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PESTALOZZI 
 
 His Life, Work, and Influence. 
 
 BY 
 
 HERMANN KRUSI, A.M., 
 
 SON OF PESTALOZZI'S FIRST ASSOCIATE. INSTRUCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 
 AT THE OSWEGO NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL. 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
THE LIBRARY OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 FEB 6 «903 
 
 Copyright Entry 
 
 CLASS iXi XXc. No. 
 
 COPY B 
 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1875, BY WILSON, HINKLE & CO. 
 COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY HERMANN KRUSI. 
 
 RUSI'S PESTALOZZ1. 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 2To ti)c iiflcmoti) of mg jf&tfytt 
 
 I OFFER THIS TRIBUTE OF GRATITUDE AND LOVE, 
 
 AT THE CENTENARY OF HIS BIRTH, 
 
 MARCH 12th, 1875. 
 
PEE FACE. 
 
 A N educational movement, which in Europe has led to a com- 
 plete reorganization of schools, and has supplied many educators 
 of this country with better methods of teaching, deserves to be known 
 as an important event in the history of civilization. This movement 
 ought to be examined from its very rise and origin, and viewed in a 
 light which shows the legitimate connection between its principles 
 and their application, and exposes professions and practices that 
 have been falsely ascribed to it. 
 
 Pestalozzi's labors are a record of a noble enthusiasm, which was 
 communicated to all who came within its influence. It is well, even 
 at this advanced stage of material progress, to search for the source 
 of this enthusiasm, and to study with care his first feeble attempts 
 toward the realization of a great idea. 
 
 The present work was not undertaken without due appreciation of 
 its difficulties. The author, in whose memory still remains the testi- 
 mony of many of the joersonal friends of Pestalozzi, and who holds 
 in his possession records and letters of that period, hitherto unpub- 
 lished, considers it a moral duty to give to the public that which 
 seems worthy of preservation. An experience of thirty years in 
 several Normal Schools of Switzerland, Germany, England, and the 
 United States, has given him the privilege of testing the value of 
 Pestalozzi's method, and has strengthened his conviction of the pos- 
 sibility and the necessity of its application. 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 He trusts that many of his pupils, who, in former years, have lent 
 an attentive ear to portions of this narrative, will he pleased to hear 
 more from their old friend and teacher. 
 
 To those of our unknown friends and colleagues who have heen 
 earnestly striving — although in an experimental and fragmentary 
 way — to find the correct method of reaching the minds of their 
 pupils, we hope the record of similar experiments may afford conso- 
 lation or warning, according to the paths they have chosen. 
 
 To those who have never troubled themselves with questions of 
 this kind, or who are still floating on a sea of uncertainty, we would 
 like to present both oar and rudder by which to guide their boat to 
 a safe landing. If this work stimulates inquiring minds to further 
 experiments and discoveries in the field of education and its methods, 
 or to a more comprehensive and philosophic investigation of the 
 subject in all its bearings, our effort will not have been in vain. 
 
 H. KRUSI. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. — LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Life at Zurich 13 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Life at Neuhof .20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Life at Stanz 30 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Life at Burgdorf 38 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Life at Yverdon 45 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Closing Years of his Life 61 
 
 PART II. — ASSOCIATES OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Introduction to Part II 66 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Hermann Krusi 67 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Johannes Niederer 79 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GUSTAV TOBEER ' 87 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Johannes Buss 93 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Assistants of Pestaeozzi — Ramsacer, Schmid, Steiner . . .96 
 
 (ix) 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III.— EXTRACTS FROM THE WRITINGS OF 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Social and Political Subjects , . .108 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Leonard and Gertrude . .119 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Christopher and Eltza . 137 
 
 PART IV. — PRINCIPLES AND METHOD OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 General View of the Pestalozzian Method . . . . .151 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Conformity of Pestalozzi's Method to the Natural Order of 
 
 Human Development 159 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Special Application of Pestalozzi's Method 169 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Application of the Method of Pestalozzi (Continued) . • . . 1S1 
 
 PART V. — SPREAD OF THE PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Switzerland 195 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Germany 202 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 France, Spain, and Russia 218 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 England 219 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 United State. 228 
 
PART I. 
 
 LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 (in 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 LIFE AT ZURICH 
 
 riTTHE early years of a man's life have great influence in moulding 
 _IL his character. As the pilot with a slight turning of his wheel 
 changes the direction of the heavily laden ship, so events apparently 
 insignificant in themselves, acting upon the impressible nature of a 
 child, may affect his entire destiny. It is said of Haydn, that the 
 sweet singing' of his mother beside his cradle called forth that talent 
 for music which distinguished him in after life. The father of Lin- 
 naeus, the distinguished Swedish botanist, used to cover the bed of 
 his beloved boy with flowers, thus cultivating in him at that early 
 age a love for those fair productions. It is true that talent, a gift 
 of the Creator, has never been produced by circumstances; but it is 
 also true that powers which might otherwise have slumbered forever, 
 have, in many cases, been awakened and led into action by events 
 which, in themselves, were trifling. 
 
 The life of the man whose work we are about to examine affords an 
 illustration of the effects of early associations in determining character 
 and shaping the subsequent events of life. 
 
 Henry Pestalozzi was born on the 12th of January, 1746, at Zurich, 
 a toAvn situated in the German part of Switzerland, on the lovely shore 
 of a lake of the same name. His ancestors were Italian Protestants, 
 who had been obliged to flee from their homes on account of religions 
 persecutions, and had found an asylum among the enlightened citizens 
 of Zurich — hence his Italian name. His father was a physician, whose 
 benevolent and unselfish character prevented him from devoting his 
 energies to the acquisition of wealth. 
 
 Henry was but six years old when his father died, and his good 
 mother, although not wholly destitute, was obliged to practice the 
 utmost economy to sustain the dignity of the family. She withdrew 
 from the allurements of society, and consecrated herself to domestic 
 duties ; thus giving her children the invaluable blessing of her con- 
 stant cai-e and supervision. In this task she was nobly supported by 
 
 (13) 
 
14 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 a faithful servant, who made the interest of her mistress's family 
 her own. Pestalozzi gives the following account of this friend of 
 his childhood : 
 
 " When my father was on his death-bed, he thought sorrowfully of 
 the great burden which the attendance to household duties and the 
 care of the children would throw upon my mother. In these despond- 
 ing moments he turned to Barbara, the faithful servant, and begged 
 her with fervent entreaty not to leave his family, since otherwise the 
 mother must part with some of his children. 
 
 "The noble girl replied, 'I shall never leave your wife, if it should 
 please God to take you hence. I will remain with her till death, if 
 she wishes me to do so.' " 
 
 She kept her promise, and spent her whole life in the family. Her 
 education being limited, she could contribute but little to the mental 
 development of the children, of whom there were three, besides Henry; 
 but her example of self-sacrifice and of practical morality left indelible 
 impressions on the hearts of all. 
 
 "When we wanted to run about the streets for our amusement," 
 says Pestalozzi, "she wished us to stay at home, and save our clothing 
 and shoes ; and when we found it hard to obey, she told us of our 
 good mother, who deprived herself of so many enjoyments for 
 our sake." 
 
 The sacrifices of a mother for her children do not show more no- 
 bility of soul than was displayed by tin's poor, uneducated girl, who 
 gave up all her worldly interest for a family not her own. "Who 
 knows," says Biber in his biography of Pestalozzi, "whether this pu- 
 rity and strength of character shown by a person of humble rank may 
 not have imposed a debt on Pestalozzi, of which he nobly acquitted 
 himself in after years by vindicating for the neglected classes of society 
 those moral and intellectual rights of which they had been deprived 
 by the ignorant pride of their fellow men?" 
 
 Pestalozzi, who was in his youth delicate and sickly, had a nervous 
 temperament, winch delighted in mental activity. He says of himself : 
 "My feelings and imagination were so predominant that I neglected 
 many things. I often committed blunders, which got me into more 
 scrapes and troubles than any other child of my age; but I possessed 
 a light heart, which made me forget my small sufferings after a few 
 hours." These traits of character were fully displayed in his work at 
 school, for he never excelled in any of those branches which tax 
 merely imitation and memory. He preferred those in which the full 
 imagination, originality, and poetry of soul could be brought into play. 
 Among other things, he neglected orthography and penmanship, and 
 
LIFE AT ZURICH. 
 
 15 
 
 his defects in these caused serious inconvenience to him during all his 
 after life. In classical studies he cared more for the spirit of the 
 writer than for the grammar; more for the thought than the expres- 
 sion. It is said, that when a student he made a translation of an 
 oration of Demosthenes, which was so excellent that it was afterward 
 published in a scientific journal. 
 
 Owing to the awkwardness of his manner and the singularity of his 
 character, he passed among his school-fellows as "green," and received 
 
 View of Zurich. 
 
 the nickname "Henry Queer, of Folly ville." He had then and ever 
 afterward such perfect faith, that he was often made the butt of jokes 
 and the dupe of cunning schemes. He measured the world by his 
 own standard, and preferred to be deceived rather than to distrust. 
 It is the fate of such confiding souls to be ridiculed for their simplic- 
 ity, yet loved for their goodness. 
 
 Considering that the character and method of teaching used in the 
 schools at that time was formal and mechanical, it may be inferred 
 that it did little toward preparing him for his important mission ; 
 yet we do not wish to undervalue the merit of such men as Bodmer 
 and Breitinger, who were then among the professors of his native 
 city. 
 
 In his visits to his grandfather, a Protestant minister at Hoengg, 
 he profited much by the practical lessons of benevolence which he 
 
16 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 there received. Uniting system with generosity, the old gentleman 
 kept a register of all the families of the parish, in which the moral 
 character, circumstances, and wants of each were described ; thus, in 
 his parochial visits he could not fail to administer advice and con- 
 solation according to the needs of each case. In this village, where 
 many mills were in active operation, he first witnessed the contrast 
 between extreme wealth and abject poverty. He saw the children 
 of the village playing before the school-house, with eyes sparkling 
 with pleasure and innocence, contented and happy even in their 
 rags ; but when he compared them with those of more mature age, 
 the victims of overwork and manifold vices, with hollow cheeks and 
 sunken eyes, and with the appearance of constant misery upon their 
 faces, his young soul was incensed against the selfishness of wealth 
 built upon such ruins of health and happiness. What he daily saw 
 of the oppression of the people under an aristocratic government, and 
 the acts of injustice committed under its sway, nurtured in his breast 
 that yearning for liberty and reformation which earned for him after- 
 ward the name of a noble-minded patriot and true liberal. 
 
 There are individuals who, from the mildness of their disposition 
 and from their aversion to personal quarrels, are commonly considered 
 cowards ; and yet these same people display occasionally an energy 
 and courage which is in strong contrast to their usual behavior. 
 Pestalozzi exhibited such antagonistic qualities. In the year 1755, 
 the earthquake which destroyed Lisbon was felt in Switzerland. The 
 school-room in which the young Henry was studying was violently 
 shaken. The fright was universal. "The teachers," as Pestalozzi 
 describes it in his quaint language, "flew down stairs over the heads 
 of their boys." After the first terror had subsided, they wished to 
 obtain the books, hats, and other property left in the building, but 
 all were afraid to enter except " Harry Queer." He boldly per- 
 formed the task which his companions refused to do. This boldness 
 we find marked in his perhaps incautious opposition to acts of in- 
 justice and oppression imposed by some of the dignitaries of the 
 state. When only a boy in years, in connection with his celebrated 
 cotemporaries, Lavater and Fiissli, he exposed, by means of the press, 
 the delinquencies of selfish politicians, thereby rousing their anger, 
 and imperiling his future chances for advancement. 
 
 In his choice of a profession, encouraged by his venerable grand- 
 father, it seems natural that he should have decided for the ministry. 
 His first efforts at preaching, however, proved a failure. Those who 
 had witnessed his natural eloquence, proceeding, as it did, from a 
 heart deeply impressed with a sense of veneration for all that is pure 
 
LIFE AT ZURICH. 17 
 
 and holy, ana breathing love and good-will for all mankind, were 
 astonished at the cause which he assigned for relinquishing his 
 chosen calling — that he stopped short in his sermon and made mis- 
 takes in the Lord's Prayer. This arose probably from embarrass- 
 ment, which made the young minister forget the sermon which he 
 had been obliged to commit to memory. More likely, however, it 
 was an exalted idea of the proper qualifications of a clergyman, com- 
 pared with his own humble merits, which induced him to exchange 
 the study of Theology for that of Law. In doing this he avoided 
 Scylla only to fall into Charybdis. We can not imagine that an 
 ardent mind like his, desiring to judge all matters according to the 
 eternal laws of justice, could be satisfied with expounding human 
 laws, when their interpreters had, by quibbles and distortions, adapted 
 them to all the iniquities of a corrupt age. If he had explained the 
 law according to the noble and fiery impulse of his soul, and not 
 according to the dead-letter and stereotyped form, he would have 
 expiated his temerity in a political prison, or in some place of ban- 
 ishment, His study of the law must, therefore, have produced neg- 
 ative results by showing him the insufficiency of human legislation 
 to do away with abuses, unless supported by principles of charity and 
 justice. 
 
 About this time, 1764, "Emile," a celebrated work on Education, 
 by Rousseau, fell into his hands. This led his thoughts into that 
 channel from which were to issue immortal ideas for universal educa- 
 tion. The principles of that work tended to overturn the prevalent 
 notions of methods of teaching. They suggested facts and realities 
 instead of empty sounds and superficial definitions — thus appealing 
 to common sense. The fact, however, that Rousseau represents his 
 ideal pupil, Emile, isolated and without school-companions, could not 
 harmonize with the views of a philanthropist like Pestalozzi. 
 
 Bluntschli, an intimate friend, who possessed great forethought, 
 when on his death-bed, said to his friend Pestalozzi, "I die, and I 
 warn you, if left to yourself, never to embark in any operation which 
 might become dangerous to your peace of mind, because of the sim- 
 plicity and tenderness of your disposition. Select a quiet and peace- 
 ful occupation, and do not enter into any comprehensive undertaking 
 without the advice and assistance of a faithful friend." The .suita- 
 bleness of this advice will be evident to every one who follows us 
 through the vicissitudes of his eventful life. 
 
 Soon after this he visited his uncle, and enjoyed the charms of 
 rural life on the shores of Lake Zurich. His stay there, combined 
 with the advice of his dying friend, may have matured the new plan 
 P. 2. 
 
18 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 of devoting himself to agriculture, and retiring to the seclusion of a 
 country farm. In order to combine practice with theory, he resorted 
 to the flourishing farm of a rich proprietor, celebrated for his im- 
 proved methods of cultivation, and prepared himself for his new task 
 with his usual zeal. But he never acquired the practical skill, and 
 power of adapting his means to existing circumstances, which are 
 indispensable requisites to the successful practice of farming. 
 
 About this time, also, he formed acquaintance with that noble 
 woman, Anna Schulthess, who stood so faithfully by his side during 
 the trials of his agitated life. She belonged to a wealthy family of 
 Zurich, and the desire of securing a home for her stimulated him to 
 unusual exertions. He returned from an agricultural tour with san- 
 guine projects about the cultivation of madder as a profitable specu- 
 lation. He even induced a mercantile house at Zurich to supply 
 him with funds for the purpose. He selected and bought an un- 
 cultivated tract of about one hundred acres, situated in the Canton 
 of Aargau, near the confluence of the rivers Aar, Reuss, and Lim- 
 mat. He named his purchase Neuhof (new farm). There, in 
 sight of Hapsburg, the hereditary castle of the Austrian Monarchy, 
 he built a house in the Italian style, and began his operations with 
 more zeal than skill and foresight. From this place he corresponded 
 with the lady above mentioned. The letter, in which he offers her 
 his hand and invites her to share his fortunes, is so characteristic of 
 the man's honesty and delicacy of feeling that we quote it nearly 
 entire : 
 
 "My failings, which appear to me the most important in relation 
 to the future, are improvidence, want of caution, and want of that 
 presence of mind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes in 
 my future prospects. I hope, by continued exertions, to overcome 
 them ; but know that I possess them still to a degree, that does not 
 allow me to conceal them from the maiden I love. They are faults, 
 my dear, which deserve your fullest consideration. I possess yet 
 other failings, which must be chiefly attributed to my irritability of 
 temper and oversensitiveness. I go to extremes in my praise, as 
 well as in my blame ; in my likings, and dislikings. I also enter 
 into plans and schemes with such fervor as to exceed proper limits, 
 and my general sympathy is such, that I feel unhappy in the misery 
 of my fatherland and friends. Direct your whole attention to this 
 weakness ; there will be times when my tranquillity and cheerfulness 
 of soul will suffer under it. ....... 
 
 "Of my great and very reprehensible negligence in matters of 
 etiquette and conventionality, it is useless to speak, as it is too obvi- 
 
LIFE AT ZURICH. 19 
 
 ous. I am further bound to confess, that I shall place the duties 
 toward my fatherland in advance of those to my wife, and that, 
 although I mean to be a tender husband, I shall be inexorable even 
 to the tears of .my wife, if they should ever try to detain me from 
 performing my duties as citizen, to their fullest extent. My wife 
 shall be the confidant of my heart, the partner of all my most secret 
 counsel. A great and holy simplicity shall reign in my house. One 
 thing more, my life will not pass without great and important un- 
 dertakings. I shall never refrain from speaking, when the good of 
 my country demands it. My whole heart belongs to it, and I shall 
 risk every thing to mitigate the misery and need of my countrymen. 
 
 "Reflect well, and decide whether you can give your heart to a 
 man with these qualities, and in this condition, and be happy. 
 
 "My dear friend, I love you so tenderly and fervently that this 
 confession has cost me much, since it may even take from me the 
 hope of winning you. My conscience would have called me a traitor, 
 not a lover, if I had withheld from you any fact that might cause 
 you future anxiety, or render you miserable. I now rejoice at what 
 I have done. If the circumstances in which my duty and my coun- 
 try may place me hereafter, should make an end to my yearnings 
 and hopes, I shall be conscious at least of not having been treacher- 
 ous — of not having attempted to please you by assumed virtue. I 
 have deceived you with no chimerical hopes of a happiness that is 
 not to be expected; I have concealed from you no danger and no 
 sorrow for the future ; I have no cause for self-reproach." 
 
