IPLETE .MER'S GUIDE Gopyiight}^" /f/0 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. l|^yJB ^M «i ^^B-i "^^ jWllJIIfc % VEW H^HhS^^ \^h9^ wt k-^^^I^^^^Hr^H^H M MiM^H|| *! ^m ^K"^' * i. t'^B ^^m " i ^^i W^ COMPLETE FARMER'S GUIDE FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING AND FARM LIFE BY EDWIN JACKSON KYLE, B.S., B.S.A., M.S.A. Professor of Horticulture and Dean of the School of Agriculture, The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, ALEXANDER CASWELL ELLIS, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of the Philosophy of Education and Director of the Department of Extension, The University of Texas. I LLUSTRATED CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON COPV-RIGBI, 1912, 1915, BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS SEP 10 1915 (Q)CI.A410474 p CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Introductory . . . . . . . " . 1 II. Plant Growth 10 III. How Plants Are Reproduced 46 IV. The Soil 75 V. Manures, Fertilizers, and Rotation . . . 107 VI. Tillage and Farm Implements 134 VII. Farm Crops 15J VIII. The Garden 205 IX. School Garden and Farm 223 X. Fruit-Growing and Shade-Trees . . . . 236 XI. Plant Enemies 258 XII. Animal Husbandry and Cattle 291 XIII. The Care of Milk and Its Products . . . 335 XIV. Horses 346 XV. Sheep , ... 366 XVI. Hogs 385 XVII. Poultry 400 iii iv CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XVIII. The Care AND Feeding OF Animals .... 410 XIX. Farm Planning and Accounting 425 XX. The Farm Home 437 XXI. Home and School Grounds 457 XXII. The Preparation and Use of Foods .... 471 XXIII. Sewing for a One-Room Country School . . . 494 XXIV. Means of Self-Improvement for Farmers . . 505 Appendix I. Texas Soils, Rainfall, and Crops . .511 Appendix II. Suggestions for a School Library on Agriculture 518 Appendix III. Roads 523 Appendix IV. Silos 530 Appendix V. Boys' Corn Clubs and Corn-Judging . 532 Appendix VI. Cooking in the One-Room Country School 540 Appendix VII. Tables 545 Glossary . 549 Index * • . 551 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 1. Frontispiece: Tilling the soil — the old way. TilUng the soil — the new way. PAGE 2. The farmer sustains all 2 3. Modem tomatoes and the originals from which they were developed . . ' 3 4. The wooden plow of our early ancestors .... 4 5. The "Oil Pull" gang plow 4 6. The old long horn and Prince Welton, champion two-year- old Hereford 5 7. Jerry Moore, the corn-club boy, and part of the 2282 bushels of corn raised by him on one acre in 1910 . 7 8. Different types of so-called seeds 11 9. An opened bean-seed that has been soaked ... 12 10. Seed germinators made of two plates . . . . .12 11. The rag-doll germinator 13 12. The sand-box germinator 14 13. The root hairs of a young radish-plant . . . .17 14. The root hair penetrating the soil 18 15. The cross-section of a small root 19 16. An easy method of studying the working of osmosis . . 19 17. The method of planting seeds at different depths that their growth may be watched 20 18. A young bean-plant just coming up 21 19. A woody stem with terminal and lateral buds ... 22 V VI ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 20. An easy method of catching some of the water transpired by a plant ........ 25 21. A cross-section of a leaf 26 22. A simplified diagram to illustrate the carrying of food ma- terials 29 23. A quarter of the stem of a tree 32 24. The cross-section of a young stem 34 25. The working of capillary attraction 3S 26. Various types of familiar cells 37 27. Cell division 38 28. HeaHng tissue that the plant throws out to cover a wound . 38 29. The mass of adventitious buds thrown out by a hickory . 39 30. Roots and stems marked so as to study growth ... 43 31. A peach-blossom cut in two and a morning-glory ... 47 32. The process of fertilization of the ovule by the pollen . . 48 33. Male and female flowers of the pecan ..... 49 34. The manner in which insects help to fertilize some flowers . 51 35. The effect produced by hybridization of two different kinds of squash ......... 52 36. Cotton and tomato blooms prepared for cross-fertilization . 53 37. The crossed stigma covered with bag and labelled . . 54 38. The wide range of variation shown in plants from seeds of the daisy 55 39. Kale, cabbage, and cauliflower, and the original plant from which they came 57 40. Reid's yellow dent corn 58 41. Reproduction of blue grass by stolons .... 60 42. The Irish potato and the enlarged underground stems or tubers ......... 60 ILLUSTRATIONS Vll FIGURE PAGE 43. A layered tip of raspberry taking root 44. The method of propagating grapes by layering . 45. Cuttings of rose, grape, and fig, and proper position o ting in soil 46. A rooted begonia-leaf cutting .... 47. The method of making the whip or tongue graft . 48. The process of cleft-grafting .... 49. A young cleft graft of pecan growing on a hickory 50. The steps in the proper method of shield-budding 51. The stages of ring-budding and a young ring bud growing 52. A shortened and more convenient form of standard ring- budding tool ....... 53. The new growth from buds placed on top of an old pecan which was sawed off for that purpose . 54. Illustration of how the films of capillary water pass from particle to particle in the soil .... 55. Experiment to illustrate the effect upon growth of the air in water 56. Comparison of soil with humus and dust mulch with soil without either ....... 57. An inexpensive equipment for testing the water-holding capacity of soils ....... 58. An inexpensive equipment for testing the capillary rise of water in soils ....... 59. Illustration of how the dust mulch prevents the rise of water to the surface of the soil .... 60. An irrigation canal on the Pecos River at Rock Cut 6L A flowing well in Glen Rose, Texas, and a pumped well near Midland, Texas 62. The method of laying tile drains .... Vm ILLUSTRATIONS hgure page 63. An inexpensive home-made level with which terraces may be laid out 100 64. Diagram showing amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash used by 1,000 pounds of cotton-seed and by 500 pounds of lint cotton ....... 107 65. Comparison of production of corn with horse manure and without fertilizer ....... 108 66. Proper and improper methods of saving manure . . .112 67. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the cells of root tubercle of a legume 115 68. Tubercles on roots of soy-bean 116 69. Illustration to show that the limit of the crop is set by the most deficient food element . . . . .117 70. The effect of the absence of nitrogen, potassium, or phos- phorus 121 71. Millet grown with and without potassium chloride . . 123 72. Comparison of production of corn grown without fertilizer and that grown with potassium chloride . . . 124 73. Diagram showing yield of wheat with and without rotation at Rothamsted Experiment Station . . . .128 74. Effect of plowing upon the soil 136 75. Effect of the curve of the plow 137 76. Planting 'n wet and in dry soil 138 77. Four types of plows 139 78. Disk suUcy plow ......... 140 79. Disk harrow 141 80. Spike-tooth harrow 141 81. Acme harrow 142 82. Plank drag 142 83. Fourteen-tooth harrow 142 ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 84. Five-tooth harrow 85. Two-row sulky cultivator , 86. Single corn and cotton planter . 87. Double sulky corn and cotton planter 88. Manure spreader 89. Combination garden tool . 90. Corn shredder and silo filler in operation 91. The use of an engine on the farm 92. Cotton leaves and cotton bolls, upland and sea island . 93. Relative lengths of different varieties of cotton . 94. Cotton-stalk thirty-three inches high . 95. A good stalk of cotton 96. A poor stalk of cotton 97. Yield of seed and lint from selected and unselected cotton seed 98. Field of cotton in Cherokee County, Texas 99. Boone County white corn and the corn from which it wai developed 100. Differences in stalks due to differences in seeds . 101. Differences in yield of corn due to differences in seeds . 102. The results of test of fifteen ears of corn 103. Comparative yield of five highest and five lowest j'ielding ears at Story County, Iowa, station . 104. Differences in oats due to differences in seeds 105. The root system of corn 106. Heads of milo maize and Kafir corn from near Dalworth Texas 107. Field of milo maize from near San Benito, Texas ^ ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 108. Effect of bacteria on the growth of red clover 1U9. Pea-nut plant from the Panhandle 180 110. Gathering and stacking pea-nuts 181 111. Cow-peas in corn rows in Johnson County, Texas . . 183 112. Field of cow-peas 185 113. Soy-bean field 18Q 114. An alfalfa-plant only a few months old .... 187 115. Stem of sugar-cane 194 116. Field of sugar-cane at La Feria, Texas .... 195 117. Types of rice 197 118. Five-year breeding plan for cotton or other crop . . . 200 119. Plan for a half-acre garden 207 120. A home-made garden reel 208 121. A home-made sled marker 209 122. A horse cultivator for garden use 211 123. An inexpensive wheel hoe 212 124. A hot-bed 213 125. Tomato-plants ready for setting in the field . . . 214 126. Handy box for use in seeding or transplanting in the hot-bed 214 127. The right and the wrong way to set out plants with a dibber 215 PAQB 179 128. Transplanting 129. Onions trimmed ready for transplanting 130. Paper and tin shields for young plants 131. A good layout for a half-acre school garden 132. A good planting plan for the pupil's individual plot 210 217 220 224 224 133. A view in the practice school garden at the University of Texas 225 ILLUSTRATIONS XI ncrRE PAGE 134. A good set of tools 226 135. A good showing; a happy boy 227 136. School-boys' corn, school farm, Uvalde, Texas . . . 227 137. A view of the school farm, Bonham, Texas .... 228 138. Home-canned fruit on a Texas farm 237 139. A four-year-old fig orchard at Algoa, Texas . . . 238 140. Planting in squares 240 141. The equilateral triangle-planting plan .... 240 142. The effect of dynamiting upon the root system of a tree . 241 143. Pruning nursery trees 243 144. A tree pruned to direct growth 244 145. The right way to cut off the old stem 244 146. The Munson system of grape culture 245 147. A young vine that shows how grapes flourish in the South- west 246 148. Clean cultivation 247 149. Peas in the middles 247 150. Gathering apples 248 151. A young fruiting pecan-tree 249 152. Right and wrong method of cutting large limb from a tree . 250 153. Decayed tree after and before being filled with concrete . 252 154. School-boys grafting an apple-tree ..... 253 155. An inexpensive cage in which to keep insects for study . . 258 156. Effect of spraying black rot on grapes 259 157. The Colorado potato-beetle 260 158. The cotton-boll weevil 261 Xll ILLUSTRATIONS FIGDBH PAGE 159. A square punctured by boll-weevil and a weevil maturing within the boll 261 160. Chart showing the spread of the cotton-boll weevil . . 263 161. The cabbage-worm 264 162. Nymph and empty pupa skin of grasshopper . . . 265 163. A typical insect 266 164. A bucket spray pump 267 165. A barrel spraying apparatus 268 166. A power spraying apparatus 269 167. Apples from a sprayed tree 270 168. The foods of some helpful birds and wild animals . . . 271 169. San Jos6 scale 273 170. Lady-bird beetle , . . 274 171. Wheat rust 275 172. Peach mummy caused by brown rot 276 173. The bacteria that cause pear bhght 277 174. Spores of brown rot of peach 277 175. Potato infected with scab, and sound potato . . . 278 176. Ordinary cotton and Dillon wilt resistant cotton . . 279 177. Good and bad farming 292 178. Inferior feeder, choice feeder, and fat steer .... 295 179. Points of the beef animal ,298 180. Wholesale cuts on the steer 301 181. Shorthorn bull 304 182. Champion Hereford bull 306 183. Aberdeen-Angus bull 307 184. GaUowaybuU 309 ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll FIGURE PAGE 185. Points of the dairy cow 311 186. Blood supply of the udder 314 187. Colantha Fourth's Johanna, showing typical wedge shape of the dairy cow 316 188. The wedge when viewed from above or in front . . . 317 189. Champion Jersey bull 319 190. Jersey cow 321 191. Guernsey cow 323 192. Ayrshire cow 325 193. Red polled cow 329 194. Cattle tick depositing eggs 331 195. Plan of ridding ranch of cattle ticks 332 196. Pure and impure milk as they appear under the microscope . 335 197. Progeny of a single germ in milk in twelve hours . . 336 198. Sanitary and unsanitary pails 337 199. Sanitary cow barn 338 200. Cross-section of dairy barn 339 201. Model dairy barn, Wisconsin State fair grounds . . . 340 202. Milk-testing set 343 203. Points of the horse .347 204. Thoroughbred trotting horse 349 205. APercheron 353 206. A Clydesdale 356 207. A five-gaited saddle-horse 358 208. A French coach stallion 359 209. A hackney stallion 350 210. A Belgian stallion 361 XIV ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 211. A Shire stallion 362 212. A good team of mules 363 213. Points of the sheep 367 214. Mutton cuts on sheep 368 215. Method of judging sheep 370 216. Method of judging sheep 371 217. A wether in fleece 373 218. A wether shorn 374 219. Good mutton type 376 220. Types of sheep 379 221. Types of sheep 380 222. Angora buck 382 223. Wholesale pork cuts on live animal 386 224. Wholesale pork cuts on carcass 387 225. Points of the hog 388 226. Tamworth sow 391 227. Lard type of hogs 393 228. Wigwam hog cot 395 229. Litter mates 397 230. Eggs from the average hen and eggs from a good-laying hen 401 231. Chicken with strong constitution and chicken with weak constitution . 402 232. Convenient feeding and watering devices .... 403 233. Model chicken-house ........ 405 234. Sources and uses of various elements 413 235. A one-hundred-and-sixty-acre farm poorly planned . . 426 236. Same farm replanned . . 427 ILLUSTRATIONS XV FIGURE PAGE 237. Fac-simile of page in farm diary 431 238. Copy of page in farm diary 433 239. Iceless refrigerator 438 240. Wisely and unwisely located wells 443 241. Front view sanitary closet 446 242. Rear and side view of sanitary closet 447 243. The L. R. S. closet 450 244. The L. R. S. closet, interior view 451 245. Fly with germs on feet and legs 452 246. The house fly, with pupa and larva 453 247. Grounds improperly planted 458 248. Grounds properly planted 459 249. Flowers made more attractive by background of green . 460 250. A good beginning 461 251. Cherokee rose 463 252. Plan for five-acre rural school grounds .... 465 253. A screen of Georgia cane and castor-bean .... 466 254. Girls learning to cook 472 255. Mothers learning principles of cooking and dietetics . . 473 256. Girls learning to sew 495 257. Articles to be made by sewing class 496 258. Stitches used in sewing 497 259. Stitches used in sewing 499 260. French hem, button-hole, sewing on button . . . 501 261. Some stitches, darning, patching, and an apron . . . 503 262. Farmers' meeting at county rural school-house . . . 506 XVI ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 263. The consolidated rural school 507 264. Soil areas of Texas 512 265. Cross-section showing heights above sea-level . . . 512 266. Rain map of Texas 514 267. Cross-sections of earth road 524 268. A good road 525 269. A road before and after use of split-log drag . . . 527 270. A good form of split-log drag ...... 528 271. Boys' Corn-Club exhibit 532 272. Boys' Corn Club 533 273. Boys and Girls' Milo Club 533 274. A member of the canning club ...... 534 275. An exhibit of the Girls' Canning Club's work . . . 535 276. Good butt and tip 535 277. Two excellent ears 537 278. Good and poor ears 537 279. Shapes of kernels 538 280. Portable charcoal furnace 541 281. Equipment No. 1 542 282. Equipments Nos. 1 and 2 together 543 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING AND FARM LIFE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY 1. Agriculture the Most Important of All Industries. — Agriculture is the most important of all industries, because it is the one without which none of the others could exist. If the farmer produced no crops everybody would starve, ex- cept the few who could live on wild plants and dress in ani- mal skins. If the farmer grew no crops the railroads would have practically nothing to haul, the factories would have practically no material out of which to manufacture their goods, the merchants would have practically nothing to sell, and nobody would have money with which to buy, the lawyers would have no clients who could pay them, and the doctors, preachers, and teachers would all have to starve with the rest or live like the savage. The farmer is the foundation of our civilization, for, when he fails to support them, all the other occupations fall to the ground. 2. How Agriculture Has Developed. — Agriculture is al- most as old as the human race. The early savage learned first to eat the plants and fruits as they grew wild', and to catch and eat the wild animals. Then he learned to tame and use, that is, to domesticate (do-mes'ti-kat), the wild 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ipsteh.Teacher.Lawyer.Doctor, Merchant. Clerk, Politician, AND Others \ Railroad Employees [ | Factory Ehplotees| theTcll- produce animals. These herds of domesticated animals were driven from place to place as the food or water supply was used up in one place. Later, man learned to gather the seed of wild plants, and to sow and cultivate patches of those plants that gave him food or clothing. These were planted on one spot till it would no longer yield a good crop, and then the man or tribe moved over to another spot and let the old one grow wild again. This is the way the savage farmed. Next, man learned that, by plowing the weeds and grass under and let- ting the land rest a year he could again produce a good crop on it. This is called the hare falloic. Then man learned that by putting manure on the soil he could continue to get good crops on the same land. Next, it was found that the planting of a certain kind of crop one year would make the land give a bigger yield of some other crop the following year. This is rotation (ro-ta'shiln) of crops. You will learn more about this when you study the lesson on crop rotation. Finally, man found just what the diflPerent plants were made of, and I Farm Laborers! I I THF. FARMER I Fig. 2. The farmer sustains all. INTRODUCTORY 3 learned that the few chemicals that the growing plant takes out of the soil could be gathered from other places on the earth and put into the ground ready for the young plant to use in growing. These chemicals that are put into the ground for the plant to feed on are called fertilizers. 3. Agriculture Enables the Earth to Support More People. — The earth could support only a few people when all de- FiQ. 3. Numbers 1 and 3 represent the original tomatoes from which our fine modem tomatoes, 2 and 4, have been developed. pended upon wild plants and animals for food. It could support more when cultivated as the savage cultivated it, or with the bare fallow; after better methods of cultivation, the use of manure, of fertilizers, and of crop rotation had been discovered, it became possible to use all the land year after year, and to support a great many times as many people as could formerly be supported. 4. Greatest Improvements in Agriculture Have Come in Recent Years. — While for thousands of years a gradual improvement in agriculture has been going on, there has been an especially rapid improvement during the past hun- dred years, since farm matters have been studied more carefully. Better kinds of plants and animals have been FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fig. 4. ancestors Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. developed, better farm tools invented, better methods of tillage dis- covered, new ways of killing crop pests learned, The wooden plow of our early better ways of harvest- ing, preserving, and marketing the crops, and dozens of other things. A good example of the way plants have been improved by study and careful breeding is found in the sugar beet. The best sugar beets in 1812 yielded only eight pounds of sugar per hundred pounds of beets. So much better kinds have been bred that the average for the United States in 1907 was twelve and nine- tenths pounds of sugar per hundred pounds of beets, and an especially fine kind gave twenty-two pounds per hundred. Fig. 5. TheV'Oil Pidl" Gang Plow which, in a demonstration in 1911, with three engines, did the work of 100 men, 200 horses, and 50 plows, plowing 14 acres an hour at a fuel cost of 61 cents per acre. Courtesy of the Oliver Plow Co. Pig. 6. The old long horn and Prince Welton, champion two-year-old Hereford. 6 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING By applying in similar manner to animals the principles of breeding, we have produced the big Durham and Hereford cattle, and the fine Jersey and Holstein cows in place of the little wild scrub stock, and have the fine Poland-China, Jersey Red, and Berkshire hogs that grow as large in six months as the old wild hogs used to grow in six years. The American Indian used to cultivate his crop with a clam shell tied to a pole. The early settlers used a wooden plow. Th.en the iron plow was invented, then the sulky plow, and finally the great steam plow that opens a dozen fur- rows at once and at the same time grubs out the brush. Our grandfather thought his new iron plow, with which, by hard labor, he could cultivate an acre a day, was a won- der. Now, his grandson can ride and more easily cultivate fifteen acres a day with his double-row sulky cultivator. By methods used in 1830, it took sixty-four hours of a man's labor to produce an acre of wheat; in 1900 it took just two hours and fifty-eight minutes. Our improved methods and machinery enable one man to cultivate on the farm about what it took five to cultivate in 1850. In the same way the study of the last few years has taught us to stop cutting corn roots by deep plowing, to keep a dust mulch on the ground to hold in the moisture, and scores of other valuable lessons. 5. Corn Made in Spite of Drought.— By using newly dis- covered methods of conserving the moisture in the soil, farmers have raised in west Texas twenty-five bushels of corn per acre with only one-half inch of rainfall from plant- ing to harvest, and forty bushels with one and a half inches of rain. Fifty years ago not a grain of corn could have been produced with that little rain. INTRODUCTORY 7 6. What You Will Learn in this Course. — As we go on from chapter to chapter, you will learn how these things are done. You will also learn how to use the little bacteria (bak-te'ri-a), that are so small you can't see them with the naked eye, to gather plant food out of the air for your Fig. 7. Jerry Moore, the com club boy, and part of the 228f bushels of com raised by him on one acre in 1910. plants, how to make your fields richer and richer each year, how to gather and market your crop to better advantage, how to procure for your farm home the comforts of the city home, with all the quiet joys of the country, too, and you will learn scores of other interesting and helpful things. 7. What Dr. Knapp's Boys Have Done. — Dr. Knapp, the well-known government expert in agriculture who started our demonstration farms, corn clubs, hog clubs, and canning 8 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING clubs, says that we can yet make the average yield from our land eight times what it is. This sounds impossible, but it is not. Right at the start, the farmers on Dr. Knapp's demonstration farms, by using better methods, are reported to have raised on the average in 1911 85 per cent more cotton and 93 per cent more corn per acre than their neigh- bors made. The little corn club boys also have learned how to beat their fathers raising corn. Jerry Moore, a South Carolina boy, raised 228f bushels on one acre; an eleven- year-old Missouri boy raised 222 bushels, and an Alabama boy 212 bushels. In 1911 in Louisiana ten boys raised an average of 120^ bushels of corn to the acre, at an average cost of 19 cents per bushel, with an average profit of $67.70 per acre. One boy produced 150f bushels to the acre, at a cost of 16x% cents a bushel. Ira Smith, in Arkansas, raised 119 bushels on an acre, at a cost of only 8 cents a bushel; and Floyd Gaynor, a fifteen-year-old Oklahoma boy, raised 95 bushels to the acre, at a cost of 8 cents a bushel. That year was an extraordinarily hard year for corn in Texas, many old and successful farmers not raising an ear; yet thirty-one of Dr. Knapp's boys in west Texas produced an average of 60 bushels per acre, at an average cost of 24 cents a bushel. Sixty-five Texas boys raised over 50 bushels to the acre, and eleven-year-old Johnnie Bryant raised 114 bushels. 8. What You Can Do. — What has been done by a few in corn raising can be done by every intelligent boy, not only with corn, but with all other crops. But to do this you must learn the secrets of nature, how plants grow, how they feed themselves from soil and air, how they are bred and improved, how to protect them from their enemies, how to INTRODUCTORY 9 use labor-saving tools and devices, how to improve your soil from year to year, how to keep your stock strong and healthy, how to keep your farm home attractive and keep yourselves healthy, happy, and eager for work, how to gather and market your crops, and how to keep your farm accounts so that you will know just which crops pay best for your labor and time. To learn everything about all of these is the work of a lifetime, or many lifetimes, but in this first course you will learn the most important facts and general principles, and will learn how to study these farm problems for yourselves in the future. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 1. Do you know any one who farms now the way the savage farmed? 2. Give an account of some one in your neighborhood who has used the bare fallow. Can you find out how much was produced on the land the year before the fallow, and how much the year following? 3. Can you give an actual case of manuring land, and tell how much manure per acre was used, and what increase it produced in the crop? (Be sure that the manure caused the increase. How could you make sure that the manure caused the increase?) 4. Give an actual case of some one who practises rotation, and tell what crops make up the rotation. Can you get any figures showing how much the rotation helped the land? 5. If a farmer had more land than he could use, what would he gain by raising fifty bushels of corn on one acre rather than twenty- five bushels per acre on two acres? 6. Name all the ways in which the people would have to get food and clothing if all the farms failed entirely for a year. CHAPTER II PLANT GROWTH 9. What We Are to Learn. — You have now seen some of the wonderful advances that have been made in agriculture, and learned that still greater improvements can yet be made. This past progress was made possible by first learning how plants grew, how they got their food, and how they multi- plied, how they were improved by breeding, how they were affected by favorable and unfavorable conditions, and so on. Let us now learn these laws of plant growth ourselves. Then we shall understand the reasons for doing the things we now do in raising our crops, and shall be able to think out still better methods in the future. In this chapter you will learn how the plant starts from the little seed, how it gets strength to burst its coat, how it gets food materials from the earth and from the air, how it forms its different parts, and how each of these parts helps the plant in its growing, how the roots take the crude food materials from the soil, how this food material is carried through the stem up to the leaves, how it is made into plant food in the leaves and other parts of the plant, so that it can be used by the plant' in building more plant substance, and then how the prepared food is distributed to all parts of the plant. We shall also learn how the plant produces a new seed or a new plant, and how we can by breeding and selection make this new plant different from and better than the old one. 10 PLANT GROWTH 11 10. The Seed. — As most farm plants are raised from seed, let us begin with the seed. Many so-called seeds are not simply seeds, but are fruits, or parts of fruits, containing one or more seeds. The so-called seeds vary in many ways. Some are large as an egg, such as the alligator-pear's; others Fig. 8. Different types of so-called with parts of the fruit adhering. which are in reality true seeds are smaller than the mustard-seed; some are encased in hard shells and hulls, like the hickory-nut; others are in- closed in soft pulpy substance like the orange-seed; some have soft down on them and float in the air, like the thistle- seed; while others have sharp spines like the cocklebur or the beggar-louse. But all seeds serve the same purpose of producing the new plant, and all true seeds are made up of three distinct parts. There is, first, an outside coat or seed- case, usually thin and tough, which protects the parts in- side. Second, there is the little embryo (eni'bri-6). The embryo is the new plant itself, often showing plainly begin- 12 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING nings of a stem, leaf or leaves (called ijilu-mule), and root (called rad-i-cle). Third, there is a small mass of highly concentrated food, on which the embryo must feed till it can grow roots and leaves strong enough to gather its own food ma- terials directly from the earth and air, and manufacture them into plant food . This reserve food, as it is called, is made up chiefly of starch, sugar, protein, and oil, in varying proportions, and is the main part of the nuts and grains that we eat. In the pecan, it is the rich oily meat of the nut; in corn and wheat it is the white starchy part of the grain that makes our flour and meal. We also eat the little embryo. This embryo is easy to see in corn, where we call it the germ. 11. The Seed is Alive. — The dry, lifeless-looking seed is not a lifeless thing, like a chip of wood; but its living germ will never grow till the right conditions for its growth are Pig. 9. An opened bean- seed that has been soaked till the seed-case has softened and the seed begun to germinate. d is the cotyledon; e is the sprouting radicle; / is the plu- mule; g is the loosened seed- case. Fig. 10. This shows a seed germinator made of two plates and two layers of canton flannel or of blotting-paper. The cloth or paper is moistened thoroughly and the seeds laid between the folds. Then this is placed in one dish, a little water is added, and the other dish or a pane of glass used to cover and prevent evaporation. On the right is shown a modification of this, made by inverting one deep dish in another containing water and then plac- ing the seeds between folds of a cloth which is placed on the bottom of the in- verted dish in such manner as to allow the edges of the cloth to hang down in the water. PLANT GROWTH 13 Fig. 11. The rag-doll germinator, consisting of a piece of canton flannel with a number of little squares, usually two or three inches square, marked on it with indeli- ble ink or pencil, and each numbered. This is first moistened thoroughly, the seeds are laid on the squares, a record is made of what is on each square, and then the whole cloth rolled up, beginning with the darkly shaded part at the bottom. The shad- ing represents a damp sponge or rag, placed there to make the roll larger and easier to roll. When rolled up, the end of the "doll" is placed in a ves- sel of water, so that the cloth will soak up a con- stant supply of moisture for the seeds. supplied to it. In this state in which it is ahve, but not active, it is called dormant (dor'mant). When the right conditions for growth are supplied the seed, it becomes active and begins to grow. The first growth is called gcr- m ination ( jer-mi-na'shun) . 12. What Starts the Seed to Grow- ing. — ^Take a few seeds of the bean or other common plant and place them in a seed germinator. In from six to twelve hours you will notice that the beans have absorbed some water and. increased in size. In a short time the seed-case bursts and a white sprout appears, which is the beginning of the new ijlantlet, or little plant. The seed has now begun to germinate. Let us see under what conditions a seed will germinate, and under what conditions it will not germinate; then we shall know what conditions to provide in the soil when we plant seeds. We can make three experiments and find out for ourselves what makes a seed ger- minate. 13. First Experiment. — Place six beans in a can of moist soil and keep it moist for a few days. Place six in a can of perfectly dry soil and keep it dry. When the beans in the moist soil have germinated, dig up those in the 14 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING dry soil and see what they have done. If you find that the beans in the dry soil have not germinated, and those in the moist have, what does this show about water being nec- essary for germination? If seeds must have moisture in Fig. 12. The sand-box germinator, which consists of a box about four inches deep with holes in the bottom for tlie escape of water. This is filled half full of sand or sawdust and a cloth is laid over this and marked into squares. The seeds are placed on these squares and covered first with a cloth the size of the box and then with a cloth which is made large enough to ex- tend above the top of the box all around. Then the box is filled with sand or sawdust, thoroughly watered and kept moist. When it is time to examine the seeds, the covering is lifted off by raising the top cloth without disturbing the seeds. If it is not desired to examine the seeds, but merely to see how well they germinate, the cloths are not necessary. In this case the box is laid off in squares by means of string tacked across the top. In cool weather the box may be made eight inches deep and filled with four inches of horse dung and then the sand placed on top of this. The manure serves to keep the box warm. Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota. order to germinate, then what must the farmer watch for and get his land and seeds ready for, so that he can make use of it when it comes? In the chapter on the soil, you will learn how to cultivate your land so as to hold the moist- ure in it for weeks, and by winter and early spring plough- PLANT GROWTH 15 ing make it possible for your seeds to germinate even if no rain should come at the planting season. 14. Second Experiment. — Take two cans two-thirds full of fresh water and boil one can for ten minutes, and in this way drive out all the Httle particles of air that are naturally in the water. Then pour oil on top of this can of boiled water till the water is covered with oil about an eighth of an inch thick. This film of oil will prevent any air getting down into the boiled water again. Now place some seeds of rice or water-cress in the can of boiled and oil-covered water that has no air in it, and the same kind of seeds in the other can of water that has not had the air boiled out of it. Watch these seeds for several days and see which ones begin to germinate. If you find that the seeds in the water that had the air boiled out of it have not started to germinate, while those in the water with the air still mixed in it have begun to germinate, what does that show to be necessary besides water to make seeds germinate? Beans, corn, and most other farm plants require more air for germination than is present even in fresh water. This being true, what would happen to these seeds if immediately after being planted such a long hard rain fell that the free air was all packed out of the soil, and the soil so filled with water that no more air could get down to the seeds? Ask at home if that has ever happened on your farm. 15. Third Experiment. — Take two cans of moist dirt and plant six beans in each. Put one of these where it will keep warm day and night, with a temperature of 60 to 80 degrees, and place the other in the refrigerator at home, or out-of-doors where it will be kept cold, with a temperature near freezing. After three or four days examine the seeds 16 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING in both cans and see if both are sprouting ahke. If you should find that the beans in the warm soil had begun to sprout, and those in the cold soil had not, what would this show to be necessary for the germination besides moisture and air? If seeds are planted in spring when the ground is still cold, what will happen? If, later in spring, after the ground is warm and seeds are planted, there should come a long, cold, rainy spell, what would happen? If the cold weather lasted very long after the seeds were planted, what would probably happen before they got a chance to ger- minate? Has this ever happened on your farm? 16. Differences in Seeds. — There are great differences in seeds. Some require a very warm seed bed to germinate, such as cotton, while others, such as oats or rescue-grass, can germinate with much less heat. Some seeds require also less moisture and less air than others do. If the cold is not too great, many seeds will germinate in cool weather, but do it more slowly than when warm. Beet seeds that germi- nated in three days at a temperature of sixty-five degrees, took twenty-two days to germinate at a temperature of forty-one degrees. 17. How Roots Grow. — When your bean-seed has got the necessary amount of heat and air and water to germi- nate, you will see that it first swells, and then a tiny white sprout bursts out of the hull between the two divisions of the bean. This little white sprout is called the radicle (radi'-kl). The word radicle is made from the Latin word radicula, which means a little root. As soon as it gets out of the seed-coat, the radicle turns down and makes its way into the moist soil to form the root of the plant. This root must gather food material from the soil for the young plant, PLANT GROWTH 17 or the plant will starve as soon as it has used all the reserve food in the seed. If there is no moisture in the soil, the root can get no food materials from that source, for plants, like babies, can take in only liquids. If the ground is packed so hard that the tender radicle cannot force its way among the soil particles and come in contact with the little films of water covering these soil particles, then the plant can get no food materials and must die, or can get so little that it can- not grow. What does this show us that we must do to all seed beds before the seeds are sown, if we wish the young plants to grow? If the soil is not too hard, this radicle grows on down into it and makes the main root, or tap-root, as it is called, while upon its sides grow the branching roots called lateral (lat'- er-iil) roots. Lateral is also from an old Latin word, latvs, which means the side. Ss.'"''''"""^ *° *''" From the sides of both the main root and the lateral roots grow out thousands of little fine root hairs. IS. What Roots Do.— Neither the tap-root nor lateral roots are able to take in any food material directly from the soil, but serve to hold the plants steady and give a large surface from which root hairs may grow out. These tiny root hairs grow out from the new growth of both the tap-root and laterals. Some of these hairs are too small to be seen with the naked eye, there being in some cases nearly forty thousand growing out from a square inch of root surface. These are so tender that thev are usu- Tho root hairs on a young radish- plant. The drawing on the left shows the soil 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ally torn off when we pull a plant out of the ground, but you can see them easily if you will germinate corn or oats in a germinating-dish. Figure 13 shows the mass of root hairs on the roots of a young radish-plant. It is Fig. 14. The root hair (d) penetrating the soil, as seen under the micro- scope. Note the black soil particles with the films of water (b) surrounding them. Also note the air spaces (o) among the soil particles. Note that the root hair is a continuation of a single cell in the outer membrane of the root. through these soft root hairs that the plant takes in all the food material it gets from the soil. These hairs reach out between the particles of soil and absorb through their skin- like covering the water and various kinds of food materials that are dissolved in the water that is in the soil. This raw, unprepared liquid food material then passes through the root hairs into the roots and on through the stem up to the leaves to be prepared, so that the plant can make it into its own substance. PLANT GROWTH 19 Fig. 15. The cross-section of a small root as it appears under the mi- croscope. Note the root hairs (c), the epidermal cells (6), and the flbro-vas- cular bundles ( a) through which the liquid plant-food materials pass up to the stem and on to the leaves, 19. How Root Hairs Take Food Materials. — The proc- ess by which the thin mem- brane of the root hair, which has no mouths or holes in it, lets the liquid food material come into the root is very remarkable. You can see this same process going on if you will take a lamp chim- ney and tie a piece of well- w^ashed and softened bladder over the end, or, better still, take a tube shaped like the one in Figure 16 and tie the bladder tightly with a waxed thread over the large end of this, so that it will ^ hold liquid when poured into it. Then pour into the chim- ney, or tube, either molasses or strong brine till it is half full or more. Then fasten the chimney in a jar or large bot- tle of fresh water, so that the water in the jar is just level with FiQ. 16. An easy method of studying the fVip. rnn1aQ«M bending stems over and covering them with earth to force them to throw out new roots and new shoots. This is called layering. In the rasp- berry, for example, the tip of the stem is bent to ^ .„ ^.t . .. ..... . , ^ Fig. 43. Note how the tip of the rasp- the ground and fastened berry takes root and grows when layered. there, or covered with a little soil, whereupon it throws out roots underneath and sends up a new shoot on top. The next year this new plant is cut loose from the parent plant and will grow. This is called tip layering. With the grape, the best plan is to dig a long trench about two inches deep, and, after laying the vine in this, the whole is covered over with soil, leaving only the tip out. This cane will throw out roots and send up stems at each joint, and each of these may be separated and planted elsewhere the next year. With some other plants, such as the gooseberry, the soil is simply piled up twelve to eighteen inches high around the plant as it stands. The new shoots and roots are formed in this soil, and are ready for separa- tion in one or two seasons. 5. Cuttings. Most plants that divide naturally and many that do not divide natu- rally can be artifi- The method of propagating grapes by 62 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING cially divided by cutting off a piece of the stem, or root, or, in a few cases, a piece of leaf, and placing this under proper conditions. Nearly all plants with a cambium layer can be propagated by cuttings. Some plants are best Fig. 45. Cuttings of rose (a), grape (&), and flg (c). At d the proper position of the cutting in the soil is shown. reproduced by one kind of cutting and some by another kind. Some cuttings grow in water, but they usually do best in sand. Likewise, the best season for making cuttings varies. As a general thing, cuttings of fruiting plants are best made when the wood is dormant, in the late fall. This gives the cambium layer time to heal over the wounded surface before the growing season begins. These cuttings should be from wood of the past season's growth, and usually should be six or eight inches long. A cutting may be longer or shorter than this, and it may have only one bud or several buds, but usually cuttings six inches in length, with two or three buds, grow best. The bottom end of the cutting should be made just below a bud, and HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 63 the top end from one-half to one inch above a bud. Figure 45 shows how the cutting should be placed in the soil. As soon as the growing season has begun, these cuttings will throw out roots at the lower buried joints, or buds, and the exposed upper bud will start a shoot. Cuttings usually grow better in soil that has very little organic matter in it, as the little bacteria* and fungi (fun'ji) living on the organic matter often at- tack the exposed cut surface and cause decay. For this reason cuttings are often rooted in coarse sand. The soil should be moist but not soaking, and should be well drained. The air should be moist and of uniform temperature also, for best results. With cuttings that are hard to root, bottom heat is frequently applied with good results. After cut- tings are started they should be care- fully cultivated and kept free from weeds and grass, as their roots are near begonia-ieaf cutting, the surface. 6 and 7. Grafting and Budding. Instead of cutting off a piece of the plant and planting it in the soil to make it grow, we can insert it in the body of another plant and let it grow there. If the part cut off and inserted in the other plant is a bud with a bit of surrounding bark, the operation Fig. 46. A rooted * Bacteria are little one-celled plants that have no chlorophyl in them, and with a few important exceptions cannot manufacture car- bohydrates out of the raw food materials in soil and air. They must, therefore, live on other plants or animals, either dead or alive, and take their prepared food from them. Fungi differ from bacteria in haying many cells and a more complex structure. ' ■ - 64 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING is called budding; if the inserted piece is a part of a stem, it is called grafting. Plants must be closely related, else it is not possible for one to be budded or grafted on the other. Usually, they should belong to the same variety, but some- times even different species may be budded, as, for example, the peach may be budded upon the plum. When the transplanted bud or graft lives and grows out of the other plant, all the limbs, leaves, and fruit developing from the bud or graft remain true to the variety from which the bud was taken, in spite of the fact that the raw food material is furnished by the root of the plant in which the bud or graft was planted. This makes it possible to put buds or grafts from fine varieties on trees or vines that bear natu- rally poor fruit, and thus force them to bear good fruits in- stead of poor. ]Most of our orchard trees have long been treated this way, and now the nut trees are beginning to be treated in the same way. Both budding and grafting are easy to learn. 51. How to Graft. — Nearly all grafting work is done when the plant is dormant. The plant upon which the piece is grafted is called the stock, and the part that is transferred is called the scion (si'iin). There are many forms of grafting, but the two most important are tongue grafting (or whip Pig. 47. The method of making the whip, or tongue, graft. HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 65 grafting, as it is also called) and cleft grafting. Tongue grafting is used mostly on young seedling stocks less than an inch in diameter. For plants larger than that, and es- pecially in top working old trees, some form of cleft grafting is generally used. 1. For the tongue graft the stock should be about the size of a pencil. The scion should be as near the same size Fig. 48. The process of cleft grafting. as possible, and should have two or more buds on it. Cut .the stock off with a slant, so as to give a cut surface 'about three times as great as it would have been if cut square across. Then set the knife blade about one-third the distance down from the top of the cut surface and make a vertical incision about one-half inch long. (See Figure 47.) Trim the scion in similar manner, join the two together as shown in Figure 47, wrap with a string, or press stiff clay around to hold the two in place. Knives should always be thoroughly cleaned before cutting into a plant and, as far 66 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING as possible, neither the hands nor anything else should be allowed to touch the cut edges. As it is the cambium layer that throws out healing tissue and unites the stock and scion, thus al- lowing sap to flow from one to the other, it is necessary to use care in fitting the graft so that the cambium of the scion is placed in con- tact with the cambium of the stock. When this is done, it is easy for healing tissue to unite these, and for the circula- tion of sap from one to the other to start up soon. 2. The cleft graft may be used on small nursery plants also, but it is usu- ally employed on the large plants in putting tops of fine varieties of fruits or nuts on common trees. In cleft grafting, the stock, for best results, should not be over three inches in diameter, while the scion should be the same size as in tongue grafting. In top working an old tree cut back the central limbs with a square cut to stubs four to Fig. 49. A young cleft graft of pecan growing on a hickory. HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 67 six inches long. Smooth the end, then drive down a graft- ing knife one or two inches as shown in Figure 48. With- draw the knife and keep the incision open with a sharpened stick. The scion should now be trimmed to a wedge shape as shown, with the inside thinner than the outside to make a perfect fit, and one bud left on the outside near the top. The split edges of the limb should now be cut away in such shape that when the stick is withdrawn the scion will fit tightly in the cut as shown in Figure 48. The scion should now be quickly but gently forced down in the cut, the cambium layer of the scion bfeing carefully placed directly against the cambium of the stock. The stick is then with- drawn. As soon as the scion is in place all cut surfaces should be covered with warm grafting wax, and a string tied around the stump, so as to help hold the grafts in place. A good grafting wax is made by using four parts of rosin, two parts bees-wax, and one of tallow, by weight. These are cut in small pieces, melted together over the fire in a vessel, and poured into water to cool. It is then made into balls, and heated later as wanted. See Appendix for another formula. 52. How to Bud Plants. — Budding is usually best done during the plant's active growing season. As in grafting, it is necessary that the two plants be closely related, and that the cambium layer of the bud be brought into connection with the cambium layer of the stock. The two most im- .portant forms of budding are the shield bud (or T bud) and the ring bud (or annular bud). Nearly all fruit and orna- mental trees are propagated by the shield bud, while the ring bud is the most popular method of budding nut trees. 1. The shield bud is used mostly on young nursery stock about the size of a pencil, though it is sometimes used also 68 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING in top-working old trees. In budding, usually a branch about the size of the stock and containing several leaf buds is cut from the tree you wish to propagate, and the leaves are at once cut off so as to leave about half an inch of the stem of the leaf, or petiole (pet'i-6l), as it is named. This branch is called the bud stick and must be kept wrapped in damp cloth or moss. When ready to begin work, first pick " I FiQ. 50. The steps in the proper method of shield-budding. out a smooth place on your stock and make a slit through the bark for about one inch in length up and down the stock. Then at the top of this incision make a cross-cut, about one- quarter inch long, giving your incision the shape of a T. In making these incisions be careful to cut through the bark and cambium, but not into the young growing wood. Then cut a bud from your bud stick by placing the blade of a sharp knife about one-quarter of an inch below the bud and cutting upward to a point about the same distance above the bud, but leaving the cut strip still adhering to the bud stick at its upper end. Then withdraw the knife and cut through the bark at the top of the strip that was split off by the first cut. Then, by catching hold of the petiole of the leaf, lift HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED H 'f.-(i io3 the bark entirely free from the wood, as shown in Figure 50. Then open the cut on the stock by Hfting up the bark in both directions from the cross-cut, and shp the bud from the scion under the bark of the stock, as shown in Figure 50. The bud should then be wrapped as shown, with either raffia, twine, waxed cloth, or similar material, so as to hold the two cambium la^'ers close together and to keep out w^ater, air, and dust. In ten days or two weeks the bud should have united with the stock, and the wrapping should be removed to al- low circulation of sap and growth. Part of the stock above the bud and other buds close to the inserted bud should be removed when the bud is inserted, or later when the wrappings are removed. This throws more sap into the bud and forces it out more rapidly. It also makes the stock less likely to be broken by the wind. When the bud has grown about six inches long, all the top of the stock above the bud should be cut off to further force the growth of the bud. 2. Ring-budding is in general the same as shield-budding, except that the cross incision at the top extends entirely around the stock, and another cross incision is made at the lower end of the upright incision, also entirely around the stock. A similar cut is made on the bud stick and the entire ring of bark with the bud at its centre is taken off the bud Fig. 51. On the left all the stages of ring-budding, and on the right a success- ful young ring bud growing. 70 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING stick. The ring of bark is also removed from the stock and the ring of bark and bud from the bud stick are put in its place, as shown in Figure 51. This is then wrapped in the same manner as the shield bud. Here again it is necessary for the two cambium layers to be put in contact with each other, hence it is very necessary to have the piece of bark from the bud stick exactly fit the place prepared for it on the stock. To make this cer- tain, it is best to use a regular ring- budding tool, such as is shown in Fig- ure 52. The stock and bud stick are both cut with the same pair of parallel knives, and hence there must be a perfect fit. When the ring of bark from the bud stick will not reach entirely around the stock, a strip of the bark of the stock is left so as to fill the surface evenly 53. How to Succeed in Budding and Grafting. — In aK kinds of budding it is especially important that the knives be kept clean, that the cut surfaces and inner bark be not touched by the hands or other things, that the work be done quickly in order to expose the cut surface as little as possible to the air, and that the cambium layers be carefully brought into contact. If these directions are followed, if fresh budding wood and vigorous stock are used, and if the Fig. 52. A shortened and more convenient form of the standard ring-budding tool which was de- vised by Mr. H. A. Halbert and Dr. Ellis, a repre- sents one of the cutting blades; b represents the hole for looking at tlie bud ; c represents a small blade for slitting and raising the bark. 1 ^ \ , . ,V: / / 'y i i/|^l§7 -xi' 1 mmh ?^-/'' l\ 1 vtW^ I'M K v'\ 11 ^ ' ambIf vJ^^w''\ . X v\y \\\ fk ^/ABIW 'J Iw^ 1 - \ V '_^*k\ \\A / n^ra, 1 / /*' 1 -^ M, ilfr ^^ -— -^,::>s V ' — ^_, 1^ ^ ^ -jV. WLjf J ~^J\ Bio i^^ ) /^/J^ ""■^ BB^^s / .--^A V wti^l^t -- l^^^j^y^v^ % ^ ■■ ( r^ 'V^ -N.BM^j^****" "T^pT* A~s« ^ / II -^1, 1 \ /\J7 ^' ^- 'T^ n '-''//^ T / . Vc ^Kv^^SH^^ ^^J / ^^ ^ 1 ^BH.^''^^*"^^^.-~J^^~~" ^^ , .__ ,^ / , / > ^^^/>vjSf3^ ^5 nf film« nt *° Particle of soil, passing always tlCie. iniS mass OI mms or toward the dry particle. water left is called capillary water, because it is held and moved from place to place in the soil by capillary attraction, about which you have al- ready learned. It is this capillary water, filled with dis- solved food materials, that is the mainstay of our farm crops. This water moves very slowly in every direction, pass- ing from particles that are wet to particles that are drier. In this way, as the surface particles of the soil are dried by the sun and wind, the water passes up from below to these dry particles by capillary attraction, just as oil passes up a wick as fast as the blaze burns it off at the end. In the same manner, as fast as the root hairs soak up the soil water surrounding them, the soil water moves by capillary attraction from the neighboring moist particles to these dried particles and thus gives a continuous supply to the plant as long as there is any 82 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING capillary moisture near by, and as long as the pores of the soil are not too large for the water to pass by capillary attraction. 65. Air in the Soil.— Most good soil is about half air space. After a rain, or where not properly drained, the water fills this space, pressing out the air. Plants, as you have learned, must have air to live. A few plants can get enough air out of the soil water to live, but most farm plants demand more air than is contained in water, and will as surely drown in water-soaked soil as a man will in a pond, though they drown more slowly. The air in the soil serves several pur- poses. It contains free nitrogen which is in part changed into a sol- uble form in the soil, so that the plant can absorb it. You will soon learn that there are in the soil some especially helpful little microscopic organisms* (or'gan-izmz) that are able to take the free nitrogen of the air which the plant cannot use, and work it into a soluble nitrogen compound which the plant can use. Unless there is a plentiful supply of air in the soil these Uttle organisms are not active. Not only is this true but, Fig. 55. The water in the bottle on the left is fresh, that in the one on the right has had the air boiled out of it and other air is pre- vented from entering by the film of oil on top. The cuttings were put into the bottles at the same time. Note the effect of air in the water upon growth. * Organism is a general term which may refer to either a plant or an animal, and organic matter is a general term which refers to the matter of the bodies of either plants or animals. THE SOIL 83 when the soil is full of water, another group of organisms in the soil that tear down soluble nitrogen compounds gets es- pecially active and destroys the soluble nitrogen food materials that are already in the soil. The yellowing of plants when the water stands long on the soil is thought by some to be due to the lack of nitrogen, 66. Organic Matter in the Soil. — The decaying organic matter in the soil is called humus (hu'mus). It is usually the humus which gives the dark color to the soil. While it is possi- ble to grow a plant in pure sand, if all the food materials are added in chemi- cal form, it can be said that for practical field pur- poses humus is necessary for all successful crop production. Humus serves many good purposes. As dead bodies con- tain practically the same substances that they do when living, they give back to the soil a good part of what the plant took from it when growing. In addition to this, humus serves four other good purposes. First, it increases the water-holding capacity of the soil; second, when a soil is too tight, it helps to loosen it up and get air into it, and when it is too loose it helps to fill the large pores and bind the soil to- gether; third, it furnishes food for and encourages grow^th of helpful bacteria that change the insoluble nitrogen into sol- FiG. 56. If humus had been added to the soil on the right and a dust mulch had been maintained on it, it would have held its water as did the soil on the left. 84 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING uble nitrogen compounds; fourth, while it decomposes, it sets free carbon dioxide, which, when mixed with the water in the soil, helps it to dissolve more food materials for the plant. You see then that the value of humus is far greater than the mere value of the food material contained in the bodies of the dead organisms that compose it. 67. Living Organisms in the Soil. — While worms help to make the soil porous and to decompose some of the vegetable matter, the greatest work done by living organisms in the soil is that done by very small plants — moulds, yeasts, and bac- teria. The little bacteria are so small that they can be seen only with a strong microscope. It takes about 150,000 of the smallest of them to stretch an inch, and it takes about 25,000 on the average to measure that much. They are one celled plants, and can multiply every few minutes by each di- viding into two, just as you saw that the cells in the cam- bium layer of the tree do. The number of these little plants in the soil is astonishing. A soil poor in bacteria would have over 20,000,000 per ounce, while a rich soil might have many billion in an ounce. Some bacteria are very harmful, des- troying the useful nitrogen compounds in the soil, but the vast majority of them are of the greatest use. They cause the decomposition of the humus in the soil. Some tear down especially the carbo-hydrates, some the fats, and some the proteins. The insoluble proteins are broken down and part of the nitrogen is changed to ammonia which is in turn changed to a soluble nitrate which the plants can use. If it were not for the action of these bacteria, all plant and animal life would soon cease. The plant, as you have seen, takes the crude food materials (water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds, etc.) and makes them into sugar, starch, fat. THE SOIL 85 and proteid foods, which the animals, including man, must have to live on. These foods the animals eat and return at once in large part to the soil as manure. Later on, all of the remainder not returned as manure is returned to the soil in the dead bodies of the animals. In this way the soil gets back everything that was taken from it. But the roots of the plant cannot take in the fats and proteids and other compounds in the manure or in the bodies of the dead ani- mals or even of the dead plants until these are changed. If something did not step in to break up and change these insoluble organic compounds into simple soluble crude food materials again, the soil would soon become a mere mass of corpses and all plants would starve for want of food ma- terials on which to live. Here is where the little bacteria come in. They tear down the dead organic matter and help to prepare the crude food materials for the use of the growing plants again, and thus complete the circle, so that the round of nature can go on and on forever. In addition to tearing down the organic compounds, the action of the bacteria has a valuable indirect result. During the process of decomposition of the humus, acid gases are produced which help with the decomposition of the rock particles. Some of these bacteria also take free insoluble nitrogen out of the air and make from it soluble nitrogen compounds. 68. How to Improve the Soil. — We have now seen that the soil is composed of finely divided rock particles, of organic matter in various stages of decay, of living organisms, and a varying quantity of water and air, which fill the pores and take up about half of the space of a good soil. Let us now see how the soil can be treated so as to make it most favorable to the growth of the plants rooted in it. If we will keep in 86 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING mind what we have learned about the way plants feed, and the composition of the soil, we can soon reason out what is neces- sary to do in order to favor the growth of plants. 69. How to Make the Soil Hold More Water.— We have seen that plants can take food materials from the soil only in Fig. 57. An inexpensive equipment for testing the water-holding capacity of soils. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. liquid form, and hence that, without a supply of water, the plant can get no food material at all from the soil, no matter how much is there. Many of our arid Western lands are rich in food materials, but crops starve to death in them from want of water. Then, the first essential of good farming is to keep plenty of moisture in the soil. We have seen that after a rain the soil has in it not only capillary water, but free water that fills the larger open spaces between the soil particles. The valuable water for the crop, as we have seen, is the capil- lary water left surrounding the tiny soil particles after the free THE SOIL 87 water is drained away. In order to increase the amount of this water left in the soil, the first thing to do is to break the soil into as fine particles as possible and thus give more sur- face for the films of water to stick to. Some fine clay soils can hold as much as forty pounds of capillary water in a hundred pounds of soil, while some very coarse soils hold as little as five pounds per hundred. Breaking the land also makes more large pores, and hence, when a rain falls, less of it runs im- mediately off. Of this water that is caught in the large pores, a part runs off into springs and streams, a part may go down and be left as a reservoir of free water, or may diffuse itself as capillary water further in the soil. However, land that has been broken and opened up tends to pack together again. One of the best things to prevent this and to help keep such land porous and capable of holding water is a plentiful supply of humus in the soil. Some land has the opposite trouble. It is coarse and open, so that the water drains out too rapidly, there being only the small amount of surface of the large soil particles for the films of moisture to stick to. In such land humus helps to fill the pores, delay the water, and furnish surface to which the films of capillary water can adhere. In order, then, to increase the water-holding capacity of soils, we should break our land deep and thoroughly, and put into it plenty of organic matter such as manure and turned under vegetation. 70. Capillary Water Moves Toward the Dry Particles. — As soon as the water is in the soil, it begins to come out. The free water is carried down by the force of gravity, and the capillary water begins to move slowly toward the surface of the soil. As rapidly as the sun and wind evaporate the water that is on the soil particles at the surface and these become FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING dry, the capillary water on neighboring particles moves up from the wetter particles below to these dry particles. This water is then evaporated and still more water comes up from below by capillary attraction and is in turn evaporated. This continues as long as there is any capillary water in the soil, for capillary water moves constantly, though slowly, toward the dry particles. While the fact that capillary water moves always toward the dry parti- cles and causes the wa- ter to be lost from the soil by evaporation, it is the salvation of the plants, for, as we have seen, in the same way, as fast as the root hairs take up the water from the soil particles next to them, the soil water from other particles near by moves by capillary attraction over to these dried particles and thus keeps the root hairs supplied with water. In this way a twenty-five-bushel-per-acre crop of wheat uses on the aver- age about five thousand pounds of water per day, or a million pounds in a season, for each acre. While the plant takes an immense quantity of water from the soil in growing, the loss of water from evaporation of the capillary moisture from the surface of the soil may be much greater. It has been estima- ted that on a hot, dry, windy day as much as 40,000 pounds of water may be lost by evaporation from the surface of one acre of ground. That is as much water as is used by the Fig. 58. An inexpensive equipment for test- ing the capillary rise of water, in soils. The cliimneys should have fluted tops in order to admit water freely to the soil. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE SOIL 89 plants in producing from 400 to 500 pounds of green corn or wheat. 71. How the Dust Mulch Prevents the Loss of Water. — The important question, then, is, how can this evaporation of capil- lary water from the surface of the soil be prevented? The only practical way to do this is to prevent this water ever getting to the surface and being exposed to the wind and sun. You have often noticed that when all the soil around was baked dry and hard, there would be moisture in the ground under a pile of old stones or brick-bats. This is because the stones protected the top of the soil from the sun and wind, and the air spaces in between the piled brick and stone were too large for the moisture to pass over them by capillary attraction and come to the top of the pile and be evaporated. You have often seen how the soil is kept moist in the same way when protected by a board lying on it close enough to prevent the air circulating freely over the surface of the soil, yet not close enough to allow water to pass freely by capillary attraction from the soil on through the board. This shows us how we may save or conserve the moisture in our soil. We cannot put boards or rock piles all over our field, but we can by proper shallow cultivation put all over the tops of our fields a layer of an inch or so of loose soil that is so open and Fig. 59. This shows how the dust mulch prevents the rise of water to the surface of the soil. The capillary water passes freely through the small spaces between the packed particles of soil below the line A B, at which the mulch begins. Above that the larger open spaces prevent the rise of the water by capillary attraction. 90 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING porous and has such wide air spaces between it and the soil below that the capillary water cannot pass over these spaces and get up to the surface to be evaporated and lost. While there will be some points of contact at which water can pass upward, these will be so few that the loss will be very small as compared with what it would be without this dust mulch, as such a layer of loosened top soil is called. 72. Dry Farming. — So successful is this system of conserv- ing moisture, that in some sections where enough water for a crop never falls in one year, the water falling one year has been caught and held in the soil until the next year by breaking and opening up the land before the brief rainy seasons so that it will better catch the rain, and by harrowing it as soon as pos- sible after each rain to make a dust mulch to hold the water. In this way, the w^ater falling during one year is added to that which falls the next year, and thus enough water is secured to grow a good crop every other year, instead of making a failure every year, as was done before this was learned. In most parts of the Southwest there is enough rainfall to produce a crop each year, but the dry air, hot sunshine, and frequent winds make it especially important that every means be used to prevent the moisture in the soil coming to the surface by capil- lary attraction and being wasted by evaporation. Now that we have learned the principles of water conservation, the matter is in our own hands. 