in various parts of the state 
 almost continuously during the last twelve years. Scarcely a 
 month has passed since 1849, without some hostile encounters 
 between the red iKeu and the whites in some parts of the state. 
 
SOCIETY. 389 
 
 At this time the American residents of Humboldt county are at 
 war with the Indians there. The poor Indian, afoot, and armed 
 only with the bow and arrow, is no match for the rich Ameri- 
 can, armed with rifle and revolver, and mounted on a horse, 
 which saves him from fatigue, takes him swiftly to the best 
 point of attack, or carries him still more swiftly from danger. 
 For every white man that has been killed, fifty Indians have 
 fallen. 
 
 In 1848, nearly every little valley had^ its tribe, and there 
 w^ere dozens of tribes in the Sacramento basin, but now most 
 of these tribes have been entirely destroyed. Syphilitic dis- 
 eases and brandy have co-operated w^th the bullet and the 
 knife to make room for the white men. The Indians are fond 
 of strong liquor, and when they can get it, frequently become 
 habitual drunkards. The squaws drink as much as the 
 " bucks." Among a tribe of drunken men and women, matri- 
 monial constancy is not to be expected ; nor is it found among 
 the Indian women in California. The infectious disease which 
 threatens to utterly destroy all barbarous and semi-barbarous 
 nations, has slain many of the red men in this state, as well as 
 in other parts of the continent. 
 
 The Indians of California, with the exception of the Mojaves, 
 are supposed to belong to the general division of the Shosho- 
 nees, which includes also the Indians of Nevada Territory, and 
 a majority of those in Utah. They are physically and intel- 
 lectually inferior to their relatives in Nevada Territory, and 
 far inferior to the Indians who dwelt during the last century 
 east of the Mississippi River. The red men of this state hav>3 
 but a small share of the courage, military spirit, and intellect- 
 ual activity of the Shawnees, Miamis, Delawares, and the other 
 tribes who contended so stoutly for the possession of the valley 
 of the Ohio. The majority of the Californian Indians never 
 learned to use fire-arms, and never dared to meet the white 
 men in battle. A few in the northern part of the state have 
 obtained fire-arms, use them w^ell, and fight stubbornly, but 
 they are a small proportion. 
 
390 ESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The Californian Indian men are about. five feet and a half 
 high on an average, and the women four feet and ten inches. 
 They are very thick in the chest, and have voices of wonderful 
 strength. The children are clumsy, and heavy set. The women 
 are very wide in the shoulders and hips, and strongly built. 
 Men and women are large in the body, and slim in the legs 
 and arms, as compared with Caucasians. When not affected 
 by hereditary diseases, caught from the white men, the Cali- 
 fornian Indians have healthy constitutions, and formerly they 
 lived to a great age. During the last ten years, a number 
 have died with the reputation of being more than one hundred 
 and twenty years old. It is a common assertion, and one that 
 I have never heard contradicted, though I have conversed on 
 the subject with men who have seen much of them, that the 
 wild Indians never take cold. During the winter of 1849-'50, 
 I lived near a tribe in the mines, in what is now Shasta coun- 
 ty, and I saw that the men never wore any clothing save a 
 deerskin thrown over the shoulders ; that men, women, and 
 children went barefooted through a winter when snow lay on 
 the ground for a week at a time, and that their huts were only 
 about six feet wide, were open on all sides, and on two sides 
 had holes large enough for men to get in and out ; and I never 
 saw one troubled with a cold or cough. In the tribes living 
 far from the whites, the men usually go naked, and the women 
 wear a petticoat made by fastening flags or strips of bark, 
 about eighteen inches long, to a girdle. They are very filthy 
 in their habits, and their houses are always filled with lice. 
 Their form of government is very simple. They have heredi- 
 tary chiefs who have very little power. The tribes are small, 
 and have no wealth, and no laws. Occasionally a member of 
 a tribe gives offence, and some of the leading ones of a tribe 
 agree to kill him, and the sentence is carried into effect by way- 
 laying him and shooting him with arrows. Their rule is blood 
 for blood. They rarely keep men prisoners, but Idll tliem im- 
 mediately after capturing them. Women and children are 
 held frequently as prisoners ; and one of the most common 
 
SOCIETY. 391 
 
 causes of war is the capture of women. They have no heredi- 
 tary slavery. They have no marriage ceremony, and the 
 duration of the marriage relation depends entirely upon the 
 pleasure of the husband. Polygamy is permitted by many of 
 the tribes. The women are not prolific, or at least the children 
 are few, and mostly boys. The girls are neglected, or inten- 
 tionally killed soon after birth, and this policy will, of course, 
 if continued, soon cause an extinction of the race in California. 
 In certain tribes on the northern coast, if a mother, having an 
 infant child, dies, the child is buried with her. Most of the 
 tribes burn their dead, commencing the cremation in the even- 
 ing, and keeping up the fire all night, while the friends watch, 
 and the women relatives utter plaintive cries until daylight. 
 They have no religious ceremonies ; or no ceremonies to which 
 they attach ideas clearly rehgious. Every year, usually in the 
 spring, they have a dance, as it is called. They assemble, 
 build a large fire, and the men surround it, and keeping their 
 knees, elbows, and backs bent, they beat time with their feet to 
 a monotonous song, which they sing with the assistance of 
 the squaws, who sit off on one side. In some tribes, several 
 of the men have pipes, from which they elicit a few notes as 
 an accompaniment for the song. 
 
 The squaws are treated like slaves. They are required to 
 do all the work, and to attend to every want of their husbands. 
 They must collect vegetable food, prepare it, and carry all the 
 movable property in times of migration. They are beaten on 
 the slightest provocation. The men never consult them 
 about the management of public or private affairs. They are 
 bought as merchandise from the parent, and treated as slaves 
 after the purchase. 
 
 Most of the wild Indians have no permanent place of resi- 
 dence. Each tribe has a territory which it considers its own, 
 and within which its members move about. Each family has 
 a hut, and a cluster of these huts is called a rancheria. The 
 rancherias are usually established on the banks of streams, in 
 the vicinity of oak-trees, horsechestnut bushes, and patches 
 
392 EESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 of wild clover. Such places are generally on fertile soil with 
 picturesque scenery. The huts are made differently in differ- 
 ent places. In the Sacramento valley, the most common plan 
 was to dig a hole three or four feet deep and ten feet across ; 
 erpct an upright post in the centre about six feet high ; lay poles 
 from the edge of the hole to rest on tliis post ; and cover the 
 poles with grass and then with dirt. In some districts the 
 hut is made by taking large pieces of pine bark and laying 
 them against a frame-work of poles fastened together in a 
 conical shape. In the San Joaquin valley it was more con- 
 venient to make a frame-work of poles and cover it with rushes 
 or tules. These huts may be deserted for a time, but are con- 
 sidered the property of the builders, who move, according to 
 the seasons, to those places where they can obtain food most 
 conveniently. In one month they go to the thickets ; in an- 
 other to the open plain ; in another to the streams. 
 
 Their food is composed chiefly of acorns, clover-grass, grass- 
 seeds, grasshoppers, horsechestnuts, fish, game, pine-nuts, 
 edible roots, and berries. The acorns of California are large, 
 abundant, and some of them are not unpleasant to the taste, 
 but they do not contain much nutriment as compared with an 
 equal bulk of those articles commonly used for food by the 
 Caucasian race. The acorns are gathered by the squaws, and 
 are preserved in various methods. The most common plan is 
 to build a basket with twigs and rushes in an oak-tree, and 
 keep the acorns there. The acorns are prepared for eating by 
 grinding them and boiling them with water into a thick paste, 
 or by baking them in bread. The oven is a hole in the ground 
 about eighteen inches cubic. Redhot stones are placed at 
 tlie bottom of the hole, a little dry sand or loam is thrown 
 over them, and next comes a layer of dry leaves. The dough 
 or paste is poured into the hole until it is two inches or three 
 inches deep. Then comes another layer of leaves, more sand, 
 redhot stones, and finally dirt. At the end of five or six hours 
 the oven has cooled down, and the bread is taken out, an ir- 
 regular mass nearly black in color, not at all handsome to the 
 
SOCIETY. 393 
 
 eye or agreeable to the palate, and mixed through with leaves 
 and dirt. For grinding the acorns a stone mortar is used. 
 This mortar is sometimes nearly flat, with a hollow not more 
 than two inches deep , and occasionally one will be seen fifteen 
 inches deep, and not more than three inches thick in any part 
 of it. The pestle is of stone, round, ten mches long and 
 three thick. 
 
 Horsechestnuts are usually made into a gruel or soup. 
 After being ground in the mortar, they are mixed with water 
 in a waterproof basket, into which redhot stones are thrown, 
 and thus the soup is cooked. As the stones when taken from 
 the fire have dirt and ashes adhering to them, the soup is not 
 clean, and it often sets the teeth on edffe. 
 
 Grass-seeds are ground in the mortar and roasted or made 
 into soup. 
 
 Grasshoppers are roasted, and eaten without further prepara- 
 tion, or mashed up with berries. 
 
 Fish and meat are broiled on the coals. The intestines and 
 blood are eaten as well as the muscle. 
 
 Clover and grass are eaten raw. The Indians go out into 
 the clover patches, pull up the clover with their hands, and eat 
 stalks, leaves, and flowers. They consider clover a great 
 blessing, and get fat on it. 
 
 The Indians rarely have salt and never spices, and most of 
 their food is such as a white man could not eat, unless reduced 
 to near staA^ation. In eating they use no plates, cups, knives, 
 or forks, nor do they use any utensils in preparing their food, 
 save the mortar and waterproof basket. The pine-nuts, edible 
 roots, and berries are eaten raw. Bugs, lizards, and snakes 
 are all considered good for food. In those places where the 
 tules grow, the roots of those rushes are eaten. Except one 
 or two tules in the Colorado Desert, the wild Indians of Cali- 
 fornia never tilled the soil. 
 
 They use very few tools. The bow was the only weapon 
 for killing quadrupeds. It is made of a reddish w^ood said to 
 be the western yew, and on the back the bow is strengthened 
 17* 
 
394 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 with a covering of deer's sinews. The arrows are of reed, and. 
 have a head made of obsidian, which is a transparent, vitreous 
 substance of volcanic origin, in appearance very similar to a 
 coarse quality of glass. The arrow-head^ are made two inches 
 long, half an inch wide, an eighth of an inch thick, with a very 
 sharp point and sharp edges. The head is fastened in a split 
 of the shaft of the arrow by tying with deer sinews. Such an 
 arrow-head can be used but once, for the obsidian is as brittle 
 as glass and breaks at the first shock. Some tribes in the 
 northern part of the state, poison their an'ows by irritating a 
 rattlesnake and then thrusting forward a fresh deer's liver, 
 which it will bite. After it has bitten repeatedly, and thrown 
 some of its poison at every bite into the liver, the latter is 
 buried and allowed to putrefy. It is then dug up, the arrow- 
 head is dipped in it and allowed to dry. An arrow thus 
 poisoned will kill a man, a horse, or an ox in twenty-four 
 hours, or less time ; and it is said that the meat of an animal 
 thus killed maybe eaten with safety. I know that the Indians 
 do eat the meat of animals killed with poisoned arrows, but I 
 am not positive that the poison was prepared in this manner. 
 The poison of the rattlesnake is not injurious when taken into 
 a sound stomach ; it is only when injected into the blood that 
 its injurious influences are felt. The arrows, even when not 
 poisoned, make very dangerous wounds, for the sinew used to 
 fasten the head soon softens, and allows the head to remain 
 when the shaft is pulled out. 
 
 The Indians are very familiar with the habits of wild ani- 
 mals. They know precisely the character of the brushwood 
 and ravines in which the deer and bear hide during the day, 
 and the places to which they go to feed in the morning and 
 evening. In hunting deer and antelope, in places where there 
 is grass eighteen inches or two feet high, the Indian will often 
 hold the skull and horns of a buck deer before him, and thus 
 crawl within bow-shot. The Pit River Indians dig pits about 
 five feet cubic and cover them with brush and grass, and thus 
 catch deer, hares, and so forth. For catching wild geese, vari- 
 
SOCIETY. 395 
 
 ous small and simple kinds of nets are used, and they are 
 knocked down with clubs. Salmon are killed with stones and 
 clubs in shallow water, and are caught with spears. Their 
 most ingenious spear has a head of bone about one inch and a 
 lialf long and sharp at both ends. To the middle is fastened a 
 string, which is attached to the spear-shaft. One end of the 
 head fits in a socket at the end of the spear-shaft. When the 
 spear is thrown the head comes out of the socket and turns 
 cross-ways in the fish, and then there is no danger that it will 
 tear out. The Indians rarely hunt the grizzly bear. Along 
 the ocean beach they get barnacles. Their method of catching 
 grasshoppers is to dig a hole several feet deep, in a valley 
 where this species of game abounds. A large number of the 
 Indians then arm themselves with bushes, and commence at a 
 distance to drive the grasshoppers from all sides toward the 
 hole, into which the insects finally fall, and from which they 
 cannot escape. The pine-nuts are sought at the tops of the 
 pine-trees, which the " bucks" ascend by holding to the rough 
 bark with their hands, and pressing out with their legs, so 
 that they do not touch the body to the trunk of the tree in 
 going up. It is more like walking then climbing. 
 
 The bow and arrow, the spear, the net, the obsidian knife, 
 the mortar, and the basket, are the only tools made by the 
 Indian. The obsidian knife is merely a piece of obsidian as 
 large as a hand and sharp on one side. The baskets are all 
 made of wire-grass, a grass with a round jointless stem, about 
 a sixteenth of an inch thick and a foot long. The basket- 
 work made with this wire-grass resembles the texture of a 
 coarse Panama hat, and is waterproof. All the basket-work 
 of the Californian Indians is made of this material. The most 
 common shape for the basket is a perpendicular half of a cone, 
 three feet long and eighteen inches wide, open at the top. 
 The basket, carried on the back of the squaws, is used for 
 carrying food, miscellaneous articles, and children. Neither 
 the Cahfornian Indians of the present, nor of any preceding 
 century, made such mounds, circumvallations, arrow-heads, or 
 
39(> BESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 spear-Leads of flint, or pipes and battle-axes of stone, as are 
 found in the state of Ohio. There is nothing to indicate that 
 any of the inhabitants of the country, previous to the arrival 
 of the Spaniards, were above a very low degree of savagism. 
 They have no domestic animals save the dog, and that of a 
 very low kind. They have so little skill in the preservation 
 of food, that, like wild beasts, they grow grossly fat in the 
 spring and poor in the winter. The Mojave Indians in the 
 Colorado Desert, depend for their subsistence chiefly on culti- 
 vated food. They plant wheat, gi"ass, pumpkins, and musk- 
 melons. After the annual overflow of the bottom land, a small 
 p.itch of ground is cleared ofi* with the help of knives and fire ; 
 then small holes are made, the seeds are deposited, and the 
 field is left to grow up as well as it may. The musk-melons 
 are eaten fresh ; the pumpkins are eaten fresh, or sliced and 
 dried ; the wheat and grass-seeds are ground, made into a paste 
 with water and dried in cakes. The mezquit bean, next to 
 the cultivated grains, pumpkins, and squashes, is the most- 
 important article of food with the Indians in the Colorado 
 Desert. These beans are prepared for eating in the same 
 manner with the wheat and grass-seed. 
 
 The preceding remarks relate to the wild Indians only, and 
 are intended to illustrate the natural habits, character, and 
 capacity of the race. During the last fifteen years, however, 
 they have all been influenced so much by intercourse with the 
 whites, that they have lost many of their wild habits and ac- 
 quired new ones. In some districts they have fire-arms ; in 
 others they obtain much of their food and clothing from their 
 Caucasian neighbors. In the counties along the southern coast, 
 there are many civilized Indians, who live in adobe-houses, 
 and support themselves by herding cattle, breaking horses, 
 and working in the grain-fields, orchards and vineyards. They 
 have lost much of the savage expression of countenance, and 
 some of them have become very industrious and ti'ustvvorthy 
 laborers; but the majority are idle and dissipated in their 
 habits. They have all learned a vulgar dialect of the Spanish, 
 
SOCIETY. 897 
 
 and a few speak a little English. The younger ones know 
 nothing of any tongue save English and Spanish, but the elder 
 Indians, when talking with one another, prefer to use the lan- 
 guage of their fathers. 
 
 § 272. Cities and Towns. — Below I have prepared a list of 
 the principal towns of California, with the number of voters 
 and inhabitants in each. The number of voters is ascertained 
 from newspaper reports of the votes cast at the presidential 
 election of 1860; and then taking the vote as a basis, I guess 
 at the number of inhabitants. The proportion of voters to in- 
 habitants is larger in the mineral than in the agricultural 
 districts : 
 
 Towns. Voters. Population. 
 
 San Francisco 14,415 70,000 
 
 Sacramento 3,833 15,000 
 
 Marysville 1,871 7,000 
 
 Stockton 1,445 5,500 
 
 Nevada 1,423 4,500 
 
 San Jose 1,000 4,000 
 
 Grass Valley 1,292 3,500 
 
 Petaluma 822 3,500 
 
 Columbia 1,008 3,000 
 
 Placerville 964 3,500 
 
 Yreka 888 2,500 
 
 Los Angeles 795 3,500 
 
 Oroville 716 2,200 
 
 Folsom 629 2,400 
 
 Downieville 628 2,000 
 
 Sonora 598 1,800 
 
 ■Weaverville 571 1,600 
 
 Santa Clara 539 2,500 
 
 Dutch Flat 500 1,500 
 
 Big Oak Flat 491 1,450 
 
 La Porte 479 1,420 
 
 Mokelumne Hill 470 1,400 
 
 Vallejd 464 1,600 
 
 Forest Hill 457 1,300 
 
 Michigan Bluff 451 ],300 
 
 Georgetown 448 1,300 
 
898 EESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Towns. Voters, Population, 
 
 Santa Cruz 443 1,800 
 
 North San Juan 437 1,500 
 
 Shasta 374 1,100 
 
 Napa 379 1,500 
 
 Oakland 352 1,450 
 
 Diamond Springs 347 1,000 
 
 Murphy's 344 1,000 
 
 San Andres 328 1,000 
 
 Alleghany Town 319 960 
 
 Timbuctoo 309 1,000 
 
 Auburn 307 1,000 
 
 Shaw's Flat 301 950 
 
 Mariposa 230 700 
 
 This table is not offered as precisely accurate, but as a rea- 
 sonable approximation, based upon the best materials within 
 reach. The vote cast does not represent the number of voters 
 in the town, but in the precinct, and this may extend four or 
 five miles beyond the town limits. The total number of peo- 
 ple residing in the towns is about 100,000, or one-fourth of the 
 whole population. 
 
 § 273. San Francisco. — San Francisco, according to the 
 census of 1860, has a population of 56,805, of whom 52,955 
 are white and 3,850 colored ; but according to the estimate of 
 intelligent residents, the population is not less than 70,000 ; 
 and I shall adopt the latter figure as correct. There may be 
 40,000 Americans, 12,000 Irishmen, 5,000 Germans, 4,000 
 Britons, 3,000 Frenchmen, 2,000 Chinamen, and 3,000 miscel- 
 laneous. The Federal census classifies the people according to 
 their ages and color, as follows : 
 
 White Males. — Under 1 year, 1,730 ; 2 years, 777 ; 3 years, 
 730 ; 4 years, 627 ; 5 years, 645. Total under 5 years, 4,509 ; 
 between 5 and 10 years, 1,842; 10 and 20 years, 2,915; 20 
 and 30 years, 10,184 ; 30 and 40 years, 9,390 ; 40 and 50 years, 
 2,581 ; 50 and 60 years, 842 ; 60 and 70 years, 162 ; 70 and 80 
 years, 36 ; 80 and 90 years, 2. Total white males, 32,463. 
 
 ^Y}dte Females. — Under 1 year, 1,563; 2 years, 739 ; 3 years, 
 677 ; 4 years, 600 ; 5 years, 551. Total under 5 years, 4,130; 
 
SOCIETY. 399 
 
 between 5 and 10 years, 1,831 ; 10 and 20 years, 3,198; 20 
 and 30 years, 6,226 ; 30 and 40 years, 3,441 ; 40 and 50 years, 
 1,119; 50 and 60 years, 484; 60 and 70 years, 122 ; 70 and 
 80 years, 52 ; 80 and 90 years, 7. Total white females, 20,610. 
 
 C/ii?iese.— Males of all ages, 2,168 ; females do., 448. Total 
 Chinese, 2,616. 
 
 Colored. — Males of all ages, 711; females do., 435. Total 
 colored, 1,146. 
 
 JReccqntulatio?!.— White males of all ages, 32,463 ; females 
 do., 20,610. Total whites, 53,073 ; Chinese, male and female, 
 2,616 ; colored, 1,146. 
 
 San Francisco is the chief commercial and manufacturing 
 city of this coast. The vessels which entered the port in 1860 
 numbered 1,686, and had an aggregate measurement of 500,000 
 tons. Of the 1,686 vessels, 325 were from foreign ports, 115 
 from American ports on the Atlantic, 1,231 from American 
 ports on the Pacific, and 15 were from w^haling voyages. 
 
 The first house was built in 1835, and the place was then 
 called Yerba Buena, Spanish for " good herb," applied to a 
 species of mint growing in the vicinity. In 1847 the name 
 was changed to San Francisco. In 1846 the population was 
 six hundred, and had grown to about one thousand in the 
 spring of 1848, when the gold fever broke out. Daring July, 
 August, and September, the town was deserted by many of its 
 residents ; but as the people became impressed w^ith the rich- 
 ness and extent of the mines, and as adventurers began to 
 arrive from abroad, the population of the town increased, and 
 then suddenly it sprang from an obscure village to a world- 
 famous city. In May and June, 1850, and in the same months 
 the next year, great conflagrations swept away the wooden 
 shanties with which the main part of the city was built up ; 
 and it was not until the latter half of 1851, that the citizens 
 commenced to erect the numerous fine brick stores which 
 now ornament the principal business streets. The sand ridges 
 on the site of the city were cut down, and the hollows were 
 filled in ; and the shallow cove m front of the mainland was 
 
400 KESOUKCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 also filled in, and made the foundation for the busiest part of 
 the town. 
 
 In 1861, according to statistics published in the City Di- 
 rectory^ there were 11,265 buildings in the city : 9,308 of wood, 
 1,898 of brick, 47 of iron, 6 of stone, and 6 of adobe. These 
 buiklings are thus classified according to their height : 
 
 Wood — one story, 4,034 ; two stories, 5,090 ; three stories, 
 180 ; four stories, 4 — 9,308. 
 
 Brick — one story, 272; two stories, 1,125; three stories, 
 438 ; four stories, 59 ; five stories, 3 — 1,898. 
 
 Iron — one story, 8 ; two stories, 3U ; three stories, 6 ; four 
 stories, 3 — 47. 
 
 Adobe — one story, 1 ; two stories, 3 ; three stories, 1 ; four 
 stories, 1 — 6. 
 
 Stone — one story, 1 ; two stories, 3 ; three stories, 1 ; four 
 stories, 1 — 6. 
 
 According to the same authority there were, in 1860, 800 
 grog-shops, 373 groceries, 288 lawyers, 276 tailor-shops and 
 clothing-stores, 248 boarding-houses, 189 physicians, 179 
 brokers, 150 cabinet-makers, 150 butchers, 136 cigar-shops, 
 121 dry-goods stores, 120 carpenters, 95 barbers and }..:ir- 
 dressers, 85 dealers in coal and firewood, 84 restaurants, 84 
 watchmakers and jewellers, 78 fruit-stores, 66 bakeries, 65 
 house and sign painters, 64 stove and tinw^are stores, 33 lum- 
 ber yards, 24 breweries, 20 auction-stores, 17 banks, and 8 
 assay-oftices. 
 
 There are thirteen daily and tw^elve weekly newspapers, and 
 five monthly magazines, published in San Fi-ancisco. Of the 
 dailies, seven appear in the morning and six in the afternoon ; 
 seven are published in the English language, two in French, 
 two in German, and two in Spanish. Of the weekly papers, 
 one is an organ of the Methodists, another of the Methodist 
 Church South, another of the Congregationalists, one of the 
 Catholics, two of the Jews ; one is commercial, one is filled 
 with miscellaneous reading matter, another is agricultural, 
 another devotes itself to topics interesting to firemen and sol- 
 
SOCIETY. 401 
 
 diers, another to mining, and the List fills its columns with 
 police reports. Of the monthly magazines, three devote them- 
 seU'es to general reading matter, one is me<lical, and the last 
 Presl>yterian. There have been Italian and Chinese newspa- 
 pers hi San Francisco, but there are none here now. 
 
 The Germans, French, Italians, Swiss, Scandinavians, Chi- 
 nese, lUyrians, German Jews, Polish Jews, and Irish, have 
 each a benevolent society, organized mainly for the purpose 
 of rendering mutual assistance in case of illness. There is a 
 Protestant and a Catholic Orphan Asylum, a House of Refuge, 
 and an Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. The Masons, 
 Odd Fellows, and Independent Order of Knights, are other 
 benevolent associations established in our city. 
 
 § 274. Sacramento. — Sacramento City, the political capital 
 and second town of California, is situated near the centre of the 
 Sacramento basin and of the state — is one hundred and twenty- 
 five miles by the course of navigation, and seventy-five miles in 
 a direct line, distant from the ocean, on the southeastern corner 
 of land formed by the junction of the Sacramento and Ameri- 
 can Rivers, at an elevation of thirty feet above the sea, and in 
 latitude 38° 33' and longitude 121° 20'. The business part of 
 the city is about twenty feet above low-water mark in the 
 Sacramento River, which, in front of the town, during the dry 
 season, rises and falls about a foot with the tide. (The figures 
 in the preceding sentence were correct previous to the flood 
 of 1861-62 ; whether they will be after it has passed away is 
 questionable. I write this while it still prevails ; and it is said 
 that, during the flood, gravel to the depth of twelve feet has 
 been deposited in the river-bed in front of Sacramento.) The 
 site is level, and in the midst of a wide plain, most of which is 
 bare of trees, and much of which is not cultivated. The 
 streets are wide and straight, run with the cardinal points of 
 the compass, and are designated only* by numbers and letters. 
 Those parallel Avith the Sacramento are first, second, third, 
 and so forth ; those parallel with the American are A, B, C, 
 and so on. The main business part of the city is near the 
 
402 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Sacramento, extending from first to sixth, and from II to L 
 streets. The houses and stores here are mostly built of brick, 
 one or two stories high. The streets are gravelled or planked ; 
 the side-walks are planked or paved with brick, and covered 
 with awnings to give protection against the sun. In those 
 parts of the town used for dwellings, the houses are chiefly of 
 wood, neatly painted, and surrounded by gardens, and the 
 streets are lined with shade-trees, such as cottonwood, willow, 
 sycamore, elm, and locust. There are water-works and gas- 
 works. The water is pumped up from tlie Sacramento River, 
 which is so turbid, even at its lowest stage, that six inches of 
 mud are deposited monthly in the reservoir. The gas is made 
 from imported coal. A railroad twenty miles long connects 
 Sacramento with Folsom, which is connected with Lincoln by 
 another road of about the same length. A steamboat leaves 
 Sacramento daily at two p. m. for San Francisco ; thrice a 
 Aveek, starting in the morning, for Marysville ; and at least 
 thrice a week for Red Bluff. Stages run daily to Marysville, 
 Auburn, Placerville, Coloma, Jackson, Stockton, and Fairfield. 
 The first settlement by white men on the site of Sacramento 
 was made in 1839, by John A. Sutter, a Swiss by birth, who, 
 after having served as a captain in the body-guard of Charles 
 X. of France, came to the United States, where he was Ameri- 
 canized. He afterwards came to California and was admitted 
 to Mexican citizenship. He obtained a grant of eleven square 
 leagues of land on the eastern bank of the Sacramento River, 
 and under that grant the title to the site of Sacramento City is 
 now held. In 1841 he built some adobe buildings, which he 
 dignified with the title of New Helvetia, while to the Ameri- 
 cans it was generally known as " Sutter's Fort." It was, for 
 a long time, the only place where white men had a permanent 
 foothold in the Sacramento basin ; and it was a place of im- 
 portance, as the first point where the American trappers, 
 travellers, and immigrants, entering the territory from the 
 eastward, could obtain provisions, ammunition, and horses, 
 and rest secure acrainst Indians. Sutter treated all comers 
 
SOCIETY. 403 
 
 with the utmost generosity and liberality ; no white man was 
 turned away because of inability to pay for food or lodging. 
 The first gold diggings were discovered about twenty-five 
 miles eastward from the fort, which became the chief trading 
 point between San Francisco and the mines. The adventurers 
 ascended the Sacramento River to the mouth of the Ameri- 
 can, where they landed, and their goods were taken by ox- 
 wagons to the fort, two miles distant, where they prepared 
 themselves for the land journey. Before the first year of 
 gold mining had come to an end, it was evident there must be 
 a town on the bank of the Sacramento at the mouth of the 
 American, so the present town site was laid off in October, 
 1848, and the New Year's day following the building of the 
 first house (of logs), near the Sacramento River, was com- 
 menced. On the 8th January the lots w^ere sold by auction, 
 and were described as lying in the town of " Sacramento." 
 The ford and its vicinity continued to be the chief place of 
 business until April, '49, when the bank of the Sacramento 
 was found to be much more convenient for purposes of busi- 
 ness, and the merchants and traders moved. The town very 
 soon became the most important centre of trade and popula- 
 tion in the state, next to San Francisco, and it has continued 
 to hold the same relative position, growing with the growth 
 of the state, notwithstanding many severe disasters to which 
 it has been exposed. In 1851 there was a serious riot about 
 land-titles; on the 3d of November, 1852, the greater part 
 of the town, including six hundred houses, was destroyed by 
 fire, with a pecuniary loss estimated at the time at $5,000,000 ; 
 and the city was flooded in January, 1850, in March, 1852, in 
 January, 1853, and in December, 1861, and in January and 
 February, 1862. In 1853 the business part of the town was 
 raised about five feet, the streets being filled in with gravel to 
 that depth, and a levee or embankment was built round the 
 city, extending about a mile along the bank of the Sacramento 
 and three or four miles along the bank of the American. The 
 flood of 1861 an 1 '62 proved extremely disastrous. It filled 
 
404 RESOURCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 every part of t]ie city, was three feet deep in ever}' street; in 
 some places fifteen feet deep. Gardens were destroyed, fences 
 carried away, domestic animals drowned, furniture ruined, 
 and many of the people driven to take refuge in San Fran- 
 cisco and other towns not afflicted by the general scourge. 
 A long time will pass before the city will recover from the in- 
 juries inflicted upon it by the flood of 1861-62. 
 
 The assessed value of the taxable projjerty of the city is 
 about $7,000,000 ; the public debt of the city is $1,800,000. 
 
 § 275. Stockto7i. — Stockton is situated three miles eastward 
 from the San Joaquin River, on the bank of a navigable tide- 
 water slough, or creek (using the word in its British meaning), 
 which is eighty feet wide and eight feet deep. The town site 
 is in the midst of low, flat, tule land, which is intersected by 
 numerous sloughs. The population is about six thousand. The 
 town has a pleasant appearance. Many of the dwellings are 
 neatly built and are surrounded by elegant gardens. Shade-trees 
 are abundant. Fresh water is supplied to the city, for domestic 
 purposes and for irrigating the gardens, by one hundred and 
 fifty windmills, which pump it up through lead pipes, thrust 
 down twenty feet deep into auger holes two inches wide. So 
 abundant is the water in the soil at that depth, that there is no 
 difliculty in obtaining it in this manner. Stockton is nicknamed 
 " The City of Windmills," and indeed the name appears very ap- 
 propriate to the traveller who approaches the toAvn on a windy 
 day, and at a distance sees little save a multitude of great arms 
 revolving furiously above and among the trees and house-tops. 
 