 The lady was worthy of his confidence. Although the candid con- 
 fessions of the faults of her lover presented but a thorny prospect of 
 life, they could not shake her belief in his disinterested love and 
 integrity of character. They were united in the year 1769, Pesta- 
 lozzi being then in his 24th year. 
 
 With the noble and intelligent lady, who shared with him her 
 ample property, he might have lived in comparative ease and com- 
 fort, had he thought only of his own interests. But having the weak- 
 ness of considering all the suffering members of the human race as 
 belonging to his own family, it may be presumed that his life at 
 Neuhof did not pass without dark and bitter experiences. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 LIFE AT NEUHOF. 
 
 
 View of Neuhof. 
 
 THE dreams of a happy future, of days to be spent in genial and 
 profitable employment at the side of a loving wife, were soon dis- 
 pelled by cares and disappointments. Pestalozzi's undertaking re- 
 quired patience, practical skill, and, above all, order, system, and 
 the utmost economy ; but, as has been stated, he was not of a prac- 
 tical turn, and not inspired by the expectation of gain and profit. 
 Some, professing to be his friends, even accused him, though unjustly, 
 of ignorance in selecting a piece of land which, they said, was "unfit 
 for cultivation." Although this charge was sufficiently refuted by 
 the fact that some years afterward it rose to many times its original 
 value, it nevertheless frightened the managers of the mercantile 
 (20) 
 
LIFE AT NEUHOF. 21 
 
 house which had supplied him with money, and induced them to 
 withdraw from the undertaking. Thus Pestalozzi was left alone to 
 grapple with financial difficulties which beset him on all sides. In- 
 stead, however, of concentrating his energies on his own affairs, he 
 felt he could only revive his shattered spirits by performing an act 
 of charity and devotion. 
 
 The support of the poor is still a question of vital interest to 
 the governments of Europe, and it was particularly so during the 
 years immediately preceding the French Revolution. At that time, 
 the wealth of the country was exclusively in the hands of the priv- 
 ileged classes, while the poor toiled for insufficient wages, with no 
 thought for the future. They thus became a sure prey for the work- 
 house, and a burden upon the community. The introduction of cot- 
 ton manufactures had rendered the contrast between employer and 
 workman still more striking. This, making money more plenty, 
 brought into common use things which had been considered as lux- 
 uries ; and the poor, in attempting to keep pace with the rich, grad- 
 ually forgot all principles of economy, became intemperate and 
 wasteful, and were consequently often reduced to helpless poverty. 
 
 The only relief for this suffering supplied by the Government was 
 the introduction of poor-houses, where the innocent child and hard- 
 ened sinner, the helpless sick and shiftless vagabond, were herded 
 together. They were, in fact, mere feeding establishments, rather 
 than homes for the unfortunate, or houses of reform for the wicked. 
 The occupants, when dismissed, usually returned to their vicious prac- 
 tices, which soon brought them back again. 
 
 It was for this growing evil that the ever-active mind of Pesta- 
 lozzi tried to find a remedy. He proposed the establishment of 
 schools in which instruction in manual labor should be combined 
 with the ordinary mental and moral training. After having advo- 
 cated his views publicly, he offered his house and farm for the pur- 
 pose of making the experiment. He soon found noble-hearted and 
 influential friends who encouraged him in his undertaking, and, in 
 177."), we find him at the head of an "Industrial School for the 
 Poor," probably the first school of its kind ever conceived, and the 
 mother of hundreds now existing on both sides of the Atlantic. 
 
 To make such a seheme a success was certainly no light under- 
 taking, and to a man like Pestalozzi it was impossible ; for it is 
 obvious that to combine in one person the offices of manager, school- 
 master, farmer, manufacturer, and merchant, was beyond the power 
 of a man whose enthusiasm and impatient zeal carried him with irre- 
 sistible power in pursuit of one grand object, and would not allow 
 
22 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 him to stop and measure every inch of ground over which he had 
 to go. 
 
 The children sent to him were mostly from the refuse of the com- 
 munity, and nearly all of them vicious, lazy, and discontented. 
 True, they worked on his farm, but with feeble and unskilled hands, 
 which conduced little to the improvement of the soil. They were 
 also engaged in the weaving of cotton cloth, but the waste in mate- 
 rial and the mediocrity of the work more than balanced the profits. 
 As a natural consequence of these conditions, Pestalozzi soon became 
 involved in debt, from which he was partially relieved by the gener- 
 osity of his wife, who sacrificed the greater part of her property in 
 his behalf. He struggled a long time in the noble cause of emanci- 
 pating the poor, and in the end became poor himself. In the pro- 
 cess, however, he made important discoveries in the realm of human 
 knowledge, and in the principles which underlie all true processes of 
 education — results which have transmuted his individual disappoint- 
 ments and failures into blessings for the world. To see truth through 
 the vail of one's own errors is already victory. 
 
 In 1780 the school had to be given up. In spite of its apparent 
 failure, the feasibility of the plan has since been triumphantly vin- 
 dicated by Emanuel von Fellenberg, a friend and cotemporary of 
 Pestalozzi, to whom we shall again revert. After five years of in- 
 effectual toiling, the latter was left alone, poor and discouraged, an 
 object of pity to his friends and of contempt to his detractors. 
 
 The natural buoyancy of his spirits, however, did not allow him to 
 give himself up to despair. He says: "In the midst of the wither- 
 ing sneers of my fellow-men, the mighty stream of my heart ebbed 
 and flowed as it ever had, to stop the sources of misery. My failure 
 even showed me the truth of my plans. I was always deceived where 
 nobody was; and where all were deceived, there I saw light." 
 
 Let those who have met with financial losses listen to Pestalozzi's 
 words of resignation uttered at that time: " The Christian in the 
 strength of faith and love considers his property — not as a gift — but 
 as a trust, which has been committed to his hand, that he may use 
 it for the good of others." Truly he needed this strength from 
 above ; for the loss of his funds involved the loss of the most com- 
 mon comforts of life. In the midst of this, his noble wife was pros- 
 trated with a severe illness, which added greatly to his distress. 
 
 At tins time, from necessity as well as from choice, he began to 
 write articles for a Swiss journal, and to publish books in which lie 
 appealed to the public to bestow their attention upon some of the 
 most sacred interests of humanity. From 1780 to 1798 were pub- 
 
LIFE AT NEUHOF. 23 
 
 lished the following books: "The Evening Hours of a Hermit;" 
 "Leonard and Gertrude;" "Christopher and Eliza;" "Legislation 
 and Infanticide;" "Figures to my Spelling-Book;" "Investigations 
 on the Course of Nature in the Development of the Human Race." 
 
 Although these writings are all distinguished by originality and 
 thought, and inspired by philanthropy, not one of them has made 
 a greater impression and acquired more celebrity than "Leonard 
 and Gertrude" — a popular tale, the scenes of which are so fresh 
 and life-like that they at once enlist the feelings of the reader by 
 presenting a picture of exalted virtue in the midst of crime and 
 error. The circumstances to which this work owes its origin are not 
 without interest. Fiissli, a book-seller of Zurich and friend of Pes- 
 talozzi, once mentioned, in conversation with his brother, the artist, 
 the sad condition of the philanthropic dreamer at Neuhof. Fiissli, 
 the painter, who was turning over the leaves of a humorous pamph- 
 let, suddenly interrupted his brother by asking who was the author 
 of that satire. On being told, " Pestalozzi," he said, "The man has 
 talent and originality, and can help himself by writing books." The 
 book-seller thereupon urged Pestalozzi to write a popular tale. The 
 latter, without any positive plan, composed some pieces in imitation 
 of the tales of Marmontel. But on touching the question of domes- 
 tic education, the subject seemed to grow and expand, until, throwing 
 his whole heart into the theme, and drawing largely from the treas- 
 ures of his exf>erience, he produced this immortal work. Such was 
 the sensation which followed its publication that the Government of 
 Berne decreed him a gold medal. This he w T as obliged to turn into 
 cash to supply his family with the necessaries of life. 
 
 The success of a book even in our more enlightened age is not 
 always owing to its merits. It may be admired for the beauty of 
 its style, for the truthfulness of its scenes and pictures which excite 
 feelings of pleasure and approbation, or arouse sympathy and indig- 
 nation ; but should the author appeal for aid in correcting errors 
 and in relieving distress, a deaf ear is turned to his entreaties, and 
 his importunities are considered an annoyance and a bore. This, 
 Pestalozzi experienced with his work, and complains that the highest 
 encouragement he received from influential persons was this: "If 
 there were many mothers like Gertrude, many school-masters like 
 Glhlphi, many magistrates like Arner, the world would be in a 
 better condition." 
 
 From his inability to buy the necessary paper, the story of "Leon- 
 ard and Gertrude" was written on the blank leaves of an old account- 
 book. Whenever he added any thing to the text he patched little 
 
2-4 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 scraps of paper upon the sheet, which, combined with his illegible 
 handwriting, must have driven the printers nearly to despair. The 
 receipts from the book did not add much to his wealth, as will be 
 seen by the publisher's conditions, which we add for the consolation 
 of poor authors. He was to receive three dollars per sheet, with 
 twenty dollars additional if the work should reach a second edition.' 
 
 His extreme poverty, however, resulted chiefly from his ignorance 
 of the ways of the world and from his self-forgetting benevolence. 
 The following anecdote illustrates both these characteristics. When 
 in great need he once borrowed from a friend one hundred dollars, 
 and on his way home he met a poor peasant wringing his hands in 
 great distress. On being asked the reason of his grief, he answered, 
 with many tears, that " his house had been consumed by fire, and 
 he was without shelter and home." This was too much for the feel- 
 ings of kind-hearted Pestalozzi. Forgetting his own errand, he put 
 all the borrowed money into the hand of the peasant, and hurried 
 off to his own desolate home. Arriving there without money and 
 telling his story, his gentle wife asked whether he knew the name 
 of the fortunate receiver. " I do not know the man," he said, "but 
 he looked so poor and honest that I am sure he must be good." 
 When the peasant in his turn was asked the name of his benefactor, 
 he answered: "I do not know. He looked odd and slovenly, but 
 had such a benevolent air about him that I am sure he must be a 
 good man." Such a coincidence of opinion and absence of flattery 
 between persons unknown to each other deserve mention. 
 
 In his domestic relations Pestalozzi was exceedingly fortunate — 
 finding there repose in his weariness, sympathy in his philanthropic 
 schemes, and consolation in his failures. Of his wife we have already 
 spoken, and regret that we can not do full justice to her worth. 
 Born of wealthy parents and marrying against their wishes a man 
 who they declared would never be able to support her, she joyfully 
 exchanged her worldly treasures for those which came from the rich 
 and overflowing heart of her husband. She was a woman of more 
 than ordinary intelligence and culture, and from the diary which 
 she kept for many years have been taken many interesting details 
 of the private life of her husband and herself. 
 
 From Pestalozzi's diary, kept during the early part of his life at 
 Neuhof, we learn that, in addition to his other labors, he bestowed 
 much attention upon the wants, emotions, and acts of his little son 
 Jacob, who was born in 1770. 
 
 In his eagerness to develop the mind of his child, we fear the lov- 
 ing father was too impatient to wait for natural growth, since he 
 
LIFE AT NEUHOF. 25 
 
 often mentions the "inattention of Jacobli,* and his aversion to useful 
 knowledge." This result, however, he had the justice to ascribe to 
 his own want of skill in presentation, rather than to any natural 
 distaste for knowledge on the part of the child. The following is 
 an instance : After a futile attempt to make the little boy repeat the 
 names of numbers, before the idea of number had been presented, 
 he exclaims, "Oh, why have I committed the folly of naming to him 
 words without meaning ; of letting him say three without first showing 
 him the idea of two in all its bearings and applications? It is so 
 difficult to come back from error, and so easy to walk in the simple 
 paths of truth." 
 
 In giving the child object-lessons he does not spare any trouble. 
 He leads the little fellow along the bank of a brook, and is delighted 
 with the childish remark: "The water comes running after," for 
 which he teaches him to substitute the expression, "The water runs 
 down hill." On his return he develops the idea of "up hill." In 
 one passage of his diary he mentions an experience, not uncommon 
 with parents, of finding that his child asked for certain things under 
 a pretext quite different from the true reason. For instance, Jacobli 
 asks his father to carry him to the barn so that he might there recite 
 his lesson, when he really wanted to see the horse. Another passage 
 shows how ready Pestalozzi ever was to receive instruction and to 
 profit by it, though expressed in homely phrase by his man-of-all- 
 work, Klaus. When speaking to him of the excellent memory of 
 his son; "It is good enough," Klaus replied, "but love and courage 
 for learning are still better. Do you ever think of that, master?" 
 "O Klaus," answered the candid master, " all learning is not worth 
 a straw, if joy and courage are lost thereby." 
 
 These seemingly insignificant scraps from a diary are important 
 merely as showing from what sources Pestalozzi derived his deep in- 
 sight into the nature and mind of childhood. This son, his only 
 child, upon whom he lavished so much love, and with whom he took 
 so much pains, died in 1801, at the age of 31 years. 
 
 The still more important lessons on the moral and practical welfare 
 of domestic life he learned from his excellent wife, and from a noble, 
 though uneducated, woman, who was his housekeeper for forty years, 
 and whose useful and unostentatious life he immortalized in his char- 
 acter of "Gertrude." In the following passage from this work, he 
 expresses his opinion of the influence of such a woman: "Thus does 
 God's sun walk on its path from morning till evening; the eye does 
 
 *Little Jacob. 
 
26 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 not perceive any of its steps, nor the ear hear its course, but at its 
 setting, we know that it will reappear to warm the earth until its 
 fruits are ripe. This great mother * hovering over the earth is the 
 image of Gertrude, and of every wife who raises the domestic circle 
 ( Wohndube) to a sanctuary of God, and she deserves heaven tor her 
 blessed influence on the beloved ones in her care." 
 
 From the sanctuary of the peaceful household we will now pass to 
 more stormy scenes of historical action, which, grave and moment- 
 ous as they were for the fate of nations, had also great influence on 
 the fate of Pestalozzi. A fiery patriot like him could not remain 
 indifferent to that ferment of ideas, which, as the tremulous mur- 
 murs of the earth that precede, a volcanic explosion, heralded the 
 first French Revolution. Society was hastening to its dissolution, 
 especially in France, and every sound of freedom that arose between 
 the Pyrenees and the Jura found a ready echo in the Alps. Many 
 parts of Switzerland were writhing under a tyranny not less vexa- 
 tious because conducted on a smaller scale by a number of petty 
 despots. 
 
 In order that American readers may better understand the situation 
 of affairs at that time, it must be stated that Switzerland, although 
 mainly a Republic, consisting of thirteen free and independent can- 
 tons, owned yet some undivided territory. This section was subject 
 to the sway of one or more of those cantons, and governed by a 
 bailiff, whose ideas of political economy seemed to be to make him- 
 self rich at the expense of his subjects. Moreover, the cities even 
 in the independent cantons possessed great privileges in taxation, 
 representation, and commerce, over the inhabitants of the country. 
 The liberty of the press was often rudely assailed, and the fact that 
 Pestalozzi gave to one of his publications the harmless title of " Fig- 
 ures to my Spelling-Book," while, in the form of fables, it contained 
 keen and biting allusions to political matters, seems to indicate a 
 state of affairs not altogether unknown under despotic governments. 
 
 An ardent admirer of the ideas of Rousseau and other liberals, 
 Pestalozzi naturally embraced the side of the oppressed. He saw 
 the yawning gulf toward which the tyrants were rushing in blind 
 madness, and could not but rejoice to hear the popular voice rising 
 against them. 
 
 The events immediately preceding the bloody French Revolution 
 at last roused to action the pent-up feelings of indignation. A 
 
 "The German word for sun, "Sonne, 1 ' is feminine, which explains the alle- 
 gorical use of sun as a female. 
 
LIFE AT NEUHOF. 27 
 
 mighty power was overthrown by the popular fury, and its venal 
 supporters, the aristocracy, either perished or were exiled. The guil- 
 lotine worked day and night. The lower classes of France and of 
 some other countries, emancipated from obedience to their hereditary 
 rulers, set at naught even the rules of justice and humanity, and 
 considered liberty permission to indulge in violent passions. Hence 
 the people soon engaged in a war of self-destruction, at which the 
 better part of humanity shuddered. 
 
 Pestalozzi's mind was too clear and far-seeing not to note the 
 danger that threatened when liberty thus degenerated into license, 
 and the scepter of power was wielded by those who could not govern 
 themselves. In his younger days he had cherished the idea that the 
 welfare of the people could be obtained merely by the improvement 
 of outward circumstances ; but he now saw and felt the important 
 truth, that, for man to be truly free, his moral nature must be de- 
 veloped and cultivated. The same idea is expressed in the precept 
 of Jesus: "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, 
 and all these things shall be added unto you." 
 
 After this, Pestalozzi expected but little good from mere political 
 changes, unless they were accompanied by the elevation of the 
 masses, and his Avhole heart impelled him in the direction in which 
 this could best be accomplished. Some of his friends and a few 
 members of the Government, who, like himself, considered education 
 the main pillar of the state, were willing to procure him an influ- 
 ential position ; but it was left to Providence to indicate the particu- 
 lar spot where he was destined to commence his immortal labors. 
 
 The year 1798 saw Switzerland the battle-ground between the 
 French, Austrian, and Russian armies. They made the mountain 
 walls echo and reecho the thunder of their cannon, and tinged the 
 Alpine snows and the waters of lovely lakes with the blood of the 
 slain. The Swiss were compelled to take sides with one or the other 
 of the contending powers. The influence of France was very great; 
 but her centralizing tendencies were odious to the old republics 
 around the lake of Luzerne, cherishing, as they did, their national 
 independence with the tenacity of habit and the pride of old rec- 
 ollections. 
 
 After France had vanquished the ill -organized resistance of the 
 Swiss, who were divided among themselves, they forced upon the 
 cantons a new constitution, modeled after that proclaimed by the 
 Directorial Government of France. By this constitution the power 
 of the larger cantons was diminished, while several of the smaller ones 
 
28 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 were consolidated into one, and deprived of a portion of their demo- 
 cratic institutions. 
 