73. Supplying Water to Crops Artificially. — In addition to the above methods of keeping a supply of water in the soil, it is often possible to add by artificial means a great deal to the natural supply of water furnished by rainfall. Over a third of the land of the United States is too dry to produce a crop without some artificial means of providing water. The fur- THE SOIL 91 nishing water artificially to the crop is called irrigation (ir-ri- ga'shun). A very large part, though by no means all, of this waste land may be made to yield fine crops by irrigation. Lands in Texas that were before worth only a dollar or two an acre have, since irrigation has been provided, brought two or three hundred dollars per acre. Irrigation has been prac- FiG. 60. An irrigation canal on the Pecos at Rock Cut. Courtesy of "Farm and Ranch" tised for thousands of years. The laborers of Eg}'pt used to carry the water from the River Nile in vessels and pour it on the plants. Later, wheels were so placed that the current of the stream would turn the wheel and by machinery lift to a higher level a part of the water, which would then be led by pipes and ditches to the field. Some of the Indians prac- tised irrigation in our country before the white men came, but the great progress in irrigation has come in very recent years. 92 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fifty years ago there were less than 100,000 acres irrigated in the United States. Now there are over 10,000,000 acres under irrigation and the rate of increase is rapid. 74. Not All Sections Can Be Irrigated. — In a large part of our arid land irrigation is not possible, because there is not a sufficient supply of underground water to be pumped from wells, nor is there enough rainfall to supply surface water for irrigation even if all of it were saved. In other sections there is plenty of water, but it contains substances which would accumulate in the soil if it were used for irrigation and would soon poison the land so that no crops would grow. For ex- ample, the water in the upper Brazos is slightly salty, and if used long for irrigation would ruin the land. The water from many of the flowing wells contains so much of salt or soda or of certain sulphur compounds that it cannot be used for irri- gation. Before using water for irrigation one should always have it carefully analyzed to see if it has harmful substan- ces in it that would accumulate in the soil and ruin it in a few years. Occasionally, even when the water itself is harm- less, it cannot be used for irrigation because of the nature of the land. This is true at times of soils that have un- derneath them a layer of alkali (arka-li), or other substance injurious to plants. The water when flooded over the field goes down to this poison layer, dissolves some of it, and brings some of this poison up to the surface by capillary attraction. The poison, being in this way brought up where the plants will absorb it, destroys the crops. When unintel- ligently used, irrigation is as great a danger as it is a blessing when properly used. 75. Methods of Irrigation. — The methods of irrigation are many, but are not hard to learn if }'ou will study the bulletins THE SOIL 93 to which you are referred. There is space here only to give a very general idea of a few methods. At times a small stream or part of a river is led by a canal from its regular chan- nel and carried along until there has been fall enough in the land for the bottom of the canal to be about level with the top of the ground. The water is held in the canal by banks built partly above the level of the ground. From this large canal smaller canals branch off and distribute the water to different fields. Then, each field has running through it a series of smaller ditches coming from the canal. Into these ditches the water from the small canal is turned whenever the crop needs water. Sometimes these ditches are close enough together for the water, by soaking through the banks, gradually to wet all the land. More often the ditches are broken at certain places when water is needed and the water allowed to pour over the field. The field must be nearly level, and the ditches laid oflf with care. Often the water, when let out of the ditch, is led down the rows in the field. At other times the field is simply flooded all over. In many cases the water is pumped by en- gines from a stream or lake through pipes to a canal or to the field, and then spread over the field by ditches or by other means. In many places deep wells are bored and the water pumped or allowed to run into a large tank, from which it is led by pipes or small canals and ditches over the field. In some places, especially on truck farms, a net-work of pipes is raised on poles over the field. These pipes have holes bored in them, so that when the water is turned into them they sprinkle an artificial rain over the crop. In other places the pipes are laid under the ground and the water turned into these so that the supply of water goes directly to the roots of the crop, and less of it is lost by evaporation. 94 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING 76. Irrigation in Texas. — Along the Rio Grande, especially around Brownsville and Laredo, great quantities of formerly almost waste land are now irrigated from the river and pro- ducing remarkable crops. In the Toyah Valley and Fort Stockton region, water for irrigation is secured from springs and small streams. Around Barstow the water is taken from ^G. 61. A flowing well in Glen Rose, Texas, and a pumped well near Midland, Texas. the Pecos River. Around Beeville and in the section south- west of San Antonio, and lately in many other parts of Texas, large wells are sunk and water pumped into tanks for pur- poses of irrigation. In Somervell County and in many parts through central Texas flowing wells are used. In fact, every month or so brings an account of some new section in Texas in which it has been found practicable to use irrigation either from wells or surface water. I THE SOIL 95 77. The Need of Conserving and Using Wasted Water.— The saving of wasted water and applying it to the fields is one of the most important economic matters before the people of our State. Enough water goes to waste in floods in our State to add millions to our annual production. Each year more and more of this water should be conserved and used. A good way to learn more about irrigation by practical experience on a small scale is to study the bulletins on this subject and then prepare a garden spot near a tank on your place and irrigate a vegetable garden. Every farm in a dry section that has a tank should have at least an irrigated garden. 78. How to Keep Air in the Soil. — We have seen that all plants must have air to live, and that in a good soil about one- half of the space is taken up by air. As the soil settles down and is packed by the rains, the pores in it are made smaller and smaller, and the air is slowly squeezed out. The result is that the favorable bacteria in the soil do not flourish, as they too need air; nor is the free nitrogen of the air changed into sol- uble nitrogen compounds as rapidly. The remedy for this is simple. First of all, before the crop is planted, the soil should be broken deeply and turned again until the particles are well broken apart and plenty of air is mixed with the soil. Then, after each rain, when the patter of the water on the surface has run the top of the soil together and largely closed the pores, this tight crust, which tends to shut of! the entrance of air and the circulation of air in the soil, must be broken by cultivation as soon as the land can be worked. The same loose mulch which we saw makes it difficult for the w^ater to come out of the soil also makes it easy for the air to get in. 79. The Injuries Resulting from Water-Soaked Soil. — Whenever water enters the soil, this water takes the space that 96 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING has been occupied by air and drives out that much air. A completely soaked soil has therefore no space left at all for air, and contains only so much air as is contained in the water. We have seen that only a very few crops can live with so little air. It is therefore necessary to get the surplus water out of the soil in which most crops are growing in order to allow the air to get to the roots. The water-soaked soil also encourages the growth of the injurious bacteria which tear down and destroy the valuable nitrogen compounds already in the soil. Fortunately, in most soils the free water goes down rapidly to a point below that reached by the roots of ordinary farm crops, and rests in the permanent bed of ground water, or it goes down until it strikes a layer that it cannot penetrate, and runs along over this layer until it finds an outlet in some spring or stream farther down the hill. There is, however, a great deal of land which is so close that water penetrates it so slowly that the average farm crop dies for want of air before the free water escapes after long rains, or before the water which runs into this soil from the soil of neighboring higher ground can find its way out. Such soil often has below the top soil a still closer subsoil, which makes the passing down of the water im- possible. In all these cases of soils that are soaked with water near enough the surface to shut the air from the roots of farm crops, it becomes necessary to drain the soil in order to let in air. 80. Soil Drains. — The simplest method of draining surplus water from land is to dig ditches in the field, so that the water in the soil will seep into these open ditches, and to so plan the ditches that they lead the water off to a creek or other natural drain near by. The depth of these drainage ditches and their distances apart in the field should vary according to THE SOIL 97 Fig. 02. The method of laying tile drains. the nature of the land. The usual ditches are from two to three feet deep and located from fifty to one hundred feet apart. The planning of these ditches may be easily learned from the references given. While open ditches will drain the land, they take up a deal of space, interfere with cultivation, and require frequent cleaning out. They should be made with sloping sides and when not very deep should be made so sloping that they can be driven across. In order to avoid the disadvantages o f open ditches, un- derground tile drains are coming to be used more and more. These tiles are usually made of earthenware, in short, open joints, and are laid in trenches at about the same level that the bottom of an open ditch would be placed. The tile is then covered com- pletely, and the trench filled up even with the surface of the soil so that the entire field may be cultivated. The free water as it settles down goes into these drains, which are so planned as to lead the water gently off down the hill to some natural drain. The method of laying these is easily understood from Figure 62. When the drains are laid, a carefully prepared diagram should be kept showing the exact location of each drain, as occasionally these tiles become choked by roots, and have to be opened and cleaned out. If no chart is made when they are laid, it is difficult later to find a pipe when repairs are needed. In certain districts great drainage canals 98 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING are dug, and all the surrounding fields are drained into these. The details of these large drainage plans you can learn, too, from your references. 81. Effects of Drainage. — Drainage has several good ef- fects. First, it lets air into the soil and thus promotes growth; second, it makes the soil warmer, and because of the warm air being able to circulate deeper in drained soil it warms up quicker and is sooner ready for planting in spring; third, it enables the crop to stand drought better. At first tliis seems strange, but it is easy to understand. In the poorly drained soil the roots stay near the surface, as they cannot get sufficient air lower down. Later in the season, when drought comes and the water is dried out of the top soil, the plant starves because it has no roots down in the deep, moist soil. When the free water has been properly drained out of the soil, the plant roots go deeper down into the soil, and hence, when the drought dries out the top and the upper roots can get no food materials, these lower roots deeper down in the still moist soil can con- tinue to supply the plant. 82. How to Keep Bacteria and Plant Food Materials in the Soil. — We have seen how the needed supply of water and air can best be kept in the soil. If we can learn now how to keep a supply of bacteria and of plant food materials in the soil in such form that the plants can use them, the growing of our crops will be put upon a safer basis. Let us now see how this can be done. The supply of bacteria and the supply of plant food material are so closely connected with each other that they can best be considered together. 83. How the Soil Is Exhausted. — Before we can intelligently plan to keep a supply of food materials in the soil and pre- vent its becoming exhausted, we must learn what it is that THE SOIL 99 causes exhaustion of the soil. The first step in remedying an e\'il is to remove the cause of the trouble, but before we can do this, we must find out what the cause is. Most people think that the taking of the crop from the land is the cause of its exhaustion. The crop does take food materials from the soil, but this is only one of four main causes of loss of fertility. Soil unwisely handled may lose a great deal more from other causes than from the removal of the crop. The four main causes of soil exhaustion are: (1) surface washing, (2) leach- ing, (3) loss to the air, and (4) loss through removal of vegeta- tion. Let us now see how each of these takes place, and how it may be prevented. 84. Loss by Surface Washing and How to Prevent It. — You have all seen the muddy water flowing off after a rain. This water is carrying away quantities of soluble food materials dissolved in it, as well as quantities of small particles of the soil itself. The faster the water moves the larger the amount and the larger the size of suspended particles it carries. On steep hillsides in many cases the entire soil is in this way car- ried away to the streams and lowlands.* To prevent this sur- face washing, the first thing to do is to open up the soil and get plenty of humus in it. This will enable more of the rain to soak in and leave less to wash away. Next, the land should be terraced, or protected with hillside ditches, and the crop * Professor Salisbury says: " It has been estimated that the Missis- sippi River carries to the Gulf more than 400,000,000 tons of sediment each year, or more than a million tons a day. It would take nearly 900 daily trains of 50 cars each, each car carrying 25 tons, to carry an equal amount of sand and mud to the Gulf. . . . " The amount of matter carried to the sea in solution each year by all the rivers of the earth has been estimated at nearly 5,000,000,000 tons. This is about one-third as much as the sediment carried by the rivers." 100 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING rows run so that the water will flow around the hill and run off more slowly. If the water is delayed longer on the soil, more of it will soak in, and the amount of material it can carry is lessened. Even after all terracing and ditching that are practicable are used, some land is still so very sloping that the soil washes badly when cultivated. All such land should be covered with a sod and used for pasture, orchard or forest, the roots of the sod and trees being the best means of holding the '^~y^^ land. The sod xV^C o^ >N>^ should contain such y^ V \Nv plants as Bermuda yy""^ °' I , ^nN. grass and Japan l^'T jr" ~ . ~ ^N^ clover, which grow Fig. 63. An inexpensive home-made level with in Warmmonths and which terraces may be laid out. _ ' others which grow in the cold months, such as bur-clover and rescue-grass. 85. How to Make a Terrace. — ^A terrace is simply a bank of soil extending around a hillside and so constructed that it is level, or nearly so, all along. The effect of this long level bank is to stop the surface water as it rushes down the hill. This delayed water then runs along the upper side of the ter- race and accumulates until the top of the water reaches the top of the terrace. Then the additional water flows over the terrace all along in a thin sheet. In this way it goes more slowly and does not wash the land as it does when rushing down in narrow streams. Simple terraces may be laid out by any thoughtful boy with the cheap-home made terrace level shown in Figure 63. Start at the top of the hill and with the aid of your level find a spot that is three feet lower than the top. Then, from this spot as a starting point, run a line around the hill, keeping it always practically level with the starting THE SOIL ■ 101 point. Place stakes along to mark this line. This will be the line of your first terrace. Then find a spot three feet lower than this line. Lay off your second terrace line on a level with this spot. Continue in this way laying off terrace lines until you reach the bottom of the slope. On very steep hill- sides it may be necessary to make your terraces with more than three feet drop, but this is usually undesirable. Having all your terrace lines now staked out, run a furrow along each, following the stakes closely. Leave about two feet of hard unbroken ground below this furrow, and upon this hard ground throw furrows from each side until a fair-sized bank is made all along the line. Wherever for any reason the bank is not level after the plowing, it must be finished with other tools until the top of the entire bank is practically level and the bank is about equally strong all along. Sow on this bank seeds of rapidly growing plants with strong fibrous roots that will hold the bank together, such as peas, clover, or oats. It is especially desirable that some winter growing plant should also grow on these terraces to strengthen, them against the winter rains. 86. Loss by Leaching. — Li addition to the surface water, the free water that fills the pores of the soil after each rain and passes on down dissolves great quantities of soluble food ma- terials present and carries these down below the reach of the roots of ordinary farm crops, or carries them out to the val- leys and empties them into the streams. Disintegration is going on all the time in the soil, and soluble food materials are being formed. If no crop takes these up before a heavy rain comes, they are dissolved in the free water and largely carried away. In the winter months when the heavy rains usually fall, many fields have no crops growing on them to utilize the 102 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING soluble food materials present, so these are leached out and lost. In many cases more is lost this way each year than is consumed by the crop. 87. How to Prevent Leaching. — The means of preventing leaching are very similar to those for preventing washing. Deep breaking of the land and filling it with humus so that it will hold more of the water in its pores by capillary attraction is the first step. In addition to this, we should see to it that at practically all seasons of the year some crop is growing on the land, so that the soluble food materials may be taken out of the soil as soon as they are formed and utilized by the plants, and not left to be leached away by the rains. Our mild climate favors the action of bacteria and the rapid disintegration of the soil and the making of soluble food materials during fall and winter and early spring. We should therefore keep our fields covered during these seasons with grains, other grasses, clovers, and similar cover crops, in order to save our land from leaching. 88. Loss of Nitrogen to the Air. — In addition to the loss of food materials to the water, at times large quantities are lost to the air. The harmful bacteria which tear down the soluble nitrogen compounds* set free a quantity of nitrogen which escapes into the air. These denitrifying bacteria flourish in soil that has an excess of water and a poor supply of air, and in soil that is acid. The means of preventing this loss are obvious. If wet, the soil should be well drained and opened up so as to hold an ample supply of air. If acid, the soil should have lime added to it to correct this acidity. The method of testing a soil to see if it is acid is simple. Dig down into the soil and press a piece of blue litmus (lit'mus) paper * These are called denilrifying (de-nl'trl-fl-Ing) bacteria. THE SOIL 103 against the moist soil. If the soil is acid, the litmus paper will turn red or pink. The amount of lime needed depends upon how acid the soil is. From five hundred pounds to a ton or more per acre are used. After a certain quantity has been applied, and time allowed for it to be diffused through the soil, another test should be made, and the lime added until the soil is either neutral (nu'tral) or slightly alkaline (al'ka-Un). Alkaline means the opposite of acid. Such a soil will turn red litmus paper blue. Neutral means neither acid nor alkaline. 89. Plants Take Material From the Soil in Growing. — Let us now see what the crop takes out of the soil. We plant about ten pounds of seed corn on an acre. If everything is favorable and a hundred bushels of corn are produced on this acre, that will give 5,600 pounds of corn and about 6,000 pounds of stover. The tiny embryos in that ten pounds of seed corn have therefore taken about 11,590 pounds of mate- rial from the soil and air. Plainly we cannot continue to take such enormous quantities of material out of the soil and air year after year and put nothing back without finally exhaust- ing the supply. But before we can plan intelligently to put back, we must know what the substances are which the plant uses. 90. How to Find Out What the Plant Uses in Growmg.— It is not easy to find out of what a plant is made. You or I can tear a pie to pieces and see that it is made of apple and sugar and flour, but if we then try to find what the flour is made of, we have to use a microscope to recognize the tiny starch cells, the gluten, and other parts. There we have to quit, but a trained chemist can take the starch or gluten, or a drop of the water in the apple, and tear each of these apart by delicate operations and learn what they are made of. He can, as you 104 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING know, run a current of electricity through the water and spUt it up into the two gases hydrogen and oxygen. At last, even the chemist comes to something that he cannot split any further, as, for instance, the hydrogen and oxygen. The tear- ing up of a compound and finding what it is made of is called analysis (a-nal'i-sis), and the place in which such work is done is called a laboratory (lab'o-ra-to-ry). You know that any substance that can be analyzed into two or more simpler things is called a compound, and one that is absolutely simple and cannot be analyzed further is called an element. Iron, silver, gold, carbon are some of the elements with which you are familiar. 91. Only Ten Important Elements in Plants. — There are less than eighty elements in all the world, everything we know being one of these elements or a combination of them. Strange to say, it has been found that all plants and all ani- mals are made of the same elements. Of these elements there are ten especially important ones. Other elements are found in animals and plants, but the following ten are the necessary ones, without which no plant or animal can live : Carbon Nitrogen Magnesium (mag-ne'zhl-Qm) Oxygen Phosphorus (fQs'fS-rtis) Calcium (kal'si-flm) Hydrogen Potassium (po-tas'sl-tim) Iron Sulphur 92. Only Three Elements in Danger of Exhaustion. — The carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen make up ninety-five per cent of the plant. As these are secured from the air and water, we need not consider them further here. The supply of carbon dioxide is practically inexhaustible, as all animals are con- stantly breathing out a fresh supply into the air. It is esti- THE SOIL 105 mated that the human race alone gives off more than 50,000,- 000 tons of this gas per day. The supply of water has already been considered. The calcium, iron, sulphur, and magnesium are used only in small amounts, and are usually in the soil in practically inexhaustible quantities, so that these four also need not concern us. Occasionally calcium is needed. This is easily supplied in the form of lime, which is a calcium com- pound. The three elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and po- tassium, are used in considerable quantities, and all soils are liable to be exhausted of one or more of these if not intelli- gently handled. 93. How Plants Exhaust the Soil of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. — Every hundred-bushel crop of corn takes out of the soil 150 pounds of nitrogen, the amount of phosphorus found in 52 pounds of phosphoric acid (a compound of phos- phorus), and the amount of potassium found in 85 pounds of potash (a compound of potassium). The cotton crop which produces a 500-pound bale takes out of the soil 100 pounds of nitrogen, the phosphorus found in 40 pounds of phosphoric acid and the potassium found in 65 pounds of potash. Simi- larly all other plants take these elements in large quantities out of the soil. On the other hand, analysis of soils has shown only a limited quantity of these substances in the soil. Analy- ses made of 49 soils in different parts of America showed an average of 3,000 pounds of nitrogen, 4,000 pounds of phos- phoric acid, and 16,000 pounds of potash per acre. A bale- to-the-acre crop of cotton takes out 100 pounds of nitrogen. You can see that at this rate such a crop would exhaust the soil of nitrogen absolutely in thirty years, if it could be grown that long, and if no fresh nitrogen were put into the soil. A hundred-bushels-to-the-acre crop of corn would, under similar 106 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING conditions, exhaust the nitrogen in twenty j^ears. If the nitrogen were exhausted, no plant could grow, no matter how much of other food materials remained, as plants cannot live without nitrogen. 94. The Nature of the Soil Tends to Prevent Permanent Exhaustion. — Fortunately, the complete exhaustion of the soil is not as easy as the above would suggest. Two things tend to prevent this: the nature of the soil itself, and the work of the wise farmer. The nitrogen and other elements in the soil are never all in a condition in which they can be used by the crop at one time. The plant can use only so much of the material as is in a soluble form, so that it can be taken in by the root hairs. The material that is in a condition to be used by the plant is called available food material. Only a part of the total food material in the soil is at any one time available. If a field that has been exhausted by continued cropping is allowed to rest a few years, it will produce again, because disintegration will have gone on in the soil and some more of the food material will have been changed into available form. Food materials will have been prepared also by the bacteria. The soil thus tends to save itself and renew its own fertility. This is, however, a very slow and expensive process. The farmer can, by intelligent handling, prevent the land ever needing a rest. Indeed he can gather profit- able crops each season, and still make his soil richer and richer each year, if he will arrange to supply the soil with the needed nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. CHAPTER V MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 95. How the Farmer May Add Plant-Food Materials to His Soil. — Let us now see how the farmer may most econom- ically add to the supply of food materials in the soil. The principal methods of doing this are: 1, turning under stubble and other vegetation; 2, adding manures; 3, adding fertil- izers; 4, growing special crops that encourage nitrogen-fixing bacteria. We shall now study each of these methods. . 96. Turning Under Stubble and Other Vegetation Adds Food Material. — Fortunately, the part of most of our field crops which is sold contains only a portion of the food mate- rial taken from the soil by the plant. In cotton, for example, only about one per cent of the material that made the lint came from the soil, so that if the farmer returns the stalks and seed, the soil will get back nearly all that it lost. The stalks which bore the lint in a five-hundred-pound bale alone contain food materials that would cost about nine dollars Fig. 64. showing the large amounts of .„ , , „ ... nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash used II bought as lertllizer to by l.OOO pounds of cotton-seed and the 1 1 , ,1 .1 mi very small amounts used by 500 pounds of add to the soil. ihe iint cotton. 107 NITROGEN 31 LBS. PtiOS. ACID 13 LBS. POTASH MB^ NITROGEN 1.7 IB5. PMOS ACID 0.5 LB. 1 POTASH 2.3 LBSl 108 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING seeds are, however, much richer in the needed food materials. Figure 64 shows you the large amounts of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash taken away in the seeds. The plant- food materials in the stalks of a hundred-bushel corn crop after the grain is harvested would cost, as fertilizer, over eighteen Fig. 65. On the left no manure or fertilizer used and no com produced. On the right 15 tons of horse manure used with yield of 65 bushels per acre. dollars. The plant-food materials in the stubble and straw of a thirty-five-bushel crop of oats are worth over thirteen dollars. The facts are similar in the cases of other crops. This shows how very important it is to turn back under the soil all stubble and stalks before they lose a great part of their value by decay and by giving off nitrogen into the air. In addition to the plant-food materials added directly by the turned -under vegetation, we have already seen that by en- couraging the growth of bacteria, and through other effects on the soil, the humus adds perhaps even more to the avail- able supply of food materials indirectly than it does directly. MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 109 Recall these effects and consider them again. The farmer, then, who burns his stubble and straw is burning money, for when vegetable matter is burned nearly all its fertilizing value is wasted, leaving little except the small amount of potash in the ashes. 97. Manure : What It Is and What Are Its Values.— A large part of our farm crops is fed to animals. Of the ele- ments in this food which the plants took from the soil dis- solved in water, the animal retains in its body only about fifteen per cent, giving back in its manure eighty-five per cent. The manure consists of the solid dung and the liquid urine. The urine contains more than twice as much of the valuable elements per ton as does the dry manure. The value of manure for fertilizing depends upon the animal from which it comes and the food which the animal has eaten. Horse manure is richer than cow or hog manure, but not so rich as sheep or poultry manure. A ton of horse manure contains from seven to twelve pounds of nitrogen, five to eight pounds of phosphoric acid, and nine to twelve pounds of potash, depending largely upon the foodstuffs used. At the price now paid for these fertilizing materials, the amount in a ton of manure would be worth from S2.25 to $3. GO. You have already seen that the manure, in addition to the value of the food materials which it contains, is of perhaps greater value to the soil in holding moisture, keeping the pores open, adding useful bacteria, supporting those already there, and in giving off acid gas that helps with the dissolving of the rock particles. In experiments carried on for several years in New York and Ohio, it was found that the crops of hay and oats yielded $2.58 worth of additional produce for each ton of manure put upon the land, while crops of wheat, clover, and potatoes yielded $2.96 worth for each ton. no FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING These figures by no means measure the full value of the manure, because a large part of the fertilizing value of manure remains in the soil many years. This is proved by experi- ments at Rothamsted, England, where a field continued to give an increased yield from the effect of long use of manure for thirty years after the manure was applied. Two fields, as nearly equal as could be found, were cultivated alike for twenty years. On one, fourteen tons of manure per acre were used annually. On the other no manure was used. For the following thirty years both were cultivated alike again, no manure being applied to either. At the end of this time the effect of the manure was still being shown. The land which had been manured produced on the average for the last ten years 2,900 pounds of grain to 1,300 pounds produced by the unmanured land. 98. Amounts of Manure from Different Animals. — ^The manure produced each year for each thousand pounds weight of the animal or animals is shown by Roberts to have approximately the following values: horses, $42; cows, $39; sheep, $46; hogs, $80. The total amount produced by each kind of animal is shown in the following table: Horse Cow. . Sheep Hog.. 12,000 lbs. 20,000 " 760 " 1,800 " LIQUID MANURE 3,000 lbs. 8,000 " 380 " 1,200 " 99. How the Value of Manure Is Lost.— The first waste of manure results from the failure to save the liquid manure. If the urine is not saved, about half of the value of the MANURES, FERTILIZEKS, AND ROTATION 111 manure is lost. The next waste occurs when the manure is left out in the weather or is not kept properly covered or sufficiently wet. A large part of the valuable food materials in the manure is in soluble form, so that if the manure is left in the rain these are leached out and carried away in rain-water. Some of the nitrogen is changed to ammonia and passes off to the air in the form of a gas. A large part of the other materials of the manure which are so valuable in loosening the soil and supporting soil bacteria is slowly changed by the oxygen of the air and lost when manure is left exposed. If the manure is allowed to become dry, these changes and this waste go on more rapidly. In tests made at the New Jersey Experiment Station manure exposed to the weather lost over fifty per cent of its value in four months. At the Ohio station exposed manure when used on a crop was found to have a value of $2.15 per ton, while the value of stable manure was S2.96. When twenty-three cents' worth of acid phosphate was added to the stable manure its fertil- izing value was $4.80 per ton. At Cornell 4,000 pounds of manure were exposed from April 25 to September 25, at which time it weighed only 1,730 pounds. The nitrogen in this manure had fallen from 19.60 to 7.70 pounds, the phosphoric acid from 14.80 to 7.70 pounds, the potash from 36 to 8.65 pounds. The value of the plant-food mate- rials had fallen from $6.46 to $2.38, a loss of sixty-three per cent. 100. How to Save Manures. — The first thing to do toward saving all the value of manure is to save the liquid manure, either by having a water-proof floor in your stable or by keeping sufficient litter in the stable to absorb all urine. All manures should be kept under cover until hauled to 112 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING the field, and never allowed to lie exposed to the air and rain. Even under cover the manure needs attention. It should be packed down to press out the air and retard the action of bacteria, and kept wet enough to prevent heat- ing, which drives off nitrogen. Even when properly wet, there will be some giving off of nitrogen, and in order to save this, the manure heap should be covered with loam, sawdust, or straw. Loam is best, as this absorbs thir- teen pounds of nitrogen to the ton, whereas sawdust ab- sorbs eight and straw only four. Still better results are obtained from manure if a compost is made. The United States Department of Agriculture gives the fol- lowing directions for making a compost heap and applying the compost to the land. 101. How to Make a Com- post Heap. — "Locate the compost heap in an old shed, or build a shed, with any kind of cheap material for a roof. Spread on the ground a layer of stable manure 8x10 feet, 6 inches deep. Over this spread 100 pounds of acid phos- phate or ground phosphate rock. The phosphate rock Fig. 66. The top picture sliows the usual method of saving manure, by which about one-half of its value is lost by leaching and by giving off ni- trogen to the air. The stable at the bottom has a cement floor to save the .valuable liquid manure, and a cover to protect the manure from rain and leaching. This farmer also wets the manure occasionally, adds rock phos- phate, and covers the pile with loam and straw to catch the nitrogen that is set free. — After Duggar. i MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 113 answers as well as the acid phosphate and costs about half as much. Continue these alternate layers until the manure is used up, or until the pile has become inconveniently high. To these layers might be added straw, leaves, mould, or other litter, adding 100 pounds ground phosphate rock to each ton of material used. Be sure to wet all thoroughly. When the compost heap is completed, cover it about 4 inches deep with good loam or with forest mould. 102. How to Apply the Compost. — "When applying two tons per acre or less, the best results can be obtained by putting the compost in the furrow and bedding out on it. Be careful not to bury too deep, especially on clay soils. When using more than two tons per acre, it is better to scatter broadcast. "Bearing in mind the supplemental value of the cow-pea, it is safe to say that by using compost at least fifty per cent can be added to the productiveness of the average one- hundred-acre farm, and that simply at the cost of a few tons of acid phosphate and a little labor. With the barn-yard manure and with the cow-pea at his service to save and gather nitrogen for him, the average farmer is simply wasting his money when he continues to buy nitrogen in commercial fertilizer when he could easily produce all that his land needs upon his farm." 103. Green Manures. — In addition to turning under stub- ble, it is sometimes advisable to turn under an entire crop. The green crop thus plowed under is called green manure. Green manuring provides a method of rapidly adding humus to the soil. Among the best crops for this purpose are cow- peas, velvet-beans, soy-beans, clover, and sorghum. Usually crops should be fairly mature before being turned under. 114 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Such green manuring should not take place immediately be- fore the planting of a new crop, especially one of small grain. Cover crops are frequently sown in the fields at the last cul- tivation, grazed during the winter, and turned under in the spring. This is an especially valuable practice, as it furnishes grazing, saves the land from loss of fertility in winter, and adds valuable humus besides. All green manure should be turned under at least two weeks before the new crop is planted. 104. Green Manure or Stock Feeding. — The question is often asked whether it pays better to plow under a crop or feed it to stock, put the manure on the land, and sell the stock. This depends upon so many circumstances that no general answer can be given. As over eighty per cent of the fertilizing elements of the crop is left in the manure after being fed to stock, it is usually wise to pass the crop through stock before putting it into the soil. But, if the soil is very low in organic matter, the quickest way to replenish this is to plow under an entire crop, as more than fifty per cent of the organic mat- ter is lost when fed. In each case one would have to consider the needs of the soil, the work involved in each method, the access to markets, and other factors before he could intel- ligently decide which procedure would pay best. This will be further discussed under Animal Husbandry. 105. Plants that Add Nitrogen to the Soil.— Although there are millions on millions of tons of free nitrogen in the air and circulating in the soil, four-fifths of the air being ni- trogen, plants cannot use this as food material. It must first be made into a soluble compound. You have learned that certain bacteria in the soil can take free nitrogen and help to make it into a soluble nitrogen compound. The MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 115 Fig. 67. This shows the nitrogen-flxing bacteria in the cells of the root tubercle of a legume. scientists have found that there are certain plants upon the roots of which these nitrogen-fixing bacteria thrive. These plants are the legumes (leg'umz), such as peas, clovers, pea- nuts, alfalfa, bur-clover, soy-beans, velvet-beans, and vetch. If you will examine the roots of these plants, you will see lit- tle wart-like nodules scattered over them. These are called tubercles (tu'ber-klz), and contain millions of these bacteria. The plant feeds on the nitrogen compound made by the bacteria on its roots, and de- posits the nitro- gen in its stem, leaves, roots, and fruit. If the whole plant is later turned under, all this soluble nitrogen is added to the soil. When the pea-vines that would produce a ton of hay are turned under, $10.00 worth of plant-food material is added to the soil. The roots alone, if left in the soil, add greatly to its fertility, as about thirty per cent of the plant-food mate- rial is in them. The growing of legumes and the production of barn-yard manure offer the most economic method by which the farmer may steadily improve his land and in- crease his income. 106. The Most Deficient Food Element Sets the Limit of the Crop. — We know that one variety of crop uses more of one substance and another variety uses more of some other substance. We know also that some land is well sup- plied with one substance but lacking in some other. In such a case the material of which there is a plentiful supply 116 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING cannot be used by the plant any longer than the supply of the deficient element holds out. For example, if a soil is deficient in nitrogen but well supplied with potash and phos- phorus, the crop can use no more of the potash and phos- phorus after the small sup- ply of nitrogen has been used up, because the plant can make no new growth unless its food contains its proper proportion of nitro- gen. There may be enough potash and phosphorus in a soil to produce one hun- dred bushels of corn to the acre, but if there is only enough nitrogen to produce twenty bushels, then that is all the field will yield. The most deficient element sets the limit of the crop. 107. What is a Com- mercial Fertilizer? — What has been said above shows why at times it is more economical to supply just one food element rather than to add a manure which contains many elements. At other times special combinations of elements can be got together that meet the needs of a particular soil and a special crop more economically than would manure. If we have a field slightly deficient in phosphoric acid, but amply supplied with nitrogen and potassium, then we should merely waste the seven pounds of nitrogen and nine pounds Fig. 68. This shows the tubercles on the roots of a soy-bean. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 117 of potash in the manure if we apphed a ton of manure in order to secure the five pounds of phosphoric acid in it. To meet such conditions artificially prepared materials are applied to the soil for the purpose of supplying the especially needed plant-food ma- terial or materials. Such artificially prepared ma- terials are called com- mercial fertilizers. While occasionally other ele- ments need to be sup- plied, practically all fertilizers supply either nitrogen, potassium, or phosphorus, or some combination of these. We shall now give the names and a brief ac- count of the chief ma- terials used in commer- cial fertilizers, show how to calculate the value of mixed fertilizers, how to find out what fertilizers to use, and how to prepare them. 108. Fertilizers That Supply Nitrogen. — The usual com- mercial fertilizers furnishing nitrogen are sodium nitrate, sul- phate of ammonia, cotton-seed meal, dried blood, and tankage. Nitrate of soda is found on the west coast of Chile. It con- tains about fifteen per cent of nitrogen in a very soluble form, and therefore should be added only in small amounts and while the plants are growing. If put on the soil long before Fig. 69. Just as the tub can be filled no higher than the shortest stave, so the crop can grow no larger than is allowed by the most deficient necessary element in the soil. — After Halligan. 118 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING the plants are ready to use it, the nitrate will be dissolved and washed away by the rain. When spread broadcast over the ground, it is so rapidly dissolved and carried down by the moisture in the soil that young plants will show the effect of it and become greener within a week of the time it is applied. It is especially valuable for use with plants growing during the cool weather. Sulphate of ammonia is obtained from coal, and contains about twenty per cent of nitrogen. It does not wash out of the soil so readily as nitrate of soda. Cotton-seed meal is what is left of the cotton-seed after the oil and hulls are removed. It contains nearly seven per cent of nitrogen, together with some phosphate and potash. As the meal must decompose before the nitrogen is in a form that the plant can take in, it should be put into the ground before the crop is planted or at the time of planting. Dried blood and tankage are materials coming from slaughter- pens, the blood containing eight to thirteen per cent and the tankage six to ten per cent of nitrogen. These must be changed in the soil also before the plant can use them, and hence are usually applied to crops that have a long growing season. 109. Fertilizers Supplying Phosphoric Acid. — The prin- cipal source from which the phosphorus in commercial fer- tilizer is obtained is rock phosphate. Beds of this are found in Tennessee, South Carolina, Florida, and Canada. This rock is ground and sold as raw phosphate. In this condition it is not soluble in pure water, and hence cannot furnish the plant-food material, but in a soil supplied with bacteria and humus it is slowly changed into a soluble form and affords the cheapest supply of phosphate for the crop. It must, of course, be placed in the soil some time before it is needed by MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 119 the crop. The ground phosphate rock may also be treated with sulphuric acid before being put into the soil, and in this way the phosphorus changed to soluble form. Rock that has been so treated is sold as acid phosphate, and con- tains usually from twelve to sixteen per cent phosphoric acid. This, although soluble, does not leach out of the soil so read- ily as a nitrate, and is best applied before or at the time of planting. Bones are another source of phosphatic fertilizer. Bone is sold ground as hone meal, steamed as steamed hone, and burned as hone ash. The raw bone contains eighteen to twenty-two per cent phosphoric acid and two and one-half to three and one-half per cent nitrogen. Steamed bone and bone ash contain more of the phosphoric acid. 110. Fertilizers Supplying Potash. — The important mate- rials supplying potash are kainit, muriate of potash, and sul- phate of potash. Kainit contains twelve to fifteen per cent potash, and the other two about fifty per cent each. These are readily soluble. 111. How Fertilizers Are Valued. — The laws of Texas and many other States require that all commercial fertilizers be plainly labelled. The label must state what per cent of the different food materials the manufacturer guarantees to be in the fertilizer. The State chemist each year finds what each of the fertilizing materials costs at retail in the large markets of the world and publishes this price as the standard of value for that year. For instance the standard values set for 1910-11 were: PER LB. Available phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers and bat guano . . 6 Total phosphoric acid in tankage and bone 4 Nitrogen in mixed fertilizers and bat guano 20 Nitrogen in bone and tankage 19 Potash 6 120 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING With these prices known it is easy to tell the value of a mixed fertilizer. For example, if a ton of fertilizer contains four per cent available nitrogen, eight per cent available phosphoric acid, and two per cent potash, its value can be found as follows: 1 ton = 2,000 lbs. 4% of 2,000 lbs. = 80 lbs. 80 lbs. nitrogen at $0.20 = $16. 00 8% of 2,000 lbs. = 160 lbs. 160 lbs. phos. acid at 0.06 = 9 . 60 2% of 2,000 lbs. = 40 lbs. 40 lbs. potash at 0.06 = 2.40 Total $28.00 In this way we learn that the ton of fertilizer contains 80 pounds of nitrogen worth $16, 160 pounds of phosphoric acid worth $9.60, and 40 pounds potash worth $2.40, which gives a total value of $28. This represents the value of the unmixed materials. A fair selling price would require that to this be added the cost of mixing, sacks, transporta- tion, and a reasonable profit for the manufacturer. Before buying fertilizers one should write to the agricultural ex- periment station for the bulletin giving the fertilizer law, the valuations of materials for the year, and the analyses of the various brands sold in the State. The commercial value dis- cussed above is no measure of the agricultural value of the fertilizer. It matters not what fertilizing materials may cost, if a ton of fertilizer caused an increase of forty bushels of wheat, and wheat sold at a dollar, the value of that fertilizer to the farmer would be forty dollars, less the additional ex- pense of handling the fertilizer and the extra forty bushels of wheat. 112. Complete and Incomplete Fertilizers.— A fertilizer that contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash is called a complete fertilizer. One containing only one or two of MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 121 these is called incomplete. Most commercial fertilizers are complete or mixed. As each soil and crop is likely to have need of a different combination of the fertilizing materials it is usually best not to buy a complete fertilizer, but to determine first what the field needs and then to purchase these materials only and mix your own fertilizer. 113. How to De- termine What Fer- tilizer is Needed. — By analyzing the soil and crop the chemist can tell what food ele- ments they contain, and what the plant takes out of the soil. In this way he is of great help in finding out what fertilizer to use. But the effects of bacteria and of several other things svhich influence the crop are not considered when the chemist analyzes the soil and the crop, so that his analyses, while they help, cannot tell us exactly what fertilizer to use on a par- ticular field with some special crop. This is more easily and correctly found out by making an experiment on a series of small plats in the field. If, for example, you wish to know Fig. 70. This shows the effect of the absence of nitrogen, potassium, or phosphorus. The pot on the left lacks potash, the next lacks nitrate, the next lacks neither phosphate, potash, nor nitrate, the last lacks phosphate. Courtesy of the Texas Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. 122 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING what fertilizer to use in a certain field for corn, select a part of the field that fairly represents the soil, and lay off side by side a series of plats of one-twentieth of an acre each and number them. Plant and cultivate the corn alike in each, but put different amounts and varieties of fertilizers on each plat in such a manner as is shown in the diagram below. The amounts to be used would vary with different fields and crops. The amounts in the diagram are given merely as illustrations. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 .rj ^ JS _£, c ^ loiv is the oldest type. With this the soil is cut by the share and turned upside down and broken by the curved mould-board. The amount of turning done depends upon the shape and size of the mould-board. If there is fresh sod to be broken and the land is heavy, the mould-board is usually less curved, as in this way the plow turns the soil over less and pulls easier. When the object is to turn materials under the soil the more curved mould-board is used. When it is desired to throw the soil out on both sides a still different type called a middle burster is used. All of these types are easily under- stood from Figure 77. The very interesting way in which the curved mould-board tears the soil apart and crumbles it by sliding the layers of soil on each other is well shown in Figure 75. Disk j^Jows are shaped very differently from mould-board plows, the cutting and turning being done by 140 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING a circular instrument which rolls instead of sliding. For this reason they have some advantages in breaking sod and in plowing trashy land. They can be used also in soil that is too dry and hard or too sticky to be worked with a mould- board plow. The two types are about equally hard to Disk sulky plow. pull under ordinary circumstances. Where fields are large and turns do not have to be made often, sulky plows, which are made in both mould-board and disk types, are usually to be preferred. If properly adjusted they pull as easily as do walking-plows, do somewhat better work, and yet allow the operator to ride. 128. Harrows. — The implements used for pulverizing the clods, smoothing the surface, and putting on a dust mulch are numerous and varied, each with its peculiar advantages and disadvantages. Where the broken land is rough and full of clods, or needs levelling and packing, the disk harrow TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 141 is especially valuable. This harrow may be set to cut from one inch to three inches. In loose sandy land it is not en- FiG. 79. Disk harrow. tirely satisfactory because of sinking so deeply into the soil. The spring toothed harrow has a number of strong curved Fig. 80. Spike-tooth harrow. steel springs, with teeth about two and one-half inches wide on the ends. These teeth are so arranged that they 142 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING /-^, Era. 81. Acme harrow. may be set to run two to three inches deep, thus breaking clods and fining the soil. The spring toothed harrow is often used immediately after the disk har- row to further work down a rough soil. If much vegetation Fig. 82. Plank drag. has been turned un- der, this harrow is unsatisfactory, as the teeth pull much of it out of the soil again. When used after the disk harrow or on plowed soil that is in good condition, the spike-tooth harrow ])ulverizes and levels the surface soil very effec- tively. The xicme harroiv is also especially Fig. 83. Fourteen-tooth harrow. valuable in pul- TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 143 verizing the surface, but is not satisfactory in stony soil or where heavy clods are to be broken. The plank drag serves very much the same purpose as the Acme harrow in smoothing and pulverizing the surface. 129. Cultivators. — The imple- ments used for tilling the soil after the crop is planted in order to pre- vent weeds and keep the surface bro- ken are called cultivators. The spike-tooth cultivator has a number (usually fourteen) of teeth about six inches long by one and one-half wide flattened Fig. 84. Five-tooth harrow. Fig. 85. Two-row sulky cultivator. 144 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fig. 86. Single corn and cotton planter. somewhat at the end. These are run shallow and are espe- cially valuable for breaking the crust and making a dust mulch. They do not destroy weeds as well as the other varieties of cultivator. The five-toothed cultivator has only five teeth, each from three to four inches wide. This culti- vator destroys weeds better than the fourteen-toothed one, Fig. 87. Double sulky corn and cotton planter. TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 145 Fig. 88. ISIanure spreader. but pulls harder. It is widely used in potato and corn cult- ure. The diverse ciiUivator has from six to ten long spring- like teeth, and does work similar to that done by other toothed cultivators. A constantly increasing part of crop cultivation, especially in broad, level fields, is being done with riding-cultivators, which do practically the same kind of work as do similar walking-cultivators. There are usually four or six shovels on a one-row cultivator. On a two-row cultivator this equipment is simply doubled. These culti- vators have made it possible for one man to cultivate from FiQ. 89. Combination garden tool. 146 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING five to seven acres a day with a single-row cultivator and nearly double that amount with a double-row cultivator. When the double-row cultivator is to be used, the crop should be sown with a double-row planter, to make it certain that each pair of furrows runs parallel. 130. Planters and Reapers. — With a good planter one man can now not only plant as much in a day as eight or Fig. 90. Cnvn sliredfliT and silo filler in oporation. Courtesy of the International Harvester Co. ten men can plant by hand, but he can do the work more uniformly and better. By this means a large crop can be got into the soil in a few days before a favorable season is gone. Some of these machines open the soil, plant the seeds, add the fertilizer, cover and roll two or three rows at a time. They can plant a continuous drill, as of wheat or oats, or c ^ 148 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING only at fixed intervals as may be desired. In the same wWf one machine now may do the work of many men in reaping the crop, thus not only lessening labor, but enabling the farmer to use short favorable seasons to advantage. We cannot go into the various types of planting and harvesting machines here, but shall mention one. You can learn about the others from the references at the end of the chapter. The combined corn and cotton inlcmter is an implement that may be adjusted to plant either cotton or corn. The corn may be listed or planted level, and may be dropped at any distance apart that is desired. There are one-row and two- row types, the two-row type being especially desirable where it is intended later to use a two-row cultivator. Such a planter opens the furrow, selects the right number of grains from the seed-box, drops them into the right place, covers and rolls them. It may have also an attachment for dis- tributing fertilizer at the same time. 131. Manure and Fertilizer Distributors. — Manure and fertilizer distributors bring about a saving of labor on the farm in the same way that planters do, and should be in more general use. Planters are frequently made with a fertilizer distributor attached. The handling of manure is a very important matter on the farm, which is usually done in a manner very wasteful of labor. The manure is handled once when thrown into a pile. Then it is thrown into a wagon. From the wagon it is thrown in piles on the field, then distributed from the piles. All this takes about twice the labor that should be used. By having the manure-shed conveniently located, and by distributing the manure di- rectly from the wagon with a manure spreader, the labor is greatly lessened. TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 149 132. Garden Tools. — For work in gardens hand-power tools are now made with which the greater part of the work of the garden can be done with from one-half to one-tenth the labor required with the old-time tools. One such hand- power combination wheel tool is shown in Figure 89. With such a tool one can turn light soil, plant, distribute fertilizer, and cultivate with ease several times as much as with or- dinary spades, hoes, and rakes. 133. The Gasoline-Engine and Farm Machinery. — Gaso- line, gas,,9il,^and hot-air engines are now made that are not expensive, and are simple enough to be run by any intelli- gent boy. It should not be long before every thoughtful farmer has such an engine to pump water, churn, cut and grind feed, saw wood, fill silos, and in other ways economize labor. 134. The Care of Machinery. — It is to be regretted that so many farmers leave their implements in the field or else- where exposed to the weather. All tools and implements should be kept under cover protected from sun and rain. In this way they are not only in better condition for use when wanted, but they last much longer. The cost of a tool- shed will soon be repaid by the saving of the implements protected. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 84. What does tillage add directly to the soil? 85. Plow one acre in the fall, turning up one inch of subsoil, and plant a cover crop. Plow under the cover crop three weeks before planting in spring. Follow the plow with the disk and another harrow. On an adjoining acre with the same soil break the ground as usual in spring. Plant and cultivate both acres alike. 150 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Repeat the treatment the next year, and compare the yield of the two acres for the two years. 86. Cultivate ten rows of corn with cultivators running not over two inches deep. With five of the rows make the final cultivation much deeper, plowing out the middles with a middle burster. • Note the effect of each treatment on the yield of corn. 87. Leave five rows of corn in the field without the dust mulch. Keep the surface pulverized constantly on the other rows, cultivating after each rain, or as often as the surface packs together, and compare results. 88. The teacher should take the class to an implement store, and to neighboring farms, and carefully explain each implement. In cases in which the actual instrument cannot be seen, the picture should be shown. 89. Make a list of the instruments on your father's farm. State which are wasteful of labor. Make a list of such implements as it would be an economy for him to purchase. 90. If a sulky cultivator enables a man to do in one day with two horses as much as he could do before in five days with one horse, how much is this cultivator worth to him per year? First find the number of days per year that such cultivator is generally used, then find the cost of a single plow, man, and horse per day, and the same for a pair of horses in your neighborhood. 91. State all the advantages that would come to the South if satisfac- tory cotton-picking machines were in use. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING The books referred to in the chapter on soils contain discussions of tillage and implements. CHAPTER VII FARM CROPS 135. Introductory. — You have now learned the general principles that govern the nutrition, growth, and reproduc- tion of plants, and the principles governing the cultivation of the soil and the conservation and increase of its fertility. These principles are universal; that is, they apply to all plants and all soils everywhere all the time. If some new plant that man had never cultivated were introduced, we should know that in cultivating it all these principles had to be observed: for instance, it would take its food materials through root hairs as do other plants, and it would manu- facture its food out of the same elements. But, whether its roots would be deep or shallow, or in what proportion it took the different food elements from the soil, or whether the plant could stand drought or cold or shade, what was the best time to plant, the best method of cultivating and harvesting, and so on; all these we should not know. These special facts about each individual plant must be known before we can most wisely apply our general principles to the raising of that crop. If we have thoroughly mastered the impor- tant general principles, it will be easy to work out a wise plan of cultivation for any plant as soon as a few facts about its special characteristics and habits are learned. To study the special characteristics and habits of all plants and apply to each of these the principles of growth and 151 152 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING cultivation would take several lifetimes. In this course we shall study just a few of the most important farm crops of our section, and shall tell you where you can find out about the others. Cotton 13G. Cotton: Its Importance and Distribution. — Cotton leads all other plants in the production of fibre. In many respects it is the most important plant on the globe. It fur- nishes the clothing for the larger portion of the world's in- habitants. The leading countries producing cotton are in order of importance: United States, British India, Egypt, Russia, China, Brazil, and Peru. The southern United States produces about two-thirds of the world's total supply of cotton, or from 11,000,000 to more than 15,000,000 bales per year. Of this amount Texas alone produces about one- fourth, or from 2,750,000 to 3,750,000 bales. 137. Description. — The wild cotton as now found in tropical countries is a perennial bush or tree reaching a height of fifteen or twenty feet. Cotton as grown in this country is an annual three to seven feet tall. It consists of a central solid woody stem called the main stevi. From the joints of this main stem long ascending branches arise. These are called primary hra7iclies. Along the primary branches slender and shorter branches occur on which the bolls are attached. These slender branches are known as fruiting limhs because on these are borne the bolls. Often fruiting limbs are attached also to the main stem. The longest primary branches occur near the base of the main stem. These decrease in length toward the top of the stem, thus making the plant as a whole cone-shaped. In the FARM CROPS 153 cluster types of cotton, there are only a few long branches near the base of the plant. Above these the fruiting limbs are attached directly to the main stem. The boll is a pod containing the seed and lint. There are from three to five divisions of each boll, the contents of each division being called a lock. The number of bolls on a single plant may vary from a few to several hundred, depending upon the variety, soil, fertility, rainfall, and climate. The cotton-plant under normal conditions develops a tap-root, which in a well-drained Fig. 92. Cotton leaves: A, upland; B, sea Island. Cotton bolls: A, upland; B, island; C, Indian. soil may go down to a depth of three or four feet. However, if the soil is not well drained, or if the subsoil is very compact, this tap-root may go no deeper than nine inches or a foot. The lateral roots or feeding roots branch from the tap-root at points from one and one-half to four inches below the surface of the soil. As the roots develop so near the surface of the soil, what kind of cultivation should be given cotton? 138. Species. — ^There are five species of cotton that are important in the world's agriculture. These are : 1. American Upland Cotton. This species represents the common cotton grown in the southern United States. It in- cludes both the short staple and long staple upland cotton. 2. Sea-Island Cotton. This cotton grows chiefly on the islands and adjacent mainlands of South Carolina and 154 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Georgia, though doubtless it would grow in other similar locations. It differs from the American upland cotton in having longer and more slender limbs, dark seeds free from Fig. 93. Showing relative lengths of different varieties of cotton: 1, upland short staple; 2, upland long staple; 3, sea island.— /l/«er Halligan. fuzz, longer and finer hnt, and in yielding less per acre. On account of its long fibre, this brings a higher price per pound of Hnt. 3. Peruvian Cotton. This is the principal cotton of Egypt. It is somewhat closely related to American upland cotton. FARM CEOPS 155 ^*€> 4. Indian Cotton. This is cultivated largely in southern Asia. The lint is in- ferior to that of American cotton. 5. Bengal Cotton. This is also grown in India. Each of the above species con- tains a large num- ber of varieties dif- fering from each other as regards such characters as size of boll, shape of boll, length of lint, per cent of lint to seed, character of branch- ing, climatic adapta- tion, soil adaptations, length of growing season, etc. A few of the most common varieties grown in the southern United States are Mebane, Triumph, Cook Improved, King, Peterkin, Simpkins, Russell, Toole, Allen Longstaple, and Rowden. Many fine new varieties are now being developed. ' 139. Improvement of Cotton. — The common practice of planting the ordinary grade of cotton-seed as it comes from the gin finally leads to an inferior grade of cotton, as well as Fig. 94. Stalk 33 inches high; 102 bolls. Courtesy of the N. C. Department of Agriculture. 156 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING a decreased yield. Neither can one depend always on buy- ing improved seed from some other locality, for a variety may be excellent on one kind of soil or under one kind of climatic condition and yet produce poor crops on a different soil or in a different climate. The first step in the improve- ment of cotton is to find by trial a good variety that is well adapted to the locality in which it is to be grown. The second step is to look care- fully after the se- lection of seed each year. The follow- ing method is sim- l)le and practical. 140. Selecting Seed. — At the sec- ond picking go through the field and pick into a bag the seed cotton from the best plants. This seed should be selected from plants possessing the fol- lowing qualities : 1. Productiveness, determined by number of bolls per plant and size of bolls. 2. Earliness, indicated by a short-jointed type with basal limbs near the ground. Fig. 95. A good stalk of cotton. Courtesy of the U- S. Department of Agriculture. FARM CEOPS 157 3. Freedom from disease, such as boll rot, rust, and cotton wilt. 4. Character of the lint. Plants bearing relatively short, coarse lint should be discarded. 