 Stockton is the debarking point for the travellers and mer- 
 chandise on their way from San Francisco to all parts of the 
 basin of the San Joaquin River, including the important 
 mining counties of Mariposa, Tuolumne, and Calaveras. The 
 entire population of the eight counties in the basin of the San 
 Joaquin River is, according to the census of 1860, 60,837, 
 scattered over an area of about 16,000 square miles. During 
 the winter, at least in wet times, the roads leading out of 
 Stockton are very muddy, but when the ground is dry, im- 
 
SOCIETY. 405 
 
 mense wagons are used in great numbers, hauling goods out 
 to the mining camps and to VisaUa. Some of these wagons 
 have bodies sixteen feet long and six feet high, and are drawn 
 by teams of eight or ten mules. Occasionally a smaller wagon 
 will be fxstened on behind the larger one, and then at any 
 steep hill one wagon is hauled up at a time. During high 
 water, a steamer runs up the San Joaquin River from Stockton 
 to Fresno City, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles 
 by the river. A steamer runs every day from San Francisco 
 to Stockton, and stages leave the latter place every morning 
 for the principal towns of the southern mines. 
 
 Th'3 first settlement on the place was made in 1844 by 
 Charles M. Weber and Mr. Gulnac, the latter of whom ob- 
 tained a grant of the land from the Mexican government in 
 that year. They had some trouble with the Indians, and Gul- 
 nac sold out to his partner, who would not give the rancho 
 up, and afterwards, when the place became important for its 
 commercial advantages, he became the founder and father of 
 the town, where he still resides. The name was selected in 
 honor of Commodore Stockton, who commanded the Ameri- 
 can naval forces on this coast during the war with Mexico, and 
 contributed much to the conquest of California. The town, 
 like Sacramento and Marysville, was overflowed during the 
 great flood of 1862, the water having covered all the streets on 
 the 11th of January, and stood for days more than a foot deep, 
 in the highest of them. 
 
 § 276. Marysville. — Marysville, the third town in the state, 
 containing a population of seven thousand, is situated between 
 the Feather and Yuba Rivers at their junction. The site, 
 like that of Sacramento, is flat, and in the midst of the large 
 valley, and has been raised artificially above its natural level, 
 to protect the houses against floods. Marysville resembles 
 Sacramento, though smaller, and its residents claim that it is 
 the handsomest town in the state. The first settlement was 
 made in 1841 by Tlieodore Cordua, a German, who built a 
 couple of adobe houses and called the place New Mecklen- 
 
406 RESOUKCES OF CALIFOEXIA. 
 
 bnrg. In 1849 a number of persons went there, and the place 
 was called Yubaville. In January, 1850, the town w-as laid 
 off and named after Mrs. Mary Covillaud, the wife of the chief 
 propiietor. On the 31st of August and the 10th of Septem- 
 ber, 1851, two large fires occurred, destroying almost the 
 w^hole town. In the spring of 1852 the business part of the 
 town was covered with water, and the next year it was raised 
 twelve feet. The town was again flooded in December, 1861, 
 and January, 1862. Marysville is at the head of navigation on 
 the Feather River. The distance by water is about seventy 
 miles from Sacramento ; by the stage road it is forty-five miles. 
 From Marysville the counties of Nevada, Sierra, Butte, Plu- 
 mas, and Yuba, which contain an aggregate population of 
 67,977, obtain all their supplies of imported goods. Stages 
 run to the main towns of these counties every day. 
 
 § 277. Nevada. — ]S'evada, the fourth town of the state, cast 
 1,423 votes at the last Presidential election, and has a popula- 
 tion of about 4,500. It is the largest town in the mining dis- 
 tricts, but owes much of its importance to its trade. It is on 
 an important route of travel across the Sierra, and does an ex- 
 tensive trade with the adjacent mining counties of Sierra and 
 Plumas. The immediate vicinity of Nevada is the most pro- 
 ductive quartz district in the state. The town of Nevada w^as 
 founded in 1849. Grass Valley, which lies only five miles dis- 
 tant, is nearly as large as Nevada. The latter place is sixty- 
 nine miles distant from Sacramento. 
 
 § 278. Los Angeles. — The town of Los Angeles, formerly 
 called Pueblo de los Angeles, or the Pueblo de la Reina de los 
 Angeles — the town of the Queen of the Angels — is the largest 
 town in the southern part of the state, and has a population of 
 about 3,500. It was founded about 1780, and was built up to 
 nearly its present size previous to the American conquest. 
 The population was probably nearly as large under the Mexi- 
 can dominion as at present, but the finest buildings in the 
 place have been erected within the last twelve years. The 
 town is situated on the western bank of the Los Angeles 
 
SOCIETY. 407 
 
 River, where that stream breaks through the range of low 
 hills, twenty-five miles north of the bay of San Pedro. The 
 streets are mostly of good width, but they are not straight ; 
 they do not cross each other at right angles ; they are not 
 graded, nor are they paved. All the old bouses are built of 
 adobes, and most of them are of one story, with flat roofs of 
 asphaltum. The new houses are of wood and brick. On the 
 northwestern side of the town, and very near to the most busy 
 part of it, is a hill about sixty feet high, whence an excellent 
 view of the whole place may be obtained. The vineyards and 
 gardens are beautiful. There are 2,500 or 3,000 acres of bril- 
 liant green — the largest body of land in vineyard, garden, and 
 orchard within so small a space in the state. The fences fix 
 the attention of the stranger. They are made of willow-trees, 
 planted from nine inches to two feet apart, the spaces between 
 the trunks being filled with poles and brush. After the fences, 
 the stranger's notice is attracted by the zanjas^ or irrigating 
 ditches, which run through the town in every direction. These 
 zcU'jas vary in size, but most of them have a body of water 
 three feet wide, and a foot deep, running at a speed of five 
 miles an hour. They carry the water from the river to the 
 gardens, and are absolutely necessary to secure the growth of 
 the fences, vines, and many of the fruit-trees, at least when 
 young. One of the officers of the town is the zanjero, whose 
 duty it is to take charge of the zanjas^ see that they are kept 
 in order, and that the water is equally distributed among those 
 entitled to it. Entering the enclosures, we are among the 
 vines, orange, lemon, lime, citron, pear, apple, peach, olive, 
 fig, and walnut trees. Many of the vines are from ten to 
 thirty years of age. The population of the place may be de- 
 scribed as of nearly four equal classes, Americans, Europeans, 
 Spanish Californians and Indians. The Americans own most 
 of the houses and land in the town, the Europeans probably 
 do most of its trade. The town is the seat of the county 
 government, and the chief business place in this part of the 
 state. Its merchants trade largely to Salt Lake. Los Angeles 
 
408 KESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 has mail comminiicatioii with San Francisco twice a month 
 by steamer, and twice a week by stage. It is also con- 
 nected with the main towns of the state by a line of telegraph. 
 The general impression upon my mind, after spending the last 
 week in September in the place, is that it is one of the most 
 pleasant places in the world, known to me, to visit. The lux- 
 uriant vegetation, with its semi-tropical character, is peculiarly 
 agreeable to the sons of the North. The " chrae of the sun," 
 " the land of the cypress and myrtle," " where the citron 
 blooms and the golden oranges glow amidst the dark-green 
 leaves, have ever been with the poets of the colder lands tiie 
 symbols of a terrestrial paradise, and some of the most bril- 
 liant verses of Goethe and Byron have been inspired by ad- 
 miration of them. The song of Mignon came vividly before 
 me as I walked through the gardens of the City of the Angels. 
 Luscious fruits, of many species and unnumbered varieties, 
 loaded the trees. Gentle breezes came through the bowers. 
 The water rippled musically through the zanjas. Delicious 
 odors came from all the most fragrant flowers of the temper- 
 ate zone. Julius Froebel speaks thus of Los Angeles in his 
 book Aus America : " I could wish no better home for my- 
 self and my friends than such a one as noble, sensible men 
 could here make for themselves. Nature has preserved here, 
 in its workings and phenomena, that medium between too 
 much and too little, which was one of the great conditions of 
 hio^h civilization in the classic regions of ancient times. Indeed, 
 when we seek in other lands for places like Los Angeles and 
 Southern California generally, we must turn our eyes to the 
 Levant. In the L^nited States there are no kindred spots." 
 The town is situated on the banks of the Los Angeles 
 River, twenty-five miles from the ocean. The population 
 numbers about 3,500. The port of Los Angeles is San Pedro, 
 twenty^ve miles southward, where there are only a couple of 
 houses. 
 
 § 279. Petaluma. — Petal um.a, situated on the flat bank of 
 the navigable creek of the same name, ten miles from San 
 
SOCIETT. 409 
 
 Pablo Bay, has a population of about 3,500, and owes its pros- 
 perity to the trade of the valleys of Petakima, Santa liosa, and 
 Russian River, and the plain of Bodega, which communicate 
 through this place with San Francisco. It is on the land mail 
 route which connects Mendocino and Humboldt counties with 
 the centre of the state. The houses are mostly of frame, and 
 none are more than ten years old, the town having been laid 
 oflf in 1851. Petaluma sends more butter and cheese to the 
 market than any other town in the state. 
 
 § 280. San Jose. — San Jose may have about 3,500 inhabit- 
 ants. It is situated in the Santa Clara valley, ten miles south- 
 eastward from the bay, and fifty miles, by the stage road, from 
 the city of San Francisco. The town was laid out about the 
 beginning of the century, and many of the houses are of adobe, 
 and were built before the American conquest. The streets 
 are lined with shade-trees, and gardens filled with beautiful 
 fruit-trees and flowers are abundant. The place is dusty 
 during the summer, but otherwise is very pleasant. There 
 are eleven hundred acres of orchard in the vicinity of San 
 Jose, more than in any other equally small district in the state. 
 One of the boasts of San Jose is the "alameda," which prop- 
 erly means " a place of elms," but is here applied to a road 
 three miles long, lined with willow and cottonwood trees. 
 The trees stand close together, and are of large size, so that 
 they form a dense shade. Unfortunately, the road under them 
 is extremely dusty in summer, and muddy in winter. The 
 port of San Jose is Alviso, seven miles to the north, on the 
 banks of the Guadalupe, or Alviso slough. 
 
 § 281. Santa Clara. — Santa Clara, three miles westward of 
 San Jose, and connected w4th it by the alameda, has a popula- 
 tion of about 2,000. It is a new town, and nearly all the houses 
 are of wood. The principal building is the old mission church, 
 erected in 1822. It is now used as part of a Jesuit college. 
 The mission of Santa Clara was founded in 1V77, and a church 
 was built on the bank of the Guadalupe Creek, at a place called 
 *' Socoistika," the Indian name of the laurel-trees which grew 
 18 
 
410 KESOIJRCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 IheFe. Two years later this building was swept away by a 
 flood, and in 1781 a new church was commenced, half a league 
 distant from the river, in a grove of oak-trees, the Indian 
 name of which, " Gerguensen," was given to the vicinity. This 
 church was destroyed by an earthquake in 1818. The present 
 church was consecrated in 1822. 
 
 § 282. Columbia, — Columbia, the largest town of the south- 
 ern mines, is sixty-five miles from Stockton. The place has a 
 population of about three thousand, and includes many good 
 brick buildings. The town was laid off in 1850. 
 
 § 283. Placerville. — Placerville, though it cast only nine 
 hundred and thirty-four votes in 1861, is really, after Stockton, 
 the most important town in the state, and its population will 
 soon be proportionate to its business. It is on the main road 
 from Sacramento to Washoe and iEsmeralda, and is the point 
 where travellers going eastward prepare for their trip over the 
 rugged portion of the mountain, and those coming westward 
 rest from their toils. It is also on the route of the great over- 
 land mail and telegraph. It may be that there is less snow 
 and an easier natural grade on the other roads across the Sierra 
 Nevada, but the Placerville road has been more improved than 
 any other. It is more convenient to the great body of trade 
 and travel from San Francisco and Sacramento. It has more 
 houses to accommodate and protect travellers, and, during the 
 winter, has more travel, and receives more attention, and there- 
 fore it is, for general use, the best road. 
 
 § 284. Yreka. — Yreka, the county seat of Siskiyou county, 
 the largest town north of Marysville, has a population of about 
 twenty-five hundred. It is situated at an elevation of fifteen 
 hundred feet above the sea, in the valley of Shasta River, 
 about twenty miles northwest from Mount Shasta. It is a 
 mining town, being situated in a rich mining district, and 
 founded on pay-dirt. The place is shut in by high mountains, 
 the Siskiyou ridge on the north, the Sierra Nevada on the east, 
 the Scott and Trinity ridges on the south, and the coast range 
 on the west. The town is shut in by snows during part of 
 
SOCIETY. 411 
 
 every winter, and there is frost in every month of the year. 
 Most of the merchandise sent out from this point, to mining 
 camps in the vicinity, goes on pack-mules. The goods im- 
 ported by Yreka are hauled one hundred miles, from Red Bluff, 
 which is one hundred and seventy-five miles from Sacramento 
 by the river. The town is on the main road between the Sac- 
 ramento and Willamette valleys, and occupies a central position 
 in the basin of the Klamath River, and will therefore probably 
 maintain its importance. 
 
 § 285. Vallejo. — Yallejo, a town of about eight hundred 
 inhabitants, is situated at the mouth of Napa River, on the 
 northwestern side of San Pablo Bay, from which it is separated 
 by Mare Island. The town was laid out in 1850 by M. G. 
 Vallejo, for the capital of the state. He supposed at the time, 
 and so did the public, that he was a millionaire. He owned 
 large tracts of land, then estimated to be worth several mil- 
 lions of dollars at least. Among his possessions was the Suscol 
 rancho, and he was induced to believe that if he would lay off 
 a town and make a liberal offer of land and money to the state, 
 the capital would be establishtff there, and increase the value 
 of his land so much that he would profit largely by the afHiir. 
 The suggestion appeared reasonable, and he adopted it, offer- 
 ing much land and three hundred and seventy thousand dollars 
 in cash for the establishment of the capital at Vallejo — the three 
 hundred and seventy thousand dollars to be spent in erecting 
 public buildings. The offer was accepted, and the capital was 
 located at Vallejo, but the legislature went thither at a time 
 when there were no houses there, and they immediately went 
 away. Seiior Vallejo did not pay the money Avhich he had 
 offered, and finally the capital was established at Sacramento, 
 where it is likely to remain. The business of Vallejo now de- 
 pends chiefly upon the United States navy-yard and dry-dock, 
 on Mare Island. The place is one which may have much im- 
 portance in the future of Calitbrnia. It has the following 
 resources : 
 
 First. — It is at the head of na\igatiou of the waters tribu- 
 
412 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 tary to San Francisco Bay for large sea-going vessels. It has 
 a fine harbor, perfectly protected against all winds, with good 
 holding-ground, and extent enough to accommodate all the 
 commerce which will ever visit it. That portion sufficiently 
 deep at low water for vessels drawing four fathoms, is three 
 miles long by a quarter of a mile wide, and for smaller vessels 
 the harbor is much larger. The best chart of the harbor is 
 Ko. 61 in the U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1857, which re- 
 port can be found in all public and many private libraries. 
 The navigation to the harbor from the Golden Gate, a distance 
 of twenty-six miles, is excellent, the channel being wide and 
 deep, and the winds strong and regular. 
 
 Secondly. — The town is in the midst of a fertile district. 
 The country north of San Pablo and Suisun Bays is the richest 
 agricultural district of the state. The valleys of Petaluma, 
 Santa Rosa, Russian River, Sonoma, Napa, Suscol, Suisun, 
 and Yaca, form a collection which, for extent of fertile soil, 
 abundance of water, and mildness of climate, have no equal of 
 like extent in California. These lie to the northwest, north, 
 and northeast of Vallejo, while south and southeast lie the San 
 Pablo, San Ramon, Amador, and Diablo valleys. 
 
 Thirdly. — Yallejo has a magnificent site for a town. The pres- 
 ent village is built on the slopes of hills about a hundred or a hun- 
 dred and fifty feet high, which rise from the harbor so gently, 
 that a heavily laden wagon can be drawn over without an extra 
 team. There are no deep gullies, and no sand. About half a 
 mile back from the landing lies a beautiful and very fertile 
 plain, caUed "Yallejo Yalley," several miles wide and extend- 
 ing from the lower part of the harbor, upon which it opens, 
 northward to Suscol. I have never seen a city provided with 
 such a magnificent place for country residences as this. 
 
 Fourthly. — The town must be the main trading point of a 
 large agricultural population. Suscol is now one of the best- 
 tilled parts of the state. 
 
 i^Z/'M/y.— Yallejo haxS peculiar railroad facilities. She can 
 have railruads running almost the entire distance on level 
 
SOCIETY. 413 
 
 plains to Petaluma, Santa Rosa, Ilealdsburg, Sonoma, Napa, 
 Fairfield, Marysville, Sacramento, Stockton, Amador Valley, 
 Oakland, San Jose, etc. 
 
 Sixthly. — She has a climate similar to that of San Francisco, 
 where ice never forms and smnmer clothes are never worn — 
 precisely that degree of constant coolness most favorable to 
 continuous labor, both mental and physical. 
 
 Seventhly. — She has the U. S. Navy- Yard on Mare Island 
 at her doors, and must supply the laborers to do the work 
 there. This navy-yard must always be of great importance, 
 and the government works alone will build up a considerable 
 town. Puget Sound is the only other point on the America* 
 coast of the Pacific where a navy-yard can be established, and 
 a long time may pass before one will be required there. 
 
 Eighthly. — There is a possibility that the difficulties in the 
 navigation of the Sacramento River, below Sacramento City, 
 will make it necessary to connect that place and the valley 
 north of it with the deep water, by a railroad to Yallejo. 
 
 It is estimated that forty thousand tons of dirt are carried 
 down into the Sacramento River every day from the mines, 
 and the effect to fill up the bed of the river is proved by past 
 experience. The time must come when goods must be carried 
 from the bay to the central and northern mines by land, and 
 the sooner the preparations are made for this approaching 
 change, the better. That land shipment, when commenced, 
 must go through Vallejo. 
 
 Ninthly. — In San Francisco great damage is done to the 
 wharves by the shipworm ; in Vallejo the water is so fresh 
 that wharves and boats are secure against that scourge. 
 
 § 286. Visalia. — Visalia is situated in the " Four Creek 
 country,'* about fifteen miles northeastward from Tulare Lake. 
 The " Four Creek country" is formed by Cahuilla Creek, which, 
 after leaving the Sierra Nevada, spreads out into a number of 
 channels, and these again subdivide, and moistening a consider- 
 able district of rich soil, render it very productive. Visalia 
 has a population of one thousand five hundred, and is the 
 
414 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 largest town in the San Joaquin basin southward of Stockton. 
 It has now the trade of* a radius of nearly a hundred miles, 
 and having a central situation will no doubt maintain its rela- 
 tive importance. The town was overflowed with water sev- 
 eral, feet deep by the great freshet of January, 1862. 
 
 § 287. Red Mifff.— Red Bluff, at the head of navigation 
 on the Sacramento River, one hundred and seventy-five miles 
 above Sacramento City, is a place of about one thousand in- 
 habitants. It is the point at which the merchandise is landed 
 from the SacrameiUo steamers for Shasta, Siskiyou and Trinity 
 counties, with an aggregate population of 17,114. Sometimes 
 the river is so low that the boats cannot reach Red Bluff, but 
 this is a rare event. There have been attempts to remove ob- 
 structions above Red Bluff so that the head of navigation 
 should be at Cottonwood, but these attempts have hitherto 
 been vain. 
 
 § 288. JIartmez. — Martinez is situated on the southern side 
 of the Straits of Carquinez, in a little valley. The population 
 is about six hundred. It is a quiet, pleasant village, where 
 trade is dull and life slow. It is connected with the world by 
 a steam ferry-boat, running to Benicia. It would probably be 
 a much more prosperous place if the title to the land on which 
 it is situated were clear, but it is claimed under three grants, 
 all of which have been confirmed, and nobody knows wliich 
 one will take it. The town has a peculiar climate, with the 
 same cool temperature as at Benicia, very much like that of 
 San Francisco, but fogs are rare, and the winds are broken by 
 hills. It is a climate similar to that of Oakland, without the 
 wind, and is therefore very favorable to fruit. The sea-breeze 
 pouring through the Straits of Carquinez, keeps off the frost, 
 and some unexplained cause throws all the fog over to the 
 northern side of the strait, thus giving the fruit on the south- 
 ern shore an abundance of sunshine. The town was founded 
 about the time the gold was discovered. 
 
 § 289. Pacheco. — The town of Pacheco, or Pachecoville, is 
 one of the newest in the state, having been founded late in 
 
SOCIETY. 415 
 
 185 8. It is built at the head of navigation of the Pacheco 
 Slough, and is the shipping port of Pacheco, San Ramon, Di- 
 ablo and Taylor valleys. The distance to Martinez is four 
 miles, further than fiirniers like to haul their grain, when they 
 can avoid it. To bring the shipping point nearer to them, 
 Pacheco was built. The distance from Pacheco to the bay, in 
 a straight line through the tule land, is about four miles ; the 
 distance by the slough is six miles. The slough is bare at low 
 water ; at high water it is navigable for sloops and schooners 
 drawing six feet. In 1859 Pacheco shipped 180,000 sacks of 
 grain. The population is about six hundred. 
 
 § 290. Suisun. — Suisun, a village of about sixty houses, is 
 on the western bank of the Suisun Slough in Solano county, 
 about ten miles in a direct line from Suisun Bay and sixteen 
 miles by the slough. The place was commenced on a little 
 island, a couple of hundred yards in diameter, and no part of 
 it more than a foot above the highest tide. It is surrounded 
 by tules, or salt-water rushes, growling on land overflowed at 
 every high tide and bare at low tide. Two roads lead from 
 the dry land of the valley to the city — one of them a plank- 
 road, now in a very dilapidated condition. Most of the streets 
 are subject to overflow by spring tides, and the marks of the 
 water can be seen ujDon them even when dry. A few lots have 
 been raised above high tide by bringing earth from other 
 })laces, and enclosures are made by digging ditches, in which 
 the water is never more than two feet below the surface. The 
 inland, being in the tule, was not included in the Suisun grant, 
 r.nd it was claimed, in 1853, by two men w^ho laid off" the town, 
 and who are now in litigation with each other about the un- 
 sold land. The place owes its importance to its advantages 
 as the shipping point of the valley. The Suisun Slough is 
 said to be the best slough in the state ; that means, that it is 
 wider and deeper than the sloughs through which vessels 
 reach Stockton, Sonoma, Napa, San Antonio, Petaluraa, Pa- 
 checo, and Alviso. Vessels drawing nine feet of water can 
 enter the slough, The town is sixty-five miles from San Fran- 
 
416 RESOUPwCES OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 cisco, with which city there is regular steamboat communica- 
 tion. The town is one mile from dry land, on the edge 
 whereof, immediately north of Suisun, lies Fairfield, which 
 is the county seat, and has about five hundred inhabitants. 
 Fairfield is on the route of the projected Benicia and Marys- 
 ville railway. 
 
 § 291. Benicia. — Benicia is situated on the northern side 
 of the Straits of Carquinez. It was laid out in 1847, and for 
 a time it aspired to be the great commercial city of the coast, 
 which aspiration it did not abandon until as late as 1853. It 
 was twice made the state capital, and twice deserted by the 
 legislature. It has about one thousand inhabitants. The 
 houses are scattered about so far from each other that the 
 town is called, in sport, " The City of Magnificent Distances." 
 A ferry-boat crosses the strait to Carquinez about six or eight 
 times every day. The town site is composed of low bare hills. 
 The climate is very windy. 
 
 § 292. Napa. — Napa was laid off in 1848 by Nathan 
 Coombs at the ford of Napa River, on the road from Benicia 
 to Sonoma. In those days there were no bridges or ferries, 
 and the position of the ford determined the location of the 
 town. Now the ford is never used, but the investment of 
 capital has made the town permanent. If mere natural ad- 
 vantages were to be taken into account, the town would be 
 at Suscol, which is six miles nearer to the bay, and always ac- 
 cessible by small steamers, while at low tide the boats must 
 stop several miles below Napa. The population of the place 
 is about one thousand. The houses are of wood and brick, 
 and neatly built. 
 
 § 293. Crescent City. — Crescent City is a seaport of six 
 hundred inhabitants, fifteen miles south of the Oregon line. 
 The j)lace was founded in 1853, with the expectation that be- 
 cause of its proximity to the mines of the Klamath and Rogue 
 River basins, it would become an important commercial point 
 for the imports of Southern Oregon and Northern California. 
 Its founders, however, were disappointed in this expectation. 
 
SOCIETY. 417 
 
 The people at the head of the Sacramento valley, knowing 
 that an attempt was making to cut off a large part of their 
 trade, went to work industriously and made a good wagon 
 road to Yreka, and thus reduced the freights to that place 
 very much. The country westward of Yreka is very rugged, 
 and as the people of Crescent City had not the capital to make 
 a wagon road, their goods had to be transported at much ex- 
 pense on mules; and Yreka and vicinity continue to make 
 their imports and exports by way of the Sacramento River. 
 Crescent City, therefore, remains a small place, but it supplies 
 a district within a range of forty or fifty miles to the east and 
 northeast. Trinidad is a small seaport which is the chief 
 trading point of the miners in Klamath county. 
 
 § 294. Areata. — Areata is a town of eight hundred inhab- 
 itants, at the northern end of Humboldt Bay. It was founded 
 in 1850 with the expectation that the miners in the basin of 
 the Trinity River would obtain all their imports through it ; 
 but the only means of conveying goods from Humboldt,, Bay 
 was a bad mule trail through a rugged country infested by 
 hostile Indians, so the trade continued to go by the way of the 
 Sacramento River. It is probable, however, that the current 
 of this trade will be changed within a year or two. A wagoft 
 road is being made to Weaverville, a distance of eighty miles, 
 and the Indians have been driven away. At the present time 
 fifteen hundred pack-mules are used in conveying goods from 
 Areata to the various parts of Humboldt, Klamath, and Trinity 
 counties. The name of Areata was adopted in 1860; previ- 
 ous to that time the town was called Union. 
 
 § 295. Anaheim.— AvL2^\iQ\m is the only German town in 
 the state. It was laid out by Germans, built up by Germans, 
 and is populated and owned by Germans. But it will never 
 have the foreign character which marks many German villages 
 in the valley states of the Mississippi, where the English 
 language is not known to any of the people. None of the 
 Anaheimers have come direct from Germany; all of them 
 have lived for some time among the Americans, and most of 
 18* 
 
*^8 EESO URGES OP CAI.iyonNlA, 
 
 them speak English fluently. The English language will be 
 the predominant tongue, although German will long be cher- 
 ished. The number of residents is now three hundred, with 
 a certainty that they nuist rapidly increase. Analieim is a 
 tract of land a mile wide by a mile and a half long, in the 
 valley of the Santa Anna River, l^os Angeles county. It was 
 unoccupied, and supposed to be of little value in 1857. when 
 it was bought for two dollars an acre by a German compaiiy 
 of Dfty members, mostly residing in San Francisco. Thty 
 were incorporated as a joint-stock association. The land, con- 
 taining one tliousand one hundred and sixty-eight acres, was 
 divided into fifty lots of twenty acres each, with a little town- 
 plat in the middle, and convenient streets. The place was given 
 in charge of a superintendent, who held his position two years, 
 in which time he planted and cultivated eight acres of every 
 lot with vines, and put willow hedges (nearly all the fences in 
 Los Angeles county are of willow) all around the outer boun- 
 dary of the tract, and along the principal streets inside. Dur- 
 ing a large part of the time he hired lifty laborers. The total 
 expense for the two years was seventy thousand dollars, or 
 one thousand four hundred dollars per lot of twenty acres, 
 including eight acres of vine. The owner of a vineyard lot 
 had a little town-lot of half an acre besides. In December, 
 1859, the proper-ty was divided by lot among the members, 
 many of whom have now removed to the place and made their 
 home there. There are nearly six hundred acres lying vacant, 
 and the welfire of the vineyards requires that this land should 
 be cultivated, for now it is covered with weeds and brush, and 
 is the home of innumerable hares, squirrels, and gophers, whicli 
 eat the vines, young trees, and grapes. When cultivated and 
 irrigated, these pests will be drowned out and driven off, and 
 the labor of the vine-grower will be much reduced upon the 
 land now under tillage. When the whole tract shall be filled 
 With bearing vines, it will produce twice as much wine as I'le 
 town of Los Angeles does now, and nearly as much as that 
 icwu will be able to produce when all its present vines shall 
 
SOCIETY. 419 
 
 be in full bearing — for about half of its million vines are still 
 less than four years of age. Anaheim has some advantages 
 over Los Angeles, in the regularity of its plan, and perhaps, 
 afeo, in location (for it is nearer the ocean, and farther from 
 the snowy mountains) and in the extent of rich land in its 
 neighborhood, and in its location near the direct line of travel 
 between San Pedro and San Bernardino, the latter being not 
 only an important place for its own trade, but still more for 
 its trade with Salt Lake. On the other hand, Los Angeles 
 has the start, the capital, the houses, the merchants, and all 
 those advantages which an old and prosperous town has over 
 a little upstart of a village, and Anaheim must long, if not 
 always, be a place of inferior importance, as compared with it. 
 
 § 296. Monterey^ etc. — Monterey, which previous to 1849, 
 was the political capital and commercial centre of the terri- 
 tory, is now one of the least important towns of the state. 
 .Most of the houses are of adobes. The population is about 
 one tnousand. 
 
 Sonoma, which was founded in 1823, and was, up to 1850, 
 the most impoi-tant town north of the bay of San Pablo, 
 has been gradually losing its trade and population ; but the 
 extensive production of wine in which its citizens are now 
 engaged, may bring it up again. The houses are mostly of 
 adobes. The tallest adobe house in the state, con:. lining three 
 high stories, is in Sonoma. It was commenced in 1835, and 
 was never finished. After the walls had been erected, they 
 were covered by a roof which projected three feet on all sides, 
 and thus the building has remained. The walls are about 
 three feet thick. The old buildings of the Mission of San 
 Francisco Solano are in a very dilapidated condition. Sonoma 
 is ten miles distant from San Pablo Bay, but the Sonoma 
 Slough is navigable to the Embarcadero, which is only three 
 miles from the town. 
 
 San Diego has a population of about eight hundred. The 
 town once aspired to be the terminus of a railroad, Avhich was 
 to cross the continent about latitude 32°, but such aspirations 
 
420 RESOURCES OF CALIFOKXIA. 
 
 are now pretty nearly abandoned. The harbor is good, but 
 the land in San Diego county is not rich, and it may be said 
 that the town has no brilliant destiny before it, at least not in 
 the near future. The Mission of San Diego was the earliest 
 in California and was founded in 1769. 
 
 In Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo, nearly all the inhab- 
 itants are Spanish Californians, and nearly all the houses are 
 of adobes. Both are small, dull places, founded in the last 
 century, and the sites of old missions. The San Luis Obispo 
 Mission was founded in 1772, that of Santa Barbara in 1782. 
 
 § 277. Mining Towns. — Weaverville, Shasta, Oroville, 
 Quincy, Auburn, Downieville, Mokelumne Hill, Jackson, and 
 Mariposa, are large mining towns, and are the county-seats of 
 various mining counties, but they possess . no features of suf- 
 ficient importance to entitle them to separate notice here. 
 The mining towns of California, as a general rule, are built in 
 canons, with irregular crooked streets. The main business 
 street runs through the middle of the canon and is densely 
 lined with stores, billiard rooms, liquor shops, restaurants, and 
 inns. Many of those houses are of brick and fire-proof. The 
 dwellings are scattered about irregularly ; some are neatly 
 built and are surrounded with pleasant gardens ; the majority 
 are miserabk little shanties or log-cabins, with no yard, flowers 
 or fruit-trees to give aa appearance of home. Tlie population 
 of these towns is not permanent. One year they are here, 
 next they are elsewhere. In 1854 Oroville was laid out ; in 
 1857 it cast one thousand votes, and was the third town in the 
 state; in 1860 its glory had departed, and at least a dozen 
 towns have now a larger population and a larger trade. 
 