 In most places the people accepted their fate with silent and unre- 
 sisting sorrow. The small canton of Nidwalden, situated at the 
 southern extremity of Lake Luzerne, and bounded by high mount- 
 ains, alone sought to maintain its independence. Enraged at this 
 opposition to its plans, the French Government sent its legions against 
 the unfortunate valley. The brave mountaineers rallied for the de- 
 fense of their homes, and it was only after great losses that the French 
 were able to force their way through the mountain passes. In re- 
 venge for the resistance, the invaders commenced a horrible massacre. 
 The whole region seemed doomed to destruction. Men, and often 
 women and children, were shot. Every village, except Stanz, was 
 burned, and this one .was only spared at the intercession of a French 
 officer. 
 
 The news of these atrocities produced a deep sensation of mingled 
 indignation and pity throughout Switzerland, and the Government in- 
 stituted means to save the remnant of the unfortunate people from 
 starvation. 
 
 In Pestalozzi's soul, compassion was associated with an overpowering 
 desire to do something for the sufferers — especially for the orphaned 
 children, who now, more than ever, needed the healing remedy of a 
 sound education. His resolution was at once taken ; and, without 
 delay, he made an offer to the Government to go to that desolate 
 valley, there to collect and instruct the poorest of the children. 
 His offer was accepted, and henceforth his vocation of school-master 
 was fixed. 
 
 The Helvetic Government, although in some respects the tool of 
 France, yet counted among its members men who would be an honor 
 to any state — men who had studied the wants and necessities of the 
 people, and who were earnestly devoted to the task of finding a 
 remedy for existing evils. Of these men, Le Grand, President of the 
 Council, and Stapfer, Minister of Arts and Sciences, deserve the high- 
 est place. They were staunch and unflinching supporters of Pestalozzi, 
 and their conduct is in strong contrast to that of others, who were 
 accustomed to judge character only by outward success. 
 
 The report submitted by Stapfer to his colleagues in regard to Pes- 
 talozzi's mission to Stanz displays the views of a wise statesman, as 
 well as of an intelligent friend of education. He says : " Permit me, 
 Citizen Directors, to remind you on this occasion of the principal 
 points in the plan of Pestalozzi ; such as are indicated in his classical 
 book, 'Leonard and Gertrude.' He unites practical application with 
 
LIFE AT NET7HOF. 29 
 
 elementary instruction; develops and fortifies early habits of indus- 
 try, and bestows his attention upon all subjects which will facilitate 
 the labor of the working classes. A good education must enable the 
 pupil to secure for himself, by his principles, his sentiments, and his 
 actions, a path to happiness. It brings into play all the faculties of 
 man, and takes advantage of every thing, which, from his earliest 
 years, may have an influence on his development and success in the 
 different positions and circumstances in which he may find himself 
 placed. . . . Pestalozzi's first care is directed toward the 
 
 physical wants of the child. He habituates him to all kinds of work, 
 in order that no effort, no pains, which his future vocation may im- 
 pose, shall be too much for him. He wishes to keep his pupils from 
 all useless and damaging wants and desires, and to impart to them a 
 sincere love of simplicity and a contempt for all that is superfluous 
 and enervating. He requires them to practice rural and domestic 
 occupations, in order to insj^ire them with love for order and an 
 activity directed toward the useful. The pupils, by seeing the re- 
 sults of their work, learn to esteem themselves, and the parents have 
 before their eyes an example of a well-organized, household and of 
 moral education. .......... 
 
 To the question, 'Is the plan of Citizen 
 Pestalozzi contrary to the unity or uniformity of a system of public 
 education?' I would reply, if the project succeeds, it must be consid- 
 ered a Model School, and be productive of others of the same kind. 
 If it does not succeed, it will at least have supplied new, interesting, 
 and useful experience." 
 
 In this, as in other addresses of the same kind, the warm-hearted 
 Stapfer alludes to Pestalozzi as "that grand, unappreciable man, 
 whose ardor for the improvement of his fellow-man, age has not been 
 able to dampen, and whose heart ever burns with a sacred fire for 
 the human race." 
 
 Stapfer portrayed the man correctly. Faithful to the declaration 
 made in the letter to his beloved, which we have already quoted, 
 and forgetting his own misery and wants, in his compassion for the 
 destitute orphans of Stanz, he entered upon his new work with zeaL 
 and enthusiasm. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 LIFE AT STANZ. 
 
 PESTALOZZI'S resolution to go to Stanz seems to have been one 
 of those inspired acts which are not weighed in the scale of reason. 
 The inhabitants of the town were governed by priests, from whom 
 little help and sympathy could be expected. Add to this the gen- 
 eral devastation of the country, the want of food, shelter, and other 
 necessaries of life, the absence of school furniture and apparatus, 
 and the reader can judge whether it offered many inducements to a 
 man fifty-three years of age, of frail physical constitution, and weary 
 from disappointment and care. The saying of a philosopher, that 
 "great ideas spring from the heart," was applicable to him. It was 
 love that urged him to ponder over the means of helping his poorer 
 brethren ; love that enabled him to persevere in his efforts under the 
 most perplexing difficulties. When speaking of his resolution, he 
 says : "I knew not exactly what I could accomplish, but I knew 
 what I wished — to die or to carry out my plans." 
 
 The Government assigned him for his school an empty convent, in 
 which some alterations were indispensable. When it became known 
 that the convent was open, even before the kitchen, school, and bed- 
 rooms were completed, poor orphan children flocked thither in large 
 numbers. The appearance of these ragged, neglected little ones 
 would have been revolting to almost any other man ; but Pestalozzi 
 saw before him immortal souls which he might save from the sloth 
 of mental and moral perdition. Assisted by his housekeeper, he 
 wisely began his task by inculcating the necessity of cleanliness and 
 order. He then commenced his educational work with an amount 
 of vigor, self-forgetfulness, and enthusiasm, such as the world has 
 seldom seen combined in the soul of one frail mortal. 
 
 The government of the school, even when punishment was neces- 
 sary, was chiefly based on love and the power of good example. His 
 own touching account gives the best idea of this: "I was among 
 them from morning till evening. Every thing tending to benefit 
 (30) 
 
LIFE AT STANZ. 
 
 31 
 
 body and soul, I administered with my own hand. Every assistance, 
 every lesson they received, came from me. My hand was joined to 
 theirs, and my smile accompanied theirs. They seemed out of the 
 world and away from Stanz ; they were with me and I with them. 
 We shared food and drink. I had no household, no friends, no serv- 
 ants around me; I had only them. Was their health good, I 
 enjoyed it with them ; were they sick, I stood at their side. I slept 
 
 View of S.tanz. 
 
 in their midst. I was the last to go to bed and the first to rise. I 
 prayed with them, and taught them in bed till they fell asleep." 
 
 We see by this that his chief aim was to carry out one of his 
 most cherished ideas — to impart to the school the character of a 
 family. Like a good mother, he relied less on words than on ac- 
 tions, to enlist the feelings and excite the sympathy of the children. 
 The fact that he worked under less favorable circumstances than 
 most mothers have to encounter, only tends to increase our admira- 
 tion for his wonderful insight into the mainsprings of human actions, 
 and for the motives which stimulated him. He talked but little 
 about abstruse questions of morality or religion ; but he never neg- 
 lected an opportunity to excite a religious emotion or to encourage 
 moral actions. 
 
 The following incident will illustrate his method of procedure : In 
 1799 the neighboring town of Altorf was consumed by fire. Pesta- 
 
32 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 lozzi, hearing the news, assembled his children and gave to them a 
 description of the sad calamity. He called their attention particu- 
 larly to the many children left homeless, and a prey to hunger and 
 want. He then reminded them of their own condition some weeks 
 before. After thus exciting -the sympathy of the children, he asked: 
 "Shall I not try to get permission of the Government to receive 
 some of these unfortunate ones into your home?" The children cried, 
 as with one voice, "Yes, yes." Not wishing to take advantage of 
 the first impulses of their feelings, he appealed to their reason. 
 "Remember, children," he said, "food and money are scarce; only 
 little is given for your support. If they come, it will be necessary 
 to have your rations diminished, and* to share your beds with them. 
 Now, choose." The children cried, as before, " Let them come, 
 Father, we will willingly share with them all we have." 
 
 Such scenes must have been to Pestalozzi a reward for all his har- 
 assing care ; for they showed the power of love and faith, and the 
 importance of an education which quickens sympathy and exhibits 
 its hallowing influence in action. 
 
 With a heart large enough to embrace them all, he stood in their 
 midst like the father of a family. Under his loving instruction, his 
 pupils became to him affectionate children, and to each 'other, broth- 
 ers and sisters ; and, as in a Avell-ordered household, each was 
 intent upon serving the interests of all. This spirit was particularly 
 manifest during the hours of instruction, when you might see chil- 
 dren teaching other children — not in the spirit of little despots, as is 
 too often manifest in schools of this character, but in the spirit of 
 kindness and forbearance. "If ever so small a child," says Pesta- 
 lozzi, " knew a few letters more than others, he seated himself between 
 two of them, embraced them with his little arms, and taught them 
 that of which they were ignorant." 
 
 Hitherto we have dwelt principally on the means and effects of the 
 moral training, which, if rightly understood, is the basis of sound 
 intellectual growth. It can not be denied that love and respect for 
 the teacher and interest in the thing presented, combined with peace 
 and order, are the most powerful incentives to intellectual effort. 
 We have always admired the advice given to teachers by Horace 
 Mann, that, "in case of any disorder in school, or any act calculated 
 to disturb the feelings of any portion of the class, or of the teacher, 
 the teaching should be suspended for the moment. It is better to 
 leave the thread of ideas interrupted than to suffer any wheel of the 
 moral machinery to get rusty." In schools where an opposite plan 
 is followed, and where the feelings and moral sentiments are sacri- 
 
P. 3. 
 
84 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 ficed for mere intellectual attainments, we may be sure that the in- 
 tellectual structure itself will rest on a frail and unsafe foundation. 
 
 Pestalozzi discarded all mental operations which did not aim to 
 elicit truth. He had no respect for those intellectual feats which 
 consist chiefly in a skillful handling of words, and are not based on 
 the children's own observation and experience. 
 
 Very appropriately, says Biber: "As Pestalozzi based all matters 
 of discipline on the primary motive of all virtue, love; so in matters 
 of instruction, he started with the source of all knowledge, the 
 elements. 
 
 "He did not burden their minds with the memory of words whose 
 meaning they did not understand ; but he led them gradually to the 
 discovery of truths, which, in the nature of things, they could never 
 forget. Instead of building up a dead mind and a dead heart on 
 the ground of a dead letter, he drew forth life to the mind and life 
 to the heart from the fountain of life within, and thus established a 
 new art of education, in which to follow him, requires, on the part of the 
 teacher, not a change of system, but a change of state." 
 
 His school-room was totally unprovided with books, and his appa- 
 ratus consisted of himself and his pupils. He was forced to adapt 
 these means to the accomplishment of his end. He directed his 
 whole attention to those natural elements which are found in the 
 mind of every child He taught numbers instead of figures ; living 
 sounds instead of dead characters ; deeds of faith and love instead 
 of abstruse creeds ; substance instead of shadow ; realities instead of 
 signs. 
 
 In many particulars, Pestalozzi's work would not appear to advan- 
 tage in the light of the present time. Its excellence consisted chiefly 
 in his power to reach the hearts of the children, and to stimulate 
 them to mental exertion. This power came, in part, from his own 
 personality, and, in part, from the means which he employed to 
 attract their attention and direct their thoughts. 
 
 The school, however, lacked the order and system which are con- 
 sidered indispensable to success at the present day. These deficien- 
 cies were excusable, considering that Pestalozzi was the sole teacher 
 of eighty pupils, bound to no course of -study, and entirely without 
 experience in regard to the arrangement of labor and time. His 
 main object seemed to be to ascertain the kind of instruction 
 most needed by the children, and how it could be based upon 
 their previous knowledge. When he saw them interested, he pur- 
 sued the same topic for hours, and left it only when the interest 
 flagged or the point was attained. To keep up the interest, he fre- 
 
LIFE AT STANZ. 35 
 
 quently varied the form of the exercise, treating the subject now in 
 a playful, now in a practical, manner, and left off only to resume it 
 at a more favorable time. They had no lessons to commit, but they 
 had always something to ' investigate. They gained little positive 
 knowledge, but their love of knowledge and power of acquiring it 
 increased daily. 
 
 At the end of a single term the result of this course of instruction 
 was manifestly great. The children had improved so much, both phys- 
 ically and morally, that Pestalozzi says: "They seemed entirely differ- 
 ent beings from those I had received six months before, neglected, 
 ragged, and filthy." But yet he stood entirely alone. There was no 
 admiring school committee to sound his praises ; not even one to visit 
 his school on days of examination, or when special preparation had 
 been made for their reception ; no brother pedagogue to give him 
 countenance and advice ; and no parents who fully appreciated the 
 good work done, or were grateful for the kindness and self-sacrifice 
 which prompted it. On the contrary, the people were both super- 
 stitious and ignorant, and felt a great distrust for the heretic teacher, 
 who, they feared, might lead their children to perdition. 
 
 In many respects his experience here was a repetition of that at 
 Xeuhof, where he had to deal with the very lowest classes of the com- 
 munity. To show the trials to which he was subjected, and the pa- 
 tience and forbearance which he was obliged to exercise continually, 
 we will quote his own words. " Mothers who supported themselves 
 by open beggary, would, upon visiting the establishment, find some cause 
 of discontent, and take their children away, because 'they would not 
 be Avorse off at home.' Sundays especially, fathers, mothers, and other 
 relatives came to the house, and, taking the children aside in some 
 corner or in the street, elicited complaints of every kind, and either 
 took them away or left them peevish and discontented. Many were 
 brought to the asylum with no intention but to have them clothed; 
 which being done, they were removed without any apparent reason. 
 Others required- pay for leaving their children, in order to compensate 
 for the diminished produce of their beggary. Others bargained for 
 how many days in the week they could take them out for begging 
 errands. Such proposals being rejected, they went away indignant, 
 declaring that unless their terms were accepted they would soon 
 take away their •children. Several months passed in this constant 
 fluctuation of pupils, which rendered the adoption of any settled 
 plan of discipline or instruction utterly impossible." 
 
 When Henry Zschokke, at that time Commissioner of the Helvetic 
 Government, and afterward a celebrated novelist, visited Stanz in the 
 
36 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 spring of 1789, he stated, that "nobody kept company with poor Pes- 
 talozzi, and, with a few honorable exceptions, he was considered 
 either a good-natured fool or a poor devil, who was compelled, by 
 indigence, to perform the menial office of school-master." 
 
 What was it, then, that kept his spirit alive, and seemed to impart 
 to his very body the buoyancy and strength of youth? It must have 
 been the consciousness of doing good, and a vision of the eternal prin- 
 ciples of education, combined with an unbounded confidence in God 
 and the possibility of improving the human race. Let those who now 
 witness the mighty changes that have taken place in education pay 
 grateful tribute to the man who first took arms against the hollow sys- 
 tems of the old school routine, and who showed the path to those de- 
 lightful regions of thought, in whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will 
 ever be reaped by the patient laborer. 
 
 To the philanthropist and friend of education Stanz will always be a 
 hallowed spot, exhibiting, as it does, the picture of this venerable 
 teacher sitting among the outcast children, animated by the very spirit 
 of Christ, and by a great idea which not only filled his own soul, but 
 also inspired those who witnessed his labors. 
 
 While Pestalozzi was thus endeavoring to heal the wounds which 
 ignorance, neglect, and the evils of war had inflicted upon an unfortu- 
 nate people, the contending armies of Europe still made Switzerland 
 their battle-ground. More than once the rumor that the enemy were 
 approaching the secluded valley of Nidwalden, had caused such fright 
 and alarm that the inhabitants of Stanz and the children of the school 
 fled in all directions. 
 
 In June, 1799, a French company, after having met with a reverse, 
 appeared in reality, and, without ceremony, took possession of the con- 
 vent which Pestalozzi had hitherto occupied. As there was no appeal 
 from force, he relinquished his labors, and, after having supplied 
 his beloved j^^pils with clothing from the remaining part of the fund 
 granted for that purpose, he took leave of them amidst tears and' sobs. 
 His own feelings are best expressed in a letter to his friend Gessner: 
 " Imagine with what sensations I left Stanz. Thus might feel a ship- 
 wrecked sailor, who sees land after weary and restless nights, and draws 
 the breath of coming life, but is again thrown into the immensity of 
 space. This was my own condition. Think of the fullness of my 
 heart, the greatness of my plans, my success and my ruin, the trem- 
 bling of my disordered nerves, and my mute agony." 
 
 After this painful event Pestalozzi repaired to the rural home of his 
 faithful and sympathizing friend Zehender, in the Canton of Berne, 
 Avhere he spent some time in regaining his shattered health. In the 
 
LIFE AT STANZ. 37 
 
 immediate neighborhood, upon a plateau above the beautiful lake of 
 Thun, are the baths of Gurnigel. The scenery in this region is among 
 the finest in Europe. The eye looks down upon a wide plain strewn 
 with hamlets and villages, and bounded by the snow-capped summits 
 of the Bernese Alps, which Byron calls, 
 
 "Those palaces of nature, whose vast walls 
 Have pinnacled in cloud their snowy scalps, 
 And throned Eternity in icy halls 
 Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls 
 The avalanche, that thunderbolt of snow." 
 
 Respecting this visit, Pestalozzi says: "I looked with admiration 
 from the height of Gurnigel upon the immense valley, with its mount- 
 ain border ; and yet I thought, at this moment, more of the badly 
 instructed people it contained than of the beautiful scenery. I could 
 not, nor would I, live without accomplishing my aim." 
 
 With this determination, he called upon some of his influential 
 friends and consulted them in regard to his future prospects. He 
 was poor and emaciated, and yet as enthusiastic and determined as 
 ever. His experiment at Stanz, though apparently a failure, he con- 
 sidered a success, as his experience there had demonstrated the practi- 
 cability of his principles. His only demand was for employment in a 
 school, no matter how low its grade. A friend, hearing of a vacancy 
 in a school at Burgdorf, a small town in the Canton of Berne, Pesta- 
 lozzi immediately set out for that town to secure the place, if possible. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LIFE AT BUKGDORF. 
 