5. Storm-proof quality. Bolls that open back too wide allow the cotton to drop out in a storm, and those that stand straight up do not shed water well. This cotton picked from the best plants should be ginned separate- ly, care being taken to see that the gin is first cleaned and that no mixing oc- curs at the gin. The selected seed is used for planting a seed patch, which should be large enough to furnish seed for the general crop the following year. Each year before the seed plot is picked, there sliould be enough seed selected from the best plants to plant the seed plot the next year. Maintain- ing in this way the seed plot every year, the selection con- tinues and the cotton improves. No cotton farmer can afford to neglect the proper selection of his seed. Fig. 96. A poor stalk of cotton. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 158 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING PS 141. Soil. — Cotton will grow on almost any type of soil, from light sands to stiff clays, if it possesses fertility and is well drained. It usually grows best on clays or silty clays. In very sandy soils the plants have a tendency to rust. In rich moist bottom land cotton very often produces a very rank growth with a small number of bolls. 142. Rotations.— The usual custom in the South has been the growing of cot- ton year after year on the same land. However, experience has demonstrated that higher yields can be produced when cotton is rotated with other crops. The reasons for this have been learned by studying the principles governing the rotation of crops. There is no one rotation for cotton that is best for all conditions. Each farmer must decide for himself the rotation which fits his type of soil, climatic conditions, and system of farming. A good rotation ap- plying to Southern farms in general would be : First year, cotton. Second year, corn with cow-peas between the rows for seed. Third year, wheat or oats, followed by cow-peas for hay. If more corn or more cotton is desired, that crop can be grown two years in succession, making a four-year rotation. In addition to the above-named crops the farmer should grow also when possible a winter cover crop of clover, vetch. Fig. 97. Showing the yield of seed and lint from selected and unselected cotton-seed. Redrawn from Bailey's "Encyclopedia of Agriculture." FARM CROPS 159 or small grain, to protect the soil from washing and leaching, and to add organic matter or nitrogen, or both, to the soil. 143. Fertilizers. — Cotton responds readily to fertilizers. The kind and amount of fertilizer to use depends on the character of the soil upon which the cotton is grown. Nitro- gen and phosphorus are the elements most commonly needed. Potassium is present in most soils in sufficient amount. The most economical way to keep up the nitrogen supply in the soil is to grow the cotton in a rotation with leguminous crops, thus securing the ni- trogen from the air. . . Fig. 98. Field of cotton in Cherokee County, It it IS not practica- Texas, producing one and a half bales per acre. ble to grow these leg- ^'""'"'^ "^ " ^"'"'^ """^ ^'''''^" umes, nitrogen may be purchased in cotton-seed meal, nitrate of soda, dried blood, or tankage. In these materials the nitrogen costs about eigh- teen or twenty cents a pound. At this rate a crop of peas that would yield one to two tons of hay per acre will if turned under put from eight to seventeen dollars' worth of nitrogen in the soil besides the still more valuable humus. Phos- phorus is bought in acid phosphate or bone phosphate, and is not nearly so expensive as the nitrogen. On average soils 160 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING three hundred to four hundred pounds of fertiUzer per acre, made of equal parts of cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate, give good results. This is usually applied before or at the time of planting. 144. Preparation of Soil for Planting. — Land intended for cotton should be broken from six to eight inches deep, ex- cept in the case of extreme sands, where deep plowing is not needed, as the soil is already open enough. Care must be taken not to turn up too much subsoil at one time, as this new soil can give little food materials to the plant until it has been exposed to the air and moisture for some time. Where the previous plowing has been shallow it is best to plow an inch to an inch and a half deeper each year until the soil is of sufficient depth. Heavy clay soils are best plowed in the late fall or early winter. When plowed m the fall a cover crop should be planted to be turned under in the spring before the cotton is planted. This necessitates plowing twice, but it will result in much higher yields. Loams and sands may be planted to a cover crop in the faU without deep plowing, and these crops turned under in the spring in time for the soil to settle and become rather firm before the crop is planted. , The best preparation for the planting is to plow the land broadcast, then ridges or beds are formed by throwing together at least four furrows. These beds are partially harrowed down and the cotton planted on top of the bed. 145. Planting. — Cotton may be planted by hand, but the planter is more commonly used. The seeds are put in much thicker than required for a stand. Planting is best begun as soon as the danger of frost is over. This is from the 15th of March in southern latitudes to the 15th FARM CROPS IGl of May in northern. About one bushel of seed is planted per acre. 146. Cultivating and Harvesting. — Cotton should be cul- tivated as soon as practicable after the plants are up. This is best done with some form of fine-toothed cultivator, run- ning as close to the plants as possible without covering them. To prevent the soil from being thrown on the young plants, a fender should be used. The cotton is then " chopped," or thinned, to the proper distance in the row by means of a hoe. This distance will depend upon the fertility of the soil, varying from twelve inches on poor land to twenty-four inches on rich land. The subsequent cultivations should be such as to keep down weeds and conserve moisture. Usually cotton should be cultivated every ten days. Deep cultivation should be avoided, as cotton has many shallow roots, and cultivating deeper than three inches destroys many of them. Cotton is still harvested entirely by hand labor. Picking- machines that have been somewhat successful are now on the market, but these still are in the experimental stage. Com 147. Corn: Its Importance and Distribution. — Corn is a native of the New World. The early settlers found the Indians raising it when they landed in America, and learned from them its uses and how to cultivate it. Indeed, had it not been for this Indian corn many of the early settlers would have starved. The botanical name is Zea mays, and it is called maize, or Indian corn, to distinguish it from small grain, such as wheat and barley, all of which are called corn 162 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING by the people of Europe. The corn that we read about in the Bible was not Indian corn, but small grain. The world's total production of corn varies from 3,000,- 000,000 to more than 3,500,000,000 bushels annually. Of this amount the United States produces more than 2,000,- 000,000 bushels, or over two-thirds of the total supply. Our corn crop of 1906 would fill a row of wagons stretching nine times around the world, each wagon holding 50 bushels and taking a space twenty feet long in the row. Corn is the most important crop grown in the United States. The acre- age devoted to this crop is three times that of cotton and twice that occupied by wheat. The leading corn-producing States in the United States are Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Texas, Indiana, and Ohio. During the ten-year period from 1901-10 the average annual acreage of corn in Texas was 6,138,843 acres, producing 118,567,175 bushels, or 19^ bushels per acre. This is a low yield as com- pared with an average annual yield of 25 bushels for the entire United States, 35 bushels for Illinois, and 32 bushels for Iowa during the same period. Our low yield shows the necessity of more attention to our methods of corn pro- duction. 148. Description. — Corn is a member of the grass family. It differs from the other grasses in having the male and female flowers borne separately. The male flowers are borne in a spreading panicle (pan'i-kl) at the top of the plant, known as the tassel. These male flowers on maturing pro- duce an immense quantity of yellowish pollen grains. It is estimated that the tassel of each plant produces from 18,000,000 to 25,000,000 pollen grains. The female flowers from which the ears of corn develop are borne in the axils of FARM CROPS 163 the leaves. The young ear is surrounded by a covering of shucks, which are modified leaves, and serve to protect the ear. Growing out beyond the shucks are the fine, slender, thread-like silks, which are the elongated styles and stigmas on which the pollen is caught as it is carried about by the wind. The pollen grain, lodging on the silk, begins to grow, sending out a long tube which grows down the entire length of the silk, until at the base it reaches the ovule. It thus unites with and fertilizes the ovule, and the grain of corn develops. Unless the pollen grains come in contact with the silks, no corn grains will be produced. There are as many silks as spaces for grains of corn on the ear. Only one pollen grain is required for each silk. The pollen may come from a tassel on the same plant or one on some other plant. The corn -plant develops an extensive root system, a large part of which is shallow. There is no tap-root produced. The fine fibrous roots grow in a lateral direction and branch profusely. The greater portion of the feeding roots are found at a depth ranging from three to six inches below the surface of the soil, depending upon the character of the soil and the depth to which the seed-bed has been prepared. It has been noticed that a large number of the roots, after growing in a horizontal direction for one or two feet, turn down more or less abruptly, presumably in search of moisture. 149. Races of Com. — There are at least six known races of corn. These are: 1, dent corn; 2, flint corn; 3, sioeet corn; 4, pop-corn; 5, soft corn; and 6, pod corn. The bulk of the American corn crop is dent corn. It is the common ra-ce of corn grown in the Southern States, and 164 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING is characterized by the presence of a small indentation, or dent, in the top of each grain. Varieties differ, but the usual tendency is to produce from one to two ears per stalk. Flint corn is much harder than dent. The top of the grain is smooth or rounded, and the grains are shorter than Fig. 99. Boone County white corn and the corn from which it was developed by selection. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. those of dent corn. Plants vary In height from five to twelve feet, and have a tendency to produce two ears per stalk. Flint corn matures quickly, and is therefore grown near the northern limit of production. Sweet corn presents a wrinkled, horny surface, and con- tains much more sugar than the other races. It matures early, the plants are small, and each plant bears a number of FARM CROPS 1G5 small ears. In the South it is grown mainly in gardens and is highly prized for table purposes. Pop-corn is characterized by its very small compact, horny grain. This compactness of the grain gives it its popping prop- erty. The plants are small, and several small ears are borne on each plant. Soft corn bears a grain that is very soft and white. This corn was cultivated extensively by the Indians, because it is easily ground or crushed. Pod corn is a curiosity and is not grown commercially. Each individual grain is inclosed in a small shuck, while the ear is covered by an outer shuck. 150. Varieties. — Each of the above races of corn contains a large number of varieties that have been produced as the result of crossing, selection, or growth under different conditions of soil and climate. Some of the most commonly grown Southern dent varieties are Mosby, Hickory King, Marlboro, Cocke Prolific, Boone County White, Munson, Sure Cropper, Strawberry, Texas Gourd Seed, Bloody Butcher, and Mexican June. Fig. 100. These three stalks grew in the same hill. Differ- ences in the seeds make the differences in the stalks. Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. 166 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 151. Improvement of Corn. — There are very few pure or uniform varieties of corn, due to the fact that it mixes so easily, because of the great distance to which the wind car- ries the pollen. Too httle attention is given to improving our corn. Barren and poor stalks are allowed to ripen and pollenate good stalks, and selection of seed is usually made after the corn is in the crib. The result is that the vari- ety deteriorates from year to year. It is en- tirely possible to in- crease the yield of corn from ten to twenty per cent by seed selection alone, an increase which comes with very little labor. 1.52. Seed Selection. Fig. 101. These three ears grew on three ^^ Selecting Seed-COm diflferent stalks in the same hill. Differences xi p,,f;rp nlnnt n<; wpll in the seeds make the differences in the yield. "-"^ entire pidUt dS weil Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. aS the ear should be considered. This makes it impossible to make a wise selection of seed-corn from the crib, and necessitates selecting the seed in the field before the crop is harvested. A good plan is to go through the field at harvest-time and select seed ears from the most productive plants, at the same time taking into consideration such points as the position of the ear on the stalk, the height of the ear from the ground, and the general healthful ness of the plant. Much improvement will be secured if nothing more is FARM CROPS 167 done than to select from productive plants enough seed to plant the next year's crop. However, even among ears that look equally good and come from equally good stalks, some will grow better and produce a great deal more corn than others. If the farmer wishes to have the very best seed, he Fig. 102. The results of test of fifteen ears of corn. Ears 2, 6, and 9 arc entirely dead; ears 3, 4, 7, and 8 are particularly vigorous. Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. must find out which of these good-looking ears are most vigorous and have the greatest producing power, and plant only from this stock. The vitality and growing power can to a great extent be determined by testing each ear in the germinator, taking six grains from different parts of the ear. Figure 102 shows the result of such a test. The difference in the producing power of different ears can be found out by what is called the ear-to-row test. 153. Ear-to-Row Test.— At least 25 of the best ears selected from the field should be planted on a uniform plot 168 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING of soil according to the following plan. Number the ears from 1 to 25 consecutively. Lay off 25 rows of equal length on soil of uniform productiveness. These rows should be at least long enough for 150 hills of corn. Plant row No. 1 from ear No. 1, row No. 2 from ear No. 2, and so on until the 25 rows have been planted from the 25 ears. All rows should contain an equal number of hills with an equal num- ber of plants in the hill. The cultivation and general treat- ment should be the same for all rows. As soon as the tassels show and before any pollen has been shed, carefully pull the tassels out from one-half of every odd-numbered row, say the north half, and from the south half of every even-numbered row. This insures cross-fertilization, which has been shown to increase the production in corn. Seed should be saved only from the detasselled stalks, as the ears on these stalks were of necessity fertilized by the pollen from some other stalk or stalks. At harvest-time the ears from each row should be husked and weighed, keeping the ears from the detasselled stalks separate from those of stalks producing tassels. By weighing separately the corn from each row the best-yielding strain can easily be determined. Select the best ears from the detasselled portions of the eight or ten best rows for planting the general crop. If this does not furnish enough seed for the general crop, these selected ears may be planted on a half acre of good land and seed grown for the main crop. There should always be enough good ears selected from the best-yielding rows to plant a new ear-to-row plot the following year. All seed-corn should be hung in a well-ventilated place where it is not exposed to sud- den changes of temperature or to attacks of mice or weevils. 154. Results of Ear-to-Row Test.— Ninety farmers in Iowa sent Professor Holden ears of their seed-corn to test FARM CROPS 169 by the ear-to-row method. He tested them and found that the yield per acre from different ears varied all the way from 31.5 bushels to 80.5 bushels per acre. The six best produc- ing ears averaged 77.5 bushels, and the six lowest 35.6 bushels, showing that by planting seed of the best-yielding Fig. 103. Comparative yield of five highest and five lowest yielding ears at Story County, Iowa, station. The average of the five highest was 80.3 bushels per acre; of the five lowest 40.8 bushels. The seeds were all secured from seed corn being used as seed by the farmers. How much is Texas losing each year by planting inferior untested seed? Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holclen. ears only the farmers would have added to their yield on the average 41.9 bushels per acre, or more than double what they would have made by planting the six poorest-yielding ears. Professor Holden also tested 102 ears of the selected seed-corn at the station, and these fine-looking ears varied in yielding power all the way from 90.5 bushels from ear No. 75 to 36 bushels from ear No. 93. Ear No. 19 gave 79 barren stalks, while ear No. 83 gave only 6; ear No. 54 had 258 170 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING broken stalks, while ear No. 85 had only 41. Not all of these qualities can be found out by testing in the germinator before planting, but the vitality and growing strength can be found out in this way. By testing in the germinator and throwing out all weak growing ears, and then by ear-to-row test discovering the other good and bad qualities, the farmer can now breed and improve his corn easily and rapidly. 155. Soil. — Corn will grow on a wide range of soil types. It makes its best yield on a deep, fertile, moist loam. A large per cent of the roots go down deep to supply the plant with water during dry periods. This necessitates deep preparation, especially if the soil contains considerable clay. Upland clay soils should be deepened gradually each year and at the same time vegetable matter added by the proper rotation of crops or by the addition of barn-yard manures. The seed-bed should be at least six inches deep, preferably eight. Bottom lands are better adapted to corn than upland soils, because they contain more moisture, but these must be well drained. 156. Rotation. — Corn is adapted to the same kind of rota- tion that was given for cotton. When both corn and cotton are included in the rotation, the corn usually follows the cotton, as it is often difficult to get the cotton crop off in time to sow a small grain crop. 157. Fertilizers. — Corn makes a very profitable use of rough manures containing organic matter, such as barn-yard manure or green manures. When the supply of organic matter is maintained by the above methods, nitrogen fertil- izers need not be used. The same is generally true of potash, as the decaying vegetable matter will make sufficient potash soluble in the soil to supply the needs of the crop. Phos- Fig. 104. The seeds from which these oat-plants grew looked very much alike, and were planted side by side. Which kind of seeds are you planting ? Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch.". 172 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING phorus is usually more deficient in the soils than potash, and where the above system of maintaining the organic content of the soil is practised, phosphatic fertilizers will generally be found profitable for corn. If the soil is deficient in organic matter, then both nitrogenous and phosphatic fer- tilizers should be used. A common application of fertil- izer for corn is four hundred pounds per acre, made up of two hundred pounds each of cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate. 158. Planting. — Much of the corn in the South is still planted by hand. Where possible the corn-planter should be used, as it insures a more uniform planting and germina- tion, and also saves much labor. One-horse planters with fertilizer distributors are quite generally used, and are very satisfactory. The use of the two-horse check-row planter is restricted to level lands only. It is not generally used in the South, but where the conditions permit its use it may be very profitably employed. 159. Time of Planting. — Corn should be planted as soon as the soil becomes warm in the spring and the danger of frost is over. This varies from February 20 to April 15, depending upon the locality. If planted before the ground is warm, or while the soil is still too wet, corn is liable to rot before germination. Certain varieties of early corn, such as Mexican June, are often planted in June with good re- sults. 160. Depth of Planting. — Corn is planted from one to four inches deep, depending on the soil and the season. It should be planted deep enough to insure the presence of enough moisture for good germination. On sandy lands deep-planting is generally the rule, while shallow-planting is Fig. 105. The root system of com. Courtesy of Kansas Experiment Station. 174 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING better on wet clay soils. Early planted corn should not be covered as deeply as late-planted. 161. Cultivation. — Too often deep-tilling instruments are used in cultivation of corn. These large shovel plows pul- verize the soil very ineffectively, and also destroy many of the feeding roots. Small-toothed cultivators or some form of sweeps make the most satisfactory implements for cultivat- ing corn. These should not go deeper than from one and one-half to two and one-half inches, unless it be at the first cultivation on clay land that has a tendency to run together and bake. 162. Harvesting. — The usual custom of pulling the corn- blades for feed is expensive, and also decreases the yield of the grain. Cutting the tops just above the ears at the time when the outer shucks have turned brown is also unprofit- able. This practice does not materially reduce the yield of grain, if done when the ears are fairly mature, but it is a very expensive way to get feed. The most profitable way to harvest the corn crop is to cut and shock the whole plant. This should be done when practically all of the shucks have turned brown and the grain has become hard. This prac- tice does not decrease the yield of grain. In this way all the forage is saved, and the use of the land is obtained for fall cover crops. In some localities the corn thus harvested is run through the shredder, which shucks and separates the ears from the stalk, at the same time tearing the stalk to pieces. The shredded leaves and stalks are known as stover (sto'ver), and are readily eaten by stock. 163. Com- Judging. — How to judge com will be treated when corn clubs are disqussed in Appendix V. FARM CROPS 175 The Forage Sorghums 164. Groups of Sorghums. — There are three distinct groups of cultivated sorghums: 1, those varieties grown for syrup, owing to the high sugar content of their juices; 2, those grown for their tops, or flower stalks, which are used in making brooms; 3, those grown for forage and grain, such as the Kafirs and durras. The last group is the most important, and our study will be restricted to these. 165. Kafir, and Durra. — There are three com- monly known varieties of Kafir, distinguished more especially by the color of their seed and hulls. These varieties are red, white, and black-hull. The red and black-hull varie- ties generally yield a lit- tle more grain than white Kafir, and are considered more desirable. They also grow taller than white Kafir, thus producing a little more forage. The chief varieties of durra are: yellow milo, brown durra, and ichite durra, or Jerusalem corn. Milo is grown more extensively than either of the other varieties, Fig. 106. Head.s of milo maize and Kafir corn from near Dalworth, Texas. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 176 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING especially in western Oklahoma and the Panhandle of Texas. It matures in a shorter time than Kafir, and is FiQ. 107. Field of milo maize near San Benito, Texas. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." especially valuable for arid and semi-arid regions. The grain of this variety is large, brittle, and easily masticated by stock. Brown durra is grown extensively in certain sec- tions of the country, especially in California, where it is FARM CROPS 177 often called "Egyptian corn." As the grain shatters easily, it is not considered as valuable as yellow milo. White durra is not grown extensively in this country. Owing to its liability to injury by insects and fungus diseases, and to the fact that thfe seed shatters easily, it is not a very satis- factory crop. Kafirs and durras are especially adapted to semi-arid regions, owing to their drought-resisting properties, and should usually be depended on for grain rather than corn. They vary from four to eight feet in height. 166. Soil. — These crops are best adapted to a good clay or loam soil. They make a fair growth even on a poor soil, but of course do best on a soil of high fertility. 167. Preparation of Soil and Seeding. — The seed-bed is prepared in very much the same way as for corn. Where the crop is grown for grain, plowing is often done in the late winter or very early spring, so that the land will hold more moisture and the seed-bed get firm before planting season. The land should be thoroughly pulverized and the seed planted in drills three and one-half to four feet apart, and three to five, and in very poor land eight, inches apart in the drills. It is planted best with a corn-planter with a drilling attachment. In regions of little rainfall, listing is a very common practice. This is done by throwing out furrows at planting time with a lister, the seed being drilled in the bottom of these furrows. This insures deeper rooting and better enables the plants to withstand drought. 168. Cultivation. — The cultivation of these crops is the same as for corn. The sorghums are shallow rooted, a fact which necessitates shallow cultivation. Small-toothed cul- tivators are generally used. 178 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 169. Harvesting. — If grown primarily for grain, the crops should not be harvested until the seeds are fairly mature. The entire stalks may then be cut with a corn-harvester and shocked like ordinary corn, or the heads may be first cut off with a knife or header and the stalks afterward har- vested for stover. The heads should not be stored in large piles until they are thoroughly dry, as they heat easily. The grain may be threshed by running the heads through an ordinary grain thresher, or, if the entire plant has been cut, the heads may be inserted into the thresher until the seeds are removed, the stalks being then withdrawn. While much higher yields can be produced, the usual yield varies from twenty to forty bushels per acre. Legumes, or Nitrogen-gathering Plants 170. What Legumes Are. — By legume is meant that class of plants the members of which bear their seeds in pods, and increase the supply of nitrogen in the soil because of certain bacteria which live on their roots and have the power of taking in the insoluble nitrogen from the air and working it into the soluble nitrogen compounds called nitrates, on which plants can feed. The common representatives of this group are cow-peas, soy-beans, pea-nuts, the clovers, vetches, and alfalfa. These are especially valuable plants to agriculture, because they improve the soil as well as produce the best of foodstuffs and forage. 171. Tubercles. — If one will carefully examine the roots of cow-peas, clover, or any of these legumes, he will find a large number of small galls, knots, or nodules growing on them. These galls are known as tubercles. They are pro- FAKM CROPS 179 duced by bacteria that live on the roots of the plant. Each tubercle contains thousands of these bacteria, which are ahve and must have food. Part of this food they get from Pig. 108. Red clover in both pots; no nitrogen in soil of either, but bac- teria in the pot on the right. Courtesy of the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. the plant on which they grow and part of it from the air which circulates through the soil. The food that these bac- teria get from the air is pure nitrogen, which makes up four- fifths of the air. This insoluble nitrogen unites with other elements in the bacteria and makes a soluble nitrogen com- pound. The bacteria finally die and the legume takes the nitrate left by the bacteria and uses it in its growth. Finally when the legume dies and decomposes, the nitrogen which 180 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING was taken out of the air by the bacteria is left in the soil for the use of other plants. 172. Inoculation for Legumes. — The bacteria that pro- duce tubercles on clover are different from those that grow Fig. 109. Pea-nut plant from the Panhandle. Cut on the left, courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture; on the right, courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." on alfalfa. In fact nearly all the different kinds of legumes have their own particular bacteria, and if the right kind of bacteria is not in the soil, it must be added before the legume can be grown successfully. This addition to the soil of material containing the proper bacteria is called inoculation (in-oc-u-la'shiin) . The best way to inoculate a field is to add to it soil that contains the proper bacteria. For example, if one wished to inoculate an acre of land for alfalfa, he would apply to it about two hundred and fifty pounds of soil from a field that was growing alfalfa successfully. This would ■I''- '^£S#' %;^^^>mmm}^^}^^ 182 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING be sprinkled on as would a fertilizer and harrowed into the land. Inoculation does not have to be repeated every year, as the bacteria live from year to year in the soil. All legumes do not need inoculation. For example, the bacteria that grow on the roots of cow-peas are present in nearly all soils and would not have to be added. We shall speak of only a few of the most common legumes. 173. Pea-nuts. — The pea-nut plant is an annual, growing from one to two feet high, depending upon the variety grown and the soil. The fruit, or seed, which is not a nut at all, is borne in pods underneath the surface of the soil, on tips of stems. These stems start out from the axils of leaves above ground and, after blooming, push their way into the soil and there develop the seed. 174. Varieties. — Two well-defined types of pea-nuts are recognized : those with large pods and those producing small pods. A common representative of the former group is the Virginia pea-nut, used for roasting. The Spanish pea-nut is the small-podded variety. These are used mostly for mak- ing confectionery and feeding hogs. 175; Soil and Fertilizers. — The pea-nut does best on a loam soil containing plenty of lime and not too much humus. If barn-yard manure is used, it should be applied to the preceding crop, so as to give it ample time to decompose thoroughly before the nuts are planted. Nitrogenous fertil- izers are seldom applied, as the pea-nut can secure its own nitrogen from the air. Potassic and phosphatic fertilizers are largely used. 176. Planting and Cultivation. — The land should be plowed and prepared as for corn, but with even greater care. The large-podded pea-nuts are usually planted about 184 FUNDAMENTALS OB^ FARMING the time corn is planted, while the Spanish pea-nuts may be planted considerably later, at any date from the time that cotton comes up until about July 1 . The small-podded pea- nuts, which usually produce an erect growth, are generally planted in rows about twenty-four to thirty inches apart, and from four to eight inches apart in the row. For the large-podded varieties the rows should be from thirty to thirty-six inches apart. A weeder should be run over the land after the pea-nuts are planted and before they have come up. After the plants are up, a fine-toothed cultivator should be used, and cultivation should be frequent, keeping the soil finely pulverized, so that the plants will have no difficulty in producing the pods. One or two hoeings are usually necessary, depending upon the abundance of weeds. 177. Harvesting. — ^Pea-nuts intended for seed or market should be harvested before frost. A common method of harvesting is to run under the row on each side with a turn plow from which the mould-board has been removed. This plow should be run at sufficient depth not to tear the pods from the branches. The plants are then lifted by hand or with a fork and stacked, usually on the same day that they are dug. The plants should be stacked with the tops turned outward and the stacks made as slender as possible. They are capped with grass or straw. 178. Cow-peas. — ^The cow-pea is the most important Southern legume. It is grown on the widest variety of soil of any Southern hay crop. It fits into almost any system of crop rotation that the farmer wishes to practise, and is valuable either as hay, pasture, or seed crop. A crop of cow-peas may be grown after small grain comes off in the FARM CROPS 185 spring, before small grain is seeded in the fall, or between two crops of small grain. They are generally grown as a- secondary crop, being sown at the last cultivation of corn, except in regions of very dry summers, where they must be sown earlier. They may be either pastured off, used for Fig. 112. Field of cow-peas. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch.' seed production or for hay. They are often planted in drills between the corn rows, or between the hills of corn in the same row. In either case they are allowed to mature and the seed is harvested. Twenty bushels per acre is a good average yield. Cow-peas^ should never be planted until the soil gets thoroughly warm. Deep preparation of the soil is not essential to the successful growth of cow-peas, though on heavy clay soil it is very profitably employed. When sown 186 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING broadcast, from one to one and one-half bushels of seed per acre are required. When sown in drills, one peck of seed is usually enough. Acid phosphate makes up the bulk of the fertilizer used, although considerable amounts of kainit are under certain conditions desirable. No nitrogen fertilizer is Fig. 113. Soy-bean field. A good legume for hay and for building up the soil. From Halligan's Fundamentals of Agriculture. Courtesy of Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. necessary. Cow-peas should be harvested for hay when the most mature pods are beginning to turn yellow. One and one-half tons of hay per acre is a good average yield. The soy-bean is rapidly coming into favor in some parts of the South-west. It possesses advantages in some respects over the cow-pea for certain localities. These should be studied carefully in the bulletins and tested on every farm. FARM CROPS 187 179. Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is grown primarily for hay, but is sometimes used for pasture, soiling, or silage. Owing to the large amount of palatable hay produced, together with the fact that this hay contains a high percentage of protein, there is no more valuable forage plant in sections where it can be readily grown. 180. Description. — A sin- gle plant of alfalfa ordi- narily produces from five to twenty-five erect stems growing out from a single crown. These stems range in height from eighteen to thirty (sometimes sixty) inches, depending upon the soil upon which it is grown. Plants growing alone may produce from one hundred and fifty to two hundred stems. The arrangement of the leaves is somewhat different from that of true clover, the lateral leaflets being borne on the side of each leaf stalk instead of at the end, as in the clovers. The stems are rather slender, making a hay of excellent quality. The seeds are borne in a much-twisted seed-pod having when mature a corkscrew appearance. Alfalfa pro- duces a very deep-grownng tap-root. These roots have been known to grow to a depth of forty-five feet. On ordinary soil the usual depth is probably from five to ten feet, depend- FiG. 114. An alfalfa-plant only a few months old. The roots are three feet long. Under very favorable conditions alfalfa roots are known to have run over forty feet. 188 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ing upon the character of the subsoil and the distance of standing water from the surface of the soil. Under suitable conditions the root tubercles begin to form about two or three months after sowing, 181. Alfalfa Regions in Texas. — Alfalfa may be success- fully grown on the black prairie and Fort Worth prairie soils of central and northern Texas when it escapes root rot, to which it is very subject. The river bottom soils of east Texas when well drained are also adapted to alfalfa-grow- ing. In recent years alfalfa has been successfully grown on certain areas of the '* red-bed " soils in north-west Texas, although the deficient rainfall in this section makes it very necessary for the alfalfa farmer to put forth every effort for conserving soil moisture, such as early plowing to enable the soil to store up easily the rainfall, and the maintenance of a loose mulch until planting to prevent loss of water by evaporation. Considerable alfalfa is grown under irrigation in the arid sections of south-west Texas. 182. Essentials to Success in Alfalfa-Growing. — The fol- lowing are essential to successful alfalfa-growing: 1. The soil must be well drained to a depth of three or four feet. Alfalfa is a deep-rooted plant, and the presence of surplus or standing water in the upper three or four feet of soil is detrimental to its growth. 2. The soil must be fertile. Alfalfa should not be sown on land that does not possess fer- tility enough to produce two-thirds of a bale of cotton or thirty-five or forty bushels of corn per acre. 3. The soil must contain a rather large amount of lime. Alfalfa gets its nitrogen from the air as a result of the growth of tubercle- forming bacteria on its roots. These bacteria will not thrive in an acid soil. The soil must be alkaline, and if sufficient FARM CROPS 189 lime is not naturally present, from one thousand to one thou- sand five hundred pounds of slaked lime per acre should be applied and incorporated with the soil at least two weeks before the seeds are planted. 4. The bacteria that grow on the roots and form the nodules must be present. As a rule, when alfalfa is grown for the first time in a locality, the soil should be inoculated. This is best done by the method out- lined in paragraph 172. 5. The soil must have deep and thorough preparation. Weeds and grass will easily kill out alfalfa, hence the preparation of the seed-bed should be such as to get rid of weed seeds. 6. Good seed must be planted. Alfalfa seeds are often put on the market in a low state of vitality, and the farmer should always test the germinating power of the seeds before they are planted. 7. There must be sufficient moisture in the soil when the crop is planted to germinate the seeds. Failure very often results from sowing alfalfa during a dry season when there is little moisture in the soil. Fall sowing is generally better than spring sowing, as in this way the young plants get the start on the weeds in spring; but unless a suitable season can be obtained in the fall it is better to wait and seed in the spring. 183. Amount of Seed to Sow. — Most farmers sow too little seed. Twenty or twenty-five pounds per acre should be sown. Alfalfa does not spread by root stocks or stool out, like wheat or oats, and unless sufficient seed is sown a good stand need not be expected. 184. Time of Cutting. — Alfalfa should be cut when the second growth is just starting. By examining the base of the plants the farmer can easily tell when the second growth of young stems is being put out from the crown. This is the time for cutting. This is usually when the crop is about 190 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING one-tenth in bloom. If cutting is delayed until the second growth is far enough advanced to be clipped by the mower, the yield of the succeeding cutting will be greatly lessened. 185. Curing the Hay. — Alfalfa hay should not be left in the swath exposed to the sun for more than two or three hours. Many farmers put it in small cocks immediately upon cutting. The cocks should be small and carefully made so as to shed rain. The curing process will go on fa- vorably under these conditions, while at the same time the leaves do not become so dry as to shatter when the hay is handled. If mould should occur, the cocks may be opened up for a short time. In arid regions, immediately after cut- ting, the hay is raked into windrows eighteen to twenty-five inches deep and is cured in the windrow. The hay is hauled directly to the stack from the windrow, often by means of " buck rakes." Any method of curing, to be successful, must be such as to avoid the loss of the leaves, as these are the most nutritious portion of the plant. Good alfalfa gives from three to six cuttings a year, yield- ing from three and one-half to four and one-half tons of hay per acre. Where it is irrigated and the growing season is long, more cuttings and heavier yields are obtained. 186. The Clovers.— To this group of plants belong red clover, white clover, crimson clover, alsike clover, and mam- moth clover. These are known as the true clovers. Japan clover (lespedeza, les-pe-de'za) and bur-clover, while com- monly classed as clovers, are not in any way related to the above plants, and are not true clovers. Bur-clover is closely related to alfalfa. The true clovers most commonly grown in the South are the crimson, red, and white. Crimson clover is an annual, and therefore has to be seeded every FARM CROPS 191 year. It is seeded in the fall and will produce a crop of hay- in time for corn to be planted on the land the next summer. About twenty pounds of seed per acre are sown. Red clover is a perennial. It is primarily a hay plant, but is sometimes used for pasture. It grows best on fertile land containing considerable lime. In the South it is best sown in the fall at the rate of ten or twelve pounds of seed per acre. White clover is primarily a pasture plant, and is seldom grown for hay, owing to its prostrate, or creeping, habit of growth. It is usually sown in mixtures of grass-seed for pasture at the rate of from two to six pounds of seed per acre. Bur-clover is an annual, but reseeds itself readily. It makes its growth in the late fall and early spring, and hence is a good supple- ment to pasture grass mixtures, giving good grazing at a season of the year when the grasses are dead. Japan clover is an annual, making its growth during the summer months. It is used primarily for pasture, but some hay is produced from it. Japan clover often covers waste land that has been abandoned because of its poverty, greatly aiding in restoring this land to productiveness. Its value is too little appre- ciated by Southern farmers. Sugar-Cane 187. Sugar-Cane : Its Importance. — Sugar-cane is a coarse grass grown in tropical and semi-tropical countries for its stems, the juice of which is used for the making of sugar and syrup. It differs from ordinary sorghum (commonly called cane) in containing a higher percentage of sugar in its juices, and also in not producing seed in this country, and only spar- ingly in tropical countries. Sorghum produces an abundance 192 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING of seed in a compact panicle at the top of the plant. The sugar-cane is used primarily for sugar-making, while sorghum is used for making molasses. The plants of sugar-cane vary in height from eight to fifteen feet. The stems are usually close-jointed and very leafy. Sugar-cane was probably the first plant Used in the manufacture of sugar. It is still one of the most important crops for this purpose, notwithstand- ing the great increase in the culture of other sugar-yielding plants within recent years. 188. Roots. — As a usual thing sugar-cane does not pro- duce a prominent tap-root. A number of the finer roots, however, go deep into the soil, thus enabling the plant to secure moisture. The roots of sugar-cane do not branch as profusely as do the roots of corn. From the lower nodes, or joints, of the plant roots also come out above the ground, go down into the soil, and serve to brace and nourish the plant. 189. Varieties. — No satisfactory classification of the vari- eties of sugar-cane has as yet been made. The most gen- erally used classification is that which is based upon the color of the stalk. Three classes are recognized: 1, the green and yellow group, in which the stalks are uniformly green and yellow; 2, the red group, in which the stalks are of a reddish color; 3, the striped group. 190. Sugar-Cane Regions. — The important sugar-cane regions in the United States are found in southern Louisiana and southern and eastern Texas. In Louisiana cane is grown from New Orleans to within about one hundred miles of the Texas line. In Texas it is grown in the lower Brazos and Colorado bottoms, in creek valleys in east Texas, and in the lower Rio Grande Valley. FARM CROPS 193 191. Soil. — Sugar-cane requires a well-drained, deep, sweet soil. Owing to the large amount of water which is passed through the plants during their growth, the soil must have a high water-holding capacity. Almost any fertile soil in the sugar-cane belt supplying the above conditions can be profitably used for this crop. In plowing the land for cane, steam-plows are often used, breaking the soil in some sections as deep as eighteen to twenty inches. All soils cannot be plowed to this depth, as the subsoil is often of such a nature as to make it inadvisable to bring very much of it to the surface. However, deep plowing must be the rule for sugar-cane. 192. Fertilizers. — The best fertilizer for sugar-cane is stable manure. This is seldom produced in sufficient quan- tity to supply the needs of the crop, and the use of artificial fertilizers is resorted to. The usual custom in disposing of the crop is to extract the juice, burn the remainder of the crop, and return the ashes to the soil. This aids in main- taining the supply of phosphorus and potassium, but it re- sults in the loss of organic matter and nitrogen. As a result the most commonly purchased ingredient for cane fertilizer is nitrogen. A soluble fertilizer, such as nitrate of soda, is usually applied to the surface of the soil after the crop has made a portion of its growth, and is worked into the soil by cultivation. The less soluble materials, such as dried blood, tankage, and fish refuse, should be added earlier and mixed rather deeply with the soil. On acid soils lime is very bene- ficial. 193. Planting. — In this country sugar-cane does not pro- duce seed. In tropical countries some varieties produce a small amount of seed, while others do not produce any. 194 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The seed produced is inferior, and has a very weak germinat- ing power. Plants produced from seed grow very slowly, requiring several years to attain full size. For the above reason sugar-cane is propagated by planting the stripped stalks, or from cuttings made from stalks. The buds, or eyes, located at the joints of the cane grow and produce plants. A very common method is to plant the entire uncut stalk. The land is first thrown up into high beds, with drainage furrows between. These beds are from four and one-half to seven feet wide. A furrow is opened in the top of each bed with a double mould-board plow, and a double row of cane is planted in the bottom of the furrow. With this method about four tons of cane are required to plant an acre. Planting is best done in the fall, although some cane is planted in February and March. Another com- mon practice is to plant the cane in hills. In this case there are three common methods ap- plicable : 1. Laying the "seed-cuttings" horizontally fro in ''which '^^ the row, with the eyes, or buds, facing lat- the plants prolly grow. <^ * 2. Placing the cuttings on a slant of about forty degrees, with the upper end protruding from the soil. 3. Placing the cuttings vertically in the soil, with the upper end of the cutting protruding. These cuttings are spoken of as "seed-cane." This "seed- cane" is usually covered only an inch and a half to two inches deep, especially in irrigated regions. 1 Fig. 115. Stem of sugar- cane, showing the "eyes" at FARM CROPS 195 194. Culture. — During the first few months after plant- ing, the cane is actively cultivated, usually with a one-horse cultivator. The object of this cultivation is to keep down BRV ^fifHH^^' '^ "'5'^ Fig. 116. Field of sugar-cane at La Feria, Texas. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." weeds and stimulate the growth of the cane. Shallow cul- tivating is much preferable to deep cultivation. 195. Harvesting. — The cane must be harvested before frost. However, the longer the cane can be allowed to grow in the fall the higher the percentage of sugar. The crop is harvested by hand, no successful harvester having as yet been invented. Immediately after the cane is cut, it is taken to the mill and ground. If the grinding is delayed more than twenty-four hours after cutting, fermentation be- gins and the quality of the juice is injured. 196 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 196. Yield. — Twenty to twenty-five tons of cane per acre is a fair yield. Often more than this is produced. A ton of cane yields from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty pounds of sugar. This gives more than three thousand pounds of sugar per acre. As much as four thousand five hundred pounds of sugar per acre have been produced. Rice 197. Rice and Its Distribution. — Rice is an annual be- longing to the grass family. It is grown for its grain, which is borne in a spreading panicle somewhat resembling that of oats. This grain is more widely used as a food material than any other cereal. It forms the principal article of diet for more than one-half of the world's inhabitants. Asia produces more rice than any other continent. Next to Asia comes Europe, followed by North America. The leading rice-producing States in the United States are Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, South Carolina, and Georgia, producing a total of from twenty to twenty-five million bushels of rough rice. Of this amount, Louisiana produces, about twelve million bushels and Texas about ten million bushels. 198. Tjrpes and Varieties.— There are two types of rice grown in this country. These are upland rice and lowland rice. The upland rice is grown on relatively dry soils with- out irrigation. The lowland rice is the more important type. There are few varieties of rice grown in the United States. In the Eastern States white rice and gold seed rice are grown in considerable quantities. In Louisiana and Texas the most important varieties are Honduras and Japan rice. The Honduras rice produces a rather large grain, and is not FARM CROPS 197 SO easily blown down because of the stiff straw produced. The Japan rice produces a short thick grain, and the plants do not grow as tall as Honduras rice. It is said to yield more grain than Honduras. 199. Rice Soils in Texas and Louisi- ana. — The rapid de- velopment of the rice industry in Texas and Louisiana has been due to the opening up of large areas of prairie land in south-east Texas and south-west Lou- isiana. These rich drift soils have shown a remarkable adaptation to rice. They have heavy clay subsoil, and for that reason are very retentive of moist- ure, and, being practically level, are especially adapted to irrigation. They are sufficiently far from the coast to be free from storms and the attacks of birds. 200. Preparing the Ground. — Rice land is usually plowed in the spring. The better the soil is pulverized the greater Fig. 117. Types of rice. On the left Honduras rice, on the right Japanese rice. From Halligan's " Fundamentals of Agriculture." 198 FUNDAMENfA'LS OF FARMING is the yield. Deep plowing is more satisfactory than shal- low plowing, although rice does best in a rather compact soil. This compact condition can easily be produced by the use of a heavy roller after the land has been plowed. The plow should be followed in a short time by the disk harrow and then by the smoothing harrow. 201. Sowing. — Rice should usually be sown from March 17 to April 20 for best results. Drilling rather than broad- cast sowing is preferred, as a more uniform stand can be attained. Broadcast sowing is still very common, but this practice should be discarded. One to two bushels per acre is sown. 202. Germination. — Very often the seed germinates poorly because of too little moisture in the soil. Some farmers let on enough water to saturate the ground immediately after sowing, drawing off at once any surplus water. A few sprout the seeds before planting by placing bags of rice in water. However, if the soil is dry when these germinated seeds are sown, failure is sure to follow. 203. Irrigation. — Rice is best produced on land which can be kept flooded from the time the plants are six to eight inches high until near the time of maturing. Therefore land must be chosen that has some convenient supply of water for irrigation, has a retentive subsoil, and is practically level. In Louisiana and Texas the water used for irrigation is pumped from bayous and rivers, or from underground wells. By means of pumps and a system of canals the water is brought to the highest part of the fields. Low levees, or em- bankments, are constructed throughout the fields, chiefly with the plow, so that the water can be maintained at a uniform depth through the different portions of the field. FARM CROPS 199 This depth should be from three to six inches. The water is applied when the plants are about eight inches high, and a constant circulation of the water is maintained by a continu- ous inflow at the highest portion of the field and an outflow at the lowest portion. The water should all be drawn off in time for the soil to get firm before harvest-time, as this allows the use of improved machinery in harvesting the crop. The irrigation takes the place of cultivation in keeping down the weeds. 204. Harvesting. — Where the water can be drained off the land, rice is best harvested with the self-binder. It is first put up in shocks in the field and capped in such a way as to shelter the heads from sun and rain. It remains in the shock until the straw is cured and the grain is hard. Threshing is done in the same manner as with other grains. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 92. Bring in a cotton-plant and point out the main stem, primary limbs, and fruiting limbs. 93. Examine five cotton-bolls, each from a different stalk, and make a record of the number of locks in each boll, number of seeds in each lock, and any points in which the bolls differ. 94. Find three different varieties of cotton in your neighborhood and describe each. 95. Dig carefully around a cotton-stalk standing in the field and see what effect would be produced by cultivation two inches, three inches, four inches, and five inches deep. 96. Select the best stalk of cotton in your father's field. Gather the cotton, pick the seeds by hand, and plant these away from all other cotton. Cut out all poor stalks before they bloom, save seeds of the one best stalk again, and pick by hand and plant as before. Use the seeds of the other stalks to plant a large seed patch, and continue this selection for five years in accordance with the system shown in the diagram on the next page. 200 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 97. Select six of the best stalks in your father's field, and enough of the poorest stalks to furnish a quantity of cotton when gathered equal to that obtained from the six best stalks. When ready to plant, take an equal quantity of the ordinary gin-run seed planted on the farm and plant side by side, in separate rows, first, the mixed gin-run seeds; second, the seeds from the selected plants; third, the seeds from the very poor plants. Cultivate all alike, and keep a record of the amount produced by each variety of seeds. Then calculate how much cotton would have been pro- duced on the entire farm by planting altogether from each kind of seed. I»JYEAR amEAR 35P ••EAR 4-L"YEAR S-rnVEAl^ 1 PLANT 500 PLANTS ACRE - GENERAL CROP 1 ■' ' ' PLANT , 500 PLANTS 1 ACRE GENERAL CROP br U. ' 1 PLANT 500 PLANTS ACRE 1 ' PLANT 500 PLANTS r crop. 1902.' ' i Fig. 118. Five-year After Webber, '-Yearbook Beding plan for cotton or othe S. Departinent of Agriculture, PLANT 98. Draw and label the parts of an actual corn-plant. 99. Bring in corn-shucks which show that shucks are modified leaves. 100. Dig down in the row of a growing corn-field, and make note of how the feeding roots are distributed. 101. Plant corn one, two, three, and four inches deep. After four weeks, dig up the plants and note the character of each, espe- cially the character of the roots, and tell which is the best depth to plant on that soil. 102. Plant rows of corn from grains taken from tips and butts, and parallel to these plant rows from the middle parts of the same ears. Keep a record of results. 103. Select the five best ears in your father's corn-field, and next year plant the seed in an ear-to-row test, far away from all other corn; FARM CROPS 201 cut out all poor stalks before they develop any pollen, and de- tassel alternate halves of each row. Save the cross-fertilized corn from the detasselled stalks separately for seed. 104. When the corn in the experiment above is gathered, calculate how much corn your father would have raised if all his seed-corn had been as productive as the best ear of this lot. 105. Select the best five ears from the detasselled stalks in experiment six, and the best five ears from the other stalks. Plant these side by side, cultivate exactly alike, and note how much each produces. 106. Select fifty ears of yoiu* father's seed-corn and test for germinating power. 107. In a section where there is a fair supply of winter rain, and some rain diu-ing spring and early summer, but long drought diu-ing June, July, and August, what cjualities must a grain have in order to be successfully cultivated? 108. Collect and describe as many varieties of Kafir and durra as you can find in your community. 109. Make a selection of especially fine stalks of either Kafir or durra growing on your farm, and breed up a finer variety by the same methods given for corn and cotton. 110. Find plants of Japan and bur clover. Draw and describe each and bring the plants to school. 111. Examine the roots of each kind of legume in your neighborhood, find the tubercles, and make notes of the different characteristics of each, drawing them. 112. Select seed from especially fine plants of peas or other legumes and breed an improved variety. 113. Get your father to help you make the following experiment: Plant peas in the rows of half the corn in one field. Also sow rescue- grass and bur-clover seed, about fifteen pounds per acre, at the last cultivation of this same half. Gather the peas for seed and graze the clover and grass till the spring plowing, when all sod is turned under. Plant cotton, or corn and peas, again on both halves of this field. Keep account of cost of seed and labor, and of value of all crops raised on each half of the field, and of the value of the grazing. Find out whether the legumes and grass paid, and if so, how much. (A great deal of the value of the legumes and green manure is still in the soil after the first year, and will add to whatever crop is grown on the land for several years.) 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 114. Sow one acre of peas broadcast. Sow another one in rows and cultivate. Keep account of cost of seed and labor, and find out which pays best. 115. In a very dry climate, would it be better to plant peas broadcast or to plant them in rows and cultivate? Why do you think so? 116. Plant test rows of six varieties of peas and two varieties of soy- beans on your corn land. Give all equally good land and the same cultivation, and see which is best suited to your needs.' Try this in a dry season and in a wet season. 117. Make a drawing of a complete rice-plant, if this crop grows in your neighborhood. 118. An acre of land contains 43,560 square feet. A gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches. How many gallons of water does it take to flood an acre field one inch deep? How many to flood it one foot deep? How many six inches deep? 119. Select the best five rice-plants in your field, plant fifty seeds from each of these, one foot apart, in rows one foot wide the next year. Plant these five rows on the edge of the rice-field from which the wind usually blows. Watch the plants, weigh the grain from each fine plant, and again select the best. Plant these seeds next year and keep this up till you have bred up a variety that will uniformly give large yield. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING Alfalfa. "Forage and Fibre Crops in America," T. F. Hunt. "The Book of Alfalfa," F. D. Coburn. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 339, 373. Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 127. Texas Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 109, 137. Barley. "Cereals in America," T. F. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 427, 443. Bureau of Plant Industry Circulars, nos. 5, 62, Bur-clover. Texas Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 108. Clovers. "Clovers and How to Grow Them," Thomas Shaw. "Forage and Fibre Crops in America," T. F. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 323, 455. FARM CROPS 203 Corn. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. "The Book of Corn," Herbert Myrick. "Cereals in America," T. F. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 81, 229, 253, 313, 400, 414, 415. Bureau of Plant Industry Document, no. 485. Texas Department of Agriculture Bulletin, no. 23. Cotton. "Cotton," Burkett and Poe. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 48, 285, 302, 314, 344. Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular no. 66; Documents, nos. 485, 633. Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 107. Georgia Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 52, 56, 59. Cow-peas. "Forage and Fibre Crops in America," T. F. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletin, no. 318. Alabama College Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 14, 107, 114, 118, 120, 122, 123. Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletin, nos. 40, 55, 72. Japan Clover. Farmers' Bulletin, no. 441. Oats. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. "Cereals in America," T. F. Hunt. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 420, 424, 436. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular, no. 30. Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 137. Georgia Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 72. Pea-nuts. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 356, 431. Arkansas Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 84. 204 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Rice. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 110, 417. Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 50, 61, 77. Arkansas Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 94. Rye. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. North Carolina Department of Agriculture Bulletin, vol. 30, no. 8. Sorghum (grain). "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 322, 44S. Texas Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 132. Sorghum (sweet). Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 246, 458. South Carolina Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 88. Soy-beans. Farmers' Bulletin, no. 372. Alabama Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 114, 123. Kentucky Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 98, 125. Virginia Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 145. Sugar-cane. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletins: nos. 66, 70, 78, 100. \'etch. Alabama Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 87, 96, 105. Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 72. Wheat. "Cereals in America," T. F. Hunt. "Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. "The Book of Wheat," P. J. Dondlinger. Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 132, 250, 399. CHAPTER VIII THE GARDEN 205. Home-Gardening Differs From Truck-Growing.— Raising a home vegetable garden is quite diit'erent from trucking, or raising vegetables in large quantities for the market. Trucking is practicable only where the soil and climate are favorable and the transportation and market- ing of the produce are easy. In trucking large fields and special equipment for tillage and marketing should be used. In the home garden the aim is to furnish the family a sup- ply of fresh wholesome food at all seasons and add an at- tractive feature to farm living. The surprises and delights in growing the variety of plants found in a garden are many. Only a few farmers can profitably be truck -growers, but every farmer should have a good home garden. The growing of truck is very important in Texas, but in an elementary work treatment of this must be omitted and the space given to the more generally needed home garden. 206. Value of the Garden. — The farmer probably gets a larger return from the time, money, and land devoted to a vegetable garden than from any other expenditure on the farm, provided it is intelligently managed. At the University of Illinois a careful account was kept of a half-acre vege- table garden for five years. During that time the garden produced an average of one hundred and five dollars' worth of vegetables per year at a cost for seeds, labor, and in- 205 206 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING secticides of thirty dollars per year. A vegetable garden is valuable not merely because it produces foodstuff worth so much money, but also because it furnishes at all seasons of the year the fresh green foods that are necessary for the best health and working efficiency. Meat, bread, molasses, and dried vegetables all the time do not give an economical or wholesome ration. The human system needs for its best development the fresh foods with phosphates and acid juices in them, just as the plant needs phosphates. With a prop- erly planned garden and suitable berry bushes, grape-vines, nut and fruit trees, all of which take only an acre or so, the farmer has over half his food supply at practically no cost, and has it fresher and better than it could be bought at any price. 207. Location and Soil. — For the average family a half acre will furnish an abundance of vegetables all the year. The garden should be near the house for convenience in car- ing for and gathering the vegetables. A well-drained spot somewhat protected from the high winds should be chosen. The soil should be a sandy loam or clayey loam. Coarse sand or heavy clay makes a poor garden soil. If such must be used, the character should be improved at once by the ad- dition of manure, green manure, well-rotted chips, leaf mould, ashes, lime, sand, or whatever is needed to make a loose, rich, finely pulverized soil. The soil must be given humus enough and be broken deep enough to hold moisture well. When practicable, the garden should be located where it can be irrigated from the tank. Often a very small amount of water will save a vegetable crop. The garden spot should be thoroughly broken and ten to twenty-five loads of stable manure turned under in the fall in time to allow for decom- THE GARDEN 207 I t'i .O 3 ;ivM3Maa 208 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING position. Before the seeds are sown the soil should be plowed and replowed, disked, harrowed, and dragged until it is thoroughly pulverized, settled down, and the surface levelled and covered with a fine mulch. 208. Shape and Arrangement. — The garden should have a wide gate to admit wagon and team, should be oblong, so that the rows may be long, and should be so planted that the tillage can be done largely with teams. The rows should ex- tend the entire length of the plat, an(J should not be less than thirty inches apart for the use of the horse cultivator, and fifteen inches for the hand wheel cultivator. Small square patches worked by hand make gardening needlessly burden- some and expensive. The grape-vines and berries are usually planted on one side of the vegetable garden, the grapes in rows about twelve feet apart, and the berries in six or eight foot rows. Blackberries and dewberries should be in every garden in the Southwest, and in almost every section some of the numerous varieties of bunch grapes, especially hybrids created by crossing the Eastern grapes on our native wild ones. _ Valuable arbor grapes produced by the same crossing are now on the market. Where no other grape can be planted a few of the wild grapes for making jelly, jam, and grape juice should be placed where they may be easily gath- ered. Occasionally a few of the vegetables which cannot Fig. 120. A home-made garden reel. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE GARDEN 209 stand the hot sun may be grown under the arbors. INIint and parsley beds should be planted somewhere in the garden or yard near a water supply, as they need frequent watering. While these have no food value in themselves, it has been proved that attractive 'decoration and appetizing flavors given to foods tend to increase their digesti- bility. 209. Garden to Furnish Fresh Food at all Seasons.— A w e 1 1-managed garden should furnish food at all seasons of the year. The same season varies in character from year to year and, of course, there are great differences in the climates of the Gulf Coast and the Panhandle, so that no statement would fit all sections; but a few general suggestions will help to guide the beginner. In the climate of Austin, as early as January, one may plant the hardy vegetables that a light frost will not kill, such as turnips, radishes, lettuce, spinach, mustard, cabbage, onions, carrots, beets, and garden peas. Occasionally a very cold spell will kill some of these, and they will have to be replanted. In case they escape there will be radishes and greens in February, and a plentiful supply of vegeta- bles in March and April. All of these may be planted Fig. 121. A home-made sled marker. Courtesy of the University of Illinois. 