 § 298. General Remarks. — In taking a general view of the 
 towns of Cahfornia, we perceive that all those of the most 
 note are exclusively American. San Francisco, Sacramento, 
 Marysville, Stockton, Nevada, Grass Yalley, Placerville, Co- 
 lumbia, Petaluma, Yreka, Shasta, Sonora, Oakland, Vallejo, 
 Santa Clara, Downieville, Weaverville, Mokelumne Hill, Au- 
 burn, Oroville, Jackson, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, Healdsburg, 
 
yociiiT^. 421 
 
 Areata, and Crescent City, are American in their origin and 
 population. Not one of the old Spanish towns, save San Jose, 
 has gained any thing in population since 1846. Los Angeles, 
 Sonoma, Monterey, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, and San 
 Diego have just about the same number of inhabitants now as 
 previous to the American conquest. 
 
422 EESOURCES OF C^LIFOENIA. 
 
 CHAPTKR. XIIL 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 
 
 § 299. Introductory. — The topographical names of Califor- 
 nia differ much from those of other states in the Uiiion, where 
 there is a disagreeable repetition of famiUar names. Our peo- 
 ple have not attempted to immortalize Franklin, Jefferson, 
 Madison, Adams, Henry, Randolph, Clay, Cass, Benton, Web- 
 ster, Taylor, Fillmore, Polk, Pierce, or Buchanan, by affixing 
 their tiresome patronymics to counties or towns. All our 
 prominent places are designated by titles comparatively new 
 to the Engii,'<h language, and strange to Americans. 
 
 The topographical names of the state are derived from three 
 languages — Spanish, English, and Indian. Most of the names 
 along the southern coast and about the bay of San Francisco — 
 districts which were populated by the Spaniards long before 
 the Americans came to the country — are Spanish. The larger 
 '•ivers in the Sacramento basin were known to the Spaniards, 
 and were named by them previous to 1846. The mining dis- 
 tricts of the Sierra Nevada and the Klamath basin, and the 
 coast north of 40°, were first explored and settled by the 
 Americans, and therefore the names are of English origin. 
 The Indian names are numerous. 
 
 § 300. Sacred Spmdsh Names. — The Spanish names may be 
 divided into the sacred and profane. The first Spanish set- 
 tlers were Catholic missionaries, in whose almanac every day 
 is named after some saint, and in whose faith the saints were 
 but little below divinity. It was customary for them to keep the 
 saints constantly in mind, and when they came to a strange 
 place, to name it after the saint upon whose day they had 
 
TOPOGKAPHICAL NAMES. 423 
 
 reached it. Thus it is that nearly all the settlements made by 
 or under the missionaries are sanctified. 
 
 The male saints have " San," the females " Santa" to pre- 
 cede their Christian names, as in Enghsh we have " St.'* 
 Some uneducated Americans corrupt the " San" or " Santa" 
 before certain Spanish names into " St.," and say " St. Fran- 
 cisco," " St. Lucas ;" but the more intelligent Americans ad- 
 here strictly to the Spanish spelling and pronunciation of 
 topographical names. 
 
 The Missions were all named from saints or sacred dogmas. 
 There are San Miguel, San Gabriel, and San Rafael (from the 
 three highest angels, Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael), San Juan 
 Bautista and San Juan Capistrano (St. John the Baptist and 
 St. John of Capistrano), San Francisco de Assisi and San 
 Francisco de Solano, San Luis Rey and San Luis Obispo (St. 
 Louis the king and St. Louis the bishop), San Carlos, Santa 
 Clara, Santa Barbara, San Jose (St. Joseph), Santa Inez Vir- 
 gen y Martyr (St. Inez the virgin and martyr), San Antonio 
 de Padua (St. Anthony), San ^Fernando Rey (St. Ferdinand 
 the king), San Buenaventura (St. Good Fortune), La Purisi- 
 ma Concepcion (the Most Pure Conception), Nuestra Seiiora 
 de Soledad (our Lady of Solitude), and Santa Cruz (the Holy 
 Cross). 
 
 Among the saints whose names are applied to places not 
 missions, are San Pedro (Peter), San Pablo (Paul), San Mateo 
 (Matthew), San Andres (Andrew), San Marcos (Mark), San 
 Simeon, San Joaquin (Joachim), San Nicolas, San Clemente, 
 San Lorenzo (Lawrence), San Leandro (Leander), San Pascual, 
 San Ramon, San Felipe (Philip), San Cayetano (Cayetan), San- 
 ta Marta (Martha), Santa Maria, Santa Paula (Pauline), Santa 
 Rosa, Santa Isabel, Santa Margarita, Santa Cataiina, Santa Su- 
 sana, Santa Lucia, and Santa Gertrudis. Otiier Spanish sa- 
 cred names, not derived from saints, are Trinidad (Trinity), 
 Sacramento (Sacrament), Jesus Maria (Jesus the Son of Ma- 
 ry), and Nuestra Sefiora La Reina de los Angeles (Our Lady 
 the Queen of the Argels). 
 
424 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 § 301. Profane Spa7iish Names. — Among the Spanish pro- 
 fane names are Agua Fria (cold water), Agua Caliente (hot 
 water, or warm spring), Yallecito (little valley), Esperanza 
 (hope), Campo Seco (dry field), Garote, Hornitos (little ovens), 
 Salinas (salt places), Alameda (a place of elms or cotton wood 
 trees), Saucelito (a little clump of willows, more properly 
 spelled Sauzalito), Bodega (a vault), Laguna Seca (dry lagoon), 
 Cienega (puddle), Merced (mercy), Buena Vista (good view), 
 Contra Costa (the opposite coast, the shore opposite the bay 
 of San Francisco), Del Norte (of the north), Plumas (feathers), 
 Tulare (a place of tules). El Dorado (the golden land), Fresno 
 (ash), Nevada (snowy), Sierra (mountain chain). Placer (gold 
 diggings), Calaveras (skulls), Mariposa (butterfly), Alcatraz 
 (pelican), Farallones (points of rock in the sea), Corte Madera 
 (place where wood is cut), Monte (the mountain or forest), 
 Loma Prieta (black hill), Monte Diablo (the devil's mountain), 
 Montecito (httle mountain or little forest), Alamo (elm or Cot- 
 tonwood tree). Alamo Mocho (the cropped cottonwood), Pajaro 
 (bird). Coyote and Tejon (a badger). Some of these names 
 have been changed by the Americans. The Spaniards say, 
 el Rio de las Mariposas (the river of the butterfly), el Rio de las 
 Calaveras, el Rio de los Pajaros, la Isla de las Alcatraces, la Bahia 
 de San Francisco (the bay of San Francisco), La Mision de 
 San Gabriel (the Mission of San Gabriel), el Rio de las Salinas. 
 The Americans drop the common Spanish nouns of no, JaAm, 
 and mision, and say Calaveras River, Sahnas River, the Mission 
 San Gabriel, etc. Though the plural form of Calaveras and 
 Salinas has been preserved, the singular has been adopted for 
 Pajaro River, Alcatraz Island, and Coyote Creek. Pajaro River 
 was so named because of the great number of wild geese 
 and ducks which were formerly seen in its valley. Cape Men- 
 docino was named after a noble patron of an early Spanish 
 navigator on this coast. Amador county and Amador valley 
 were named after Jose M. Amador, who was formerly manager 
 of the property of the Mission of San Jose, about 1835. He 
 lived in Amador valley, and in 1848 he went with a number of 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 425 
 
 Indians to mine in what is now Amador county. Yallejo, Pa- 
 cbeco, Martinez, and Alvarado, are the names of prominent 
 men among the Spanish Californians. Some Spanish names 
 have been changed into Enghsh. The American River was 
 formerly called el Rio de los America9ios, because the Ameri- 
 cans entering California usually came down the banks of that 
 stream. The Feather River was called el Bio de las Plumas, 
 the river of feathers. The "Plumas," after having been aban- 
 doned as a designation for the river, was given to the county 
 in which the river takes its rise. The Yuba River was called 
 by the Spaniards, el Bio de las ITvas (the river of the grapes). 
 The ignorant Spaniards wrote the main word JJhas^ the h and 
 V being often confounded in the Castilian tongue. The Ameri- 
 cans gave the English pronunciation to the initial u, then wrote 
 it " Yubas," as they pronounced it, and finally changed it to 
 the singular. Angel Island was formerly called la Isla de los 
 Angeles, and Mare Island was called la Isla de las Yeguas. The 
 town of Benicia was laid off in 1846, and was lu'st called 
 " Francesca," one of the Christian names of the wife of M. G. 
 Yallejo, on whose land the town was to be built ; but in March, 
 1847, the name of the town of, Yerba Buena was changed to San 
 Francisco, and the projector of Benicia, Mr. Charles D. Semple, 
 thought it necessary, for the purpose of avoiding confusion, to 
 change the name of his city on paper, so he adopted "Benicia," 
 another name of Mrs. Yallejo. The town of Sonora was so 
 named because the majority of the first miners there were from 
 Sonora. The New Almaden quicksilver mine, for some months 
 after the nature of the ore was discovered, was called la 3Ji7ia 
 de /Santa Clara. Its present name was derived from the great 
 quicksilver mine of Almaden, in old Spain. The Enriqueta 
 quicksilver mine was named after Enriqueta (Henrietta) Llnv- 
 rencel, the daughter of the managing owner of the rancho at 
 the time the mine was discovered. 
 
 § 302. Indian Names. — The Indian names in California are 
 numerous. Among them are Siskiyou, Klamath, Shasta, Te- 
 hama, Colusa, Yolo, Napa, Sonoma, Mokelumne, Tuolumne. 
 
428 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Chowchilla, Cabuilla, Suscol, Suisim, Cosumnes, Temecula, 
 Temascal, Jurupa, Petaluma, Tomales, Yreka, Ukiah, Cuyama, 
 Cocomongo, Mayacmas, Bolbones, Guilicos, Huidiica, and 
 Hoopah. Most of these are the names of tribes of Indians. 
 The Mokelumne, Tuolumne, Chowchilla, Cahuilla, and Cosum- 
 nes Rivers were called by the Spaniards el Rio de los Moque- 
 lumnes, el Rio de ]os Tuolumnes, etc. The second syllable of 
 Moquelumne was changed by the Americans, to be spelled 
 with a/:, which has the same sound as qu before e in Spanish. 
 Cahuilla is sometimes vulgarly spelled "Kaweah" by Ameri- 
 cans, who thus represent the Spanish pronunciation as nearly 
 as possible. Klamatli and Shasta w^ere formerly written "Tla- 
 math" and " Tshastl." Sonoma, by some persons written " Zo- 
 noma" in early times, is an Indian word meaning "valley 
 of the moon." Temascal means an Indian sweat-house. So- 
 lano is a Spanish word meaning the south wind, but Solano 
 county was so called after the chief of the Suisun tribe of In- 
 dians. I have not been able to learn whether his name was 
 given to him by the Sp;miards, or was of Indian origin. Marin 
 county was also named after an Indian chief. Yreka is a cor- 
 ruption of Wi-e-kah, which means whiteness, and is the Indian 
 name of Mount Shasta, at the foot of which the town is situated. 
 § 303. Ainerican Names. — Now we come to the American 
 names. Towns are named after Jackson, Washington, Lafay- 
 ette, and Stockton (the last was in command of the American 
 navy on this coast during the Mexican war). Bigler, one of 
 the governors of the state, has been immortalized by having 
 his name affixed to a lake. The patronymics of Alexander 
 Humboldt and J. A. Sutter are affixed to counties. Trinity 
 River was so named because the white men who discovered it 
 in the mountains, supposed it emptied into the bay of Trinidad, 
 which had been discovered by the Spimiards several centuries 
 ago. Marys ville was first called Yubaviile, and then named 
 after Mrs. Mary Covilland, one of the founders of the place. 
 Among the pioneer miners of Calaveras county were Murphy, 
 Angel, and Carson, and they became the eponyms (to use a 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 427 
 
 word coined by Mr. Grote) of the places where they stopped, 
 first called Murphy's Camp, Aogel's Camp, and Carson's Camp, 
 now become permanent towns, which have discarded the 
 ''camp," and assumed the titles, "Murphy's," "Angel's," etc. 
 It is better to drop the s and the apostrophe, as is sometimes 
 done. "Yankee Jim's Camp" — the surname of "Jim" was 
 never known to the general public — is now simply Yankee 
 Jim. Messrs. Downie, Weaver, and Heald were the respective 
 eponyms of Downieville, Weaverville, and Ilealdsburg ; and 
 Folsom was named after the owners of the rancho on which it 
 was laid out. The knowledge or supposition of rich diggings is 
 indicated by some of tlie names of towns. For instance, Ojfhir, 
 Gold Hill, Quartzburg, Phicerville, Oroville, Rich Bar, and Tin 
 Cup. Piacerville was, in 1849, called Hangtown, because it was 
 the first place where any person was hanged by Lynch law. 
 Oroville is a compound of oro, the Spanish word for gold, and 
 ville, the French word for city. Tin Cup was so named because 
 the first miners there found the placers so rich that they measur- 
 ed their gold in pint tin cups. Many of the bars and camps in 
 the mining districts are named after the discoverers or first set- 
 tlers. There are Scott's Bar, Long's Bar, Kelly's Bar, Kanaka 
 Bar, Negro Bar, Chinese Camp, etc. Other places are named 
 from the native places of the first settlers, as Mississippi Bar, 
 Ohio Bar, Iowa Hill, Michigan Bluffs, Illinoistovvn, AUeghany- 
 town, etc. Pine Log is so named because there was, in early 
 times, at that place a pine log across the South Fork of the 
 Stanislaus River, in such a position as to offer a very convenient 
 crossing to miners. Some of the mining camps are named 
 from tragic events which occurred there : thus there is a Mur- 
 derer's Bar, a Dead Man's Bar, and a Dead Shot Flat. The 
 following is a list of some curious names of mining localities: 
 
 Jim Crow Canon, Happy Valley, Ground-Hog's Glery, 
 
 Red Dog, Hell's Delight, Bogus Thunder, 
 
 Jackass Gulch, Devil's Basin, Last Chance, 
 
 Ladies' Canon, Dead Wood, Greenhorn Caiion, 
 
 Miller's Defeat, Gouge Eye, Shanghai Hill, 
 
 Loafer Hill, Puko Ravine, Shirttail Canon, 
 
428 
 
 EESOURCES OP CALIFOENIA. 
 
 Guano Hill, Slap-Jack Bar, 
 
 Rattlesnake Bar, Quack Hill, 
 
 Whiskey Bar, Pepperbox Flat, 
 
 Poverty Hill, Nigger Hill, 
 
 Greasers' Camp, Seventy-six, 
 
 .'hristian Flat, Piety Hill, 
 
 Rough and Ready, Hog's Diggings, 
 
 Ragtown, Brandy Gulch, 
 
 Sugar-Loaf Hill, Liberty Hill, 
 
 Poker Flat, Love-Letter Camp, 
 
 Wild-Cat Bar, Paradise, 
 
 Dead Mule Caiion, Blue Belly Ravine, 
 
 Wild Goose Flat, Sluice Fork, 
 
 Brandy Flat, Shinbone Peak, 
 
 Gridiron Bar, Seven-up Ravine, 
 
 Hen-roost Camp, Loafer's Retreat, 
 
 Lousy Ravine, Humpback Slide, 
 
 Lazy Man's Canon, Swellhead Diggings, . 
 
 Logtown, Cayote Hill, 
 
 Git-up-and-git, Poodletown, 
 
 Gopher Flat, Yankee Doodle, 
 
 Stud-horse Caiion, Horsetown, 
 
 Bob Ridley Flat, Petticoat Slide, 
 
 One Eye, Chucklehead Diggings, 
 
 Push-coach Hill, Mount Zion, 
 
 Puppytown, Barefoot Diggings, 
 
 Mad Canon, ♦ Plug-Head Gulch, 
 
 Butte county was named from the huttes or high hills' on its 
 border. Cache Creek was probably so called because some 
 trappers buried or cached something on its banks many years 
 ago. Butte and Cache are words of French origin, introduced 
 into the English language by trappers. 
 
 Anaheim is derived from Ana, the Spanish for Ann, and the 
 German word heim, meaning home — and the compound means 
 Anna's home. The Ana was suggested by the Santa Ana 
 valley, in which Anaheim is built. 
 
 § 304. Etyynology of " Californiar — There is much doubt 
 about the etymology of the word California. Some authors 
 contend that it is a compound, derived from the Latin words 
 callda (hot) and fornax (furnace). The name was first be- 
 
 Skunk Gi.lch, 
 Coon Hollow, 
 Poor Man's Creek, 
 Humbug Caiion, 
 Bloomer Hill, 
 Grizzly Flat, 
 Rat-Trap Slide, 
 Pike Hill, 
 Port Wine, 
 Snow Point, 
 Nary Red, 
 Gas Hill, 
 Ladies' Yalley, 
 Graveyard Canon, 
 Gospel Gulch, 
 Chicken-Thief Flat, 
 Hungry Camp, 
 Mud Springs, 
 Skinflint, 
 
 American Hollow, 
 Gold Hill, 
 Pancake Ravine, 
 Centipede Hollow, 
 Nutcake Camp, 
 Seven-by-nine Valley, 
 Paint-Pot HiH. 
 
TOrOGKAPHICAL NAMES. 429 
 
 Stowed ill the sixteenth century, by Spanish navigators, upon 
 Lower California, the southern point of which reaches into the 
 tropics; and being a dry, treeless, bare, and desolate country, 
 it may well have appeared to them to be hot as a furnace. 
 Some persons, however, suppose the word to be of Indian 
 origin. The Spaniards and Mexicans called the peninsula Baja 
 California^ or Low California ; also, Antigua California^ or 
 Old California; and the coast further north, Alta California^ 
 or High California; also, Nueva Calif oriiia^ or New Califor- 
 nia. The two were called Las Calif ornias^ or the Californias. 
 The state constitution was framed in 1849, and commences, 
 *' We, the people of California," etc. This, therefore, is the 
 California, and the peninsula south of us is not meant or thought 
 of, unless we use the adjective prefix, and say Lower Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 § 305. Pronunciation of Names, — In the pronunciation 
 of the names of Spanish and Indian origin, the letters have 
 usually the Spanish sounds. A is like "a" in far ; e like " a" in 
 fare ; i like " ee" in meet ; o like " o" in go ; u like " oo" in 
 fool, ^is silent ; J and g^ before e and ^, have a sound similar 
 to that of the English " h ;" s never has the sound of 2, but 
 is always like " ss" in hiss. Qu^ before e and /, is like " k." 
 X^, is "Hi" in William ; n is like " ni" in union. There are 
 no diphthongs in Spanish. Every vowel is sounded separately. 
 Words ending in a vowel in the singular, have the accent on 
 the syllable next the last ; those ending in a consonant, on the 
 last. In case any vowel has an accent marked over it, then 
 that vowel has the accent. The Spaniards of old Spain pro- 
 nounce the z before all vowels, and the c before e and z, like 
 '' th" in thick ; but the Mexicans give them the sound of s. 
 
 Tlie errors which Americans most frequently commit in 
 pronouncing Spanish words are, in giving to a the English 
 sounds of " a" in fat and fate ; giving to s the sound of " z ;" 
 to j and g^ before e and /, the same sounds as in English ; to 
 gu the sound of the English " w ;" and in putting the accent 
 on the first syllable — English fashion. The following may 
 
430 
 
 EE SOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 serve as a further guide to tlie proper pronunciation of some 
 of the names : 
 
 Spanish Names and Pronunciation. 
 Diego — dee ay go. 
 Suisun — soo ee scon. 
 Alameda — ah lah may da. 
 Sierra — see er ra. 
 Nevada — nay vah dah, 
 Mateo — mah tay o. 
 Monterey — mon ta ray ee. 
 Luis Obispo — loo eess o bees po. 
 Los Angeles — loce an gel es. 
 Vallejo — val yay ho. 
 Vallecito — val yay thee to. 
 Joaquin — ho ah keen. 
 Juan BautistSf— hwan bah oo teestah, 
 
 Spanish Names and Pronunciation. 
 Jose — ho say. 
 
 Jesus Maria — hay soos mah ree ah. 
 Puta — poo tah. 
 Tejon — tay hone. 
 Faralloues — fah rahl yo nes. 
 Gabriel — gah bree ale. 
 Rafael — rah fah ale. 
 Miguel — «nee gale. 
 Pajaro — pah hah ro. 
 Coyote — CO yo tay. 
 Pacheco — pah chay co. 
 Cahuilla — cah oo eel ya. 
 Queretaro — kay ray tah ro. 
 
 This table is not a perfect guide to pronunciation, but only 
 an approximation. 
 
 Placer has been anglicized so much that it is commonly 
 spoken with the accent on the first syllable. Mokelumne and 
 Tuolumne have the accent on the antepenultimate and the 
 vowel short. Siskiyou has the accent on the first syllable. 
 Sutter is pronounced with the u like " oo" in foot. Mokel- 
 umne is often mispronounced Mac al a my, and the Cf^sum- 
 nes River is not unfrequently called the Macosme. Folsom 
 is pronounced like the adjective fulsome. Yosemite has four 
 Byllables with the accent on the antepenultimate (Yo sem i tc). 
 
GKNEEAL SUMMARY. 431 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PRESENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
 
 STATE. 
 
 § 006. General Summary. — ^Twelve chapters of this book 
 have been filled with a detailed statement of the nature and 
 characteristics of the resources, industry, and society of Cali- 
 fornia. In this chapter, I shall present a summary of their 
 main features. 
 
 We have, then, before us a state, lying in the midst of the 
 temperate zone, on the western coast of North America; 
 bounded on one side by the Pacific Ocean, and on the other 
 by a high range of mountains ; reaching through nine degrees 
 of longitude and three of latitude ; with a coast-line eight hun- 
 dred miles long, and a total area of about one hundred and 
 sixty thousand, square miles. The heart of the state is drained 
 by two large rivers, which run from north and south, unite 
 midway, and in their course to the sea form three large and 
 deep bays, with secure and spacious harbors. On these bays 
 and their tributaries, there are nearly one thousand miles of 
 navigable streams now used by steamboats and sailing-vessels. 
 
 The climate near the ocean is the most equable in the world. 
 At San Francisco, there is a difference of only seven degrees 
 between the mean temperatures of summer and winter — the 
 average of the latter season being 50° and of the former 51 ~ 
 Fahrenheit. Ice and snow are never seen in winter ; and in 
 summer the weather is so cool, that heavy woollen clothing is 
 worn every day. There are not more than a dozen days m 
 the year too warm for comfort at mid-day, and the oldest m- 
 babitant cannot remember a night when blankets were not 
 
432 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 necessary for a comfortable sleep. The climate is just of that 
 character most favorable to the constant mental and physical 
 activity of men, and to the unvarying health and continuous 
 growth of animals and plants. In the interior, the summers 
 are much warmer than near the ocean ; while in the mountains 
 the winters are much colder. By travelling a few hundred 
 miles, the Californian can find almost any temperature that 
 he may desire — great warmth in winter, and icy coldness in 
 summer. 
 
 The rocks of the state are chiefly granite and tertiary sand- 
 stone; the former occupying the high mountains, the latter 
 the valleys. In former eras there were several, or perhaps 
 many volcanoes in the range of the Sierra Nevada. Mount 
 Shasta was one of them, and it now has hot springs on its 
 summit, and sends up sulphurous vapors. On the w^estern 
 slope of the Sierra Nevada, about half way between the sum- 
 mit and the foot, are numerous beds of slate and veins of 
 quartz. The same formations are found in the Klamath basin 
 and in other parts of the state ; and in nearly every case they 
 are auriferous. There is scarcely a county which does not 
 contain gold. The districts which contain enough gold to sup- 
 port a mining population, have an area of about ten thousand 
 square miles. The gold-yield of the state is about forty-three 
 million dollars annually — more than that of any other country, 
 save the colony of Victoria, in Australia. 
 
 The number of men engaged in mining may be estimated at 
 eighty thousand. Oar placers and auriferous quartz veins are 
 almost inexhaustible ; there are great mountains of gold-bear- 
 ing gravel which cannot be washed away for a century to 
 come ; and the quartz-lodes will last still longer. 
 
 The gold-mining of California is conducted in the most 
 thorough and enterprising manner. Although the main prin- 
 ciples of the sluice and the hydraulic washing were known and 
 used, on a small scale, long before the discovery of gold in 
 California, it was here that those modes of working were first 
 perfected, applied on an extensive scale, and brought into uni- 
 
GENERAL SUMMAFwT. 433 
 
 versal use. Large rivers are turned out of their beds ; moan- 
 tains are pierced by tunnels; hills are washed away; and the 
 rivers roll thick with mud to the sea through summer and 
 
 winter. 
 
 The silver-mines of the state were discovered only a short 
 time ago, and their value is not yet fully known ; but that 
 some of the ore is wonderfully rich, is established beyond a 
 doubt. The silver districts are in the basin of Utah, at an 
 elevation of five thousand feet or more above the level of the 
 sea, in the midst of a desert country. 
 
 In quicksilver, California is the richest country in the world. 
 There are extensive beds of sulphur, asphaltum, and plumbago, 
 and large lakes and springs impregnated with borax. 
 
 The natural scenery of California is varied and grand. The 
 Yosemite valley is a chasm ten miles long, two miles wide, and 
 three thousand feet deep, in the heart of the Sierra Nevada, 
 without its equal in the world for sublime and picturesque 
 scenery. It has a dozen great cascades, the highest of which 
 has a fall of thirteen hundred feet. The Mammoth Trees are 
 the largest known growths of the vegetable kingdom. "There 
 are likewise in the state mud-volcanoes, natural bridges, many 
 caves, and numerous hot and mineral springs, some of which 
 throw out great columns of steam. 
 
 The animals and plants of California are peculiar to this 
 coast. The finest group of coniferous trees in the world is 
 that of this state. The mammoth tree, the redwood, the 
 sugar-pine, the red fir, the yellow fir, and the Tliuja gigantea, 
 all reach the wonderful height of three hundred feet; the 
 mammoth tree grows to be thirty feet in diameter, the red- 
 wood twenty, and the others from eight to twelve. 
 
 The grizzly bear is the largest and strongest indigenous 
 animal of the continent; and the Californian vulture is, next 
 to the condor, the largest bird that flies. The sea near^ our 
 coast teems with halibut, turbot, mackerel, herrmg, sardmes, 
 anchovies, and smelts; while sturgeon and salmon are abun- 
 dant in our rivers. 
 19 
 
434 EE SOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 There are 40,000,000 acres of tillable land in the state, but 
 not more than 1,000,000 acres are now cultivated. In 1860, 
 the aggregate product of grains and roots of annual growth 
 amounted to 14,470,000 bushels, being an average of twenty- 
 four bushels to the acre cultivated, and of thirty-eight bushels 
 to each inhabitant of the state. The crop of barley was the 
 largest, measuring 5,700,000 bushels; that of wheat, 5,000,000 
 bushels ; oats and potatoes, each, 1,500,000 bushels ; and maize, 
 600,000 bushels. The barley forms thirty-nine per cent, of the 
 14,470,000 bushels; wheat, thirty-four per cent.; oats and po- 
 tatoes, each ten per cent. ; maize, three per cent. ; and beans, 
 peas, sweet potatoes, buckwheat, and rye, one-half of one per 
 cent. each. 
 
 Farmers in California have many advantages over men of 
 the same occupation in other parts of the United States. The 
 winter is never so cold as to interrupt their work, and there 
 are no storms of rain and hail to destroy their grain and hay. 
 They need no barns. Barley thrives better than in any other 
 part of the world. The soil and climate are also particularly 
 favorable to the growth of wheat, which unites the valuable 
 qualities of whiteness, dryness, and glutinousness, to a greater 
 degree than any other wheat in the world. Our average crops 
 are also larger than in any other place where manure is not 
 used extensively. The yield of hops is large, and the facilities 
 for drying them, so as to preserve their strength, are better 
 than in any other land where they are cultivated. Our kitchen 
 vegetables grow to an unparalleled size. Nowhere else have 
 pumpkins been seen to reach two hundred and fifty pounds iu 
 weight each, beets one hundred and twenty pounds, white 
 turnips twenty-six pounds, solid-headed cabbages seventy-five 
 pounds, carrots ten pounds, water-melons sixty-five pounds, 
 onions forty-seven ounces, Irish potatoes seven pounds, sweet 
 potatoes fifteen pounds, and so forth. Some cabbages and 
 beets have spontaneously become perennials here, continuing 
 to grow fi'om year to year, and remaining green throughout 
 winter and summer; and many of our kitchen vegetables 
 
OENEKAL SUMMARY. 485 
 
 might be converted into perennials by preventing them from 
 going to seed. 
 
 The abundance, excellence, and variety of our fruit aston- 
 ish the stranger, though he may have come from the markets 
 of London or New York, which draw tribute from whole hem- 
 ispheres. No market on the globe surpasses ours in variety, 
 and yet it is not ten years since we began to import fruit-trees 
 direct from the Eastern states and Europe. Our mild winters 
 permit the trees to grow during nine or ten months in the 
 year, and they grow more rapidly, and reach maturity more 
 speedily, than in any other country where they are so healthy, 
 and bear so abundantly. The pear and apple trees which were 
 planted by the missionaries thirty or forty years ago, are still 
 in perfect health, and some of them produce as much as a ton 
 of fruit to the tree every year. The apple and pear seem to 
 have found here their most congenial clime. There are no 
 worms in our apples ; no curcuHos in our plums or cherries ; 
 no Hessian fly or weevil in our wheat. The olive and the fig 
 grow luxuriantly beside the apple and the pear. We can pro- 
 duce olives better than any of the olive-producing regions ot 
 the Mediterranean, because we have none of those storms oi 
 thunder and hail and rain, which frequently destroy the crops 
 in southern Europe and Asia Minor. The vine produces moro 
 abundantly than in any part of Europe, and the crop has never 
 failed or been destroyed here, as often happens there. A yield 
 of one thousand gallons of wine to the acre is as frequent, pro- 
 portionately, in California, as of four hundred in France or Ger- 
 many. Our gardens are, in time, to be the most beautiful in 
 the world, resplendent with conifers and deciduous trees, with 
 the flowers of the temperate zone, and the luxuriant plants of 
 the tropics. The shrubs which in New York remain small, 
 and live only under shelter, as delicate exotics, are natu- 
 ralized in San Francisco, grow almost to tree-like size, remain 
 green throughout the year, and bloom during most of the 
 months. The rosebush is covered with flowers from January 
 to December. 
 
436 RESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Domestic herbi^•erous aiiimnls liye and increase without 
 shelter, and without cultivnted food. They reach their fiiil 
 o-rowth a year earlier than in the Eastern states. The absence 
 of extreme cold gives them a more rapid growth, and exemp- 
 tion from many diseases. Sheep produce more wool, are 
 healthier, increase more rapidly, and are kept at far less cost 
 in California than in any American state east of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Bees increase more rapidly, and make more 
 honey than there is any record of their doing elsewhere. 
 Thunder and rain storms kill a large proportion of the silk- 
 worms in Italy, France, Turkey, and China every year ; in the 
 valleys of California we never have any lightning, and no rain 
 during the season when the silk-worms feed. 
 
 The wages of labor in California are higher than in any 
 other part of the world. Mechanics' Avages are generally from 
 two dollars and fifty cents to four dollars per day ; common 
 laborers, from one dollar and seventy-five cents to two dollars 
 and fifty cents per day ; farm laborers, and men and maid ser- 
 vants, from twenty dollars to thirty dollars per month. Our 
 imports and exports of treasure are larger in proportion to our 
 population than those of any other state. Our chief city is 
 favorably situated for commerce, and its harbor always con- 
 tains vessels of the largest size from every sea. It has an un- 
 doubted supremacy in the commerce of the north Pacific. We 
 have no paper money, and no current coin less than a dime.. 
 