 THE situation for which Pestalozzi applied, and which he obtained, 
 was that of assistant in a school, which, according to the exclusive 
 notions of the time, was set apart for the children of parents not citi- 
 zens of the place. As these people generally belonged to the poorer 
 classes, they could not afford to pay a good school-teacher; and the 
 sum which Pestalozzi received in his new situation was very small. 
 Even in this humble and subordinate position, he was not permitted to 
 labor in peace. The head master perceiving that Pestalozzi succeeded 
 in gaining the attention and affection of the pupils in a greater degree 
 than he, set about devising means of ridding himself of so dangerous 
 a rival. He informed the patrons that his assistant did not know how 
 to read and spell correctly, and that he was opposed to teaching the 
 Heidelberg Catechism. There was some truth in the former accusation, 
 as Pestalozzi very candidly confessed, and a great deal in the latter, 
 since he never was a friend of that dogmatic machinery by which sen- 
 timents are put in the mouth of the child, of the meaning of which he 
 has not the slightest idea. His apparent delinquency in this latter 
 point proved fatal to his interests, and he was expelled from his hum- 
 ble situation. 
 
 By no means discouraged, he applied for occupation in a school where 
 children from five to ten years of age were taught by an old dame. 
 His application was successful, probably because it was believed that 
 he could do less mischief with little children than with older ones ; and 
 because the old lady would thus be relieved of the labor of teaching. 
 
 hi teaching reading he adopted the phonetic method, in which the 
 sound and not the name of the letter is given — an innovation, effected 
 not without opposition. The results obtained caused him great delight, 
 which was marred only by the fear that he might again be removed 
 through the prejudices of the parents and authorities. This time, how- 
 ever, he was agreeably disappointed. The honor of giving the first 
 public testimony of the value of Pestalozzi's educational principles 
 
 (38) 
 
JJFE AT BURGDORF. 
 
 39 
 
 belongs to the school committee of Burgdorf. It was stated in this 
 report: "He has shown what powers are hidden in the feeble child, 
 and in what manner they can be developed. The pupils have made 
 astonishing progress in some branches, thereby proving that every child 
 is capable of doing something if the teacher is able to draw out his 
 talent, and awaken the powers of his mind in the order of their nat- 
 ural development." 
 
 This testimony refers, not only to exercises in spelling, but to all 
 those by which Pestalozzi cultivated the observation and ingenuity of 
 
 4 mim. -';v-4S#a 
 
 
 
 
 View of Burgdorf. 
 
 his pupils. Some of these — as, object-lessons — were entirely out of 
 the range of the ordinary school routine. In making such innovations, 
 Pestalozzi had little difficulty with the children, for they always enjoy 
 such teaching ; but it was hard to convince the parents that their chil- 
 dren could profit by any instruction that had not the scholastic character 
 to which they had been accustomed. A man once said to him, " Why, 
 these exercises are so simple that my wife and I could give them at 
 home." " The very thing you ought to do," replied Pestalozzi, delighted 
 to have an opportunity to speak in behalf of domestic education. 
 
 In the year 1800, occurred an important event, which drew Pestalozzi 
 out of his isolated position, and surrounded him with friends and associ- 
 ates, who, identifying their work with his, must be considered indis- 
 pensable links to his well-earned reputation. 
 
40 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Hermann Kriisi,* a young man engaged in the village school of Gais, 
 ApjDenzell, was induced by a noble-minded man, Fischer of Berne, 
 to take charge of a number of poor boys of that canton, and transfer 
 them to Burgdorf. The parents of these children, on account of the 
 embarrassment caused by the war, were too poor to educate or even 
 support them; therefore, an appeal was made to those who were less 
 unfortunate. The inhabitants of Burgdorf kindly received these little 
 waits, and Kriisi remained as their teacher. 
 
 Up to the time of his arrival at Burgdorf, Kriisi had never heard 
 of Pestalozzi, but an acquaintance soon sprang up between them. 
 After the death of Fischer, Pestalozzi, who had been devising the plan 
 of starting a private school, made the proposition that they two should 
 unite their schools, and enter into partnership. The proposition was 
 accepted, and a school opened. 
 
 Pestalozzi and Kriisi soon found that, with differences of character, 
 they were kindred in heart and purpose. They occupied the castle of 
 the town, a huge old building, which stood on a rocky eminence and 
 had formerly served as a residence for the governor of the district. 
 The changes attending the revolution, by abolishing the office of gov- 
 ernor, had made the building useless to the town, and it was offered to 
 Pestalozzi rent free. He was left to his own efforts to supply furniture 
 and to attract pupils ; but he soon gained the confidence of the people, 
 and his principles began to command the attention of enlightened men. 
 
 As the number of pupils increased, and more assistance was needed, 
 Tobler and Xiederer, friends of Kriisi, and citizens of the mountain- 
 ous canton Appenzell, joined the little band to teach the subjects, 
 Religion, History, and Geography. Still later Buss, a self-taught man, 
 from Wiirtemberg, was employed to teach Form and Drawing. 
 
 The disinterested and enthusiastic manner in which these young men 
 rallied, like disciples, around their venerable friend and master, can 
 only be explained by their conviction that they Avere instruments in an 
 immortal work. For some time the only reward they received was the 
 approval of their own consciences; for they voluntarily resigned their 
 salaries, in order to relieve Pestalozzi from the pecuniary embarrass- 
 ment under which he labored. 
 
 A passage from one of Kriisi's letters, written at that time, contains 
 an almost prophetic conviction of success: "Our work advances. The 
 seed of a better instruction, conforming to the faculties of the human 
 mind, has germinated. It will bear fruit such as no one, not even 
 Pestalozzi himself, dares to anticipate." This enthusiasm manifested 
 
 :: Father of the author. 
 
LIFE AT BURGDORF. 41 
 
 by teachers and pupils was, no doubt, one of the main causes of 
 success ; and this success made the Institution widely known, espe- 
 cially throughout Switzerland and Germany. 
 
 The assistance Avhich Pestalozzi received from his younger teachers 
 enabled him to prepare systematic courses of instruction in the differ- 
 ent branches of study. Kriisi worked out exercises in Mental Arith- 
 metic and Language; Buss in Geometry and Drawing; Tobler in Ge- 
 ography ; while Xiederer tried to analyze the principles of the method, 
 free it from its experimental character, and raise it to the dignity of a 
 great fact worthy of the attention of governments and legislatures. 
 
 These courses of study were tested by two years of trial in their 
 school, carefully revised by Pestalozzi, and then published. They did 
 not, however, achieve the result which their authors had hoped. Those 
 teachers who were not imbued with the spirit of the method could not 
 make use of the exercises, however systematically arranged ; while those 
 who possessed the right principle recpiired neither the book nor the 
 exercises, but were able to frame a course for themselves. Even at 
 the present day, the books which allow the teacher avIio is able to use 
 them well the most liberty, are not those which obtain the patronage 
 of the public; but rather those that save the trouble of reflection, and 
 place the least obstruction to the machinery of recitation. 
 • It was tho unanimous testimony of all who were engaged in Pesta- 
 lozzi's school at Burgdorf, that the time spent there was the most prof- 
 itable and pleasant period of their lives. 
 
 The growing fame of the institution attracted to it, not merely boys, 
 but often men of mature years, who left honorable and remunerative em- 
 ployment in order to study the method there pursued. Far from being 
 ashamed of the elementary character of the exercises, these men were 
 candid enough to confess that their own education had been neglected in 
 these very elements, and that they were fully convinced that the true 
 system of education must be built upon a foundation of thorough ele- 
 mentary instruction. 
 
 A young man who visited Pestalozzi after having completed, 
 with apparent success, his studies at a German university, was made 
 aware of this truth in one of his walks along the river Emme, which 
 bathes the foot of the hill on which the castle stands. Perceiving 
 that a boy picked up from among the various pebbles of the river 
 only those which belonged to the limestones, he exclaimed: "That 
 boy makes me ashamed of my knowledge ! All the catalogue of sci- 
 entific names which I have in my head would not enable me to select 
 the limestones from others." A distinguished man of Sweden showed 
 his faith in the work of Pestalozzi by traveling all the way from Stock- 
 
42 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 holm to Burgdorf, in order to consult him about the best method of 
 educating his infant son. 
 
 If his teaching and example gained him such confidence from per- 
 sons living at a distance, how much greater must have been the mag-^ 
 ical charm of his personal influence. Von Turk states that "he never 
 saw a face expressive of more enthusiasm, goodness, and love for all 
 men than that of Pestalozzi." It was by no means an attractive face, 
 judged by the usual standard of beauty; neither Avere his words and 
 sentences very intelligible, partly because they were uttered in the 
 Swiss dialect, and partly because they were the thoughts and feelings 
 of a man who, as Biber says, " carried an unborn universe in his 
 bosom." 
 
 As a teacher, especially in regard to order and system, many faults 
 could be found with Pestalozzi's work; but his enthusiasm usually tri- 
 umphed over all obstacles, and he gained in interest what he lost from 
 want of method. This enthusiasm was sufficient even to counteract 
 the effects of physical prostration. An incident, in point, is related 
 by Kriisi: "A foreign embassador announced his intention to visit the 
 school on a certain day. Pestalozzi, unfortunately, was confined to his 
 bed by a violent illness. He, nevertheless, insisted on being present 
 on this important occasion, and, supported by Kriisi, he entered the 
 school-room with many a groan. He questioned his pupils; his eyes 
 began to glisten, and receiving their quick answers, he became ani- 
 mated, and his restless mind did not suffer the body to remain quiet. 
 He left the supporting arm, dropped the cane, moved about with a 
 step that grew steadier and quicker, till he actually forgot — nay, lost 
 all his pain.' The mind had triumphed over the body and performed 
 a cure which no physical agency could have effected in the same 
 time." 
 
 While at Burgdorf, he became so well known throughout ►Switzer- 
 land that he was chosen one of the deputies sent to Paris in 1802, in 
 order to frame a new constitution, which should unite the conflicting 
 interests of Switzerland and put an end to its internal dissensions. A 
 letter, written by Kriisi during his absence, shows that in his new ca- 
 pacity Pestalozzi met with little success: "We believe that Pestalozzi 
 is returning from Paris, and will be here in a few days. How we all 
 long for him, you can imagine. Alas! his noble heart made him hope 
 that he could do something for his father-land. He found the fate of 
 our country and of all Europe in the hands of men who care only for 
 themselves, and subordinate every thing to their own ends. This very 
 experience will be of importance to him, as it will bind him more 
 firmly to his work, through which alone it is possible to gain a lasting 
 
LIFE AT BURGDORF. 4o 
 
 influence on the minds and convictions of the people, and free them 
 from the chains which bind them. 
 
 " Pestalozzi's method will work immeasurable results: the nobler 
 part of humanity will foster it ; the simplest intellect will seize' it. 
 The interest in it increases from day to day, and men who but a short 
 time ago were heart and soul opposed to it have become its stanch- 
 est supporters." 
 
 At this time the government of Switzerland was merely temporary. 
 Every thing that depended on political action was unstable and preca- 
 rious. The chief political parties — the Federalists and Centralists — 
 were bitterly hostile to each other, and each was struggling for suprem- 
 acy. In this extremity, an appeal was made to Napoleon to act as 
 mediator between the warring factions ; and in his decision lie com- 
 promised between the two parties. In deference to the historic ante- 
 cedents of Switzerland, he restored to the cantons much of their 
 former power ; but at the same time he made liberal modifications in 
 favor of more modern ideas. 
 
 Up to 1802, Pestalozzi had received from the Helvetic Government 
 a scanty support ; and had even obtained grants for the establishment of 
 a Normal School and an Orphan Asylum in addition to the Institution 
 which he already conducted. By the political change, however, the 
 funds at the disposal of the central government for the support of 
 schools, Avere taken out of its hands, thus depriving Pestalozzi, not 
 only of prospective benefit, but of present support. Besides this, the 
 castle which he had gratuitously occupied was again to be surrendered 
 to the governor of the district. This literally turned the school out- 
 of-doors; for the claims of the poor school-master "were of little conse- 
 quence when compared with those of the magnate of the district, before 
 whom all must deferentially bow. 
 
 Pestalozzi was now obliged to look out for another place to which to 
 transfer his Institution. At this juncture, Emanuel von Fellenberg, 
 founder of the Agricultural School at Hofwyl, invited him to estab- 
 lish a school contiguous to his own at Munchenbuchsee. At the same 
 time the authorities of the canton of Vaud, just emancipated from the 
 thralldom of the Bernese Government, offered him the choice of three 
 castles in which to continue his operations. At first undecided, he 
 sent the greater number of his pupils, under the supervision of a part 
 of his teachers, to Munchenbuchsee, while his other assistants opened 
 a school in the castle of Yverdon, situated at the southern extremity 
 of Lake Neufchatel. In the meantime, in connection with Kriisi, he 
 devoted himself to literary pursuits. But the separated members of 
 his Institution ardently desiring to be reunited under his fatherly care, 
 
44 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 lie yielded to their wishes, and joined them in the castle at Yverdon. 
 This old fortress, with its thick walls and four round towers, which 
 had stood many a siege of invading armies, was now captured by a 
 school-master ; and it was henceforth to become more formidable in 
 its attack upon ignorance, than it had before been in its defense of 
 liberty. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 LIFE AT YVERDOX. 
 
 WE have now arrived at the most momentous period of Pesta- 
 lozzi's life. His Institution had obtained such celebrity that 
 the attention of all the prominent friends of education in civilized 
 Europe was centered upon its work. A great many facts of that 
 era must necessarily be omitted, as partaking too much of a local 
 character to be of general interest to the public. There are, however, 
 features of it which belong to the whole world, and which may be 
 studied and imitated by coming generations. As the contemplation of 
 the Christian Church in its original purity and simplicity will ever pre- 
 serve religion from degenerating into mere formal rites and dogmas, 
 so the contemplation of this period of educational enthusiasm will have 
 a powerful influence in arresting instruction from degenerating into 
 routine. 
 
 An eye-witness speaks of the spirit prevailing in the Institution 
 during its best period, in the following words: "The pupils and teach- 
 ers were united by that unatfected love which Pestalozzi, who, in years, 
 was a man verging to the grave, but in heart and mind a genuine 
 child, seemed to breathe out continually and impart to all who came 
 within his influence. The children forgot that they had another home, 
 and the teachers that there was any other world than the Institution. 
 Not a man claimed a privilege for himself, not one wished to be con- 
 sidered above the others. Teachers and pupils were entirely united. 
 They not only slept in the same rooms, and shared the labors and en- 
 joyments of the day, but they were on a footing of perfect equality. 
 The same man who read a lecture on History one hour, would, per- 
 haps, during the next, sit on the same form with the pupils for a lesson 
 in Arithmetic or Geometry, and, without compromising his dignity, 
 would even request their assistance and receive their hints." 
 
 The influence of Pestalozzi over his teachers Avas veiy great. On 
 two evenings of each week, he met with them to discuss their work. 
 At these meetings, each one was called upon to give an account of the 
 (45) 
 
46 
 
 PESTAL02ZI. 
 
 plan of his lessons, and of the character and behavior of the children 
 under his special care. The remarks of each, and the conclusions to 
 ■which they led, were noted in a book, which was always open for ex- 
 amination. These consultations tended to produce unity of feeling, 
 thought, and action among the teachers. Mistakes which may have 
 been committed were criticised and corrected ; and excellences became 
 a common heritage. The character and habits of the pupils became 
 known to all, and the ability shown in one direction was made to bal- 
 ance the deficiency in another — a result which often relieved them 
 from an unjust charge of stupidity or idleness. 
 
 In many schools the teachers stand isolated. They are neither in 
 communication with the parents nor the principal, nor do they have 
 
 View of Yverdon. 
 
 any action in unison, except in the all-absorbing task of making a pro- 
 gramme of the daily recitations. If there were more frequent consul- 
 tations and greater concert of action among teachers, the moral and 
 intellectual condition of schools would be improved. 
 
 A healthful mind requires a healthful body; therefore, physical edu- 
 cation, in the Institution, received due attention. The pupils were 
 made to rise early, their food was good and simple, and gymnastic 
 exercises were systematically practiced throughout the year. Frequent 
 bathing in the neighboring lake, and walks upon the sunny hills, were 
 favorite amusements in summer. No effeminacy was suffered to pre- 
 
LIFE AT YVKRDON. 47 
 
 vail. If a spoiled boy, who was afraid of the air or the touch of the 
 snow, entered the school, he was sure to be cured of his weakness by 
 the example of his companions, which, in such cases, is the best 
 instructor. 
 
 Full exercise to every faculty of the mind was also given, and thus 
 a healthful reciprocity was established between mind and body. The 
 situation of the school, amidst some of the most beautiful scenery of 
 Europe, proved a powerful auxiliary in the accomplishment of this 
 end. 
 
 The town of Yverdon is situated at the extremity of Lake Neufchii- 
 tel, and commands an extensive view of this lake and its vine-clad 
 shores, dotted with towns and villages. To the west, the Jura mount- 
 ains extend in an unbroken chain, delightfully varied by pastures, 
 forests, deep ravines, and masses of bare rock. From the summits of 
 these mountains the traveler looks down upon the tranquil lake be- 
 neath ; while to the south lies the wide valley, with all its variegated 
 richness, bounded by the snow-draped Alps, from the center of which 
 towers the majestic summit of Mont Blanc. This valley is traversed 
 by the river Orbe, which, fed from an invisible lake above, rises sud- 
 denly from beneath a high rock, and lower down falls over a precipice. 
 These infinitely varied beauties of nature could not fail to inspire both 
 teachers and pupils. 
 
 It must not be understood, however, that the attention given to 
 physical exercise and to the contemplation of nature and her laws, 
 occasioned any neglect in other studies. On the contrary, the pupils 
 received an additional stimulus from the strength gained, and from the 
 spirit of observation aroused. The impressions, which flowed into the 
 awakened senses from the magnificent scenery, provided materials for 
 both thought and expression, and served especially as a basis for 
 formal exercises in language and composition. According to this plan, 
 composition comes before analysis, and the use of language before rules. 
 In the old system, definitions and rules were given first, and the latter 
 were thus often doomed to be rulers without dominion. 
 
 Mathematics, however, was the branch in which the pupils made the 
 greatest progress; and the recitations in this subject, caused much 
 admiration on the part of visitors. The reason for this was, that the 
 science of numbers could be most easily brought within the laws of pro- 
 gressive development, which form the basis of the Pestalozzian philos- 
 ophy. In the experimental stage of the great reform, it was but 
 natural that prominence should be given to that study which most 
 readily conformed to its spirit, and, at the same time, best illustrated 
 its laws. Other branches, such as the various departments of Natural 
 
48 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 History, were much more complicated in their relations ; and hence 
 required a deeper investigation and a wider experience for their full 
 elucidation. 
 