210 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING again in February when Irish potatoes are planted. Tomato, sweet-pepper, and egg-plant seeds should now be planted in boxes in the house or in a hot-bed. In March the same veg- etables that are planted in February may be planted again, except the turnips, carrots, spinach, and lettuce, which are not. usually profitable after the warm weather sets in. The early varieties of cabbage may be set out now, or even earlier, but these usually do better when grown in fall and winter. Okra, beans, and field peas also may well be planted in March. In April okra, beans, field peas, butter-beans, squash, pumpkins, corn, watermelons, cantaloupes, and cucumbers should be planted.. The tomato, pepper, egg- plant, and sweet-potato slips should now be set out. In May okra and late corn may again be planted, and more tomato-plants be set out. An early and late variety of each of the above vegetables should be planted, and string beans and corn should be planted about every three weeks to give a succession of crops. The above should give an abundance of vegetables from March to August. Tomatoes, okra, po- tatoes, and pumpkins should run on till frost. If tomatoes are picked late in the season when full-sized, but still green, they may be wrapped in paper and stored in a dark cellar, kept until frost, brought out, and ripened when wanted. Tomatoes, butter-beans, peas, beans, okra, pumpkins, and corn should be canned and kept for use at all seasons. Butter- beans, peas, beans, and okra should be dried. Tomatoes, pumpkins, and Irish and sweet potatoes should be stored. The fall garden may be begun in August if there is a fa- vorable season. Now the winter-growing vegetables, such as cabbage, lettuce, spinach, beets, turnips, salsify, and winter radishes, should be planted. The roots of asparagus and the THE GARDEN 211 berries may now be set out. If the season is unfavorable in August the same vegetables should be planted in September, with Bermuda onions and shallots. In many sections all these vegetables make good crops when planted in October. They will furnish fresh green food all winter and into the early spring. Some crops should be growing on all parts of the garden at all seasons of the year. As the growing season of many Fig. 122. A horse cultivator for garden use. vegetables is only a few months, it is possible to secure two or three crops each year from the same land, if ample manure and fertilizer are added. 210. Cultivation. — Wherever water can be secured for irri- gation the crops are of course made more certain and the vegetables more tender. It is useless to plant most vegetables unless the soil is very fertile and well supplied with moisture. Good tillage and repeated additions of humus and fertilizing material make a good garden possible even in dry sections 212 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING and without irrigation. At times it is necessary in addition to the dust mulch to cover the soil with a mulch of leaves, chopped straw, hay, or other material that will hold in the moisture. The methods of planting and cultivating each vegetable are easily learned from the directions on the seed packages Fig. 123. An inexpensive wlieel hoe for cultivation of the garden. and from the references given at the end of this chapter. The general principles of plant growth, tillage, and fertiliza- tion which you have learned will enable you to apply or to modify intelligently these directions to meet your needs. In planting, the seeds should usually be covered to a depth about equal to three or four times their own thickness. The soil should be pressed down closely upon them either by roll- ing or tramping, and then loose soil raked over the packed soil to hold the moisture. The soil must be kept constantly stirred and no weeds allowed to grow and scatter their seeds. THE GAEDEN 213 All fence rows and corners should be kept clean even in winter months, to prevent as far as possible the harboring of insects. By planting in long rows after some such plan as is shown in Figure 119, it is possible to do nearly all garden cultivation with the horse cultivators. Where rows are too narrow for this, the type of wheel hoe shown in Figure 123 does excellent work with far less labor than when hand hoes and forks are used. 211. Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames. — In order to have very early vegeta- bles it is often best to plant during cold weather in the house in boxes, or in a specially prepared bed and frame out of doors. Figure 124 illustrates a convenient form of out-door arrangement, called a hot-bed. A hole is dug about a foot deep and as large as the hot-bed is to be or larger. This is filled with damp horse manure that is beginning to heat. On this the wooden frame is set. About six inches of good garden soil is placed inside the frame and soil is piled up outside all around the base. The decomposition going on in the manure serves to keep the soil warm. Such frames may be of any size. They should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches deep on one side, sloping down to twelve or eighteen inches on the opposite side. As they must be covered with sash, it is well to have a shape that some cheap stock size of sash will fit. Three by six and four by eight feet Fig. 124. A hot-bed. 214 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fio. 125. Tomato-plants ready for setting in the field. Note the large amount of soil carried with the roots. are convenient sizes. They should be nar- row enough to enable one to reach across easily. Where manure is not used and no bottom heat is pro- vided, such a frame is called a cold-frame. At times these are covered with cloth instead of glass. The hot-bed and cold-frame offer protection not only against cold but to some extent against insect pests. Plants that are started in such frames are tender and must be gradually hardened by first raising and later taking off the covering on mild days, thus by degrees exposing the plants to the weather. Any one can make a hot-bed, and the ex- pense is so small that every family can have one. 212. Transplanting. — You have learned that in transplanting the delicate root hairs are usually torn from the roots as they are Fig. 126. Handy box for use in seeding or IP ,1 .. when plants are transplanted while in hot-bed taken irom tne sou, in order to increase their size. THE GARDEN 215 Fig. 127. The right and the wrong way to set out plants with a dibber. and because of this the plant is unable to make any head- way after being transplanted until new root hairs are de- veloped. In many cases the plant never recovers. This injury may be largely avoided by planting the seeds in small pots or cans and transplanting the plant and soil together. A similar result can be secured by planting in a shallow box like that shown in Figure 126. By fastening one side of this box with screws or nailing it lightly so that it may be easily removed, it is possible to cut around the plant with a trowel and remove it and the soil together, so that the roots and root hairs are undisturbed. Frequently the plants are transplanted once in the hot-bed while very small, being reset about four inches apart. When this is done they grow more vigorously, and a larger mass of soil and root can be taken up with each plant when it is carried to the garden. Transplanting is best done on damp days or late in the afternoon. If the soil is not thoroughly moist, water should be poured into the hole and the loose soil drawn in and lightly pressed upon the roots. After this, more loose soil should be drawn around the plant over the wet spot to hold in the moisture. It is important when trans- planting to trim carefully all bruised roots and to take off an amount of the top to correspond to the amount of the root lost. Unless the soil and plant are moved together, with the roots left undisturbed, the roots should be care- 216 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING fully spread out before being covered with soil. Figures 127 and 128 show clearly the right and wrong ways to trans- plant. 213. Watering Plants. — Plants should not be watered while the sun is shining on them. The water should be put on late in the afternoon or early enough in the morning to Fig. 128. Transplanting. The roots of the plant on the left will never grow well. The plant in the centre is set too high. The one on the right is cor- rectly planted. soak in well before the sun gets hot. Frequent shallow water- ings are not as good as occasional thorough soakings of the soil, because in surface wetting most of the water is lost by evaporation, and the growth of a very shallow root system is encouraged. After the water has gone down and the surface begun to dry, the crust should be broken or cov- ered with a mulch before the water has time to come to the surface and be evaporated. When water is poured around individual plants or run down a trench, the wet places should be covered with dry soil as soon as the water has soaked in. THE GARDEN 217 214. Saving Seeds. — Seeds imported from the North have the advantage of maturing somewhat earher than home- grown seeds, and those bought from a rehable seed house are less apt to be mixed than are those grown at home. On a great seed-breeding farm each crop is planted widely removed from all that might cause a mixture. Although home- grown seeds may not be quite so early in maturing, and may be some- what mixed by being grown close to other varieties, they have some ad- vantages. You can be sure that your seeds come from plants that are adapted to your cHmate and soil and from fine individual specimens. With bought seeds you usually have no assurance on these points. In saving seeds select only the best specimens from the type of plant that you wish; allow the fruit to ripen fully and then dry the seeds thoroughly in the sun before putting them away. They should be placed where they will be dry, w 1 hbe n ^^mfP Fig. 129. Onions trimmed ready for transplanting. *5 o r e-g o I; CM m =2 S ts pq 11 a o o o*^ SB 3^ 3 ci-3 03 >0 Oo 5M P-H O O O O I o ooS.ooo'' w - ,.„o ®^w - t. C u "^ S-2 -s 'E . 43 4i 4i Q4^ 4^ (N rtr^^r ON : :.2 :.2 \B 4i4JCD'*-'C0 -iJ CO '"""«'"« ""CO o O-^ O*^ o*^ ■^^o*"o «^ WCOWWCO MN 2.2 o-^oo-^oo MCOCOrooOMW ^ n S o :i o p,5 o o o o o o '.V O^Sa o o o o o o o . . r^ T^ ri o rt^ fT! fli « ® * C illil ti c^ c^ ct c^ pqOOOO ooc;oooQ 00 Si ■ m. . (O coto ..w..m S>>to to .>>.>j>».i»(n>i«iai>! 5 tS >> >> E? 03 « 03 CIS w >> >^. 03 >i >^ 03 e -O c« „• c« ^"O ^'a TD?^o3o3'Oo3o3t3 S'toSo^OO^'OlM^OOiCOOtD^'^fCOO ooc^iOMOOOowc i-O-O o3 lOOCOC 2S; 3-tf O O 5>^ B 3 33^11 220 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fig. 130. Paper and tin shields for young plants in a small garden. well ventilated, not subject to great changes in temperature, and not liable to suffer from mice, rats, or insects, 215. Garden Pests. — Insects and diseases are discussed in another chapter, but a few additional practical suggestions here for young gardeners will be helpful. Where there are only a few or especially valuable plants to protect, the cutworm, which destroys so many fine young vegeta- bles, may be kept out by wrapping the stems of plants with a thin soft paper when they are trans- planted. The paper should be loosely rolled around the stem and the plant so set in the soil that the paper extends below the surface far enough to hold it in place. The paper soon disintegrates or may be removed after the plant is large enough to protect itself. Another successful plan is to surround the young plant with a tin ring which extends about an inch above and an inch below the surface of the soil, and stands about an inch from the plant all around. By melting the tops and bottoms from old tin cans and cut- ting the cans in circular strips about two inches wide, these rings can be made at no expense except the labor. They will last for years. In order to make it easy to remove the rings from the plants they should be slit, so that they are merely bent around the plant and held in place by the soil. Figure 130 shows such protectors in place. THE GARDEN 221 In addition to protecting the plants from cutworms, all means for destroying these worms should be employed without ceasing. They should be destroyed by hand and by poison, and no remnants of crops should be left ungathered for them to feed on, so that they thrive and mul- tiply. A few worms left will develop into moths that will lay eggs enough to fill the garden with worms again. The moths should also be attacked by such means as are suggested in the references. All weeds and grass should be kept out of the garden, and the fields immediately adjoining it should be cultivated and kept clean. Spasmodic fighting of such pests accomplishes httle, bat persistent intelligent work brings them under control. The insects which destroy so many young melon, cucum- ber, and other similar plants can often be guarded against economically by the use of wire-netting cages, which can be made for about two cents apiece and which last for years. Such a cage is easily made by cutting strips from thirty-six- inch wire netting. Ravel out one or two wires on one side and on one end of a piece of netting six by eighteen inches in size. Bend this strip and make a hoop about six inches in diameter by running the loose ends of the wire at one end of the strip through the meshes at the other end, and bending them back so as to hold the two ends together. Then cut a piece seven inches square and press it down on top of the ravelled end of the hoop, and work the loose ends of the w^res of the hoop through the meshes of the top piece, and bend these down so as to hold the top on. Such a cage keeps out insects and shades the young plants slightly. When the plants are tough enough to withstand attacks, the cages are lifted off and put away for future use. 222 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Toads, horned lizards, and birds should be encouraged in the garden, as they are great natural insect destroyers. Toads should be kept in the hot-beds, cold-frames, and seed- beds. Young fowls, before they are old enough to do harm by scratching or pecking the vegetables, will destroy great numbers of insects. The Questions, Problems, and Exercises and the References for Further Reading on the garden will be given at the end of the next chapter. CHAPTER IX Mi M SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM . ! 1 I i 1 21G. Every School Should Have a School Garden.— Eacl^ pupil should have a home garden and put into practice there the things that he learns in school. The work is more inf teresting and instructive if there is also a school ga|-dfeni With even as little as a quarter of an acre forty-two i^pilfe may each have an individual plat five by fifteen feet, and sjtill half the land be left for trees, shrubs, flowers, experimenjtal tests, and general observation plats. It is better, howe\ieri if the garden for this number covers a half acre, as shown* in Figure 124. To this garden with its small experiment plats should be added several acres of farm for larger experiments" and for observation. In some places such school farms are made a valuable source of income for the school each year. It is certainly possible in every rural community to secure by donation one or more acres for the school garden and farm. Every rural school should have from five to ten acres of land attached to it. Patrons and friends gladly contribute the needed manure, fertilizers, and work of teams when thesp cannot be secured out of the school funds. The work in thip garden is a pleasant diversion for both teacher and pupil^ and in nowise interferes with the other work of the schooll. 217. How the School Garden is Laid Out. — The schooj garden should have around it attractive borders of flowers set against a background of shrubs. There should also be 223 224 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING FOREST AND NUT TREE NUHSERt l6X7ff FRUIT TREE NURSERY AND SHALL FRUIT 6ARDEN I6X70- OdSERVATION PLOTS I6X70' CLASS EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS l&X 70' FLOWER PLOT I5X70' fsxiil DD DD ' SCHOOL KITCHEN GARDEN Tom l&X 70- mm DDDDD U Pig. 131. A good layout for a half-acre school garden where there are only , few pupils. 16' RADISHES FOLLOWED BY TOMATOE; POTATOES CAR ROTS CABBAGES ;PINACH FOLLOWED BY TOMATOES LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY BEANS Fia. 132. A good planting plan for the pupil's individual plat. SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 225 one plat set aside for the cultivation of flowers. One should be devoted to a nursery for forest and nut trees. In this the seedlings are raised, with which part of the practice in grafting, budding, pruning, and transplanting is obtained. Another plat devoted to fruit trees serves in part the same Fig. 133. A view in the practice school garden at the University of Texas. Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. purpose, and gives opportunity for the study of insects and diseases, and for learning how to care for fruit trees. Another plat is devoted to demonstrations for observation by the entire class of such things as the effect of different varieties of seeds, different methods of tillage, etc. In another plat ex- periments may be carried on by either teacher or pupils or both. In still another a kitchen garden for use of the school may be cultivated. Besides these large plats there should be a small individual plat, about eight by sixteen feet, for each pupil. This plat should be cared for entirely by the pupil, under the direction of the teacher. An accurate and 226 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING neat account of all work done, and of the results, should be kept by the pupil and handed in to the teacher for criti- cism and sugges- tion. The short plats necessitate the doing of all work by hand, but as the object is to help the pupils learn how to handle plants, this uneconomical plan is justified. 218. What to Plant in the In- dividual Plat. — No list of vege- tables for the in- dividual plat is equally good for all sections. The season of the year, the soil, and the local cli- matic conditions must determine what is best. The hst shown in Figure 132 suits well for the spring in Austin. A garden started in the fall, as gardens should be, would have such vegetables as radishes, lettuce, spinach, turnips, onions, and cabbages. The list should include some vegetables that are Fig. 134. A good set of tools. Courtesy of Edward Mahoney. Fig. 135. A good showing ; a happy boy. Courtesy of Edward Mahoney. Fig. 136. School-boys com, school farm, Uvalde, Texas. Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. 228 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING grown for their underground parts, some for their leaves and stem, some for their fruit and seeds, some that require trans- planting, some that come quickly to maturity, and some that are slow. It should include vegetables that the pupils and the pupils' parents especially like. Fig. 137. A view of the school farm, Bonham, Texas. Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. 219. Tools and Seeds. — The expense of tools is small, and even where it is impossible for the school to furnish each child an individual set of tools such as is shown in Figure 134, the school can purchase a few tools for general use, and have each child bring his tools from home when needed. Seeds are also inexpensive. By writing to the Congressman from the district it is possible to secure from the United' States Department of Agriculture a considerable supply of excellent seeds free of charge. After the first year a large part of the seeds should be saved from the garden. SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 229 220. The School Farm.— In addition to the garden with its small plats there should be a farm of several acres to afford opportunity for larger demonstrations of different crops, of rotation, different methods of tillage, orcharding, combatting insects and other pests, fertilizer and manure tests, breeding, selection, etc. The school farm should be the community experimental plat for trying out and intro- ducing new crops, better suited varieties, and more econom- ical and efficient methods of cultivation. 221. Keeping Records. — Neat and accurate records of all work should be kept by both pupils and teacher. On page 230 there are samples of desirable types of records. There are several plans by which teachers grade the work done by pupils on the individual plats. The system of scoring indicated by the report blank on page 231, used by Mr. C. H. Winkler in grading the individual work in the University of Texas school garden, is a very satisfactory one. 222. A Good School Garden and Farm. — The following account from the Boston Journal of Education of a school garden in Utah gives an idea of what any school with pro- gressive principal and teachers may accomplish. For South- western conditions, of course, other plants should be substi- tuted for some of those in this garden. " There are ten acres in the garden, of which two acres are reserved for dry farming, and on the other eight acres are: " Two hundred and eighty fruit trees, embracing every fruit that is raised for commercial purposes in the State. " Twenty kinds of garden vegetables. " Five cereals. " Two fibre plants. 230 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING RECORD OF GARDEN WORK DATE WORK OBSERVATIONS Sept. 10.... Spaded and raked garden Found many earthworms. Soil moist, pulverized easily Sept. 11.... Planted one row each radish and spinach Planted in seed-bed lettuce seeds Covered seeds very lightly, tramped them, raked over them a thin cover of loose soil Sept. 12.... Planted onion sets PLANT RECORD Name of Plant Lettuce Variety California Time of Planting Oct. 10, 1 hour No. of Rows 2 No. of Plants or Seeds 42 plants Worked Oct. 11, watered 20 min. Worked Oct. 13, watered 20 min. Worked Oct. 20, cultivated 20 min. Worked Oct. 28, cultivated 10 min. Nov. 15, tied up heads, cultivated 1 hr. Harvested 40 heads, Dec. 1 to Jan. 1 1 Insects Worms destroyed two plants Fungi Remarks Lettuce worth $3 SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 231 REPORT ON INDIVIDUAL PLATS Plat No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. General Appearance (20) a. Rows straight 5 h. Rows in line 5 c. Stand 10 2. Layout (20) a. Space between rows 10 h. Arrangement 10 — — 3. Tillage and Irrigation (50) a. Weeds 20 h. Mulch 20 c. Irrigation 10 4. Harvesting (10) a. At proper stage 6 h. Care in removal 4 Total 100 Instructor. 232 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING " One hundred and thirty fruit trees in nursery. " Two rows asparagus, 165 feet long. " Four rows red raspberries, 165 feet long. " Two rows black raspberries, 165 feet long. " Two rows blackberries, 165 feet long. " Two rows rhubarb, 165 feet long. " One row grapes, 165 feet long. " Two rows gooseberries, 165 feet long. " Two rows currants, 165 feet long. " Several grasses. " Three hundred and ten children's home gardens. " There are one hundred and twenty children raising poul- try at home. " The best part of the garden is that it is managed on a business basis. Every cent paid out is charged to the crop upon which it is expended. Every crop bears its part of the general expense. A close and accurate account is kept of every cent of income, for everything raised is sold for market price. Everything is of the best variety, is prepared for market in the most approved manner, and is marketed in a business-like way. " The seventh grade keeps the account, has a bank account, keeps track of all expenses. An account is kept with each crop, and with each plot of ground. The ordinary farmer's affairs are sloppy when compared with the financial affairs of this garden, kept by the seventh grade. " The eighth grade has charge of civic affairs, of the larger business interests. For instance, when pupils began to market they had to buy a horse and market wagon, and get a city marketing license. All this fell to the lot of the eighth grade." SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 233 223. The Inexperienced Teacher May Learn With the Pupils. — If the inexperienced teacher will frankly confess her inexperience to her pupils, and will carefully study such guides as Parsons's or Green's books, and the Government bulletins, she will be able to succeed with a garden from the very start. These books and bulletins give full details, with numerous illustrations. By conference with successful local gardeners such adaptations to local conditions as are neces- sary can be learned. Mistakes will be made by both teacher and pupils, but if thoughtfully used the mistakes may teach valuable lessons. The University of Texas Department of Extension sends out free a little monthly, BuUetin on Elementary Agriculture, which tells each month what to do in the school garden, and gives other timely suggestions for the teaching of an elementary course in agriculture in Texas. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 120. How many days in the year do you eat green vegetables? 12L Are all of your dried and canned vegetables grown at home? 122. How large is your home garden? 123. What varieties of vegetables are grown in it? 124. Write out a practical plan for improving your home garden. 125. State where you would locate a garden on your place, and give your reasons for choosing this spot. 126. Tell the character of soil and subsoil on the spot chosen in the problem above, and state fully what you would do to bring this particular soil into the right condition. 127. Lay out a garden plan for a quarter-acre garden, similar to that in Figure 112, including especially the vegetables liked by your family. Be careful to have a succession of vegetables covering the year, and the land occupied all the year with some crop. 128. Get your father to allow you to carry this plan out next year. Keep an account of all expenditures and labor, and of the value of the vegetables used and sold. Report this to the school. 234 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 129. Watch for plants that are especially able to resist certain insects, diseases, or drought, as is shown by their surviving when the rest of the crop is destroyed. Save seeds of these, and breed up a resistant variety. 130. Select one vegetable crop, save seeds from the best specimen, and see how much you can improve this crop by selection during three years. 131. Outline a list of vegetable and farm crops for your school garden that will accomplish the following things : (1) Illustrate various methods of cultivation. (2) Illustrate various methods of harvesting. (3) Illustrate the principal local crops. (4) Illustrate desirable rotations. (5) Test out a few crops to see if they can be profitably intro- duced into the locality. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 'Principles of Vegetable Gardening," L. H. Bailey. 'Garden Making. Suggestions for the Utilization of Home Grounds," L. H. Bailey. 'Vegetable Gardening," R. L. Watts. 'Children's Gardens for Pleasure, Health, and Education," H. G. Par- sons. 'Among School Gardens," M. L. Green. 'How to Make School Gardens," H. D. Hemenway. 'The School Garden Book," Weed and Emerson. Tiers' Bulletins: No. 35. "Potato Culture." No. 61. "Asparagus Culture." No. 198. "Strawberries." No. 213. "Raspberries." No. 218. "The School Garden." No. 220. "Tomatoes." No. 232. "Okra, Its Cultm-e and Uses." No. 254. "Cucumbers." No. 255. "The Home Vegetable Garden.' No. 282. "Celery." SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 235 No. 289. "Beans." No. 324. "Sweet Potatoes." No. 354. "Onion Culture." No. 407. "The Potato as a Truck Crop." No. 433. "Cabbage." No. 460. "Frames as a Factor in Truck Growing." Bulletin Department Extension Agricultural and Mechanical College: No. 3. "Vegetable Gardening in Texas." CHAPTER X FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 224. The Home Fruit Garden and Commercial Or- chards. — With fruits as with vegetables we must first learn about the home fruit garden. The growing of fruits in large quantities for the market or commercial orcharding must be left for later study in the references and in advanced courses in horticulture (hor'ti-kiil-tur), the branch of agricult- ure which deals with garden and orchard crops. Horticult- ure comes from the Latin words hortus, a garden, and cul- tura, cultivation. Fruit-growing for the market is a very profitable business in many parts of Texas, and as soon as more growers learn the science of horticulture it will be more so. A study of the home fruit garden, or home orchard, will be the best beginning in this subject. 225. Value of Hpme-Grown Fruits. — For thousands and thousands of years before man learned to plant field crops and vegetables, or to cook his food, fruit made up a large part of his diet. Sound ripe fruit is still one of the most wholesome and delicious of foods. We need such food in both summer and winter to keep ourselves at the highest point of physical and mental power. At present a large part of the market fruit is picked when green, is ripened un- naturally, and is frequently stored for long seasons in great refrigerators, so that it is not only expensive but often taste- less and unwholesome when it reaches the consumer. Every 236 FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 237 farmer at very small expense can produce at home far better and more wholesome fruit than he can buy; for the tenderest and most delicious varieties of fruit are not usually raised for the market, as, with a few exceptions, they do not keep ■mm- •' W^: fli ^:'^^ ' "^H r. 1 ■' * -r- Fig. 138. Home-canned fruit on a Texas farm. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." well nor stand the rough handling in shipping. Let us therefore learn how to grow fruits at home. 226. Fruits at All Seasons. — It is possible to have a succession of fruits ripening during almost the entire grow- ing season, and to finish out the year with stored fruits, grape juice, canned and dried fruits, marmalade, jams, and fruit butters, all prepared at home at small expense. With fruits as with vegetables, no one list w^ill suit all sections. Oranges and lemons which grow in south Texas will freeze in central Texas. Apples that make splendid crops in north 238 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Texas, do not succeed as well in south Texas. Cherries and gooseberries which are popular in the North cannot stand the hot, dry summer of the Southwest. Each one must learn by inquiry and experiment just what fruits grow well in his locality. If possible, every home should have some of Fig. 139. A four-year-old fig orchard at each of the following: strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, plums, apricots, peaches, pears, apples, per- simmons, figs, grapes, and, in the semi-tropical districts, oranges, lemons, and pomegranates. The strawberries give the earliest fruit, followed by the other berries, the plums, apricots, apples, peaches, and pears. There are so many varieties of peaches which ripen at such different seasons, and grow well over such a wide area, that a well-selected orchard will furnish fresh peaches from June until late fall. Apples have even a wider distribution. Every wise farmer FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 239 should test out new fruits and new varieties occasionally, as only in this way can he learn just what is suited to his soil and climate. However, in most cases, it is best to plant such fruits as neighbors and near-by nurserymen have tested and found suitable. 227. Where to Locate the Orchard. — The orchard should be located on a hill-side, where the drainage is good and where the trees are somewhat protected from the cold winds. If planted in a bottom, the trees are apt to bloom too early and cause the crop to be destroyed by late frosts. Fungus diseases also are more troublesome in valleys. No one soil suits all fruits equally well. All demand good drain- age. The plum, quince, and pear do best on a heavy soil, peaches on a rich sandy loam. Some varieties of grapes do well on a heavy soil, some on either a heavy or a light soil, and some only on a light soil. The soil should not be very rich in nitrogen, as this tends to produce too much vine and little fruit. If there is no soil perfectly suited to a mixed orchard, it is possible to improve it greatly before the trees are planted by adding sand, ashes, humus, or whatever is needed by each fruit to the particular spot on which it is to be planted. 228. How to Plant an Orchard. — Orchards are usually planted in regular rows according to the plan shown in Figure 140. The equilateral triangle method shown in Figure 141 gives a more even distribution on the land and enables one to put more trees on the same amount of ground without crowding. The rows should be carefully laid off and trees so planted that the straight rows show plainly from all directions. Peach-trees are usually set about six- teen to twenty feet apart, apples from thirty to forty feet, 240 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING P- O-vf-C^ ~c> .3q_FJ.._^„J._^ ^. 6 O 1^ <> Fig. 140. Planting in squares. bunch grapes in rows eight, and blackberries in rows six feet apart. You have already learned about transplanting, and there- fore know before being told that fruit trees should be moved when dormant, that from one-half to two-thirds of the top should be cut off, that the roots should be disturbed as little as possible, should never be allowed to dry, should have all bruised and broken parts trimmed off smooth, should be spread out in natural order in the ground, should be set in Q:-3/r-T:-5^--:! —p-—^ --<>—''■— P %^' \Ei /' \ .-' \ /' o...F-.^..p...p:_P_.p:_.p..jp Fig. 141. The equilateral triangle-planting plan, which, by giving a better distribution over the land, allows more trees per acre without crowding than does the square-planting plan. miTlT-GROWiNG AND SHADE-TREES 241 moist soil, and should have the soil packed closely around them. While it is usually not practicable to move soil and root together, it is well to take as many healthy roots as possible. As soon as dug the roots of the young tree should be covered with a moist wrapping, carried to the orchard. Fig. 142. The tree on the right was planted in a hole that had been dy- namited. The hole on the left had not been dynamited. Note the increased root growth and deeper rooting in the dynamited hole. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." and never uncovered until the hole is dug and all is ready, so that the roots can at once be covered with soil. The hole for a tree should be dug large enough to re- ceive the roots in natural order. If the roots are too long to do this economically, they should be cut back somewhat. They should not be doubled up. The soil should be loosened up a spade's depth below the bottom of the hole. Unless the top soil is very deep it is usually advisable, after the hole is dug and before the tree is set, to bore down with an earth auger about three feet below the bottom of the hole and 242 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING break up the subsoil with a blast of dynamite. This is very- easy to do, and is not dangerous work if the proper precau- tions are used. The directions are given in pamphlets sent out by the manufacturers upon request. It is not advisable for young boys to attempt the use of dynamite. The dyna- mite loosens the soil and makes large storage room for soil water, so that the roots of the plant not only go down more easily but have a better water supply. When the hole is being dug the top soil should be thrown on one side, as it is usually the best soil, and should be put back into the hole immediately touching the roots. Manure should not be placed in contact with the roots, though it is sometimes advisable in poor land to put some well-rotted manure in the hole away from the roots and in the soil that is used for filling in above them. The trees should be set in the orchard as deep as they grew in the nursery or about two inches deeper. The soil should be tramped well around the roots and loose soil raked over the surface of the packed soil. 229. How to Handle Bought Trees. — When trees are bought from a nursery-man they should be planted out as soon as received. Each should be taken from the wrapping only after the hole is prepared and when it can be imme- diately covered with moist earth. INIany transplanted trees die because the roots were allowed to lie exposed to the air until they were dried out. In case it is not practicable to plant the trees as soon as received, open up in a well-drained spot a sloping trench deep enough to admit all the roots and a bit of the stems of the young trees. Place the trees in this close together and cover with moist earth, packing it in carefully so that the roots are in close contact with the moist soil. If the soil is not moist, water should be poured into FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 243 i / the hole before the final layer of loose dirt is drawn around the trees. This temporary placing of plants in the soil for protection is called "heeling in." If the soil is well drained and is kept moist, heeled-in plants will keep perfectly until a favorable transplanting season. 230. Pruning.— All fruit trees, bushes, and vines require pruning, both to improve their appearance and to promote the most advantageous fruiting. Usually from one-fourth to one-half of the annual growth should be cut off for the first two years after planting. After this the pruning needed dif- fers according to the cir- cumstances and to the kind of fruit. The gen- eral aims of pruning should be to take out awkwardly shaped limbs, thin out the lateral branches so that sun- light can get in to the fruit, cut back the long branches so that they will not break with fruit, promote the growth of fruiting branches, and so direct the growth that the tree will be well proportioned and symmetrical. Trees should be pruned when dormant, though at times additional summer pruning is advisable. Many leading horticultu- rists now hold that summer pruning is very desirable, and that the shock thus given the tree tends to cause it Fig. 143. Pruning nursery trees. On the right the tree is improperly pruned, not enough being taken oflF. The one in the centre is correctly pruned. — After Halligan. 244 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fig. 144. Pruned to direct growth. The growth will be in the direction talien by the topmost bud left when the branch is cut ofif, as this bud grows most rapidly. This being true, in what di- rection will each limb in the cut above grow ? to fruit better. It is a well-known fact that when trees are severely in- jured they tend to put their ener- gies at once into fruiting, as if the tree were trying to make sure of leaving a new generation in case of its death. The apple and the pear bear their fruits upon short branches of the previous year's growth, csdled fruiting siJurs, which grow out from limbs that are one year or more old. The bear- ing shoots are not usually the long ones near the ends of the branches. In pruning care must be taken, there- fore, not to cut off too many of the short fruiting spurs. The peach bears on wood of the last sea- son's growth, but directly on the branches instead of on spurs. With the peach cut- ting back the long branches is necessary in order to limit the crop and prevent the tree's breaking. The Japanese plum fruits on both spurs and year-old wood, and may well be cut back similarly to the peach. The quince bears its fruit at the end of new shoots of the present season's growth, so that the pruning must be such as will stimulate new growth without going so far as to limit too greatly the Fig. 145. The right ® ® _, , - „ 7 , way to cut off the old crop. The grape also bears iruit upon the stem after the new , „ , , , . 1 1, budded branch has shoots of the present season, which usually got started. FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 245 come out from canes of the past season. For this reason the vines should be cut back severely each year, as the long canes of old wood bear no fruit. The Munson system of training, as illustrated in Figure 146, is recognized as standard, unless it is desired to make an arbor. The diagram makes this so plain that explanations are unnecessary. Even when the Fig. 146. The Munson system of grape culture. From "Foundations of American Grape Culture." shade of an arbor is desired, better results will be secured if the vines are planted close together, and the lateral branches trained out in regular order, and the canes cut back each year in a manner similar to that illustrated in Figure 146. Under this system the new growth will soon cover over an entire arbor each year, if the old canes have been properly trained and trimmed. In pruning the grape, care must be taken not to cut the vines just as the sap is beginning to flow in the spring. They may be safely cut later in the season, but the proper time for pruning is when the vine is dormant. Blackberries and raspberries also need severe pruning, as they bear their fruit on short shoots growing out from canes of the previous season's growth. Strawberries bear best the first year, and after two years should be taken out and room given to young plants. 246 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 231. Cultivation. — Fruit trees need cultivation for the same reasons that other plants need it. If weeds are left to absorb the food materials and water, and the soil allowed to crust over and the water to evaporate, a rapid growth of the trees cannot be expected. When trees are young and Fig. 147. A young vine that shows how grapes flourish in tlie Southwest. the roots short, it does no harm to plant vegetables or other shallow growing crops among them, but after the trees have been planted a few years, the soil should be cultivated clean during the growing season of the trees, so that the constant soil mulch will hold the water in the soil for the use of the trees. After the middle of the summer a fall crop of clover, oats, bur-clover, or other winter cover crop should be planted, as this protects the soil from winter washing and leaching Fig. 148. Clean cultivation. Fig. 149. Peas in tlie middles. 248 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING and supplies vegetable matter to turn under in the spring. If a legume is planted in this way, or in the middles earlier in the season, the amount of manure or fertilizer that should Fig. 150. Gathering apples. The temperature fell to 17° at flowering time, but the orchard smudges saved this crop. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." be added is greatly lessened. Trees cannot be expected to bear heavy crops each year unless food materials are supplied. It is especially necessary that an abundant supply be given when a large crop is being borne, as the tree must during this season lay aside enough reserve food to mature all its fruit, FEUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 249 and also enough to start the new crop the next year, and sus- tain the tree until its new leaves are developed. It is usually unwise to allow the trees to bear very heavy crops. Peaches especially should be thinned, so that they are about five Fig. 151. A young fruiting pecan-tree. The early fruiting varieties bear the second year after being budded and occasionally the flrst year. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." inches apart on the stem. This increases the size of the fruit and, by lessening the drain on the tree, makes it more likely that a crop will be produced the next year. 232. Protection From Cold. — In our changeable climate the loss of an entire fruit crop from early blooming and a late frost has been a serious drawback to the growing of fruit. Often the entire crop could be saved by protecting the 250 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING orchard one night. It has been found possible to do this economically, even in our windy country, by the use of slow- burning orchard fires, or smudges, as they are called. These fires are usually made by burning crude oil in the orchard in vessels which hold two or three gallons of oil, and are so constructed as to keep a slow fire burning for many hours on one filling. These have been known to raise the tem- perature of an orchard six to eight degrees. Where there is much wind the change in tem- perature is not so great. An- other protection for the orchard is a row of ever- green trees on come. Now that the use of these protections is understood, it is possible to save the fruit crop practically every year at a very small expense. 233. Nut-Trees. — Every country home should have a few nut-trees. The native walnuts, hickories, and pecans grow in almost all sections when properly cared for. It seems probable that the budded and grafted Persian walnut, or " English walnut " as it is usually called, will also grow in many sections. Certainly the fine thin-shelled pecans, Fig. 152. No. 1. Limb cut off too far from the tree and cannot heal. No. 2. The same limb with the heart decayed and the decay carried into the heart of the tree (after Davi-s). No. 3. On the lower branch the right point at which to cut off a limb is shown. A cut should first be made one-third through on the under side of limb at A, in order to prevent splitting the tree. Then saw through from above at B. The upper branch illustrates the best method to follow when a very large limb is to be cut off and the danger of splitting is very great. Saw first at A, and then saw above a little fur- ther out on the limb until it break.s off. Then the limb may be easily cut off properly at C D. the side from which the cold winds usuallv FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 251 the most delicious of all nuts, grow to perfection over a very large part of the Southwest. These trees grow and bear on the plains and on high hills, but do best along the river bottoms. For many years it was thought that pecans would not bear till ten or twelve years old, but varieties are now found and propagated which bear within two years of the time they are budded. Occasionally nuts are borne the first year after the tree is budded. With these early fruiting varieties, such as Halbert and Texas Prolific, which are most delicious " paper-shell " varieties, it is now possible to have a young pecan orchard bearing fair crops almost as soon as a peach orchard, if one cultivates and fertilizes properly the young trees. Furthermore, the best-selected varieties of pecans bear regularly. Wherever there is a native pecan-tree that is not giving a good annual crop of nuts, it should be cut back and grafted, or budded with a standard variety in the manner explained in Chapter III. When budded on large trees, the new buds grow much more rapidly than when set on nursery stocks, and hence a large fruiting is secured much earlier by budding on the old trees than by setting out a young orchard. 234. Shade-Trees. — The comfort and beauty of shade- trees are so much enjoyed by all that it is surprising to see so many homes and towns without shade. The fact that it takes so long for a tree to grow large enough to give shade is undoubtedly the principal cause of this neglect. Let us remember the joy and comfort given us by the trees planted by those who went before us, and prepare for our descendants and for our own middle life and old age by planting the splendid, long-lived trees, such as oak, elm, hickory, and pecan. Even in ten or fifteen years these trees will give 252 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING considerable shade. It is best when planting these slow- growing, long-lived trees to plant in between them the quick-growing, short-lived ones, such as the umbrella china- berry, the Cottonwood, and sycamore. The hackberry is a tree of fairly rapid growth that makes a fine shade, will grow Fig. 153. Decayed tree after and before being filled with conrete. in almost any soil, stands drought well, and is comparatively free from insect attack. An objection to it is that it is very difficult to grow grass or flowers under it or near its roots. The proper methods of planting and caring for trees have already been given, and the methods of protecting fruit, nut, and shade trees from the ravages of insects and diseases will be given in the next chapter. FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 253 Warning should be given against the bad habit so often practised of sawing off short the stems of large trees, six inches or more in diameter, when transplanting, and of severely cutting back large shade trees every few years. When a tree is transplanted, the cambium layer is unable Fig. 154. School-boys grafting an apple-tree in a neighbor's yard under the direction of the teacher. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. to heal over the wound if the stem is cut off at a point at which the diameter is six or more inches. Decay will there- fore soon enter the tree. The transplanted tree, when large, should be cut off higher up where the diameter is not over three or four inches, and the lateral branches thus left on 254 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING the stem should be cut back, leaving stubs one or more feet long. Care, however, must be taken not to allow more leaves to grow the first year than the crippled roots can sup- ply with water. After the first year or so, unsightly branches should be cut out, the growth balanced and directed by prun- ing, and long limbs that are in danger of being broken by the wind cut back, but wholesale severe cutting spoils the natural gracefulness of the branches and retards the growth. 235. Filling Decayed Trees. — Through unwise pruning or through other mishap, many fine trees get decay in the heart wood. Unless arrested this will soon eat out all the heart wood, so that the tree will break in the first severe wind. Such decay may be arrested, and the life of the tree indefinitely prolonged, by proper treatment. All of the de- cayed material should be carefully cut away and cleaned out, the entire cavity washed thoroughly with an antiseptic solution* and then filled with concrete. The concrete is usually made with one part cement and two parts sand, or with equal amounts of each. The cavity is completely filled up to the edge of the growing wood, as shown in Figure 153. When the cement is set, the entire surface is painted over with lead and oil, to make sure of filling all cracks. If properly done, this will prevent further decay, and if the opening is not too large, it will be covered slowly by new tissue thrown out by the cambium layer. 236. The Arrangement of Shade-Trees. — In the chapter on the School and Home Grounds, the proper arrangement of trees, shrubs, and flowers will be explained. * The Bordeaux mixture and the formaUn solution given on page 282 are good antiseptics for this purpose. An antiseptic (Sn-tK-sgp'tik) is something that destroys the germs which produce disease. FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 255 QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 132. How much land is devoted to fruit on your farm? Give the num- ber of trees or vines of each kind. 133. Select a spot for an orchard on your place and state why you select this spot, describing soil, subsoil, drainage, and protec- tion. 134. Make out a planting plan for a home orchard for your family, giving a diagram of the proposed orchard and the location of each tree, bush, and vine, with names of varieties. State why each variety is selected. 135. State what you would do to the soil around each of the kinds of trees or vines that you plant. 136. State how you would handle this orchard each year, and what returns you should expect each year. 137. Working in pairs, let each two pupils set out under direction of the teacher either in the school orchard or at home at least two kinds of fruit trees and vines, getting actual experience in root and top pruning, and in correct planting. 138. Heel in correctly some young trees. 139. By use of the school orchard and of neighboring orchards, let each pupil, under the direction of the teacher, practise in pruning: (1) to direct growth, (2) to prevent breaking, (3) to regulate fruiting, and (4) to improve the appearance. 140. Prune and train two grape-vines according to the Munson system, and leave two equally vigorous vines of the same variety to run freely. Make an accurate measure of the fruit produced by each of these for three years. 141. Why is it better to have a tree bear 100 peaches that fill a bushel measure rather than 200 peaches that only fill the same measure? First, which crop will bring most money? Second, which will make the greater drain on the soil, and why so? Third, which will make the greater drain on the tree and make it less likely that the tree can bear a good crop the follow- ing year? Why so? 142. Make careful records each year of the number of hours it would be necessary to protect the orchards from cold in your locality. Compare the cost of such protection and the cost of the fruit 256 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 143. How many nut-trees are there on your place? If there are any, cut off and top graft and top bud some of these. If there are none, plant nuts, and bud or graft the seedlings with fine varieties. Buds can be bought usually for a cent or two each from neigh- boring nursery-men. 144. Let each class plant one or more shade-trees on the school grounds, planting some slow-growing trees, such as the pecan, and some rapid-growing ones. 145. Find a decaying tree in the grounds or in a neighbor's yard, and with the aid of the teacher give a demonstration of filling the cavity with concrete. 146. Find edible wild fruits in your locality, pick out especially desirable specimens, transplant these, and see what improvement can be made in them by cultivation, by variation and selection, and by hybridization. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Principles of Fruit-G rowing," L. H. Bailey. "How to Make a Fruit Garden," S. W. Fletcher. "Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions," Paddock and Whipple. "Foundations of American Grape Culture," T. V. Munson. "Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing," F. A. Waugh. "Bush Fruits," F.W. Card. Farmers' Bullet ;ins: No. 93. "Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees." No. 96. "Arbor Day." No. 113. "The Apple and How to Grow It." No. lis. "Grape-Growing in the South." No. 134. "Tree-Planting on Rural Grounds." No. 154. "The Home Fruit Garden." No. 156. "The Home Vineyard." No. 173. "Primer of Forestry," Pt. 1. No. 181. "Pruning." No. 185. "Beautifying the Home Grounds." No. 198. "Strawberries." No. 238. "Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. No. 266. "Top-Working Orchard Trees." FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 257 No. 293. "Cultivation and Fertilization of Peach Orchards." No. 358. "A Primer of Forestry," Pt. 2. No. 386. "The Principal Insect Enemies of the Peach." No. 401. "Protection of Orchards by Fires and Smudges." No. 423. "Forestry in Nature Study," Pt. 1. No. 468. "Forestry in Nature Study," Pt. 2. Forest Service Circulars, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; No. 61. "How to Transplant Forest Trees." No. 130. "Forestry in the Public Schools." No. 157. "A Primer of Conservation." Year Book Reprint, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. No. 519. " Prevention of Frost Injury to Fruit Crops." Texas Experiment Station Bulletins: No. 88. "Length of Life of Vines of Various Species and Vari- eties of Grapes: Profitableness and by what Diseases Seri- ously Affected." No. 105. "Notes on Forest and Ornamental Trees." CHAPTER XI PLANT ENEMIES 237. Varieties of Plant Enemies. — The enemies of the farm, garden, and orchard are usually grouped into five classes: (1) weeds, which injure crops by depriving them of light, water, and food materials; (2) animals and birds (while most birds are very helpful to crops through destroy- ing harmful insects, a few do considerable damage) ; (3) parasitic plants, such as mis- tletoe; (4) insects; (5) diseases. In this course we shall consider only the insects and diseases, leaving the others for later study. 238. Losses from Insects and Diseases. — ^The annual losses from insects alone in this country are estimated at from three hundred million dollars to seven hundred million dollars. The loss on the potato crop alone is six million dollars, on cotton fifteen million dollars, on corn thirty-seven million dollars, on stored grain sixty million dollars. The Hessian fly destroys each year about five million dollars', the chinch-bug seven million dollars', and the boll-weevil eight million dollars' worth of crops. In many cases the losses were formerly much greater than they now are. In 1880 the cotton-worm alone did fift}^ million dollars' worth of damage. 258 Fig. 155. An in- expensive cage in which to keep insects for study. Fig. 156. Black rot on grapes: above, sprayed; below, unsprayed. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 260 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The losses from insects in Texas alone are estimated at fifty million dollars a year, about ten times the annual appropria- tion by the Legislature for all purposes, seven times as much as the State spends on its public schools, and eighty-five times as much as it appropriates for all the higher educa- tional institutions. Effective means of combating many of these pests are now known and new means are constantly being discovered. It is estimated that if all farmers knew and applied what is now known about con- trolling insects, two- thirds of the crops lost each year could be saved. The year- ly losses from dis- ease are even larger than those caused by insects. These also can be largely prevented by making use of the knowl- edge already gained by scientific study. 239. Why Insect Pests Have Increased. — There are many reasons why insects injurious to cultivated plants have increased in recent years. For these same reasons they will increase still more in future if proper precautions are not taken. In the first place the wild trees and plants have Fig. 157. The Colorado potato-beetle: c, bee- tle; b, masses of eggs; c, half-grown larvae; d, ma- ture larvae. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. PLANT ENEMIES 261 Fig. 158. The cotton-boll weevil: A, as seen from above; B, as viewed from the side; C, larva; D, pupa. All about Ave times the natural size. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. been cut down and the land put under cultivation, so that the insects which formerly fed on wild plants must now feed on cultivated crops. These crops are grown with more cer- tainty and regularity than the wild plants were, and hence Fig. 159. A, square punctured by boll-weevil, showing the flaring back of the bracts; B, the weevil maturing within the boll. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 262 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING support the insects better. Then, too, the cultivated places, which used to be more or less separated from one another, are coming more and more to be contiguous, so that the pests can pass directly from one field to another. Again, as more kinds of new plants are cultivated, the varieties of insects that attack these are multiplied and brought to our attention. Probably most effective of all in scattering these plant enemies have been the improved means of transportation. Both in- sects and diseases are shipped into new districts along with foodstuffs, seeds, or nursery plants. It is for this reason that the transportation of seed, nursery stock, or other mate- rial likely to spread disease or insects should be strictly regulated by law. 240. The Spread of Black Rot, Boll-Weevils, and Colo- rado Beetles. — There are many remarkable examples of the spread of plant diseases. One of the most notable is the spread of the black rot of grapes. When the early settlers came to America they found the wild grapes here afflicted with this disease, which was then unknown in Europe. They sent some of these native vines back to Europe, with the result that this disease soon broke out in the European vineyards. Ever since that time this disease has caused great losses in the vineyards there, which must even yet be carefully sprayed to prevent very serious dam- age to the crop. We have in America two recent instances of the rapid spread of a new insect pest. The ordinary potato-beetle, commonly called the " potato-bug," first appeared in the potato fields of Colorado about 1855. It had been living in that State on wild plants akin to the potato, and when the cultivated potato was brought to Colorado by settlers the PLANT ENEMIES 2G3 beetles attacked it and throve on it so well that they multi- plied and spread rapidly over the country. By 1864 they had extended to the Mississippi, and in 1874 reached the Fia. 160. Chart showing the spread of the cotton-boll weevil. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. Atlantic States. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil crossed the Rio Grande about 1892. It had for years infested the cotton of Mexico, and in some districts had forced the abandonment of cotton cultivation altogether. In less than twenty years this pest spread nearly all over Texas, and is now ravaging the fields of Arkansas, Louisiana, and other Southern States. 264 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING It will doubtless soon cover the entire cotton-growing area of America. 241. What Must Be Known to Combat Plant Enemies.— These facts show how extremely important it is that we ob- tain a knowledge of these insects and dis- eases, and of the means of controlling them. While the damages of only a few can be entirely prevented, it is possi- ble to reduce greatly the damage of all, and to prevent their rapid increase and spread. Let us then first see what insects are, and how they live and multiply, for it is by knowing their habits and life his- tory that we learn how to destroy or prevent them. After this we shall study the causes of plant diseases and learn the means of controlling them. 242. Insects. — Insects are the most numerous of all forms of animal life visible to the naked eye. They vary greatly in appearance, but all have three pairs of legs and three dis- tinct parts to their bodies, head, thorax, and abdomen. To the head are attached the feelers, or ante mice (an-ten'ne), the eyes, and the mouth parts. The thorax has three seg- FiG. 161. The cabbage-worm: a, female but- terfly; b, egg, end and side views; c, larva on leaf; d, suspended chrysalis. Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. PLANT ENEMIES 265 ments, to each of which is attached a pair of legs. In the adult stage one or two pairs of wings are also usually at- tached to the thorax. In nearly all cases insects hatch from eggs, and pass through several different forms before reach- ing their final shape. The typical insect passes through four stages, the egg, the larva (lar'vii), the pupa (pu'pa), the adult, or ijnago (i-ma'go). The larva may be entirely unlike the adult into which it will develop, as in the case of the caterpillar, which is the larva of a butterfly or a moth. During the larval stage the worm- like creature usually eats vora- ciously, does its great damage to crops, and grows rapidly until the skin hardens and refuses to grow further. Then it goes into a dor- mant-looking state and is called a pupa. The larva may spin a web case around itself, in which it lives as a pupa, or it may go into a cell in the ground or attach itself to a plant. While in its case the pupa (or chrysalis (kris'a-lis) as it is called in the case of the butterfly) undergoes a wonderful change, and in due season comes out in the new form of the full-grown insect; as, for example, the ugly larval caterpillar pupates and comes out a beautiful butterfly or moth, and the cutworm becomes a moth. While the four stages — egg, larva, pupa, adult — are the usual stages, many insects omit one or two of Fig. 162. Above, nymph of grasshopper in natural position; below, the empty pupa skin. Courtesy of U. S. Deparlment of Agriculture. 266 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING these. For example, grasshoppers and several other insects are quite like the adult when hatched and have no pupa stage at all. These when young are called nymyhs instead of larvse. Many kinds of insects after passing through their various stages of growth and becoming adults live only long enough to deposit eggs, not even living to see their own young hatched. Others, like the boll-weevil, may live through a season, producing several sets of off- spring. The time required by insects to pass through all their various stages, or life cycle (si'kl), as it is called, varies from a few days or few weeks in most cases to many years in a few cases. Insects live from one season to the next often only in the form of eggs or pupse. In other cases the adults that may be still active at the approach of cold weather hide away under leaves or grass or trash or bark or in basements, or burrow into the ground and remain quiet until spring — occasionally even being frozen without caus- ing death. This spending of the winter in an inactive state is called hibernation (hi-ber-na'shun). In spring ^4:A'^^^ vhxml^ /n/ mi\b, \\\ Ve-N^^ S^ sp,---> Ph a 43 l4 '2'^ o T3 "o t2 1 o 1 ° H -^ a 23 bC oill 286 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING fungi with which they come into direct contact, so that absolute thoroughness in spraying is essential to success. Every fungus or insect left untouched serves to start a new generation. For destroying insects injurious to stored grain and other farm products, carbon bisulphide, or " high life," as it is often called, is used in the following way: Place the bisul- phide in a vessel on top of the material to be treated and cover the pile with blankets or tarpaulin. The bisulphide gives off poisonous fumes that are heavier than air and pour down into the pile. The whole must be kept tightly inclosed for twenty-four hours. If a tight box can be used, the cloth cover may be left off. In cold weather the vessel may be set upon a warm brick, but no fire (not even a lighted pipe) should be brought near it, as the gas is exceedingly explosive. The fumes are poisonous, and hence should not be breathed. Use one pound to every thousand cubic feet of space to be fumigated. In fumigating grain, from one to three pounds per hundred bushels are used. In order to destroy an ant bed, pour three ounces of the bisulphide into a shallow pan and set beside the entrance to the bed. Invert a tub over the pan and the entrance to the bed, and pile soil around the bottom of the tub to pre- vent the escape of the gas to the air, and force it all down into the bed. Close all other entrances to the bed with soil and leave for twenty-four hours. This is more effec- tive if applied while the earth is moist and warm. To prevent oat smut, concealed smut of wheat, and scab of Irish potato, formalin is used. Grain is moistened in a solution of one ounce of formalin to three gallons of water and kept moist for two hours, after which it is dried. Care PLANT ENEMIES 287 must be taken that it is not allowed to come in contact with smut again before being planted. Potatoes used for seed should be soaked for two hours in a solution of one ounce of formalin to two gallons of water in order to kill the scab. 251. Caution — Danger. — As arsenic, asenate of lead, Paris green, carbon bisulphide, formalin, and most other insecti- cides and fungicides are poisons, they should be handled with care, always labelled, and never left in reach of chil- dren, stock, poultry, or other animals. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 147. Make a list of the harmful insects in your neighborhood, and col- lect a set of bulletins that deal with these. 148. Collect two varieties of biting insects. Draw and describe each. 149. Collect two varieties of sucking insects. Draw and describe each. 150. Place the eggs of some insect in such a cage as is shown in Figure 155, and make notes from day to day of the development. Watch some insect and, if possible, get eggs just as they are laid. Be sure to give the larvae plenty of fresh food. 151. Make a list of the birds of your neighborhood. Find from the references what each one lives on at each season of the year. If you have a common bird the food of w'hich is not given in the references, kill a few at different times of the day and seasons of the year, and make a note each time of the contents of the craws. 152. Find all of the kinds of helpful insects in your community. Bring some of each of these for the school garden. 153. If any insect or disease has afflicted your father's farm, study this pest in the references, write out a practical plan for combating it. Show this to the teacher and, when it is approved, carry it out and report results. 154. What fungus plant diseases are in your community? How should each be treated? 155. What bacterial plant diseases are in your community? How should each be treated? 288 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 156. What plant diseases in your community are due to infected soil? How could this be remedied? 157. Find out any cases of loss from insects in your neighborhood and, with the help of the teacher, calculate the amount this insect costs your county. 158. Find an orchard or yard affected with scale. Secure permission to treat it and, with the teacher's help, plan and carry out a treatment. 159. Keep a lookout for some immune plant in a crop that has been destroyed by some insect or disease. Save seeds and see if you can breed a resistant variety. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Insects Injurious to Staple Crops," E. D. Sanderson. "Insects and Insecticides," C. M. Weed. "Fungous Diseases of Plants," B. M. Duggar Farmers' Bulletins: "Weeds and How to Kill Them." "Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agricult- ure." "Potato Diseases and Treatment " "Three Insect Enemies to Shade Trees." "Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat." "Usefulness of the American Toad." "Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries." No. 211. "The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton-Boll Weevil." "Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas." "Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases." "Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing the Diseases of Fruits." "Preventing of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oats." "Disease Resistant Crops." "A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass." " Spraying for Apple Diseases and Codling Moth in the Ozarks." No. 28. No. 54. No. 91. No. 99. No. 132. No. 196. No. 209. No. 223. No. 231. No. 243. No. 250. No. 259. No. 279. No. 283. No. 290. No. 314. No. 316. No. 320. No. 333. No. 344. PLANT ENEMIES 289 No. 284. "Insects and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains." "The Cotton-Boll Worm." "Methods of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll- Weevil Damage." "Potato Scab." ' ' Potato-Spray i ng. " "Cotton Wilt." "The Boll- Weevil Problem, with Special Reference to Means of Reducing Damage." No. 440. "Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio." Bureau of Entomology Circulars, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: "The Army Worm." "The Peach-Tree Borer." "Most Important Step in Cultural System of Control- ling Boll Weevil." "The Corn-Root Worm." "The Plum Curculio." "The Colorado Potato Beetle." "The Most Important Step in the Control of the Cotton-Boll Weevil." "The Asparagus Beetles." "The Common Red Spider." "Control of Brown Rot and Plum Curculio on Peaches." "Methods of Controlling Tobacco Insects." "San Jose Scale and Its Control." Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture: No. 88. " Weevil-resisting Adaptations of Cotton Plant." General publication, 1911: "Production of Cotton under Boll- weevil Conditions." Year Book Separates, U. S. Department of Agriculture: No. 50. "Pear Blight." No. 261. "The San Jose Scale: Its Native Home and Natural Enemy." No. 386. "The Principal Insect Enemies of the Peach." No. 433. "Lime-Sulphur Wash for the San Jose Scale." No. 4. No. 54. No. 56. No. 59. No. 73. No. 87. No. 95. No. 102. No. 104. No. 120. No. 123. No. 124. 290 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING No. 452. I^The Rabbit as a Farm and Orchard Pest." No. 463. "Diseases of Ornamental Trees." No. 480. "Information About Spraying for Orchard Pests." Bulletins, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Static Texas : No. 113. "Spray Calendar." No. 124. "The Pecan-Case Borer." CHAPTER XII ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 252. The First Reason for Raising Stock on the Farm.— We have already seen that heavy crops take out of the soil large quantities of the food materials necessary for plant growth, and that unless these are put back into the soil the land will soon become too poor to produce a good crop. We have also seen that when the crop is fed to animals and the manure properly saved and put back into the soil, between eighty and ninety per cent of the valuable plant-food ma- terials are thus returned. On the other hand, if the crop is sold and carried off the farm, the farmer must constantly pur- chase large quantities of expensive fertilizers or his fields will soon not repay him for the labor of cultivating them. This is why the thoughtful farmer should always raise enough live- stock to eat practically all the foodstuffs produced on his farm. By feeding his crops to stock and then selling the stock, he retains at home in the manure nearly nine-tenths of the value of his crop, and sells the animals for as much as, often for more than, he could have sold the crop. 253. Other Reasons for Raising Stock. — Besides this there are seven other advantages that in most cases come from raising stock on the farm instead of raising only cotton, grain, and other plant crops. First, the raising of some live- stock necessitates the growing of hay, clover, alfalfa, peas, pea-nuts, and other cover crops and legumes which add 291 292 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING BAD FARMING THE FARM Tig. 177. The upper figure illus- trates poor farm management: the ^ minerals in the soil are converted Q SEWER into plant crops and four-fifths of sewer WASTE the products are carried off the farm waste to the market, while only one-fifth is fed to stock and thus left on the farm in the form of manure. The lower figure illustrates good farm management: the same minerals in the soil are con- verted into plant crops, but only one-tenth of these is taken off the farm to market, the other nine-tenths are fed to stock. The stock leave oil the farm in their mariure seven-tenths of the minerals that were taken from the soil and carry away only two-tenths when they are sold in the market. humus, and in some cases nitro- gen, to the soil. This diversifying the crops also makes farming more certain, as then no one fail- ure due to unfa- vorable season or insect pest can affect all the crops of any one year. Second, this di- versification and the stock-feeding distribute the la- bor of the farm more evenly through the year, instead of causing great rushes at special seasons. A good part of the work of feeding stock for market comes in late fall and winter when the crops are out of the way. Third, there are always ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 293 remnants of crops and a great deal of grass left in fields that can be gathered at no expense by animals and converted into salable meat. Fourth, a considerable part of the expense of harvesting and of hauling out fertilizer is saved with many crops by turning into the field the stock, which do their own harvesting and drop the manure in the field. Fifth, when several thousand pounds of crops are fed to stock, there are only a few animals to be driven to market instead of the several thousand pounds of produce to be hauled. This saves time and teams. Sixth, in most cases, except where markets are very near or the soil and climate are es- pecially adapted to some particular crop, more money can be made by devoting a considerable part of the farm to raising stock and the crops that feed stock economically than can be made by raising all market crops such as cotton. Seventh, the raising of stock makes farming more interesting and attractive to both old and young, and broadens the thinking of the farmer. It is therefore perfectly plain that except under very special circumstances every farmer should raise at least enough live-stock to consume all the food crops that a well-planned rotation, including legumes and winter cover crops, would demand on his farm. 254. Texas Especially Adapted to Stock-Raising. — ^Texas is especially adapted to stock-raising. The mild winters and long growing season make it possible to have green food in the field all the year, and to allow the stock to exercise and to gather their own feed in large part nearly all the time. Such expensive barns and long winter feeding as are demanded in the North are not required, nor are the dangers of diseases caused by close housing so great. Furthermore, such a large part of the food eaten does not have to be used by the animal 294 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING in keeping warm. With her vast acres of pasture land and mild climate, Texas should develop her stock-raising rapidly, now that practical methods of handling the cattle tick and other animal pests and diseases have been learned. 255. The Loss From Raising Scrub Stock. — The cattle tick, through interfering with the bringing of finer pure- bred stock into the Southwest, has cost and is costing this section tens of millions of dollars a year. Texas in 1910 had 7,131,000 beef cattle. This was about twice as many as any other State had, Iowa, the State with the next largest number, having only 3,611,000. The Texas cattle, however, were val- ued at only $15.30 her head, while those in Illinois and Wyo- ming were valued at $26.40, and those in Montana at $27.40. If Texas beef cattle were raised to the same quality as those of Montana, $86,000,000 would be added to the wealth of the State. In 1910 Texas had 1,137,000 dairy cattle, valued at only $25.50 apiece, while New Jersey dairy cattle were val- ued at $47.50 a head. If Texas dairy cattle were raised to the same quality as those of New Jersey, over $25,000,000 would be added to the State's wealth. It takes nearly as much labor and feed to raise a scrub as it does to raise a pure-bred or high-grade animal. The raising of scrub stock is therefore very wasteful and unintelligent. In for- mer years, when there were millions of acres of cheap land, it was possible to make a profit from scrub stock turned out to graze with very little oversight. Now, with higher- priced land and the country rapidly being broken up into small farms and ranches, the ranchman and farmer can no longer afford to waste time and food on scrub stock. When Herefords and Shorthorns will weigh two thousand pounds, it is poor economy to raise scrubs that weigh one thousand 1 -. ^^ -\_ - Ll^^^^^^L I ■- '^-J^^^^^'.^WKKm^B^^ Fig. 178. Above, an Inferior feeder; in the centre, a choice feeder; below, fat steer of the correct type. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 296 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING or less. When Jerseys or Holsteins (Hol'stinz) will produce from five hundred to over a thousand pounds of butter a year, is it sensible to feed milk cows that produce only a hundred and fifty pounds per year? 256. How to Improve the Quality of Stock. — While it is not practicable for all farmers at once to buy and raise only pure-bred stock, it is practicable to grade rapidly a herd at small expense by breeding only from pure-bred males. As you know, the parents of a scrub do not belong to any particular breed, but are a mixture of many inferior types, whereas both parents of 'a pure-bred belong to the same breed of selected stock. The result of this is that when a pure-bred male is crossed on a scrub female, the offspring, which is called a grade, is more likely to resemble the pure-bred male parent than the scrub female. For ex- ample, if a pure-bred Hereford bull is used, nearly all the calves will show the fine Hereford qualities. None of the males of these half-bloods, as the offspring of a full blood and a scrub are called, should be allowed to breed. The female half-bloods should be crossed again with a pure-bred and thus secure a three-quarter pure grade. These similarly being crossed with a full-blooded bull will produce calves that are seven-eighths pure, or high grade. For practical beef and dairy purposes, such high grades are nearly as good as pure-breds, but they would not bring high prices for breeding purposes. Grade bulls should not be used for breeding, as with a mixed ancestry the calves from them would not be apt to come true. As long as the grade fe- males are always bred to a pure-bred bull, however, the calves are very apt to possess the qualities of the good stock. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 297 257. What Must Be Known to Get Highest Profit From Stock-Raising. — In order to get the greatest profit from his stock-raising the farmer must know two things : First, what kinds of animals and animal products — meat, milk, butter, wool, and eggs — the market demands and pays best for; sec- ond, how to produce these at the least cost. In order to produce at the least expense animals that will bring the high- est prices, three things must be learned. These are: First, live-stock judging; second, live-stock breeding; third, live- stock feeding. Let us now study each of these. 258. Live-stock Judging. — Live-stock judging is the basis of all success in stock-raising. If one does not know what are desirable points in an animal he will not know how much to pay for animals that he buys, nor what to charge for those that he sells, nor will he know which animals to select and breed from in his herd. One horse sells for $500, while an- other that looks very much like it to the untrained observer brings only $150. One bull sells for $50, while another that does not look very different to the average boy sells for $500. Let us take up the several farm animals in turn and find out what points are important and what relative value should be given to each different quality. CATTLE 259. Classes of Cattle. — Cattle are divided into three classes: beef cattle, or those raised for beef; dairy cattle, or those raised for their milk and butter; dual-pur'pose cattle, or those raised both for beef and for milk and butter. Each of these classes has its special points which have definite values in estimating the quality of the animal judged. These can be learned thoroughly only by study of actual cattle with the 298 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ^^K - . 4^^ fiPW ^TPfll K,<,-^yT" ^^^^^^M lyiffyP^ i ^..,.m| 1 ^ „. JjM^ ^ « ™> • '«-s ' **'. Fig. 179. Points of the beef animal: 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, eyes; 4, fore- head; 5, ears; 6, poll; 7, jaw; 8, neck; 9, shoulder vein; 10, shoulder; 11, dewlap; 12, chest; 13, brisket; 14, breast; 15, arm; 16, knee; 17, shin; 18, hoof; 19, fore-flank; 20, crops; 21, ribs; 22, back; 23, loin; 24, rump; 25, hips, or hooks; 26, hind-flank; 27, purse, or cod; 28, tail-head; 29, pin bones; 30, thigh; 31, twists; 32, liocks; 33, shank; 34, tail. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. aid of a trained judge, but with the aid of pictures and the following descriptions any boy or girl may make a good start in learning to judge cattle. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 299 260. Beef Cattle.— Beef cattle are divided into: (1) "fat steers," meaning those ready for the butcher; (2) "feeders," meaning those that are ready to be fattened for the butcher; and (3) "breeding cattle," meaning those used for breeding purposes. The fat steer for which the butcher pays the highest price is one that will dress out the highest per cent of salable meat and that carries the maximum amount of this meat in the regions from which the most valuable cuts come. In order to meet these requirements the fat steer must have a broad, deep, low-set, smooth, compact form with straight top and under lines. He must show especially high development in the ribs, loin, rump, and thighs, which are the regions of the high-priced cuts. He must possess good quality, as in- dicated by fine, soft hair, loose, pliable skin of medium thick- ness, even, firm, mellow flesh, and clean, medium-sized, dense bone. He must be in good condition, as indicated by a deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in the region of choice cuts. The scrub steer with swayed back, high flanks, nar- row, shallow body, long legs, probably large paunch, coarse bone, thick hide, coarse hair, and thin covering of flesh not only dresses out a low per cent of salable meat, but too large a proportion of this meat is located in the regions of the low- priced cuts. Figures 178, 179, 180 will make this descrip- tion clear. The score-card on the next page presents the points in detail to be considered in judging fat cattle and shows the relative value of those points. The score-card is of great aid to the beginner in stock-judging, in familiarizing him with the ideal type, in enabling him to distinguish clearly and fix in memory the points to be observed, and to judge in a system- 300 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From Circular No. 29, Purdue University BEEF CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS GENERAL APPEARANCE— 40 per cent 1. Weight, estimated lbs. Actual lbs. according to age 2. Form, straight top and underline; deep, broad, low set, stylish, smooth, compact, symmetrical 3. Quality, fine, soft hair; loose, pliable skin of medium thickness; dense, clean, medium- sized bone 4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, mellow flesh; free from patches, ties, lumps, and rolls; full cod and flank indicating finish. . . . HEAD AND NECK— 7 per cent 5. Muzzle, broad; mouth large; nostrils large and open 6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 7. Face, short; jaw strong 8. Forehead, broad, full 9. Ears, medium size; fine texture 10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with shoulder; throat clean, with light dewlap FORE-QUARTERS— 9 per cent 11. Shoulder vein, full 12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, snug, neat 13. Brisket, trim, neat; breast full 14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; arm full; shank fine ' BODY 30 PER CENT 1.5. Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full. . 16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed 17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly fleshed 18. Loin, thick, broad 19. Flank, full, even with underline HIND-QUARTERS— 14 per cent 20. Hips, smooth 21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail-head smooth; pin bones wide apart, not prominent 22. Thighs, deep, full 23. Twist, deep, plump 24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; shanks fine, smooth stu- dent's SCORE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 301 atic way. As soon as these purposes are accomplished, further use of the card is not necessary. The student should then be able to judge and criticise an animal without referring to the Fui. 1S(J. Whulcsalc cuts on a steer; 1, round; 2, loin; 3, flank; 4, rib; 5, plate; 6, chuck; 7, shank. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. card. After becoming proficient in judging a single animal, comparative judgments of two or more animals maybe made. The feeder steer is the one not yet fat but ready to be fattened for the market. The ideal feeder is one that will make the most economical gains in the feed lot and will when fat meet the ideal of the fat steer. The difference between the ideal feeder and the ideal fat steer is a matter of condition, or flesh covering. The most important points to be con- sidered in feeders are the following. The body should be deep and wide, the top and bottom lines straight, legs short, and general appearance smooth and compact. The depth and thickness are not, of course, as great in the feeder as in the 302 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING fat steer, but the more pronounced they are in the feeder the greater they are Ukely to be in the fat steer. A wide back, well-sprung ribs, wide, thick loin, level, long, wide rump, giv- ing squareness to the hind-quarters, thickly fleshed thighs, and deep twist are demanded to make sure of large valuable cuts when the animal is fat. The skin should be loose, pliable, and of medium thickness; the hair soft and glossy; the bone clean, dense, and of medium size. Medium-sized bone is pre- ferred to small bone, because it has been found that animals possessing medium-sized bone have better constitutions and when fed give larger return than do those with small bones. The loose, pliable skin and the glossy hair indicate good digestion, which is essential to economical gains in the feed lot. While not fat, the feeder must possess a large amount of flesh or lean muscular tissue, otherwise it will not dress out a large per cent of good quality of meat when fat. The feeder should have a strong constitution, as is indicated by deep, wide chest, large nostrils, large muzzle and mouth, bright, clear, quiet eyes, short, broad head, well-arched deep ribs and low flanks, giving large capacity for food. The butcher does not care for large head or large paunch, but in the feeder they are desirable, as they indicate ability to make good use of food and make rapid gains in the feed lot. Breeding cattle when thin should represent ideal feeders and when fat ideal fat cattle ; but in addition to this they should possess qualities which indicate that they will breed regularly and that the offspring will resemble their parents. No mat- ter how good the animals may be as individual specimens, they will not do as breeders unless they can reproduce their kind with regularity. The following points should be looked for in breeders. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 303 1. The animal should be true to his type; that is, the Here- ford should have the characteristics of the Hereford and the Jersey of the Jersey. The distinguishing features of each type have been fixed in it by long years of carefully breeding only animals of this type. Those that are good representa- tives of the type are therefore more apt to be able to transmit this type to their offspring than would a specimen that had varied from the type. An animal capable of doing this is spoken of as prepotent. 2. The animal should possess the characteristics of the sex to which it belongs. Such animals are more apt to be prepo- tent. The bull should show the following masculine char- acteristics: bold expression in eyes; full forehead; thick neck, surmounted by heavy, well-developed crest; heavy, though not coarse, shoulders, giving him a strong, vigorous, burly ap- pearance. The female should show the following feminine characteristics: mild expression in eyes, refinement of head and horns, neck slender and shoulders light as compared with the bull, more width and prominence of hips than the bull, and a generally gentle appearance. 3. The constitution must be strong, as only animals hav- ing such can stand the strain of producing offspring regularly and at the same time transmit to the offspring their strength and vigor. The signs of a strong constitution you have just learned in studying the feeders. 261. Breeds of Beef Cattle. — There are eight breeds of beef cattle recognized in the United States: Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus, Galloivay, Polled Durham, Polled Hereford, Sussex, and West Highland. The first four are considered the principal breeds. Only the first three have gained prominence in Texas. 304 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING The Shorthorn. This breed originated in England, proba- bly from the old Teeswater and Holderness stock, in the counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland. Short- horns are sometimes improperly called Durhams. As early as 1780 the special selection and breeding were begun which Fig. 181. A Shorthorn bull. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. produced this remarkable beef type, possessing easy-feeding qualities, early maturity, and thick flesh of good quality. The breed has long been prominent and steadily improved. In size the Shorthorn ranks first, bulls at maturity weighing two thousand to twenty-two hundred pounds. Many weigh as high as twenty-five hundred pounds. Cows weigh four- teen hundred to sixteen hundred pounds, some as high as two thousand pounds. The color may be pure red, pure white, red and white spotted, or roan, which is a mixture of red and white. The breed is sometimes called the "reds, whites, and roans." The horn, which is a well-marked ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 305 characteristic of the breed, is usually short and small, preferably curved forward, with the tips bending inward and upward. The breed is noted for wide back, strong loin, and square, well-developed hind-quarters. It is criticised because of length of legs and lack of heart girth, as shown by insufficient fulness back of shoulders, in the crops and fore-flanks. As milk producers they rank first among the beef breeds. The Shorthorn is especially adapted to the farm, but not so well adapted to range conditions, particularly where ex- posed to severe winters, as the Hereford. Shorthorn bulls are used on the ranches, however, by many cattlemen be- cause of the marked improvement produced in the size of the stock. The Hereford is a native of Hereford County, England, the breed having originated early in the eighteenth century in efforts to produce a breed better suited to the production of fine beef by grazing. The Hereford is shorter of leg and some- what more compact in appearance than the Shorthorn, but weighs practically as much. The color is remarkably uni- form; the face, breast, top of neck, legs usually from slightly below the knee and hock down, the belly, and switch of tail are all white. The rest of the body is red. The breed is often called the "white face." The head is shorter and broader than that of the Shorthorn, the horns longer and keener toward the tips. The horns are white or waxy yel- low, and spring forward and usually down with a graceful curve. The Hereford is especially noted for its excellent constitution, thick middle, beautiful front, and early ma- turity. The most common defect in the form is light hind- quarters, owing to a drooping, peaked rump and poorly 306 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING developed thighs. The American breeders especially have in recent years greatly improved this breed in this respect. Hereford cows rank very low as milk producers. Many Herefords have been imported and, because of the Pig. 182. Druid of Point Comfort, grand cliampion Hereford bull 1908-1912. Courtesy of Lee Brothers. excellent grazing qualities and adaptation to ranches, have been distributed rapidly oVer the western ranges. Hereford bulls are of immense value in grading up common herds be- cause of the transmission of their fine beef qualities and ability to stand hard conditions. On account of hardiness and early maturity, Hereford steers stand in front rank as feeders. Aberdeen- Angus. This breed of hornless cattle originated in and around the county of Aberdeen, in Scotland, taking its ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 307 name from the county and a near-by locality. While some- thing had been done before, the real work of improving this breed began about 1815. Aberdeen-Angus cattle are not as large as Shorthorns and Herefords, but are more cyhndrical r m IM r' y^gif f t '4 ... ..^ai Fig. 183. Aberdeen-Angus bull. Courtesy of B. F. Hildebrand. and compact in shape and are remarkably heavy for their size. Bulls weigh two thousand to t\^'enty-two hundred pounds, cows fourteen hundred to fifteen hundred pounds, both sexes frequently passing these marks. The breed is noted for its smoothness, high percentage of dressed beef, and the superior quality of the meat. The standard color is black; though occasionally solid reds appear. The poll, or top of the head, is a well-marked characteristic. It should be clearly defined and prominent, and there should 308 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING be no traces of rudimentary * (ru di men'ta ry) horns. The cows produce more milk than Herefords, but less than Short- horns. This breed was first brought to America in 1873, and has become quite widely spread and popular considering the short time it has been here. It has gained much favor in the upper Mississippi Valley and in the Western and South- western States. The bulls are excellent for grading up a herd, and the steers make excellent feeders. The absence of horns makes it possible to feed them in close quarters without danger of their injuring each other. While good on the range the Aberdeen-Angus is hardly the equal of the Hereford in this respect. The Galloway originated also in Scotland, in the ancient province of that name. Little is known of its origin, but its improvement was begun early in the eighteenth century. On account of the cold, damp climate and the mountainous nature of the country the cattle were obliged to have very robust constitutions, which is a noted and important point in favor of the Galloway. It is the smallest of the principal beef breeds, usually very short of leg and long of body. The head is hornless, but, unlike the Aberdeen-Angus, the poll is rather flat. The hair, instead of being short and smooth as that of the Aberdeen-Angus, is long and shaggy. The breed is often called the "shaggy coat." The hides often bring high prices for use in making rugs, robes, and overcoats. The color is black, with reddish or brownish tint frequently occurring in the black. The breed is criticised for lack of spring and fulness of rib, thin covering of loin, and slow * A rudimentary horn is one that makes a beginning but never de- velops. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 309 response to generous feeding. On these points it is now being rapidly improved. Galloways were introduced into the United States and Can- ada early in the nineteenth century, but have gained more favor in Canada than in the United States, where they are not Fig. 184. GaUoway bull. Courtesy of R. F. Hildcbrand. nearly so popular as the three leading breeds. Its strong constitution, long, thick hair, and ability to find food make it well adapted to the cold Northwest and to the mountains. It is not well adapted to the warm South. There are a few Galloways in Texas, principally in the west, where Galloway bulls are used to some extent in grading up the herds. Polled Durham cattle had their origin in the United States. About 1870 pure-bred Shorthorn bulls were bred to hornless 310 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING COWS and the offspring that inherited the hornlessness of the mother but the other quahties of the Shorthorn were se- lected, and by continuous breeding and selection the polled breed of Shorthorns, called Polled Durham, was produced. Those bred in this way are called "single standard." Another breed of polled cattle was developed by selecting a few pure- bred Shorthorn bulls and cows that varied from the normal in having no horns. These were bred to each other and the polled feature fixed in the offspring. Polled Durhams that originated in this way are called "double standard." A Polled Hereford breed of cattle has been developed re- cently also in the United States by breeding to each other Herefords that did not have horns. The Sussex breed originated in England and the West Highland breed in the highlands of Scotland. The first is solid red and nearly as large as the Hereford, and is possibly related to this breed. The latter is a low-set, shaggy moun- tain type. Neither has any prominence in America. 262. Dairy Cattle. — A good dairy cow will return in milk and butter for a given amount of foodstuff a larger amount of human food than will the hog, sheep, chicken, or steer. This fact coupled with the ever-present demand for the prod- ucts of the dairy make dairying, when properly conducted, a most profitable business. No kind of live-stock will as a rule yield a larger return from an acre of land than dairy cat- tle. In States that are thickly populated, and in which land is expensive, dairying is usually one of the chief occupations. 263. Texas is Especially Suited to Dairying. — In many of the more thickly populated sections of Texas dairying has made considerable advance in recent years, but the State is still wofully behind in this important field. As a rule farm- ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 311 ers keep a very poor grade of cows and do not handle the milk and butter in a scientific way. The result is that not half the butter is made that should be, and so large a part of that made is of such poor quality that when ^Yisconsin butter Fig. 185. Points of the dairy cow: 1. muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4. eye; 5, ear; 6, jaw; 7. neck; 8, withers; 9, shoulder; 10, foreleg; 11, crops; 12, chest; 13, baclc; 14. ribs; 15, barrel; 16, loin; 17, hips; 18, rump; 19, pin bones; 20, tail; 21, escutcheon; 22, tliigh; 23, udder; 24, teats; 25, milk veins; 26, milk wells; 27, hind leg. Courtesy of A. O. Auten. is quoted in the market at thirty cents a pound, Texas country butter is quoted at fifteen cents. Here, where the cows can stay in the open all the year and can every day find fresh, green, succulent food, which is especially important for dairy cows, it is a discredit to our intelligence and industry to continue longer to buy our butter from States that have the ground covered with snow for three months of the year. We 312 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING cannot hope to compete with other States as long as we use cows that produce one hundred and fifty or two hundred pounds of butter a year, while they use cows, that produce five hundred pounds, or even eleven hundred and twenty-six pounds, as the Jersey, Jacoba Irene, did, or twelve hundred and forty-seven pounds, as the Holstein, Colantha Fourth's Johanna, did. Our farmers and farmer boys and girls must learn about the judging, breeding, and feeding of dairy cat- tle, and about the production of milk and butter, before the State can take the high position in dairying that its natural advantages entitle it to hold. Let us begin the study now. 264. Judging the Dairy Cow. — A dairy cow may be looked upon as a factory which takes in raw material in the shape of food and makes it into milk and butter fat. If this were all that had to be considered, the best dairy cow would be the one that yielded the largest amount of milk and butter fat from the smallest amount of food. By measuring the food given and the milk produced and testing the per cent of fat with the Babcock test * each day, one could keep rec- ords that would make it possible to judge the quality of the cow accurately. But at times dairy cows must be judged when they are not giving milk, and when there are no records to go by. Furthermore, there are other qualities besides capacity for milk production that must be considered, such *This is a test which was originated by Professor Babcock, of the University of Wisconsin, for finding out the percentage of butter fat in milk. A little sulphuric acid is added to a bottle of milk, which causes the fat to be separated from the rest of the milk. The bottle is then rotated rapidly in a machine in such manner as to bring the cream to the top of the bottle. A scale is marked along the top part of the bottle by which the per cent of cream present can be seen at once. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 313 as capacity to produce regularly offspring that will inherit the fine qualities of the parent, and capacity to maintain vigor for a number of years. For these reasons it is necessary to learn to judge the qualities of a dairy cow by her physical make-up in a manner similar to that by which the qualities of beef cattle are judged. 265. How Milk is Produced in the Cow. — In the beef type of cow the food consumed is in part turned into flesh and stored within the animal's bod}', but in the dairy type the food is turned into milk which is constantly being taken away from the body. We should therefore expect the two types to be very different in appearance. But before we can know what the differences are and intelligently determine what is the best type for dairy purposes, we must know more about the means by which milk is produced in the cow. The parts most concerned in the production of milk are the digestive organs, the blood, the lungs, the heart, the udder, and the nervous system. The digestive system must be strong enough to enable the cow to consume and digest a large quantity of food in order to produce a great quantity of milk. She should therefore show a large middle, or "barrel," as it is called. The blood, lungs, and heart. After the food has been di- gested or changed into a condition to be utilized by the ani- mal it passes through the walls of the intestines into the blood. The material from which milk is to be formed thus becomes a part of the blood, which now goes through a large vein to the right side of the heart. From here it goes to the lungs to be purified by the air that is breathed in. It then returns to the heart, this time to the left side, and from there is pumped through the arteries to the various portions 314 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING of the body. A part of it passes through a large artery under the backbone to the hind-quarters. Here this artery sends out a large branch, which in turn throws out several smaller branches that distribute the blood through all the regions Fig. 186. The blood supply of the udder. Arteries (in white) lead from the heart to the udder, veins (in black) lead from the udder to the heart. From Circular No. 29, Purdue University. of the udder. After the blood has passed through the udder it appears on the outside of it in what are called the milk veins. These pass along the belly for some distance in front of the udder, enter the body walls through milk wells, and carry the blood back to the heart. It is thus seen that the heart, lungs, arteries, and veins are of great importance in the manufacture of milk. The part ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 315 played by the heart and lungs shows that it is very important for the cow to have a deep, wide, full chest, indicating that these organs are well developed and that she possesses a strong constitution. The size of the milk veins and milk wells is an indication of the amount of blood that passes through the udder to supply material for the manufacture of milk. On this account it is important that they be large. The udder. It is in the udder that the process of making milk from the material supplied by the blood is carried on. The udder serves also as a reservoir for the milk after it has been made until withdrawn by the process of milking. It is especially important that the udder have a large capacity, and to this end it should be attached high behind and carried well forward. The quarters should be even and free from fleshiness. When empty it should appear to consist of folds of soft, pliable, elastic skin. The nervous system, represented by the brain and the spinal cord with its branches, controls the action of the various or- gans of the body. In the dairy cow it is very important that the nervous system be strong and w^ell developed in order that the organs concerned in the manufacture of milk may carry on their work most effectively. The cow with a ner- vous system of this kind is spoken of as having a nervous temperament. This does not mean that she is irritable and excitable, as the term often implies, but that she possesses a strong set of nerves that has the various organs of the body under good control. The nervous temperament in the dairy cow is indicated by a lean yet vigorous condition, showing that the feed she consumes is being used chiefly in the pro- duction of milk and not in the laying on of flesh. An animal of this temperament is active and wide awake. The tempera- 316 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING} mcnt of the beef animal differs from that of the dairy animal, being what is called a lymphatic or lazy temperament, which is conducive to the laying on of flesh. Dairy cows that show Fig. 187. Colantha Fourth's Johanna, the Holstein-Friesian cow that gave 27,4323 pounds of milk in one year. From this milk 1,247.8 poimds of butter were produced. Note the typical wedge {B A C) shape of the dairy cow. Courtesy of the University of Wisconsin. a beefy tendency are not utilizing their food for milk produc- tion as they should. 266. The Dairy T)rpe. — Having learned the parts of the dairy cow that are chiefly involved in milk production, we are now in a position to understand the dairy type. We can see that the digestive organs and the udder, on account of the important work they perform, should be highly developed. We can see also that the dairy cow should be lean in condi- tion. A lean head, a rather long, thin neck, lean, thin withers, thinly fleshed back, ribs, loin, and rump, and thin, long thighs characterize the nervous temperament. The ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 317 good daity cow must also be wide of loin, hips, and rump. The high development of barrel and udder, the width of the loin, hips, and rump, together with the thin neck and lean condition throughout, give the dairy cow a wedge-shaped form. Three wedges may be seen, as indicated in Figures 187 and 188. This peculiar type which is so closely associ- ated with high milk produc- tion has been intensified in each breed of dairy cattle by many years of careful breed- ing. The points in detail to be considered in judging dairy cows are given in the score- card on the next page. 267. Breed Type.— In ad- dition to judging the dairy cow by the points indicated on the score-card as a milk pro- ducer, she should be judged also as a breeder. The points to consider here are the same as those given for the breeder type when discussing beef cattle. 268. The Dairy Bull.— The dairy bull may be judged by the records of his daughters as milk producers, but this method can be applied only to old bulls. The more common method is to judge by his agreement with a certain type proved to be valuable, and by the records of his ancestors. A bull from good parents, grandparents, and great-grand- FiG. 188. Note the wedges B A C and DAE, characteristic of the dairy type. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 318 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig DAIRY CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS stu- dent's SCORE GENERAL APPEARANCE Form, inclined to be wedge-shaped Quality, hair fine, soft; sliin mellow, loose, me- dium thickness; secretion yellow; bone clean, fine Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean ap- pearance when in milk HEAD AND NECK Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large. . Eyes, large, bright, full, mild Face, lean, long, quiet expression Forehead, broad Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture. . Horns, fine texture, waxy Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, light dewlap FORE-QUARTERS Withers, lean, thin Shoulders, light, oblique Legs, straight, short; shank fine BODY Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore-iiank Barbel, ribs broad, long, wide apart; large stomach Back, lean, straight, open-jointed Loin, broad Navel, large HIND-QUARTERS Hips, far apart, level Rump, long, wide Pin bones, or Thurls, high, wide apart Tail, long, slim; fine hair in switch Thighs, thin, long Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and wide; large thigh ovals Udder, long, attached high and full behind, ex- tending far in front and full, flexible; quarters even and free from fleshiness Teats, large, evenly placed Mammary veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with double extension; large and numerous milk wells Legs, straight; shank fine Total ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 319 parents is more likely to be a good breeder than one the an- cestors of which are not of such merit. In judging the dairy bull the following points are especially important : 1 . He should be typical of the breed he represents. Fig. 189. Fountaine's ( In i un n mipion Jersey bull. Courtesy of R F Ilildi brand. 2. He should show in general the spare, angular form characteristic of the dairy cow. 3. He should show distinctly the nervous temperament, as indicated by an active, wide-awake appearance and lean con- dition. 4. He should possess good quality, as indicated by dense, clean bone, soft hair, and loose, pliable skin of medium thick- ness. 5. He should show a strong masculine character, as indi- cated by bold expression of eyes, burly head, strong horns, 320 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING well-crested neck, and comparatively heavy though not coarse shoulders. The front of the dairy bull is necessarily much heavier than that of the dairy cow, but he should not show the same relative width of hips. G. He should possess a strong constitution, as indicated by a deep, wide chest, large nostrils, bright, clear eyes, and a general appearance of health and vigor. 7. He should possess a large, capacious barrel, indicating plenty of room for food, for it is important that he be able to stamp this characteristic on his offspring. 8. He should possess a strong back, long, level rump and light, thin thighs, and should be cut up high in the twist. Thick, beefy thighs and deep, full twist are objectionable. 9. The rudimentary teats should be of'good size and evenly placed, as they indicate to some extent the size and position of the teats in the female offspring. 269. Breeds of Dairy Cattle.— The breeds of dairy cattle mentioned in order of popularity in the United States are: the Jersey, the Holstein-Friesian (Hol'stin-Fre'zhan), the Guernsey (Gurn'zy), the AyrsJiire (Ar'sher), the Broivn Swiss, the Dutch Belted, the French Canadian, and the Kerry. The Jersey came from a little island of that name in the English Channel, and is probably descended from two French types of cattle that had been taken to the island. As early as 1763 the interest in breeding a fine dairy type was strong enough to get a law passed forbidding the bringing to the island any cattle from France except for immediate slaughter. Soon similiar laws were made against cattle from other coun- tries. Since 1833 the most rigorous selection has been car- ried on, with the result that the Jersey excels all other breeds in quality of milk and in beauty and refinement. In size ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 321 the Jersey ranks from medium to small. An average bull weighs about 1,300 pounds and an average cow about 850 pounds. There is, however, wide variation in weights of both bulls and cows. The color also varies considerably, a fawn-like color predominating. It may be a yellowish, red- FiG. 190. Jersey cow. Courtesy' of A. O. Auten. '/dish, grayish, brownish, or silvery fawn. Some are de- scribed as orange or lemon fawn, and others as squirrel gray or mulberry black. White markings often occur, but are not in favor. The Jersey is especially noted as a producer of rich milk, that is milk that contains a high percentage of butter fat. It is also noted for the comparatively large size of the fat globules in the milk, this being a great advantage on account of causing the cream to rise and separate easily. 322 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The Jersey cow, Jacoba Irene, No. 146443, A. J. C. C, holds the record of her breed for butter production in an official test. She produced in one year 17,253 pounds of milk, from which was made 1,126 pounds 6 ounces of butter. The importation of Jersey cattle to the United States be- gan early in the nineteenth century, but importations did not become frequent until 1850. The Jersey is the most popular breed in the United States, and is now found in every State. Jersey cattle are numerous in Texas, where they have been in strong favor for many years, almost to the exclusion of other breeds. They are more widely distributed over the world than any other dairy breed. Holstein-Friesian. The native home of this breed is Hol- land. Little is known about its origin, but it is claimed that cattle of the Holstein-Friesian type have been kept by the people of Holland for the production of milk, butter, and cheese for over a thousand years. The size of the breed is greater than that of any other dairy breed. The average weight of mature cows is from twelve hundred and fifty pounds to fourteen hundred, and of mature bulls from nine- teen hundred to two thousand pounds. It is not uncommon for weights of both cows and bulls to exceed these figures. The color is black and white spotted, sometimes black pre- dominating and sometimes the reverse. Black on the legs is considered objectionable. The Holstein-Friesian cow is fa- mous for the large quantity of milk she produces. In this re- spect she is far ahead of all other breeds. The cow Colantha Fourth's Johanna, No. 48577, A. H. F. A., holds the world's record for quantity of milk in an official test. She pro- duced in one year 27,432i pounds of milk, from which were made 1,247.8 pounds of butter. The milk of the Holstein- ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 323 Friesian is not rich in butter fat, but a large quantity of but- ter is generally produced on account of the large yield of milk. Holstein-Friesian cattle were probably first brought to the United States by the early Dutch settlers of New York. Fig. 191. Guernsey cow. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. Since about the middle of the nineteenth century many im- portations have been made. The breed has become well distributed, though it has not gained the popularity of the Jersey. It would be well if a. larger number of cattle of this breed were owned in Texas, for as yet the breed has not been given the attention in this State which its merit demands. The Guernsey. This breed, the native home of which is the islands of Guernsey and Alderney, in the English Channel, 324 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING near the island of Jersey, has high merit. Several herds of Guernsey cattle are owned in the United States, chiefly in New England, New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. The breed, however, has not gained the prominence to which its merit entitles it. There are few Guernseys in Texas, though there is no reason why they should not do well here. The size of the Guernsey is generally larger than that of the Jer- sey, the average weight of mature cows being about a thou- sand and fifty pounds, and of mature bulls about fifteen hun- dred pounds. In color animals of this breed may be either yellowish, brownish, or reddish fawn, with white marking frequently occurring on body or legs. The Ayrshire. The native home of this breed is in the county of Ayr, in southwestern Scotland. In size the breed ranks as medium, the average weight for mature cows and bulls being about the same as stated for the Guernsey breed. The color is white, with red or brown markings. The breed ranks high in yield of milk, which, however, is only fair in quality, Ayrshire cattle have been exported from Scotland to many different countries. In North America they are found chiefly in Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the New England and Eastern States of this country. The Brown Swiss is a large rather beefy breed of dairy cattle whose native home is in Switzerland. On account of its beefy tendency it is classed by some as a dual-purpose animal. The Dutch Belted breed had its origin in Holland, where it has been chiefly developed by the nobility of that country. The color is peculiar, being black, with a wide belt of white around the body between the shoulders and the hips. From the dairy stand-point the breed does not rank high. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 325 The French Canadian breed of cattle originated in the province of Quebec, Canada. It is supposed that the foun- dation stock of the breed was imported from France by the early settlers before 1G65. The breed has been kept pure Pig. 192. Ayrshire cow. Courtesy of B. F. Hildebrand. for over a hundred years. It is noted for its vigorous, robust constitution. The color is generally black, though a brown brindle sometimes occurs. Though French Canadian cows rank well as milk producers, the breed is not distributed to any extent outside of Quebec. The Kerry breed of cattle originated in western Ireland. It is a small breed, black in color and very hardy. The cows rank well as milk producers and the quality of the milk is 326 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig RED POLLED CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS OBJECTIONS Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of tail. COLOR — Any shade of red. The switch of taU and udder may be wliite, with some wliite rimning forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color Objections — An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. HEAD — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradually from above eyes to poll. The poll well defined and prominent, with a sharp dip belund it in centre of head. Ears of medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent; face well dished between the eyes. Muzzle wide, with large nostrils Objections — A rounding or flat appearance of the poll. Head too long and narrow. NECK — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to top of shoulder, with incUnation to arch when fattened, and may show folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form .... SHOULDER— Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with line of back Objections — Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weakness in heart girth. Shoul- der protruding above line of back. CHEST — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent and coming well forward .... BACK AND RIBS — Back medium long, straight and level from withers to the setting on of tail; moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting from the backbone, giving a roimding appear- ance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart Objections — Front ribs too straight, causing de- pression back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top hue. stu- dent's SCORE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 327 SCORI^CARD (Continued) RED POLLED CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS stand- ard POINTS deficient stu- dent's SCORE COR- RECTED HIPS — Wide, rounding over the iiooks, and well covered 3 6 3 10 10 4 6 5 10 QUARTERS — Of good length, full, rounding, and level ; thighs wide, roomy, and not too meaty . . . Objections— Prominent hooks, sunken quar- ters. TAIL — Tail head strong and setting well forward. LEGS — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium Objections — Hocks crooked, legs placed too close together. FORE-UDDER— Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending down level with hind-udder. HIND-UDDER— Full and well up behind TEATS— Well placed, wide apart, and of reason- ably good size Objections— Lack of development, especially in forward udder. Udder too deep, "bottle- shaped," and teats too close together. Teats imevenly placed and either too large or too small. MILK VEINS— Of medium size, fidl, flexible, ex- tending well forward, weU retained within the body ; milk wells of medium size HIDE — Loose, mellow, flexible, incHned to thick- ness, with a good, full coat of soft hair Objections — Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. CONDITION— Healthy; moderate to liberal fla=h evenly laid on ; glossy coat ; animal presented in good bloom Total 100 GENERAL DESCRIPTION— Cow medium wedge form, low set, top and bottom lines straight ex- cept at flank, weight 1,.300 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. when mature and finished. 328 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING good. The breed is not generally found outside its native home. 270. Dual-Purpose Cattle. — Dual-purpose cattle have been bred for both beef and milk production. From what you have learned of the beef and dairy types it should be clear to you that both beef production and milk production cannot attain the highest degree of development in the same animal. We therefore find the dual-purpose type first class neither for beef nor for milk. Cattle of this type, how- ever, meet the demand of many farmers for animals that will be superior to the dairy breeds for beef and superior to the beef breeds for milk. The two breeds of dual-purpose cattle of the most importance are the Red Polled and the Devon. Red Polled. In the early part of the eighteenth century there existed a small, thin-fleshed, red-brindled, or dun-col- ored polled type of cattle in Suffolk, England, noted for its milk-producing qualities. About the same time in Norfolk there existed a type of cattle described as blood-red in color, with white or mottled face, having horns and possessing a strong tendency to fatten at an early age. These cattle were poor milkers, but of very good beef qualities. The red polled breed originated in a crossing of these two types. Careful selection was practised and the result was a polled dual- purpose breed, solid red in color. Mature males weigh from eighteen hundred to twenty-two hundred pounds and mature cows from eleven hundred to sixteen hundred pounds. Red polled cattle were not imported into the United States to any extent until after 1873. They are now very well dis- tributed throughout the Mississippi Valley States. They ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 329 seem well adapted to Texas conditions and several promi- nent herds are owned in this State. Devon. The native home of this breed is in the counties of Devon and Somerset, England. The origin of the breed is obscure, but it is thought that it is directly descended from '1 IU\ Yiii. 193. Etc! polled cow. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. the native wild cattle of Great Britain and that it is one of the oldest of the British breeds. The size of the Devon is quite variable. As a milk producer the Devon holds only a medium rank. Animals of this breed were probably among the first pure-bred cattle to be imported to the United States. Though the breed is now fairly well scattered over the United States, it has never gained much popularity. Very few Devons are found in Texas. 330 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The Cattle Tick 271. Cause of Tick Fever. — One of the most expensive diseases the South has ever known is the cattle "tick fever," as this disease is now called. For many years the losses through this fever from death, quarantine, and other effects have been estimated at over $40,000,000 a year. The scien- tists of our Agricultural and Mechanical College and of the United States Department of Agriculture have now dis- covered the cause of this fever and devised methods of com- pletely eradicating it. The fever was found to be caused b\^ parasites which are taken in by ticks when biting infected cows. The parasites are then carried to other animals that are afterward bitten by these ticks, and are even transmitted to the eggs of the tick, and in this way to the next generation. 272. Valuable Results of the Discovery. — When it was found that ticks caused the fever, and that they could be removed from cattle by oil and other dips, the rigid quaran- tine against Southern cattle was modified, and a consider- able part of this expensive handicap was removed. Perhaps the worst injury from the tick arose out of the fact that about four-fifths of the fine-blooded cattle imported into the Southwest to breed up our scrub herds were given the fever. As they were less resistant to the fever than the native cattle, most of them died. This prevented the rapid improvement of our stock. The scientists next discovered that by injecting some of the blood of a native cow directly into a well one, the healthy animal would be given the fever. The fever properly transmitted in this way is not especially dangerous, as is shown by the fact that only five per cent of the animals infected die, whereas eighty per cent ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 331 die from the fever caused directly by tick bite. The fever caused by direct inoculation, as this method is called, makes the animal immune to the disease thereafter in all forms. Now that this has been learned it is possible to import and Fig. 194. Cattle tick depositing eggs. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. inoculate the jBnest young bulls and heifers and breed up our low-grade herds economically. This great handicap being removed, the South can now come rapidly to the front in the raising of fine-blooded cattle. 273. Exterminating Ticks.— By careful study of the habits and life cycle of the ticks, a method of entirely ridding the pastures of them has been devised, and the ticks have been cleared out of an area larger than the whole State of Georgia. 332 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The tick line is being pushed south rapidly, so that ticks and tick fever should soon be things of the past. Investigators found that the grown female tick, when filled with blood, drops from the cow and lays about three thousand eggs. In © @ .® 1 COTTOf^ 5UMne:fi crops cowrEAS rfH^^£F i^3^^F' ^j ^J ^.'~ 1 Fig. 195. A method of exterminating cattle ticks by rotation of pastures. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. warm weather tiny ticks soon hatch out, climb on vegetation, and wait to be rubbed off on passing stock. Ticks can live only on blood, hence if no animal is found they starve to death. In summer they can live about three months with- out food and in winter much longer. In order, therefore, to rid a pasture of ticks one has only to keep it absolutely free of cattle, horses, or sheep for the necessary period and then to clean the stock absolutely of ticks before putting them back into the pasture. Figure 195 shows a practical plan recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture for destroying the ticks on a farm. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 333 QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 160. Make a list of all the reasons for and against raising stock on your farm. 16 L How many beef cattle are on your farm? What is their value per head? How could their value be increased in a practical and economical manner? 162. How many dairy cattle are on your farm? How much milk and butter per year does each cow produce? How much more would these pay per year if each one produced one-half as much as the Jersey Irene? 163. Make what you consider a practical plan for live-stock raising on your farm. Discuss this with the teacher and then at home. 164. How many of each of the following could be raised on your farm without interfering with the crops now grown there: 1, cattle; 2, horses; 3, sheep or goats; 4, hogs; 5, chickens and other fowls? 165. How many breeds of cattle are there in your community and what are they? 166. Find what kinds of pure-bred cattle are in your neighborhood and, together with the teacher and remainder of the class, make a visit, inspect, and score each variety. 167. Find and score one good specimen of each of these types: good feeder, poor feeder, fat steer, good breeder, poor breeder. If teacher and pupils can go together to a county or State fair and practise judging it will be very helpful. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Judging Live Stock," John A. Craig. "Types and Breeds of Domestic Animals," C. S. Plumb. "Our Domestic Animals," C. W. Burkett. Farmers' Bulletins: No. 71. "Essentials in Beef Production." No. 106. "Breeds of Dairy Cattle." No. 124. "Beef and Dairy Types as Related to Beef Production. No. 152. "Scabies of Cattle." No. 184. "Marketing Live Stock." 334 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING No. 233. "Beef vs. Dairy Types for Beef." No. 251. "Indoor vs. Outdoor Feeding of Steers." No. 258. "Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention." No. 350. "The Dehorning of Cattle." No. 351. "The TuberciiUn Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis." No. 378. "Methods of Exterminating the Texas-Fever Tick." No. 380. "The Loco-weed Disease." No. 439. "Antlirax, with Special Reference to Its Suppression." Bureau of Animal Industry Circulars, U. S. Department of Agriculture: No. 23. "Directions for the Use of Blackleg Vaccine." No. 31. "Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause, and Prevention." No. 68. "Diseases of the Stomach and Bowels of Cattle." No. 89. "The Preparation of Emulsions of Crude Petroleum." (For cattle parasites.) No. 97. "How to Get Rid of Cattle Ticks." No. 98. "Some Unusual Host Relations of Texas-Fever Tick." No. 105. "Baby Beef." No. 141. "Foot and Mouth Disease." No. 174. "Eradicating Cattle Ticks in California." No. 175. "The Control of Bovine Tuberculosis." Bureau of Plant Industry Circulars, U. S. Department of Agriculture: No. 15. "Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression of Bovine Tuberculosis." No. 25. "The Ox Warble." No. 456. "Cropping System for Stock Farm." Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, La Fayette, In- diana, Circular: No. 29. "Live-Stock Judging for Beginners." Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, Illinois, Bulletin: No. 78. "Market Classes and Grades of Cattle." CHAPTER XIII THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 274. What is Necessary in Dairying. — The first necessity in the economical production of milk, butter, and cheese is well-selected dairy cows. After securing cows of the right type one must then learn to handle the milk and butter properly and to feed economically before he can secure the largest return from his herd. Let us see what good milk and butter are and how they are produced. Later we shall study feeding. 275. What Milk Is. — We have seen that in the good dairy cow a large supply of blood is carried to the udder, where there are organs which can utilize the ^?'-8 'i'C-^^^k^'- "/ ufacturing milk. As °5°l^'X°o?°'P °i^'Q^-V°^^ ° the milk is made »/■«? ^'o^JIP °'=^''.'--d'¥ry^ from the materials O O o in the blood, the Fig. 196. On the left, pure freshly drawn milk ,.j „ ^, .,, as it looks under the microscope; on the right, quality ot the milk impure miik. depends to a certain extent upon what food materials are in the blood, as well as upon the kind of milk-secreting organs there are in the udder. This is why milk from cows that are being fed on clover and peas has a different flavor from that produced by cows that are fed on cotton-seed meal. When cows have been 335 336 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING eating onions, for example, the flavor of the milk is directly affected. The composition of milk varies with different breeds, and even with different individuals of the same breed. As a ,'/;.V'.'(,".';«, rule Holstein milk, .v.*. for example, has ^^s^;^^..^'^ ^*ii:-.i--'' about three and five- KS^^^-^^s^^^ tenths per cent fat, ^^^^^^''^^^^ P R G E N Y F A while Jersey milk has o<: SINGLE GERM IN about five and four- ^'"-'^ . TWELVE HOURS ^"'^^' P^' ""^^^^ ^^* ^^04^:!£^£. some Holstein cow ^^^=5^5^^ may have a much higher percentage of, ■^*'*-«' fat than the average Fig. 197. ^ and some Jersey much lower than the average. The ingredients of milk are usually in about the following proportions: Water 87.0 per cent Fat 4.0 " " Protein 3.2 " " Sugar : 5.1 " " Ash 7 " " The sweet taste of fresh milk is due to the milk-sugar in it. Milk also contains bacteria which work on this sugar and produce an acid that gives the taste to sour milk. 276. Why Milk Sours and How to Prevent It.— When milk is kept at a temperatue of 75 to 100 degrees the bacteria in it multiply so rapidly that in ten to twelve hours the milk is sour. It is not practicable or desirable to keep these lactic- acid bacteria, as these are called, entirely out of milk, but if, as soon as it is drawn, the milk is cooled to a temperature THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 337 of about 40 degrees and is kept cool the bacteria multiply very slowly and the milk will remain sweet much longer. Even at a temperature of 55 or 60 degrees the bacteria multiply slowly. Milk should therefore always be cooled as soon as drawn. Furthermore, every precaution should be taken to prevent bacteria from getting into it. At milking-time the cows and stables must be clean and free from dust, and before milking the cows must be brushed off and the udders washed and wiped clean. The hands of the person milking should be carefully washed before he be- gins to milk, and when- ever soiled afterward. The milk-pail should have a top that will admit a minimum of dust (see Figure 198). All milk vessels, no matter how well washed in warm or cold water, still have tiny particles of dried milk left in the cracks and angles. These tiny specks contain thousands of bacteria which will rapidly mul- tiply in the next sweet milk that is put into the vessel and sour it. For this reason all milk vessels should be washed very carefully and sunned and should then be scalded before being used in order to kill all bacteria on them. If these precautions are taken, milk should keep sweet without ice for a day or two in even the hottest weather, provided it is cooled with spring or well water immediately after it is drawn and kept cool with running water or by the evaporation of water around it. Fig. 198. Into which milk-pail will most dust and germs fall? 338 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 277. Danger in Milk. — There are not only lactic-acid bac- teria in milk, but many other bacteria are liable to get into it from the air, the vessels, and the persons handling it. Once in the milk, these bacteria thrive and multiply with wonder- ful rapidity. Fortunately many of them are harmless, but h W I . 1. i,jf^0mi A sanitary and conveniently arranged dairy barn. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." others are very dangerous. Typhoid fever, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, and many other serious diseases may be carried in milk. For this reason no one with a germ disease should work around a dairy or handle milk. The vessels and milk should always be protected from dust and especially from flies. The vessels should be washed only in water that is known to be pure. Two hundred and thirty-six people were given typhoid fever by one dairy at which the milk-cans were washed in an infected stream. If milk is not kept THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 339 scrupulously clean it is very dangerous. If it is not kept cool the bacteria in it multiply so rapidly that it is soon unfit for use. When properly cared for it is one of the best and most wholesome of foods, except to an occasional per- son who cannot digest it well. 278. Cream. — The cream which rises to the top when milk stands for several hours is composed mainly of butter fat. Fig. 200. Cross-section of a model barn, showing arrangement of stalls, feed-troughs, etc. This fat, which is composed of round globules so small that it takes six thousand of them side by side to measure an inch, is lighter than the rest of the milk, and hence it rises to the top when milk is allowed to stand. Cream may be separated immediately from the milk by a mechanical separator, in which the vessel of milk is rotated six thousand or more revolutions per minute. This rapid revolution tends to throw the milk off from the centre of the vessel, as mud or water is thrown from a revolving wheel. The heavier part of the milk is thrown harder and hence is driven to the outer part of the vessel and the light cream is thus squeezed to the centre. The milk escapes through an opening at the outer edge of the vessel and the cream through one at the centre. In this way the immediate separation is brought about. Milk can be more perfectly separated in this way 340 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING than by allowing it to stand until the cream rises and then skimming. 279. Butter. — Butter is nearly pure fat, there being in ordinary butter about eighty-two per cent fat, fourteen per l. i m ^|^\ Is J fl m ^H^fe"^*"^ """"" """^ ■ U'iM ^yj ^^^1^ H Mi ^L •1 ^^H ■ 1^ Mb Fig. 201. Famous model dairy bam, Wisconsin State fair grounds. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." cent water, two and five-tenths per cent salt, and one and five-tenths per cent casein (ka'se in) and milk-sugar. It is produced by stirring or agitating the cream until the tiny globules of butter fat gather into granules, or small lumps. The cream may be agitated while still sweet, or may be first ripened or soured. The product of the first is called sweet- cream butter, the latter produces the ordinary or sour-cream butter. The peculiar flavor of butter which is so highly THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 341 prized is given to it by the lactic-acid bacteria. If the milk is kept too cold, these will not develop rapidly and the milk will sour so slowly that in the mean time other bacteria in the milk which stand cold better will develop sufficiently to give an unpleasant flavor to the butter and buttermilk. On the other hand, if the milk is kept too warm the lactic- acid bacteria will develop too rapidly, the butter will be soft and of poor quality and the buttermilk too sour. Sixty to seventy degrees is a good temperature at which to ripen cream. Fifty degrees is the temperature used in some dairies. A good temperature for churning is sixty degrees. When cotton-seed meal is being fed to the cows, about five degrees higher is better. It is a waste of time to churn cream that is at too low a temperature. If the temperature is too high the butter will be soft and mixed with the curds of the milk. A dairy thermometer costs very little and should always be used. The best churns are those that revolve. They should not be filled more than one-third to one-half full when churn- ing. As soon as the grains of butter become as large as grains of wheat, draw off the buttermilk and add cold water to harden the butter. Then take the butter up, wash thor- oughly, work it, and add fine dairy salt. Usually butter is worked twice, but car*, must be used, as too much working spoils the grain of the butter. When butter comes slowly it may be because the cream is not sour enough, not warm enough, or the churn is too full. The remedies for the last two are plain. For the first a small amount of buttermilk may be added to the cream to hasten souring. In cold weather it is often desirable to add a little buttermilk to cream to hasten souring. Butter, like milk, must be handled 342 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING with the greatest cleanUness, and should not be placed near anything having a strong odor, as it absorbs odors easily. 280. Cheese. — Cheese is also made from milk. It con- sists principally of the protein part of the milk called casein, together with varying amounts of fat and water. In order to make the American cheese, such as is usually sold in the grocery stores, the casein is first precipitated by rennet, which is put into the milk for that purpose. When the casein and fat are precipitated the whey is drawn off and the fat and casein heated, drained, salted, compressed, and cured or ripened. The ripening requires from several weeks to several months, and usually demands cold storage and expert handling. Bacteria also play an important part in the mak- ing of cheese and giving its flavor, but this must be left for later study, as must the making of all the other kinds of cheese except cottage-cheese. Cottage-Cheese, or cream cheese, is very easy to make, and may be prepared in any home. The milk is allowed to clabber, then heated slightly to hasten the separation of the curd and whey. It is then hung in a cheese-cloth bag or put into metal moulds which are made for the purpose and left till the whey is all drained out and the curd firm. It may be pressed into moulds and kept for several days if kept at a low temperature. When eaten it may be flavored with salt or served with sweet cream and sugar. 281. Sterilizing and Pasteurizing Milk. — When milk is heated to the boiling point, 212 degrees, and boiled for a few minutes the germs in it are killed, so that it will keep sweet for a long time if protected from fresh infection. Such milk is said to be sterilized (ster'il izd). Unfortunately, milk when boiled loses some of its food value. For that and other THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 343 reasons milk is often heated to 140 degrees only and kept at this temperature for twenty minutes. This is called pas- teurizing (pas'tur iz ing). If cooled promptly and kept cool, pasteurized milk will keep sweet for several days and will not have the cooked taste and other undesirable qualities of boiled milk. Pasteurizing kills bacteria, but does not kill spores, hence the milk is not sterile, and if it is allowed to get warm again the spores will de- Velop. If milk must be used about peSve^BabcockStisTer: the cleanliness of which there is any doubt, it should be pasteurized. Pasteurization does not take the place of cleanliness at all, but where it is impossible to keep milk cool, pasteurization will help to delay the souring. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 168. Study a dairy cow on your farm, locating all the points given in the text and figures. 169. Milk one quart of milk, using every precaution mentioned in the text, both in the milking and in the cleaning of the vessels. Place this beside a quart milked in the ordinary way and placed in vessels cleaned in the ordinary manner. Test both after ten, twelve, fifteen, eighteen, twenty-four hours to see which keeps best and has the best flavor. 170. Take tliree quarts of freshly drawn milk. Cool one at once to the temperature of spring or well water and keep it at that tem- perature. Wait an hour and then treat the second quart in the same way. Leave the third quart exposed to the summer heat all the time. Test these after six, ten, fifteen, and twenty-four hours and note the acidity and flavor of each. 344 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 171. Allow several gallons of fresh milk to clabber, churn one-third as soon as it is clabber, churn another third twelve hours later, and the other third twenty-four hours later. Note the effect in each case on the butter and on the buttermilk. 172. Take several gallons of sour milk, churn one-third of it at a tem- perature of fifty degrees, one-third at sixty, and one-third at seventy-five degrees. Note the effect of the different tempera- tures on the butter and buttermilk. 173. Take three quarts of fresh milk. Sterilize one, pasteurize another, do nothing to the third. Then place all three under the same conditions and taste each after twelve, eighteen, twenty-four, and forty-eight hours. 174. If your school has a Babcock tester, bring samples of milk from each cow and test for per cent of fat. Make test of milk drawn at the beginning of tlie milking and of that drawn when the udder is nearly empty. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Milk and Its Products," H. H. Wing. "Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products," Van Slyke Farmers' Bulletins: No. 29. "Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. No. 42. "Facts About Milk." No. 55. "The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management." No. 63. "Care of Milk on the Farm." Nos. 74, 363. "Milk as Food." Nos. 114, 162, 190. "Profitable and Unprofitable Cows." No. 149. "Effect of Exposure on Milk Production." No. 151. "Dairying in the South." No. 166. "Cheese-Making on the Farm." No. 201. "The Cream Separator on Western Farms.'* No. 241. "Butter-Making on the Farm." No. 348. "Bacteria in Milk." No. 349. "The Dairy Industry in the South." No. 355. "A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm." No. 366. "Effect of Machine-Milking on Cows." THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 345 Yearbooks, U. S. Department of Agriculture : 1896. "Care of Dairy Utensils." 1897. "Utilization of By-products of the Dairy." 1902. "Dairying at Home and Abroad." CHAPTER Xn" HORSES 282. The Modem Horse Not a Native of America.— The horse has probably been associated with man longer than any other domestic animul. A prehistoric horse evidently ex- isted in North America at one time, but the modern horse had its beginning here with the early settlement of the coun- try by Europeans. 283. Importance of Horse-Raising in Texas. — Practically the whole State of Texas is well adapted to successful horse- raising, the western portion being especially so on account of its limestone soil and dry atmosphere. The former is ex- cellent for the growth of bone and feet of good texture and the latter for the development of strong lungs, which are essential to stamina and endurance. The number of horses in Texas in January, 1910, was given as 1,369,000, and the average price per head as $73. The number of horses in lUinois at the same time was 1,655,000, with an average price of $124. Illinois ranks first in the Union in point of numbers, but in average value per head. New Jersey ranks first, with $134. Texas ranks third in point of numbers, but in average value per head this State ranks very low. This is because not enough attention has been given to the improvement of horses through careful selection and breeding. Every farmer who raises horses should strive to produce animals of a defi- nite recognized market type. He should decide on the type 346 HORSES 347 he wishes to produce and then work constantly toward that end. Only sound, pure-bred stallions should be used. It is just as cheap to raise a good horse that will fill a definite market class as an inferior one. Fig. 203. Points of the horse: 1, mouth; 2, nostril; 3, chin; 4, nose; 5, face; 6, forehead; 7, ear; 8, eye ; 9, lower jaw; 10, throatlatch; 11, windpipe; 12, crest; 13, withers; 14, shoulders; 15, breast; 16, arm; 17, elbow; 18, fore- arm; 19, knee; 20, cannon; 21, fetlock-joint; 22, pastern; 23, foot; 24, fore- flank; 25, heart girth; 26, back; 27, loin; 28, hip; 29, croup; 30, tail; 31, but- tocks; 32, coupling; 33, belly; 34, rear-flank; 35, thigh; 36, stifle; 37, quarters; 38, gaskins, or lower thigh; 39, hock. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 284. Judging Horses. — In judging horses it is usual to consider them in two general classes, namely, heavy or draft horses and light horses. Light horses are of three types : road, or light-harness horses; coach, or heavy-harness horses; saddle-horses. 348 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Road-Horses. Horses of this class are used to draw light vehicles at a good rate of speed, which they must be able to maintain for a considerable distance without undue fatigue. Their chief characteristics are speed and stamina. The form is rather angular, the chest is very deep, and the loin and hind-quarters, where the propelling power and chief strength of the horse reside, are very muscular. Long mus- cles because of their elasticity, and long bones because they afford good leverage, are most favorable to speed. Good quality is indicated by clean bone, soft, pliable skin, silky hair. Clean-cut features throughout are characteristic of the good roadster and are of great importance from the fact that they are closely associated with both endurance and durability. In action the feet should be moved in a straight line and carried well forward rather than very high. The stride .should be long, quick, and regular. Intelligence and courage are very important in the roadster and are generally possessed in a high degree in horses of this class. Coach-Horses. Horses of this class are used chiefly for drawing heavy vehicles, such as carriages and coaches, at a moderate rate of speed and in good style. Symmetry of form and high, stylish action are their most marked quali- ties. Coach-horses range in weight from eleven hundred to fourteen hundred pounds, and in height from fifteen hands to sixteen hands one inch. The form of the coach- horse is more compact and more smoothly turned than that of the roadster. It is characterized by fulness and sym- metry throughout, owing to the plumpness of the muscle over" all parts. A rather small, clean-cut head neatly at- tached to a well-arched neck is characteristic of the best type of coach-horse and contributes much toward style. Such HOKSES 349 horses also possess quality in a high degree. This is very important, not only on account of its association with dura- bilit}^ but because it adds greatly to the appearance of the animals. The coach-horse in action is a "high stepper." Fig. 204. American trotting stallion. Courtesy of "The Horse Review." The action should be high, snappy, smooth, and graceful, the length of stride found in the roadster being sacrificed for high carriage of knees and hocks. Saddle-Horses . The name of this class indicates the pur- pose for which horses belonging to it are used. Their weight ranges from nine hundred to twelve hundred pounds, and their height from fourteen hands three inches to sixteen hands. The typical saddle-horse with its smoothness and symmetry of form resembles somewhat the coach type, but 350 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From " Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig LIGHT HORSES MARKET SCALE OP POINTS stu- dent's SCORE GENERAL APPEARANCE Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating suf- ficient substance; tendons defined; hair and skin fine Tempekament, active, kind disposition HEAD AND NECK Head, lean, straight Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth sound Eyes, full, bright, clear, large Forehead, broad, full Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried and not far apart Neck, muscled; crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe large FORE-QUARTERS Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle, oblique, extending into back Arms, short, thrown forward Forearms, muscled, long, wide Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . Fetlocks, wide, straight Pasterns, strong, angle with groimd 45 degrees. Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense: frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the centre of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. From the side a perpendicular line dropping from the centre of the elbow-joint should fall upon the centre of the Imee and pastern joints and back of hoof HORSES 351 SCORE-CARD (Continued) LIGHT HORSES MARKET SCALE OP POINTS stand- ard points deficient stu- dent's score cor- rected BODY Withers, muscled and well finished at top 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 5 2 1 2 4 4 5 15 Ribs, long, sprung, close Back, straight, short, broad, muscled Loin, wide, short, thick Underline long' flank let down HIND-QUARTERS Hips, smooth, wide, level Croup, long, wide, muscular Tail, attached high well carried Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open-angled. . . Quarters, heavily muscled, deep Gaskin, or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular HocKs, clearly defined, wide, straight Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, setback. . . Fetlocks, wide, straight Pasterns, strong, sloping Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the pomt of the buttock should fall upon the centre of the hock, camion, pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line from the hip-joint should faU upon the centre of the foot and divide the gaskin in the mid- dle ; and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line ACTION Walk, elastic, quick, balanced Tkot, rapid, straight, regular, high Total 100 352 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING shows better quality or finish and better manners than any other class of horses. In beauty of form, style, and grace- ful carriage the best saddle-horses are unsurpassed. The action of the saddle-horse is very important. Besides being able to move in a straight, true manner, horses of this class should have the following gaits: (1) walk, (2) trot, (3) single foot, or rack, (4) canter, (5) slow pace, running walk, or fox trot. The market, however, recognizes a class of three- gaited saddle-horses, the gaits required being the walk, trot, and canter. In judging all classes great emphasis should be placed on sound, properly constructed feet and legs and strength of constitution. The score-card on pages 350 and 351 presents the points in detail to be considered in judging light horses from the market stand-point. Draft-Horses. Draft-horses range in weight from sixteen hundred pounds for the lighter sorts to twenty-two hun- dred pounds or even more for the heavier kinds. In height they range from fifteen hands three inches to seventeen hands. Weight, made up of heavy bone and muscle, is absolutely essential to the drafter in order that great power may be exerted in the collar. Whereas long, slender bones and muscles are conducive to quick action, comparatively short, heavy bones and thick muscles are conducive to power. The form of the typical draft-horse is therefore deep, wide, massive, and low set. Smoothness and sym- metry, as in other classes of horses, are also highly desirable. The points indicating good quality and strong constitution must be present here as in all other types of stock. The ex- pression "no foot no horse" is very often heard, but certainly is not applicable to any class of horses more than to draft- HORSES 353 ers. Their heavy bodies and the heavy work they have to do make large, sound, well-shaped feet^and sound, properly constructed limbs of the utmost importance. The action of draft-horses should be especially good at the walk, this being the gait at which they are generally required to per- FiG. 2U5. Draft type, I'crchcroa gelding. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. form their work. However, good action at the trot is also highly valued. The walk should be straight, smooth, quick, and well balanced, with good length of stride. The trot should be free, straight, and regular. The points in detail to be considered in judging draft-horses from the market stand-point are given in the card on pages 354 and 355. 285. Judging for Breeding Purposes. — In judging horses for breeding purposes the market demands must be kept in 354 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From Circular No. 29, Purdue University DRAFT-HORSES MARKET SCALE OP POINTS stand- ard POINTS deficient stu- dent's SCORE COB- bected GENERAL APPEARANCE— 19 per cent 1. Height, estimated hands; actual hands 2. Weight, over 1,600 lbs., estimated lbs., 6 4 6 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 8 3. Form, broad, massive, well proportioned, blocky, symmetrical 4. Quality, refined; bone clean, hard, large, strong; tendons clean, defined; skin and hair fine; feather, if present, silky 5. Temperament, energetic; disposition good , HEAD AND NECK— 9 per cent 6. Head, lean, proportionate size; profile straight. 7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 8. Forehead, broad, full 9. Eyes, full, bright, cleai-, same color 10. LttwER JAW, angles wide, clean 11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, open, free from 12. Neck, well muscled, arched; throatlatch clean; FORE-QUARTERS— 24 per cent 13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, 14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, well set 15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean 16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly supported 17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined, set back 18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong,clean 20. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide and one-fourth to one-half the lineal 21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the centre of the knee, cannon, pastern, and HORSES 355 SCORE-CARD {Continued) DRAFT-HORSES MARKET SCALE OF POINTS stand- ard points deficient stu- dent's SCORE cor- rected foot. From the side a perpendicular line dropping from the centre of the elbow-joint should fall upon the centre of the knee and 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 6 2 1 2 6 3 6 3 BODY— 9 PER CENT 22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close; coupling strong. . 24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled 25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled HIND-QUARTERS— 30 per cent 27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heavily 29. Tail, stylishly set and carried. . . 30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily muscled, thighs 32. HocKs, large, clean, strong, wide, well set 33. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined. . 34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean. . . 36. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide and one-fourth to one-half the lln- 37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the centre of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. From side, a perpendicular line from the hip-joint should fall upon the centre of the foot and divide the gasldn in the middle, and a perpendicular line from the point of the but- tock should run parallel with the line of the ACTION— 9 per cent 38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight 39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight Total 100 356 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING mind, and in addition certain special breeding requirements. These are similar to those given under judging cattle for breeding purposes. The animal must always be pure bred, should be representative of its class and breed, should have Fig. 206. Draft type, Clydesdale stallion. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. a strong constitution and all the other marks of prepotency. The male should be distinctly masculine in his character- istics and the female distinctly femimine. 286. Breeds of Light Horses. — The principal breeds of light horses are as follows: ROADSTER, OR LIGHT-HARNESS TYPE American trotter and pacer. Orloff trotter. HORSES 357 COACH, OR HEAVY-HARNESS TYPE Hackney. French coach. German coach. Cleveland bay. SADDLE TYPE American saddle-horse. Other breeds of light horses are the Arab and thorough- bred. The Arab breed is native to Arabia, where its develop- ment began several hundred years before the Christian era. It is therefore the oldest of our present-day breeds. It has been noted for its beauty of form, its style, quality, endurance, and intelligence. The size is not as great as that of the aver- age roadster, the height being from fourteen to fourteen and one-half hands. The color may be white, gray, bay, chest- nut, or black. The breed holds a place of great importance on account of the influence its blood has had in the develop- ment of many other breeds of light horses. The Thoroughbred horse had its origin in England toward the end of the seventeenth century. During this period several strains of Oriental horses, among which was the Arab, were crossed on the lighter English horses, thus producing the thoroughbred type. The breed is noted for its running speed, endurance, and quality, and for the influence it has had in the development of other breeds, notably the Ameri- can trotter and American saddle-horse. The height ranges from fourteen and one-half to sixteen and one-half hands, though from fifteen to fifteen and one-half hands is the most desirable height. The weight ranges from nine hundred to 358 FUNDAMENTALS OP FARMING ten hundred and fifty pounds. The color varies considerably, browns, bays, and chestnuts being most common. This breed has been used chiefly for racing, both here and in Eng- land. American Trotter and Pacer. The trotter and the pacer I^C^^J PL ^1 , M ft^..^, ' Um ^iJBipiiiw ^^,,. £^__^^p Fig. 207. Five-gaited saddle-horse. Courtesy of B. F. Hildebrand. are of the same breed, about the only difference being in the gaits. As the name indicates, this breed has been devel- oped in the United States. It owes its origin chiefly to the thoroughbred. The work of development began in the early part of the nineteenth century. The chief characteristics of the breed have already been set forth in the description of the roadster. The type varies considerably, however, and in addition to roadsters the breed furnishes many horses that HOKSES 359 are suited for carriage purposes. Practically all colors pe- culiar to horses are found among trotters and pacers, but brown and bay are the most common ones. The trotting mare Lou Dillon holds the world's trotting record for one mile, the time being one minute fifty-eight and one-half Fig. 208. French coach stallion. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. seconds. The pacing stallion Dan Patch holds the world's pacing record, the time being one minute fifty-five and one- half seconds. Hackney. The native home of the hackney is England. The development of the breed began in the eighteenth cen- tury, Arabian, Barb, Turkish, and thoroughbred stallions being crossed with the native mares of Norfolk and careful selection practised. The result is a breed of much uni- 360 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING formity of type, presenting the best traits of the coach- horse. There is considerable variation in height, but fif- teen and one-half to fifteen and three-quarters hands is the height desired by most breeders. The color varies a Fig. 209. Hackney stallion. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. great deal, chestnut, bay, and brown being common. A great many animals have white markings on legs, feet, and face. The French Coach and German Coach are similar to the hackney, except that the German coach is a little larger and has not quite as good action. American Saddle-Horse. Kentucky, Virginia, and Mis- souri have had most to do with the development of the American saddle-horse, often called the Kentucky saddle- HORSES 361 horse. The breed had its beginning during the early days of Kentucky, when there were no railroads and horseback travel was common, a condition that caused a demand for easy-gaited saddle-horses. The foundation of the breed was Fig. 210. Belgian stallion. Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. laid in crossing thoroughbred stallions of easy saddle gait on light types of mares possessing the same characteristic. This was followed by careful selection and resulted in a type of much uniformity. The chief characteristics of the breed were given under the description of market classes of horses. The color varies, but blacks and bays are most common. 287. Breeds of Draft-Horses. — The principal breeds of draft-horses are the Percheron, the Clydesdale, the Shire, the Belgian, and the Suffolk. 362 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The Percheron. The native home of the Percheron breed is France, chiefly in the district of La Perche. The best Percherons of to-day embody all the desirable features that were described in the discussion of the draft-horse. The color is generally gray or blauk. Mature stallions usually Fig. 211. Shire stallion. Courtesy of B. F. Hildebrand. weigh from seventeen hundred to twenty-one hundred pounds and mature females from fifteen hundred to nineteen hun- dred pounds. The breed is now widely distributed in this country and is easily the leader of the draft breeds in popu- larity. A number of Percherons are owned in Texas and do well there. The Clydesdale. Scotland is the native home of this breed, where its development began in the early part of the eigh- HORSES 363 teenth century. It is noted for its good feet, sloping pas- terns, quality of bone, and good action. A thick fringe of hair occurs on the back of the legs along the cannons, which is termed "feath- er." The color is generally bay or brown, with white in the face and on some part or all of the legs below the knees and hocks. Though Clydes- dales have been owned in the United States for many years, they have never gained the popu- larity here that they have in Canada. Clean-limbed horses are preferred by farmers here. The Shire. This breed of horses, which was developed in England, resembles somewhat the Clydesdale. The Shire is the largest of the draft breeds with the possible exception of the Belgian. Horses of this breed have been owned in the United States for many years, but the breed has never become popular. The Belgian. The native home of this breed Is Belgium, where it is bred under government supervision. Belgians are very compact and heavily built. Chestnut is the usual color, but roan, bay, and brown are common. Fig. 212. A iiooi] team nf mules. Courtesy of A. and M. Culleyc of Texas. 364 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The Suffolk. This breed is native to Suffolk County, Eng- land. The color of the breed is always chestnut, varying from a light to a dark shade. The type is quite uniform. The weight is not generally as great as that of other draft- horses. Suffolks have been imported into the United States to a limited extent. A few Suffolks are owned in Texas and seem well adapted to this State. 288. Mules. — ^The mule is a hybrid, having for its dam a mare and for its sire a jackass. Mules themselves cannot breed. The mule has been for long years the principal draft animal used in the South, and good mules are nearly always in demand at good prices. Texas is as well adapted to suc- cessful mule-raising as any other State in the Union. While Texas is far ahead in number of mules, the quality is very low, owing to the use of inferior jacks and small mares for breeding. As mules are used for draft animals they must have weight. Before our mules can take high rank it will be necessary first to breed our small mares to larger size by using pure-bred stallions of heavy type. Then by using the larger mares and selected jacks a better grade of mule will be produced. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 175. Find and score one horse of each type. 176. How many breeds of horses are there in yoiir community and what are they? 177. Plan with the teacher and class a Saturday trip to visit and score each type of horse in your community. 178. Study your references and draw a plan for a good practicable stable for your farm, having place for horses, cows, feed, and harness. HORSES 365 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," C. S. Plumb. " The Horse," I. P. Roberts. Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletins : No. 3. "Market Classes of Horses." No. 113. "Classification of American Carriage Horses." No. 124. "Suggestions for Horse and Mule Raising in the South." No. 137. "Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses." No. 138. "Swamp Fever of Horses." No. 178. "Breeding Horses for the United States Army." Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Illinois, Bulletin: No. 122. "Classes and Grades of Horses." CHAPTER XV SHEEP 289. Sheep in America and Texas. — Sheep were probably among the earUest of domesticated animals, but there were no sheep in North America prior to its settlement by Euro- peans. They are not grown in Texas in as large numbers as formerly, though the flocks of to-day show great improve- ment over those of former times. The number of sheep in Texas, January 1, 1910, is given as 1,909,000, and the average price per head as $2.90. The number in Wyoming at the same time is given as 7,136,000, and the average value per head as $4.40. Wyoming ranks first of the States in the Union in point of numbers. In Iowa on the same date the number was only 754,000, but the average value per head was $5.30, the highest of any State in the Union. These figures indicate that Texas, the largest State in the Union, could support a greatly increased number of sheep, and that the quality of sheep in this State should be greatly improved. The latter must be accomplished by the selection of better animals for breeding purposes, and especially by the use of pure-bred rams of high merit. Sheep are well adapted to most sections of Texas where the land is well drained. None of our domestic animals is better adapted to the arid western regions. It would be profitable for nearly every farmer in the State to make the raising of sheep a part of his farming operations. SHEEP 367 Sheep afford two sources of income, namely, mutton and wool. They surpass all other farm animals in destroying weeds, thereby making more room for valuable grasses to grow and making use of plants that otherwise would not only be of no value but detrimental. 290. Judging Sheep. — Method of Examination. In judg- ing sheep it is necessary in examining them to use the hands Fig. 213. Points of the sheep: 1, muzzle; 2, mouth; 3, lips; 4, nostril; 5, nose; 6, face; 7, forehead; 8, eye; 9, ear; 10, neck; 11, shoulder vein; 12, brisket; 13, top of shoulder; 14, shoulder; 15, cliest; 16, foreleg; 17, back; 18, loin; 19, rump; 20, crops; 21, ribs, or side; 22, hip; 23, fore-flank; 24, belly; 25, hmd flank; 26, leg of mutton, or thigh; 27, dock; 28, twist; 29, hind leg. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. as well as the eyes on account of the covering of wool hiding the shape. The use of the hands is important also in ex- amining the wool. The best plan is to begin the examination at the head and continue it over the body to the hind- quarters and then make a thorough examination of the fleece. In doing this it is very important that the hands be held flat with the fingers together in a sloping position, for in this way it is possible to feel the different parts of the sheep's 368 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING body without breaking the fleece. It is objectionable for the fingers to be stuck into the fleece because they make holes in it, thereby giving access to rain and dirt and detracting from the appearance. The illustrations in Figures 215 and Fi(!. 214. Mutton cuts on the sheep 1, let;- 2. loin: 'A. short t)ack, or rib; 4, breast; 5, chuck. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 216 show the correct method of handling sheep in making the examination. 291. General Classification of Sheep. — Sheep are diyided into two main classes, mutton sheep and fine-wool sheep. Mut- ton sheep have been developed primarily for mutton, with wool as a secondary consideration. Fine-woolled sheep have been developed primarily for wool with practically no regard for mutton. We find that the two classes are represented by two distinctly different types. SHEEP 369 SCORE-CARD From Purdue University Circular No. 29 MUTTON SHEEP SCALE OF POINTS stu- dent's SCORE 1. Age GENERAL APPEARANCE— 38 per cent 2. Weight, score according to age 3. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish. . 4. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; fine, pink skin; light in offal ; yielding high percentage of meat 5. Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in regions of valuable cuts. Points indicating ripeness are: thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full flank, plump breast HEAD AND NECK— 7 per cent 6. Muzzle, fine, mouth large; lips thin, nostrils large and open 7. Eves, large, clear, placid 8. Face, short; features clean cut 9. Forehead, broad, full 10. Ears, fine, alert 11. Neck, thick, short, free from folds FORE-QUARTERS— 7 per cent 12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top; snug 13. Brisket, neat, proportionate; breast wide 14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore- arm full ; shank smooth, fine BODY — 20 per cent 15. Chest, wide, deep, full 16. Ribs, Well sprung, long, close 17. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly fleshed. . . . 18. Loin, thick, broad, long HIND-QUARTERS— 16 per cent 19. Hips, far apart, level, smooth 20. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head 21. Thighs, full, deep, wide 22. Twist, plump, deep 23. Legs, straight, short, strong; shank fine, smooth WOOL— 12 PER cent 24. Quality, long, dense, even 25. Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even. . 26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light. . . . Fig. 215. Judging the sheep. Estimating: ^, fulness of neck; B, depth of chest; C, width of chest and covering of ribs; D, firmness and covering of back; E, width of loin; F, width of rump. 370 SHEEP 371 Fig. 216. Judging the sheep. Estimating: (V, length of rump; H, devel- opment of leg of mutton ; 7, first quality of wool and examining same ; J , poorest quality of wool and examining same. Figures 215 and 216, courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 292. Mutton Sheep. — Mutton sheep are divided in the same way that beef cattle are divided, into three classes — fat sheep, feeders, and breeders. With the sheep, the hind- quarter, loin, and ribs are the parts that produce the high- priced cuts. The score-card and Figures 215 and 216, to- gether with what was said on the steer, make all points plain. 293. Breeds of Mutton Sheep. — The breeds of mutton sheep are divided into two classes based on the character of 372 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING the wool. The two classes with the breeds included in each are as follows: MEDIUM-WOOLLED BREEDS LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS Southdown Leicester Shropshire Cotswold Oxford Down Lincoln Hampshire Down Dorset Horn Cheviot Suffolk Down Tunis Southdown. The native home of the Southdown breed is in the county of Sussex, England, the original stock being the native sheep of Sussex. The breed gets its name from the low range of chalky hills, known as the South Downs, which extend through the county. With its low-set, thick, smooth, plump form and high quality no breed of sheep ex- cels the Southdown for mutton. It is also noted for its hardy character. Southdown sheep are not heavy wool pro- ducers and lack in size. Mature rams average about one hundred and seventy-five pounds and mature ewes one hundred and thirty-five pounds. The average clip of wool per year for ewes is about six or seven pounds. Rams average a little higher. The color of the face, ears, and legs of the Southdown is grayish or reddish brown. They have wide adaptability and are justly popular. Shropshire. This breed of sheep originated in Shrop- shire and Staffordshire, England. The Shropshire is larger than the Southdown and produces a considerably heavier fleece. Mature rams average about two hundred and twenty- five pounds and ewes about one hundred and sixty pounds in weight. Ewes average from eight to ten pounds of wool per year and rams twelve to fifteen. The face, ears, and legs SHEEP 373 are usually dark brown or blackish brown. A distinguish- ing feature of the best specimens of the breed is the cover- ing of wool over the head and face, leaving only a small space bare around the mouth and nostrils. The ears should Fig. 217. Wether in fleece. Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. be covered with fine wool instead of hair, and the legs should be well covered with wool down to the feet. Oxford Down. The native home of this breed is Oxford County, England. It has a mixture of Southdown, Hamp- shire, and Cotswold blood. It is the largest of the medium- wooUed breeds. INIature rams weigh from two hundred and seventy five to three hundred pounds, while ewes weigh about two hundred pounds. The Oxford Down is also in the first rank in the amount of wool produced. A good flock should 374 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING average about twelve pounds of wool per year. Sheep of this breed are not so heavily wooUed over the head as 'the Shropshire, and the fleece is longer and more open. The color of the face and legs is a lighter brown than that of the Fig. 218. Wether shorn. Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. Shropshire. On account of their large size and heavy fleece they have gained considerable favor in this country. Hampshire Doivn. This is also an Enghsh breed, origi- nated by crossing Southdown rams on native ewes. It is next to the Oxford Down in size, but only medium in pro- duction of wool. The wool is not of high quality. There are many Hampshires in Texas, and they seem to be well suited to this region. They have the highly desirable qual- ity of dropping their lambs very early, earlier than any other mutton breed except the Dorset Horn. SHEEP 375 Dorset Horn. It Is thought that this breed originated through the careful selection of breeding animals from native stock that existed in Dorset and surrounding counties in England. The other breeds of sheep that have been dis- cussed are hornless, but this breed, in the case of both males and females, has horns. The color of the face, nostrils, legs, and hoofs is white. The head should have a short foretop of wool. The body should be well covered with wool, which should extend down to the knees and hocks. In size the Dorset Horn ranks as medium among the medium-woolled breeds. Mature rams average about two hundred and twenty-five pounds, and mature ewes one hundred and sixty- five pounds. As a wool producer the breed does not rank high. Mature rams average about nine pounds and mature ewes about six pounds of unwashed wool. The breed is es- pecially noted for the production of early lambs and for the good milk-producing qualities of the ewes, making them especially good mothers. Several high-class flocks are now owned in this country, chiefly in the Northeastern States. The fact that the ewes can be bred to drop lambs at practi- cally any time of the year should do much to make the breed popular in this country, especially in the South. Long-WooUed Breeds. The long-woolled breeds of mutton sheep are better suited to colder climates and hence are more popular in Canada than Texas. The Lincoln is the largest of all breeds of sheep, the rams averaging three hundred pounds in weight and the ewes two hundred and seventy-five pounds. The fleece of rams weighs eighteen to twenty pounds and of ewes about fifteen pounds. The wool is noted for its length and lustre. The Cotswold is next in size, with a fleece eight inches long and weighing about ten pounds. 376 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING The Leicester is the smallest of the long-woolled sheep, but has a fleece about the same weight as the Cotswold. The fleece of the long-woolled sheep is more open than that of the medium-woolled varieties. 294. Fine-WooUed Sheep.— The Merino or fine-woolled type of sheep possesses a type of body closely resembhng that of the dairy cow. In- stead of being full and square of form as is the mutton type, the Merino type is rather mus- cular and angular. The pro- duction of a heavy, dense fleece of fine quahty, evenly dis- tributed over the whole body, is the primary consideration in breeding Merino sheep. Spain is the native land of the Merino, but all the im- proved breeds are from other countries. The score-card gives points in detail to be con- sidered in judging sheep of this type. 295. Breeds of Fine-Woolled Sheep. — Fine-woolled sheep in the United States are chiefly represented by three breeds, American Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet. American Merino. This breed is simply an improved type of Spanish Merino, improved chiefly in this country. In size the American Merino varies considerably. Mature rams weigh from one hundred and thirty to over one hundred and fifty pounds, ewes average about one hundred pounds. Sheep of this breed stand in the front rank as to weight and quality Fig. 219. A good mutton type. Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. SHEEP SCORE-CARD From "Judging Live Stock," by J. C. Craig. 377 FINE-WOOLLED SHEEP MARKET SCALE OP POINTS stu- dent's SCORE GENERAL APPEARANCE Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square Quality, clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin.. HEAD AND NECK Muzzle, fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white. . Eyes, large, clear, placid Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat. . Forehead, broad, full Ears, soft, thick, velvety Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders .... FORE-QUARTERS Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide Legs, straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and fine BODY Chest, deep, full, indicating constitution Back, level, long; round ribbed Loin, wide, level Flank, low, making underline straight HIND-QUARTERS Hips, far apart, level, smooth Rump, long, level, wide Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine WOOL Kind — Domestic, clean and bright. Territory, dirty or discolored. fifanket | ^^""^ °^ having dead fibres. Class— Clothing, fibre under two inches in length or unsound. Delaine, fibre two or three inches in length. Combing, fibre over three inches in length and sound. Grade — Fine, medium, or coarse. Quantity — Long, dense, even covering, espe- cially over crown, cheek, armpit, liind legs, and belly Quality — Fine fibre, crimp close, regular; even quality including tops of folds Condition — Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distribution of yolk, with even surface to fleece Total 378 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING of fleece and strength of fibre. Mature rams shear about twenty pounds and ewes from twelve to fifteen pounds of unwashed wool. One two-year-old ram in Vermont sheared forty-four pounds three ounces. The length of the fleece of one year's growth is about two and one-half inches. The American Merino is characterized by heavy folds or wrinkles over the whole body except the back. This feature is much more pronounced than in the other fine-woolled breeds. The fleece covers the entire body and legs, leaving only the nose and ears bare. All of the fine-woolled breeds carry a much larger amount of oil or yolk in their fleeces than do the mut- ton breeds, but the American Merino carries more than any other breed. After a fleece of this breed has been scoured it may show a shrinkage in weight as high as sixty-five per cent. American Merino rams have large spirally twisted horns. The ewes are hornless. The large range flocks of Texas and other States of the West and Southwest were made up at one time largely of American Merinos. The breed is less popu- lar now, partly on account of the increasing demand for mutton and partly because of the demand for a type of sheep with fewer folds on the body, so that shearing may be less difficult. Delaine Merino. The Delaine Merino is a branch of the American Merino that has been developed especially in Ohio. The Delaine differs from the American Merino in the follow- ing ways : It is usually larger, is more thickly fleshed, thus making better mutton; is practically free of folds except about the neck; the fibre is longer, growing from three to five inches a year, but the fleece weighs less, partly on ac- count of having less oil in it; the rams may or may not have horns, the ewes are hornless. Delaine Merinos have K^ 1 ^^ ^ ff^i'i'i '^^m^B^dUfi m ^■■MHI^ ■■■■■^ij H&iv^ ^^^^^H 1 i Fig. 220. Mutton sheep: above, Shropshire ram lamb; centre, Cotswold rams; below. Southdown ewe. Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 380 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Fig. 221. Rambouillet ram above, I im in centre, Hampshire ram below. Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. become widely dis- tributed in theUnited States. Rams of this breed have been used extensively in the range flocks of the West and Southwest. Rambouillet. The native home of the Rambouillet is in France. In 1783 the French government purchased a large .farm near the village of Rambouillet for the purpose of de- veloping an im- proved type of fine- woolled sheep. It is from this village that the breed gets its name. The Ram- bouillet is the largest of the fine-woolled breeds. The average weight of mature rams is about one hundred and eighty- five pounds and of mature ewes one hundred and fifty to SHEEP 381 one hundred and sixty pounds. Mature rams shear on the average about ten pounds of wool per year. The fleece of the breed is not quite as fine as that of the other fine-woolled breeds and does not contain as much oil. The length for one year's growth is about three inches. In mutton qualities the Rambouillet is the best of the fine-woolled sheep. Folds occur usually only on the neck and breast. Rams usually have large spirally twisted horns, though some are hornless. The ewes are hornless. Wool covers the entire body and legs, leaving only the nose and ears bare. Numerous im- portations have been made into the United States and to-day the breed is extensively distributed throughout the country. On account of the ease with which it is sheared and its fairly good mutton qualities it has gained much favor in the West and Southwest, where the rams are used extensively. Goats 296. Uses of the Goat. — Goats are valued chiefly for the production of fleece called mohair, and for the production of milk and mutton. There have been no strains or breeds of goats developed primarily for mutton production. Though goat meat is used to some extent, the flesh of kid or young goat especially being of good quality and flavor, it has never become popular. Several breeds of milk goats have been developed in various countries, notably on the island of Malta, in Switzerland, Germany, Egypt, Abyssinia, and South Africa. In the United States milk goats have not come into much favor, though in recent years a number of importations have been made. The breed of- goats most 382 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING popular In the United States is the Angora, which has been developed primarily for its mohair. The Angora Goat. The native home of this goat is in the district of Angora, in Asia Minor. It is very probable that it has inhabited this region since before the Christian era. The Angora is adapted to a wide range of con- ditions, but seems to thrive best in a rather drychmate. Texas, New Mexico, and other South- western States are par- ticularly well adapted to the raising of Angoras, and are noted for large flocks of both pure breds and grades. Being browsers by nature and not grazing animals, they are very effective in destroying tree-sprouts from "cut-over" land and brush and undergrowth of all kinds. They are used extensively to keep down undergrowth. The Angora is smaller than the common goat, weighing usually from sixty to one hundred pounds. The back should be straight, shoulders and hips equal height, chest broad, body round, legs short and strong, head clean cut, eye bright, and muzzle broad. Avoid sloping rump, drooping head, and pinched nostril. The ears may be six to eight inches long and pendant or short and pointed. The fleece should be pure white, and should cover the entire body up to the ears and jaw. The mohair should grow to the length of about ten inches during a year, and should hang in tight ringlets or Fig. 222. Angora buck. Courtesy of Mr. J. V. Hardy. SHEEP 383 wavy curls that extend entirely to the skin. The fleece usu- ally weighs about three pounds, though many flocks average four or four and a half pounds. Occasionally animals produce heavier fleeces. The Angora sheds its fleece each spring if not shorn. On this account it is necessary in the South to shear rather early in the spring, usually during IMarch. If care is not taken to prevent goats from getting wet for flve or six weeks after shearing they often contract colds and heavy losses result. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 179. How many sheep are raised on your farm and what breeds are they? ISO. How many sheep could be raised on your farm without interfering with the crops now raised? 181. Make a plan for a small beginning in sheep-raising on yoiu- farm, finding exactly what this would cost and estimating the probable returns. 182. What other advantages not mentioned in the text are there in sheep- raising? What are the difficulties in the way in your locality? 183. What difficulties are there on your farm in the way of raising goats? 184. Find from your referen-es the best methods of caring for and pro- tecting sheep and explain these to the class. 185. If each sheep consumes 500 pounds of roughage, 50 cents' worth of pasture, and four bushels of oats a year, and produces seven pounds of wool and one lamb, what, at the prices in your com- munity, will a farmer gain or lose on a flock of 100 sheep? REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," C. S. Plumb. Farmers' Bulletins: No. 96. "Raising Sheep for Mutton." No. 119. "Establishing a Flock of Mutton Sheep." No. 137. "The Angora Goat." No. 159. "Scab in Sheep." 384 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture Circulars: No. 81. "The Sheep Industry of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France." No. 94. "Foot Rot of Sheep." Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Illinois, Bulletin: No. 129. "Market Classes and Grades of Sheep." CHAPTER XVI HOGS 297. Importance of the Hog Industry in Texas. — Hogs should be one of the most important factors in diversified farming. Very few farms are complete without them, es- pecially in the Southwest. As a rule the farmer who does not count them as one of his principal crops does not realize from his farm what it is capable of yielding him. Not only can the farmer through raising hogs often produce his own meat supply, by feeding what would otherwise be wasted, but he can market much of his grain and forage crops more profitably when converted into pork and lard than in any other form. The hog is excelled only by the dairy cow in economy in converting foodstuff into an animal product for use as food by man. The number of hogs in Texas January 1, 1910, was reported to be 3,205,000, and the average price per head was $6.60. Iowa ranks first in number of hogs, having 6,485,000, valued at $11.30 each. Rhode Island and Connecticut rank first in point of value per head, this being in these States $12.50. Texas ranks third in numbers, but in the average price per head her rank is very low. In many respects Texas is better adapted to successful hog-raising than Iowa. Our farm- 385 386 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ers can grow successfully not only corn and other grains suited to hogs, but they can grow also different kinds of green forage crops practically throughout the year. These green forage crops which hogs may graze and harvest themselves Pig. 223. Wholesale pork cuts located on the live animal: 1, 2, shoulder; 3, loin; 4, belly; 5, ham. Pure-bred Berkshire barrow. From Purdue University Circular No. 29. are among the most important factors in the economical pro- duction of pork. Hence, with her natural advantages Texas could easily rank first as a hog-raising State both in respect to numbers and value per head. In order to do this, how- ever, Texas farmers must give more attention to the selection of good breeding stock and must learn to feed and care for their hogs better. In all cases only good, pure-bred males of the chosen breed should be used. The scrub and grade malie should be sent to the butcher's block. The cost of a pure- bred boar is so small that there is no excuse for breeding scrub hogs. The pure breds and grades not only grow to larger HOGS 387 size, but mature earlier and have weight in those parts of the body that furnish the high-price cuts. The demand for ham, bacon, lard, and other hog products is steadily increasing, and with proper management a good margin of profit exists in producing hogs for the market. The meat that is used at ^^^^v_^ i Fig. 224. Wholesale pork cuts: 1, short.-cut ham ; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, pic- nic butt; 6, Boston butt; 6, jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2,3,8, side; 2, 8, back; 4, 7, picnic shoulder; 5, 9, shoulder butt; 8, 9, long fat back; 4, 5, 7, 9, rough shoulder. From Purdue University Circular No. 29. home can be produced on the farm much more cheaply than it can be bought. 298. The Care of Hogs. — Hogs are healthier and can be raised much more economically if they live partly on pasture and green crops than when kept in pens all the time and fed. They should usually have a little grain to balance their ration properly, but by growing such crops as alfalfa, clover, peas, soy-beans, vetch, sorghum, and pea-nuts for hogs the cost of pork is greatly reduced. A part of these crops may be har- vested by the hogs themselves. As the hog makes greater gain per hundred pounds of food consumed when it is young than when it is grown, it is usually 388 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING more profitable to grow them rapidly and sell before they are a year old. Sows need attention, especially at farrowing time, and should be protected against the weather, and the pigs should be pro- tected against the stupidity and awkwardness of the mother. Fig. 225. Points of the hog: 1, snout; 2, eye: 3, face: 4, ear; 5, jowl; 6, neck; 7,shoulder; 8,foreleg; 9,hindleg; 10, breast; 11, chest line; 12, back; 13, loin; 14. side; 15, tail; 16, fore flank; 17. hind flank; 18, hip; 19, rump; 20, belly; 21, ham; 22,' stifle; 23, hock; 24, pasterns; 25, dew-claw; 26, foot. From Purdue University Circular No. 29. The little cot shown in the cut offers one easy and Inexpen- sive means of meeting these needs. Further suggestions should be looked up in your references. Hog cholera, which for so many years was such a scourge, has now been conquered by the scientists, so that its ravages may be checked by making the hogs immune through a form of inoculation. Whenever hog cholera appears, notice should at once be sent to the Agricultural and Mechanical College HOGS 389 SCORE-CARD From Purdue University Circular No. 29 FAT HOGS SCALE OP POINTS stu- dent's SCORE GENERAL APPEARANCE— 30 per cent 1. Weight, score according to age 2. Form, deep, broad, medium length; smooth, compact, symmetrical; standing squarely on medium short legs 3. Quality, hair smooth and flue; bone medium size, clean, strong ; general appearance smooth and refined 4. Covering, finished; deep, even, mellow, free from lumps and wrinkles HEAD AND NECK — 8 per cent 5. Snout, medium length, not coarse 6. Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured by wrinkles 7. Pace, short; cheeks full 8. Ears, fine, medium size, attached neatly 9. Jowl, full, firm, neat 10. Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder FORE-QUARTERS— 12 per cent 11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact on top 12. Breast, full, smooth, neat 13. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, hard; pasterns short, strong, upright; feet medium size BODY— 33 PER cent 14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 1.5. Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length 16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and evenly covered 17. Loin, wide, tliick, strong 18. Belly, straight, smooth, firm HIND-QUARTERS— 17 per cent 19. Hips, wide apart, smooth 20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 21. Ham, heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, wide. . . . 22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, hard; pasterns short, strong, upright; feet medium sized Total 390 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING SCORE-CARD From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig BACON HOGS ]\ SCALE OF POINTS GENERAL APPEARANCE Weight, 170 to 200 lbs., largely the result of thick cover of firm flesh Form, long, level, smooth, deep Quality, hair fine; sldn thin; bone fine; firm, even covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, es- pecially in regions of valuable cuts HEAD AND NECK Snout, fine Eyes, full, mild, bright Face, slim Ears, trim, medium size Jowl, light, trim Neck, medium length, light FORE-QUARTERS Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, com- pact, and same width as back and hind-quar- ters. Breast, moderately wide, full Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pas- terns upright; feet medium size BODY Chest, deep, full girth Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth. . . Sides, long smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to end of hind-quarters. The side at all points should touch a straight edge run- ning from fore to liind quarter Ribs, deep Belly, trim, firm, thick, without any flabbiness or shrinkage at flank HIND-QUARTERS Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail. Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low toward hocks Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean; pasterns upright Total stu- dent's score 2 100 HOGS 391 and the help of an expert secured to eradicate it. In order to prevent disease getting a hold or spreading among hogs several precautions should be taken. First, any newly bought hog should be kept to himself for several days before being put with the other hogs; second, hogs should not be Fig. 226. The bacon type. Champion yearhng Tamworth sow. Courtesy of "Farm and Ranch." allowed to drink water that may be contaminated. Run- ning streams often carry infection into a farm; third, hogs should not be kept together in large herds, but in small herds separated from one another. 299. Judging Hogs. — Hogs are divided into two general classes: fat or lard hogs and bacon hogs. Fat Hogs supply the market's demand for lard, well-de- veloped hams and shoulders, broad, fat backs, broad, thick loins, and thick side meat. Such hogs necessarily have a deep, wide, thick form of medium length and short legs. The 392 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING best fat hog is one which will produce the highest per cent of dressed carcass of the best quality. This is the hog for which the butcher or packer will pay the highest price. The score-card on page 389 gives in detail the points to be con- sidered in judging fat hogs. Bacon Hogs. The bacon hog is comparatively narrow and upright in form, rather light in hams and shoulders, but long and deep in the sides. This type of hog supplies the market with bacon of the best quality. The points to be considered in judging bacon hogs are given in the score-card on page 390. Hogs for Breeding Purposes. In judging hogs for breed- ing purposes the same points must be kept in mind as in judging all other breeding animals. The animal must, in addition to being good from the market stand-point, be a typical representative of its breed, show evidence of a strong constitution, and the characteristics of its sex. The sow should have twelve fully developed teats and should be some- what longer of body than the boar of the same breed. It is especially important that she possess a gentle yet active dis- position, as a wild, nervous, or sluggish sow is Uable to injure her pigs. 300. Breeds of Fat Hogs. — The principal breeds of fat hogs are the Berkshire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Essex, Cheshire, Victoria, and Small Yorkshire. Berkshire. England is the native home of this breed of hogs. The Berkshire of to-day is characterized by a rather long body, short, dished face, and medium-sized, pointed, erect ears. The color is black, with white on face, feet, and tip of tail. White spots sometimes occur on the body, and though objectionable, they do not indicate impurity of breed. SM fPTBiay'^ Hj n ^f:m^?m ^P ^^^'W-' «^«s ml- - • "^' '^^^^yjMM M ^ 1. • '■ * . -. 'g^^- - ^^^^^ ■ n M^- "•"^i-tJ m si ^^ • , . - .*- V "Nt ,.-. .- . .--^ • Fig. 227. The lard or fat hog type: above, a BiTksliire hoar; in Poland-China sow; below, a Duroc-Jersey boar. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 394 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING In size, hogs of this breed rank from medium to large. Ma- ture boars in breeding condition average about five hundred pounds and mature sows about four hundred pounds. Many- individuals weigh much more. The breed is adapted to a very wide range of conditions and to-day is one of the most widely distributed breeds in the United States. It has proved to be well adapted to Southern conditions, and in Texas is one of the most popular breeds. Poland-China. This breed of hogs originated in the United States, chiefly in Ohio during the period between 1825 and 1840. The modern type of Poland-China shows much quality and a decidedly thick, low-set form of medium length. The head is broad and of medium length and the face is prac- tically straight. The ears should be of medium size and fine and the top third should droop. The color is generally black, with white on face, feet, and tip of tail. White spots on the body are not uncommon, however. In size the Poland- China holds about the same rank as the Berkshire. Some breeders have bred for a much larger type than have others. This breed has become widely distributed in the United States, and has met with special favor in the corn-belt region on account of its easy fattening and early maturing qualities. It is well adapted to the South, and in Texas has long been very popular. Duroc-J ersey . This American breed of hogs had its origin in the combination of the large, coarse Jersey Red of New Jersey with the finer red Duroc breed of New York. The breeders of these two breeds decided on a definite standard for the Duroc-Jersey in 1877. The best breeders of other red hogs soon afterward adopted the Duroc-Jersey standard and a systematic development of the breed followed. The HOGS 395 Duroc-Jersey of to-day resembles the Poland-China to a con- siderable degree except in color. The head is wide and of medium length and the face is only slightly dished. The ears are of medium size, the upper third droops forward. The color varies from a light or yellowish red to a cherry red, Fig. 228. Wigwam hog cot used at the Wisconsin Station. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. the latter being in greatest favor. In size the Duroc-Jersey ranks among the largest of the fat-hog breeds. ^Mature boars in good condition should average about six hundred pounds, and mature sows about five hundred. The breed is widely distributed in the United States, and has gained much favor. It is well adapted to the South, and in Texas is one of the most popular breeds. Chester White. This breed originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania, about the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury. It resulted from crossing a white hog common in that region known as the Big China with some white hogs of Yorkshire descent. This breed also resembles the Poland- China except in color, and is about the same weight. In the Eastern and corn-belt States the Chester White has long been held in high favor. It is not so well adapted to Southern con- 396 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING ditions as the Berkshire, Poland-China, and Duroc-Jersey, on account of its color. The long, hot summers of the South cause the skin to sun-scald and become scurfy. The Essex, Cheshire, Victoria, and Yorkshire breeds are not widely distributed in America. 301. Breeds of Bacon Hogs. — The breeds of bacon hogs are the Tamworth, the Large Yorkshire, and the Hampshire. The Tamworth is one of the oldest EngHsh breeds of hogs. Since the early part of the nineteenth century it has been improved through careful selection and without any infusion of foreign blood. The result is that to-day representatives of the breed are very uniform in type and color. Tam- worths are decidedly of the bacon type, being long and deep of body and lacking the width which characterizes the fat- hog breeds. The head is long of snout, the face is slightly dished, and the ears are rather large and carried erect or tilted slightly forward without drooping. The color varies from a dark to a light shade of red, a cherry red being pre- ferred. In size the breed is of the first rank. Mature boars average six hundred pounds and mature sows four hundred and fifty pounds. Some boars weigh as much as one thou- sand pounds. Tamworths are very hardy and are indus- trious in seeking food. The sows are noted for being pro- lific breeders. The breed is popular in Canada, where there is a greater demand for the bacon t^-pe of hog than in the United States. The Tamworth is well adapted to the South and is growing in favor here. Several good herds are owned in Texas. Large Yorkshire. This breed of hogs originated in Eng- land. It is quite uniform in type, with a long, deep body of medium width, making it well suited to bacon production. HOGS 397 The head is of medium length, the face somewhat dished, and the ears, though often inclined to droop, should be carried erect. The hair is white and the skin pink, with an occa- sional bluish or black spot. In size the Large Yorkshire is Fig. 229. These pigs are litter mates. The larger one is the boy's, the smaller one his father's. Good stock is necessary for best results, but good stock must have good care and feeding. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." one of the largest breeds of hogs. Mature boars usually weigh from six hundred to seven hundred pounds and mature sows from four hundred and fifty to six hundred. The boar occasionally weighs over a thousand. In Canada this is the leading breed of hogs. It is popular also in a few of the Northern States. A few Yorkshires are owned in 398 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Texas, but they are not well adapted to this and other South- ern States on account of their color. Hampshire. This breed, which was formerly called the Thin Rind, on account of its thin skin and soft, silky hair, has been bred for many years in Kentucky, Indiana, and Illi- nois. While it is raised in other States, including Texas, it has never become widely popular. A striking feature of the breed is a white belt from four to twelve inches wide encir- cling the black body about the shoulders and foreribs. In size this breed is medium. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 186. How much meat is bought per year on your farm, and how much does it cost? 187. How many hogs would it be necessary to raise per year to supply the meat needed on your farm, and how many acres of land would be required to feed the hogs? 188. Find out how much a yoimg boar and young sows of the lead- ing breeds cost in your community, and figure the expense of starting a small pure-bred or grade herd. 189. If it were true that a slow-growing scrub would give as large a car- cass per hundred pounds of food consumed as a pure-bred hog, what would still be the advantages in raising pvu:e-bred or high- grade hogs? 190. Get your father to let you feed and care for a litter of pigs. Keep an exact account of all food used, and find what it costs per pound to produce this meat. Charge all home-raised food at its market value and all bought food at cost. 191. What foodstuff is wasted on your farm that could be eaten by hogs? 192. Is there idle land on your farm on which crops could be grown easily for feeding hogs? REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING Farmers' Bulletins: No. 87. "Fecundity of Swine." No. 100. "Hog-Raising in the South." HOGS 399 No. 133. "Profitable Crops for Pigs." No. 183. "Meat on the Farm : Butchering, Curing, and Keeping." No. 205. "Pig Management." No. 222. "Market Classes and Grades of Swine." No. 379. "Hog Cholera." No. 438. "Hog-Houses." Bureau of Animal Industry Circulars: No. 41. "A Form of Hog Cholera Not Caused by Hog-Cholera Bacillus." No. 144. "Tuberculosis of Hogs: Its Cause and Suppression." Yearbook Reprints, U. S. Department of Agriculture: No. 484. "Recent Work of the Bureau of Animal Industry Con- cerning the Cause and Prevention of Hog Cholera." Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins, Urbana, Illinois: No. 97. "Market Classes and Grades of Swine." No. 147. "Market Classes and Grades of Meat." CHAPTER XVII POULTRY 302. Poultry in the United States. — For many years the raising of poultry on the farm was a mere incident, but in recent times it has been realized that fowls are one of the best- paying Jarm products. In the amount of human food that they supply per acre of ground used, poultry is surpassed only by the dairy cow. In many cases the money returns are even greater per acre than from the dairy cow. The value of the annual poultry production of the United States is now $500,000,000. Texas poultry is valued at a little less than $5,000,000, which is less than one-fourth the aver- age per capita production of other States. 303. Texas Well Suited to Poultry-Raising.— The dry soil and climate and mild winters of this State are highly favorable to poultry-raising. The long season of mild weather gives opportunity for fowls to exercise in the open, and to eat fresh, green food practically every day in the year. The absence of long, cold winters gives a longer growing and laying season. With intelligent care Texas could vastly in- crease her wealth through poultry-raising. 304. Advantages of Poultry on the Farm. — ^The fowls on a farm are almost a pure profit, as they range and largely feed themselves on grass, weed seed, bugs, and insects in- jurious to crops. They can be fed largely on waste vegeta- 400 POULTRY 401 bles and other material that would otherwise be of little value. The value of poultry as insect destroyers is also very great. They are, furthermore, a great advantage in supply- ing in small, convenient quantities at all times fresh, deli- FiG. 230. On the left is the annual product from the average hen, 75 eggs. On the right is the product of one of the good hens at the experiment station, 220 eggs. Why waste food and labor on poor stock? Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, DepartTtient of Extension. cious, and highly nutritious food. Mutton and a variety of fowls and their eggs make the farmer independent of the market. 305. How to Improve the Flock. — Chickens, like all other domesticated animals, vary greatly and respond rapidly to selection. It is stupid to waste time and space on hens that do not lay a hundred and fifty or more eggs a year, or on meat breeds that will not produce broilers within seventy- five days. A trio of pure breds or a setting of pure-bred eggs costs only a few dollars. At least pure-bred cocks can be used. In addition to this, one should put leg bands on his hens so that he can distinguish them and keep an account of 402 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING the good layers. The others should be killed off and the flock bred up exclusively from the eggs of the good layers. In addition to securing good stock, proper feeding and housing are essential. 306. Feeding of Poultry. — First of all, poultry must have a plentiful supply of clean, fresh water, so placed that they Fui. 231. On the left is a hen with strong constitution; on the right one with weak constitution. A bird having a strong constitution " should be active and show strong char- acter; its comb should be red; beak short, stout, and well curved; eye bright and clear; face rather short; head moderately broad; neck short and stout; back broad, with width well carried back; breast round and full; body rather long, deep, and broad; tail erect; legs moderately short, straight, and wide apart; bones in legs flat; plumage abundant and very glossy." Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department of Extension. cannot pollute it by getting their feet into it. Desirable types of feeding racks are shown in Figure 232. The foun- tain type of water supply is a very satisfactory one. An in- expensive substitute may be made by driving a nail hole one inch from the top of an empty can, then filling this with water and inverting it in a pan a little larger around than the can, and having a depth of two inches. The water will flow POULTRY 403 out till the hole is covered, when it will stop until the hole is uncovered again by the water being used out. Animals, like plants, must have proteid, carbohydrate, and mineral foods, hence fowls need a mixed diet. Where they get plenty of bugs and worms these supply the necessary protein, but when they are not to be had, skimmed milk. Fig. 232. On the left, a convenient out-door feed-hopper; in centre and on right, convenient and safe feeding and watering devices. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the University of Minnesota. beans, peas, clover, or alfalfa leaves, ground bones and meat scraps, or other form of protein must be provided. It takes a great deal of protein to produce eggs, as these are rich in protein. If hens are fed only corn and other foods that are largely carbohydrates they get too fat and do not lay. How- ever, not much of a concentrated protein food or of ground bone should be given at once, as fowls will eat too much and suffer serious indigestion. Cracked corn, wheat, oats, milo, Kafir, or other grain is good if properly balanced by some food with a larger proportion of protein. Where fowls are at large on the farm a mixture of two parts corn, one part wheat, and one part oats makes a good ration. Poultry must have also green food to thrive, and if not on a range with 404 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING plenty of green food this must be cut and supplied them. Green alfalfa and the clovers are especially good. In order to keep up the appetite and secure the best results there must be variety in the diet. For baby chicks the following mixtures are good foods: 1, equal parts by weight of finely ground corn, bran, and shorts mixed to a crumbly mass with sour skim milk ; 2, hard- boiled eggs, shell and all, mixed with four times their weight of dry bread. 307. Poultry Must Have Lime and Grit. — Lime is needed especially to make the egg-shell and may be supplied by providing cracked oyster-shell or slacked lime. Grit is necessary because of the fact that the chicken has no teeth, swallows its food whole, and must grind it up by rolling it around in the gizzard and crushing it with the grit and gravel kept there for this purpose. If the chicken range is not well supplied with gravel, then gravel, finely broken glass or crockery, cinders, or crushed stone must be provided, other- wise the digestion of the fowls will be seriously impaired. 308. The Chicken-House. — The movable poultry-house, made to hold only about forty and capable of being moved from place to place, is perhaps the best of all, as it enables one to use the chickens more widely in the fields as insect destroy' - ers, makes disease less probable by frequent change of posi- tion, and reduces expense of feed. This house costs more than a long stationary one, and requires more attention, but should be used more than it is. All kinds of poultry-houses need to be especially well ventilated, yet they must not admit draughts, as chickens easily take cold or catarrh, and these diseases interfere with growth and laying. The house should shut out the wind completely on the north and west, and be com- POULTRY 405 posed almost entirely of wire netting on the south and in part on the east. The south and east sides should be so arranged that a curtain can cover them in extremely bad weather. The house should be so constructed that the sunshine can reach well through it, as this is one of the best means of kill- FiG. 233. A model chicken-house. Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. ing disease germs. The floor should be of cement or of sand, raised above the level of the surrounding earth. Roosts should be smooth and movable, so as to be easily cleaned, and planks to catch droppings should be placed about ten inches below them. Figure 233 shows a standard plan for a chicken-house. These houses must be kept clean, dry, well aired and sunned if chickens are to thrive. 309. Protect Poultry From Insects. — Fowls must be pro- tected from insects. A plentiful supply of dry road dust or coal ashes should be kept in a box in the fowl-house, as the 406 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING dust bath is the fowl's natural method of suffocating lice. The house and everything in it must be occasionally white- washed or sprayed with sulphur or kerosene emulsion in order to kill the mites. Nests must be cleaned out, the straw burned, and the whole nest sprayed. When necessary, insect powder must be used on the fowls. An inexpensive insect powder is made by moistening plaster of Paris with a mixture of three parts of gasolene to one part of crude carbolic acid. The resulting brown powder should be worked into the feathers thoroughly. Some find it helpful to dip the fowls into a solution made of one part chloro- naphtholeuvi (kl5-r6-naf-th6'le-um) to fifty parts of water. By the use of these or of other means suggested in the ref- erences, which are not so troublesome as they sound, the returns from the poultry will be greatly increased. 310. Breeds of Chickens. — ^The American Poultry Asso- ciation recognizes fifty-five breeds of chickens. We can mention briefly only a few important ones. There are four types of chicken: the egg type, the meat type, the general- purpose type, and the ornamental type. The Egg Type. The Leghorns and ]\Iinorcas from the Mediterranean district are the best-known egg-laying breeds. They are too small and thin to be profitable to raise for meat. These all have smooth shanks, bright eyes, red combs, me- dium long bodies, and are active and nervous. The Meat Type. The Asiatic breeds, the Brahma, Cochin, Langshan, are the leaders of this type. They are poor layers, but make large, tender, plump, rapid-growing market fowls. They are large and sluggish, with feathers on their shanks. The General-Purpose Type. The American Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red, and the POULTRY 407 Orpington, are the best representatives of this class. They are excellent layers and are also large and early maturing enough to produce the best quality of market fowl. The Ornamental Type includes such breeds as the games and bantams. All of these types are raised in Texas, but the egg and general-purpose types are justly the favorites. The heavy, sluggish meat breeds with feathers on their shanks are not well suited to our conditions and climate. 311. Turkeys, Ducks, Guineas, and Geese. — ^These fowls should receive vastly greater attention than they do. The turkey and the guinea are natural insect destroyers, and the duck and goose are grass-eating fowls. These, too, you should study about in your references. 312. How to Keep Eggs Fresh a Year.— The use of the incubator and the brooder, the methods of killing and dress- ing fowls for market, and other interesting details you can learn from your references. In this brief course we have space only to tell how to keep spring eggs fresh for the next winter's use. Take one gallon of water glass, which should be bought at the drug store for one dollar or one dollar and a quarter, mix this with ten gallons of water that has been boiled. In this mixture place the perfectly fresh eggs each day as they are laid. If old eggs are put in they will spoil and ruin the others. This quantity should keep fifty dozen eggs perfectly for a year. Fresh eggs may also be kept for several months by packing them down carefully in salt. They must be covered perfectly. When one plans to put away eggs for winter use it is best to keep the laying hens separated from the rooster, as unfertilized eggs keep better than fertilized ones do. 408 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 193. How many chickens are there on your place? What breed are they? How are they fed and housed? How many eggs do they lay usually per year? 194. Keep a record of the eggs laid by the twelve best hens for a year. 195. Save all eggs from the best-laying hen and set them. Raise all pullets and one rooster from the chickens hatched, keep in a special lot, and continue breeding for several years, selecting each year the best layer and raising a new select brood for the breed- ing lot. 196. Study the bulletins in the references and draw a plan for a model continuous chicken-house and feeding-yards for two hundred chickens. 197. Study the bulletins and build a trap nest. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "How to Make Poultry Pay," E. C. Powell. "The American Standard of Perfection," J. H. Drevenstedt. Farmers' Bulletins: No. 51. "Standard Varieties of Chickens." No. 64. "Ducks and Geese." No. 177. "Squab-Raising." No. 186. "Rations for Laying Hens." No. 200. "Turkeys." No. 225. "Tiu-keys." No. 234. "The Guinea Fowl." No. 236. "Incubation and Incubators." No. 287. "Poultry Management." No. 355. "A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm." No. 357. "Methods of Poultry Management at the Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station." No. 445. "Marketing Eggs Through the Creamery." Bureau of Animal Industry Circulars: No. 64. "A New Nematode Parasite in the Crop of Chickens." No. 128. "White Diarrhoea of Chicks, with Notes on Coccidiosis in Birds." POULTRY 409 Bureau of Entomology Circular: No. 61. "How to Kill and Bleed Market Poultry." Texas Department of Agriculture Bulletin, Austin, Texas: No. 5. (New Series.) "Poultry-Raising in Texas." CHAPTER XVIII THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 313. How Animals Use Food. — The animal uses food in two general ways : first, to build up the body and repair used- up tissue; second, to furnish energy for the production of heat and motion. In the first, the animal acts very similarly to a plant, only instead of taking in crude food-material from the soil and air, and first manufacturing foods and then mak- ing tissue from these, the animal takes in the ready-made foods provided by the plants and turns these into flesh, bone, milk, wool, or other products. In the production of energy the animal acts similarly to an engine, only instead of burn- ing crude coal in a fire-box by admitting the oxygen of the air, the animal burns the foods and its own tissue by means of the oxygen admitted to the body through the lungs. Just as the growth of the plant is dependent upon the amount and kinds of food materials supplied, and the energy of the engine is limited to the fuel and oxygen used in the fire-box, so the growth and working capacity of the animal are fixed by the amount and kinds of food and air supplied. We can see then that in addition to securing stock of good blood it is neces- sary to feed and care for them intelligently if the highest re- turns are to be obtained. Let us then see of what the animal body is composed, how its energy is produced, and how the necessary materials may be most economically supplied. 314. Composition of Animal Bodies. — ^You will recall that plants are composed mainly of water, proteins, fats, and 410 THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 411 carbohydrates, together with a Httle mineral matter. The bodies of animals contain these same substances, which the animals secure by eating and digesting plants or the tissues of other animals that have lived on plants. It is true that the carbohydrates are not found in the animals' tissues, nor are the other compounds there in the exact form that they are in plants. But the carbohydrates are used in the body 8ither in making fats or in supplying energy. 315. Water in the Animal Body. — The ordinary animal body is from forty-three to sixty-seven per cent water, which is in the blood, other fluids, and all tissues, even the bones. Water cannot be combined with carbon dioxide in the animal body to form carbohydrates as it can in plants, but it is very important in many ways, helping to dissolve and carry around the foods and to carry out the waste materials. A plentiful supply of clean, palatable water is therefore the first essential of good feeding. A considerable part of this water is sup- plied in the green foods eaten. Green foods not only supply water, but also increase the digestibility of other foods with which they are eaten, because of being "appetizing." 316. Protein in the Animal Body. — Protein is used by the animal chiefly in making lean meat, blood, tendons, skin, hair, hoofs, feathers, eggs, and milk curds. Nothing else can take the place of protein for these purposes. It may also be used to some extent to supply energy and heat, which are, however, mainly and more economically supplied by the fats and carbohydrates. From this it is plain that all grow- ing animals, working animals, milk cows, laying hens, geese that are growing feathers, sheep or goats growing w^ool must have a plentiful supply of protein in their food, whereas rest- ing adult animals or fattening animals do not need so much 412 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING protein or nitrogenous (ni troj'e nus) food. This protein is found to some extent in practically all parts of all plants fed to stock, but in some, such as corn, Kafir corn, sorghum, and prairie hay, the proportion of protein is so small that these should be supplemented by some other food containing a higher per cent of protein. Wheat, bran, and shorts, cotton- seed meal, beans, peas, and other legumes and alfalfa leaves are rich in protein and make good nitrogenous material to mix with the carbonaceous (kar bo na'shus) foods, or those containing mainly carbohydrates and fats. 317. The Use of Carbohydrates and Fat by Animals. — Animals neither manufacture carbohydrates in the body nor store them as do plants, nor is the fat which is stored by the animal exactly the same as that in the plant. The animal, however, uses the plant fats and carbohydrates in the pro- duction both of animal fat and of heat and energy. The carbohydrates, being rich in carbon, furnish a much more economical material than protein for producing heat and energy by being burned in the body. The fats are even greater energy producers, one pound of fat being equal to two and one-fourth pounds of carbohydrates. The animal fat may accumulate in the body far beyond the present needs and be stored for future use. The amount of fat stored within the body depends upon the animal, the age, the work being done, and the food supplied. Animals hard at work or exposed to excessive cold have to use up the fat to supply energy and heat. The amount of fat in the body varies from five per cent to thirty per cent of the body weight. Carbohydrates are present in all plants in the form of starch and sugar and of crude fibre. Sugar and starch are THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 413 easy to digest and high in nutritive value; the fibre is hard to digest and low in nutritive value. Corn, Kafir corn, milo, rice polish, and molasses are especially rich in digestible carbohydrates. Fat is not so widely and plentifully dis- SOURCES OP SUPPLY -o" THE VEGETABLE SOURCES MINERAL VEGETABLE • ANIMAL ANIMAL A Wal-e \ I Carbon | •' [ ^J Hydrogen I- Proteins —^ Lean Meat Bone Fig. 234. For the sake of clearness certain details are omitted in the above diagram. For example, bone has some other matter in it besides ash, and pro- tein has in it some of the elements in the lower group of minerals. The diagram is in general correct and affords a good summary to keep in mind. tributed as the carbohydrates, though all plants contain a little. Pea-nuts, cotton-seed, and soy-beans are especially rich in fat. 318. Mineral Matter in Animals. — Mineral matter is found in all parts of the animal — in the blood, digestive fluids, and protoplasm, as well as in the bones. From two to five per cent of the animal body is mineral. These minerals are also in all plants, and are usually obtained by animals in suf- ficient quantities from any ordinary food. On a highly con- centrated ration given to penned pigs or chickens there may be a deficiency of mineral matter, which is usually supplied 414 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING to the pig in the form of ashes, and to the chicken in the form of sliell or cut bone. 319. Air, Shelter, Exercise, Rest, and Kind Treatment.— We have seen that all energy, even that by which the heart beats, the lungs expand and contract, the digestive system works, and other internal bodily activities are carried on, comes from the combination of oxygen with the compounds in the body. For this and other reasons a plentiful supply of fresh air through well- ventilated stables is essential to the highest success in stock-raising. On the other hand, cold draughts are dangerous, while standing out in the open through cold and stormy weather is injurious and uses up food for heat that should go toward flesh and energy produc- tion. Properly constructed stables and sheds, therefore, should be provided, having clean, dry beds so that animals may lie down and rest in comfort. It has been proved that a steer gives off from thirty to fifty per cent more heat when standing than when lying down, showing the increased amount of energy consumed in maintaining a standing po- sition. A well-ventilated, comfortable shelter for stock, therefore, quickly pays for itself. Animals differ from the engine in having a digestive sys- tem and assimilating powers by means of which they are able to repair the wear and tear of their own parts. They differ also in having minds that influence the activity of their di- gestive systems. Therefore all animals must be given exer- cise to improve appetite and digestion and to stir up the circulation of the blood, which helps to build new tissue and to carry off waste material from the body. They must likewise be given rest always before wear of the tissues is too great to be easily replaced. They must have kind treat- THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 415 ment, as the digestive system and other bodily organs do not work so well when animals are irritated and abused. 320. Proportion of Concentrates to Roughage in Rations. — A food, such as wheat or corn or cotton-seed meal, that contains a large per cent of nutriment is spoken of as a concentrate, whereas a coarse, rough food, such as hay or sorghum or fodder, that contains a comparatively small per cent of nutriment is called a roughage. The proportion of concentrates to roughage in the rations of animals varies greatly, and depends upon the class of animals fed, the pur- pose in view, and the character of the feed. Roughage, being generally cheaper than concentrates, should be utilized as much as the demands of the particular animal will allow. Generally speaking, growing stock, stock kept for breeding purposes, and idle horses may be given much the greater portion of their food in roughage. Fattening cattle usually give the best returns when the amount of concentrates in the ration is almost double the amount of roughage. On the other hand, dairy cattle generally produce milk most eco- nomically when the amount of roughage is about twice the amount of concentrates. Fattening sheep do best usually when roughage constitutes a little less than half of the ration and concentrates the remaining portion. Horses doing hard work require a ration of more than half concentrates, whereas horses doing light work may get along well on a ration made up chiefly of roughage of good quality. Many people allow horses all the roughage they will eat. This is not wise, as animals will overeat just as people do. The horse does not have a large stomach, hence feeding over twelve or fifteen pounds of hay to an average horse does harm instead of good. Owing to the nature of the hog's digestive system this animal 416 FUNDAMENIALS OF FARMING cannot utilize much coarse, bulky material, and therefore its ration must be made up practically altogether of concentrates. However, hogs may utilize advantageously tender green forage plants. 321. Diet Should Be Varied and Mixed. — It is always best to vary the diet from time to time, and to feed a mixed ration, as experience has shown that good flavor and variety improve the appetite and digestion of stock as well as of man. The daily ration should contain part roughage, part concen- trates, and part green succulent food. It is highly desirable that a portion of succulent or juicy food, either grass, fresh green crops, silage, turnips, or other root crops, be used all the time. 322. The Basis for Calculating Animal Rations. — By careful chemical analyses it has been found just how much each ordinary foodstuff contains of these veral nutrients (nu'tri ents), as the proteids, fats, and other materials that give nourishment are called. By repeated experiments it has also been found how much of each of these nutrients animals of different kinds and sizes need per day to supply their wants. The results of these analyses and experiments are given in Tables I and II. From these tables one can calculate for any animal the amount of each kind of foodstuff that should go into its ration, as the amount of food given in one day is called. A ration that contains the nutrients in such proportion and amounts as will meet, without excess of any nutrient, the full requirements of the animal is called a balanced ration. It is very important that animals be fed a balanced ration. If the ration is not balanced because of a lack of sufficient quantity of some nutrient, then the animal will be undernourished. It will not grow properly or will THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 417 TABLE I.— AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN COMMON FOODSTUFFS A modification of a table in Henry's " Feeds and Feedings " CONCENTRATES TOTAL DRY MATTER CRUDE PRO- TEIN CAR- BOHY- DRATES Dent corn Com and cob meal Kafir corn Ground Kaflr-corn heads . Milo-maize seed Ground milo-maize heads. Oats Wheat Wheat bran Wheat shorts Barley Rice Rice polish Rice bran Cotton-seed Cotton-seed meal Dried brewers' grains .... Wet brewers' grains Cow's milk Skim milk Cow-pea Soy-bean Tankage .894 .849 .901 .864 .910 .903 .896 .895 .881 .888 .892 .876 .892 .903 .897 .930 .913 .230 .128 .094 .854 .883 .930 .078 .044 .052 .042 .049 .042 .119 .130 .084 .064 .079 .076 .125 .376 .200 .049 .034 .029 .168 .291 .501 .600 .443 .424 .448 .450 .492 .675 .420 .457 .653 .792 .586 .388 .300 .214 .322 .094 .048 .053 .549 .233 .043 .029 .014 .012 .013 .011 .043 .015 .025 .045 .016 .004 .053 .073 .173 .096 .060 .017 .037 .003 .011 .146 .116 ROCGHAGI Cotton-seed hulls Corn stover Bermuda-grass hay Jolmson-grass hay Oat hay Prairie-grass hay Sorghum hay Cow-pea hay Alfalfa hay Oat straw Corn silage Sorghum silage Sweet potato Conmion beet Mangel Flat turnip Rutabaga .889 .595 .908 .914 .895 .919 .908 .264 .239 .289 .115 .091 .099 .114 .003 .014 .064 .029 .047 .030 .039 .092 .105 .013 .014 .001 .008 .012 .010 .009 .010 .332 .312 .449 .456 .367 .429 .441 .393 .405 .395 .142 .135 .229 .079 .055 .064 .081 .017 .007 .016 .008 .017 .016 .022* .013 .009 .008 .007 .002 .003 .001 .002 .001 .002 Determined by Texas Experiment Station. 418 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING TABLE II.— AMOUNTS OF FOOD REQUIRED PER DAY BY VARIOUS ANIMALS PER 1,000 POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT From Henry's " Feeds and Feeding " 1. Oxen At rest in stall At light work At medium work At heavy work 2. Fattening cattle First period Second period Third period 3. Milch cows when yielding daily 11.0 pounds of milk 16.6 pounds of milk 22.0 pounds of milk 27.5 pounds of milk 4. Sheep Coarse-wool Fine-wool 5. Breeding ewes With lambs 6. Fattening sheep First period Second period 7. Horses Light work Medium work Heavy work 8. Brood sows 9. Fattening swine First period Second period Third period PER DAY PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS CRUDE PRO- TEIN 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.8 2.5 3.0 2.7 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.3 3.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 4.5 4.0 2.7 CAR- BOHY- DRATES 8.0 10.0 11.5 13.0 15.0 14.5 15.0 10.0 11.0 13.0 13.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 14.5 9.5 11.0 13.3 25.0 24.0 18.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4 THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 419 TABLE II.— AMOUNTS OF FOOD REQUIRED PER DAY BY VARIOUS ANIMALS PER 1,000 POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT {Continued) 10. Growing cattle, dairy breeds AGE IN AV. LIVE WT. MONTHS PER HEAD, LBS. 2-3 150 3-6 300 6-12 500 12-18 700 18-24 900 11. Growing cattle, beef breeds 2-3 160 3-6 330 6-12 550 12-18 750 18-24 950 12. Growing sheep, wool breeds 4-6 60 6-8 75 8-11 80 11-15 90 15-20 100 13. Growing sheep, mutton breeds 4-6 60 6-8 80 8-11 100 11-15 120 15-20 150 14. Growing swine, breeding stock 2-3 50 3-5 100 5-6 120 6-8 200 8-12 250 15. Growing fattening swine 2-3 50 3-5 100 5-6 150 6-8 200 9-12 300 PER DAY PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS CRUDE PRO- TEIN 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.8 1.5 4.2 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.8 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.8 1.5 4.4 3.5 3.0 2.2 2.0 7.6 4.8 3.7 2.8 2.1 7.6 5.0 4.3 CAR- BOHY- DRATES 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.5 12.0 13.0 12.8 13.2 12.5 12.0 15.4 13.8 11.5 11.2 10.8 15.5 15.0 14.3 12.6 12.0 28.0 22.5 21.3 18.7 15.3 28.0 23.1 22.3 20.5 18.3 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 2.0 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 420 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING not be able to do as much work as it should. If the ration is not balanced because of an excess of some nutrient, then food is being wasted, and often the animal is injured, as the excess puts a needless strain on the digestive system. The basis, then, of successful and economical stock-feeding lies in using a balanced ration. This ration would naturally differ with different animals and with the same animal under different conditions. Working and growing animals need a larger proportion of proteids, whereas fattening animals need a larger proportion of carbohydrates and fat. Let us now see how to calculate a balanced ration. 323. How to Calculate a Balanced Ration. — Suppose that we need a ration for a 900-pound dairy cow giving 22 pounds of milk per day, and the foodstuffs on hand are cotton-seed meal, corn, sorghum hay, and cow-pea hay. By consulting Table II we find that such a cow weighing 1,000 pounds needs 29 pounds of dry matter, 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, 13 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .5 pound of fat. A cow weighing 900 pounds will therefore need nine-tenths of this, or: dry matter, 26.1; protein, 2.25; carbohydrates, 11.7; fat, .45. There are several combinations of the mate- rials at hand that would give these amounts of nutrients. The best plan is to take first as a trial ration the amounts that you would judge to be about right; then calculate from the table the amounts of nutrients in that ration and correct deficiencies or excesses of any nutrient by additions or changes until the ration practically agrees with the re- quirements. As all dried foodstuffs have about ten per cent of water in them we shall need ten per cent more than 26.1 pounds, or 29 pounds, in order to get the 26.1 pounds of dry matter. This 29 pounds should consist of about 9 pounds THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 421 of concentrates and 20 pounds of roughage, though these need not be exact, provided the proper amount of each nutrient is present. Let us use for the first trial ration 9 pounds of corn, 10 pounds of sorghum hay, and 10 pounds of cow-pea hay, and see how much of each nutrient that would give. Referring to Table I we find the amounts of nutrients in each of these foods and multiplying the amount in 1 pound by the number of pounds used we get the follow- ing: PROTEIN CARBO- HYDRATE FAT 9 lbs. corn= 9 X .078 lbs. protein = 9 X .668 lbs. carbohydrate = 9 X .043 lbs. fat 10 lbs. sorghum hay = 10 X. 039 lbs. protein 10 X. 441 lbs. carbohydrate 10x.022 1bs. fat 10 lbs. cow-pea hay = 10 X .092 lbs. protein = 10 X .393 lbs. carbohydrate = 10x.013 1bs. fat .702 6.012 '.387' ■ .390 4.410 ".220' .920 3.930 ■.130' Total nutrients in the ration = Total demanded by the standard = 2.012 2.25 14.352 11.7 .737 .45 Comparing the total nutrients found in the trial ration with the standard ration we find .24 pound less of protein than is required, 2.65 pounds more of carbohydrates and .287 pound more fat than are required. In order to meet the requirements we must either increase the amount of 422 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING cow-pea hay to supply more protein and decrease the amount of sorghum hay to decrease the amount of carbohydrates and fat, or we must decrease the amount of corn to reduce the carbohydrates and add some cotton-seed meal to increase the protein. Let us next try this: 6 pounds of corn, 10 pounds of sorghum hay. 10 pounds of cow-pea hay, and H pounds of cotton-seed meal. Referring again to Table I we get the fol- lowing: PROTEIN CARBO- HYDRATE FAT 6 lbs. corn = 6X.078 lbs. protein 6 X .668 lbs. carbohydrate 6 X .043 lbs. fat 10 lbs. sorghum hay = 10 X .039 lbs. protein = 10 X .441 lbs. carbohydrate 10x.022 1bs. fat 10 lbs. cow-pea hay = 10 X .092 lbs. protein = 10 X .393 lbs. carbohydrate 10x.013 1bs. fat 1.5 lbs. cotton-seed meal = 1. 5 X. 376 lbs. protein = 1.5 X .214 lbs. carbohydrate 1.5x.096 1bs. fat .468 4.008 '.258 ' .390 4.410 '.220 ' .920 3.930 ■.130' ' .564 .321 ■.V44 ■ Total nutrients in the ration = Total required by the standard = Differences = 2.342 2.25 12.669 11.700 .752 .45 .092 .969 .302 This ration still does not meet the exact requirements, but is close enough to it for practical purposes. Of course, the THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 423 exact ration could be obtained in a few more trials, but such exactness is not necessary, as the standards are not them- selves absolutely exact. There are differences in the diges- tive powers and demands of animals of the same weight, and there are slight differences in the composition of hays and other foodstuffs when grown under different conditions, so that perfectly exact fitting to the standard is not required. The standards, however, fit the ordinary animal closely enough for practical purposes, and should always be con- sidered in feeding animals. Following the plan shown above you should now calculate rations for several different animals. Rule your note-book and write out everything just as it is done above. This seems quite complicated at first, but after a few examples it becomes easy. At first it is best to make a ration out of only three foodstuffs, as that is simpler. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 198. Draw a plan of the barn lot, barn, and stock shed on your place, give a description of them and tell in what respects they are right and in what wrong. 199. Make a plan for a barn lot, barn, and stock shed for your farm that meets the requirements indicated in this chapter. 200. Weigh the rations given two different kinds of stock on your farm. Calculate the nutrients in these, and if they are not nearly in accord with the standards, prepare rations out of the foodstuffs used that are properly balanced. 201. Try to plan another practical ration for these animals that will accomplish the same result at less expense. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Feeds and Feeding," W. A. Henry. "The Feeding of Animals," W. H. Jordan. 424 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Farmers' Bulletins: No. 22. "The Feeding of Farm Animals." No. 49. "Sheep-Feeding." No. 170. "Principles of Horse-Feeding." Nos. 222, 233, 251, 262, 276, 305, 316 cover several phases of feed- ing each. No. 320. "Protein Content for Forage Crops." No. 346. "The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Energy Value." No. 411. "Feeding Hogs in the South." Bureau Animal Industry Circular: No. 63. "A Review of Some Experimental Work in Pig-Feeding." Bureau Plant Industry Circular: No. 13. "Experiments in Range Improvements in Central Texas." Farmers' Institute Specialist, U. S. Department Agriculture, Farmers' Institute Lecture : No. 4. "Profitable Cattle-Feeding." CHAPTER XIX FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING Planning the Farm 324. Most Farms Are Without Plan. — An examination of the farms in any community reveals the fact that but few of them liave any well-marked-out plan along which to de- velop. Fields are irregular in size and shape, often incon- veniently arranged and located, necessitating much travel to get to them. Numerous corners in them render the fields difficult to cultivate, and make the full utilization of the land impossible. Irregularity in size of the different fields in- creases the difficulties encountered in planning satisfactory cropping and rotation systems. Buildings and fences are improperly located, thus interfering with economy in operat- ing the farm. Regard does not seem to have been given to the location of roads, lanes, runs, and pastures for stock. The orchard and the garden seem to have been located by chance, rather than in accord with any well-thought design. 325. Plan for Economy in Operation. — Good plans will save time and labor and allow the best and most economical use of equipment and the most complete and profitable utilization of the land. Plan to avoid unnecessary fences and field divisions. The dividing of tillable land into small fields is extravagant of fencing, wasteful of land and of labor and time in cultivating. To fence a square field of two and a half acres requires eighty rods of fencing. Allowing a strip 425 426 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING six feet wide around the field immediately inside the fence for turning uses up seven thousand seven hundred and seventy-six square feet, or seven and fifteen one hundredths FIELD D 12/2 ACRES ROAD Fig. 235. A 1 60-acre farm with poor plan of fields and poor cropping system. 1, dwelling; 2, barn; 3, tenant-houses. per cent of the field. To fence a square field of ten acres calls for only twice the amount of fencing necessary for the two-and-a-half-acre field, while the land necessary for turning is only fifteen thousand nine hundred and ninety-six square feet, or three and sixty-seven one hundredths per cent of FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 427 the field. The time consumed in turning in cultivating the two-and-one-half-acre field is twice as great in proportion to the area worked as in the ten-acre field. A fortv-acre field ROAD Fig. 236. The same 160-acre farm replanned for systematic management. 1, dwelling; 2, barn; 3, tenant-houses; 4, tool-house; 5, shed for calves and other young stock; H, yard and grove about house; I, orchard; J, garden; K, calf pasture; L, bam lot. would have a proportionately greater advantage over the ten-acre field. Long Fields permit of better use of machinery, teams, and labor in tillage than short ones, especially when rows are run 428 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING only one way. In proportion to the area covered, there is just half as much time and land consumed in turning when rows are doubled in length. On a fairly smooth-lying farm when the fields are made rectangular instead of square, each may have an entrance comparatively close to the barn and house, thus rendering them more quickly accessible, saving time and travel in going to and from work. Uniformity in size of fields is desirable, especially when it is important that the income from crops remain constant from year to year. The planning of cropping systems then becomes simplified, and satisfactory rotations may be more easily carried out. Before deciding upon the number of cultivated fields there shall be on the farm, the rotation or cropping system must be considered. For a three-year rota- tion three fields are sufficient. For a longer rotation more fields are desirable, or the larger ones may be divided between two or more crops. Each of the cultivated fields should be accessible either through a lane or pasture, so that teams may enter and crops be removed without going over crops growing in the other fields. 326. The Pasture. — Work stock render better service and last longer if they have a good pasture in which to graze while not at work. A good pasture affords the very best and cheapest food for live-stock, minimizes the danger from loss of hogs from disease, and reduces the cost of every pound of pork produced. On all general-purpose farms the past- ure is an essential to good management. It may perhaps be dispensed with on some of the smaller places where truck and orchard farming are followed exclusively. The pasture should be within easy reach of the farm, should be so ar- ranged that it can be divided into two or more fields to avoid FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 429 the necessity of different kinds of stock being together at times when one is liable to interfere with the welfare of the other. Hogs and cows with young calves will often be sub- jected to much annoyance by mules and by some horses. The pasture does not require frequent cultivation, and may therefore be on land somewhat uneven. It should have shade enough to give stock ample protection from storms and the heat of the sun. Beyond this limit, trees may be- come a disadvantage. Good, strong fences should surround every permanent pasture. Well-fenced pastures reduce the need of fences around other fields and on other parts of the farm. The pasture should be large enough to accommodate all the stock necessary on the farm. It should be so planted and handled as to furnish grazing during the entire growing period of the year. 327. The Wood Lot. — It is well on the general cotton, grain, and live-stock farm to reserve land enough for a wood lot to give the annual fuel supply and from which material, such as posts, usually needed in keeping up the place may be cut. Lands unsuited to cultivation, such as rough areas, fields remote from the centre of the place, or those of doubt- ful value in producing regular crops, may be devoted to tim- ber-growing. Land set apart for woods should be made to grow trees of value. Others should be worked out. The timber lot should be so managed as to give some harvest each year. It is wise to exclude stock from the lot upon which new trees are being started. The timber lot should not be used as a pasture unless the lot is extensive in area and the number of stock to run in it is very limited. 328. The Homestead. — The homestead should be con- venient to the main parts of the farm. It should be on a 430 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING well-elevated site, convenient to roads and main lines of travel. The dwelling-house should be far enough from the public road for the inmates to escape the dust, annoyance, and noise due to travel, hut not so far as to be inconvenient of approach. On a farm of one hundred and sixty acres or more, the house may be located from one hundred to two hundred yards from the road. On a smaller place, and espe- cially with a small house, it may be closer to the road. The Barn, the building second in importance on the farm, should be at a convenient distance in the rear of the house. There should be a number of trees between the house and the barn, both in order to cut off objectionable views and to serve as a protection of one building from the other in case of fire. The barn should be large enough to house the farm produce and furnish quarters for the stock. It can and should be of artistic design and good, durable construction without being excessively expensive. There should be a work-sJiop combined with a tool and im- plement shed or house. This building should be placed at a distance of at least one hundred feet from the barn and at a point easily accessible. Near the run for calves and other young stock there should be located quarters for young stock. This building calls for nothing expensive in structure, but should be substantially built. There should be a few well-planned poultry-houses, located at some distance from the barn and tool-house, planned with a view to sanitation. These buildings should be portable and may well be located in the orchard a part of the year. The hog-houses should be portable and located near to or in the hog pasture. At times they may be placed in the OUTLINE MAP OF FARM Designate each field by a letter and note acreage and crop hereon |iMi^iii!!i!H[iUUjiii: [!i! i j ! i i| |iiiium|ijM^^^ a i-'?j#liffl Fig. 237 Fac-simile of page in Farm Diary on which map of farm is drawn. 432 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING fields and lots in which some special crops are being grown for the hogs. 329. Tenant-Houses. — When the farm is larger than one family can work, provision should be made for tenant-houses. The location of these houses should receive more thought than is usually given such matters. Place them not too close to the barn, nor too far away. Usually they should be placed on the opposite side of the barn and lots from the cultivated fields. Make them comfortable, and give them a good coat of paint occasionally. Have a garden for each one. Atten- tion to such little details makes the places desirable and goes a great way toward solving the labor question. Farm Accounting 330. The Simplest System. — Though it is not possible for us to make a complete study of farm accounting at this time, we will call attention to the simplest method as yet devised, which was prepared by the office of Farm Manage- ment, United States Department of Agriculture. 331. The Farm Diary. — This is a book seven and three- quarter by nine and one-quarter inches in size, and con- tains, in addition to a page upon which the farmer draws the plan or outline of his entire farm, a special page for every day in the year. Figure 237 is a fac-simile of the page upon which the plan or outline of the farm is drawn, and Figure 238 is a copy of the page upon which the farmer writes the daily notes upon work performed by men and teams. 332. Explanation of Daily Notes. — A " man-hour " is one man's work for one hour, and a " horse-hour " is one horse's work for one hour, so that if a man works from six o'clock FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 433 until eleven-thirty in the morning, and from one o'clock until six o'clock in the afternoon, he works ten and one-half " man-hours." If he uses two horses to a cultivator, his team WEDNESDAY, JUNE 5, 1912 HOURS 1 MAN HORSE 6.00 to 11.30 A. M., John plowed field "A" (3.00 to 11.30 A. M., I repaired fence around field "A" 11.30 A. M. to 1.00 p. M., noon. 1.00 ^o 6.00 p. M., John plowed field "A" 1.00 to 6.00 p. M., I planted cow-peas on oat-stubble in field "C" 5i 5\ 5 5 11 10 10 Weather: Cloudy, threatening rain. Jim returned from college to-day. RECEIVED PAID OUT Coke, Murphy Co., for 1 ton oat hay Smith & Jones, for 10 bu. Irish potatoes, at $1.25 For 4 lbs. butter, at 35c $17.00 12.50 1.40 1.00 For 1 grade Jersey heifer 6 mo old $9.00 16.85 For groceries as per bill of this date $31.90 $25.85 Fig. 238. Copy of daily page from Farm Diary. The page in the diary is, of course, blank, and such matter as that printed above would be written in from day to day. has worked twice ten and one-half hours, or twenty-one "horse-hours." In addition to keeping an account of the work performed by men and teams, this page is also used for comments on the weather, the family, social events, etc. It will be observed that on June 5 the weather was cloudy 434 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING CORN ACCOUNT Year 19.... ACRES DR. CR. Plowing, at per acre Planting, at per acre First cultivation, at per acre Second cultivation at per acre Third cultivation at per acre Fourth cultivation at per acre Hoeing at per acre Interest on investment in equipment (teams, tools machinery etc ) Taxes Other items of expense per acre Other items of expense per acre Other items of expense per acre Other items of expense per acre Corn kept for own use bushels, value Fodder sold Fodder kept for own use value .... Silage tons at . . Totals Total orofit for loss") $ Prnfif (nr ]n^^^ Fig. 253. Attractive screen of Georgia cane and castor-bean. Courtesy of Mr. A. S. Blankenship. are very satisfactory also for planting along the outer fence if a shrubbery border is impracticable. 372. Temporary Plantings. — While waiting for permanent plants to grow, very beautiful effects can be obtained by planting borders of annuals and herbaceous plants, such as Georgia cane, castor-bean, cannas, morning-glory, and Jack- bean vines. Cannas will often live through the winter if the stalks are cut off at the ground and the roots covered. The Jack bean is perennial in some parts of the State. An arbor covered with rapidly growing vines offers the HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 467 quickest way of getting a little shade in which to eat lunch on warm days. 373. Flowers. — The flowers edging the shrubbery borders should show a succession of bloom from early spring till frost. For constant bloomers, lantana, Shasta daisies, zin- nias, vinca rosium, petunias, salvia splendens, and verbena are reUable in most localities. For early bloomers nothing is more satisfactory than larkspurs, nasturtiums, Shirley poppies, and coreopses. For late summer and fall, plumbago, sunflowers, and cosmos are usually dependable. For Shasta daisies, lantana, salvia, and verbena get small plants from friends or the nursery. Plumbago roots should be planted. The others grow from seeds. Poppy and larkspur seeds should be planted in the fall. 374. The Lawn.— If grass is to be planted, Bermuda is excellent for spring and early summer, rescue-grass or bur- clover for winter lawn. To make a lawn of Bermuda grass, plow the ground and plant roots in March or April twelve inches apart and several inches deep. The seeds of rescue- grass or bur-clover may be thrown on a Bermuda sod in September, and after a good rain they will come up. The winter grass will unquestionably retard the appearance of the Bermuda in the spring, but as the school term closes soon after the Bermuda is green it may be advisable in many localities to depend upon the winter lawn. There are native grasses in some sections that may be used for the lawn. 375. Window Boxes and Potted Plants. — In window boxes should be used plants that will not grow tall and interfere with the proper lighting of the room. During the winter months when little or nothing is blooming out- 468 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING side, there should be a few pots containing geraniums, Christmas peppers, hyacinths, daffodils, or narcissi in the school-room. LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND FLOWERS These lists apply to central Texas for the most part, though they are not exhaustive even for this section. The effort has been to include only such plants as have been proved. For other parts of the State some plants here recommended would not do. On the other hand, many other sections afford a wider variety. Trees. — Fast-growing: catalpa, chinaberry, cotton- wood, box-elder, Japanese varnish-tree, silver-maple, sycamore, willow (in damp locali- ties). Moderately fast-growing: elm, hackberry, honey-locust. Slow-growing: black walnut, bois d'arc, hickory, live-oak, magnolia, pecan, post-oak, Spanish oak, water-oak. Small trees with light foliage: huisache, mesquite, Parkinsonia, prickly ash. Shrubs. — Deciduous: Acacia ponsiana, bridal-wreath (Spireareevesii), buckeye, crepe-myrtle, coral-berry, devil's-elbow, elderberry, flowering willow, lantana, lippia ligustrina, pomegranate, red-bud, skunk-bush, sumach, syringa (mock-orange), yupon (ilex decidua). Evergreen or practically so: Amoor River privet, cedar (native), chapparal (algerita), Chinese arbor-vitse, dusty-miller, euonymus ja- ponica, Japan privet, salt-cedar (tamarisk), wild peach, yupon (ilex vomitoria). Herbaceous Perennials. — Cannas, coral-tree, malvaviscus. Herbaceous Annuals. — Castor-bean, sunflower. Reeds and Canes. — Cat-tails (in damp places), pampas-grass, Georgia cane. Vines. — Evergreen or practically so: Cherokee rose, confederate jes- samine, coral-honeysuckle, Hall's honeysuckle, McCartney rose. Deciduous: Boston ivy, clematis virginiana (virgin's-bower), clematis paniculata (white), clematis, wild red and blue, grape-vines, trumpet- vine, Virginia creeper. Annual : balsam, cypress, gourd, Jack bean, Madeira, morning-glory. Plants for Shady Places. — Trailing vinca (periwinkle), evergreen sword-fern. HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 469 Blooming Time of Flowering Shrubs and Large Herbaceous Plants. — Spring: bridal-wreath, buckeye, dogwood, flowering quince (burning- bush), red-bud, syringa, wild plum. Late spring: acacia, huisache, Parkinsonia, pomegranate. Early summer: cannas, crepe-myrtle, elderberry, flowering willow, lantana, pomegranate, skunk-bush (clusters of red berries). Late summer and early fall: coral-berry (berries), lantana, malva- viscus. Blooming Time of Flowers. — From spring to fall — perennial : crinum, yellow day-lily, Shasta daisy; annual: four-o'clock, petunia, salvia splen- dens, verbena, vinca rosium (periwinkle), zinnia. Spring and early summer — perennial: amaryllis, common pinks, salvia Greggii ; annual and biennial: blue-bonnet, candy-tuft, coreopsis, corn-flower, fire-wheel (gaillardia), horsemint, larkspur, mignonette, nas- turtium, phlox, poppy, rose-moss, salvia farinacea (blue-sage), standing cypress (Texas plume), yarrow (milfoil), hollyhock (dwarf annual). Late summer and fall — perennial: fire-on-mountain, golden-rod, plum- bago; annual: bachelor-button (immortelle), cockscomb (amaranthus and celosia), cosmos (Klondike), pepper. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 212. Make a list of the trees and shrubs of your locality, indicating which are evergreen and which flowering. 213. Make a list of the wild flowers of your locality and find out the time of blooming of each. 214. Draw a diagram of your home grounds, showing house, barns, etc., and indicate plantings that might be made to improve the ap- pearance of the place. 215. Make a plan for the improvement of your school-yard, using, if possible, native plants. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Manual of Gardening," L. H. Bailey. Farmers' Bulletins: No. 134. "Tree-Planting on Rural School Grounds." No. 185. "Beautifying Home Grounds." No. 195. "Annual Flowering Plants." No. 248. "The Lawn." 470 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Cornell University Experiment Station Bulletins : No. 121. "Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery." No. 160. "Hints on Rural School Grounds." Cornell Reading Course for Farmers' Wives : Series 1, No. 5. "Flowers and the Flower Garden/ University of Texas, Department of Extension Bulletin: "The Improvement of School Grounds." CHAPTER XXII THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 376. Feeding the Farmer's Family as Important as Feeding the Farm Animals. — The intelligent farmer is now earnestly studying the care of animals and the right method of bal- ancing the rations for his hogs and horses in order that he may secure the greatest growth or the highest working ca- pacity in these animals. Is it not remarkable that only now and then does one of these farmers consider a balanced ration for himself and his family in order that they may grow and may perform the most efficient service ! The course in agri- culture has taught animal nutrition and food preparation for animals to the farmer boys, but it has taught the farmer girls nothing about the preparation and cooking of foods for human beings, and the balancing of the ration for the farmer's family. Which is the most important, the pig or the baby, the health and strength of father and mother or the weight of the steers? 377. Man Uses Same Nutrients as Other Animals. — Man's body has similar organs and is affected by much the same conditions that we saw affected animals. Water and air, exercise and rest, digestible food, shelter, and cheerful surroundings are all needed in the same way and for the same reasons. We need not repeat the reasons here. Man, being a more highly developed animal, needs more careful treatment, just as a fine, delicate watch needs to be more 471 472 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING carefully handled than a heavy, coarse clock. In addition, the presence of a greater mental life in man and the larger part in life played by his mind make it necessary that more attention be given to cheerful surroundings, and to attractive Fig. 254. Girls learning to cook at the County Rural High School, Tuleta, Texas. Courtesy of Miss Amanda Stoltzfus, lecturer on Rural Schools, University of Texas. appearance, appetizing flavors, and pleasing variety in foods served. 378. How Man Gets Protein. — INIan must have nitroge- nous foods to build up his muscle and other tissues just as must the farm animals. Protein may also serve to give heat and energy, but it is a very expensive body fuel and can be used in this way to advantage only to a very limited extent. The needed protein is secured by man mainly from lean THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 473 meats, eggs, milk, and cheese, or from the legumes and ce- reals. It may all be secured from legumes, cereals, and other plant foods, but as these usually have such a large per cent of carbohydrates in them, it is generally necessary, when one ■ B^^^i ^^^M ■ ■^ fijS^^^BP^HBr-. J»idi>;'li^^^H n ^^^■^^.^•■^ K^l Em ijSp^^^'' i^ ^^^^^E^l i^^^p ^^iff^r-;^a^^ mji ^ .^i^^^^H ^H |HI|^. -f^^" m m ^E ■ -^^^ y H Fig. 255. Mothers learning the principles of cooking and of dietetics at the County Rural High School, Tuleta, Texas. Courtesy of Miss Amanda Stoltzfus. eats only vegetable foods, to eat more carbohydrates than are needed in order to get enough protein. Furthermore, the vegetable protein is usually not so easy to digest as that found in animal foods. For these reasons it is usually thought best for man to eat a mixed diet and secure a considerable part of his protein from animal products. 379. How Man Secures Carbohydrates. — The cheapest and best energy-producing foods for man are the carbohy- 474 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING drates found in cereals and vegetables. Corn and wheat products, potatoes, rice, and other carbonaceous foods should make up a large part of our diet, because we need much more material to supply fuel and energy than we do to supply tissue. 380. How Man Secures Fats. — The fat is also used, as you know, in the same way that carbohydrates are, but as it has over twice the energy and fuel value of the carbohydrates, it should be taken in much smaller quantities. Bacon, the fat of other meats, lard, tallow, cream, and butter are the ani- mal fats used by man. Small quantities of fat are secured in most vegetables and cereals. A great deal of fat is se- cured from pea-nuts, nuts, olives, and the salad oils made from them, and from cotton-seed. 381. How the Necessary Minerals Are Secured. — While the minerals make up a small part of the body, they are in the blood and all tissues and are absolutely essential. There must be lime in the bones, iron in the blood, phosphorus in the brain, and so on ; otherwise the body weakens and finally dies. These minerals are secured to some extent from the animal products eaten. For example, lime is obtained from milk, sulphur from eggs, and phosphorus from fish. How- ever, the main supply of minerals is taken from the vegetable foods. Such vegetables as cabbage, spinach, carrots, let- tuce, and tomatoes, and many fruits, are especially rich in desirable mineral elements. For this reason, among others, we should have some of these in our diet each day. 382. Man Needs a "Balanced Ration."— With man as with animals, these several nutrients are needed in definite proportions, and a deficiency in one cannot in general be made up by excess of another. Fats and carbohydrates may THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 475 be used to some extent as substitutes for each otiier, and pro- tein may to some extent do the work of carbohydrates, but nothing else can take the place of protein or of the minerals. Man needs a properly "balanced ration" just as much as any other creature. The exact amounts of the various nutrients required by men of different sizes and under different kinds of labor have been worked out for man as they have been for the farm animals. In a more advanced course you can learn to cal- culate balanced diets with exactness. Fortunately, by observing a few general suggestions it is usually possible to keep a diet well enough balanced for prac- tical purposes without the exact weighing of the foods. 383. How to Secure a Weil-Balanced Diet. — As lean meat, eggs, milk, cheese, and the legumes are especially rich in protein, it is plain that we should not eat several kinds of meat, or meat and cheese and milk, or meat and eggs and milk, or meat and legumes and cheese, at one time. Usually one protein dish is enough to have at one meal. As much less protein is required than carbohydrates, much less meat or cheese than cereals and vegetables should be eaten. Most of us eat too much meat, especially when not at hard work. This excessive amount of meat is not all digested. The undigested part putrefies in the intestines, sends poisons into the blood, making us sleepy and "bilious," and if con- tinued long enough often causes serious diseases. As fats are such a concentrated food, very little fat should be eaten. As it is a heat and energy producer, very little is needed in a warm climate or in summer. In winter more fat is needed. The Eskimo in his ice hut lives largely on fat, because he needs the concentrated heat producer. Since all 476 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING undigested fat interferes seriously with the digestion of other things, and since the dimate of the South is mild, fat should be used with great moderation in this part of the country. Good butter is one of the most easily digested fats. Fried fats and gravies made from the fat of roasts are very hard to digest and should be eaten very sparingly. If the digestion is weak they should not be eaten at all. Cotton-seed oil and olive-oil in small quantities are fairly easily digested fats. 384. The Carbohydrates and Mineral Foods Are Taken Together in Cereals, Vegetables, and Fruits. — Some vege- tables have a much larger per cent of mineral than others. As the carbohydrates are needed in greater quantities than the other nutrients in order to provide heat and energy, these should make up the bulk of the meal. It is wise, however, to have only two, or at the most three, vegetables at one meal. When this is done there can be more variety from meal to meal, which is highly desirable. In selecting the vegetables and cereals it is best not to have several at once that contain large quantities of the same nutrients. For example, grits, rice, sweet potatoes, and Irish potatoes all contain much starch. It is best, therefore, to have only one of these at a meal and let the other vegetable or two be of the succulent type, such as cabbage, carrots, squash, spinach, tomatoes, lettuce, or onions. These furnish bulk, juiciness, flavor, and the needed mineral elements without overloading the system with carbohydrates. Fruits fill a place in the diet very simi- lar to the succulent vegetables and should be used constantly. 385. Bulk is Necessary in the Diet. — In order to keep the stomach and intestines working properly a certain bulk is demanded in the food. If this bulk is not supplied these organs become sluggish. The bulk demanded differs widely THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 477 with different people. The bulky vegetables and fruits have a low per cent of nutrients in them and are especially val- uable in furnishing the bulk needed by every one, and es- pecially by some, to keep the intestines active enough to throw out waste matter properly. 386. Summary. — By eating each day a moderate amount of one or two kinds of protein, a small amount of digestible fat, some cereal products, and several vegetables and fruits, combining one vegetable that is rich in carbohydrates with two that are rich in minerals and have bulk, juiciness, and fla- vor, we can most economically and pleasantly secure a well- balanced diet. Such a diet will completel}^ nourish without loading us with excess food that only interferes with our efficiency and finally produces disease. 387. Why Foods Are Cooked. — Foods are cooked to make them more healthful, more digestible, more palatable, and more agreeable to the eye. Raw meat is unsafe on account of germs or parasites that it may contain, as well as being disgusting in appearance. Raw starch is indigestible be- cause of the solid compact nature of the starch granules which require high heat to burst them. Unless we understand something of the nature of the foods we are cooking we may make them more indigestible than they were in the raw state. All starchy foods require a high temperature. This means that potatoes, cereals, and bread (at least in starting) should be cooked with a high heat. Fat should not be cooked with a high temperature, as this changes it into an indigestible form. This is one objection to fried food. Eggs and meats should be cooked at a low tempera- ture, as a high temperature hardens the protein contained in them and makes it difficult to digest. 478 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Suggestions as to methods by which the following prac- tical lessons may be carried out in the one-room country school may be found in Appendix VI. Eggs 388. Soft and Hard Cooked Eggs. — Put on the stove a stew-pan containing as many cups of water as there are eggs to be cooked. When the water is boiling put the eggs in carefully with a spoon, cover stew- pan, and set on back of stove where it will keep hot bid not boil. Leave from five to seven minutes for soft-cooked eggs, from forty to forty- five for hard-cooked. If the eggs are very cold when put into the water they take longer to cook than if they are not. In this way eggs are cooked at a low temperature and are more digestible than if boiled. 389. Poached Eggs. — It is easiest to poach only two or three eggs at a time. Have ready a shallow pan two-thirds full of boiling salted water, allowing one-half teaspoon * of salt to one quart of water. Put buttered muffin-rings into the water. Break each egg separately into a cup and slip carefully into a muffin-ring. If there are no muffin- rings, the eggs should be very carefully slipped into the water so as to have a good shape when cooked. The water should cover the eggs. When there is a film over the top, and the white is firm, remove with perforated skimmer to circular pieces of buttered toast and let each person season his own egg. Only perfectly fresh eggs can be poached successfully. 390. Omelet. — To four eggs add four tablespoons water, one-half teaspoon salt, and one-eighth teaspoon pepper. Mix all thoroughly. * In these recipes all measurements are level. A heaping spoonful may contain two or three spoonfuls, so that accuracy is possible only by using level measurements. A level measurement is made by first heaping the measure and then striking the surplus off by passing a knife-blade over the measure. A half spoonful is obtained by dividing the level spoonful in half lengthwise with a knife; a quarter, by then dividing the half. A cup means the regulation measuring-cup, which holds a half pint. The cups are marked in quarters. Ordinary tea- cups vary, and usually hold less than a half pint. THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 479 Heat a perfectly smooth frying-pan. Put in a tablespoon of bacon grease or butter. When hot pour in eggs. As soon as they have begun to cook, Hft from bottom and sides of pan with a spatula or knife, al- lowing the uncooked parts to run under the cooked. Never allow to stick or brown. When evenly cooked, but not hard, remove from fire. Run the knife along the edge, loosening the omelet from the sides of pan. Taking the handle of pan in the left hand and tilting the pan from you, begin to roll the omelet with the knife from the side on which the handle is. When omelet is rolled, hold the knife over it, and by inverting pan over the platter let it fall gently to platter. Milk, cream, or left-over gravy may be used instead of water in omelet. Milk tends to make a tough omelet. The same mixture may be used to make scrambled eggs, which are better if they have water or milk added than if the eggs are used alone. Omelet may be covered with grated cheese or finely chopped ham or chicken before being rolled. Peas or asparagus may be heated in white sauce and served on the same platter with omelet, or tomato sauce may be poured around. 391. Stuffed Eggs. — Cut four hard-cooked eggs in halves, crosswise, remove yolks, mash, and add to them two tablespoons grated cheese, one teaspoon vinegar, one-fourth teaspoon mustard ; salt and pepper to taste. Add enough melted butter to make the mixture the right con- sistency to shape. Make balls size of original yolks and refill whites- Arrange on serving-dish and garnish with parsley. If desired hot, ar- range in shallow baking-dish, pour over them one cup white sauce, and reheat. Do not bake, as the eggs will become very indigestible. Meats 392. Four General Methods. — There are four general methods of cooking meat: roasting, broiling, boiling, and frying. The method to use depends upon the cut of the meat and the result desired. In broil- ing and roasting, the object is to retain in the meat all of its juices. This is accomplished by cooking it for a short time at a high temperature, to sear the outside so as to hold in the juices, and then finishing the cooking at a lower temperature to break up the connective tissue. Meat may be boiled so as to accomplish this same end, or it may be 480 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING boiled for soup stock. In the latter case the object is to get the juice out of the meat into the water. 393. Broiled Steak. — Steak that is to be broiled should be tender. Trim off the outside skin and superfluous fat, and wipe the steak with a cloth wrung out of cold water. Grease a hissing- hot griddle with a very little of the fat from the steak. Place the steak on the griddle and turn every few seconds for the first minute. Do not stick with a fork, but turn with two spoons. After the steak has begun to brown reduce the heat and finish cooking with a slow fire, turning occasionally. Steak one inch thick will require six minutes if liked rare, seven minutes or longer if liked well done. Sprinkle with salt on both sides and pepper if desired, place on a hot platter, spread with butter, and serve on warm plates. 394. To Cook Tough Steak. — Take a round or other tough steak of an inch or more in thickness, trim, clean, and lay on meat board. Sprinkle with salt and pour on it one-half cup of flour. With the edge of a kitchen plate work the flour into the meat. Heat a skillet, put into it some fat trimmings or two tablespoons of bacon grease. Brown the steak on both sides in the hot fat, then add a cup of boiling water, cover skillet with close-fitting lid. An iron or other heavy object may be put on hd to keep it on tight so that the steam will not escape. Let steak simmer, not boil, for an hour, or until tender. Serve with the gravy on a hot platter. Onion may be added with the water if desired. 