 The inhabitants of the state, numbering nearly four hundred 
 thousand, represent in their nativities every American state, 
 and every continent, and every country of Europe, and many 
 of the countries of Asia and Africa. Our population is unsur 
 passed in intelligence, experience in travelling, and skill in the 
 arts. Our society is liberal in tone, and free in intercourse. 
 
 With many drawbacks, which have been set forth clearly 
 and unreservedly, California is still the richest part of the civ- 
 ilized world. It possesses most of the luxuries of Europe, and 
 many of the advantages which the valley of the Ohio had forty 
 years ago. It offers an open career to talents. In the i'ew 
 
SALE OF MINERAL LANDS. 437 
 
 years of its history it has astonished the world, and its chief 
 glories are still to come. The arts, the sciences, the refine- 
 ments of life, are to find a favored home in California. 
 
 Why is it then that the permanent population of the state 
 has not increased more rapidly ? Why have so many of the 
 early immigrants left her shores, never to return, by their de- 
 parture depriving her of the greatest element of wealth ? The 
 great cause is the mismanagement of land-titles by the federal 
 government, and the consequence is, that the people have been 
 unable to obtain secure homes, and therefore have gone to the 
 Eastern states, where they could find permanent residences. 
 This mismanagement has prevailed both in the mineral and 
 agricultural districts, and has produced incalculable evils. 
 
 § 307. Sale of Mineral Lands. — The welfare of every civ- 
 ilized state requires a permanent population, a well-regulated 
 society, a steady business, and a secure investment of capital 
 proportionate to the industrial ability and production of the 
 people. These requisites are indispensable to all national pros- 
 perity. Their want, if long continued, must inevitably be fol- 
 lowed by national ruin. They are wanting in a large portion 
 of California. 
 
 In the moral and social, as well as in the physical world, 
 cause and elFect are inseparably connected ; adequate means 
 never fail in leading to correspondent ends ; prosperity or ruin 
 comes not by mere chance, but is the necessary result of the 
 adoption of good or evil counsel. The ill-regulated society 
 and unsound condition of business in our state, are traceable 
 mainly to the insecure tenure of our lands ; and as a necessary 
 means to attain social, commercial, and individual health, we 
 must have perfect land-titles. I shall speak first of the min- 
 eral counties. 
 
 It is a necessary consequence of the want of secure land- 
 titles in the mining districts, that the inhabitants should be 
 unsettled- There is nothing to fix them in any one place, while 
 many motives impel them to frequent removals ; and the result 
 is, that a considerable portion of the mining population is truly 
 
438 RESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 nomadic in character. Most of them have poor claims, or 
 none at all; and they enact laws, or establish customs having 
 the force of laws, that all claims shall be small, usually not 
 more than one hundred feet square. These small claims are 
 worked out in a month or two, or at most in a year or two, 
 and then the miner must go. Perhaps he will find his next 
 claim within ten miles, perhaps not within fifty. When he 
 gets a claim he may not be able to work it out ; he must not 
 only occupy his claim, but he must work it. If he absent him- 
 self from it more than three days, during the season in which 
 it can be worked, for other cause than sickness, it becomes for- 
 feit to whomsoever will seize it. In no case can he who mines 
 in the river-beds, banks, flats, or gulches consider his claim a 
 home for life ; in one case out of a thousand it may employ 
 him for ten years. Quartz and tunnel claims are more lasting, 
 and many of them will not be exhausted in a lifetime ; but- the 
 miners employed in these are a small portion of the total 
 number. 
 
 The miner is not only not tied to his claim by ownership, or 
 the hope of long employment and lasting profit, but he is con- 
 stantly tempted by other tracts wiiich are open to him with- 
 out price. He may consider himself owner of all the unoccu- 
 pied land in the country. He can take and use any of it. Xo 
 one has a better title than he. Every unoccupied gully, flat, 
 hill-side, river-bar, river-bank, and quartz-vein is persistently 
 trying to seduce him. He can scarcely take a pleasure-walk 
 on a Sunday morning without seeing some place which invites 
 him to come there and settle, to desert his old home and make 
 a new one. And when there is nothing to protect him against 
 such temptations, save his belief in the superior mineral wealth 
 of his first location, that belief may often be changed by a 
 very brief examination of the new place. He has no title to 
 the spot where he dwells, no substantial improvements, no 
 property of any kind save such as he can carry on his back at 
 one load. 
 
 The world never saw such a people of travellers as the Call- 
 
SALE OP MINEEAL LANDS. 439 
 
 fornians. There are now about 350,000 white inhabitants in 
 the state, and more than 250,000 others have gone "home" 
 during the last twelve years, four-fifths of them never to re- 
 turn. Not one-fifth — probably not one-tenth — of the miners 
 of 1849 are now in the state, and it would be a difficult, and 
 perhaps an impossible task, to find a Californian mining town, 
 one-twentieth of whose population has been permanent there 
 since 1850. 
 
 In regard to the men leaving California, it must in fairness 
 be stated that many of them are actuated by a desire to be 
 with their families, and they see that it is much cheaper for 
 them to go to New York than to have their families come to 
 S.m Francisco ; and there are cases where the families would 
 make very great objection^ even overlooking the cost of pas- 
 sage, against movin^: to a land so far from all their relatives. 
 But, on the other hand, it must be considered also that all the 
 men who leave the state, do so seeing and acknowledging, be- 
 fore they go, that in climate, mineral resources, the profits of 
 labor and trade, the enterprise, intelligence, and generosity of 
 the people, the independent spirit of the poor, the democratic 
 spirit of the rich, and the frank friendliness of all, California 
 is far superior to any other part of the American Union, while 
 it has many advantages in other respects. Such an acknowl- 
 edgment, coming from men leaving a state with which many 
 of the most interesting associations of their lives are connected, 
 implies a great evil somewhere. Although some of them go 
 " home" because they cannot bring their families to Califor- 
 nia, yet this is not the fact in one-fourth of the cases ; they go 
 because they do not wish to live here, because they will not 
 live here. 
 
 Another evil effect of the want of secure land-titles, and 
 the consequent unsettled character of the population, is the 
 want of good houses and substantial improvements of all kinds. 
 The dwellings throughout the mines are, as a class, mere hovels, 
 even in the oldest and most thickly-settled districts. In the 
 towns it is necessary to have some substantial stores, as a pro- 
 
440 RESOURCES OP CALIFORNIA 
 
 tection to the valuable goods kept in them; but with these ex- 
 ceptions, and a few fine residences, even nominal "cities" are 
 collections of shanties, scattered about with little regard to 
 order, and fitted up with little provision for comfort. 
 
 The wandering character of the population, and the want of 
 permanent and comfortable homes, render the mines an unsuit- 
 able place of residence for families. There are a few women 
 in the mines, and of these few a considerable share are neither 
 maids, wives, nor widows. The general proportion of adult 
 men to adult women, throughout the mining districts, is prob- 
 ably not less than three to one, and to married women, four 
 to one. 
 
 It sometimes happens that miners having wives in the east- 
 ern states have them come to live jn the mines ; but in a con- 
 siderable proportion of cases this arrangement is not a per- 
 manent one. Anxious as the inexperienced wife may have 
 been to live with her husband, and willing as she might be to 
 share his privations, the result has often been that she found 
 life in the mines unsuited for herself and her children. There 
 are many good, virtuous, and intelligent women living in the 
 mines, and perhaps as well contented there as they would be 
 in any other part of the world ; but there are not enough of 
 them. 
 
 If there were no other evil than this scarcity of women 
 traceable to the present tenure of the mineral lands, that one 
 fact would be enough to settle the question that the mines 
 must be sold. The family is no less essential to the good order 
 of society and the prosperity of the state than it is to the hap- 
 piness of the individual. A community of American fiimilies 
 must have permanent homes ; they must own the land in fee- 
 simple ; and there cannot be a large community of families in 
 the mining districts of California unless the land there be sold. 
 
 The scarcity of women is again the first link in a great 
 chain of evils. Some men in the mining counties would like 
 to marry, but cannot find wives to their choice. They must 
 either travel thousands of miles to get a wife abroad, or take 
 
SALE OF MINERAL LANDS. 441 
 
 some awkward girl just entering her teens, without education 
 or experience in society, and entirely incompetent to take 
 charge of kitchen or nursery. The scarcity of wives and mar- 
 ried women converts many men into tempters, and they must 
 cause nmch misery. And women, knowing that they are 
 scarce, and therefore in demand, are incited to calculate the 
 i'hances and the profits of fidelity and chastity as compared 
 with infidelity and infamy. Family quarrels often ensue, and 
 the state has a sad notoriety for the frequency of its separa- 
 tions and divorces. A trustworthy gentleman informs me 
 that, during a visit to a mining town in a remote part of the 
 state, about seven years ago, he was informed that there were 
 in the town one hundred and twenty-seven women, forty-nine 
 of whom, though married, were living with men not their hus- 
 bands. The case is certainly without a parallel, in the state or 
 elsewhere ; but the condition of affairs in this respect has 
 changed very much for the better since 1855. 
 
 The want of families, and the comparative scarcity of intel- 
 ligent and good women, deprive the community of many of the 
 most wholesome pleasures and ennobling influences which are 
 found in other states. The man who has no wife or sweet- 
 heart to work for is improvident ; and, unchecked by such 
 pubHc opinion as can reign only where well-regulated families 
 are numerous and society permanent, he gives himself up to 
 dissipation, feeling confident that none of his neighbors will 
 cut his acquaintance on that account. 
 
 As the people are among strangers, and do not expect to re- 
 main among them long, reputation loses its value, and public 
 opinion its power ; and thus forces of great influence in pre- 
 serving the good order of society elsewhere have compara- 
 tively little influence in the mines. 
 
 The scarcity of families and the consequent unstable state 
 of" society make servant-girls shy of the country, and the few 
 here demand enormous wages — five and six times greater than 
 in New York. This may at first, sight appear to be a fact 
 of little importance, but it has really driven thousands of fam- 
 19* 
 
442 RESOURCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ilies from the state, and prevented thousands of others from 
 coming. 
 
 These various social evils chafe and foment one another, and 
 the consequence is, that the miners who have come to the state 
 intending only to remain a few years are not likely to change 
 their intention. It is of course the ambition of most men in 
 the country to have homes of their own; to have wives and 
 families, to be with them and to enjoy their society. Since they 
 do not propose to become permanent citizens here, if married, 
 they do not bring their families with them ; if unmarried, they 
 do not marry while here. The necessary effect of this state of 
 affairs is, that there is an exceeding anxiety to get away from 
 the country as soon as possible. A feverish excitement pre- 
 vails through the whole people. Speculation has risen to an 
 unexampled height. The game is, to make a fortune in a few 
 months or to be bankrupt ; and there are tens of thousands to 
 play at it. Men complain that they cannot enjoy life in the 
 mines ; that life there is a mere brutal existence ; and they be- 
 come desperate in their anxiety to leave it, to go elsewhere, 
 where peace and comfort, permanent homes and social order 
 prevail ; where numerous well-regulated families furnish agree- 
 able company for the married, and where numerous accom- 
 plished young ladies furnish not less agreeable company to the 
 unmarried. Most men in California do not live here to enjoy 
 life, but to make money, so that they may enjoy life in some 
 other country. Not that the people are parsimonious — far 
 from it; but they are puffed up with extravagant expecta- 
 tions, or rather determinations. Unless they can earn very 
 large wages, they will not work at all. The merchant will 
 not be content with a regular business, paying ten times as 
 much profit as he could make with a like capital in the East- 
 ern states ; he must go into wild speculations, and risk every 
 thing upon a remote chance of making a sudden fortune. The 
 frequency of insolvencies, particularly in the towns, is inexpli- 
 cable, at first, to a man whox3omes here without understanding 
 the peculiar condition of our society ; and the same man, going 
 
SALE OF MINERAL LANDS. 443 
 
 through the mines, will be astonished to see that the much- 
 abused Chinese are the only class who are always industrious. 
 The miner will often do nothing for weeks and months, run- 
 ning up long bills for " boarding," while he waits for rain, or 
 the completion of a ditch, or for something else to turn up, 
 lie is too high-minded to accept small pay, and would rather 
 be idle — at the risk of the boarding-house keeper and store- 
 keeper. His idleness is frequently called "prospecting;" he 
 travels about hunting for a place to work ; and this prospect- 
 ing may be said to employ nearly a fourth part of the mining 
 population. The consequence is, that a large portion of the 
 miners are always moneyless, or provided with an exceedingly 
 small amount of money. At other times they fall upon rich 
 deposits, and then try to make up in dissipation for past pri- 
 vations. And so the mining population comes to be an im- 
 provident one — unsteady, fond of gambling and other wild 
 amusements. The fact is that there is not in the whole world 
 such another reckless, thriftless, extravagant, improvident pop- 
 ulation as in the mining districts of California. 
 
 Another evil effect of our present system of land tenure in 
 the mineral districts, is to be found in the gradual lowering of 
 the general character of the population in the mining counties. 
 Most of the steady, prudent, economical men leave the state 
 with more or less money, while the dissipated, thriftless fel- 
 lows remain ; the latter class increasing in numbers, the for- 
 mer decreasing every year. The only means of fixing and in- 
 creasing the former class, and giving them the proper influ- 
 ence in our society, is to give them permanent homes ; and 
 this policy will at the same time drive away the wrecked spe- 
 cimens of humanity among us, and compel them to seek homes 
 in the Cimmerian darkness beyond our borders. 
 
 It is one of the great evils of the tenant-at-will system, that 
 there is little security for the investment of capital. Land 
 should be the main stock of wealth and the main basis of 
 credit, and the increase of its value with increasing popula- 
 tion should be one of the main sources of riches in every new 
 
444 RESOURCES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 country ; but of this kind of property the mining districts are 
 deprived by unwise policy. As it is now, it is almost impos- 
 sible to induce the capitalists of San Francisco to invest money 
 in, or loan raoney on, mining enterprises ; tliey have learned 
 by bitter experience that there is little safety for money in- 
 vested in canals and quai'tz-mills, where there is no title to the 
 ]<uids save possession, which might be lost by abandonment or 
 forfeiture at any moment. The consequence is, that the per- 
 manent improvements in the mines are rare, in comparison with 
 the number w^hich there would be if the mineral lands w^ere 
 sold ; and where money is borrowed to make such improve- 
 ments, extravagant rates of interest are paid. As a result of the 
 comparatively small amount of capital invested, and the lack 
 of security for large investments of money in mming enter- 
 prises, there is little demand for labor, and the state is full of 
 poor men anxious to get work, but unable to find anybody to 
 employ them. The immigrants to a new country are gener- 
 ally poor men ; and, unless the state of business is such that 
 they can confidently expect to obtain profitable employment 
 on their first arrival, there is little encouragement for them to 
 come. In regard to the certainty of success upon first arrival, 
 California offers less encouragement to the immigrant than 
 many of the states in the Mississippi Valley, and will not offer 
 more until the tenure of lands in the mines shall be changed. 
 
 The present policy drives away the money produced in the 
 state. Why do we send $40,000,000 of gold away every year ? 
 Simply because we cannot give good security for it. We have 
 nothing to give as security. We offer to pay twice as much 
 interest as anybody else, and our offer would be gladly ac- 
 cepted, if there were a certainty that we would pay as we prom- 
 ise ; but there is no certainty, no security. The $30,000,000 
 Bhipped by California to New York last year, would have 
 drawn $6,000,000 yearly interest here, while it will draw only 
 $3,000,000 there; and the $8,000,000 shipped to London would 
 have drawn $1,600,000 here, while it will draw only $450,000 
 in England; but the owners of the $40,000,000 prefer the 
 
SALE OF MIXERAL LANDS. 445 
 
 $3,450,000, with the IsTew York and London security for cap- 
 ital and interest, rather than the promise of $7,600,000, with 
 the danger of losing both capital and interest in California. It 
 is true, there is a natural drain of specie from countries where 
 labor is high, to those where labor is Ioav, because the latter 
 import little and export much ; and of course, in this respect, 
 California must necessarily become tributary to China, the At- 
 lantic states, and Europe ; but, on the other hand, our relations 
 with the great centres of capital are so intimate, that we can 
 get all the money we want at California rates of interest if we 
 will but give perfect security for it, and pay the interest with- 
 out fail. It would be no light matter for us to owe a hundred 
 millions, and pay California interest on it, to European capital- 
 ists ; but it would still be better than to do without the money, 
 without the improvements which it would build up, without 
 the population it would attract, and without the fixed wealth 
 it would create. 
 
 Again, the present system exercises a most prejudicial effect 
 upon the finances of the state, and bears very unequally upon 
 the citizens. The farming districts, where the inhabitants OAvn 
 the land, pay heavy land taxes ; whereas mining claims pay no 
 taxes at all. The result is, that the taxation upon the men in 
 the valleys is about three times as heavy as upon those in the 
 mountains. The miners generally have no homes, and no fixed 
 property, and cannot be forced to pay taxes. Most of the 
 mining counties are deeply in debt, and many are going deeper 
 every year. The only way to equalize the taxation is to 
 sell the mineral lands, and compel the miner to pay a tax upon 
 his mine, as well as the farmer on his farm. 
 
 The proposed sale of the mineral lands is opposed by two 
 arguments : first, that it will lead to monopoly ; and, secondly, 
 that gold mining in this state is so precarious, that miners 
 could not afibrd to have permanent residences and support 
 families. 
 
 These two arguments are antagonistic to each other ; both 
 cannot be sound; at least one of them must be fallacious. The 
 
4i0 KESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 " monopoly" argument presupposes not only that the persons 
 employed for wages to work the mines will earn enough to 
 support themselves and families, but also that the monopolists 
 will make a large profit, otherwise their monopoly would not 
 last long. The " precarious" argument presupposes that only 
 a small portion of the mining land will continue for any con- 
 siderable time to pay a living profit ; and that therefore there 
 is little encouragement for capitalists to invest their money in 
 mining land. The " monopoly" argument presupposes the in- 
 vestment of large amounts of capital — the very thing which 
 the mines most need ; the " precarious" argument presupposes 
 that mining wall be more profitable for a man who runs about 
 than for one who stays at or near one place. 
 
 All the great social evils w^iich I have mentioned as pre 
 vailing in California, are traceable directly to the roving char- 
 acter of the people ; render the population permanent and you 
 necessarily cure the evils. It is admitted that our mines will 
 not be exhausted, and that the number of miners in the whole 
 state will not decrease much, if at all, during the next fifty years. 
 It is entirely safe to predict that Siskiyou, Nevada, Shasta, 
 Placer, El Dorado, Plumas, Sierra, Tuolumne, and Calaveras, 
 w^ill be mining counties in 1950. Now if the mining is to be 
 continuous, why should not the miner be permanent ? There 
 is no necessity that he should be a nomad ; on the contrary, 
 his own pecuniary profit and the welfare of society require that 
 he should have a fixed residence, and not until he gets that, 
 can he be a valuable citizen. 
 
 But it is said the mining population cannot be permanent, be- 
 cause mining is a "precarious" business. Well, I should like 
 to know what business would not be " precarious," if conduct- 
 ed as mining has been in this state during the last ten years. 
 Here are one hundred thousand men, mostly without homes ; 
 not staying in any one place more than four months at a time, 
 on an average ; spending one day out of three in prospecting ; 
 refusing to work unless they can make big wages ; running suc- 
 cessively to Gold Lake, Gold Bluff, Kern River, Fraser River, 
 
SALE OF MINERAL LANDS. 447 
 
 Mono Lake, and Cariboo ;— how could any occupation be other 
 than precarious, managed in such a manner ? Of course min- 
 ing can be made precarious, and these fellows who are always 
 running about are the very ones to make it so. It will not be 
 made more precarious by permanence. If the five thousand 
 miners of El Dorado, and the four thousand miners of Tuo- 
 lumne, will just stay where they are, instead of changing places 
 with each other three times every year, they will not lose any 
 thing on the score of the precariousness of their business. I 
 venture to assert that gold mining in California, conducted 
 prudently, is not an uncertain business at all. A careful man 
 can, with a certainty, earn more than he could as a farmer on 
 the prairies of Illinois, where farming is one of the least pre- 
 carious occupations in the world. The permanent citizen can 
 afford to mine prudently; the nomad comes here to make his 
 " pile " in a few years ; he has no wife with whom to live joy- 
 ously, and, as a matter of course, his mode of mining is pre- 
 carious. 
 
 But it is said the capitalists will monopolize the mineral 
 lands ; and yet there is not a week that the honest miners do 
 not come to San Francisco to solicit capitalists to invest their 
 capital in mining enterprises ; and when such an investment is 
 made to assist a canal or quartz-mill, all the miners in the vi- 
 cinity are glad, and property rises in value. Why is there 
 more danger of monopoly in mineral lands than in the agricul- 
 tural lands ? Are the former more sacred than the latter ? 
 Is it to be supposed that capitalists will buy up the mineral 
 lands and then not work them, but let their money lie idlq: 
 Certainly not ; capitalists would be in no hurry to invest large-. 
 ly at first in the mineral lands ; and if they should they would 
 employ large numbers of laborers, to the great benefit of the 
 whole country. And. the same honest miners who have such 
 an abhorrence of " monopoly," — are not three-fourths of them 
 determined to leave this land of unmonopolized freedom to re- 
 turn to the Eastern states, where capital is king, and where 
 there are no laws to prevent the rich men from monopolizing 
 
448 RESOUECES OF CALIFOEXIA. 
 
 the whole country ? The assertion that the sale of the min 
 oral lands would offer dangerous advantages to capital, is 
 as much as to say that the sale would be followed by the in- 
 vestment of cajDital, and a general rise in the value of prop- 
 erty in the mines, and an increase in the amount of their pro- 
 duction. 
 
 This "monopoly" argument has been used for years, and 
 the miners have come to believe it without ever examining it 
 or seeing its absurdity. Instead of capital driving poor men 
 out of the mines, it would bring them in ; it would create a 
 demand for labor ; and the ten thousand men who are now in 
 the mines, anxious to obtain permanent employment, would 
 then get what they have been seeking in vain during the last 
 four years. If capitalists buy up mining lands, of course they 
 will do it with the intention of digging for the gold, and to do 
 that they must employ laborers. This kind of labor is not dis- 
 honorable ; it is such labor as most of the mechanics in Cali- 
 fornia, as well as elsewhere, are engaged in all theii' lives: that 
 is, labor for a fixed salary. It is just such labor as is done 
 now by a large portion of the quartz, and hydraulic, and tun- 
 nel miners, who consider themselves quite as independent, and 
 their occupation as honorable, as if they were cabinless and 
 claimless surface diggers. The labor for fixed wages will not 
 be unprofitable ; on the contrary, it will remove all precarious- 
 ness from the workman's mode of life, and will give him a 
 good and certain income, with which he will always be able to 
 live comfortably. It is not improbable that wages would rise 
 after a sale of the mineral lands. Of course, every purchaser 
 would wish to open his claims at once, and workers would be 
 in demand. The great danger, if the mineral land were offered 
 for sale, would be, not that too much capital, but that not 
 enough vrould come into the mines. Just in proportion to the 
 amount of land sold would be the amount of benefit done to 
 the state. If none were sold, the present state of affairs would 
 continue, and the greatest enemies of the sale could not say 
 that any harm had been done ; if a little were sold, the change 
 
SALE OF MINEEAL LANDS. 449 
 
 would be but small ; if much were sold, there would l>o a 
 great increase in the value of mining property and in the di^ 
 mand for labor. The result of a well-managed sale, or dona- 
 tion system, would be that the present miners, and not distnni 
 capitalists, would come into possession of the richest places, 
 and that every man in the state could, at a trifling cost, obtam 
 a claim that woidd furnish him with profitable employment for 
 many years. There are certain places in the mines where the 
 claims are mostly in quartz-veins or deep banks, which will 
 require many years to work them out, and there the popula- 
 tion is comparatively stable. Of these places. Grass Valley 
 and North San Juan may be taken as examples. The traveller 
 sees at once, on approaching them, that there are more com- 
 fortable homes, more families, and more peace and sobriety 
 among the inhabitants, than in the majority of the mining 
 towns. The difference is a very great and important one, and 
 if it can be removed by elevating the other towns to the level 
 of those two, the sooner the better. 
 
 The " monopoly" argument was used in Illinois, against the 
 sale of the mineral lands there, and prevailed for a time; the 
 consequence was, the population was made up of vagrants, and 
 the dwellings were all shanties, and society was no society at 
 all. Finally the lands were sold, and the result was a great 
 benefit to the people and the mining districts, in every social 
 and industrial respect. 
 
 It may be objected to the sale of the mineral lands, thai 
 *'ttie wisdom of our ancestors" has determined that mines 
 should always belong to the government, and be open to all 
 persons willing to work them. The objection may be recog- 
 nized as a good one when that policy is proved to be wise by 
 evidence and argument — not till then. The reason of the an- 
 cient policy was, that most of the land was owned by ignorant 
 and unenterprising people, chiefly nobles, who, if they had 
 owned the minerals, would have allowed the natural wealth of 
 the land to remain undeveloped. But that state of affairs does 
 not and never can exist in California. On the contrary, no- 
 
450 RESOUECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 body can so safely be trusted to get all the gold out of a tract 
 of land as the fee-simple owner of it. 
 
 The federal government has refused to sell the minei-al 
 lands to the state, and the surveyor-general has instructed 
 his deputies not to " sectionize" the land in the mineral dis- 
 tricts, or within several miles of where any miners are at work. 
 The truth is, that a large part of the land in the mining re- 
 gion contains so little gold that it never can pay the miner, but 
 is well suited for agricultural and horticultural purposes. Cali- 
 fornians confidently expect that some of the finest fruits and 
 wines of our state — and that is as much as to say of the whole 
 world — wall be produced in the minmg counties, within five 
 years from the present time ; and the government should pur- 
 sue such a policy as will encourage the occupation and cultiva- 
 tion of all the land suitable for such purposes. 
 
 If the sale w^ere once determined upon, undoubtedly difii- 
 culties would arise as to the manner of carrying it into execu- 
 tion ; but these would be of little import, as compared with 
 the evils caused by the present system. The wiiole mineral 
 district should be surveyed at once, and sold in lots to persons 
 wh^ will live on, or work them, varying in size, according 
 to location and supposed mineral wealth, from one hundred 
 and sixty to eighty, forty, twenty, ten, five, two and a half, 
 and one and a quarter acres. Perhaps it w^ould be advisable 
 to grant at first no lots where many miners may be at work 
 within a small space. Large lots of ten, twenty, and forty 
 acres, now^ unoccupied, and which w^ould long remain unoccu- 
 pied under the present system, would find abundant buyers 
 should the government propose to grant the fee-simple. 
 
 The ofier of the mineral lands of the state, cpmprising about 
 10,000,000 acres, for sale, would present one of the greatest op- 
 oortunities in the world for large numbers to secure great and 
 C'^rt'iin wealth at a small immediate outlay ; and not only every 
 man now in the country, but every one w^ho has been here, 
 would exert himself to the utmost to become the owner of a 
 tract of land, the mines of which would probably clothe him 
 
SALE OF MINERAL LANDS. 4.11 
 
 and his sons, and his sons' sons, in wealth, and which, if it wore 
 barren in gold, would still keep him in comfort with its agri- 
 cultural products. From the moment it is known that the 
 mineral lands will be sold, California's regeneration will begin. 
 Californians will then determine to make this their permanent 
 home ; money will be saved ; and at the time of sale, every 
 man will seek to become owner of a tract of mining land, 
 which shall enrich himself and his children. After the sale, 
 titles being secure, comfortable houses will be built, wives 
 will be sent for, mining will be conducted economically and 
 steadily, claims will be worked which now will not pay, our 
 population will increase, and so will the yield of our mines ; 
 the capital produced here will be retained ; other capital will 
 come from abroad, to obtain secure investment on safe titles ; 
 poor men, coming from abroad, will always obtain emphn^- 
 meut, and thus can get a start ; railroads and turnpikes will 
 be made ; land will rise in value ; the state will obtain its rev- 
 enue honorably by the taxation of capital ; society will be- 
 come permanent, and public opinion powerful ; dissipation will 
 diminish ; and California, instead of being socially the worst, 
 will become the best state in the Union. 
 
 The question of the sale of the mineral lands is then the ques- 
 tion of the future of the state. The advocates of the measure 
 may not succeed this year, or the next; but they will, they 
 must, succeed finally. The fight is between the permanent 
 interest of California on one side, and, on the other, the tem- 
 porary interests of some roving miners, who care nothing for 
 tlie state, save to get its gold and then leave it. As for all the 
 unmarried Americans (whatever their occupation) who may 
 come hither to spend a few years — to carry away our gold if 
 they are successful, or to remain with us as human wrecks if 
 they fail — all these are no better for California than so many 
 Chinamen ; I call them " white Chinamen." They will not be- 
 come permanent citizens ; the yellow Chinamen cannot ; so 
 there is not much diflference between them. If there is any 
 legal, constitutional, and just measure by which we can drive 
 
452 KEsouRCES OF califor:n'ia. 
 
 the white and the yellow Cliinfimen out of the country to- 
 gether, and obtain white, permanent Californians in their stead, 
 I, for one, shall be heartily in favor of it. "California for per- 
 manent Californians," is the proper motto for every faithful 
 citizen of this state. We must have a political war ; the per- 
 manent Californians must conquer the rovers, and compel them 
 to settle down or leave. The great question is not whether 
 we shall produce much gold or little ; it is whether we shall 
 have social and industrial order or disorder, which is equiva- 
 lent to the question of the permanency or vagrancy of the 
 population. I am confident in the belief that the sale of the 
 mineral lands would cause a considerable increase of our gold 
 yield ; but no matter how great a decrease might ensue, state 
 policy requires that the sale should be made, in any case. The 
 gold now dug does little benefit to California ; it slips through, 
 like water through a sieve ; and serves only to attract the 
 vagrants who visit the state merely to despoil it. All the 
 money under heaven v/ill not pay for maintaining a system 
 Tinder which three-fourths of the people of a large district 
 are vagrants, that is, rovers, and where six-sevenths are men. 
 
 It is not unreasonable to assume, that if the present system 
 of mining titles be maintained, there will be very slow change 
 for the better in the vagrancy of the miners and the inequality 
 of the sexes during the next ten years ; and I do not hesitate 
 to say that, rather than the present state of afiairs should con- 
 tinue, the state government should take effective measures to 
 put a sudden end to all gold mining in the state, by declaring 
 it a felony, and making it punishable by severe penalties, so 
 that thereafter the people of California would turn their atten- 
 tion to such pursuits as farming, horticulture, and stock-raising, 
 which contribute to the lasting profit of the state as well as 
 the temporary profit of individuals. 
 
 California may be compared to a maiden who has been reared 
 to love the paths of purity and peace, but who has been intro- 
 duced of late into a corrupt society, and is now surrounded by 
 men who wish to dishonor her — enjoy her for a short time. 
 
M E X I C A N G K A X T S . 453 
 
 and after gratifying the base impulses of the moment, to nave 
 no fnrther thought about her welfare, but to desert her for- 
 ever, careless whether their desertion prove her ruin or not. 
 From these men her virtuous soul turns with indignation and 
 abhorrence. She welcomes no suitor save him who comes 
 offering his whole heart in a life-long union, under solemn 
 promise that she alone shall be loved and cherished by him. 
 
 Now let us turn to the manner in which the land-titles in 
 the agricultural districts have been managed. 
 