 Singing formed a pleasing accompaniment to all the devotional exer- 
 cises and festal gatherings of the Institution, and proved a strong ele- 
 ment in promoting the harmony of its members. This subject was 
 ably taught by Dreist, a man of high moral and religious principle. 
 In this work he followed the plan of Nageli and Pfeiffer, composers 
 of high order, and friends of Pestalozzi. 
 
 Religious instruction, calculated to lead the pupil to the living- 
 source from which spring humility, self-devotion, and an active striv- 
 ing for perfection of character, received constant and special atten- 
 tion. The morning and evening devotions, in which all joined ; the 
 truly elevating manner in which some festival days, especially Christ- 
 mas and New-year's, were celebrated ; and, above all, the spirit of 
 brotherly love which seemed to pervade the members of the school, 
 gave evidence that the loving precepts of Christ were received by 
 willing ears and intelligent minds. This was the crowning glory of 
 the whole system. 
 
 It was with reverence and love that the members of the household 
 listened to the impassioned appeals of one who had borne the cross 
 for his principles ; had devoted his life to the welfare of the poor 
 and unfortunate, and upon whom, with unanimous consent, they be- 
 stowed the affectionate title, "Father Pestalozzi." But his reputation 
 was not confined to his school, nor even to Yverdon and its vicinity. 
 His fame penetrated to distant countries, and his fervent appeals in 
 behalf of a better system of education reached the ears of enlight- 
 ened men every-where. 
 
 The time was no doubt favorable for the cause of universal educa- 
 tion. The horrors perpetrated during the French Revolution, and the 
 deep wounds inflicted by internal dissensions and cruel wars, could not 
 fail to direct the attention of thinking men to the cause of the evil, as 
 well as to the remedy by which alone it could be radically cured. 
 ( 'lcar-minded men advocated an education which should be universal, 
 not only in its freedom to all, but in its development of every faculty 
 of the human mind. 
 
 Fichte, the great philosopher, in his addresses to the German na- 
 tion, spoke of the principles of Pestalozzi as the best means for national 
 regeneration. William, King of Prussia, through his Minister of Edu- 
 cation, sent a number of young men of talent and culture to Yverdon to 
 study the new methods. The king of Holland, the "Prince of Peace," 
 then all-powerful in Spain, and even Alexander, the mighty Czar of 
 
LIFE AT YVERDON. 49 
 
 Russia, took a similar interest in the cause. Pupils came, not only 
 from the various states of Germany, but from England, France, and 
 Sweden. Thus the Institution at Yverdon contained pupils from 
 nearly every nation of Europe, although the greater number were of 
 German and French origin. This fact often obliged the teachers, in 
 order to be understood by all, to give their instruction in two lan- 
 guages — a feature not favorable to rapid progress. 
 
 Pestalozzi's time was fully occupied in the superintendence of this 
 large and heterogeneous assembly, in an extensive and varied corre- 
 spondence, in his literary labors, and in attending to the financial man- 
 agement of the Institution. For this last labor he, unfortunately, had 
 little taste or ability, and the balances were usually against him. The 
 reasons for these deficits are obvious. Of the great number of pupils 
 which belonged to the Institution, scarcely two-thirds paid their full 
 board and tuition. Of the remainder, some paid a part, and many 
 nothing at all. No pupil was rejected on account of his poverty, but 
 every one who manifested a desire to improve Avas admitted. Although 
 urged to caution by the sad experiences of his early life, Pestalozzi ever 
 forgot his worldly interests when the welfare of humanity appealed to 
 his susceptible heart. A touching incident, illustrative of this self-for- 
 getfulness, was related to the author by an eye-witness: 
 
 "A poor young man, having traveled on foot from a distance to pay 
 his tribute of respect and admiration to Pestalozzi and his work, found 
 himself so reduced that he could not pay for a night's lodging at the 
 hotel. Pestalozzi, not wishing to disturb his household, offered his 
 own bed to the wearied guest. Some friends calling at his room 
 soon after, were astonished to see his bed occupied by a stranger. 
 Alarmed at his absence, they went in search of him, and found him 
 at last, stretched on one of the hard benches of the school-room in 
 sound sleep, and totally unconscious that he had done any thing but 
 his duty." 
 
 He found the fittest instruments for his work among the humble and 
 lowly, and his joy must have been pure and unalloyed when after- 
 ward he saw them filling positions of trust and responsibility, an honor 
 to science and a blessing to their fellow-men. 
 
 There is, apparently, another phase to his character. Instead of a 
 poor wanderer, the arrival of an influential statesman, or perhaps a 
 prince, is announced. What causes him to rush impetuously into the 
 presence of the august visitor and lead him to the recitations of his 
 best classes? Is it subserviency to the powerful and the rich, and a 
 selfish desire to obtain their approval and applause ? Or is it because 
 he sees behind the prince or statesman a whole nation which would be 
 P. 4. 
 
50 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 blessed by receiving a better instruction? The following incident will 
 best answer these questions : 
 
 The king of Prussia, on his visit to Neufchatel, then a Prussian 
 principality, expressed a desire to see Pestalozzi. It happened, 
 however, that the latter was very ill at that time, but his in- 
 terest in the cause to which he had devoted his life impelled him to 
 attend to the call. On being lifted into the coach, he fainted several 
 times, and his friends strongly urged him to give up his intended 
 visit. "No," said he; " let me go; for, if by my humble intercession, 
 I shall only cause a single Prussian child to receive better instruction, 
 I shall be satisfied." 
 
 The bearing of Pestalozzi during the visit of the great Hungarian, 
 Prince Esterhazy, is so characteristic of the man, that we can not 
 forbear giving it in the words of Ramsauer, who had a part in the 
 transaction: "In 1814, the aged Prince Esterhazy paid us a visit. 
 Pestalozzi ran all over the house calling out. 'Ramsauer! Ramsauer! 
 where are you ? Go directly with your best pupils to the Red House,' 
 (the hotel at which the prince had alighted). 'The prince is a person 
 of the highest importance and of infinite wealth, and has thousands of 
 serfs in Hungary. He is certain to build schools and set free his slaves, 
 if he can only be made to take an interest in the matter.' I took about 
 fifteen pupils to the hotel, and Pestalozzi presented me to the prince 
 with these words : ' This is the teacher of these pupils, a young man 
 who fifteen years ago emigrated with other poor children from the 
 canton of Appenzell, and came to me. He received an elementary 
 education, according to his capacity, without let or hinderance. Now, 
 he is a teacher himself. You thus see that there is as much ability 
 in the poor as in the richest — frequently more ' (candid Pestalozzi) ; 
 ' but in the"" poor it is seldom developed, and even then not systemat- 
 ically. He will show you every thing that we do better than I could. 
 I will, therefore, leave him with you for the present,' 
 
 "I now examined, taught, explained, and bawled, in my zeal, till 
 I was quite hoarse, believing that the prince was quite convinced of 
 every thing. At the end of an hour Pestalozzi returned. The prince 
 expressed his pleasure at what he had seen. He then took leave, and 
 Pestalozzi, standing on the steps of the hotel, said: 'He is quite con- 
 vinced, quite convinced, and will certainly establish schools on his 
 Hungarian estates.' After we had descended the stairs, he said: 
 'What ails my arm? It is very painful; see, it is quite swollen. I 
 can not bend it.' In truth, his wide sleeve was too small for his 
 arm. I looked at the key of the house door, and said to him : 'Look 
 here! you struck yourself against this key when we were going to 
 
LIFE AT YVERDON. 51 
 
 the prince an hour ago. 1 On looking, it appeared that Pestalozzi 
 had actually bent the key by hitting his elbow against it, and for an 
 hour, in his excess of zeal and joy, had not noticed the pain." This 
 shows how ardent and zealous was the good old man when he thought 
 he had an opportunity of benefitting his fellow-men. 
 
 During the war of 1814, a requisition was made by the Austrian 
 commandant that the building should be given up as a hospital for 
 his army. Fortunately, the Emperor Alexander was at Basel, and 
 to him Pestalozzi immediately went to see if any thing could be done 
 to save his school. He was received in the most friendly manner, 
 and the emperor promised to interpose in his behalf. This he did, 
 and the hospital was not established at Yverdon at all. 
 
 In November of the same year, the emperor bestowed upon him 
 the order of St. Vladimir, fourth class, " with which," says Kriisi, 
 " he was so delighted, that he showed it to every one about him." 
 His friends, who knew well that the real reason of his joy was the 
 fact of seeing the mighty Czar pleased with his work, and interested 
 in the cause of education, could, nevertheless, not conceal a smile at 
 the thought, that a man who had tried to save humanity from its 
 mental sloth, should be rewarded with the fourth class order, while 
 the inventor of a wholesale killing machine had been found worthy 
 of one of the second class. 
 
 These apparent fits of vanity are in such strong contrast to his 
 usual simplicity and modesty of manner, that they must be attributed 
 to the temporary impulses by which he was moved when he received 
 an unusual and unexpected recognition of the value of his work from 
 those avIio had power to carry it more fully into execution. 
 
 The following incident further illustrates the impulsive nature of 
 Pestalozzi and the genuine goodness of his heart: "The oldest teach- 
 ers," says Kriisi, " myself included, were always accustomed to use 
 the familiar ' thou ' in addressing our friend and father. It hap- 
 pened, one day, that I accompanied Pestalozzi to Berne, where he was 
 to visit some members of the Government. On our journey, which 
 was accomplished on foot, Pestalozzi suggested to me that it might 
 be desirable to drop the familiar pronoun, and to prefix Master to his 
 name in the presence of the distinguished men whom we would soon 
 meet. Although inwardly vexed, I said nothing. When half-way 
 there Pestalozzi expressed a desire for cherries, which I accordingly 
 bought, and, taking off my three-cornered hat and making a profound 
 bow, I said : ' Will Master Pestalozzi condescend to take some cher- 
 ries?' This wa* too much for the assumed dignity of my simple-hearted 
 companion, and, forgetting his own injunctions, he said, with a half- 
 
52 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 laughing, half-angry expression, ' Thou wicked man ; never do this 
 again in all thy life! 5 Thus the matter ended." 
 
 It might have heen well had Pestalozzi possessed sufficient vanity 
 or pride to have made him more careful of external appearances, 
 especially in regard to person and dress. It may be said, that an 
 extraordinary person should not be judged by the ordinary standard ; 
 and, that it is better to neglect the conventionalities of life in the 
 furtherance of a great cause, than to give such exclusive attention to 
 personal appearance as to forget the nobler interests of humanity. 
 But in this, as in most of the practical concerns of life, there is a 
 medium course, which will allow of a devotion to a great cause, and, 
 at the same time, will bestow sufficient thought upon manners and 
 dress as not to excite special attention. 
 
 It is also true, that a man who stands above the multitude, either 
 in character or position, should be an example in small as well as 
 in great things ; and an educator, especially, is expected to practice 
 the precepts which he inculcates. We have already spoken of the 
 hieroglyphical character of his handwriting, which only his intimate 
 friends were able to decipher, and of his carelessness in arithmetical 
 operations, which he performed by his heart rather than by his head ; 
 but we have yet to mention how people who judge only by the out- 
 side were often sadly mistaken in the ideal picture they had formed 
 of him. 
 
 It happened once that his wife sat, in company with other ladies, 
 on a balcony overlooking the road at a watering-place. They saw a 
 traveler approaching on foot, with clothes covered with dust, and 
 otherwise presenting such a singular appearance, that one of the 
 ladies, turning to Madame Pestalozzi, called her attention to him by 
 saying, "Look there! who may this monster be who is approach- 
 ing?" "Madame," replied the lady, her eyes glistening with pride 
 and pleasure, "that is my husband." 
 
 On another Occasion he got into trouble from a similar mistake. 
 Having undertaken a journey on foot to the town of Solothurn, he 
 met a beggar, who asked for alms. Pestalozzi, who could never 
 refuse any appeal of that kind, searched his pockets for money, but 
 found that it had already taken to itself wings. In order not to dis- 
 appoint the man, whom he saw anxiously watching him, he looked 
 about his person and found that he could easily spare his silver shoe- 
 buckles. These he accordingly gave to the beggar. Finding, how- 
 ever, that the shoes had a tendency to slip from his feet, he fastened 
 them with bits of straw, and, absorbed in thought, with occasional 
 exclamations and gesticulations, he tramped along the dusty road- 
 
LIFE AT YVEEDOX. 53 
 
 On entering the gates of the city he was arrested by a policeman as 
 a vagabond, or, at least, as a suspicious character. Pestalozzi expos- 
 tulated in vain. He could not convince his uninvited companion of 
 his respectability. As a last resort, he asked to be taken before 
 Luthi, the mayor. This request was granted. Upon arriving there, 
 the mayor at once recognized his esteemed friend, and embraced him 
 with many a word of affection and welcome. The policeman stood 
 by with eyes and mouth open, and at last slipped away, conscious of 
 having committed a blunder in his zeal for the interests of the city, 
 and with grave doubts in regard to his own powers as a physiogno- 
 mist. 
 
 Like others who have been possessed with a single absorbing idea, 
 he was frequently so absent-minded as to be utterly unconscious of 
 surrounding circumstances. It is related, that once, during a pelting 
 rain, he went to see a friend who lived at a considerable distance. 
 Although he had an umbrella, he was so absorbed in thought that he 
 forgot to open it. When his friend saw him approaching, dripping 
 wet, with his umbrella under his arm, he exclaimed: "Why did 
 you not open your umbrella? Do you not see it rain?" "You are 
 right," said Pestalozzi, spreading his umbrella. "Oh," said his 
 amused friend, "this will be of little use, now that you are under 
 shelter." "You are right," said the philosopher, as he again shut 
 the umbrella and entered the house. 
 
 While these incidents are ludicrous, they reveal a certain helpless- 
 ness and unfitness for the practical requirements of life, and explain, 
 to a large extent, the dissensions and sufferings to which he was ex- 
 posed toward the evening of his eventful life. These infirmities also 
 account for the want of order which some sharp critics, especially 
 Raumer, seem to have discovered in his school. 
 
 In regard to this last point, there were circumstances which would 
 have acted unfavorably in any school, even if conducted by a much 
 higher administrative talent than was possessed by Pestalozzi. 
 
 First : It was not established by government, nor by any associa- 
 tion which could command money and influence ; but it was called 
 into life by the enthusiasm and persistence of a single man who had 
 neither wealth nor position. He was aided, it is true, by trustworthy 
 friends; but they all relied for success upon the principles on which 
 their work was founded, and gave little heed to the pecuniary bene- 
 fits which might have been derived from cooperation. 
 
 Second : It contained pupils from almost every country of Europe, 
 professing different religions and speaking different languages. 
 
 Third : The pupils consisted, not merely of boys, sent thither by 
 
54 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 their parents and guardians, but, in many instances, of men who had 
 left their vocations in order to study the method with its originator. 
 It thus often happened, that the unsophisticated boy and the mature 
 thinker were in the same room, engaged in the same work. 
 
 Fourth : It was visited at all seasons and at all times of the day 
 by students and foreign travelers, who wished to observe the work- 
 ings of the system, and whose wishes Avere generally gratified at the 
 expense of regularity and order. 
 
 It was not in the power of Pestalozzi to change the circumstances 
 which were the direct results of his great reputation; and it is obvi- 
 ous that they were not favorable to the healthful progress of the 
 school. The peculiar and anomalous condition of affairs often neces- 
 sitated a course of action in which the principles of the system were 
 openly violated to meet certain pressing and unexpected emergencies. 
 
 At Burgdorf, where the teachers were linked to Pestalozzi by 
 bonds of reverence and love, and where the number of pupils was 
 small, the government of the school was of a patriarchal character. 
 The advice or wish of the venerable father acted as a command, and 
 his approbation like a blessing. At Yverdon, this touching faith and 
 child-like simplicity gradually changed, to conform to the new condi- 
 tions and circumstances. Some of the teachers who excelled in prac- 
 tical efficiency or learning, had, in spite of their self-negation, estab- 
 lished a reputation which, in many respects, was equal to that of 
 their master. They were often thought able to express his views 
 better than himself, and hence they were frequently consulted by 
 the students of the system. In spite of this voluntary tribute to 
 their knowledge and ability, they always respected the wishes and 
 authority of their old friend, and upon all important occasions con- 
 sulted him. 
 
 During the period when the reputation of the Institution was at 
 the highest, the government was of a decidedly republican character. 
 This spirit of equality pervaded all thoughts and sentiments, and 
 was shared by pupils and teachers alike. The truth which a pupil 
 established by investigation, was as much respected as though found 
 in a book or uttered by a teacher. Freedom, restrained only by sal- 
 utary laws, led to voluntary exertions; and, although these occasion- 
 ally disturbed the perfect order of the school, still the rich fruits of 
 liberty more than compensated for the irregularities — a truth which 
 will also apply to all other human affairs. 
 
 In the complicated relations of a large school, two things are neces- 
 sary to its highest success — unity of purpose, and harmony of action. 
 A watch in ust have a spring to furnish it with motive power, or the 
 
LIFE AT YVEEDON. 55 
 
 wheels can not work in unison and give uniformity to the motion of 
 the hands. The spring of a school should be moral power ; but, 
 when despotism usurps this place and commands obedience without 
 regard to motive, harmony of action is lost through the gradual de- 
 cay of the liberty, good-will, and enthusiasm, upon which it depends. 
 From the republican rule, which fostered freedom and excited in- 
 dividual action, the school at Yverdon gradually passed under a 
 despotic sway, which proved fatal alike to its success and to the 
 application of the principles upon which it had been founded. 
 
 In the following passage Pestalozzi confesses his own inability, and 
 fully acknowledges the assistance which he received from others : 
 "When I consider my work as it stands now, I must confess that 
 no man, by his own resources, was less capable of accomplishing it 
 than I was. It required extraordinary means, and I had not even 
 ordinary ones at my command. It required calm, dispassionate 
 views, and I am the most nervous and impulsive man in the world. 
 It required deep mathematical knowledge, and I have the most un- 
 mathematical mind that can be imagined. It required classical cul- 
 ture and great powers of language, combined with administrative 
 talent, and I possess none of these. My head was so hot, that my 
 friends were sometimes afraid it would crack ; but I found men of clear 
 and calm minds to sustain me in my labors, and so my work exists. 
 All this was done by love, which possesses divine power if we are 
 only true to the right and not afraid to carry the cross." 
 