395. Roast. — Wipe off meat with cloth wrung out of cold water, rub in salt and pepper, dredge with flour. Place in roaster or pan and put in oven hot enough to cook the outside very quickly, or sear on top of stove and then put into oven. Reduce heat and baste every ten min- utes with fat that is tried out. If the roast is very lean it may be neces- sary to add fat. When meat is half done, turn it over and dredge with flour that this side may be uppermost for final browning. If there is danger of flour burning, add a little water. A five-pound roast requires one hour and twenty minutes to be well done. When roast is done take up on hot platter. Pour off all grease from pan but four tablespoons. To this add four tablespoons flour, mix thoroughly, and add one and a half cups of boiling water. Boil well, season with salt and pepper. 396. Pot Roast. — Prepare meat as above. Heat in an iron pot a little fat to a high temperature. Brown meat on all sides in this, add a THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 481 whole onion and a cup of boiling water. Cover the pot closely and cook very slowly until meat is tender. A four-pound roast requires three to four hours. Turn the roast once during the cooking and add more water if necessary. Make gravy as above. After this roast is seared it may be finished in a fireless cooker. 397. Boiled Leg of Mutton. — Remove entirely the thin outer skin but not the fat from the mutton, place in kettle, and cover with boiling water. Bring quickly to boiling point, boil five minutes, and skim. Set on back of range and simmer until tender. When half done add one tablespoon of salt. If desired brown, take out of water when tender, put in a hot oven for a few minutes and serve as roast. If not browned serve with white sauce made of one-half milk and one-half mutton stock (the water the mutton was boiled in). Into the sauce put two finely chopped hard-cooked eggs. 398. Liver and Bacon. — Cut liver one-fourth to one-half inch thick, let lie in cold water a few minutes, scald, drain, and remove skin and veins. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and dredge with flour. Brown in a little bacon grease. Add one small onion chopped fine and three- quarters of a cup of boiling water. Cover and let simmer fifteen min- utes. Serve with bacon cut thin and cooked crisp. 399. Chicken Pie.— Dress, clean, and cut a good-sized fowl. Put in a stew-pan, cover with boiling water, and cook slowly until tender, having added a lump of butter and salt and pepper to taste. Place the chicken in a baking-dish, add two tablespoons of butter in small pieces, a bit more salt, and a teaspoonful of chopped parsley leaves if liked. Make a batter with a cup of milk, two tablespoons of flour, and the beaten yellow of one egg. Pour this into the liquor in the stew-pan and bring to the boiling point. Pour this gravy on the chicken in the baking-dish. Sift a pint of flour, a half-teaspoon of bak- ing powder, and a teaspoon of salt. Mix with this a half-cup of lard, add enough milk to make a soft dough. Roll one-fourth inch thick, cut into diamonds, place over contents of baking-dish, bake quickly, and serve. 400. Left-over Meat. — There are many palatable ways of using left- over meat. It is well to remember that cooked meat does not require further cooking, but merely reheating. Cooked-over food is less di- gestible than freshly cooked. 482 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 401. Baked Hash. — Grind or chop pieces of left-over meat, mix with gravy, tomato sauce, or white sauce, and put into a buttered baking- dish which has been Hned with mashed potatoes or rice. Set dish in a pan of hot water, heat in a moderate oven. Serve in baking-dish. 402. Hash on Toast. — Instead of baking, heat hash in gravy or sauce and serve on toast. Sotips 403. How to Make Meat Soup. — In using meats to make soup we wish to extract all the juices from the meat. This is done by cutting the meat into small pieces, thus exposing as large a surface as possible for drawing out the juices and by soaking the pieces of meat in cold water one hour. Put the meat into this same water over the fire, bring very slowly to boiling point, set on back of stove, and let simmer until meat drops to pieces. If meat is allowed to boil, the proteins are hard- ened on the outside, the juices cannot be extracted, and the soup will lack flavor. Vegetables, spices, and salt should be added the last hour of cooking, potatoes the last half-hour. Soups made in this way can be very successfully cooked in the fireless cooker after being brought to the boiling point on the range. Formula for three pints of standard stock (beef, veal, chicken, mut- ton, or game) : 4 pounds meat (one-fourth bone). 4 pints cold water. 11 teaspoonfuls salt. 10 or 12 peppercorns. Sprig parsley. i of sweet pepper. H tablespoons each chopped carrot, onion, celery, turnip. Make according to directions above. Seasonings and vegetables may be varied to suit individual tastes. If allowed to cool, the fat is easily removed by laying gently a piece of tissue paper over the surface. The fat will adhere to the paper. This stock may be strained and kept for a short time, usually not more than a day in summer. When desired to use add whatever vegetables are liked. THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 483 404. Cream Soups. — A cream soup consists of a combination of meat or vegetable pulp and white sauce thinned as desired. Almost any vegetable, fish, or chicken may be used in a cream soup. When vege- table is cooked tender rub through a sieve, moistening now and then with the water in which it was cooked to make it go through strainer faster. Flour is used to bind the vegetable pulp and the liquid, thus giving the soup a smooth consistency. If butter is not used, the flour may be mixed with a little of the cold liquid and added to the hot soup. If butter is used, cream it and the floiu" together and then add it to the soup. In either case the soup should be boiled after the flour is added. 405. Cream of Tomato Soup. — Two cups tomatoes (one-half a quart can), one slice onion, two teaspoons sugar, one-quarter teaspoon soda, one quart of milk, foiu* tablespoons flour, one-quarter cup butter, one teaspoon salt, one-eighth teaspoon pepper. Cook tomatoes with onion and sugar fifteen minutes, take out onion, add soda, and rub through sieve. Cream butter and flour, add milk, and bring to boiling point. Simmer ten minutes to cook starch in flour. Add tomato pulp, salt and pepper, strain into hot tureen, and serve at once. Other creamed soups may be similarly made from asparagus, peas, beans, potatoes, etc., flavored with onion or parsley. With these soda is not needed. 406. Stews. — In stews the two processes used in boiling meat are combined. We like a richly flavored gravy, so we cut up a small part of the meat and treat as for soup. We also want the meat in the stew to have flavor, so we brown this quickly, add to the simmering meat, and let all simmer together until tender. Vegetables, such as carrots, tur- nips, and a small amount of onion, may be added the last hour, potatoes and tomatoes the last half-hour. Before serving, thicken with flour which has been mixed with a little cold water or with a little of the liquid which has been allowed to cool. Let it boil a few minutes after adding flour. Vegetables 407. General Directions. — The cooking of vegetables depends largely upon their composition. For example, potatoes contain such a large amount of water that they have sufficient in them to swell starch grains and cook the starch thoroughly. They may be cooked, therefore, as in 484 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING baking, without the addition of any water. Rice, on the contrary, con- tains only a very small per cent of water, and it is necessary to add a very large amount while cooking it. Old vegetables contain a tough woody fibre and it requires long cooking to soften this fibre, while young vegetables have very tender fibre which is easily softened and broken down by heat. Dried vegetables usually require longer cooking than fresh ones. They should be thoroughly washed and soaked over night before cook- ing. They should then be cooked in the water they have been soaked in. All vegetables should be carefully picked over, the bruised and de- cayed spots discarded, and vegetables thoroughly washed before cook- ing. The fresher the vegetables the better the flavor. When possible, gather young green vegetables just before cooking so they will not be- come wilted. It is better to wash the pods of green peas before shelling, instead of washing the peas. More of the flavor is retained in this way. A handful of fresh young pods added to the peas while cooking gives them a delicious flavor. They should be removed before the peas are served. Cabbage and cauliflower should be soaked for an hour in salt water or in water to which a little vinegar has been added before cooking. If there are any worms or other insects in them they will crawl out. Potatoes should be pared as thinly as possible. The most valuable mineral in the potato lies just beneath the skin, and this is entirely lost when a thick paring is removed. All vegetables should be put into boiling water and then boiled or simmered until tender. Potatoes and cauliflower should be boiled gently, as rapid boiling is likely to break down the outside before the centre is done. Strong-flavored vegetables, such as cauliflower, cabbage, onions, and mustard greens, should be cooked with the cover entirely removed from the vessel, and allowed to simmer only. There is no odor to cabbage when cooking if the water is never allowed to boil. Green peas and beans should be boiled gently until practically all the water in which they were cooked has evaporated. Much of the valua- ble mineral matter in vegetables is dissolved in water. If the water is poured off, the mineral is wasted , THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 485 It is essential tliat all vegetables be cooked thoroughly done. Some vegetables are digestible raw, most are digestible when thoroughly done, but none is digestible when half or two-thirds cooked. Salt and melted butter make the best seasoning for most vegetables, but by way of variety a white sauce may be used on almost any vege- table — peas, beans, carrots, potatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, asparagus, etc. Vegetables cooked for long hours in the pot with meat and served with the grease over them are indigestible. 408. White Sauce. — Two tablespoons butter, two tablespoons flour, one cup milk, one-quarter teaspoon salt. Melt butter in saucepan, add flour, mix thoroughly, heat milk slightly, add it to the butter and flour and cook until it boils up, stirring constantly. Add salt, and pep- per if desired. Thick sauce is made by using one more tablespoon of flour, thin sauce by using one tablespoon less. 409. Tomato Sauce. — This is made in the same way as white sauce, except that a cupful of tomato juice made by cooking and straining to- matoes is used instead of milk. 410. Boiled Rice. — Pick over a cupful of rice. Wash in several waters until water is clear. Have on stove a large vessel containing two quarts of boiling salted water. Add rice slowly so as not to stop the boiling. Boil from fifteen to thirty minutes, or until rice is tender. Do not stir while cooking. Drain in coarse strainer and pour through rice one quart of hot water, return to stew-pan in which it was cooked, cover with a cloth, place on back of range to dry. Kernels should be distinct. Rice may be started in boiling water and after a few min- utes put in a double boiler with milk to finish cooking. In this case the kernels will not be distinct, but the rice will be richer in nutritive value. 411. Grits should be started in boiling water, one cup of grits to four cups of boiling water, directly over the fire, and finished in the double boiler, or by setting the stew-pan in a vessel of boiling water. In this way there is no danger of its burning. 412. Left-over Vegetables are not as desirable as left-over meats. They lose much of their value by standing. The best way to use them is in salads. Almost any left-over vegetable makes a good salad. 413. Baked Rice. — One cup of cooked rice, three-quarters cup of white sauce, or sauce made from meat stock, two tablespoons grated cheese. 486 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAEMING Mix, put in buttered baking-dish, sprinkle with more grated cheese. Heat in moderate oven. Serve in baking-dish. 414. Waldorf Potatoes. — Cut cold boiled potatoes into cubes and mix with white sauce, allowing a half-cup of sauce to a cup of potatoes, having previously mixed in the same sauce four tablespoons of grated cheese. Put in a buttered baking-dish, cover with buttered crumbs, heat in oven until crumbs are light brown. Serve in baking-dish. To butter crumbs, melt a little butter and put crumbs into it. Salads 415. Made of Left-over Vegetables. — Left-over vegetables such as peas, beans, carrots, asparagus, etc., should have the butter rinsed off and be served cold as salads. Peas and carrots or peas and beets mixed make good salads. Cover with French dressing or cooked dressing. 416. Lettuce may be served with either French or boiled dressing. It can be varied by sprinkling with grated raw carrots. Lettuce and hard-cooked eggs with either dressing make a good salad. 417. Cole Slaw. — One-half small head of hard cabbage, one cupful cooked dressing. Soak cabbage in cold water thirty minutes. Shred fine and mix with dressing. 418. French Dressing. — One-half teaspoon salt, one-quarter teaspoon pepper, a few grains cayenne, six tablespoons olive oil, two to six table- spoons lemon juice or vinegar. Mix dry materials, add oil, and when mixed add the acid a few drops at a time. Beat until an emulsion is formed. Pour over the vegetable with which it is to be used and mix same until dressing is distributed. A few drops of onion juice or finely chopped onion may be added to dressing if desired. 419. Boiled Dressing. — One-quarter teaspoon salt, one-quarter tea- spoon mustard, one-quarter teaspoon sugar, and a few grains cayenne, yolks of two eggs, two tablespoons butter, three-quarters cup thin cream or milk, two tablespoons vinegar. Mix dry ingredients, add egg yolks, beat until well mixed, add butter and milk. Cook over hot water, stir- ring until thickened slightly, then add gradually the vinegar, stirring all the while. Set aside to cool. THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 487 Bread 420. Essentials of Bread-making. — Four things are essential to good bread-making : good flour, good yeast, careful mixing and kneading, care- ful baking. In selecting flour for bread choose a creamy rather than a snow-white one. It should have a gritty feeling when rubbed between the fingers. 421. How Bread is Made Light. — The rising of bread is caused by the setting free of carbon-dioxide gas within the dough. This gas, as it is formed, expands and stretches the dough. For the bread to be evenly risen, the material which produces the carbon dioxide must there- fore be evenly distributed throughout the dough. This is one reason why dough should be kneaded well. The carbon dioxide may be pro- duced by the action of yeast, or by a chemical action resulting from bringing together two such substances as soda and sour milk. The yeast which is used in making bread is a microscopically small fungus. You have learned in studying soils that certain fungi attack vegetable matter and in the changes produced carbon dioxide is given off. This is what happens in bread-making. A number of yeast fungi are put into dough and kept warm so that they will multiply, act on the dough, and generate the carbon dioxide. When enough yeast plants have been developed and gas produced to make the dough light, it is cooked to kill the fungi and stop further action. 422. Bread.— 1 cup scalded milk. 1 cup boiUng water, 1 tablespoon lard. \\ teaspoon salt. 1 yeast cake dissolved in \ cup luke-warm water. 1 tablespoon sugar. 6 or more cups sifted flour. Dissolve the yeast cake and sugar in luke-warm water. Put butter and salt in a perfectly clean pan or bowl, and add the milk and water, or all water may be used. Cool to luke-warm, add dissolved yeast cake, and sift in part of the flour, beat until the batter is light and porous- looking; this will save time in kneading. Add the remainder of the flour, mix well, and, unless the dough can be gathered in a ball on the end of 488 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING a spoon, more flour is necessary. Turn out on a floured bread board and knead well. The object in kneading bread is to make the gluten in the flour elastic and distribute the yeast evenly. Bread is kneafled sufficiently when it is elastic to the touch (press the finger lightly in the dough; if elastic it will spring back into place when press- ure is removed), has Ijubbles cm the surface, and does not stick to the board. Put the dough in a clean bowl, liglitly buttered or dampened with cold water, and brush a little water over the top to prevent a crust form- ing, cover with a clean cloth kept for that purpose, and set in a warm place to rise. When it has doubled its original size, remove to the board, again kneari for a few minutes, anrl divide into loaves. Piit each loaf in a greased pan, cover, and let it rise until it has again doubled in size. If it rises too long, it is likely to be sour and full of large holes. If it does not rise enough, it will be heavy and soggy. It is always better to bake each loaf in a separate pan. This will insure thorough baking and brown crust on all sides. The quantity given in this recipe will make two medium-sized loaves. It can be made and baked in five hours. By starting the bread early in the morning, the bread can be made and baked l)y the time the dinner is over. If it is made up at bedtime, and allowed to rise over night, one yeast cake will make twice the amount given in the recipe. In warm weather, however, there is danger of the bread rising too rapidly and of souring. 423. Baking Bread. — Bread is baked to kill the yeast plant and stop fermentation; to cook the starch, so that it will be thoroughly digestible; to improve the flavor; and to form a brown crust. The oven should be hot when the bread is first put into it. Turn the pans frequently the first six or eight minutes, so that the loaves will be even. At the end of fifteen minutes the loaves should begin to brown. Reduce the heat gradually. At the end of a half-hour the loaves should be well browned. Let them remain for another half-hour, but have a very moderate oven to com[)lete the baking. Ilemove from the pans at once and stand on end until thoroughly f;old. If bread is covered while warm, the crust will be soft instead of crisp. When thoroughly c-old put away in a tightly covered jar or tin box. Some of the dough may l)e removed after the first rising, marie into rolls, and baked for dinner or supper. They must rise until very light, THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 489 but if they are ready to make before it is time to use them, put them in the ice-Fx»x or in a cool place to prevent the further growth of the yeast. 424. Muffins. — One-quarter cup butter, one tablespoon sugar, one egg, one cup milk, two cups flour, four teaspoons baking powder, one teaspfxjn salt. Cream butter with stiff-handled tablespoon. Cream it until the butter feels like wax. Add sugar and beat to a creamy mass. Add beaten eggs, and blend well with butter and sugar. Add milk grafiually. Sift dry ingredients and a/id grariually. Beat until smooth. Butter muffin-pans well and fill them three-fourths full. Bake twenty- fi\e minutes in an oven that is hot enough to brown paj^er in eight minutes. 42o. Biscuits. — Two cups of flour, four teaspoons baking powder, one teaspe userJ, add to one pint of flour one-half teaspoon of soda and one teaspoon of baking jxjwder, with sufficient milk to make soft dough. Desserts 426. Boiled Custard. — One quart milk, six egg yolks, two-thirds cup sugar, one-quarter teaspoon salt, one teaspoon vanilla. Sf.-ald milk. Beat yolks slightly, add sugar, beat thoroughly. Dilute with a little of the milk, and add to the remainder of milk. Cocjk over hot water until the mixture will thinly coat a spoon. Stir while cooking. Add vanilla. Strain and allow to cool. The whites of three eggs may be l>eaten stiff and folded in just l>efore taking from fire, if desired. 427. Baked Custard. — One quart milk, five eggs, two-thirds cup sugar, one-quarter teaspoon salt, one teaspoon vanilla, grating of nutmeg. 490 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING Beat eggs until yolks and whites are well mixed, add sugar, salt, nutmeg, and milk. Strain into buttered baking-dish or individual cups. Cook TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS IN EDIBLE PARTS OF SOME COMMON FOODS ASH OR CARBO- Milk 0.7 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 Butter 3.0 11.0 1.0 85.0 Cheese 3.8 34.0 25.9 33.7 2.4 Eggs LO 73.7 13.4 10.5 Beef (sirloin) 1.0 61.3 19.0 19.1 Beef (round) LI 65.5 20.3 13.6 Mutton, leg LO 63.2 18.7 17.5 Fowl 1.0 63.7 19.3 16.3 Cod (boneless, salt) .... 19.0 55.0 27.3 0.3 Cod (fresh) 0.9 82.5 16.7 0.3 Oysters 1.1 88.3 6.0 1.3 3.3 Apples 0.3 84.6 0.4 0.5 13.0 0.5 75.3 1.3 0.6 21.0 100.0 Sugar Flour (white) 0.5 12.0 11.4 1.0 75.1 Flour (entire wheat). . . . 1.0 11.4 13.8 1.9 71.9 Bread 1.1 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 Crackers 1.8 6.8 10.7 8.8 71.9 Macaroni 1.3 1.0 0.4 10.3 12.5 12.3 13.4 9.2 7.8 0.9 1.9 0.3 74.1 75.4 79.0 Rice . Potatoes 1.0 3.5 2.9 78.0 12.6 9.5 2.2 22.5 24.6 0.1 1.8 1.0 18.4 59.6 62.0 Dried beans. . Dried peas Lettuce 0.9 94.7 1.2 0.3 2.9 Almonds 2.0 4.8 21.0 54.9 17.3 Raisins 2.3 14.6 2.6 3.3 76.1 Chocolate 2.2 5.9 12.9 48.7 30.3 in boiling water until firm. When done a silver knife stuck into the custard will come out clean. 428. Dried Fruits. — Dried fruits, such as prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, should be used in winter freely. The fruit should be washed, THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 491 picked over, always soaked over night in water, and cooked until tender in the same water, sugar being added just before taking the fruit up. 429. Wholesome Substitutes for Unwholesome Pies. — 1. Rice and Fruit. Line a bowl with left-over rice that has been slightly sweetened. Cover rice with apple sauce or other fruit sauce or stewed fruit. Serve with cream, plain or whipped, or boiled custard. 2. Blackberry Fool. Trim crust from some good bread, slice, spread thinly with butter. Put a layer of bread in a bowl, cover with black- berries which have been stewed until ready to fall to pieces in enough water to cover and sweetened to taste. Add another layer of bread, cover with berries as before, using all the juice. Let stand for an hour before serving. Serve with cream. Other fruits may be used in the same way. 430. Cookies. — One-half cup butter, one cup sugar, one egg, one- quarter cup milk, two teaspoons baking powder, three cups flour, or enough to make dough easily rolled out, one-half teaspoon vanilla, nutmeg. Sift flour and other dry ingredients together. Cream butter and sugar thoroughly. Add yolk slightly beaten, then a little milk, and vanilla, and a part of the flour. Add milk and flour alternately till both are used. Fold in the egg white beaten stiff. When dough is stiff enough to roll, turn out on a floured board, and with a floured rolling- pin roll one-quarter inch thick. Sprinkle with nutmeg; cut with bis- cuit cutter and place in shallow pans. Bake fifteen minutes in hot Beverages 431. Tea and Coffee. — Tea and coffee are not foods, and should be used in moderation if at all, as they contain substances injurious to the body. Keep tea and coffee in closely covered jars. Use freshly boiled water in making each. Water becomes flat in taste if allowed to boil long. 432. Tea. — One teaspoon tea, one cup boiling water. Scald pot, put in tea, and pour boiling water over it. Steep three to five minutes. Strain and serve immediately. Never drink tea that has stood longer than five minutes. If strength is desired, use more tea, do not steep longer. 492 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 433. Coffee. — Filtered coffee is considered by some to be less inju- rious than boiled coffee, but a special pot is required for making it. To make boiled coffee take twice as many level tablespoons of ground coffee as there are cups of coffee to be made. Add to the ground coffee one tablespoon of cold water and one egg shell for each cup. Mix thor- oughly, and add the required number of cups of freshly boiling water. Boil for three minutes. Pour in quarter oP a cup of cold water, set pot on the back of the stove where it w'ill keep hot but not boil for ten minutes. If not to be used at once, pour off from grounds, wash pot, and return coffee to it. In place of the egg shells, a little wliite of egg may be used. 434. Lemonade. — For each glass of water allow a half lemon and two or three teaspoons of sugar. Dissolve sugar in water and add lemon juice. A little of the rind and a little mint add a pleasant flavor. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 217. What articles of diet did you eat yesterday? Describe the method by which each was cooked and state whether this was done so as to make it most digestible and to retain the flavor best. State with regard to each article why you consider that it was properly or improperly cooked. 218. Write out the menus (me niiz) of your breakfast, dinner, and sup- per yesterday, consult the table on page 490, and see if there were too many dishes containing large amounts of protein. 219. Examine the table on page 490 and prepare a menu for a break- fast, a dinner, and a supper in which the several nutrients are balanced somewhat as suggested in paragraphs 382 to 385. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery," Mary E. Williams and Katharine R. Fisher. "Food and Dietetics," Alice P. Norton. Farmers' Bulletins: No. 34. "Meats: Composition and Cookery." No. 74. "Milk as a Food." THE PREPARATION AND USE OF FOODS 493 No. 85. "Fish as Food." No. 93. "Sugar as Food." No. 121. "Beans, Peas, and Other Leguminous Foods." No. 128. "Eggs and Their Use as Food." No. 129. "Sweet Potatoes." No. 142. "Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food." No. 175. "Home Manufacture and Use of Grape Juice." No. 182. "Poultry as Food." No. 203. "Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies." No. 232. "Okra: Its Culture and Uses." No. 249. "Cereal Breakfast Foods." No. 254. "Cucumbers." No. 256. "Preparation of Vegetables." No. 291. "Evaporation of Apples." No. 293. "Use of Fruit as Food." No. 295. "Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food." No. 298. "Food Value of Corn and Corn Products." No. 332. "Nuts and Their Use as Food." No. 359. "Canning Vegetables in the Home." No. 375. "Care of Food in the Home." No. 389. "Bread-Making." No. 391. "Economical Use of Meat in the Home." No. 413. "The Care of Milk and its Use in the Home." Bulletin University of Texas, Austin, Texas: "Teaching Cooking in Rural Schools." CHAPTER XXIII SEWING FOR A ONE-ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL 435. Fundamental Stitches Can Be Learned. — While only a very limited amount of sewing can be taught in the ordi- nary country school, this little is very important and may be made of great value. The pupils may be started right on the most fundamental stitches and be shown how they can learn the rest for themselves with least effort. It is surpris- ing how much can be taught with very simple equipment. The following equipment has proved most satisfactory. 436. Individual Equipment to Be Furnished by Pupils. — (1) Tape-line; (2) pair of good scissors; (3) thimble (alu- minum, celluloid, or silver; not brass) ; (4) paper of needles, Nos. 5-10; (5) thread, Nos. 50 and 80, white, red for basting; (6) emery to brighten needle when it becomes rusty; (7) pin- cushion; (8) pins; (9) cloth; (10) box in which to keep ma- terial and equipment. The boxes may be secured from a neighboring shoe store. The teacher can arrange to have them all of the same size and to have the class cover them with uniformly colored paper and label them. 437. General Equipment for Use of All, to Be Furnished by Pupils and Teacher. — (1) Pair of good scissors; (2) pat- terns and designs; (3) samples of different kinds of cloth collected from dry-goods stores; (4) collections of pictures showing kinds of stitches, finished garments, exhibits of work from other schools, processes in the history and manu- facture of different kinds of cloth. These and similar pict- 494 SEWING FOR A ONE-ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL 495 ures can be collected largely from current magazines; (5) reference material such as is suggested in the list at the end of this chapter. Inexpensive cases for equipment and finished pieces of work can be made from dry-goods boxes. Stain on out- FiG. 256. The girls learning to sew at the County Rural High School, Tuleta, Texas. Courtesy of Miss Amanda Stoltzfus. side with turpentine and lampblack mixed in the proportion of twelve tablespoons of turpentine to one of lampblack. Apply with a brush and rub dry with a cloth immediately after applying. The inside may be stained in the same way or lined with paper. A sewing-machine is not necessary until pupils have learned to sew neatly bv hand. 496 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 438. Outline of a Course. — The following outline covers the work of more than one year. The exercises are ar- ranged in order of difficulty, and with the view of meeting the needs of girls of about twelve years of age. Fig. 257. Articles to be made by sewinp; class: 1, handle-holder for hot 2, dish-towel; 3, dust-cap; 4, sewing-apron; 5, handkerchief-bag; 6, bag; 7, sewing-apron; 8, cooking-apron; 9, table-cloth; 10, princess slip. Courtesy of the University of Texas, Department of Extension. 1. Dish-towel: teaching the turning, basting, and stitch- ing of hem. 2. Holder to be used in cooking-class when lifting hot ves- sels: teaching sewing on binding and reviewing basting, and hemming stitches. 3. Dust-cap: review of previous stitches, teaching the making of gathers, stroking gathers, half-back stitching, making button-holes. 4. Handkerchief-bag: teaching French seams, feather- stitching, and sewing on buttons. 5. Sewing apron of lawn : review of stitches learned, adding sewing on lace and joining of lace and beading. rfT^ ^7jH».'M^maWfSmmimm^y^:^^ 'i/'^ '''j.^w>^'^jm'^j:yy'mm'3 ;^^'^' >-^ i \/^^;^ ^^ ^v::fe(3'^>^i'.Z Pig. 261. ^.feather-stitches; B, blanket-rtitch : C, plain darning ; D, square patch hemmed in; E, round patch hemmed in; F, valentine apron. White lawn with light-blue polka dots. Edges faced with bias strips of light-blue lawn. 504 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING such as blankets and wash-cloths. It is decorative when thread of a contrasting color is used. Fasten thread by two small running stitches one-quarter of inch from edge of ma- terial, hold thread with thumb of left hand, put needle in where it was inserted first. Draw needle through and over thread and pull thread toward you, letting thread lie on edge of cloth. Sew from left to right. Feather-Stitching is used for decorative purposes, but it may also be used to keep a hem in place. It should be worked moderately loose to allow for shrinkage. Button-holes and Buttons. To make a pretty button-hole requires care and practice. Follow a thread in the material in cutting a button-hole. Cut a little longer than the diam- eter of button. Bar the button-hole by long stitches parallel with the cut, overcast with three stitches to the side, make button-hole stitch, working from right to left, always pulling thread upward to make the purl come on the edge. Buttons should be sewed on with double thread. A pin should be placed across the button and the stitches taken over this so as to make a stem around which to wrap the thread. This stem makes room for the cloth under the button when but- toned. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING "Textiles and Clothing," Kate H. Watson. "Domestic Art in Elementary Schools," Anna M. Cooley. "Handicraft for Girls," Isabelle McGauflin. Bulletin University of Texas, Austin, Texas: "Teaching Sewing in Rural Schools." CHAPTER XXrV MEANS OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT FOR FARMERS 441. The Modern Farmer Uses Means of Self -Improve- ment. — The ignorant farmer who hved miles from a neigh- bor, took no papers, read nothing, went to no meetings or fairs, had no social pleasures, labored bhndly from dayhght till dark and cultivated his farm just as his father did is rapidly passing away. Such a farmer must go under in competition with the modern farmer who makes use of all means of increasing his knowledge of farming and improving his methods of working and manner of living. Let us see what are the means by which the farmer can constantly in- crease his knowledge and make life more pleasant and more worth while for his family and himself. 442. The School. — Not only by educating his children and making them more attractive and better citizens can the rural school serve the farmer. The course in agriculture taught there should be constantly sending new ideas and im- proved methods back to the home through the children. The school library should provide inspiring general literature as well as helpful books on agriculture. The school garden and farm should offer suggestive demonstrations. Every rural school should be a social centre for the community. Here the mothers should meet once or twice a month to discuss matters of interest to them and to enjoy being with each other; here the fathers should hold a monthly meeting. Oc- 505 506 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING casionally public speeches, lantern-slide lectures, and similar enjoyable and educational entertainments should take place at the school-house. Here the Boys' Corn Club, the Girls' Farmers' meeting. County Rural High School, Tuleta, Texas. Courtesy of Miss Amanda Stoltzfus. Canning Club, and other similar groups should have a meet- ing place and a library for their use. 44.3. Consolidation of Schools. — Better teachers, better gardens and experimental farms, better buildings, better libraries, and many other advantages can be secured by com- bining several little one-teacher schools into one consolidated school, even if transportation has to be provided for some distant pupils. Then it is possible to have one specially Fig. 263. Four one-room country schools and the new four-room consoli- dated rural school that does the work much better. The groxmds around the building need planting very badly. Courtesy of Mr. A. S. Blankenship. 508 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING trained teacher for agriculture and one for domestic economy and to provide both an elementary and a high school course of study for the country boy and girl. 444. Public Institutions and Societies. — The farmer can get most valuable help from his own State institutions. The Agricultural and ]\Iechanical College, the State University, and the College of Industrial Arts all issue many helpful bul- letins that are free, send out lecturers, demonstrators, and experts in various lines, answer questions sent to them, and offer numerous courses by correspondence which one can carry on in the home without leaving off work for even a day. The State Department of Agriculture issues helpful bulletins also, directs farmers' institutes, and sends speakers and ex- perts into the field. The United States Department of Agriculture sends out free upon request several hundred farmers' bulletins that are of great value. Many others are sold for a few pennies. It sends out lecturers, demonstrators, and experts, answers questions, introduces new plants and animals, organizes corn clubs, hog clubs, canning and poultry clubs, and gives the farmer help in numerous other ways. The State and county fairs bring together exhibits of tools, machinery, live-stock and other farm products, provide pub- lic lectures and demonstrations, and offer many means of education that no farmer can afford to neglect. The State Industrial Congress, the Farmers' Educational and Co-operative Union, and the Farmers' Congress, through meetings, lectures, published proceedings, and other means, do a great deal toward disseminating better ideas about farming and farm life among those who keep in touch with them. MEANS OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT FOR FARMERS 509 445. Farm Papers, Magazines, and Books. — The great ad- vances made in introducing improved methods and new ideas upon the farm have been due in large measure to the modern farm papers and books on farming. These papers are all inexpensive, and a good one brings every week inter- esting reading matter, new ideas, and fresh inspiration to the farmer and his family. It puts the farmer in touch with the latest ideas and best methods practised in all parts of the world. No farmer can hope to keep up with the best labor and money saving methods who does not read a good farm paper, read the bulletins of the State institutions and of the United States Department of Agriculture, and occasionally read a new book on some phase of agriculture. 446. Good Roads, Rural Delivery, and Telephones. — In order to keep up with the progress of the world, to be able to sell when the market is favorable, and to keep in touch with his neighbors and with the town the farmer must have good roads, rural delivery of mail, and a telephone. Whoever fails to do his share in providing for his community these means of education, pleasure, and profit will fail to get the best that fife on the farm affords. APPENDIX I TEXAS SOILS, RAINFALL, AND CROPS Varieties of Soils. — Many kinds of soils are found in Texas. Some are formed by the direct decay of the underlying rocks. They are the most common. Others are formed of materials brought from a dis- tance. They are less widely distributed. Soils of the first kind vary in composition and value as the rocks from which they are derived vary. Those of the second kind, the river bottom soils for the most part, are more uniform and are widely known for their fertility. In our study of soils we must also consider rainfall and irrigation, for without water the best soil is useless for agriculture. The Coastal Plain and Its Soils. — Bordering on the Gulf of Mexico there is a Coastal Plain of varying width, narrow on the Sabine River, wider toward the southwest, the soils of which are sand, sandy loam, and clay. The soil grows more sandy as the coast is approached. In some cases the clayey soil is of the variety known as "black waxy." These soils are composed of materials in part washed up from the Gulf and in part brought down by the rivers from the older portions of the State. As the eastern part of this plain is very flat and lies within the belt of heavy rainfall, fifty to sixty inches annually, we find here a swampy region. The drainage of the entire plain, however, owing to its slight elevation above the sea-level, is poor. From Galveston west to the Guadalupe River the rainfall becomes less, forty to fifty inches an- nually, thence to Brownsville thirty to forty inches. Beyond Browns- ville it is still drier. This variation in the amount of rainfall has its influence upon plant growth and likewise upon agriculture. Where the land is very flat, low, and wet, it requires drainage before successful crops can be grown. In the southwest, on the other hand, where the rainfall is slight, irrigation becomes necessary. 511 Fia. 264. Geographical regions of Texas: C P, Corpus Christi; C, Cor- sicana; Z), Dallas; E, El Paso;F, Fort Worth; G, Galveston; //, Houston; L, Laredo; P, Paris; S, Sherman; SA.San Antonio; 1, Sulphur Fork; 2, Caddo Lake; 3, Neches River; 4, Trinity River; 5, Brazos River; 6, Colorado River; 7, Lavaca River; 8, Guadalupe River ; 9, San Antonio River; 10, Nueces River. *3oo n. . . 1160 ft. izon. iitn r - Fig. 265.„ AiCTpsg-section showing heights above sea-level at various -places as one-pafeSe^irom'Galveston back across the State of Texas. The towns men- taoaedarB,^(eoyKi5etaQt all in a straight line, as they appear to be on this section; APPENDIX I 513 Crops. The soils of the Coastal Plain are well suited to a variety of crops. Where water is plentiful great fields of rice are cultivated. On the light sandy soils, that warm up in the first spring days, early vegetables are produced in large quantities, both for home use and for shipment. Berries, figs, and other fruits are also grown here in abun- dance. Splendid crops of cane, cotton, and corn are made on the rich alluvial (a-lu'vl-al) bottom lands which fringe the large rivers that cross the plain on their way to the Gulf. These lands have long been classed among the most fertile in our country. The East Texas Timber Belt. — Lying next to the Coastal Plain, on the interior, is the East Texas Timber Belt, which is also known as the Forested Area. On the Louisiana border its width exceeds two hun- dred miles. Toward the southwest it becomes quite narrow and finally disappears near the Nueces River. Unlike the coastal region this area is uneven and rolling. In places it is broken by large ravines, gullies, and flat-topped hills. Its elevation ranges from two hundred to six hundred or more feet. This is a region of varied rainfall : heavy in the east, fifty to sixty inches annually, decreasing to thirty inches or less on the Nueces. The soils vary from those that are light and sandy to sandy loam and, in a few instances, to black waxy. The native forest growth includes the short and long leaf pines, the loblolly pine, cypress, hick- ory, pecan, post-oak, and other hard woods. Crops. Owing to its sandy nature the soils of this belt are well adapted to the growing of fruits and vegetables. Here are located the well-known peach, tomato, and Irish-potato industries. The Rio Grande Plain. — Southwest of San Antonio, on account of the dryness of the climate, the timber belt, above described, disap- pears. Between the coast and the abrupt rise, or scarp, of the Ed- wards Plateau, and extending up the Rio Grande to Del Rio, there is a large area of gently rolling, and in some places almost level, land known as the Rio Grande Plain or the Rio Grande Country. A part is open prairie, but most of the land is covered with a growth of cactus, mes- quite, cat-claw, and other plants common to an arid or semi-arid coun- try. The rainfall here varies from twenty to thirty inches. The soil of this region is, for the most part, a reddish or brownish sandy loam and easily worked. 514 APPENDIX I Crops. The principal crops of the Rio Grande country are cane, cotton, and early vegetables. On account of the mild climate the growth of vegetables for the northern market has become an impor- FiG. 266. Normal annual rainfall in Texas: 1, Clarendon; 2, El Paso; 3, Abilene; 4, Fort Worth; 5, Dallas; 0, Paris; 7, Corslcana; 8, Waco; 9, Austin; 10, San Antonio; 11, Laredo; 12, Houston. From Bulletin Q. U. S. Weather Bureau. tant industry. About Laredo the growth of Bermuda onions has re- ceived much attention and a very promising industry has been devel- oped. Owing to the scant rainfall a large part of the crops is grown under irrigation, the water being obtained either from streams or arte- APPENDIX I 515 sian wells. The ranches of the Rio Grande Plain are among the largest in the State. The Black and Grand Prairies. — West and northwest of the East Texas Timber Belt tliere is a prairie region divided into two well- marked divisions by a narrow forest belt running north and south called the Eastern Cross Timbers. The eastern division is known as the Black Prairie ; the western as the Grand Prairie. Grand Prairie is bounded on the west by a narrow strip of timber called the Western Cross Timbers, located on the edge of a scarp that faces west and drops down several himdred feet to the great Central Basin. The Black Prairie presents a rolling surface, is well drained, and has a rainfall of from thirty to forty inches. Its width on the northern boundary of the State exceeds one hundred miles; on the Colorado River, from Austin eastward, it is reduced to twenty miles. This re- gion is elevated toward the west, its altitude varying from four hundred to seven hundred feet. That portion of the Grand Prairie which lies within the limits of the State extends in a general north and south direction from the Red River to the Colorado above Austin. The relief of the northern and eastern parts is quite like that of the Black Prairie. On the south, how- ever, it is more rugged and is closely related to the neighboring Edwards Plateau. Its elevation is greater than that of the Black Prairie, reaching at some points one thousand feet, but its rainfall is somewhat less. Soils and Crops. The soil of the Black Prairie is very dark and rather stiff and heavy. It is the "black waxy" soil of the State, and has been formed, for the most part, by the decay of the underlying soft chalky limestones and marls. It is very rich and produces large crops of cotton, corn, oats, and wheat. The rocks underlying the Grand Prairie are also limestones and marls, but the limestones are harder than those of the Black Prairie and their decay less rapid. As a result of this the soil is not so deep as in the Black Prairie region. It also differs in color, being of a brownish tint rather than black. The leading crops are cotton, corn, wheat, and oats. The Central Basin. — A great Central Basin lies between the west- ward-facing scarp of the Grand Prairie and the eastward-facing scarp 516 APPENDIX I of the Staked Plains and Edwards Plateau. It is drained by the head- waters of the Trinity, Brazos, and Colorado Rivers. Here the rainfall is much reduced, ranging from twenty to thirty inches. The soils of the northern portion, having their origin in the decay of various kinds of rocks, are, in some instances, dark and clayey, in others, sandy, and in others still, limy and clayey. In color they range from black through the various shades of red and brown. Wheat, milo, and Kafir corn are the principal crops. The southern portion of this basin region includes the central granite area of the State known as the Llano Country. It is so rugged as to be classed as mountainous and is better adapted to grazing than to agriculture. The Staked Plains. — The high, level area west of the Central Basin, south of the Canadian River, and east of the Pecos River is known as the Staked Plains. Its greatest altitude is over four thousand feet and its rainfall twenty inches or less. The soil is rich sandy loam, but owing to the scanty rainfall few crops can be grown, unless they be of the drought-enduring varieties, such as Kafir corn, milo maize, and cotton. The native grasses, however, are well suited for grazing, hence the chief industry of this region is cattle-raising. The Edwards and Stockton Plateaus. — The southern continuation of the Staked Plains is termed the Edwards Plateau. It lies west of the granite area of the Central Basin and east of the Pecos River. The Balcones scarp marks its southern boundary. Its altitude is somewhat less than that of the Staked Plains. This broad grass-covered area is deeply cut by narrow, steep-walled valleys and, on account of its gen- eral aridity, is ill adapted to agriculture. Here the principal industry is the raising of cattle, sheep, and goats. The extension of the Ed- wards Plateau across the Pecos is known as the Stockton Plateau. The Trans-Pecos Mountain Region. — The truly mountainous por- tion of Texas is that lying southwest, west, and northwest of the Stock- ton Plateau, following the general course of the Rio Grande from the "Big Bend" of Brewster county to the southern boundary of New Mexico. The altitude of the lower lands ranges from three thousand to over four thousand feet, while that of the highest mountain summit exceeds nine thousand feet. The valleys between the ranges are filled with waste brought down from the mountains. As the rainfall is re- APPENDIX I 517 duced to less than ten inches, there is not enough water to grow crops. By irrigation Kafir corn, alfalfa, and milo maize are successfully grown on a rich alluvial strip bordering the Rio Grande near El Paso, and on a few other favored strips. Fruits of excellent quality, grapes, pears, and peaches, are also produced on this land. The chief industry of the Trans-Pecos Mountain Region, however, is cattle-raising. APPENDIX II SUGGESTIONS FOR A SCHOOL LIBRARY ON AGRICULTURE A Library Possible in Every School. — A small library for reference and for wider study of special topics is essential to the highest success in the course in agriculture. Fortunately there are so many excellent bulletins distributed free of charge and so many good books at mod- erate prices that a valuable collection on agriculture is possible for every school. What to Secure From the United States Department of Agriculture. — First secure for the school directly from the Secretary of Agriculture or indirectly through your congressman a complete set of Farmers' Bulle- tins. If funds are available have these regularly bound. If that cannot be done, sew manila covers on them, or bind those most used in the cloth and cardboard binders sold for this purpose. A good variety of these binders can be obtained from Gaylord Brothers, Syracuse, N. Y., for about four cents apiece. Several copies each of special bulletins that will be in much demand in the class and copies of all year-books of the department that are available should be secured through your con- gressman. Also ask the Secretary of Agriculture to put the school on the regular mailing list of the department for future publications. Ask also for a copy of Circular No. 4, Division of Publications, "Farm- ers' Bulletin Subject Index"; a copy of the "List of Publications for Sale"; and a copy of Division of Publications Circular No. 19, "Publications of the Department of Agriculture Classified for the Use of Teachers." These should be bound and carefully preserved for reference. What to Secure from Your State Institutions and Departments, — Write to the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, the State University, the College of Industrial Arts, the State Department of Agriculture, the State Department of Education, and the Director of the State Experiment Stations and ask for copies of all publications and that the school be placed upon the mailing list. Other Sources of Literature. — Many other universities and State departments issue valuable bulletins for free distribution or for sale 518 APPENDIX II 519 at very small prices. Among the most valuable of these are the fol- lowing: the Nature Study Leaflets of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., and of the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; the bulletins of the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; the University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis.; the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.; the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ames, Iowa; and the State Department of Education, Lansing, Michigan. The Hampton Leaflets, published by Hampton Institute, the School for the colored race at Hampton, Va., are very helpful, especially for the inexperienced. Farm Papers. — Every school should subscribe for one or more farm papers. The Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, weekly, $1.75 per year; Hoard's Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis., weekly, $1.00 per year; Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, III., monthly, 50 cents per year, are all valuable in their special fields. Farm and Ranch, Dallas, Texas, weekly, $1.00 per year; the Semi-Weekly N ws, Dallas, Texas, $1.00 per year; Texas Farmer, Fort Worth, Texas, weekly, $1.00 per year; Texas Stockman and Farmer, San Antonio, Texas, weekly, $1.00 per year; the Progressive Farmer, Memphis, Tenn., weekly, $1.00 per year; the Texas Farm Co-Operator, Fort Worth, Texas, weekly, $1.00 per year; Farm and Fireside, Houston, Texas, semi-monthly, 50 cent3 per year, are valuable farm papers for the Southwest. List of Books. — The following list of books contains more than could usually be bought by small schools, but every school library should con- tain selections from this list of books especially suited to the needs of the particular school and community: Cyclopedias and General Text-books — "Agriculture for Southern Schools." J. F. Duggar. M.* 75 cents. "Elements of Agriculture." G. F. Warren. M. $1.10. "Elementary Principles of Agriculture." Ferguson and Lewis (Ferguson Pub. Co., Sherman, Texas). $1.00. "Fundamentals of Agriculture." J. E. Halligan (D. C. Heath and Co., Boston, Mass.). $1.20. "Rural School Agriculture." C.W.Davis. O. $1.00. *M. means that the book is published by The Macmillan Co., New York; O. The Orange Judd Co., New York; G. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass.; D. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York; E. The American School of Home Economics, Chicago, 111.; U. The University Co-operative Co., Madison, Wis. 520 APPENDIX II "Cyclopedia of American Horticulture." L.H.Bailey. M. Four vols. $20.00. "Cyclopedia of American Agriculture." L.H.Bailey. M. Four vols. $20.00. Plant Growth and Reproduction — "Plant Breeding." L. H. Bailey. M. $1.25. "Plant Physiology." B. M. Duggar. M. $1.60. "Practical Botany." Bergen and Caldwell. G. $1.30. "Principles of Plant Culture." E. S. Goff. U. $1.00. Soils, Fertilizers, and Tillage — "The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life." Harry Snyder (Chemical Pub. Co., Easton, Pa.). $1.50. "Fertilizers." E. B. Voorhees. M. $1.50. "Physics of Agriculture." F. H. King. U. $1.75. "Soil FertiUty and Permanent Agriculture." C. G. Hopkins. O, $2.25. "Soils." S. W. Fletcher. D. $2.00. "Soils and Fertilizers." H.Snyder. M. $1.25. Field Crops^ "Book of Alfalfa." F. D. Coburn. O. 50 cents. "The Book of Corn." Herbert Myrick. O. $1.50. "The Book of Wheat." P. J. Dondlinger. O. $2.00. "Cereals in America." T. F. Hunt. O. $1.75. "Clovers and How to Grow Them." Thomas Shaw. O. $1.00. "Cotton." Burkett and Poe. D. $2.00. "Forage and Fibre Crops." T. F. Hunt. O. $1.75. "Manual of Corn- Judging." A. D. Shamel. O. 50 cents. "Southern Field Crops." J. F. Duggar. M. $1.75. Garden and Orchard — "Among School Gardens." M. L. Greene (Charities Publishing Committee, 105 East 22d Street, New York). $1.25. "Bush Fruits." F. W. Card. M. $1.50. "Children's Gardens for Pleasure, Health, and Education." H. G. Parsons (Sturgis and Walton, New York). $1.00. "Foundations of American Grape Culture." T. V. Munson, O. $3.00. "FruitHarvesting, Storing, Marketing." F. A. Waugh. O. $1.00. "Garden-Making." L. H. Bailey. M. $1.00. "How to Make a Fruit Garden." S. W. Fletcher. D. $2.00. "How to Make School Gardens." H. D. Hemenway. D. $1.50. "Principles of Fruit-Growing." L.H.Bailey. M. $1.50. APPENDIX II 521 "Principles of Vegetable-Gardening." L.H.Bailey. M. $1.20. "Vegetable-Gardening." R. L. Watts. O. $1.75. "Vegetable-Gardening." S. B. Green (Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn.). $1.25. Insects and Diseases — "Fungus Diseases of Plants." B. M. Duggar. G. $2.00. "Insects Injurious to Staple Crops." E. D. Sanderson. M. $1.25. Animal Husbandry — "The American Standard of Perfection." (For Poultry.) J. H. Drevenstedt. O. $1.50. "The Feeding of Animals." W.H.Jordan. O. $1.50. "Feeds and Feeding." W. A. Henry. U. $2.00. "First Lessons in Dairying." H. E. Van Norman. O. 50 cents. "The Horse." I.P.Roberts. O. $1.25. "Judging Live Stock." J. A. Craig (Kenyon Press, Des Moines, la.). $1.50. "Making Poultry Pay." E.C.Powell. O. $1.00. "Milk and Its Products." H. H. Wing. M. 80 cents. "Our Domestic Animals." C. W. Burkett. O. $3.50. "Principles of Breeding." E.Davenport. G. $2.50. "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." C. S. Plumb. G. $2.50. Hygiene and Domestic Economy — "Care of Children." A. C. Cotton. E. $1.50. "Domestic Art in Woman's Education." A. M. Cooley (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York). $1.25. "Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery." Mary E. WiUiams and Katharine Fisher. M. $1.00. "Food and Dietetics." Ahce P. Norton. E. $1.50. "Handicraft for Girls." Idabelle McGlauflin (Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.). $1.00. "Home Care of the Sick." Amy E. Pope. E. $1.50. "The House, Its Plan, Decoration and Care." Isabel Bevier. E. $1.50. "Household Hygiene." S. Maria ElHott. E. $1.50. "Personal Hygiene." Maurice Le Bosquet. E. $1.50. "Rural Hygiene." H. N. Ogden. M. $1.50. "Textiles and Clothing." Kate H. Watson. E. $1.50. Miscellaneous — "Among Country Schools." O. J. Kern. G. 95 cents. "Farm Development." W.M.Hays. O. $1.50. 522 APPENDIX II "Farm Management." F. W. Card. D. $2.00. "The Farmstead." I.P.Roberts. M. $1.00. "How to Keep Farm Accounts." H. L. Steiner (the author, Toledo, Ohio). $1.00. "Nature Study and Life." C. F. Hodge. G. $1.65. "Texas Almanac and Industrial Guide." (A. H. Belo & Co., Dallas, Texas). 25 cents. APPENDIX III ROADS The Benefits of Good Roads. — It is difficult to make a list of all the benefits of good roads, but the following are among the most important: 1. Good roads decrease the cost of hauling by enabling a team to pull heavier loads and to make a trip more quickly. 2. Good roads make it possible to produce a greater variety of things on the farm. There is not much inducement to raise a certain crop if it is very difficult to get it into town quickly and in good condition. This is especially true of fruit and vegetables, chickens and eggs, and milk and butter. These are among the best money-making products of the farm, but their production is generally limited to farms within a few miles of the towns because of the shameful condition of the coun- try roads. 3. Good roads enable a farmer to sell his products when the market is right, while bad roads may keep him away from market just when prices are best. 4. Good roads are firm and smooth after rains, and therefore allow farmers to do their hauling when the teams are not busy with the ploughs. 5. Good roads give a wider choice of market. If the prices are bet- ter in some town a little farther away the farmer can take his products there if the roads are good. 6. Good roads tend to equalize the business on the railroads and in the towns and to keep market prices more stable. This is because the normal amount of business between town and country can go along all the time if the roads are good, whereas, during the time when roads are very bad the entire business of a community is at a standstill. 7. Good roads induce toiu-ists to travel in the country and often control the location of summer homes. Tourist travel is not always appreciated, but it is very valuable to any community both socially and financially. 523 524 APPENDIX III 8. Good roads make possible the rural mail delivery. This is one of the greatest social and educational benefits to any country. 9. Good roads make it possible to build up the country schools by consolidating several small district schools to make a first-class school with higher courses and better equipment. The improvement of our Fig. 267. Standard cross-sections for first and second class earth roads. Iowa Roadway Commission. From HalUgan's "Fundamentals of Agriculture." country schools is one of the most important public questions. We must have good roads before we can do much with the country high schools. 10. With better facilities for travel and transportation men always adopt more liberal views of life and become better citizens. For in- stance, in hilly and mountainous countries, travel is always difficult and infrequent. The result is that in such districts, even in the old settled States, we often have the most shocking outbreaks of crime and law- lessness. With good roads through these districts such conditions would gradually pass away. 11. Again, no one wishes to live shut off from friends and neighbors. Building good roads has the same effect as bringing the people closer together because of the greater ease with which they can get from place to place. With good roads all through the country we can get to the neighbors with comfort, can get the doctor quickly when he is needed, can go to social gatherings with pleasure, and can attend church or school with convenience. We can keep better stock, better vehicles, ^.«f3»Rf^ 1^^ • ' _^^^^^^i^^^^^^H^fl Hfefi '^-- '^VHHI^^^^HJl] J il^H t '-jflH^B^BIHH^^B^ J^^^^E ' Jl 526 APPENDIX III and better harness, adopt more improved agricultural methods, and raise a greater variety of crops. Building an Earth Road. — The right of way for a first-class road must never be less than forty feet and would better be fifty or sixty feet. The graded portion of an earth road from ditch to ditch should be at least thirty feet. A greater width will be needed when the ditches must be large and wide. If the road is in a timbered country, the first thing to do is to take out the trees and stumps. If the ground is at all level, the crown can then be built up and the side ditches be cut out with the large four-wheel grader. It usually takes six or eight horses to pull these graders, but they will do the work much more quickly and make a better road at less cost than can be made in any other way. It will usually be necessary to use plow and scrapers at some places. Drainage. — Drainage is probably the most important thing about any road, especially an earth road. An earth road built of hard earth would be a good road all the time if it were not for the water. The first step in draining a road is to make the water that falls all over the surface of the road to run at once into ditches at the sides. This is done by making the road higher in the middle than at the sides, or making a crown, as this is called. The next step is to make the water flow away from the road along the side ditches until it comes to some creek or other natural outlet. Laying out the side ditches correctly is a very important matter, of which you can learn in the references. Maintenance: the Road Drag.— Making needed repairs and keeping the road in good condition is called maintenance. No road, not even one of gravel or rock, can be made so good that it will last long with- out being taken care of. With earth roads this consists principally in keeping the ditches clean, repairing culverts, filling washes, and drag- ging the surface after rains. The most important thing in mainte- nance of an earth road is the dragging of the surface after every rain. We know that if any travel goes over an earth road just after a rain, while it is still wet, there will be tracks and ruts. If these are allowed to dry and harden it will be weeks and sometimes months before the road becomes smooth. The next rain comes and catches the road with ruts and holes. The water stands in these instead of flowing to the side ditches as it should. This standing water softens the soil at the Fig. 209. Above, the road after the rain; below, the same road after the use of the split-log drag. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 528 APPENDIX III bottom of the hole so that the first wheel that runs into it goes down. That is how the worst ruts and mud holes are formed. No road, whether of earth, gravel, or rock, can possibly be good long if it has ruts or uneven places on the surface in which water will stand after rains. On a dirt road all this can be prevented by dragging the road just after rains and thus scraping off the ridges and filling up the holes. Various kinds of drags may be used. Some use a piece of railroad rail, some a flat drag made by nail- ing overlapping timbers together, some a drag made of two halves of a split log or of two tim- bers two inches by twelve fastened together as shown in Figure 270, some a factory-made metal drag. In pulling any one of these over the road one should allow the end next the ditch to be somewhat ahead of the other end. The drag will then push a little earth toward the centre and thus help pre- serve the crown of the road. Any of the above types of drag will do the work if used properly and at the right time. The time to use a drag is soon after the rain, while the ground is a little too wet to plow. When thus used, the drag smooths out the rough places and keeps the road ready for travel. It tends to make the surface "cake" and harden and thus soak up less water at the next rain. Most important of all, it preserves the crown of the road and allows all the water to run quickly into the ditches at the next rain. The making and maintenance of sand-clay, gravel, macadam, and other types of roads, as well as the principles of laying out roads, you can learn from the references. Fig. 270. A good form of split-log drag. APPENDIX III 529 QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 1. Are roads built and kept in order in your county by bonds and taxation? How are the expenses met? 2. Make a list of the advantages that would come to your com- munity if there were good roads. 3. Why is it right and best to issue bonds and lay out, grade, and surface roads properly rather than continue mending a bad road in a cheap way from year to year? REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING Farmers' Bulletins: No. 311. "Sand-Clay and Burnt-Clay Roads." No. 321. "The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads." No. 338. "Macadam Roads." APPENDIX IV SILOS Definition. — A silo is an air-tight structure for the preserving of green forage crops such as corn, sorghum, cow-peas, and Kafir corn in their original green state. The material preserved in a silo is called silage or ensilage. It fills the same place in the diet of live-stock that canned fruits and vegetables do in the diet of people. We are all famil- iar with the value of green vegetables as a means of keeping the body- heal thy. Grass is just as necessary to live-stock, but since we cannot always have green grass in the winter-time or during seasons of drought, we build silos to preserve forage crops in their green state. When the silage is placed in the air-tight silo in the green state it ferments, be- comes very hot, and causes the formation of carbon dioxide in the silage, which forces out all of the air. This kills the bacteria and keeps the silage in a sweet condition. Uses of the Silo. — Silos are valuable in several ways. First, they furnish green food for the live-stock all the year round. Second, they preserve the entire stalk in such a form that it can all be eaten by ani- mals, while if it were cured dry the stock would waste a large percent- age of it simply because they cannot eat the hard dried stalk. Third, when the season turns out so dry that corn or a similar crop would not produce any grain, it may be harvested while still green and pre- served in the silo, whereas if it remained in the field all the fodder would dry up and be destroyed by sun, wind, and rain. Kinds of Silos. — The first silo was a square pit dug in the ground. This was filled with green fodder and soil was thrown over the top. This silo was inconvenient because it was hard to get the silage out of it. The next kind was the square silo above ground. This kind was dis- carded on account of its being difficult to exclude the air from the square corners. Wlierever air gets in, the silage moulds and spoils. Almost all silos now are built above ground and are built round. They may 530 APPENDIX IV 531 be constructed of wooden staves, stone, brick, concrete blocks, rein- forced concrete, tile with cement lining, or steel. They must be tall, so that the weight of the silage will be great enough to force out most of the air by packing, and they must be air-tight. Animals That Eat Silage. — Silage is more important probably for dairy cattle than any other class of live-stock, as it is necessary for them to have green or succulent food to give large amounts of milk. The dairy cow will eat from thirty to seventy-five pounds of silage per day according to her size and capacity. The silo is also very important in the feeding of beef cattle, as it keeps them in good condition and induces them to eat a large amount of foodstuffs that can be raised cheaply. A fine quality of silage is often fed to horses and mules to great advantage. It has too much juice in it to be used advanta- geously as a food for hard-worked horses or mules. The effect is very much the same as that of fresh grass when fed to such horses or mules. Silage is not a satisfactory food for hogs or poultry. They eat the grain in it, but will not eat anything else except a few of the tenderest blades. Crops Used for Silage. — The best crops for use as silage are corn, sorghum, Kafir corn, milo-maize, and cow-peas. Sometimes such crops as alfalfa, clover, and Johnson grass are also used. Alfalfa and clover usually contain too much moisture to make a good quality of silage, as the moisture tends to cause the silage to sour. Time to Harvest Silage Crops. — The crop should be fully mature before it is cut for the silo, as otherwise it will contain too much moist- ure and will make what is known as sour silage. Corn should be placed in silos just as the ear begins to harden and the kernels begin to dent. Kafir corn, milo-maize, and sorghum should be placed in the silo as soon as the seeds are ripe. For further information on silos and silage, read Farmers' Bulletins No. 32, "Silos and Silage," and No. 292, "Cost of Filling Silos"; and write to the Extension Department of the Agricultural and Mechanical College. APPENDIX V BOYS' CORN CLUBS AND CORN-JUDGING How Clubs are Organized. — Under the direction of the teacher a boys' corn club may be formed at any school, but the usual unit of organization is the county. Usually the county superintendent of pub- lic instruction issues a call explaining the piu-pose of the club and in- ■ '■it!i%lt^_J^.I^M0^m:-;'l. w« Fig. 271. The Smith Countj', Texas, Boys' Corn-Club exhibit. Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." viting all boys between ten and eighteen years of age who are inter- ested to meet at the county-seat on a certain date. The object of the club is generally explained by both the superintendent and by one of the travelling lecturers of the United States Department of Agriculture. The club is organized and the names of the members are sent to Mr. Bradford Knapp, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Va- rious helpful bulletins and suggestions are then sent by the department to each boy. Usually prizes are offered by local men or business firms 532 ^ TT— fF .^\^x—. ■■:.