 § 308. Mexican Grants. — Upper California, when con- 
 quered by the Americans in 1846, contained about five thou 
 sand jlexican inhabitants, who, with their fathers and grand 
 fathers, had lived here sixty or seventy years. Their chief 
 occupation and the main source of their wealth were furnished 
 by their herds of kine, horses, and sheep. Most of them dwelt 
 in the country, upon ranches which had been granted to them 
 for purposes of pasturage by the Mexican government. They 
 held their lands under written titles, supposed to be, in most 
 cases, legally perfect under the laws of Mexico. The govern- 
 ment of that country never questioned or denied the validity 
 of such grants as those held by the Californians. The grants 
 were made to suit the habits and wants of the people. The 
 Cahfornians ow^ned large herds, wdiich were never fed on cul- 
 tivated food, never kept in fields, nor placed under shelter. 
 In a country where an almost unbroken drought reigns from 
 May to November, and where cattle get no food, save wild 
 and indigenous grasses, much more land is required to sustain 
 a cow, than in those lands where careful cultivation and fre 
 quent rains provide a regular and certain abundance of food 
 through the year. A fertile soil, like that of a large portion 
 of the Mississippi valley, will sustain five or six head of cattle 
 to the acre ; but here three acres of uncultivated fertile land 
 are necessary for the support of one cow. Herds of thou- 
 sands of kine were not uncommon in California under the 
 !\rexican dominion. To accommodate these cattle, great tracts 
 of land were necessary. The public land was granted not by 
 
454 EESOUECES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 the Licro, as in the American states, "but by the square league 
 (containing four thousand four hundred and thirty-eight acres), 
 which was " the unit of measurement" in granting public lands 
 outside of the towns. The government granted away its lands 
 willingly, and without compensation ; no pay was required; 
 the only condition of the grant was, that the grantee should 
 occupy the land, build a house on it, and put several hundred 
 head of oattle on it. Whenever he promised to comply with 
 these conditions, he could get a grant of any piece of public 
 land, of eleven square leagues or less, for which he might pe- 
 tition. It was a grand Mexican homestead law; and the 
 chief complaint made about it was by the government, that 
 the number of applicants for grants was not greater. The 
 grants were not made according to the American land sys- 
 tem, which would have been entirely unsuited to the wants 
 and habits of the Mexican people. The public lands in Cali- 
 fornia were never surveyed. I do not know whether a Mexi- 
 can surveyor was ever seen in California; I feel confident 
 that no ranch was ever surveyed, and its boundaries described, 
 with bearings and distances, previous to 1846. The descrip- 
 tions of the land granted were very vague. In most cases a 
 certain number of leagues were given, within well known 
 natural land-marks, which might include a district of fifty or a 
 hundred miles square. In such case, the grantee could locate 
 his ranch at any place within the limits. Sometimes a grant 
 of so many leagues was made, at a place to which a name had 
 been affixed by the Indians or Californians, and then the 
 ranch included that spot; sometimes a ranch was described 
 as bounded on one side by a range of mountains, on another 
 by a river, and on other sides by ranches of older date. The 
 Californians did not quarrel about their boundaries. If A's 
 cattle crossed to B's ranch, for better pasture in the summer, 
 E's would probably go to A's at another season. The herds 
 were not closely kept. The cattle roamed about almost in a 
 wild state, often unseen of man for months. So wild were 
 they, that though they knew very well that a man on horse- 
 
MEXICAN GRANTS. 455 
 
 bnck was a superior animal and their master, yet tliey consid- 
 ered a man on foot as a base and ferocious beast, and attacked 
 him as they would attack a wolf. Their owner kncAV his 
 property only by the brand placed on them when they were 
 calves. From the time when the redhot iron burned into 
 llieir flesh, they roamed untouched by the hands of man, until 
 fate decreed that they should be slaughtered to furnish fresh 
 meat for their master's household, or hide and tallow for for- 
 eign commerce. Evidently this people, with such habits and 
 such occupations, did not need to have their lands precisely 
 described. Most of the titles were legally valid under the 
 Mexican law. There was no motive to commit fraud, because 
 land was of little value, and great tracts of rich soil were, up 
 to the time of the American conquest, open to every pe- 
 titioner. In most cases the actual occupation took place pre- 
 vious to 1840, and had never been interrupted. This occupa- 
 tion, the most conclusive proof of good faith, and an equitable 
 title in itself, was notorious, and susceptible of proof by hun- 
 dreds of witnesses. The paper titles were mostly of indu- 
 bitable genuineness, written by the hands of well-known of- 
 ficials, bearing regular numbers, referred to in public lists of 
 land-titles, and mentioned in government documents of various 
 kinds. The proof of the genuineness of the titlie-papers, the 
 good faith of the claimants, and the equitable validity of the 
 claims, in nine cases out of ten, was abundant, and, to any man 
 at all acquainted with the subject, indubitable. It was then 
 evidently the duty of the government of the United States to 
 provide for the summary examination of the documents, and 
 in every case, where genuine title-papers were found with 
 ancient occupation, to order a survey for the establishment of 
 boundaries, giving to the claimant at least a prhna facie rec- 
 ognition of title, subject, perhaps, to investigation in the courts, 
 if any person should see fit to assail the validity of the grant. 
 But the federal government pursued a policy very diiferent 
 from this plain duty. It delayed action through 1848, 1849, 
 and 1850 ; and first, in 1851, passed an act nominally to " set- 
 
456 RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 tie" private land claims in California, but really to unsettle 
 them and the whole country, and keep them unsettled. That 
 act provided for the organization of a court, or land commis- 
 sion, to try these claims ; declared every grant of land in Cali- 
 fornia to be legally void, though it might be equitably good ; 
 and provided that every equitably good claim should be lost 
 to the owner, unless he should sue the United States in that 
 court, and gain the suit there or on appeal ; and that there 
 should be an appeal to the United States District Court, and 
 thence to the United States Supreme Court. In all these 
 courts the claimant was to be opposed — that is, persecuted — 
 by a law agent appointed by the United States, with instruc- 
 tions to contest every claim to the utmost. The land com- 
 mission organized in San Francisco, on the first of January, 
 1852, and continued its sessions until the third of March, 1855, 
 when it expired by limitation. It had received eight hundred 
 and thirteen petitions. The owner of land, under grant from 
 Mexico, was compelled to petition the government of the 
 United States for the privilege of keeping it. Of these eight 
 hundred and thirteen petitions, some were for lands which 
 had never been occupied ; in some cases there were two or 
 three petitions from different persons, claiming the same piece 
 of land under the same original grant. In some cases the 
 original grantee had sold out a large ranch to a number of 
 Americans, each of whom presented a petition for his piece ; 
 and, in perhaps twenty-five or thirty cases, the title papers 
 were forged ; leaving about six hundred original ranches, which 
 had been held under indubitably genuine written title and no- 
 torious occupation. 
 
 Thus there were eight hundred and thirteen important law- 
 suits, involving the titles to ten million acres, — nearly all the 
 private lands in the state, — to be tried in one court. This tri- 
 bunal had three judges, — good lawyers, and industrious, honest 
 men. No serious complaint has ever been made against any 
 of them. They did what they could. When, at the end of 
 three years, the time came for them to close their court, they 
 
MEXICAN GRANTS. 45T 
 
 had dispatched all the cases. Tlie trials had been fair, the 
 hearings deliberate and public, the opposition on the part of 
 the United States law agents stubborn. All the law agents 
 were competent men, and no one can justly complain that the 
 interests of the United States were neglected by any one of 
 them. The claimants had been kept in litigation three years ; 
 they had been compelled to bring numerous witnesses from 
 remote parts of the state, to pay for interpreters, to fee law- 
 yers, at rates unheard of before in the world, to dance atten- 
 dance 'ipon the court, and to leave their homes and their busi- 
 ness for months at a time ; but this was not enough. In every 
 case where the land commission confirmed a claim, the United 
 States government ordered an appeal to be taken to the 
 United States District Court. This was nominally an appeal, 
 but really an order for a new trial. Every question of fict 
 and law was opened anew. Witnesses were again examined ; 
 the whole case was tried as in the original proceeding. There 
 are two United States District Courts ; one for the northern 
 and another for the southern part of the state ; each being the 
 appellate court for all the lands within its own jurisdiction. 
 Each of these two courts had other business besides land 
 suits ; and in the northern district, where the most important 
 cases lay, the court had almost as much admiralty business 
 alone as the judges of federal districts in the Atlantic states 
 have to manage. Both these Californian district judges were 
 good men. In these courts, too, the " interests of the United 
 States" were protected by able and industrious lawyers, in- 
 structed to oppose the Mexican land claims to the utmost. 
 Seven years have elapsed since the first case was appealed 
 fi'om the land commission, and there are now a number of 
 cases still undecided in the District Courts : but in most of 
 the cases decided, the claims of the Mexican grant-holders 
 were confii-med a second time. The federal government, still 
 not satisfied to let th'^ claimants enter their lands, ordered ap- 
 I'cals to the United States Su]>reme Court at Washington. 
 This order was not accompanied by any proper provision to 
 20 
 
458 EESOUKCES OF CALIFOKXIA. 
 
 pay the clerks for making out the transcripts ; and as the ap- 
 peal could never be decided, and the claimant never get a per- 
 fect title, until the transcript should be sent up, and as the 
 transcript never could go up until the clerk had received his 
 fees, so the claimant was often compelled to pay the expenses 
 of the transcript, amounting in some cases to several hundred 
 dollars. This was an expense which custom and law impose 
 upon the appellant, but in these cases the United States made 
 no provision for repaying the respondent, although he was 
 compelled to advance the mo7iey. After the appeals had been 
 taken to the court of the last resort, the United States Attor- 
 ney-General ordered the appeals to be dismissed in about four 
 hundred cases, and in about forty cases the United States 
 Supreme Court have given judgment in favor of the claim- 
 ants, making four hundred and forty claims finally confirmed. 
 About one hundred and forty claims have been abandoned 
 by the claimants or finally rejected by the courts, and this 
 estimate would leave two hundred and thirty cases still be- 
 fore the courts for adjudication upon their merits. 
 
 I have said that four hundred and forty cases have been finally 
 confirmed, but final confirmation is not equivalent to final settle- 
 ment. Up to 1S59, it was supposed that when judgment 
 on appeal had been rendered in private land claim, by the 
 United States Supreme Court, in fiivor of the claimant, the liti- 
 gation between him and the federal government, so far as 
 that title was concerned, was at an end. But a new law was 
 passed, requiring the surveys of the Californian ranches to be 
 subject to review by the United States DistrictCourts. The 
 exact boundaries of the claim could only be determined by a 
 survey ; and in large ranches, where the boundaries were not 
 clearly defined, the location of the ranch became a matter of 
 very great importance, often involving values of tens and even 
 hundreds of thousands of dollars. 
 
 The consequence of the new law was, that four hundred 
 and twenty out of the four hundred and forty finally con- 
 Crmod claims, are thrown into the courts again ; their settle- 
 
MEXICAN GJiA^'TS. 459 
 
 ment is postponed for an indefinite time ; the owners aro 
 burdened with new htigation, with indefinite deferment of 
 their hopes, with increased costs ; and the country is again 
 cheated out of quiet titles, permanent settlers, permanent im- 
 provements, and all those blessings of inestimable value which 
 come only with numerous fixed and happy homes, and the 
 best regulated social order. 
 
 While the government has thus, during twelve years, not 
 simply refused to confirm the l;md -titles granted by Mexico, 
 but made bitter and unceasing w^ar upon them, and compelled 
 the claimants to bear the expense of the w^arfiire, these Claim- 
 ants have had to suffer from the assaults of other and still 
 more dangerous and vexatious enemies — the squatters ; who, 
 while ostensibly left without countenance by the lav/, were 
 really often engaged in an offensive and defensive alliance 
 with the officers of the government. The squatters took the 
 land, occupied it, drove away the owner's cattle, cut down 
 his trees, fenced in his springs, paid him no rent, paid no 
 taxes, by their infliience forced him to pay the taxes on the 
 land they were occupying, and assessed the taxes at most ex- 
 orbitant rates. This system was not rare, but frequent — it 
 was practised on not one, but a hundred ranches. And then, 
 with the money derived from the land thus obtained, they 
 paid lawyers to appear in the name of the United States, 
 contest the owner's title, and delay a decision ; and, after 
 decision, to get up a contest about the survey and delay a 
 settlement of the boundaries. I do not mean to say that every 
 Mexican claim is good, or every squatter wrong ; my purpose 
 in this article is only to complain of the vast injustice done 
 to the owners of honest and legally valid claims, which are the 
 great majority of all presented to the cou; ts. 
 
 It is fourteen years since Americans became the rulers of 
 California, and land-titles are no nearer a settlement than they 
 should have been twelve years ago, if a proper system had been 
 adopted. The great question about the boundaries, which 
 should have been the main subject of action, is now just where 
 
460 KESOITECES OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 it was then. The claimants have sold two-fifths of their land 
 to pay the expenses of litigation — that is said to be a modest 
 estimate by those familiar with the subject — and they are not 
 yet done. They have been despoiled of two-fifths of their 
 land, deprived of the possession of a large portion of the re- 
 mainder, and prevented from selling it while they saw its 
 value, in many cases, decreasing steadily with the decay of 
 business consequent on the exhaustion of the richest placer 
 mines. 
 
 The injury done to the country by the delay in the settle- 
 ment of the land-titles is, to a considerable extent, irreparable. 
 That delay has caused us to lose, or has prevented our gain- 
 ing, a population of a million citizens, of the most valuable 
 class. Two hundred thousand men have left our state forever 
 — half of them because they could not get permanent homes 
 here — and they prevented as many more from coming, who 
 would have come if they could have had certain land-titles. 
 Not less than fifty thousand men have left us because of the 
 unsteadiness of business and the lack of employment, caused 
 by want of unquestioned ownership of the soil. Thus I esti- 
 mate that the delay in settling our land-titles has cost us two 
 hundred and fifty thousand men, representing a total popula- 
 tion of one million persons. The golden flood, the grand 
 rush of business, the unexampled prosperity which passed 
 over the state from 1849 to 1853, has passed away forever ; it 
 is too late to repair the damage ; fifty years of peace and 
 justice cannot place California where she now would have 
 been, had justice and sound policy been adopted twelve years 
 ago. 
 
 Thus I have explained the reasons which caused the deser- 
 tion of California by many of the best men who have ever 
 visited her shore. Fortunately, every thing in California is 
 gradually becoming more stable ; titles in the agricultural dis- 
 tricts are gradually being settled ; and it is now almost estab- 
 lished beyond a doubt, that within a few years the federal 
 government must sell a considerable portion of the land in 
 
MEXICAN GRANTS. 461 
 
 the mining counties, at least those counties not occupied by 
 miners. The mining, tlie agriculture, the commerce, the 
 population, and the wealth must continue to increase, and her 
 name shall be glorious in the records of industr}^ and on the 
 pages of universal history. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 OREGOK 
 Oregon, a State of the American Union, the twentieth ad- 
 mitted under the federal constitution, bordering on the Pacific 
 Ocean, between latitude 42° and 46° north, and longitude 116° 
 40' and 124° 25' west. Its northern boundary is the CoiumiDia 
 River, separating it from Washington Territory, for a distance 
 of about three hutidred miles from its mouth to its intersection 
 with latitude 46° north, which it follows eastward about 
 i^eventy miles to the Snake River or Lewis fork of the Colum- 
 bia, and that stream is the boundary to the mouth of the 
 Owyhee River; the line continues thence due south to lat- 
 itude 42°, and thence due west to the ocean. Oregon is about 
 three hundred and twenty miles long from east to west, and 
 two hundred and eighty miles wide from north to south. Its 
 area is about eighty thousand square miles. It contains nine- 
 
462 APPEND IX, 
 
 teen organized counties, viz. : Benton, Clackamas, Clatsop, 
 Columbia, Coose, Curry, Douglas, Jackson, Josephine, Lane, 
 Linn, Marion, Multnoma, Polk, Tillamook, Urnpqua, Wash- 
 ington, Wasco, and Yamhill. All these counties, save Wasco, 
 are west of the Cascade Mountnins, and within one hundrcHl 
 miles of the Pacific, the east part of the State having very 
 few white inhabitants, and those confmed to the immediate 
 vicinity of the Columbia River. The largest town in the State 
 is Portland (population in 1860, 2,700). It is the chief seaport, 
 situated on the west bank of the Willamette River, ten miles 
 from its mouth, which is one hundred miles by the couise 
 of the Columbia from the ocean. The town-site is a j)lain 
 about 30 feet a,bove the level of the river, and it is sur- 
 rounded by dense forests of tall spruce, fir, and other ever- 
 green trees. The town dates from 1847. The houses are 
 nearly all of wood. The next town of importance is Salem, 
 the capital (population 1,500), on the east bank of the 
 Willamette River, about fjrty miles south of Portland hy the 
 course of the river. It contains the State capitol and a 
 woolen mill. Corvalls (population 1,000) is twenty miles 
 farther south on the west bank of the same river. This place 
 was once selected by the Territorial legislature to be the capi- 
 tal, but the Federal government had appropriated money to 
 build a capitol at Salem, and would not recognize any other. 
 Eugene City (population 800) is thirty miles south of Cor- 
 vallis, also on the bank of the Willamette River. Other towns 
 in the Willamette Valley are Oregon City, Lafayette, Dayton, 
 Santiam, and Albany. Oregon City, nine miles south of Port- 
 land, at the falls of the Willamette, has a great water-power, 
 and will be a manufecturing town of importance; but now 
 the little power used is mostly spent in sawing rough lumber. 
 On the bank of the Columbia are the towns of Aston'i. 
 Rainier, St. Helen's, and the Dalles. Astoria (pop. 400) is nme 
 miles from the ocean, at a point where the river is three or four 
 miles wide. It posesses a custom-house and a couple of saw- 
 mills. All the country east, southeast, and south from Astoria is 
 
APPENDIX 463 
 
 hilly, covered with dense timber, and almost uninhabited. This 
 fact, and the fact that nearly all the import and export trade of 
 the State is done at Porthind, whither the ocean steamers run 
 regularly, scarcely stopping at Astoria save to take on or put 
 off a pilot, may account for the small size of Astoria, which 
 was for a time looked upon as one of the most promising 
 towns of the coast. St. Helen's, ten miles below the mouth of 
 the Willamette (population about 400), once aspired to be the 
 chief port of the State, and the agents of the Pacific Mai! Steam- 
 ship Company, provoked at the difficulty of ascending the Willa- 
 mette to Portland in seasons of low water, established their 
 coMling depot and oSice at St. Helen's ; but the mercantile 
 interest of Portland was too strong, and St. Helen's lost her 
 trade and her hope. " The Dalles," or Dalles, so named from 
 some rapids in the Columbia River, to which the Canadians 
 employed by the Hudson's Bay Company gave that name (pop- 
 ulation about 1,500), is a thriving town on the soutii bank of the 
 Columbia, about one Inmdred and seventy-five miles from its 
 mouth. The town owes its importance to the rapids in the 
 river, which at this point has a descent of forty feet, thus in- 
 terrupting the navigation and requiring goods to be trans- 
 ported by land for a distance of six or eight miles. The 
 growth of the place must keep pace with the development of 
 the basin of the Upper Columbia, all tho trade of which must 
 go down the river. In the valley of the Umpqua River are the 
 towns of Winchester, Roseburg, Scottsburg, and Gardner. 
 In the auriferous portion of the valley of Rogue River are 
 Jacksonville (pop. 1,500) and Althouse, the two principal 
 mining towns in the State. On the coast, about lat. 43° 20', is 
 the village of Randolph, whose inhabitants are mainly 
 engaged in the business of beach-mming. The poi»ulation of 
 Oregon, according to the census of 1860, was as follows : 
 
464 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Benton 
 
 Clackamas 
 
 Clatsop 
 
 Columbia 
 
 C .oose 
 
 Curry 
 
 I)ouglas 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Josepliine 
 
 Lane 
 
 Linn 
 
 Marion 
 
 Multnoma 
 
 Polk 
 
 Tillamook 
 
 Umpqua 
 
 Wasco 
 
 AYashington 
 
 Yamhill 
 
 Total 
 
 Whites. 
 
 8,064 
 
 496 
 
 532 
 
 384 
 
 393 
 
 3,255 
 
 3,694 
 
 1,618 
 
 4,779 
 
 6,765 
 
 7,073 
 
 4,134 
 
 3,624 
 
 95 
 
 1,247 
 
 1,680 
 
 2,801 
 
 3,244 
 
 Colored. 
 
 52,343 
 
 10 
 1 
 o 
 
 42 
 4 
 1 
 7 
 15 
 16 
 1 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 Total. 
 
 121 
 
 3,074 
 
 3,466 
 
 498 
 
 532 
 
 384 
 
 393 
 
 3,264 
 
 3,786 
 
 1,622 
 
 4,780 
 
 6,772 
 
 7,088 
 
 4,150 
 
 3,625 
 
 95 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,689 
 
 2,801 
 
 3,245 
 
 52,464 
 
 There are about two thousand Chinamen, of whom the great 
 majority are working in the gold-placers. There is no accurate 
 report of the number of Indians, but they are estimated at ten 
 thousand. The Rogue River, the Coose, the Chetco, the Ump- 
 qua, the Tillamook, the Klamath, and the Chinook ti'ibes, 
 thoitgh numerous fifteen years ago, have now been reduced to 
 a few scattered representatives. East of the Cascade Mountains 
 are a fjw Cay uses, Pah-TJtes, and Snakes. The principal 
 rivers of Oregon are the Columbia and Snake Rivers, which 
 do not at any point come within its limits, but only form part 
 of its northern boimdary ; the Willamette, Fall River (which 
 drains a large and desolate region east of the Cascade Moun- 
 tains), the John Day's, Umatilla, Grande Ronde, Powder, 
 Burnt, Malheur, and Owyhee Rivers, all tributaries of the 
 Columbia and Snake Rivers; and the Rogue and Umpqua 
 rivers, larjje streams wdiich fall into the ocean between latitude 
 42° and 44"^ north. Smaller streams emptying into the Pacific 
 are the Coose, Coquille, Siusclair, and Tillamook Rivers. The 
 
465 
 
 APPE NDIX. 
 
 Columbia is navigable ninety-six miles from its mouth t..r 
 vessels drawing sixteen feet of water. The River, where it 
 op .ns to the s.a, is four miles wide, and that width contnr.ies 
 for" eighteen miles inland. Oif the mouth is a bar wit!> 
 eiMiteen feet of water at lovv tide. The channel is narrow 
 an°l crooked, the bar is difficult, the winds are frequently 
 hic^h, and fogs common; and tlie entrance is considered 
 dano-erous by mariners and insurance companies. Inside, 
 the 'navigation is excellent, the river being wide and the 
 water deep. At the Cascades, one hundred miles from the 
 ocein, the Columbia falls forty feet in five miles, interrupting 
 navigation ; and sixty miles farther up there is another simi- 
 lar interruption by a fall of forty feet at the Dalles. The 
 Willamette is navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet t;om 
 its mouth to Portland; thence to the fdls at Oregon City fa- 
 vessels drawing six feet ; thence to Salem for vessels drawing 
 four feet; and from Salem light steamers can run to Eugene 
 City during a portion of the year. The Columbia, though not 
 straight, h;s no short turns, whereas the Willamette, meander- 
 ing through a flat valley, has a multitude of small crooks, 
 with numerous sloughs and arms. Snake River >s probably 
 navigable, but no steamers have been placed upon it. ihe 
 V,orts of Oregon, besides those on the Columbm R.ver, are 
 Port Orford, Goose Bay, Umpqua River, .and Tillamook Bay, 
 Port Orford, in latitude 42° 25', is safe during the summer, 
 thnt is, while the north winds blow, but is open to the south 
 and is insecure during the winter months. The harbor is 
 deep and of good size, .and has a good anchorage. Coose B.iy, 
 in latitude 43° 30', has an entrance about a quarter ot a mile 
 wide, with ten feet of water on the bar at low tide. Inside 
 the water is deep and the anchor.age perfectly secure. Port 
 Orford and Coose Bay rarely have any vessels at anchor m 
 their waters. The Umpqua River, in latitude 43° 45 , has an 
 entrance about half a mile wide, and fifteen feet water at low 
 tide. Inside, the water is deeper and the anchorage safe. 
 This and Portland are the only two ports of Oregon regu- 
 20* 
 
466 APPENDIX. 
 
 larly visited "by ocean steamers. In latitude 45° 45' is False 
 Tillamook Bay, which is nearly round, three-quarters of a mile in 
 diameter, with an entrance a quarter of a mile wide, opening to 
 the south. The harbor is secure against all winds save those 
 from the south. There are no islands off the coast of Oregon. 
 The principal lakes are the Upper Kalamath lake, the lower 
 Kalamath lake, part of which is in California, and several 
 smaller lakes or sinks of rivers in that, portion of the great 
 basin lying wiihin the limits of Oregon. All these lakes 
 are in districts where the soil is poor and the vegetation 
 scanty. There are two principal mountain ranges in Ori^gon, 
 hoth running north and south, the Coast and the Cascade chains. 
 The Coast Mountains, lying along the coast, from latitude 
 42° to the Columbia, vary from two thousand to four thousand 
 feet high ; they are covered with evergreen trees. The Cas- 
 cade mountains, forming a portion of the high range running 
 from lat. 55° to ?.o°, and known as the Sierra ISTevada in Cali- 
 lornia, are from four thousand to ten thousand feet high, with 
 occasional peaks rising still higher. This range on its west 
 slope is covered with coniferous trees; much of its east slope 
 is bare. The principal peaks are Mount Hood, in latitude 
 45° 20', thirteen thousand feet high ; Mount Jefferson, in lat- 
 itude 44° 40', eleven thousand feet ; the Three Sisters, in lati- 
 tude 44° 10', eleven thousand feet ; and Mount Pitt, in lati- 
 tude 42° 25', ten thousand feet. All these rise into the re- 
 gion of perpetual snow, and all of them are extinct volca- 
 noes. How long they have been extinct is not known, but 
 the Indians have traditions of a time when Mount Hood was 
 an acti\e volcano. Other mountain ranges are the Blue Ridge, 
 westof the Owyhee River; the Siskiyou Ridge, between Ore: 
 gon and California ; the Umpqua Mountains, between the Ump- 
 qua and Rogue Rivers ; and the Calapooya Mountains, between 
 the valleys of the Umpqua and Willamette Rivers. — Nearly all 
 the tillable land in the State is in the valley of the Willamette, 
 a body of land about one hundred and twenty miles long fi-ora 
 north to south by thirty miles wide. The soil is a gravelly clay 
 
APPENDIX. 467 
 
 Moar the mountains, covered with a rich sandy loam alon;^ the 
 bulks of the streams. In the valleys of the Unip(iua and Uogue 
 Rivers, a,boat forty miles from the ocean, there are tracts of 
 similar soil, each about forty miles long by twenty wide, speak- 
 ing in general terms. These rivers, when approaching the Pa- 
 cific, run through steep mountains covered with timber so dense 
 that cultivation is not now thought of. The low land along 
 the banks of the Cobimbia is so narrow that it scarcely de- 
 serves to be taken into consideration in an examination of 
 the agricultural district of Oregon. Fall River has a large 
 basin, but the most of the soil is rocky and desert-like, the 
 elevation high above the sea, the climate dry and cold. 
 There is some good soil in the valleys of the Umatilla, 
 Graude Ronde River, and Burnt River. South of the val- 
 ley of Fall River lies part of the great basin, which sends 
 no water to the sea, but swallows up all its own streams. 
 Several such streams sink into the sands within the limits of 
 Oregon. The soil is barren and verdnreless. — The geological 
 character of Oregon is marked by the predominance of 
 tertiary sandstone in the west, granate in the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, and trap and other eruptive rocks in the east part of 
 the State. The valley of the Willamette has a deep diluvium 
 strongly resembling that on the shores of Puget Sound and 
 in the Sacramento basin, and the resemblance suggests the 
 idea that these valleys are of the same origin and were once 
 connected together, though now separated by the Siskiyou, 
 UmpquM, Calapooya, and Cowlitz Mountains. In the Cascade 
 3Ioimtains, besides the granite, are found trap, serpentine, por- 
 phyry, slate, quartz, and lava, the latter evidently poured out 
 by the great volcanoes which now stand as silent snow-peaks. 
 Gold has been found in quantities sufficient to reward miners 
 for their work in the valley of Rogue River and on the ocean 
 Ibeach from the south boundary to near the Umpqua River. It 
 has also been found in many other places east and west of 
 the Cascade Mountains, but not in diggings that would pay. It 
 is rumored that valuable silver mines have been discovered in 
 
468 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the valley of the Santiam, Copper has been found in the 
 Calapooya Mountahis, and iron m the Coast Mountains near 
 Portland ; platinum, iridium, and osmium are found in con- 
 siderable quantities in the gold placers of Southern Oregon ; 
 and large beds of tertiary coal lie on the shores of Coose 
 l]ay. — Western Oregon has a moist, equable climate ; eastern 
 Oregon, one dry and variable. In the Willamette Valley 
 there are no great extremes of heat and cold. The average 
 temperature of the spring is 54° Fahrenheit, of the summer 70°, 
 of the autumn 54°, and of the Avinter 40°. The amount of rain 
 is very great ; the sun is often hidden for more than a month at 
 a time. Drizzling rains and thick mists prevail duiing a large 
 j^ortion of the year. Thunder, lightning, hail, and snow are 
 rare. Ice seldom forms more than a couple of inches in thick- 
 ness, and soon thaws. The heat of summer is never oppress- 
 ive. At Astoria the fill of rain is still greater, measuring 
 eighty-six inches annually, more than in any other place in the 
 American Union. The Cascade Mountains cut off the eastern 
 division of the State from the coast winds, fogs, rains ; and this, 
 in conjunction with the high elevation, renders that part of 
 the country hot in summer and very cold in winter, the ther- 
 mometer in July ranging as high as 80°, and in the winter 
 falling below 20°. — The eastern part of Oregon is very poor 
 in vegetation, the western very rich. In the valleys of the 
 Fall and Snake Rivers, a man may travel for days without 
 passing a tree ; in the valleys of the Willamette, Umpqtia, and 
 Rogue Rivers he is never out of sight of dense forests. Nearly 
 all the trees are coniferous evergreens. Among these, the 
 most prominent are the Douglas spruce or red fir [ables 
 Dour/lasii), the yellow. fir (A. grandis), Williamson's spruce 
 (A. JVlUia7nso)iii), the Oregon cedar (thuja gigantea)^ the 
 noble fir {2ncea nobilis), the western balsam fir (F. grandis), 
 the $ugar pine (pvmis Jjamhertiand) , the western yellow pine 
 {P. contorta), and the fragrant white cedar {cupressus fra- 
 gra7is). These are all trees of magnificent size and beautiful 
 form, standing in dense forests, and some of them rising to a 
 
APPENDIX. 469 
 
 height of two hundred and fifty and even three hundred feet, 
 with trunks from four to ten feet in diameter. Less striking 
 and important are the western yew (taxus hremfolia\ the 
 western juniper [juniperus occldentalis), the Oregon oak 
 {querciis garreyana), the Oregon alder [alnns Oregona)^ 
 and the Oregon ash [fraxiniis Oregona). The forests of 
 Oregon are filled with a dense and tangled undergrowth, in 
 which ferns and bushes bearing berries and thorns are nu- 
 merous. The greater part of the level land of the Willa- 
 mette Valley and part of the Umpqua and Rogue River 
 Valleys are prairie land ; that is, they are not covered with 
 trees. East of the Cascades the vegetation is not only far 
 more scanty, but it is entirely different in character. The 
 trees are scattered, stunted, and twisted, the grass is thin, 
 and almost the only bush is the wild sage or artemisia, one 
 of the most cheerless and worthless of all plants. — The yjrin- 
 cipal indigenous quadrupeds of Oregon are the grizzly bear, 
 black bear, American panther {fells concolor), the wild cat, 
 the gray wolf, the coyoto [canis latra/is), the mountain sheep, 
 the elk, the black-tailed deer, and the antelope. The most 
 prominent birds are the California vulture {cathartes CiiUfoml- 
 a?ius), the turkey-buzzard, the golden eagle, the bahi eagle, the 
 fish-hawk, the trumpeter swan (ci/g?ius buccinator), the Ameri- 
 can swan, the Canada goose, the snow goose, the brant, four 
 species of albatross, three of pellicans, and seven of gulls. Of rep- 
 tiles there are none deserving special mention, save the rattle- 
 snake, which is not abundant. The rivers of Oregon abound in 
 salmon at the ])roper seasons ; there are about a dozen difiereiit 
 varieties, and all of them, when they first enter the fresh water 
 from the ocean, are delicious. Most of the animals and vegetables 
 found in Oregon are indigenous to that coast, and are not found 
 elsewhere. This remark extends to the fish and the birds as 
 Avell as to the quadrupeds and the trees. — The most remarka- 
 ble natural curiosities of Oregon are the rapids of the Colum- 
 bia River at the Cascades and the Dalles, the falls of the Wil- 
 lamette at Oregon City, the high snow peaks of the Cas;'u le 
 