 We have already shown, that, from the peculiar character of his 
 genius, and from the preponderance of his feelings over his reason, 
 he needed some one to render his ideas and plans intelligible to the 
 world, and to unite them into a regular systematic whole. He needed 
 this assistance, in order to show the connection of his work with the 
 progress of human culture and civilization. To Niederer we are 
 indebted for the philosophical form in which the truths of the great 
 educational revival are embodied. Raumer says, that "only by the 
 aid of such a man did Pestalozzi hope that his Swiss idiom could be 
 translated into intelligible German. For some time he even thought 
 that Niederer understood him better than he did himself." 
 
 Many are the honorable testimonials given by Pestalozzi during 
 the period of their friendship to the rare value and disinterestedness 
 of his co-laborer. And well might he be proud of him; for the 
 services of Niederer were of such a nature that they won for Pes- 
 talozzi the admiration and respect of the educated public ; and were 
 further required to shield him from the enemies who tried to under- 
 mine the very foundations of his system. But there was one serious 
 
56 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 defect in Niederer's work. The results which his philosophic mind an- 
 ticipated would follow a thorough application of Pestalozzi's princi- 
 ples, he sometimes so represented, that the impression was conveyed 
 that they were actually attained, while yet they existed merely in 
 theory. 
 
 Moreover, it was claimed, and not without foundation, that Niederer 
 was unable to give much aid to the practical details of teaching, or to 
 contribute materially to the realization of his own philosophic sug- 
 gestions. 
 
 It seems natural, therefore, that Pestalozzi, in moments of de- 
 spondency, or when a strong practical hand was required for the 
 government of his school, should have become somewhat estranged 
 from his faithful friend; and the more so, as both possessed impul- 
 sive temperaments which were not attuned to each other. It is cer- 
 tain that at one time the influence of Niederer over Pestalozzi was 
 such that several passages of his writings, in style as well as thought, 
 point to the former as their real author. It is to these he undoubt- 
 edly alludes, when, at a later period, by way of apology for discrep- 
 ancies between his theory and practice, he says: "In this and sev- 
 eral other passages, I express, not so much my own peculiar views 
 of education in their original simplicity, as certain immature philo- 
 sophical notions with which, at that time, notwithstanding all our 
 good intentions, most of the inmates of our house, myself among the 
 rest, must needs perplex our heads, and which brought me person- 
 ally to a stand-still in my work. These views caused the Institution, 
 which seemed to flourish, to become rotten to the very core, and are 
 to be looked upon as the hidden source of all the misfortunes which 
 have since come upon me." 
 
 This throwing the cause of all his misfortunes upon an abstraction 
 must be taken cum grano salis. It is often the case that an indi- 
 vidual whose physical organization has been weakened by the abuses 
 of a whole life and by a total neglect of the laws of health, dis- 
 covers at once that some innocent. fruit of which he has partaken is 
 the cause of the pain which he feels. In the same manner the 
 causes of a mental or moral disorder are often attributed to a 
 casual incident in the great drama of action. 
 
 In a letter to Pestalozzi, after the loss of mutual confidence, Nie- 
 derer says: "Ruin entered your Institution when, dazzled and led 
 away by individual instances of brilliant talents and results, you 
 ceased to bestow any particular attention upon those moral qualities 
 which, by their nature, can only work in silence, although they 
 stand higher than talent, and alone can render the development of 
 
LIFE AT YVEKDOX. 57 
 
 talent possible; when you began to act as if you owed every thing 
 to that with which you could make a display, and nothing to what 
 was not suited to this purpose. Under this fundamental error, I say 
 more, under this fundamental injustice, Mathematics Avas made prom- 
 inent; as if that alone Avas the essence of the method, and the sana- 
 tion of humanity. Low and one-sided qualities Avere honored at the 
 expense of the higher ones. Good temper, fidelity, lo\ r e, if not joined 
 to these external attributes, were slighted and depreciated. In the 
 kind of praise Avhich you gave to the manual dexterity of inexpe- 
 rienced youths in particular departments, you placed this skill abo\ r e 
 intelligence, knoAvledge, and experience." 
 
 The reader is requested to notice the allusion made to the over- 
 estimation of Mathematics, and to the preference giA'en to inexpe- 
 rienced but showy youths Avho occupied positions as teachers, to old 
 and faithful assistants, Avhose influence could not be estimated by 
 public exhibitions. All these thrusts AA T ere aimed, not so much at 
 Pestalozzi himself as at his false adviser and, at the time, actual 
 master, Joseph Schmid. 
 
 We have already shown, that, OAA'ing to its European reputation, 
 the school Avas made up of incongruous elements, and Avas anomalous 
 in character ; and, unless guided and controlled by the highest Avis- 
 dom, the seeds of dissolution which it contained Avould germinate. 
 While conceding this as a matter of justice, it can not be denied 
 that the direct bloAV which caused its painful and violent death, Avas 
 given by Schmid. In order to shoAV this, Ave propose to give a brief 
 notice of his career. 
 
 Joseph Schmid Avas a Catholic peasant boy from Tyrol, Avho entered 
 the Institution Avhile it Avas at Burgdorf. He exhibited such a poAver 
 in Mathematics that Pestalozzi took great delight in his progress, and 
 spoke of him as "a child of the method," "a great poAA'er," etc., 
 without inquiring very deeply into his character. 
 
 It soon became evident to most of the teachers, that, beneath a 
 rough exterior and a blunt manner, Schmid concealed the germs of a 
 selfish ambition and overbearing intolerance. He became a teacher 
 in the school at Y\^erdon, and raised the mathematical department 
 to a high degree of excellence. In 1810, he resigned his position and 
 opened a school in Austria, Avhich he conducted with great success. 
 Although the remaining teachers had no admiration for his charac- 
 ter, they greatly missed his executive talent, both in his oaa'ii branch 
 and in the financial and administrative departments of the Institu- 
 tion. This Avas especially the case with Pestalozzi, Avho, in his ad- 
 vancing a»;e, felt more than eA r er the need of a strong hand to aid in 
 
58 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 all the practical details of the business connected with his school. 
 Accordingly, an invitation to return to his former position was con- 
 veyed to Schmid through Niederer. Schmid accepted the call, and 
 returned to Yverdon in 1815. 
 
 His diplomatic tact showed him at one glance the advantage of 
 his position. Seeing from the confused state of affairs under which 
 the school labored that his services had become indispensable, he was 
 determined to show that he had come back as master, and not as a 
 subordinate. He possessed all the elements of successful discipline, 
 except the spirit of love and truth, through which alone voluntary 
 allegiance is rendered. The rude and inconsiderate manner in which 
 he treated the older associates of Pestalozzi, men who had sacrificed 
 their best years in the furtherance of the great reform in which they 
 were all engaged, caused the first feelings of discontent ; and when 
 he added to this sweeping changes without consulting any one, all 
 the teachers expressed their dislike for such arbitrary proceedings. 
 
 For a time the wife of Pestalozzi acted as a minister of peace be- 
 tween the hostile parties ; and during her last illness, the teachers 
 refrained from remonstrances, out of sympathy for the deep affliction 
 of their venerable friend. This noble woman died on the 11th of 
 December, 1815, aged nearly eighty years. She had been the faith- 
 ful partner of Pestalozzi for little less than half a century. At the 
 funeral, after a hymn had been sung, Pestalozzi, turning toward the 
 coffin, said: "We were shunned and despised by all; sickness and 
 poverty bowed us down ; and we ate dry bread with tears. What 
 was it that, in those days of severe trial, gave you and me strength 
 to persevere and not lose hope?" Thereupon he took a Bible, which 
 lay near at hand, pressed it to the breast of the corpse, and said : 
 "From this source you and I drew courage and strength and peace." 
 She was buried under two tall walnut trees in the garden of the 
 castle. 
 
 Soon after the death of Madame Pestalozzi, their indignation 
 against Schmid caused twelve of the teachers to draw up a 
 formal complaint against him, and present it to Pestalozzi, with the 
 distinct intimation that, unless the arbitrary proceedings were at once 
 discontinued, they would be obliged to leave. Broken in spirit and 
 health, and tormented by conflicting emotions, the old man yielded 
 to his evil adviser, and accepted their resignation. The German 
 teachers at once left. Relieved of these obstacles to his ambition, 
 Schmid began to direct his weapons against Niederer and Krusi. 
 The latter was too gentle and peaceful in disposition to enter into 
 any conflict, and, in 1<S1(>, sorrowful as a child who takes leave of 
 
LIFE AT YVEEDON. 59 
 
 his father, he severed his connection with Pestalozzi. Niederer re- 
 mained another year, when he also left, and Schmid was sole master 
 of the field. 
 
 This victory proved the ruin of the school. Whether, misled by 
 vanity, Schmid thought himself equal to the whole task of managing 
 a complicated establishment, or whether he hoped to attract new 
 pupils from abroad through the great reputation of Pestalozzi and Ins 
 own acknowledged ability as a mathematical teacher, he was alike 
 doomed to disappointment. 
 
 It is difficult to comprehend how Pestalozzi, with his great purity 
 and warmth of heart, could feel any real attraction toward Schmid, 
 who had bereft him of his oldest friends, and who was so universally 
 disliked. His own answer to this is: " Inexplicable feelings drew me 
 toward him from the first moment of his appearance in our midst;" 
 "I have never felt myself so drawn toward any other pupil;" and, 
 "He threw a hard shell about the kernel of my vanishing labors, 
 and saved me." 
 
 It often happens, indeed, that persons of different temperament are 
 attracted toward each other, and form friendships,— the peculiarities 
 of each setting off and stimulating the best qualities of the other. 
 But, if such friendship is lasting, there must be a unity of faith in 
 all important matters, and their lives must be devoted, in common, 
 to one noble end. No self-denying character can remain long in 
 unison with one whose selfish aims are manifest. 
 
 Here is, perhajDS, the key to Pestalozzi's temporary delusion. 
 Schmid's plans were so artfully laid, that his selfishness was entirely 
 concealed under the guise of philanthropy. He flattered Pestalozzi, 
 that the generous scheme of founding a school for the poor, which 
 the latter had conceived fifty years before, should now be realized ; 
 the last years of the old man's life should be cheered by the full ac- 
 complishment of the objects to which he had devoted the best part 
 of his manhood ; the funds for this noble charity could easily be 
 raised by the publication of his scattered writings, etc. To these 
 schemes Pestalozzi gave ready assent. A subscription for the sale of 
 these writings received the signatures of several crowned heads, and of 
 a great number of private persons in all parts of Europe. Fifty thou- 
 sand francs were collected and intrusted to Schmid. Was this sum 
 the "hard shell thrown about the kernel of his vanishing labors?" 
 It did not save him. 
 
 The school for the poor was established at Clindy, near Yverdon, 
 but it did not flourish. About thirty orphans were received ; but, 
 from the publicity given it, the many useless experiments introduced, 
 
60 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 and the almost classical course of study pursued, it was not adapted 
 to the wants of the pupils. The unity, simplicity, and enthusiasm 
 of the other schools were not there. After a short and sickly exist- 
 ence, it was given up in 1<S^.">. 
 
 The Institution at Yverdon, deserted by its best teachers, and by 
 most of its pupils, was given up at the same time. Pestalozzi's feel- 
 ings, on leaving a place where he had spent nearly a quarter of a cen- 
 tury, and about which clustered so many glorious as well as humili- 
 ating associations, Avere of a most painful character. In a letter to a 
 friend, he writes: "It seemed to me as if the closing of the Institu- 
 tion was the closing of my life." 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CLOSING YEARS OF HIS LIFE. 
 
 AFTER the events related in the last chapter, Pestalozzi returned 
 to his helovecl Neuhof, which was in the hands of his grand- 
 son who had married a sister of Schmid. In this place, under the 
 influence of lacerated feelings, he wrote "Song of a Dying Swan" 
 and "Events of my Life." These, on account of the accusations 
 which he makes against himself, against some of his former friends, 
 and against the errors of his method, have been differently criticised, 
 according to the more or less favorable disposition of those who have 
 reviewed his life. If they had been written in a calm, dispassionate 
 state of mind, they might claim our full consideration, as the confes- 
 sions of an octogenarian, who looks back upon a long and agitated 
 life, and tries to separate its vain and perishing features from those 
 which are destined to immortality. Such was, unfortunately, not 
 the case with Pestalozzi. It is, however, cheering to know that he 
 preserved to the last his interest for the cause of education. 
 
 In the summer of 1826 he visited the Orphan School at Beuggen, 
 of which Zeller was superintendent. The children received him with 
 songs, and offered him an oak wreath. But he declined it, saying, 
 with tearful eyes, "Not to me, but to innocence, belongs this wreath." 
 They then sang the song which he had introduced into his "Leon- 
 ard and Gertrude," and which, from its associations with the past, 
 stirred his inmost soul : 
 
 " Thou, who from the highest skies, 
 
 Every storm and sorrow stillest; 
 Hearts that doubled anguish tries. 
 
 Doubly with thy sweetness fillest ; 
 On the wave of passion driven, 
 
 Oh, how longs my soul to rest! 
 Peace of heaven, 
 
 Come, oh, come within my breast." 
 
 In November of the same year, he was present at an educational 
 convention at Brugg, where he read an essay on " The Simplest Way 
 to Educate a Child from the Cradle to his Sixth Year." His heart 
 (61) 
 
62 
 
 PESTALOZZf. 
 
 seemed to be as full of the subject as ever; and when he mentioned 
 the innocent ways of childhood, tears filled his eyes. He returned to 
 Neuhof, and there, with his family, quietly celebrated his eighty-sec- 
 ond birth-clay. 
 
 Soon after this he was prostrated with a fever, and in a few days 
 was removed to the neighboring town of Brugg, in order to be nearer 
 a physician. But the fever increased, and it was soon apparent that 
 he would never recover. During his last hours, he said : "I for- 
 give my enemies : may they find peace, now that I go to my rest. 
 I should have been glad to live another month, in order to complete 
 my last work ; but I also thank God for calling me away from this 
 life. My beloved family, remain attached to each other, and seek 
 your happiness in the quietness of your domestic circle." 
 
 The old School-house at Birr, with Pestalozzi's Grave before it. 
 
 He breathed his last on the morning of the 27th of February, 1827. 
 He was buried in the cemetery of Birr, near the old school-house, 
 which was afterward rebuilt, with an ornamental inscription to his 
 memory. No more appropriate monument could have been devised 
 for him than this — a cheerful home for those he always cherished. 
 Few strangers attended his funeral, for the snow lay deep on the 
 ground, and his interment took place sooner than was expected. 
 
CLOSING YEARS OF HIS LIFE. 
 
 63 
 
 The teachers and children of the surrounding villages sang their 
 thanks to the departed at his grave. 
 
 New School-house, with inscription' to Pestalozzi. 
 
 In conclusion, we will add a few words in regard to his person, 
 temper, and habits. In stature, he was rather slender and small, 
 and, although not free from occasional fits of nervous disease, he 
 possessed great powers of endurance. To a fastidious observer, his 
 stooping figure and wrinkled face, surrounded by stiff', bushy hair, 
 presented but little attraction. Having been urged at one time to 
 have his likeness taken, he said: "Those who would perform this 
 task must either violate the laws of truth or of taste ; neither the 
 one nor the other shall be done with my consent." But the beauty 
 which springs from a pure, unselfish spirit, and a heart fall of love 
 and charity for all mankind, ever shone from his countenance, ami 
 made one forget the uncouth form and plain features. These con- 
 stantly reflected the feelings of the moment, changing with the va- 
 rying moods of his mind; at one time, expressing the heaven of 
 love and affection, and at another, the sadness of care and de- 
 spondency. When animated, his eyes seemed to move forward like 
 brilliant stars, and then again to retreat, as if they were gazing into 
 the inwai'd immensity of thought. The fire of youth lighted his 
 countenance and shone even through the wrinkles of age. His voice 
 
(34 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 was variously modulated — equally subservient to the gentle accents 
 of love or to the thundering tones of indignation. 
 
 His walk was uneven ; hasty when impelled by his lively temper, 
 and slow only when absorbed in thought. His chest was deep and 
 rounded ; his neck stiff* and strong. Every thing about him indicated 
 an instrument in which all the chords of human nature were intensely 
 vibrating, and from which new strains of truth and love must flow. 
 His temper was quick, and easily excited ; his conversation animated, 
 and rich in ideas. When at leisure among his friends, he showed 
 an ever-ready wit and much power of repartee, combined with great 
 originality of thought. 
 
 His vitality and endurance were such, that, during the period of his 
 greatest activity, he usually arose at two or three o'clock in the morn- 
 ins: and began to dictate to his secretaries. In his domestic relations 
 he was uniformly tender and affectionate. To his associates he was 
 at once adviser, friend, and father. The most prominent character- 
 istics in his religious life were his profound reverence and deep hu- 
 mility. If he failed to satisfy all in his profession of faith, or by his 
 neglect of dogmatic creeds, there can be but one opinion in regard to 
 his constant self-denial and deeds of practical benevolence. Over his 
 faults let us throw Christ's mantle of charity — he has loved much, 
 therefore much will be forgiven to him. 
 
Part II 
 
 ASSOCIATES OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 P. 5 (65f 
 
introduction to part il 
 
 THE first associates of Pestalozzi — Kriisi, Niederer, Tobler, and 
 Buss — were so intimately connected with his work, that their 
 biographies are necessary to supplement his own. They joined him 
 when he was poor and unknown ; but their belief in the truth of his 
 principles was so great that they were willing to sacrifice their own 
 private interests to the great cause in which he was engaged. Some 
 of the later teachers subsequently achieyed a higher scientific repu- 
 tation ; but no others were so completely identified with the very 
 conception and growth of the method which revolutionized the edu- 
 cational ideas of the age. In addition, the lives of these men give 
 other illustrations of that enthusiasm which springs from an earnest 
 devotion to truth. 
 
 Besides these four whom we have mentioned, there were many 
 others connected with the Institution, both at Burgdorf and Yver- 
 don. Some of these were from the ranks of the pupils — young 
 men who came to Pestalozzi when ignorant boys, grew up in the 
 method, received all the education the school afforded, and then 
 became teachers. The most prominent of these are Ramsauer, 
 Schmid, and Steiner, of whom we give a short account. 
 
 Others were already men of culture and experience when they 
 came to the Institution, and, merely wishing to learn the method, 
 they remained but a comparatively short time. These alternately 
 taught and received instruction. The names of Von Turk, Von 
 Muralt, Blochmann, Plamann, Ladomus, Nabholz, Stern, and Ack- 
 erman are among the most noted. 
 