470 A ri'END IX . 
 
 range, the glaciers of Mounts Hood and Jefferson, large beds of 
 lava on the slopes of the Cascade Mountains in various } laces 
 numerous hot springs along the east base of the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, and the sinking rivers of the great basin. — Agriculture 
 is the chief occupation of the people. The main agricultural 
 products are wheat, oats, potatoes, and apples. The climate 
 is too moist and cool for maize, peaches, melons, and sweet- 
 potatoes. A great obstacle in the way of the farmer in 
 Oregon is the fern, which giows in nearly all fields. There is 
 one woolen mill at Salem, the only large manufacturing estab- 
 lishment in the state. There are saw-mills to saw all the 
 timber required for home consumption, and grist-mills to 
 grind all the grain. — Oregon has little foreign commerce, and 
 that little is nearly all done by steamers with San Francisco 
 and Victoria, British Columbia. Some goods are sent to 
 British Columbia by land up the valley of the Columbia River 
 The chief exports of domestic produce are wheat, flour, 
 apples, cattle, pickled salmon, eggs, batter, and chickens. 
 The entrance of the Columbia River is so dangerous for sailing 
 vessels, and the price of coal is so high on this coast, that 
 freight to and from Oregon must always be expensive. Two 
 of the most notable roads in the State are the stage road from 
 Portland south to Yreka in California, and tlie road across the 
 Cascade Mountains from Portland to the Dalles. — Oregon has 
 no railroad or canal. There is no Federal fortification, arsenal, 
 navy-yard, or hospital in the State. There are small military 
 stations occupied by Federal troops at the Dalles, Yamhill, and 
 in Rogue River and Umpqua Valleys. The State has few pub- 
 lic institutions. The difficulty and expense of getting agri- 
 cultural produce to market, the Indian war of 1855, and the 
 refusal of the Federal government to pay the war debt, have 
 had a strong influence to prevent the growth of the State in 
 population and wealth, and to delay the establishment of 
 prominent public institutions. There are two colleges, seven 
 academies, and about three hundred common schools. There 
 i« a common-school fund consisting of the proceeds of lands 
 
APPENDIX. 47 1 
 
 granted to the State for that purpose, all escheats, forfeitures, 
 moneys paid as exemption from military duty, all gifts and de- 
 vises for common-school purposes, the proceeds of the five 
 hundred thousand acre grant, the live per cent, net proceeds 
 of the sales of public lands, &c., the interest of the fund to 
 be divided among the counties in shares proportioned to the 
 number of children in each between four and twenty years of 
 age. The governor, secretary of state, and state treasurer com- 
 pose the board of school commissioners. There was in the trea- 
 sury, September 10, 1860, to the credit of the common-school 
 fund, the sum of $11,534, besides a university fund of ^5,794. 
 The leading religious denominations are the Methodist Church 
 North, the Methodist Church South, and the Baptist, which 
 have churches in nearly every town. The Roman Catholics, 
 Presbyterians, and Episcopalians have also some churches. 
 Two daily newspapers and half a dozen weeklies are published 
 in Portland ; and Oregon City, the Dalles, S;dem, Corvalls, 
 Eugene City, and Jacksonville have each one weekly news- 
 paper. The government of Oregon is exercised by a governor 
 (salary $1,500), a secretary of state (|1,500), and treasurer of 
 state ($800), who are chosen by a plurality of votes for four 
 years. During the first five years, under the constitution of 
 1 857, the governor is ex officio superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion; after 1862 a separate superintendent may be elected. 
 The secretary of state is ex officio auditor of public accounts. 
 The governor, secretary of state, and treasurer are eligible for 
 re-election for any number of terms, though not for more than 
 two successively. A state printer is chosen b}^ popular vote for 
 four years. The legislature is composed of two branches, a sen- 
 ate of sixteen members and a house of thirty-four representa- 
 tives. Senators are chosen in single districts for four years, one 
 half every second year, and representatives for two years. 
 Their number maybe increased, but are never to exceed thirty 
 senators and sixty representatives. Membei-s of each house re- 
 ceive three dollars a day and three dollars for every twenty miles 
 of travel, but it is provided that the ^:>er diem of no mem- 
 
472 APPENDIX. 
 
 ber shall exceed one hundred and twenty dollars. The ses- 
 sions are biennial. Extra sessions may be called for any 
 period not exceeding twenty days. The judiciary comprises 
 a chief-justice and three associate justices of the supreme 
 court (salary $2,000 each), who are chosen in districts for six 
 years, the oldest or the one having the shortest time to serve 
 being chief-justice ; their number may be increased, provided 
 it do not exceed five, until the white population of the State is 
 over one hundred thousand, and never exceed seven. The su- 
 preme court is only a tribunal of appeals. Each justice holds 
 a circuit court with both original and appellate jurisdiction, the 
 terms being so arranged that a court shall sit twice a year in 
 each county. Whenever the population of the State exceeds 
 five hundred thousand, the legislature is empowered to provide 
 for the election of supreme and circuit judges in distinct classes. 
 Inferior judges, who also act as judges of probate and county 
 commissioners, are chosen in each county for four years. Sheriffs 
 and clerks of courts are elected in every county, and district 
 attorneys by districts. The revenue of the State for the year 
 ending Sept. 10, 1860, including a balance of $4,556.26 remain- 
 ing from the previous year, was $'72,122.12, and the expenditure 
 for the same period was $71,062,16, leaving a balance of 
 $1,059.96, There is no public debt, and the State has no power 
 to lend its credit or contract obligations to a greater amount than 
 $50,000, except to repel invasion or for certain other specified 
 objects. No county shall incur any debt over $5,000, with 
 the like exceptions. No bank or moneyed institution shall be 
 incorporated, nor shall any such exist with power to circulate 
 paper money. Corporations may be formed under general 
 laws, but shall not be created by special acts, and the stock- 
 holders shall be individually liable to the amount of their 
 stock subscribed and unpaid, and no more. The amount of 
 taxable property in 1858 was $22,824,118, and in 1859 $24, 
 181,669 ; amount of State tax in 1 858, $23,754 ; in 1859, $49,- 
 863. Estimated expenditures for the next two years $61,700. 
 — ^The name of Oregon was long applied to all the territory 
 
APPENDIX. 473 
 
 claimed by the United States on the Pacific coast, extending 
 from latitude 42° to 54° 40' north. In 1846, by treaty with 
 Great Britain, the United States abandoned all claim to the 
 country north of latitude 49°, and the name of Oregon Avas 
 by so much restricted. In 1853 the name was furtlier re- 
 stricted to the land south of the Columbia River and latitude 
 4G°, by the act creating the Territory of Washington north of 
 that line. In 1859, Oregon suffered another reduction, nearly 
 one-third of its extent as a territory having beeji cut off from its 
 east end wlien it was admitted into the Union as a State, when 
 the district between the Owyhee river and the Rocky moun- 
 tains was added to Washington Territory. The coast of 
 Oregon was seen by various navigators in the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries ; but its history as known to civil- 
 ized man may be said to commence with the discovery of 
 the Columbia River by Captain Robert Gray, who entered 
 its mouth in the American ship Columbia from Boston, 
 May 7, 1792, and gave the name of his vessel to the river. 
 On his return to the United States, he made so favorable 
 a report of the majestic river of the West that statesmen 
 became desirous to secure it and its valley for the Union. 
 This desire led the Administration of Jefferson to send an 
 exploring expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and 
 Clark across the continent in 1804 and 1805. The expedition 
 was successful, and while it collected much valuable informa- 
 tion about extensive districts previously almost unknown to 
 civilized man, it gave the Americans an additional title to the 
 country. In 1808 the Missouri Fur Company sent trappers and 
 traders to Oregon. In 1811 the American Fur Company, of 
 which John Jacob Astor was the leading member, establislied 
 a trading-post at the mouth of the Columbia River, and called 
 it Astoria; but it was. very soon sold to the Northwest Fur 
 Company to save it from being taken during the war. The 
 Northwest and the Hudson's Bay Company, both British asso- 
 ciations, for awhile separate and afterward united, engaged 
 in trapping and trading, kept many trappers and traders in 
 
474 APPENDIX, 
 
 OreiJ:on until within a very brief period, for it was only in 
 i860 that their trac]ino--post at Fort Vancouver on tiie Col- 
 umbia, nearly opposite the mouth of the WillnmeLte, was 
 ;ib:Ji!doned. The Hu<lson's Bay Company employed many 
 Canadians among its trapper.-, and theso formed for a long 
 time the main body of the white population. Most of them 
 took Indian wives and were the fithers of numerous half- 
 breed children. Great Britain claimed all of Oregon until 
 1846, wlien the boundary tre;ity was made with the United 
 States. In 1839 the emigrations of Americans commenced 
 overland by way of the South Pass, and there were a few enii- 
 grants every year until 1845, when several hundred went,, and 
 the next year there were several thousand; in 1847 and 1848 
 there were a few hundred, and in 1849 perhaps one tliousand 
 again. In 1848, '49, and '50, however, Oregon lost many of her 
 citizens by the gold excitement in California ; but in the last- 
 named year she gained again from C^difornia in consequence of 
 the passage of the " donation law " by Congress, giving, without 
 cost, three hundred and twenty acres of public land to every 
 person settled on such land before Deecember 1, of that 
 year, and three hundred and twenty acres more to his Vvife ; 
 and to tliose persons who should settle between Deceml)er 1, 
 1850, and December 1 , 1 853, one hundred and sixty acres to each 
 man, and one hundred and sixty acres to his wife. UndiT this 
 law 8,000 claims were registered in Oregon. It was a condit ion 
 of these grants tliat the settler should reside on the land for 
 four years. The donation induced nearly all the inhabitants of 
 Oregon to remain, and led many of the young men to marry. 
 As tlie men much exceeded the women in nu:nber, girls even 
 as young as fourteen years were in great demand ; and for 
 several years after the " donation law " went into effect the 
 Territory had a wonderfully large proportion of very juve- 
 nile wives and mothers. Oregon was formally orga'.iized as 
 a Territory on August 14, 1848, previous to which time there 
 had been a provisional government, with the capital at Oregon 
 City. On March 2, 1853, the Territory of Washington was 
 
APPENDIX. 475 
 
 estjiblished out of tlie northern lialf of Oreojon. In tlie summer 
 of 1857 '.I constitutional convention was held, and dr.ifted a 
 St.-ite constitution, which was submitted to popular vote on 
 November 9, 1857. With the constitiuion wei'c suhmilted the 
 questions wliether slavery should belegahzed in the State, and 
 v.hetlier f -ee negroes should be permitted to reside in it. The 
 result was favorable to the constitution, and against shivery 
 and free negroes. On February 1 4, 1859, the State was admit- 
 ted by act of Congress under the constitution adopted in 1857. 
 Oregon has been troubled with many Indian wars. From. 1845, 
 when the disturbances began, until the present time, there has 
 always been a hostile feeling between the whites and the red 
 men. This hostihty most of the time did not amount to an 
 open warfare, but simply led to the shooting down of a man or 
 two occasionally. A state of affairs very similar to tlrls still 
 continues in the eastern part of Oregon. Neither red nor 
 white man is safe alone while persons of the other color are 
 near. In 1855 the hostility broke out into a general war, 
 whicli lasted more than a year, and led to a multitude of 
 skirmishes and many deaths ; but no serious battle was 
 fought. In 1858 there was another war, but it was confined 
 to the eastern portion of Oregon and Washington, and little 
 damage was done by it to the industry, trade, or white popu- 
 lation of either Territory. The gold-mines of the Rogue River 
 Valley in Southern Oregon were discovered in 1851, but not 
 much worked previous to 1853. 
 
 WASni^GTOK 
 
 Washington, an organized Territory belonging to the 
 United States, and occupying the northwest corner of its do- 
 main. It lies between latitude 45° and 49° north and longitude 
 110° and 1 25° west, and is bounded north by British Columbia, 
 east l)y the Territoiies of Dacotah and Nebraska, south by 
 those of Utah and Nevada and the State of Oregon, and west 
 
476 APPENDIX. 
 
 by Oregon and the Pacific ocean. The boundary-line, start- 
 ing from the intersection of the forty-ninth parallel with the 
 sliore of the Gulf of Georgia, runs due east to the summit 
 of the Rocky mountains, the line of which it follows gener- 
 ally southeast to latitude 43°, longitude 1]0° ; thence due south 
 to latitude 42° ; thence due west to a point due south of the 
 mouth of the Owhyhee River, longitude 117° ; thence north to 
 i'.ie mouth of that river, and with the Snake river to the point 
 where the stream is crossed by the forty-sixth parallel; with 
 that parallel west to the Columbia, and with that river to the 
 ocean ; w4th the shore of the ocean north to the straits of Fuca ; 
 thence enst with the shore of the straits and northeast through 
 tlie mitldle of the channel of the Gulf of Georgia to the place 
 of beginning. There is a dispute between the United States 
 and Great Britain about the boundary in the Gulf of Georgia. 
 The American government claims that the " channel" meant 
 by the treaty of 1846 is the channel then chiefly if not ex- 
 clnsWgly used by shipping, namely, the westernmost chan- 
 nel ; whereas the British government claims that Rosario chan- 
 nel, east of the islands of San Juan or Bellevue, Orcus, and 
 Lopez, and several others of minor importance, is the boun- 
 dary. The total amount of land in dispute is about one hun- 
 dred and twenty thousand acres, valuable for tillage, and 
 perhaps for the protection or prevention of smuggling, but of 
 no use for military or legitimate commercial purposes. The 
 Territory is five hundred and fifty miles from east to west, in 
 latitude 48°, four hundred and eighty miles from north to 
 south, in longitude 114°, and eight hundred and forty miles 
 across from the northwest to the southeast coruer. Area, 
 about two hundred thousand square miles; population in 1860, 
 eleven thousand five hundred and ninety-four, of whom four 
 hundred and twenty-six were civilized Indians, and eight thou- 
 sand four hundred and forty-six were males and three thou- 
 sand one hundred and forty-eight were females. Tlie wild In- 
 dians are variously estimated at ten thousand to thirty thousand 
 There are twenty-two organized counties, viz. : Chehalis, Clal- 
 lam, Clark, Cowlitz, Island, Jefferson, King, Kitsap, Klickatat, 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 477 
 
 Lewis, Missoula, Pacific, Pierce, Suwnmish, Shoshoneo., Skatna- 
 nia, Snohomish, Spoknne, Thurston, Wahkiacum, Walla Walla, 
 and Whatcom. Olyrapia, the seat of the Territorial government, 
 is situated at the head of'Puget Sound, and in the center oft-. e 
 Western district of the Territory; population about one thou- 
 sand. The site is on gently sloping land, which in 1849 was 
 covered with a dense forest of very large evergreen trees, the 
 roots and trunks of which are still seen in the streets and lots 
 of the town. All the land adjacent is still covered with a simi- 
 lar forest. The houses are built of wood. Large vessels 
 lie about two miles from the town, the sound in front of it 
 being very shallow at low tide. Two miles from Olympi:'., 
 at the falls of the Des Chutes River, is the town of Tuni- 
 water, which contains two hundred inhabitants, and has the 
 best site for a manufacturing town in the vicinity of Puget 
 Sound. The river within a distance of half a mile falls seven- 
 ty-five feet, and furnishes power to drive a large number of 
 mills. The town has three saw -mills and two grist-mills, Van- 
 couver, with a population of twelve hundred, is situated on 
 the north bank of the Columbia River, very near the old tra- 
 ding post of the Hudson's Bay Company and the United Stales 
 niilitary post of the same name. The site is a beautilrd 
 grassy slope, rising gently from the river. Steilacoom, (»u 
 the east bank of Puget sound, about thirty miles from tho 
 capital of the territory, has a population of three hundred. 
 Seattle, forty miles to the northward, on the same side of tlse 
 sound, has two hundred inhabitants. Port Townsend (as 
 the people of the Territory write and spell the name, though 
 it is printed "Port Townshend" on the government's maps 
 and charts) lies on the west trunk of Puget Sound, which 
 is the name given popularly in the Territory to the sheet ol' 
 water called Admiralty Inlet in the charts. Port Townsend 
 has a population of about one hundred and fifty persons, is 
 the site of the only custom-house in the Territory, and has a 
 military post in its vicinity. These places, small as they now 
 are, promise to become towns of importance in the futui-e. 
 
478 APPENDIX. 
 
 They are all w^st of tlie Cascade Mountains, and tl](".r pros- 
 perity Irds been and will be dependent upon commerce, agri- 
 culture, andni;mufactures; while in the east part of the Terri- 
 tory a number of mining towns, some of them scarcely a year 
 old, liaye sprung up nv.d already surpassed their more aged 
 rivals. Walla Walla, three hundred miles from the mouth of 
 the Columbia River, and thirty miles southeast from the junc- 
 tion of the Snake and Columbia, is the chief trading point 
 of the new gold-mines discovered and opened in 1861 in the 
 basins of the Salmon and Clearwater Rivers. Walla Vv^alla 
 has novv^ a population of one thousand persons, nearly all men, 
 and nearly all of them dwelling in rude huts, which would be 
 deserted very soon if trade should prove unprofitable. In the 
 vicinity of the town is a military post, called New Fort Walla 
 ^Yalla, to distinguish it from Old Fort Walla Walla, which 
 stood on the bank of the Columbia at the mouth of Snake 
 river. Lewiston, seventy-five miles northeast from Walla 
 I'S^alla, on the east bank of Snake River near the mouth of 
 the Clearwater, is a new town, forty miles from the Clear- 
 water or Nez Perces mines. At a distance of eighty-seven 
 miles from Lewiston, on the bank of Oro Fino creek, is Oro 
 Fino City, the chief mining camp and central point of the 
 Nez Perces gold-mines; the dwellings are rude cabins, huts, 
 and tents ; the po])ulation is about three hundred. Elk City, 
 fifty miles southeast from Oro Fino City, on the bank of the 
 south f)rk of the Clearwater River, is the second mining town 
 in size in the Nez-Perces mines ; population one hundred and 
 fifty. Florence City, one hundred and fifty miles east-south- 
 east from Lewiston, is the chief town of the Salmon River 
 placers, and has about two hundred inhabitants. A multitude 
 of other little mining camps have lately arisen in the N'ez-Ferces 
 and Salmon River placers. — Among the rivers of Washington, 
 the Columbia has the first place. It is a large stream where 
 it enters the Territory from British America, and after running 
 about four hundred miles in a southward direction, but making 
 great bends, it turns westward, and from Walla Walla, three 
 
APPENDIX. 479 
 
 hundred miles totlie ocean, it forms part of theso-atliern Ijoun- 
 dary of the Territory. The general width below Walla Walla 
 is from a quarter to h:df a mile, and above Walla Walla nearly 
 a quarter of a mile. West of tlie Cascade Mountains toe 
 current is gentle, the banks ai-e high and covered witli dense 
 evergreen forests, and the scenery is grand. East of tiie Cas- 
 cade Mountains the current is swift, the banks are bare and 
 rocky, and the scenery is desolate. Ocean steamers can as- 
 cend at low water to the " Cascades," a town built at a point 
 where there is a fall in the river, one hundred and thirty-two 
 miles from the ocean. At the Dalles, fifty miles east from 
 the Cascades, there is another fall, and another interruption of 
 navigation. From the Dalles to Walla Walla, one hundred 
 miles, the river is in some places so swift that steamboats 
 hnve great difficulty in making headway against the current. 
 There is now no regular navigation above Walla Walla, but 
 steiimers have run up to Priest's rapids, sixty jniles farther; 
 and a steamer was in 1860 used above those rapids. The river 
 is navigable, with occasional interruptions by rapids, to Colville, 
 between latitude 48° and 49^ ; but the stream is so swift in many 
 places, its bends so great, fuel so scarce and dear, the adjacent 
 country so sterile, and the population so scanty, that probably 
 many years will elapse before steamers wilLrun regularly and 
 frequently up and down. Snake (or Lewis's) River rises in 
 the southeast corner of the Territory, and, after a course of 
 about eight hundred miles, all of it within the limits of Wash- 
 ington, save for one hundred and fifty miles, where it serves 
 as a bcmndary on the Oregon side, falls into the Columbia 
 near Walla Walla. During the last five hundred miles of its 
 length' it gains very little in size, running through a dry and 
 desolate country. In many places it is deep enough for navi- 
 gation, and steamers have ascended it to Lewiston, one hun- 
 dred miles from its mouth. Clark's river (called also the Flat 
 Head or Pend d'Oreille River), the next branch of the Colum- 
 bia in size, rises in the northeast part of Washington, and, 
 after a course of about six hundi-ed miles, all within the limits 
 
480 APPENDIX. 
 
 of the Territory, has its mouth near latitude 49^. McGil- 
 livray's or Flat Bow River rises and has its mouth in British 
 Columbia, but two hundred miles of its course are in Washing- 
 ton. Among the notev^^orihy tributaries of the Snake are the 
 Salmon, the Clearwater (styled Kooskooske on some mnps), 
 and the Pelouse. The distance from the mouth of the Snake 
 to that of Clark's river is three hundred miles, in which 
 distance no stream worthy of note save the Spokane, and 
 that not a large river, enters the Columbia from the east- 
 The Okinagan, an outlet of Lake Okinagan, runs into the 
 Columbia from British America. The main streams ruiining 
 from the east slope of the Cascade Mountains to the Columbia 
 are the Yakima and Wenatchee, whose valleys are so far 
 chiefly notable for their auriferous deposits and hostile Indians. 
 The Klickatat River, fed by the snow^s of Mount Adams, runs 
 southward, and has its mouth near the Dalles. West of the 
 Cascade Mountains, the Cathlapootl and Cowlitz Rivers are the 
 only streams of note entering the Columbia. The Xisqually, 
 Puyallup, White, Green, Cedar, Snoqualmie, Squamish, Sto- 
 lukwamish, and Skaget Rivers pour down immense bodies of 
 water from the west slopes of the Cascade range to Puget 
 Sound and the Gulf of Georgia. The Skaget River rises north- 
 east of Mount Baker, and, after running round the east, south, 
 and west bases of the mountain, becomes a very large rivei', and 
 might be navigated by large vessels, were it not for a bar at its 
 mouth, and rafts of driftwood which have become fastened 
 between its banks. None of the other streams flowing into 
 Puget Sound are navigable, unless very near their mouths in 
 tidewater. The rivers running westward to the Pacific are 
 the Willopah, which has its mouth in Shoal water Bay ; the 
 Chehalis, which falls into Gray's Harbor; the Quiniult, and 
 some other streams near Cape Flattery, of wldch little is 
 known. The Chehalis has been navigated by schooners for 
 twenty-five miles from its mouth. — Washington possesses a 
 great multitude of harbors, perhaps more than any other 
 country of equal extent on the globe. Puget Sound, which 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 481' 
 
 lias an average widtli of two miles, never less than one or 
 more than four, imd a depth never less than eight fathoms, 
 runs one hundrei miles inland in a southward direction from 
 th«' Straits of Fuca ; and Hood's canal, twelve miles farther west, 
 with half the width, runs in the same general direction about 
 sixty miles. These two great estuaries or arms of tidewater 
 have depth sufficient for the largest vessels, and numerous 
 bends and corners where the most perfect protection may 
 be found against the winds. Captain Wilkes, in the report 
 of his exploring expedition, says: "I venture nothing in 
 saying there is no country in tlie world that possesses waters 
 equal to these." Between the mouth of Puget Sound (latitude 
 48'^) and latitude 49° there are a number of islands and bays 
 which supply harbors almost numberless. Bellinghani Bay 
 deserves special mention. The tide rises twenty feet. On the 
 shore of the Straits of Fuca, eigl.ty miles from Cape Flattery, 
 is New Diingeness, which has a secure anchorage and room 
 for a large tleet. To the east seven miles is Port Discovery, 
 which is seven miles long, one and a half wide, and twenty- 
 seven fathoms deep, with excellent protection against tlie winds. 
 Its great depth makes it inconvenient for anchorage. An 
 island in the middle of the mouth of the harbor oilers an 
 excellent site for a fort that will completely command the 
 entrance. It has been proposed that a navy-yard should 
 be established here. Gray's Harbor, in latitude 46° 55\ has 
 a mouth four miles wide, and in shape resembles an equilat- 
 eral triangle twelve miles long on each side. The entrance 
 is two and a hnlf fathoms deep at low water, with a surf 
 extending entirely across the mouth. Inside there is secure 
 anchorage, though tiie greater part of the bay is shallow. 
 Shoalwater Bay, the mouth of which is in 40° 40\ is abotit 
 six miles wide and twenty-five long, extending down to 
 within three miles of the waters of the Columbia River. 
 The entrance has the same depth and surf as Gray's Harbor, 
 and much of the bay is bare at low water. The appearance 
 of the land between Shoalwater Bay and the Columbia 
 21 
 
482 APPENDIX. 
 
 seems to indicate that the river in some remote age found 
 its way to the ocean through the present mouth of the 
 bay. — Washington has no islands in the Pacific Ocean, but a 
 multitude in the Gulf of Georgia and in Paget Sound and near 
 its mouth. Among those in the Gulf of Georgia are San Juan, 
 Lopez, Orcus, Shaw, Blakely, Lumrni, Cypress, Fidalgo, Wal- 
 dron, and Stewart Islands. At the mouth of Puget Sound are 
 Whidbey's and Camano Islands. In the soimd are Bainbridge, 
 Yashon's, Maury's, Fox, McNiel, Anderson's, and Ilartstene's 
 Islands. — There are many lakes in Washington. Quiniult 
 Lake, about forty miles southeast from Cape Flattery, is six 
 miles long by three wide. Whatcom Lake, two miles from 
 Bellingham Bay, is of the same size. Samish Lake, two miles 
 south of Whatcom Lake, is nearly as large. Dwamish Lake, 
 three miles east of the town and harbor of Seattle, is eighteen 
 miles long and three wide. Sanimamish Lake, five miles far- 
 ther east, is five miles long and two wide. Kipowsin, Owhap, 
 Kantz, Shaaf, and Tanwux Lakes are in a cluster thirty-five 
 miles eastward from Olyrnpia. Toutle Lake, nearly round, and 
 three miles in diameter, is twelve miles from the month of 
 the Cowlitz River. High up in the Cascade Mountains, in 
 latitude 47° 25', are Lakes Nah chess and Kitchelus, each five 
 miJes long and two wide, both drained by the Yakima Rivei*. 
 Not far from Lake Nahchess is Lake Kleattam, about as large 
 as the other two jointly. Lake Chelaw, east of the Cascade 
 Mountains, and one hundred miles distant from Port Town- 
 send, is thirty-five miles long, three wide, and has a great depth 
 of water. Its outlet into the Columbia is two miles long, and 
 in that distance the water falls two hundred and fifty feet. 
 In the northeast corner of the Territory, at the foot of the 
 Kocky Mountains, is Flat Head Lake, twenty miles long and 
 Bix wide. Clark's River, one hundred miles from its mouth, 
 spreads out into a lake six miles in diameter, called Pend 
 d'Oreille Lake. The Spokane River, about seventy-five miles 
 from its mouth, widens out into Ca3ur d'AlCne Lake, six miles in 
 diameter. There ai-e three main ranges of mountains in Was!;- 
 
APPENDIX. 4g3 
 
 iiigton, portions of ranges which are also observed in other 
 parts of the continent: the Coast, Cascade, and Rocky Moun- 
 tains. Tlie Coast range extends from Cape San Lucas to the 
 Straits of Fuca. Xear the Cohimbia River the range is low or 
 imperceptible, but west of Iloofl's canal it rises in wide and 
 high ridges called the Olympian Mountains, in some places 
 eight thousand feet high. The Cascade range, a continuation 
 of the Sierra Nevada of California, is in Washington six 
 thousand feet high, and runs parallel with the coast, one 
 hundred miles distant from it. The ridge is a very important 
 one, for it divides the Territory, and indeed the coast, for a 
 distance of fifteen degrees, into districts entirely different 
 from each other in climate, sojl, geological character, and 
 vegetable and animal productions. Four high snow peaks 
 rise in the range. Mount Baker, in latitude 48° 45', is 
 eleven thousand nine hundred feet high, and an active vol- 
 cano. It frequently emits black smoke, and sometimes shows 
 a light at night, but no eiuption of lava has been observed by 
 white men. Mount Rainier (formerly spelled Regnier), in lat- 
 itude 46*^ 40', is twelve thousand three hundred and thirty feet 
 high, has two summits about four miles apart, and is an ex- 
 tinct volcano. Mount St. Helen's, in latitude 46° 20', is nine 
 thousand five hundred and fifty feet high, and almost extinct 
 as a volcano ; the only sign of fire in its bosom is a thin 
 stream of white, steam-like smoke which ascends from its sum- 
 mit almost constantly. Mount Adams, forty miles eastward 
 from St. Helen's, is nine thousand feet high, and is an extinct 
 volcano. In the Rocky Mountains, along the eastern boun- 
 dary of the Territory, there are many high peaks, the most re- 
 markable of which is Fremont's peak, in latitude 43% thirteen 
 thousand five hundred and seventy feet high. About forty 
 miles to the westward of this peak are three peaks called the 
 Three Tetons ; and eighty miles farther west are the Three 
 Buttes. Many spurs of the Rocky Mountains run down into 
 the Territory, among the most im])ortant of which are the 
 Salmon River Mountains.— Most of the tillable land of Wash- 
 
484 APPENCIX. 
 
 ington is TV'est of the Cnscade range, although that district repre- 
 sents only about one eighth of the area of the Territory. The 
 soil east of the Cascade is thin, sterile, stony, and dry ; and its 
 unfitness for cultivation is shown by the scantiness and low 
 character of the vegetation. Deciduous trees, especially such 
 as delight in a rich soil, and luxuriant shrubbery, are seen in but 
 few places ; and there are districts where the traveller may go 
 hundreds of miles without seeing a tree save stunted pines, or 
 a bush save the desert-loving wild-sage. This is the general 
 character of the eastern part of the Territory, but there are 
 exceptional spots. Walla Walla Valley has a rich soil ; Mill 
 Creek Valley, near Fort Colville, yields good crops; and in 
 the basins of the Clearwater and Salmon Rivers there are 
 fertile tracts, that will at no distant day be subjected to the 
 plough. The soil about Puget Sound is mostly fertile, in 
 Borae places very rich, in others sandy and gravelly. The 
 vicinity of Seattle is said to have the best soil, that of Steila- 
 coom the most gravelly. The greater part of the western 
 dist! ict is covered with dense evergreen forests, which require 
 vast labor in clearing. Near Olympia are found deep beds of 
 muck made by the decomposition of vegetable matter, valu- 
 able for manure. — West of the Cnscade Mountains the tertiary 
 sandstone prevails. About Puget Sound it is covered by a 
 very deep deposit of alluvium, in some places one hundred feet 
 deep. Lignite or tertiary coal is found in many places ; at Bel- 
 lingham Bay there is a mine which supplies Inrge quantities of 
 it to commerce. In the Olympian, Cascade, and Rocky Moun- 
 tains, granite is the predominant rock. Near Mount Adama 
 there is a large field of lava. East of the Cascade Mountains 
 the rocks are chiefly igneous and metamor[)hic. Trap is very 
 abundant, and in many places there are wide plains covered 
 with volcanic scorias. Small specimens of placer-gold have 
 been found in various little streams flowing from the Olympian 
 mountains and in the Skaget River; and rich diggings have 
 been fovmd on the banks and bars of the Wenatchee, Yakima, 
 Okinagan, Columbia, Clark, Saimon, and Clearwater Rivers. 
 
APT'ENDIX. 485 
 
 Gold is found along the Columbia from latitude 47^ to 49*^, 
 but there has been very little mining there, because of the dif- 
 ticulty of getting at the bars. Miners have on several occa- 
 sions undertaken to work in the i)lacers of the Yakima and 
 Wenatchee, but have been driven away by the Indians. The 
 diggings along Clark's River, called the Colville mines, liave 
 been regularly worked every year since 185-^. The placers 
 in the basins of the Salmon aiid Clearwater Rivors were dis- 
 covered in 1861, and very little is known of them yet. The 
 mines of these two streams may be considered as one district, 
 extending from latitude 45° 30' to 47°, and from longitude 
 114° to 116°. The general character of the gold found in 
 the Clearwater placers or Nez Perces mines, as they are 
 called, Irom the fact that they are within the limits of a 
 reservation set apart for the Nez Perces Indians, is fine 
 — that is, the metal is found in small particles; while the Sal- 
 mon River gold is coarse. 'No auriferous quartz veins have 
 been found in the basins of either river. The placers are 
 found near the surface, and the gold is obtained by washing 
 the dirt in sluices or long troughs, as in California. Some 
 hill diggings have been found, but nearly all the mining as 
 yet is done in the beds, bars, and banks of small streams. — 
 Thi^ western district of Washington has a climate exactly like 
 that of England in temperature. The average temperature of 
 the different montiis of the year is as follows : January, 3S° ; 
 February, 40*=* ; March, 42^^ ; April, 48° ; May, 55°; June, 60° ; 
 July, 64° ; August, 63° ; September, 57° ; October, 52° ; No- 
 vember, 45° ; December, 39°. The mean temperature for the 
 year is 50°. The climate is very wet. Rain, sleet, and fog 
 prevail during a large part of the year. The average amount 
 of water falling annually is 53 inches, against 43 inches in 
 New York, and 22 in San Francisco. East of the Cascade 
 Mountains, the annual fall of rain, except near the Rocky 
 Mountains, is not one fourth so much a^ about Puget Sound. 
 The winters are very cold and the summers very hot. — The 
 largest, most abundant, and most valuable trees of Washing- 
 
486 APPENDIX. 
 
 ton are the red fir {ahies Douglasii) and yellow fir (ahies 
 grandis), which grow to be about three hundred feet high and 
 six or eight feet in diameter. They are used to a great extent 
 for industrial purposes, such as building houses and ships, 
 plankiiig streets in California, and furnishhig spars for shipping. 
 The vegetation of the Territory, and its indigenous quadrupeds 
 and birds, are the same as those of Oregon. The waters of 
 Washington abound in fish, and when the Pacific coast of this 
 continent shall have become densely populated, Puget Sound 
 will have great fisheries. Salmon, of which there are a dozen 
 species, are abundant in all the streams. Halibut abounds in 
 the Straits of Fuca. There are two species of fish called cod, 
 but they are not the true cod of the Atlantic, nor do they be- 
 long to the same genus, though they bear some resemblance to 
 it, and are valuable for food. Herrings and sardines enter 
 Puget Sound in great shoals. Sturgeon and smelt are also 
 abundant. About twenty miles off the mouth of the Straits 
 of Fuca there is a bank where cod and halibut might be 
 caught to advantage. The climate of Washington is too 
 moist to preserve fish by drying, so that they can only be 
 cured by means of salt. Clams abound in Paget Sound, 
 and oysters in Shoalwater Bay. — The chief natural curi- 
 osities of tlie Territory are its high snow peaks and ex- 
 tinct volcanoes, the sublim.e scenery on the Columbia River, 
 the falls of the river at the Dalles and the Cascades, and 
 the Grande Coulee, a deep chasm running across the large 
 bend of the river below the mouth of the Spokane, and 
 supposed by some persons to be the remains of an ancient bed. 
 — The main industry of Washington is, or until very lately 
 has been, the cutting and sawing of timber for exportation. 
 About twenty million feet, board measure, is exported annu- 
 ally. There are steam saw-mills at Teekalet and Seabeck on 
 the banks of Hood's canal, and at Port Madison, Port Lud- 
 low, Port Orchard, Seattle, and Miller's on Puget Sound, and 
 eleven water-mills on the banks of the sound. The Teekalet 
 mill can saw forty thousand feet in a day; and several of 
 
APPENDIX. 487 
 
 these mills are araoniz: the largest and best of their kind in 
 the world. The mills on Paget Sound and Hood's canal 
 have a capacity to produce forty million feet in a year. Next 
 to lumbering comes farming. The Territory does not produce 
 more than grain enough for its own consumption. The climate 
 is too moist and cool for maize, peaches, melons, and sweet po- 
 tatoes ; but wheat, oats, Irish potatoes^ and apples do well. Tiie 
 fern and sorrel trouble the farmers greatly. The territory has 
 no manufacLures, not even a woollen-mill. It is impossible now 
 to say what will be the importance of the gold-placers found in 
 the valleys of the Salmon and Clearwater Rivers ; but if allthe 
 men who have already gone thither remain there and tiud 
 profitable emplojTnent in digging gold, niniing will soon be 
 tiie principal industry of the country. The chief present 
 annual exports of Washington Territory may be set down at 
 twenty million feet of lumber, five hundred barrels of 
 salted fish, one thousand bushels of oysters, and some Bel- 
 lingham Bay coal. The TeiTitory has no railroad or canal, 
 and wagon-roads are few. The Federal government has 
 nearly completed a military road from Vancouver on the 
 Columbia River to Belling!] am Bay. The government cut 
 a road from Steilacoom across the Cascade Mountains by 
 the Nahchess Pass in latitude 47® 15', and is now engaged 
 in opening a road from Walla Walla to Fort Benton on the 
 Missouri River. There is no Federal fortification, arsenal, or 
 navy-yard in Washington. There is a United States marine 
 hospital at Port Townsend, and there are small military posts 
 at the same place, at Steilacoon, Gray's harbor, Vancouver, 
 Walla Walla, Simcoe, and Colville. The Territory has few im- 
 portant public institutions, and no important public buildings. 
 The capitol building in Olympia is of wood ; the Territorial pri- 
 son is in Vancouver. There is a school called a college in 
 Olympia, and there are numerous common-schools. Olympia, 
 Steilacoom, Port Townsend, and Vancouver have each a 
 weekly newspaper. The taxable property of the Territory, 
 according to the assessor's returns, is $3,300,000. — The settlers 
 
488 APPENDIX. 
 
 along Puget Sound, especially those engaged in lumbering, 
 are mostly natives of the New England States, and went to 
 the Territory by sea. Those in the central, southern, and 
 eastern districts are generally natives of the Western States, 
 whence they went overland. At French Prairie, near the 
 beiui of the Cowlitz River, and in Mill Creek Valley, there are 
 a number of Canadian Frenchmen, who were formerly 
 hunters, trappers, and employes of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 ])any. Many of them have married Indian wives. Within 
 twenty years, nearly or quite twenty thousand Indians had 
 their homes on the banks of Puget Sound and Hood's canal ; 
 but the white settlers have made war upon them, and strong 
 liquor and hereditary and infectious diseases have proved 
 still more dc^structive than open war and private quarrel. 
 It is doubtful whether five thousand now remain. The 
 tribes, which a few years since were separated by animosi- 
 ties and diversities of language, customs, and traditions, 
 have lost much of their distinctive character : many of 
 them have disappeared entirely, the individual members 
 having either died out, migrated to new homes, or fused 
 with the remnants of other tribes. SimiLir processes of 
 extinction have been at work in many parts of the United 
 States, but nowhere with so mucli rapidity, and with such fair 
 opportunities for observing all their stages, as in the American 
 States on the Pacific. The principal tribes now existing in 
 the western part of the Territory are the Claims (or Clallams), 
 on the shore of the Straits of Fuca; the Quiniults, in the basin 
 of the Quiniult River, which runs southwest from the Olympian 
 Mountains; the Cape Flattery Indians; the Chehalis Indians, 
 who reside along the stream of that name and about Gray's har- 
 bor ; the Shoalwater Bay Indians ; the Squamish, Nisqually, 
 Snoqualmie, Stolukwamish, and Skaget tribes; and the Belling- 
 ham Bay Indians. Most of the tribes which still preserve dis- 
 tinct names are called from the streams in the basins of which 
 they live, and in many cases the streams were named from the 
 adjacent tribes. East of the Cascade Mountains, the red men 
 
APPENDIX. 489 
 
 living by the chase have always been more warlike and hardy 
 than their fish-eating relatives of the west, and, having had 
 less intercourse with the whites, have suflered less in numbers, 
 in health, in morals, and in their ancient customs, languages, 
 and tribal distinctions. The principal tribes in the eastern 
 part of the Territory are the Nez Perces, Snakes, Yakimas, 
 Pelouses, Klickatats, Bannacks (Pannacks, Bawnacks, Bonacks, 
 or Bonnacks, as their name is variously spelled), Wenatches, 
 Okinagans, Snakes or Shoshonees, Spokanes, Pend d'Oreilles, 
 and Coeur d'Alenes. The Nez Perces and some of the Spo- 
 kane Indians near Colville have permanent dwellings — cabins 
 or lodges made of skins— and cultivate large fields of grain. 
 All the tribes have firearms and horses, some of them large 
 herds. Hereditary slavery is common among the Indians in 
 the western district, and the proximity of the white men does 
 not seem to have much efiect upon it, otherwise than by de- 
 creasing the number of both masters and slaves. It is the 
 custom among most of the tribes owning slaves to flatten the 
 heads of the freemen as a sign of their honorable social posi- 
 tion ; and an Indian with a round head is looked upon as an 
 ill-favored fellow, and considered a slave or a freedman. The 
 great chiefs have often two or three wives. Polygamy and 
 slavery also prevail among many of the tribes in the basin of 
 the Columbia. — It is supposed that the first white man who 
 saw the land of what is now Washington Territory was a 
 Greek, called Juan de Fuca (though that was not his baptismal 
 name), in 1592. He was in charge of a Spanish vessel sent 
 out to fortify the supposititious strait of Anian, to prevent the 
 English from passing through it from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific. Fuca reported having found a Strait between latitude 
 47° and 48°, but he made no fortifications. This was just 
 after the English cast off the Roman Catholic faith, declared 
 the grants of possessions in the 'New World to be void, and 
 aspired to an equal share with Spain in the trade and domain 
 of the newly discovered lands and seas. It was nearly two 
 hundred years before Washington was seen again. In 1775, 
 21* 
 
490 APPENDIX 
 
 Heceta, a Spanish navigator, examined the coast between 
 latitude 47° and 48° for the strait reported by Fuca, but could 
 not find it. Three years later, Cook made a similar vain 
 search. In 1787, Berkeley, an Englishman, saw the strait, and 
 reported it to his countryman Meares, who entered it the next 
 year and called it after Fuca, whose story had then fallen into 
 great discredit. Gray's harbor was discovered by Captain 
 Gray, an American, in 1791, and the next year he entered the 
 Columbia River, and named it after his ship. In this year also 
 V"ancouver visited the coast of Washington, and gave the first 
 clear and accurate account of the Straits of Fuca and Puget 
 Sound. The first w^hite men who saw the interior of the Territory 
 were Lewis and Clark, sent out on an exploring expedition dur- 
 ing: the administration of President Jefferson. A few rovinsj 
 white hunters and trappers were found along the shores of the 
 Columbia about 1820, but the first settlements were made about 
 1828, by the Hudson's Bay Company, which established posts 
 at Vancouver, Okinagan, and Colville. In 1841 the Puget 
 Sound Agricultural Comj^any (composed of members of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, which was restricted by its license to 
 trading) took possession of two farms, one between the Nis- 
 qually and Puyallup Rivers, and another at the bend of the 
 Cowlitz River, and began to grow grain and breed cattle, 
 mainly for the purpose of supplying the fur company. Before 
 the establishment of these farms, some French Canadians set- 
 tled on French Prairie, and engaged in farming. The first 
 American settlers made their appearance in 1845, and since 
 then there has been a slow but regular increase of population. 
 Many of the remarks about the history of Oregon will also 
 apply to this Territory, which was a part of Oregon until 
 March, 1853, when it was organized as a separate Territory, 
 its southern boundary being then the Columbia River and 
 latitude 46°. When Oregon was admitted as a State, February 
 14, 1859, one-third of its area at the east was cut ofi" and 
 attached to Washington Territory. In 1854 a smwey was 
 made to find a route for a northern Pacific railroad, to termi- 
 
APPENDIX. 491 
 
 nate on the bank of Paget Sound. Governor Stephens, who 
 Avas at the head of the survey, reported in favor of taking the 
 road through the ISTahchess Pass, and making the terminus at 
 Seattle. In 1855 the whites were engaged in a war with the 
 Indians, and the industry of the Territory suffered severely, 
 though very few lives were lost in battle. The war of 1855 
 was in Washington felt chiefly west of the Cascade Mountains. 
 In 1858 a war broke out east of that chain. The Pelouse, 
 Klickatat, Spokane, Okinagan, Cay use, and some of the 
 Coeur d'Alene Indians formed a league and commenced the 
 war by driving the settlers from the Walla Walla Yalley. 
 After three encouhters in which the whites were defeated, and 
 one in which they were finally victorious, a peace was made, 
 and it is still observed. In 1858 the excitement in California 
 about the Fraser River mines attracted fifteen thousand persons 
 to the Territory, many of whom landed at Port Townsend, and 
 others at Whatcom ; and the latter place had for a few weeks 
 a large population and a busy trade, but it soon sank back 
 into its former obscurity. The donation law passed by Con- 
 gress in 1850, to make gifts of land to early settlers in Ore- 
 gon, continued in force in Washington until 1855, and eight 
 hundred claims were taken up under it. 
 
NEVADA. 
 
 Kevada is seven degrees in length from north to south^ 
 and six in width from east to west. A small slice on the 
 south belongs to the basin of the Columbia river, and another 
 small slice on the south to the basin of the Colorado, leaving 
 more than nine tenths of the area of the State in the basin of 
 Utah ; which, taken as a whole, has a dry climate, a poor soil, 
 an average elevation of more than 4,000 feet above the sea, a 
 rugged surface and scanty vegetation. There are districts, 
 however, in which the soil is fertile, and the growth of timber 
 abundant. The chief wealth of the State is in its silver mines, 
 which are very abundant, making it rank next to Mexico 
 &,mong the silver-j^roducing States of the world. 
 
 Most of the silver produced hitherto, has come from the 
 Comstock Lode, the discovery of which, in 1859, caused a 
 great excitement in California. The extreme richness of the 
 ores obtained from the Mexican and Ophir mines near the 
 surface, yielding $5,000 per ton, the abundance of the mineral 
 that would yield $50 per ton, the long distance for which the 
 vein could be traced, its great width, and the facility with 
 which the ore could be amalgamated, at once satisfied all the 
 experienced silver miners who examined it, that it would yield 
 hundreds of millions of dollars, and take rank with the most 
 famous argentiferous deposits of Spanish America. With the 
 advice of experts, the capitalists of San Francisco bought up 
 all that they could get of the valuable lodes, and as soon as 
 possible erected mills and commenced the redaction of ore. 
 The expenses were high, but the profits in the best mines were 
 
APPENDIX. 493 
 
 mnch higher and the prices rose rapidly. The Gould and 
 Ciirry stock sold in March, 18G2, for $500 per foot, and for 
 $5,600 in July, 1863, showing an increase of near $400 per 
 month. The stocks of some other mines rose with equal 
 rapidity for shorter periods. The highest stock in price was 
 the Mexican, which was held at $8,000 per foot, or $800,000 
 for a mine only 100 feet long. The amount of bullion pro- 
 duced in 1860 was $100,000; in 1861, $2,300,000 ; in 1862, 
 $6,300,000; in 1863, $12,500,000, and about $14,000,000 an- 
 nually for the last four years, 1868 having been a little below 
 the average. The remarkable increase of production for the 
 first three years, and the great dividends declared by a few 
 leading companies, led to the most extravagant expectations 
 and speculations. It was a notorious fact that not a dozen 
 mines were paying expenses, and that hundreds were worked 
 with serious and constant loss, yet the general public pre- 
 sumed, or acted as if they presumed, that the possession of 
 shares in half a dozen silver mines, or claims located for silver 
 mines, would ensure wealth to the possessor. Hundreds of 
 men who knew nothing of silver mining were employed as 
 prospecters to roam over the mountains of Nevada and take 
 up claims for San Francisco companies, which then offered 
 the stock for sale, and everybody bought shares in mines 
 Vviiich had not been opened, and which, in many cases, had no 
 vein or mineral deposit, the prospecters having located their 
 claims with gross ignorance or negligence. Poor people thought 
 they could venture to pay a dollar or two per foot for mines 
 that might, by a bare possibility, prove as rich as the Gould 
 and Curry. Three thousand companies were organized with 
 a capital of $1,000,000,000, and 30,000 persons took stock in 
 them. Before the silver could be got, however, it was neces- 
 sai-y to open the mines, and for this purpose assessments were 
 levied, and not less than $30,000,000 were spent for shares 
 and work in mines that never paid expenses ; and most of 
 them never paid a cent toward the expenses. In the spring 
 
494 APPENDIX. 
 
 of 1863 it became evident to some of the stockholders in the 
 Gould and Curry mine, which was then producing far more than 
 any other, that the rich deposit in sight would soon be ex- 
 hausted ; that the discovery of another was doubtful, and that 
 the method of working was very wasteful ; so they sold out, 
 and gave their opinions freely to their friends. A panic en- 
 sued ; the stock of the productive mines fell from 50 to 90 per 
 cent. ; the shares in the unproductive mines, as a class, became 
 entirely worthless; the collection of assessments, except for 
 a very few mines, came to an end, and prospecting almost ceased. 
 The average yield of the Gould and Curry ore per ton was 
 $104 in 1862 ; $80 in '63 ; 873 in '64 ; $145 in '65, and $33 in 
 '66. The total production of the mine was $850,000 in 1862 ; 
 $3,880,000 in '63; $4,900,000 in '64; $2,400,000 in '65; 
 $1,600,000 in '66, and $30,000 in 1868. Last year the Savage 
 produced $2,535,000; the Kentuck, $1,260,000; the Crown 
 Point, $1,086,000 ; the ChoUar-Potosi, $885,000 ; the Yellow 
 Jacket, $800,000 ; the Imperial, $684,000 ; the Hale and Xor- 
 cross, $392,000, and the Overman, $353,000. In 1866 the 
 Yellow Jacket turned out $2,310,000 ; the Savage, $1,805,000 ; 
 the Gould and Curry, $1,600,000 ; the Crown Point, $1,300,- 
 000 ; the Hale and Norcross, $1,200,000; the Imperial, $910- 
 000 ; the Empire, $486,000 ; the Ophir, $450,000 ; the Chollar 
 Potosi, $848,000 ; the Confidence, $303,000, and the Over 
 man, $27,000. A comparison of the two years shows remark- 
 able fluctuations and changes, the position of every mine, save 
 one, having changed . much absolutely and relatively; the 
 difference in the yield in two cases being more than $1,000- 
 000. In the last quarter of 1868 the sum of $2,444,000 was re- 
 ceived in San Francisco, from the Washoe mines, including the 
 Comstock Lode; $71,000 from the Humboldt mines; $31,000 
 from the Esmeralda mines ; $250,000 from the Reese River 
 mines ; and $650,000 from other districts in Eastern Nevada, 
 including White Pine. 
 
 White Pine is situated about latitude 39° 30^ north and 
 
APPENDIX. 495 
 
 longitude 114° 30' west, 120 miles by the traveled road, and 
 500 miles in a direct line from San Francisco, and 110 miles 
 south of Elko, on the Pacific Railroad. The altitude of the 
 mines varies from 7,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea, the richest 
 claims being on Treasure Hill at the higher elevation. 
 Treasure City, the chief town, is on this hill; and 1,500 feet 
 lower dow^n is Hamilton. These two towns have together at 
 present a population of 10,000, though neither is yet five 
 months old, and within three months they may have twice or 
 thrice as many. The dwellings are mostly tents and shan- 
 ties, soon to be replaced by substantial dwellings: 
 
 The mines at Treasure Hill were discovered in September, 
 1867, but little w^as said about them until the fall of 1S68, 
 w hen the bullion began to arrive in San Francisco. Large 
 quantities of chloride of silver, an ore very rich and very 
 easily reduced, were obtained within a fev/ feet of the surface, 
 and several hundred tons that yielded nearly or quite $10,000 
 to the ton, were extracted. Most of the chloride thus far 
 discovered lies in irregular deposits between horizontal strata 
 of limestone, and their nature imj^lies that they will soon be 
 exhausted, or at least that it is unsafe to expect a long-con- 
 tinued yield from them. There are, however, several large 
 veins of silver ore rich enough to pay for working, and these 
 will produce considerable quantities of silver for scores of 
 years. Although it is not yet six months since the general 
 attention of the public on this coast was called to "VYhitePine, 
 that district is already producing $450,000 per month, with 
 only 33 stamps, or $500 to the stamp per day. Such, at least, 
 is the statement made in late letters, though it seems almost 
 incredible that the average yield should be $250 per ton. A 
 gentleman who worked in a custom mill last Fall says, that he 
 worked ores from thirty-five difierent mines, and every lot, 
 save two, yielded over $150 per ton. ISTot less than a hun- 
 dred mines have now rich stores in sight, and if there w^ere 
 mills to reduce the ore the bullion yield would be four times 
 
496 APPENDIX. 
 
 as great as it is. There is an abundance of ore in sight to keep 
 150 stamps running for many months. Preparations are being 
 made to erect a number of other mills ; and it is not improba- 
 ble that the production of silver for 1869 will amount to 
 $10,000,000. At the present rate it will be over $5,000,000, 
 a figure which Washoe did not reach till its third year, and 
 which is not now equaled by any other silver district. Guana- 
 junto, Zacatecas, Potosi, Cerro Pasco, and Chanarcillo can 
 hide their diminished heads. 
 
 The principal mine is the Eberhardt, which is producing 
 $150,000 per month with a ten stamp mill, the total produc- 
 tion having so far been about $800,000, and the ore in sight 
 will yield considerably more than that. The first 700 tons 
 yielded $850 per ton in the mill, and $150 per ton were lost in 
 the w^orking, for the assay value was $1,000 per ton. The 
 bed of ore in this is 184 feet wide. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of ore from dif- 
 ferent mines at AYhite Pine reduced in the last quarter of 
 1868 in the Oases mill, with the assay value of the different 
 lots worked : 
 
 Pounds "Worked. Assay per Ton 
 
 Aurora (Rathbnrn) 17,157 $439 82 
 
 Aurora (Rathburn), 2d class 4,107 * 8168 
 
 Aurora (Stow) 23,657 $81 68 @ 97 89 
 
 Aurora 117,031 120 00 
 
 Bnena Vista 9,404 87 96 
 
 California 11,131 224 62 @ 339 57 
 
 Emersly 3,074 443 00 
 
 Eunice 11,441 163 36 
 
 Eberhardt 31,605 232 35 @ 241 17 
 
 Hudson & Logan 7,030 226 20 @, 601 61 
 
 Hidden Treasure 78,767 139 77 @. 341 69 
 
 Montffomerv 15,585 89 96 @ 1, 614 86 
 
 Post Hole .". 1,004 229 84 
 
 Romulus 6,000 491 67 
 
 Robert Emmet 124,357 882 84 
 
 ^now Drop 16,475 347 14 @ 360 14 
 
 Santa Vila 19,251 157 86 
 
 Stonewall 134,660 235 62 @ 461 80 
 
 Wadsworth 392 6,929 76 
 
 10* 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 497 
 
 The Central Pacific Railroad runs through Nevada and 
 will contribute much to attract population to the State and to 
 develop its resources. The following table shows the dis- 
 tances and elevations on the line from Sacramento to ISTew 
 York : 
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 
 
 Distiince from 
 Point to Point. 
 
 lotal Distance. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Saora-mento. 
 A.rCcicle 
 
 Mllea. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 11 
 10 
 
 3 
 •2 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 13 
 14 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 5 
 11 
 20 
 15 
 
 9 
 10 
 15 
 
 9i 
 
 2; 
 20 
 
 7 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 
 Miles. 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 92 
 
 105 
 
 119 
 
 128 
 
 138 
 
 143 
 
 154 
 
 174 
 
 189 
 
 198 
 
 208 
 
 223 
 
 2321 
 
 235 
 
 255 
 
 262 
 
 273 
 
 284 
 
 296 . 
 
 303^ 
 
 Feet, 
 
 56 
 76 
 
 
 180 
 
 .TnTiption 
 
 189 
 
 Rocivlin ' 
 
 269 
 
 Pino 
 
 420 
 
 PeDryn 
 
 505 
 
 
 930 
 
 Anbnrn 
 
 1385 
 
 CIiDDer GciD 
 
 1785 
 
 Colfax 
 
 2448 
 
 Gold Run. 
 
 3245 
 
 Dutch Flat 
 
 3425 
 
 Alta 
 
 8625 
 
 Shady Run 
 
 4125 
 
 Blue Canon , 
 
 4700 
 
 Emiffraut Gap 
 
 5300 
 
 
 5911 
 
 Summit 
 
 7042 
 
 Truckee 
 
 5866 
 
 Boca (Little Truckee) 
 
 5560 
 
 State Line 
 
 5165 
 
 Verdi 
 
 4915 
 
 Reno. 
 
 4525 
 
 Clark's 
 
 4290 
 
 Wad&worth 
 
 4104 
 
 Desert 
 
 4045 
 
 Hot SDrino"s. 
 
 4098 
 
 White Plains 
 
 3921 
 
 Humboldt Lake 
 
 3960 
 
 Brown's 
 
 3955 
 
 Humboldt Bridcre 
 
 4035 
 
 Oreana 
 
 4206 
 
 Rye Patch . 
 
 4285 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 4262 
 
 Mill City 
 
 4256 
 
 Raspberry 
 
 4354 
 
498 APPENDIX 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. Fom""to PoirlT. Total Distance. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Saceamento. 
 ■Ro«;p Creek 
 
 Miles. 
 
 10 
 
 'I' 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 12 
 16 
 17 
 11 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 lU 
 
 12 
 
 9| 
 101 
 16t 
 121 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 6f 
 10 
 
 U 
 s} 
 
 9 
 
 ." 
 
 15 
 15| 
 
 131 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 1 11 
 
 Miles. 
 
 3131 
 324" 
 330 
 341 
 351 
 363 
 379 
 ^ 396 
 407 
 417 
 422 
 428 
 435 
 445 
 456] 
 4681 
 478 
 4881 
 504;^ 
 517^ 
 524- 
 5301 
 5321 
 539j 
 549| 
 5501 
 559| 
 568] 
 577 
 586| 
 596 
 6083 
 621 
 636 
 651f 
 669 
 6821 
 690^ 
 719 
 744 
 752 
 767 
 783 
 808 
 819 
 
 Feet. 
 
 5008 
 
 
 5092 
 
 Tule 
 
 5162 
 
 
 5231 
 
 Tron Point 
 
 5367 
 
 
 5510 
 
 l^attle ^lountain 
 
 5655 
 
 _A.ro"enta 
 
 6008 
 
 Shoshone 
 
 6143 
 
 
 6024 
 
 Cirr/ivellv rord 
 
 6180 
 
 2d Humboldt Bridge 
 
 6210 
 
 Palisade . 
 
 6065 
 
 Carlin .. 
 
 5575 
 
 Moleen 
 
 5008 
 
 Elko 
 
 5092 
 
 Osino 
 
 5162 
 
 Peko . 
 
 5231 
 
 Deetli 
 
 5367 
 
 Tulasco 
 
 5510 
 
 Wells 
 
 5655 
 
 Cedar 
 
 6008 
 
 Moore's 
 
 6143 
 
 Independence 
 
 Oteffo^ 
 
 6024 
 6180 
 
 PeauoD 
 
 6210 
 
 Toano 
 
 6065 
 
 Loray 
 
 5575 
 
 Montello 
 
 5027 
 
 Tecoma 
 
 4837 
 
 Xiucin 
 
 4570 
 
 Bovine . 
 
 4374 
 
 Terrace 
 
 4645 
 
 Jt[atlin 
 
 4657 
 
 Tvolton 
 
 4249 
 
 MonTiment 
 
 4250 
 
 j>(,2el . 
 
 4609 
 
 
 4932 
 
 Corinne 
 
 4268 
 
 
 4333 
 
 Deseret 
 
 4550 
 
 "Weber 
 
 4641 
 
 Echo . 
 
 5550 
 
 Wahsatch 
 
 6819 
 
 Evanston 
 
 6700 
 
APPENDI3 
 
 '- • 
 
 
 499 
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 
 
 Distnnce from 
 P,„nt to Point. 
 
 Totnl DiB'nnco. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Sacramento. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 24 
 29 
 17 
 13 
 29 
 11 
 21 
 10 
 13 
 24 
 15 
 13 
 14 
 28 
 13 
 
 9 
 23 
 17 
 19 
 15 
 
 3 
 21 
 13 
 14 
 
 6 
 20 
 23 
 10 
 30 
 19 
 17 
 20 
 16 
 19 
 34 
 17 
 23 
 18 
 20 
 18 
 21 
 19 
 18 
 
 Miles. 
 
 837 
 846 
 870 
 899 
 916 
 929 
 958 
 969 
 990 
 1000 
 1013 
 1037 
 1052 
 1065 
 1079 
 1107 
 1120 
 1129 
 1152 
 1169 
 11 S8 
 1203 
 1206 
 1227 
 1240 
 1254 
 1260 
 1280 
 1303 
 1313 
 1343 
 1362 
 1379 
 1399 
 1415 
 1434 
 1468 
 1485 
 1508 
 1526 
 1546 
 1564 
 1585 
 1604 
 1622 
 
 Fc«t. 
 
 7463 
 
 
 7050 
 
 P-irt^r 
 
 6437 
 
 Gr;in""er 
 
 6270 
 
 
 6161 
 
 
 6112 
 
 S-ilr Wells 
 
 6364 
 
 
 6495 
 
 Tiittor Croek 
 
 6650 
 
 Table Rock 
 
 6991 
 
 Rp(] I^esert 
 
 6705 
 
 Creston 
 
 6950 
 
 Sp i-irnt.inTi 
 
 6907 
 
 
 6683 
 
 
 6520 
 
 
 7100 
 
 f^nrlwin 
 
 7000 
 
 
 6793 
 
 Rock (^reek 
 
 6690 
 
 
 7163 
 
 AVvnmi PH" 
 
 7065 
 
 
 7123 
 
 Ti'i ii't", ftfuiders 
 
 7163 
 
 
 8242 
 
 fir-inife Canon. 
 
 7298 
 
 Ilazjird 
 
 6300 
 
 Chevenn© 
 
 6016 
 
 Hillsdale. 
 
 56'^0 
 
 Pine Rlnff 
 
 5026 
 
 Bushnell 
 
 4H61 
 
 Putter 
 
 4375 
 
 
 4083 
 
 T od<ye Pole. 
 
 3701 
 
 
 3394 
 
 R'j? Snrlncr 
 
 3330 
 
 
 3187 
 
 
 2919 
 
 "N^orth Platte 
 
 2759 
 
 
 2637 
 
 "Willow Island 
 
 2511 
 
 T^ltim (^rpplv 
 
 2360 
 
 Elm Creek 
 
 2241 
 
 
 2106 
 
 
 1970 
 
 
 1850 
 
500 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 
 
 Distance frnni 
 Puint to Point. 
 