 Though all these men have done noble work in advancing the 
 cause of education, and in disseminating the principles of Pestalozzi, 
 it would exceed the plan of this work to give any detailed account 
 of their lives. 
 
 (66) 
 
CHAPTER I . 
 
 HERMANN KRUSI. 
 
 HERMANN KRUSI was born on the 12th of March, 1775, at 
 Gais, a village situated amid the wild beauties of the mount- 
 ainous canton of Appenzell. His father was a carrier, who brought 
 up a large family as well as his means allowed. He died when his 
 eldest son, the subject of our sketch, was in his fourteenth year. 
 Upon this son devolved the occupation of the father and the task of 
 supporting the family. Cheerfully and contentedly he commenced 
 his labors, and for four years he pursued his weary rounds over 
 mountain and valley, sustained by a sense of duty toward the help- 
 less ones left in his charge. He might have followed this occupation 
 
 (67) 
 
68 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 during the remainder of his life had it not been for one of those cir- 
 cumstance — sometimes called accidental, but which we would rather 
 term providential — which entirely changed the purposes and condi- 
 tions of his life. We will quote his own words: 
 
 "Allow me to lead your imagination to the sunny height of Mount 
 Giibris. On the summit of the pass, where the road from Gais to 
 Trogen changes its direction, my life also took another turn. 
 On a hot summer day in 1793, I carried a heavy burden up the steep 
 mountain. Dripping with perspiration, I sat down at the top, when 
 I was accosted by one of my relatives. I shall ever remember the 
 short conversation which decided the fate of my life, and which 
 he opened as follows: 
 
 " ' It is warm.' 
 
 "'Very warm, indeed.' 
 
 "'Thou art earning thy bread by the sweat of thy brow. I un- 
 derstand that the school-master of thy village is going away. Hast 
 thou not a desire to become a candidate for that office?' 
 
 '"Desire would help little here. A school-master must possess 
 knowledge, and I have none.' 
 
 "' What a school-master with us needs to know, thou wilt be able 
 to learn readily at thy age.' 
 
 "'But how, and where? I see no possibility of it.' 
 
 " 'If thou hast desire for it, the needful will be found. Think of 
 the matter and decide.' 
 
 "Thus he left me. There was, indeed, matter for reflection, but 
 no ray of light seemed to enter my soul. Hardly conscious of my 
 load, I descended the steep path. Having arrived at home, I pro- 
 cured a writing copy, which I wrote and rewrote perhaps a hundred 
 times, in order to refresh my knowledge of penmanship, which, with 
 reading, constituted, at that time, the principal branches taught at 
 school. After this scanty preparation I had the courage to apply for 
 the situation. 
 
 "The day of examination arrived. One candidate, older than my- 
 self, exhibited his learning. He was ordered to read the first 
 chapter in the New Testament and to write some lines — a task 
 which it took him half an hour to perform. I was called in. The 
 examiner placed before me a genealogical table, from Adam to Abra- 
 ham, as a reading exercise. He then handed me an unmended quill 
 pen, desiring me to write something. 'But what shall I write?' 
 said I. ' Write the Lord's Prayer, or whatever you like,' was the 
 reply. As I had no knowledge, either of the parts of speech, of 
 orthography, or of punctuation, the result of my scribbling may be 
 
HERMANN KRUSI. 69 
 
 imagined. This was all the examination, and after it we retired. 
 When we were recalled, the chairman informed ns that neither 
 had been found overburdened with learning: one of us was better in 
 reading, the other in writing ; but, since my rival was already forty 
 years old, while I was only eighteen, they had thought I would 
 sooner acquire the necessary knowledge. Moreover, since my dwell- 
 ing (the town having no school-house) was better adapted for a school 
 than that of my competitor, they had appointed me school-master. 
 
 "No doubt, I felt happy at this unexpected decision, although I 
 had no reason to be very proud of my salary, which was only one 
 dollar per week; while my vanquished opponent was appointed po- 
 liceman, with one and a half dollars per week." 
 
 Kriisi was thus destined, at the age of eighteen, to take upon his 
 shoulders a heavier burden than that which he had just laid down. 
 This will be understood when we consider that he had to instruct 
 about one hundred children of both sexes, in a small room, and 
 that he had neither experience nor the knowledge of the means by 
 which order and discipline are secured. Many teachers in his situa- 
 tion would have acted uj)on the principle of the proverb, " Poor 
 pay, poor work;" but Kriisi was governed by higher motives. 
 Assisted by the clergyman of the village, he soon succeeded in get- 
 ting his school in good order. While working faithfully for the in- 
 terests of his pupils, he sought every opportunity to gain informa- 
 tion and to perfect himself in the details of his work. His school 
 was soon considered one of the best in the place, although his meth- 
 ods of teaching were but slight modifications of the old mechanical 
 routine. 
 
 For six years Kriisi thus conscientiously pursued his humble call- 
 ing, when the current of his life was again changed. 
 
 The year 1799 was a hard one for Switzerland. Foreign armies 
 were stationed along the Rhine, which forms the boundary between 
 that country and Austria ; and the whole of Europe was in political 
 commotion. In consequence of this warlike state of things the east- 
 ern portions of the country suffered greatly from stagnation of trade 
 and from actual famine. The western cantons, being less exposed to 
 the invasions of the enemy and in possession of a more fertile soil, 
 suffered less, and, therefore, were able to send assistance to their un- 
 fortunate brethren on the eastern side. 
 
 This assistance was not merely of a pecuniary character. The min- 
 ister of Gais received an invitation from his friend, Fischer of Berne, 
 to send a number of poor children to that canton, for whose support 
 and education he would be responsible. At the same time, he ex- 
 
70 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 pressed a wish to have a young man sent with them, who was able 
 and willing to receive a systematic course of instruction in order to 
 teach them. 
 
 Kriisi says: "As soon as I was made acquainted with the contents 
 of the letter, an inner voice told me not to let such an opportunity 
 for improvement pass. Making known my wish, I was selected for 
 the work, and twenty-six of these young exiles were put in my care. 
 To defray our expenses for a distance of one hundred and twenty 
 miles, which, at our rate of traveling, it would take six days to per- 
 form, the selectmen intrusted me with forty-four dollars. We were, 
 however, every-where hospitably received, especially at Zurich, where 
 I had the pleasure of seeing the celebrated Lavater, whom I revered 
 as a being of a higher order. 
 
 "On the sixth day we arrived at Burgdorf, the place of our desti- 
 nation, and presented ourselves for inspection on the square before 
 the town -house. The benevolent citizens of the place received us 
 there, and took the children to their respective homes. I was in- 
 vited to Fischer's house. My first emotion was gratitude toward 
 God, who had conducted me and my little band into a safe harbor, 
 and had filled the hearts of so many with active benevolence. I 
 had not been obliged even to touch the forty-four dollars which had 
 been given me for traveling expenses; but had more than that sum, 
 all of which I sent back to my employers, who were just enough to 
 return it, as a token of their approbation of my services. 
 
 "I thought that I was to learn the art of teaching from Fischer, 
 for it was by him that I had been invited. But 'man proposes and 
 God disposes.' Fischer, as Providence ruled, was only the medium 
 to lead me to Pestalozzi. My benefactor was soon afterward seized 
 by a violent fever, and died in a few days. The first one who an- 
 nounced the sad news to me was Pestalozzi. He, however, accom- 
 panied it with the kind invitation to unite my school with his, and 
 to work with him in future. This proposal I accepted, and we 
 obtained the free use of the then vacant castle for our school. 
 
 "Owing to six years' experience in a district school, I had some 
 advantages over Pestalozzi, especially in matters of order and disci- 
 pline, which he, my friend and master, readily acknowledged. I 
 was filled with esteem for the sublimity of his views, encouraged by 
 his confidence, and made happy by his love. On the other hand, I 
 could not approve of some of his ways of teaching. He had a pow- 
 erful chest, and whoever did not possess the same could not imitate 
 his high-toned voice ; and even if they could, I should have wished 
 a more subdued tone, both on his part and on that of his pupils. 
 
HERMANN KRUSI. 71 
 
 " There were, also, points in his method with which I could not 
 agree. He required that two subjects should be taught at the same 
 time to the same class. Exercises in language were practiced during 
 a lesson in drawing or writing. To me it seemed wiser to keep the 
 undivided attention of the children upon one subject: this dissimi- 
 larity of views never interrupted our harmony, but served, on the 
 contrary, to set the truth in a clearer light. 
 
 "The teachers in our school were four in number, and thrown to- 
 gether by a singular combination of circumstances: — the principal, 
 who combined with the high reputation of an ingenious author the 
 less flattering one of being a dreamer and enthusiast; a private school 
 teacher, who, after a neglected childhood, had been suddenly thrown 
 into school work, and had tried many experiments in the most ap- 
 proved methods without being satisfied with the results; a book- 
 binder, who in his leisure hours had tried to satisfy his longing for 
 music and drawing; and a village school-master, who had done his 
 work as well as he was able without preparation for it. 
 
 " It is not to be wondered at that many, looking at our humble 
 association, and considering that none of us had money or fame, 
 should have a moderate opinion of our undertaking and have pre- 
 dicted its speedy downfall. Yet we did not fail." 
 
 Kriisi's mind, simple and practical in its character, was specially 
 directed to the arrangement of the elements of science in their due 
 order. For this work, he was well adapted. The general plan he 
 derived from Pestalozzi's principles, but the details he worked out for 
 himself. 
 
 At the suggestion of Pestalozzi, he prepared a course of Mental 
 Arithmetic on the objective plan. He also prepared the necessary 
 means of illustrating the tables of units and fractions, the latter based 
 upon the divison of a rectangle. The teaching of Arithmetic on this 
 plan produced a rapidity and accuracy in the computation of numbers 
 which appeared almost miraculous to those who had been accustomed 
 only to the old system of ciphering according to given rules. Some of 
 the pupils educated at Burgdorf, such as Ramsauer and Schmid, gave 
 to this branch a more extended application, for which they obtained 
 considerable celebrity, while Kriisi, who was the real originator of 
 the system, modestly resigned to them his share of the honors. 
 
 The intimate relations which existed between Kriisi and his vener- 
 able friend at this period are shown in an extract taken from " How 
 Gertrude Teaches her Children," in which we find an account of his 
 early experiences: 
 
 " Kriisi was not contented to teach his pupils reading and writing 
 
72 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 merely. He worked to cultivate their minds. The new reading- 
 book which had been introduced by the minister contained religious 
 truths in short paragraphs ; various facts of Physical Science, Natural 
 History, and Geography ; and interesting information on the political 
 constitution of the country. Kriisi observed that when the pastor 
 read this book with the children he questioned them at the end of 
 each paragraph, in order to see if they actually understood what 
 they had read. He undoubtedly succeeded in this way in making 
 most of them perfectly familiar with the contents of the reading- 
 book. But this was only because he adapted his questions to the 
 answers which were found ready-made in the book, and because he 
 neither demanded nor expected any other answers than those winch 
 the book had put into the children's mouths long before any question 
 was devised to elicit them. 
 
 "It is, however, to be observed that this, or any other similar 
 method of catechising, gives no exercise, to the mind. It is a mere 
 analysis of words, relieving the child, as far as words are concerned, 
 from the confusion of a wdiole sentence, the different parts of which 
 are presented separately and distinctly. It can, therefore, only 
 have merit when used as a preparatory step to the further exercise 
 of clearing up the ideas represented by those words. The latter exer- 
 cise, commonly termed ' Socratic instruction,' has only of late been 
 mixed up with the business of catechising. 
 
 " It was afterward required of Kriisi to combine this narrow analy- 
 sis of words with the. Socratic method, which takes up the subject in 
 a higher sense. An uncultivated mind does not go to those depths 
 from which Socrates derived spirit and truth ; and it was, therefore, 
 quite natural that in his new system of questioning Kriisi should not 
 succeed. He had no basis for his questions, nor had the children any 
 for their answers. They had no language for things which they knew 
 not, and no books which furnished them with a well-framed answer 
 to every question, whether they understood it or not. 
 
 • imagining that every good school-master must be 
 able by his questions to elicit correct and precise answers, he attrib- 
 uted his failure entirely to his own want of skill. 
 
 " Fischer exerted himself to introduce Kriisi to different depart- 
 ments of science, that he might be able to teach them ; but the 
 latter felt more and more that, with books alone, he could not make 
 progress, because on every subject he was destitute of that prelimi- 
 nary knowledge which, to a greater or less degree, books presuppose. 
 On the other hand, he witnessed the effect which I produced upon 
 the children by leading them back to the first elements of human 
 
HERMANN KEUSI. 7-'> 
 
 knowledge, and by dwelling on these elements with unwearied pa- 
 tience. These observations showed him the true causes of his fail- 
 ure, and, by degrees, his whole view of instruction changed. He 
 now perceived clearly that the tendency of my experiments was to 
 develop the internal power of the child, rather than to give him a 
 knowledge of facts, which, nevertheless, was obtained as a necessary 
 consequence ; and, seeing the application of the principle to the de- 
 velopment of different branches, he came to the conviction that my 
 method lays a foundation for knowledge and further progress, such 
 as would be impossible to obtain by any other. 
 
 " He found that even at the earliest period of instruction, a feeling 
 of energy was not so much produced — for it exists in every mind not 
 enervated by artificial treatment — as kept alive by beginning at the 
 very easiest tasks, and continuing them to a point of practical perfec- 
 tion before I proceeded. This was not done in a desultory manner, 
 but, by gradual and almost insensible additions to what the child had 
 already acquired. With this method we have not to push the chil- 
 dren, but to lead them. He became 
 
 every day better fitted to second me in my experiments, and with 
 his assistance I completed, in a short time, a Spelling -Book and an 
 Arithmetic on my own plan." 
 
 In 1803 the Institution at Burgdorf was closed. Kriisi re- 
 mained with Pestalozzi during his brief vacation, and accompanied 
 him to Yverdon, when the school was reopened at that place. In 
 his " Recollections," Kriisi gives the following sketch of the spirit 
 and character of the school there: "A new era began with the ar- 
 rival of the teachers and pupils from Miinchenbuehsee. The family 
 life which gave such a charm to Burgdorf could no longer exist. 
 The Institution passed from childhood into manhood, possessed of 
 greater powers, but also beset with more dangers. I hardly dare 
 give a detailed picture of its life and action. It had its grand feat- 
 ures, but also some that were humiliating. The school rose to such 
 a degree of importance that it became a model for all Europe ; but 
 it subsequently took that unfortunate direction which undermined it, 
 and rendered its continuance impossible. Its outward form only was 
 doomed to perish : the great principles which animated it are des- 
 tined to immortality." 
 
 Kriisi's work at Yverdon is so interwoven with that of Pestalozzi 
 that it is impossible to consider it separately. They were like father 
 and son. The estimate that Pestalozzi placed upon the efficiency 
 and faithfulness of his co-laborer may be gathered from the following 
 passage taken from a New-year's address : 
 
74 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "0 Kriisi, mayest thou continue in the fullness of thy love! 
 Amiable and child-like amidst lovely children, thou dost found my 
 house on the spirit of holy love. At thy side and under the influ- 
 ence of thy attractive powers the children in our house no longer feel 
 the absence of father and mother. Thou solvest in thyself the doubt 
 whether an educator can be a substitute for parents. Continue with 
 increased energy : it is on thee and on thy influence that I build 
 great hopes. It is not enough to know the path toward the mental 
 cultivation of man : one must also know the soft, gentle step with 
 which the mother enters the sanctuary of childhood. Thou knowest 
 it, and keepest the child longer in this lovely path than most mothers 
 are able to do. Perfect thyself in thy power and give us the ele- 
 ments of a child's knowledge with that inimitable combination of 
 precision and simplicity which thou possessest. Thou hast brought 
 me Niederer as thy brother, and hast lived with him in unity of 
 heart and purpose. Let the bond of association be constantly re- 
 newed. Let us work together hand in hand. You are the first sup- 
 porters of my house, the only ones left to me. I am not always of 
 the same opinion with you, but my soul clings to you, and I should 
 not know my house if your united power should forsake it. But you 
 will not forsake it, ye firstlings of my method." 
 
 Christmas, New-year's, and the 12th of January — Pestalozzi's 
 birthday — were kept as holidays in the Institution. As these 
 days all occur in winter, they could not take from the stiffened soil 
 those children of warmth and light, leaves and flowers, of which 
 wreaths and garlands are woven ; but the pupils supplied this defi- 
 ciency with tokens of gratitude, which at the same time tended to 
 develop their ingenuity and taste. A description of such a day, 
 taken from Kriisi's private journal, gives us a vivid picture of the 
 festivities of one of these occasions : 
 
 "The birthday of our beloved father was a glorious one, and rich 
 in seeds and fruits for the growth and strengthening of the mind and 
 heart. The decorations in the third and fourth class rooms were 
 particularly ingenious. In the third room was a transparency of 
 Neuhof, the village of Birr, and the highland of Brunegg. Oppo- 
 site to this stood Pestalozzi's bust crowned with a wreath of laurels 
 and immortelles. On the right of the bust was a transparency, with 
 this inscription, in German : ' May God, who gave thee to us, long 
 bless thy work, and us through thee;' on the left, in French: 'Hom- 
 age to our Father! The pure joy of our hearts proclaims our hap- 
 piness.' 
 
 "The room of the fourth class was arranged to represent a land- 
 
HERMANN KRUSI. 75 
 
 scape, containing cultivated meadows, and a rock with a spring rising 
 at its base, from which a brook flowed and fertilized the land. Near 
 this was a poor straw-thatched hut, and over its door w r ere these 
 words: 'May his age be peaceful.' In another place stood an altar 
 over which hung a transparency ; on one side was the motto, ' Let 
 poverty remember him,' and on the other, ' May we be like him.' 
 Upon the altar stood a collection box and a letter written in the 
 name of the members of the class. 
 
 "As soon as Father Pestalozzi entered the room, a little genius 
 came forward from the hut to meet him, and gave him the box and 
 the letter. I was requested to read it, but surprised and affected by 
 its contents, I could hardly do so. It read — 
 
 "'Dear Father Pestalozzi: 
 
 " ' It is very little which we, the present and 
 former members of this class, have saved to offer you as a testimony 
 of our love in behalf of the poor ; but it comes from sincere hearts, 
 and if it pleases you our object will be attained. It may express to 
 you our purpose to do still more for the poor, and, like yourself, to 
 find our happiness in that, of others. May we use well the time of 
 our stay here, and, by our efforts, ever more deserve your love. May 
 you be happy among us. Full of gratitude to God, we embrace you 
 affectionately, with the ardent wish that you may live to see us fulfill 
 our promise.' 
 