 Total Distance. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Saceamento. 
 Lone Tree 
 
 Miles. 
 22 
 
 23 
 33 
 14 
 27 
 6 
 19 
 10 
 
 494 
 
 960 
 
 Mll=8. 
 
 1644 
 1667 
 1700 
 1714 
 1741 
 1747 
 1766 
 1776 
 2270 
 3230 
 
 F«1. 
 
 1686 
 
 1534 
 
 1335 
 
 1295 
 
 1109 
 
 1109 
 
 973 
 
 966 
 
 625 
 
 Tide 
 
 Silver Creek 
 
 Schuyler 
 
 North Bend 
 
 Valley 
 
 Elkhorn 
 
 Gilmore 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York 
 
IITDEX OF SEOTIOI^S. 
 
 Chorogeaphy — Ceap. I. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 General Eemarks 
 
 Coast Mountains 
 
 Coasts Peaks, and Passes 
 
 Coast Rivers 
 
 Coast Lakes 
 
 Capes 
 
 Islands 
 
 Bays and Harbors 7 
 
 iSaeramento Basin 10 
 
 Rivers of the Sacramento 
 
 Basin 12 
 
 Tule Land 13 
 
 Sierra Nevada 13 
 
 Peaks and Passes of the 
 
 Sierra .' 1^ 
 
 Lakes of tlie Sierra 15 
 
 Plateau of the Sierra Ne- 
 vada 15 
 
 Klamath Basin 16 
 
 UtahBasm 16 
 
 Colorado Desert 17 
 
 Area of the State 18 
 
 Geology— Chap. III. 
 
 Sec. Page 
 
 34. General Geological Charac- 
 
 ter 47 
 
 35. Diluvium 48 
 
 36. Gold 50 
 
 37. Auriferous Lodes 51 
 
 38. Placers 52 
 
 39. Mineralogy of Gold 54 
 
 40. Silver 60 
 
 4L Platinum 01 
 
 42. Quicksilver 61 
 
 43. Copper 62 
 
 44. Coal....; 63 
 
 45. Asphaltum 63 
 
 46. Other Minerals 65 
 
 47. Artesian Wells 67 
 
 48. Paleontology 69 
 
 49. Relics of Early Humanity. 70 
 
 50. Mineral Springs 70 
 
 51. Cortes Shoal *?! 
 
 Scenery— Chap. IY. 
 
 Climate — Chap. II. 
 
 20. General Remarks 19 
 
 21. Temperature of the Middle 
 
 Coast 20 
 
 22. Clear Days 25 
 
 23. The Sirocco 25 
 
 24. Temperature of the South- 
 
 ern Coast 27 
 
 25. Sacramento Basin 27 
 
 26. Comparative Tables 28 
 
 27. Rain 30 
 
 28. Dryness of Climate 38 
 
 29. Length of Days 39 
 
 30. Thunderstorms 39 
 
 3L Hail 4:0 
 
 32. Earthquakes 40 
 
 33. Sand-Storms 45 
 
 52. Introductory 
 
 53. Coast Yalleys 
 
 54. Yosemite Yalley 
 
 55. Mammoth Tree Groves. 
 
 56. Geysers 
 
 57. Mud Yolcanoes 
 
 58. Santa Cruz Ruins 
 
 59. Mirage 
 
 60. Caves 
 
 61. Waterfalls 
 
 62. Solfataras ■ 
 
 63. Mount Shasta 
 
 Botany— Chap. Y. 
 
 64. Peculiar Fauna and Flora. 
 
 65. Distribution of Plants 
 
 66. Superiority of Conifers 
 
 67. Redwood 
 
 72 
 73 
 78 
 84 
 85 
 86 
 86 
 88 
 88 
 89 
 89 
 
 91 
 92 
 92 
 92 
 
502 
 
 INDEX OF SECTIONS. 
 
 Bee. 
 68. 
 69. 
 10. 
 71. 
 72. 
 73. 
 74. 
 75. 
 76. 
 77. 
 78. 
 79. 
 80. 
 81. 
 
 86. 
 
 87. 
 
 88. 
 
 89. 
 
 90. 
 
 91. 
 
 92. 
 
 93. 
 
 94. 
 
 95. 
 
 96. 
 
 97. 
 
 98. 
 
 99. 
 100. 
 101. 
 102. 
 103. 
 104. 
 105. 
 106. 
 107. 
 108. 
 109. 
 110. 
 111. 
 112. 
 113. 
 114. 
 115. 
 116. 
 
 Pasre 
 
 Pines 93 
 
 Firs 96 
 
 Cedars 96 
 
 Yew and Nutmeg 97 
 
 Laurel 97 
 
 Madroiia 98 
 
 Manzanita 98 
 
 Ceanothus 99 
 
 Oaks , 99 
 
 Buckeye 101 
 
 Sycamore 101 
 
 Pitahaya 101 
 
 Yucca 102 
 
 Mezquit 102 
 
 Miscellaneous Trees and 
 
 Shrubs 102 
 
 Poison Oak 103 
 
 Amole 104 
 
 Nutritious Herbage 104 
 
 Zoology— CiiAP. YI. 
 
 General List 108 
 
 Bears 108 
 
 Panther and Wild-Cat Ill 
 
 "Wolves and Foxes 112 
 
 Badger, etc 114 
 
 The Squirrel Family 115 
 
 The Rat Family 120 
 
 The Deer Family 121 
 
 The Hare Family 124 
 
 Aquatic Animals 125 
 
 Yultures 128 
 
 The Eagle Family 129 
 
 Owls 130 
 
 Road-runner 130 
 
 Woodpecker 1-31 
 
 Humming-Birds 132 
 
 Flycatchers 133 
 
 Smgers 133 
 
 Scratchers 134 
 
 Waders 137 
 
 Swimmers 137 
 
 Fishes 140 
 
 Salmon 140 
 
 Halibut 141 
 
 Turbot 142 
 
 Sole 142 
 
 Mackerel 142 
 
 Rock-Fish 142 
 
 Sturgeon 143 
 
 Jew-Fish 143 
 
 Sun-Fish 144 
 
 Sec. 
 
 117. 
 
 118. 
 
 119. 
 
 120. 
 
 121. 
 
 122. 
 
 123. 
 
 124. 
 
 125. 
 
 126. 
 
 127. 
 
 128. 
 129. 
 130. 
 131. 
 132. 
 133. 
 134. 
 135. 
 136. 
 137. 
 138. 
 139. 
 140. 
 141. 
 142. 
 143. 
 144. 
 145. 
 146. 
 147. 
 148. 
 149. 
 150. 
 151. 
 152. 
 153. 
 154. 
 155. 
 156. 
 157. 
 158. 
 159. 
 160. 
 
 161. 
 162. 
 163. 
 164. 
 165. 
 
 Pago 
 
 Green-Fish 144 
 
 Sea-Bass 144 
 
 Sheepsbead 144 
 
 Smelts 144 
 
 Anchovies 145 
 
 Sardine and Herring 145 
 
 Viviparous Fishes 145 
 
 Fresh- Water Fishes 146 
 
 Shell-Fish and Crustaceans. 146 
 
 Reptiles 147 
 
 Honey-Dew Aphis 149 
 
 Agriculture — Chap. YIL 
 
 General Remarks 151 
 
 Agricultural Districts 153 
 
 Agricultural Produce 160 
 
 Rotation of Crops IGl 
 
 Ploughing 162 
 
 Advantages, etc 162 
 
 Fences 163 
 
 Barley 167 
 
 Wheat 170 
 
 Oats 177 
 
 Maize 178 
 
 Potatoes 178 
 
 Hay....; 179 
 
 Tobacco, Cotton, Rice 181 
 
 Hop 181 
 
 Kitchen Vegetables 182 
 
 Fruit 184 
 
 Apples 186 
 
 Peaches 188 
 
 Pears 189 
 
 Apricots and Plums 189 
 
 Olives 190 
 
 Oranges 191 
 
 The Grape 193 
 
 Wine-making 201 
 
 Berries 207 
 
 Ornamental Shrubs 209 
 
 Pests of the Farmer 211 
 
 Neat Cattle 212 
 
 Spanish Cattle 212 
 
 Rodeos 214 
 
 Brands 217 
 
 Early Maturity of Californian 
 
 Cows 218 
 
 Corral and Reata 219 
 
 Occasional Starvation 219 
 
 Imported Cattle 220 
 
 Dairies 222 
 
 Spanish Horses 222 
 
I^TDEX OF SECTIONS. 
 
 503 
 
 Sec Page 
 
 IGG. Horse-tf making 224 
 
 167. Blood-horses 228 
 
 168. Mules 229 
 
 169. 'Camels 229 
 
 170. Sheep 229 
 
 171. Swme 233 
 
 172. Poultry 233 
 
 173. Bees 235 
 
 174. Silkworms 237 
 
 Mining — Chap. VIII. 
 
 175. Chief Industry 238 
 
 176. Metals obtained 238 
 
 177. Gold Mines 238 
 
 178. Placer Mines 241 
 
 179. The Sluice 243 
 
 ISO. Amalgamation 246 
 
 181. Cleaning up 249 
 
 182. Riffle-bars 250 
 
 183. Double-Sluices 252 
 
 184. Rock-Sluices 252 
 
 185. HydrauUc Mining 253 
 
 186. Blasting 256 
 
 187. TaU-Sluice 256 
 
 188. Tunnel-Sluice 257 
 
 189. Ground-Sluice 257 
 
 190. Long-Tom 257 
 
 191. Cradle 258 
 
 192. Pan 262 
 
 193. Dry Washing 264 
 
 194. Dry Digging 264 
 
 195. Puddling Box 265 
 
 196. Quicksilver Machine 265 
 
 197. Tunnel Mining 266 
 
 198. Shafts 267 
 
 199. River Mining 268 
 
 200. Beach Mining 269 
 
 201. Mining-Ditches 270 
 
 202. Prospecting 271 
 
 203. Quartz Mining 272 
 
 204. Distribution of Gold iu 
 
 Quartz 273 
 
 205. Prospecting Quartz Rock. . . 275 
 
 206. The Divining Rod 277 
 
 207. Quarrying Quartz 277 
 
 208. Arastra 278 
 
 209. Chilean MiU 280 
 
 210. Stamps 280 
 
 211. Separation 281 
 
 212. Sulphurets 284 
 
 213. Chief Quartz MiUs 284 
 
 214. Silver Mining 285 
 
 Sec. Page 
 
 215. Quicksilver Mining 286 
 
 216. Platinum 287 
 
 217. Del Norte and Klamath. . . 288 
 
 218. Siskiyou 289 
 
 2 1 9. Trinity and Shasta 289 
 
 220. Plumas and Sierra 290 
 
 221. Yuba and Butte 294 
 
 222. Nevada and Placer 295 
 
 223. El Dorado and Amador 296 
 
 224. Calaveras and Tuolumne. . . 298 
 
 225. Mono and Mariposa 301 
 
 226. Fresno, etc 303 
 
 Other Branches of Industry — 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 227. High Wages 304 
 
 228. Lumbering 305 
 
 229. Fishing 313 
 
 230. Hunting 317 
 
 231. House-building 320 
 
 232. Furniture, etc 323 
 
 Commerce — Chap. X. 
 
 233. General Advantages 326 
 
 234. Tributary Population 327 
 
 235. Imports 330 
 
 236. Exports 330 
 
 237. Shipping 332 • 
 
 238. Unsteadiness of Business. . 333 
 
 239. Insolvencies 334 
 
 240. Interest of Money 335 
 
 241. Speculation in Land 337 
 
 242. No Paper Money 337 
 
 243. Opportunities for Invest- 
 
 ment 338 
 
 244. Assurance 347 
 
 Constitution and Laws — Chap. XL 
 
 245. Outlines of Constitution. .. . 349 
 
 246. Inferiority of Colored Per- 
 
 sons 350 
 
 247. Law Favorable to Debtors . . 350 
 
 248. Tenure of Land 352 
 
 249. Ownership of Minerals. .. . 354 
 
 250. Titles of Mining-Claims. . . 354 
 
 251. Marriage 358 
 
 Society — Chap. XII. 
 
 252. Population 359 
 
504 
 
 INDEX OF SECTIONS. 
 
 Bet. Page 
 
 253. Nativities 361 
 
 254. Liberal Tone of Society.. . . 362 
 
 255. Publicity of Life 364 
 
 256. Amusements 365 
 
 257. Luxurious Living 366 
 
 258. Health 366 
 
 259. Proportion of Sexes 368 
 
 260. Education : 369 
 
 261. YigilaiTce Committees 370 
 
 262. L^Tich Executions 373 
 
 263. Squatter League 374 
 
 264. Anti-Chinese Mobs 375 
 
 265. Deeds of Blood 375 
 
 266. Religion 378 
 
 267. Cahfornianisms 380 
 
 268. Germans and French 385 
 
 269. Spanish Cahfornians 385 
 
 270. Chinamen 387 
 
 271. Indians 388 
 
 272. Cities and Towns 397 
 
 273. San Francisco 398 
 
 274. Sacramento 401 
 
 275. Stockton 404 
 
 276. Marysville 405 
 
 277. Nevada City Cal. 406 
 
 278. Los Angeles 406 
 
 279. Petaluma 408 
 
 280. San Jose 409 
 
 281. Santa Clara 409 
 
 282. Columbia 410 
 
 283. Placerville 410 
 
 284. Yreka 410 
 
 Sec. Page 
 
 285. Yallejo 411 
 
 286. Visalia 413 
 
 287. Red Bluff 414 
 
 288. Martinez *414 
 
 289. Pacheco 414 
 
 290. Suisun 415 
 
 291. Benicia 416 
 
 292. Xapa 416 
 
 293. Crescent City 416 
 
 294. Areata 417 
 
 295. Anaheim 417 
 
 296. Monterey, etc 419 
 
 297. Mining Towns 420 
 
 298. General Remarks 420 
 
 Topographical Names — Chap. XIIL 
 
 299. Introductory 422 
 
 300. Sacred Spanish Names 422 
 
 301. Profane Spanish Names. . . 424 
 
 302. Indian Names 425 
 
 303. American Names 426 
 
 304. Etymology of California. . . 428 
 
 305. Pronunciation of Names .. . 429 
 
 The Past and Future Develophent 
 OF THE State — Chap. XIY. 
 
 306. Summary, General 431 
 
 307. Sale of Mineral Lands 437 
 
 308. Mexican Grants 463 
 
 JUL W 
 
 l4 
 
 TENT OFFVO 
 
WELLS, FARGO & CO. 
 
 Express and Excliange Co. 
 
 CAPITAL, - - . $10,000^000 
 
 No. 84 Broadway, New York, 
 
 N. W. Cor. California and Montgomery Sts., S. F. 
 
 To all parts of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, 
 Oregon, Washington and Idaho Territories, British Columbia, Lower 
 California and Mexican Ports, New York, Atlantic States and Europe. 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE AND TELEGRAPH TRANSFERS 
 
 On New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, payable in the principal cities of 
 the United States and Canada. Also, Bills on London, Dublin, and Paris. 
 Letters of credit issued on our New York House exchangeable for circular 
 letters payable in all parts of Europe. 
 
 COLLECTIONS ANI> COHMISSIONS 
 
 Of all kinds executed, and general express business attended to promptly 
 in all parts of the United States, Europe, and Canada. Orders for passage 
 furnished from Queenstown, London, Liverpool, Hamburg, and Havre to 
 New York. Also, from New York to San Francisco — overland or by 
 steamer. 
 
 DAILY LINE OF STAGES 
 
 To Virginia City, Nev., connecting with C. P. R. R. at Reno. To White 
 Pine, connecting at Elko. 
 
 To Montani, connecting with U. P. R. R. at Corinne. 
 To Denver City, connecting at Cheyenne. 
 To Salt Lake City at Hintah. 
 
 A. H. BARNEY, President. "J 
 
 JAMES C. FARGO, Vice-Fresident.f 
 
 GEO. K. OTIS, Secretary. >- ^ew York 
 
 C. GODDARD, Treasurer. \ 
 
 CHARLES E. McLANE, 
 
 Gen'l Agent for Pacific Coast, SAN FRANCISCO 
 
RELIA BLE lUDEM ITITY! 
 
 br^tstch: office 
 
 OF T TT E 
 
 Insurance Companies, 
 
 OF HARTFORD & NEW YORK. 
 
 No. 424 CALIFORNIA STREET, 
 
 SAisr FRAisrcisco. 
 
 FIRE-INSURANCE EXCLUSIVELY. 
 
 *• The times we live in, and are passing through, demand strong, substantial, 
 and EXPEKIENCED Underwriters of the conservative and high-toned school ; 
 Companies of brains as well as capital, and a thorough knowledge of, 
 and an intimate acquaintance with, the business, as well as assets ; Com- 
 panies that are uniform in their rates, economical in their management, 
 and prompt in the payment of losses. Suchi institutions are the 
 
 HOME & PHCENIX INSURANCE COMPANIES, 
 
 whose past bright record and present fair fame attest the legitimacy of their 
 
 claims to preference and favor." 
 L.OSSES EQUITABLY ADJUSTEO AND PROMPTLY PAID. 
 
 Resident Agents at all prominent places on the Pacific Coast author- , 
 ized to issue and renew policies without delay, and at rates as low as 
 solvency and fair profit will admit of. 
 
 EOBEKT H. MAGILL, Manager. 
 
IRA P. RANKIN-. A, P. BRATTON. A. C. AUSTIN. 
 
 Pacific Iron Works 
 
 FIRST AND FREMONT STREETS, 
 
 SA^ FHAJS-CISCO. 
 
 Having been established since 1851, we have accumulated a very large 
 variety of Gear and other Patterns, which, with our superior tools and 
 apphances, give us facilities for doing first-class work unequaled on the 
 Pacific Coast. 
 
 Among other things, we manufacture the following: 
 
 Horizontal and Yertical, for either Stationary or Marine use. 
 
 IOOIXjiEI^^® , HIGH & LOW PEESSUEE, 
 
 Pump, Pipe, and Sheet-Iron Work of every kind. 
 
 QUARTS MILL WORK, 
 
 Including High and Low Mortars, for wet or dry crushing ; Furnace Irons 
 for Roasting Ores ; Freiberg Barrels ; Yarney's and Wheeler's Amal- 
 gamating Pans and Settlers; Stamp Shoes and Dies of best White 
 Iron ; Russia Iron Screens, etc., etc. 
 
 PLOUR MILL, SA¥/.MILL, AMD SUGAR MILL 
 
 Work in every variety ; Pumping and Hoisting Machinery ; Hansbrow's 
 
 Patent Challenge Pump, for Domestic, Ship, and Mining use — the 
 
 most approved and successful Pump manufactured. 
 
 Castings of every description, Iron and Brass. 
 
 We would call especial attention to " Wright's Patent Yariable Cut-off 
 Engines," of which we are the sole manufacturers on the Pacific Coast, 
 under license from tlie Woodruff & Beach Co., Hartford, Conn. As a sim- 
 ple, effective, fuel saving, first-class Engine, tliis is, without doubt, the 
 best Engine made in the United States. 
 
 Orders promptly attended to. Prices as low as possible for first-class 
 work, and wo intend to do no other. 
 
 CJOI>I>ARI> & CO. 
 
 Sax Francisco, May 1, 1868. 
 
THE CALIFORNIA ISilJTUAL 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 Jilt ^m^wmt 
 
 Iaa.coa:'i:>03r^.toca. IKTo-v^eaaa-Toer 3.6, XOOT". 
 
 INDIVIDUAL LIABILITY. 
 
 Capital, in XT, S. Gold Coin, 
 Guarantee Fund, U, S. Gold Coin, 
 
 $100,000 
 
 Charles E. McLane, 
 S. F. Biitterworth, 
 J. Mora Moss, 
 Hon. O. C. Pratt, 
 L. L. Robinson, 
 L. Sacks, 
 M. D. Sweeney, 
 Alvinza Hayward, 
 
 0. Lawton, 
 
 C. J. Brenham, 
 Thos. H. Selby, 
 Oliver Eldridge, 
 J. A. Donalioe, 
 Thomas Bell, 
 J. H. Goodman, 
 David Stern, 
 Gen. J. F. Miller, 
 Hon Eugene Casserly, 
 TVm. Sharron, 
 W. S. Ladd, 
 
 1. Frielander, 
 L. Kline, 
 
 Mark Livingston, 
 Robert F. Morrow, 
 Wm. C. Ralston, 
 A. E. Head, 
 
 Wm. E. Barron, 
 Godchauk Bros. & Co. 
 S. Lipman, 
 Adam Grant, 
 Thos Breeze, 
 N. Larco, 
 B. M. Hartshorne, 
 Louis Worraser, 
 Wm. Taaffe, 
 A. Goldsmith, 
 Wm. Burling, 
 George W. Beaver, 
 Joseph G. Eastland, 
 Richard Tobin, 
 Wm. H. Sharp, 
 Louis Sloss & Co., 
 T. L. Mever & Co., 
 Hon. A. H. Rose, 
 Jno. W. Ackerson, 
 Wm. Scholle, 
 Chas. Mayne, 
 Eugene Crowell, 
 Lloyd Tevis, 
 Edgar Mills. 
 A. J. Ralston, 
 
 Stockliolders. 
 
 John Bensley, 
 
 Hon . Leland Stanford, 
 
 Glazier Bros., 
 
 Jesse HoUaday, 
 
 Fred. L. Castle, 
 
 A. G. Stiles, 
 
 Lazard Freres, 
 
 L. Cahn, 
 
 M. S. Latham, 
 
 Michael Reese, 
 
 T. LeRov, 
 
 J. M. McDonald, 
 
 A. B. Grogan, 
 
 F. D. Atherton, 
 
 John T. Doyle, 
 
 Reuben Morten, 
 
 W. A. Woodward, 
 
 John T. Little, 
 
 C. Adolphe Low, 
 
 R. G. Sneath, 
 
 L. Dinkelspiel, 
 
 N. G. Kittle, 
 
 Julius Wetzlar. 
 
 Isidor Wormser, 
 
 Hon. John S. Hager, 
 
 Robert B. Swain, 
 
 James D. Walker, 
 
 E. L. Goldstein, 
 
 Moses Heller, 
 
 A. Block, 
 
 Wm. Meek, 
 
 J. W. Mather, 
 
 Jas. B. Roberts, 
 
 J. T. Boyd, 
 
 J. A. Drinkhotise, 
 
 Frank Livingston, 
 
 A. A. Cohen, 
 
 L. Maynard, 
 
 Charles Maine, 
 
 Goldsmith Bros., 
 
 Charles Baum, 
 
 Ch. Christianson, 
 
 R. T. Maxwell, M. D., 
 
 Wm. C. Hoff, 
 
 H. Scamman, 
 
 A. L. Wangenheim, 
 
 Charles Stephens, 
 
 John McComb, 
 
 A. I. Burke, 
 
 Shwabacker Bros. & Co. 
 
 J. Mora Moss, 
 Chas. E. McLme, 
 Thos. H. Shelby, 
 L. Sachs, 
 M. D. Sweeny, 
 
 J. A. Donohoe, 
 David Stern, 
 E. Casserly, 
 O. Lawton, 
 
 Directors. 
 
 C. J. Brenham, S. F. Butterworth, 
 
 Thomas Bell, Oliver Eldredge, 
 
 John F. Miller, L. L. Robinson, 
 
 I. Friedlander, A. Hayward, 
 
 O. C. Pratt, 
 W. S. Ladd, of Portland, Oregon. Wm. Sharon, of Virginia City, Nevada, 
 
 J. H. Goodman, of ]^apa, California. 
 CHAS. E. McLANE, President. S. F. BUTTERWORTH, Vice President. 
 
 John Ceocket, Secretary. 
 
 Medical Sxaniiners. 
 R. T. MAXWELL, M. D. J. C. SHORB, M. D. 
 
 This Company issues all the most desirable and popular kmds of Policies, assuring any sum 
 on a single life, from $500 to $20,000. The Company freely grants every advantage to policy- 
 holders appertaining to the business, and offer terms as liberal as those of any first-class 
 Company. 
 
 In the event of death, claims will be promptly settled. 
 
 The wise provision of the laws under which this Company is organized, while requiring a 
 paid-up Cash Capital of $100,000, and thus insuring a Board of Directors with a pecuniary 
 interest in its success, forbids the payment to the Stockholders of AA'Y PORTION OF THE 
 PROFITS of the business, bevond the interest earned by the capital contributed by them, 
 thus making it a PURELY MUTUAL COMPANY. 
 
 All Policies in the Company are NON-FORFEITABLE, and participate in the profits. 
 
 This Company insures in Gold or Currency, and when desii-ed give credit for one-half of the 
 
 Office of the Company, No. 13 Merchants' Exchange. 
 
 WM. R. WHEATON, General Agent. 
 

 a. anoEzi^aER, 
 
 SAy fhancisco, 
 
 Has constantly on hand, for Export, a large and well assorted stock of 
 White, Red, Port, Angelica, Sherry and Muscatell 
 
 3 "Q A IP ICT 
 
 WM^h. 
 
 WI, 
 
 Which he offers at the very lowest market rates. 
 
 HIS AGENTS, 
 
 MESSRS. FI.EIS€ei?IA]V]V & UI.RIC1IS, 
 
 21 South William St., Nevst Vork, 
 
 Have a full supply of the above named 
 
 NATIVE WIWES AWJy BltAWDY 
 
 Always on hand, and sell them at California prices, excluding 
 freight and other charges. 
 
Epmund Jones. J g ^ ^ruz. 
 JosKpn Boston. (^ ""■"'-** ^^^• 
 
 Samuel 0. Gray, 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 GRAY, JONES & CO., 
 
 DEPOT OF THE 
 
 amta Criii TaimerT 
 
 i)&M. 
 
 ^9 
 
 TRADE *^ l^ ^ MARK. 
 
 ^ E.J0NES&C9 ^ 
 ]SrO. 4rl8 BATTERY STREET, 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 Manufacturers op all kinds of JLight and J^eavx 
 
 Oak Tanned Leather, 
 
 Particulakly Sole Leather, Harness, Bridle, and Skirting Leather, all 
 
 OF the aery best quality that can be produced 
 
 IN California. 
 
 This is believed to be the - 
 
 Largest and Oldest Established Tannery in the State, 
 
 And its propriotors intend to spare no pains to maintain tlie superior repu- 
 tation of their tanna^re. Located in the tionrishing town of Santa 
 Cruz, in the neighborhood of forests of Chestnut and Oak, 
 ■where supplies of bark are secured, the Tannery 
 possesses many advantages of position. 
 
 It Contains upwards of 100 Vats, employs 25 Men, 
 
 Together with steam power for machinery, 
 
 AND TURNS OUT 20,000 SIDES OF LEATHER PER ANNUM. 
 
 Orders Kespectfully Solicited. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 E. Jones & Co., Santa Cruz, or 
 
 Gray, Jones & Co., San Francisco. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISnED BY 
 
 A. ROMAN & CO., SAN FRANCISCO, 
 
 AND 
 
 27 JSoivard Street, New York, 
 
 Retail. 
 
 Sermons by Rev. Charles Wadsworth, D.D., Minister of Calvary Church, 
 
 San Francisco. 12mo, cloth. $2 00 
 
 The Unnoticed Things op Scripture. By the Right Rev. Ingraham Kip, 
 
 D.D., Bishop of California. 12mo, cloth. 1 GO 
 
 The Resources of California. Fifth edition; with an Appendix on Nevada, 
 White Pine Miiiing District, and tlie Pacific Railroad. By John S. llittell. 
 12mo. Cloth 150 
 
 Life among the Apaches. By John C. Crcmnny . 12mo, cloth. 2 00 
 
 Russian and English Phrase Book. Specially adapted for the uso of Trader^ 
 
 Travelers and Teachers. 12mo, paper • 1 00 
 
 Poems. By Charles Warren Stoddard. *' They evince the possession of a fresh 
 and delicate fancy, a nice ear for melody, unaffected love for nature," and 
 a pure purpose."— i^wZ/eZin. An elegant 8vo. Illustrated 2 50 
 
 OuTCROPPiNGs : Gems from California Poets. A beautiful small quarto. Gilt. 1 00 
 
 Confucius and the Chinese Classics: or, Readings in Chinese Literature. 
 Edited and compiled by Rev. A. w . Loomis. The first book printed from 
 eterootype plates in California. " One of the most entertaining volumes 
 issued from the American press for many a daj:^— Territorial Enterprise. 
 A handsome 1 2mo 2 00 
 
 Chinese and English Phrase Book : With the Chinese pronunciation 
 indicated in English. Specially adapted for the tiso of merchants and 
 families. By Benoni Lanctot. Second edition revised and enlarged , 100 
 
 In Bonds: A Novel. By Laura Preston. "A novel of more than ordinary 
 
 elevation of purpose, carefully and effectively wrought out." — The Pacific. 1 25 
 Cloth 1 75 
 
 Carrie Carlton's Popular Letter-Writer. An attractive 12mo 50 
 
 A Youth's History op California. By Lucia Norman. A popular Ilistoiy for 
 
 all classes of readers, young and old. A pretty 1 2mo 1 00 
 
 Route to Califorma by the Isthmus of Panama. A useful and amusing book 
 
 to every traveler. 12mo, paper 60 
 
 Nevada and California Processes of Silver and Gold Extraction. By 
 
 Guido Kustel. The best practical Tvork on the subject. 8vo., cloth 6 00 
 
 Instructions in Gymnastics. By Arthur and Charles Nahl. With numerous 
 
 plates. Quarto - 2 60 
 
 Leq&l Titles to Mining Claims and Water Rights in California. By 
 Gregory Yale, Counselor at Law. "The first thorough discussion of the 
 subject of Mining property in the United States, and one much needed." — 
 Sac. Union. 8vo, sheep 7 60 
 
 SuLPHURETS. What they are, how Concentrated, bow Assayed, and how Worked, 
 with a Chapter on the Blow-pipe Assay of Minerals. Bv William Barstow, 
 M.D., i2mo ." 1 GO 
 
 Distillation, Brewing and Malting. By J. McCulloch. I2mo, cloth 1 GO 
 
 Going to Jericho : Or Sketches of Travel in Spain and the East. By John 
 
 Franklin Swift. I2mo, cloth 2 00 
 
 Aldeane. a Novel By the author of In Bonds. 12mo, cloth 175 
 
 NEW AND ATTRACTIVE CALIFORNIA JUVENILES. 
 
 Golden Dawn AND other Stories. By May Wentworth. IGmo |1 25 
 
 A Boy's Trip across THE Plains. By Laura Preston. ICmo 125 
 
 Inqlenook. a new Juvenile, by Carrio Carlton. IGmo 125 
 
 Mat Wentworth'b Fairy Tales from Gold Land. The scenes of most of those 
 
 Tales are laid in California. IGmo. Illustrated 125 
 
 Faibt Tales FROM Gold Land. Second series. 16mo 125 
 
 No Baby in the House, and other Stories. 16mo 1 25 
 
ESX-A.B3L.ISIIED IIS" 1849!!! 
 
 Si\M\ & €gJb gisptcl] fine 
 
 FOR 
 
 SA.ISr FR^iN-CISCO. 
 
 SAILING PROMPTLY AS ADVERTISED. 
 
 Office, Corner of WALL AND SOUTH STEEETS, 
 
 FIESf-€MSS CHPPEE SUPS 
 
 * 
 
 TRl-MONTHLY. 
 
 Goods from all parts of the country received and forwarded by the 
 vessels of our own line, free of commissions in New York, 
 
 Messrs. GEORGE HOWES & CO., 
 
 Consignees in San Francisco, 
 
 All goods forwarded to us should be plainly marked, care " SHttoii 
 & Co., corner of Watl and §outli Streets, ^e\v 
 YorR," and Railroad receipts or bills of lading forwarded to us by the 
 first mail after shipments. 
 
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