 "The money given amounted to fifty-two francs. Besides the dis- 
 plays of the children, the printers furnished a transparency bearing 
 these words : ' May it not be your life, which is in future to be put 
 under the press, but only the ripe and beautiful fruit of your 
 thoughts.'" 
 
 In 1812, Pestalozzi lay dangerously ill for some time, and was care- 
 fully nursed by Kriisi. Extracts from letters written during that 
 time to the lady whom he afterward married, show the pure attach- 
 ment of Kriisi for his friend and father, and how it was reciprocated : 
 
 "Our father is remarkable even in sickness. He fervently wishes 
 to get well again in order to live for his work ; yet he also looks 
 calmly into the face of death. Lately, when two doctors stood at his 
 bedside consulting whether to send for a distinguished physician at 
 Lausanne, he asked, with a serene look, if he had to settle his worldly 
 affairs. It elevates my soul to see him look with such resignation 
 from the past to eternity. I pray God he may be spared to us, but 
 I can not tell you how I rejoice to see him preserve his peace of soul 
 under such trying circumstances." 
 
7(5 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 When his recovery was beyond a doubt, Kriisi wrote, in the joy 
 of his heart: "If, in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence, he 
 had died, I would not, for the world, have been denied the privilege 
 of being with and nursing him. Whenever he finds opportunity 
 he speaks of you, and blesses our union. You know my faith in the 
 blessed Word. It shall also build our house — not one of wood or 
 stone, but one of peace, love, and sanctified endeavor." 
 
 From these cheering tokens of mutual esteem and confidence, we 
 are obliged to pass to scenes of quite a different character. It is a 
 sad fact in human history, that men who have been most intimately 
 associated by mutual friendship and sympathy have often finally be- 
 come estranged from each other. This estrangement, however, is not 
 always necessarily caused by the loss of mutual esteem, or by the 
 un kindness of one toward the other. It sometimes results from 
 their espousing different sides of a controversy commenced by others. 
 
 Kriisi had to endure this bitter experience in the contest which 
 arose between Niederer and his colleagues on the one side, and Schmid 
 on the other. The latter had unfortunately won the support of Pes- 
 talozzi, and, in his most arrogant and domineering spirit, expressed a 
 determination to carry out his most selfish ends, even at the risk of 
 losing the best teachers and friends of the Institution. Kriisi endeav- 
 ored to act as peace-maker, but was met with insult and derision. 
 In 1817, he was obliged, by his own sense of honor and duty, 
 although with a bleeding heart, to send in his resignation to Pesta- 
 lozzi, which he did in the following language : 
 
 "Father, the time of enjoying thy presence is jrnst. I must leave 
 thy Institution as now conducted, if I am not to lose forever my 
 courage and strength to live for thy work. For all thou hast been 
 to me, and all I have been able to be to thee, I thank God. For all 
 my short-comings I pray God and thee to forgive me." 
 
 The touching simplicity of this farewell shows the affection with 
 Avhich Kriisi clung to the better self of Pestalozzi, and his deep-felt 
 pain at his infatuation. 
 
 Simple and unassuming in his manner, never obtruding his serv- 
 ices Avhere they were not wanted, Kriisi ever chose to suffer in- 
 justice himself rather than to become aggressive or vindictive, and 
 so wound the sensibilities of those he loved. Nevertheless, he could 
 not sacrifice his principles and honor on the altar of friendship. 
 
 After leaving Pestalozzi's Institution, Kriisi started a private ; 
 school at Yverdon, which was patronized by pupils from many 
 parts of Europe. Although his school was flourishing and his occu- 
 pation congenial, in 1822 he accepted a call from his native Appeii- 
 
HERMANN K 11 US I. 77 
 
 zell, to take charge of the cantonal School at Trogen. Here hun- 
 dreds of boys were educated under his gentle but firm direction. 
 Although no friend of politics or mere party questions, he was one 
 of the foremost to raise his voice in behalf of a thorough school re- 
 form, the first condition of which is to have the teachers educated 
 for their important calling. To his great joy, in 1833 a Normal 
 School was decreed, and he was elected principal. Guided by a long 
 experience in the theory and practice of teaching, he devoted him- 
 self to this congenial task with his accustomed ardor and skill. In 
 the heart of his native village Gais, surrounded by beautiful mount- 
 ain scenery, and aided by his faithful sons and daughters, he divided 
 his time between the school, his family, his literary labors, and the 
 cultivation of a garden, of which he was passionately fond. His 
 venerable face, which bespoke a high degree of intelligence and 
 goodness, seemed always radiant with happiness and contentment. 
 
 In 1843, many persons who had been educated by him assembled 
 to celebrate his sixty-eighth birthday, which was also the fiftieth an- 
 niversary of the commencement of his school work. They presented 
 him, as a token of their gratitude, a large wine-cup of massive sil- 
 ver, bearing this inscription : 
 
 Dem Vater Kriisi, 
 auf seinen 68. Geburtstag den 12. Marz, 1843, 
 von seinen Zoglingen im Lehrberufe.* 
 
 The surprise and pleasure of seeing so many of his former pupils — 
 some of whom had come a great distance — almost overcame him, 
 and Avith emotion he bestowed upon them his paternal blessing. 
 
 Until April of the following year he continued his lessons in the 
 schools. His last literary work was to collect and arrange his poems, 
 many of which had been written for the melodies of his friend, Rev. 
 Samuel Weishaupt.f These poems, with a short sketch of his life, 
 were published subsequent to his death. Kriisi died, after a short 
 illness, on the evening of the 25th of July, 1844. 
 
 To the funeral, friends came from far and near to pay their tribute 
 of respect and love to the departed. In the almost unending proces- 
 sion were many who had been his pupils during his fifty-one years 
 
 *To Father Kriisi, on his 68th birthday, the 12th of March, 1843, from his 
 pupils in the teachers' calling. 
 
 t Pfarrer Weishaupt, well known in Switzerland and Germany as the man 
 who first organized the Mdnnerchore (choruses of men), died at Knoxville, Tenn., 
 in 1874. 
 
78 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 of teaching. Time had already whitened the hair of some of these, 
 while others still looked into the future with the freshness of rosy 
 youth. 
 
 At the house, and again at the grave, the pupils formed a circle 
 about the coffin, and, with tearful eyes and sad hearts, sang their last 
 farewell to their beloved master. 
 
 Eight ministers were present at the service held in the church. 
 Pfarrer Weishaupt, of Gais, who officiated, paid a graceful tribute to 
 his friend in the following words : 
 
 "Ah! they have buried a good man, and to me, to me, he was 
 moi'e. He was my friend. I will not say to you, Father Kriisi 
 is dead ! No ; as living I would rather place the eternalized one 
 (Verewigten) before you! I will not harrow your feelings with the 
 thought that you have lost him ! No ; rather would I show to you 
 that you possess him continually, that he is ever before you in his 
 work ! " 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 JOHANNES NIEDERER. 
 
 TOHANNES NIEDERER was born in the canton of Appenzell in 
 *J 1780. In his boyhood he received only the education which the 
 village school afforded. Later, he entered college to study Theology. 
 In 1799, having completed his studies, he returned to his native can- 
 ton and was chosen pastor at Buhler. A year after, he left this place 
 for Sennwald, a small town in the canton of St. Gallen. Convinced 
 that the frightful convulsions of the first French Revolution were the 
 result of ignorance and a consequent confusion of ideas, he devoted 
 much time in both places to education. 
 
 In his correspondence with his young friend Tobler, we find some 
 
 (79) 
 
80 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 details of his plans and struggles during that period. Not the least 
 interesting part of these letters is the faithful sketch of his character 
 which they give, and which will partly explain how it was possible 
 that the same man, who was instrumental in building up the fame of 
 Pestalozzi, was afterward placed in a position of personal antagonism to 
 him and his evil adviser, Schmid. 
 
 In one of these letters he says: "I was not born to deal leniently 
 with weak and vicious sentiments ; but rather to strike down vice with 
 a club. Instead of coaxing forth noble purposes, or developing them 
 step by step, I am inclined to force them out. Have I, then, any 
 hope to accomplish something great? Am I not myself the greatest 
 obstacle to my success?" 
 
 In another letter he justifies himelf for having left the parish after 
 so short a stay. The reasons he gives indicate no ordinary mind and 
 character: "I thirst for activity; my heart, which was not created 
 for repose, longs for a new sphere of labor, or, at least, for the means 
 by which to renew the energies of my soul. Such a sphere is, un- 
 fortunately, denied me. Never contented with that which is, and 
 restless in my plans, I am disgusted at the monotony of my life ; and 
 any change, even without improvement, will be a blessing. As soon 
 as I have sounded my situation, and, seeing the limits of my expec- 
 tation, am compelled to say, 'Thus far, and no farther,' the wings 
 of my activity droop, and every object loses its charms for me. My 
 mind is attracted by what is uncertain, yet possible. That which is 
 uncommon fixes my attention. A dim cloud, which hovers around 
 me and lets me anticipate but not see paradisical heights or dark 
 abysses, drags my mind from its slumber and makes it rise in bold 
 flights: — then am I in my element, even amid storms. Where the 
 peace of others ceases, mine often begins. The blow which crushes 
 their energies, rouses my powers, and shows me the way to climb to 
 something yet higher. Here you have the whole key of my exist- 
 ence, and it will explain to you many apparent contradictions in my 
 life." 
 
 From other passages we gather that Niederer constantly made plans 
 for the improvement of his flock, and that he shared the experience 
 of many a philanthropist, in finding the people very reluctant to ac- 
 cept the blessings intended for them. During the time of his pastor- 
 ate in Sennwald he became acquainted with the writings of Pestalozzi, 
 which he greatly admired. In " Leonard and Gertrude," especially, 
 he found ideas expressed which he had secretly treasured in his own 
 heart ; and the interest for their author was intensified by the accounts 
 of the school and its management, which he received from his personal 
 
JOHANNES NIEDERER. 81 
 
 friends, Tobler and Kriisi. Stimulated by their glowing descriptions, 
 he visited Burgdorf, in order to witness the practical application of 
 the new system. He seemed at once to comprehend the vastness of 
 the principles, and to anticipate the benefits which would arise from 
 their general adoption. He saw education with its roots deep set in 
 the domestic circle, growing upward with vigorous stalk, and branch- 
 ing out into all the purposes and activities of life. 
 
 For those who may doubt whether a young man of twenty-one years 
 could have gathered from Pestalozzi's humble and fragmentary work 
 such expansive views of its application, we append the following ex- 
 tract from a letter written by him to Pestalozzi on his return to his 
 parish : "I am daily more convinced of the excellence of your method; 
 yet I sometimes ask, in the words of our best teacher, 'Thinkest thou 
 that I shall find faith on this earth?' But, though ignorance and 
 vice may retard truth for a time, they can never suppress it. Every 
 day I see new and surprising results of your method which I hardly 
 dare express. 
 
 " Many inexplicable problems now seem solved in my mind. The 
 riddles and contradictions of human nature vanish, and I see nothing 
 but harmony. You have triumphantly proved that popular enlight- 
 enment is a possibility. I see how, through it, men will arrive at a 
 clear appreciation of their destinies, rights, and duties. I see the dan- 
 gers of half-civilization and super-refinement vanish, since it satisfies 
 the needs of man in his highest and lowest conditions. I see how 
 nature becomes reconciled to science. 
 
 "Your method will render the learned man more useful through 
 the application of his knowledge, and will cause the unlearned one to 
 reflect on his condition, relation, anil duties. It will give to the child 
 the free and unrestrained use of his powers. The usual order of things 
 becomes reversed, and faith is turned to seeing, hearing into judging 
 and knowing. Thus streams of light will illumine the dark abodes of 
 humanity. The unhallowed dominion of superstition, of despotism, and 
 especially the sad conflict between faith and reason — that conflict 
 which has broken so many noble hearts — will be stayed. 
 
 " On what unpretending hinges do we find these gates of bliss sus- 
 pended? On the fact that the child relies on perception, and the 
 teacher simply puts matter for judgment before his eyes. This fact I 
 recognize in its full importance as one of the greatest blessings which 
 God has granted the human race; as a condition sine <[h<i mm of the 
 progress of reason, since it raises the child above the prejudices of the 
 teacher, and saves the human race from the penalty of remaining 
 forever in a state of tutelage. Friend, my heart overflows with joy 
 P.— 6. 
 
82 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 and gratitude. Already you have sown the good seed: the harvest 
 will not fail." 
 
 The freshness and depth of these views so impressed Pestalozzi that 
 he made an immediate effort to secure Niederer's services. Little per- 
 suasion was required to induce him to accept the situation offered. 
 Following the voice of conviction, he gave up his situation and income 
 as a clergyman to unite his fortunes with a man whom he saw strug- 
 gling against poverty and prejudice. He did this solely that thereby 
 he might work more effectually for the interests of humanity. 
 
 As there are no records left which show that Niederer taught any 
 particular branch in the Institution, it may be asked for what object 
 he had been called to Burgdorf. Blochmann, a teacher and friend 
 of Pestalozzi, says in regard to this : "As teacher, he was intrusted 
 with the religious instruction of the upper classes; he gave lectures 
 on methods for the benefit of the adults and visitors, and from time 
 to time he preached ; he presented to the public the position of the 
 Institution with regard to education, and defended it against unjust 
 attacks; he shared with Pestalozzi the extended correspondence, and 
 after his marriage with the gifted Rosetta Kasthofer, in 1813, he 
 stood at the head of the girls' department of the Institution." 
 
 At the most flourishing period of Pestalozzi's labors, Niederer un- 
 doubtedly exercised a great power over him, for he respected his su- 
 periority in knowledge and in philosophical discrimination. Biber 
 draws the following admirable parallel between Niederer's mind and 
 character and that of his venerable friend: "His mind, early accus- 
 tomed to soar above the systems and creeds of men, had penetrated 
 through the clouds of learning and the vail of the letter to the bright- 
 ness of true wisdom — to an apprehension of the substance. He was 
 distinguished by universality, clearness, and precision of ideas, and an 
 uncommon power of abstraction. Facts had no value in his estima- 
 tion, only in so far as they led to principles; and he distinguished 
 with eagle eye the hollow metaphysics of the sophist from the plain 
 language of truth. The assistance of such a man was necessary to 
 Pestalozzi, whose genius was, like the dark summer cloud, pregnant 
 with light, hut incapable of emitting it, except in sudden flashes, sep- 
 arated by intervals of deep obscurity. Pestalozzi never was able, often 
 as he attempted it, tu explain his ideas fully and clearly to others, or 
 even to himself. His language, especially on abstruse subjects, resem- 
 bled the wavering glimmer of a lamp through the gloom of a forest, 
 which, while it presents to the eye a few objects in transient light, 
 harasses the imagination by a thousand changeable forms and shades, 
 moving to and fro through the nightly mist. Niederer, though not 
 
JOHANNES NIEDERER. 83 
 
 endowed with that creative genius which would call ;i world of new 
 ideas into existence, possessed, to an eminent degree, steadiness of 
 vision, depth of thought, acuteness of judgment, and perspicuity of 
 expression." 
 
 This testimony may appear not sufficiently impartial, and somewhat 
 overdrawn. It is, however, less enthusiastic than the tribute which 
 Pestalozzi himself pays to his worth, when he says, in his New-year's 
 address of 1811: "Niederer, thou first of my sons, what shall I wish 
 for thee? How can I thank thee? Thou dost penetrate into the 
 depths of truth. The holy secret of affection guides thy course ; and 
 with a hold front thou throwest down the gauntlet to him who, sneak- 
 ing in tortuous ways, deviates from the path of rectitude, and cares 
 hut for effect. Friend, thou art my support ; the care of my house 
 dwells in thy heart ; from thine eyes dart rays of light, which are 
 my salvation, although in my weakness I sometimes fear them. Let 
 peace dwell in thy soul, and let not thy passionate nature influence 
 thy spirit ; then will a mighty blessing flow from the fullness of thy 
 genius and heart upon my imperfect work." 
 
 The allusion, "throwest down the gauntlet to him," refers to the 
 time when, in consequence of a report made by a committee of the Gov- 
 ernment, an article was published by the learned Haller of Gdttingen, 
 wherein he accused the Institution of Pestalozzi of being hostile to the 
 Government, the aristocracy, the clergy, and, in consequence, to religion. 
 Against this calumny Niederer wrote a spirited answer, in two octavo 
 A T olumes, of which the first was chiefly devoted to a vindication of the 
 principles of Pestalozzi ; while the second contained a variety of doc- 
 uments, which served to expose the malignancy and baseness of the 
 attacks. In consequence of some unguarded expressions, this defense 
 drew 7 upon him another attack from a dignitary of the Church. Nie- 
 derer's reply, by which he mercilessly demolished the arguments of 
 his opponents and vindicated the system which had been attacked, is 
 a masterpiece of dialectic skill and logical power. 
 
 During this controversy, representations were made to Pestalozzi 
 that Niederer was influenced by no high motives, and hence was un- 
 worthy of his regard. Not wishing to receive praise at the expense 
 of his friends, he vindicated manfully the noble and disinterested 
 character of his champion by making the following statement : 
 
 "Niederer has, indeed, peculiarities which, being directly opposed 
 to mine, I find it diffirult to endure ; but his friendship is beyond all 
 I have ever experienced or dreamed. What more can a man do for 
 Ins friend than to abandon a well-secured profession and place him- 
 self in a position full of uncertainty, disappointment, difficulty, and 
 
84 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 danger? This is what Niederer has done for me. When he joined 
 us he was the only man connected with the school who had a literary 
 education. 
 
 " Most of my friends were only interested in my personal welfare. 
 Their assistance was oil poured into my wounds. They afforded me 
 happy hours of friendship, such as I shall never enjoy with Niederer; 
 but they were hours of mere personal sympathy. The debt I owe 
 him is of a different kind. His friendship is shown in his whole life, 
 in his persevering efforts in the service of my cause, and in Ids con- 
 stant struggle to fit himself for my work. Even his opposition to 
 me, where he finds my personal wishes or inclinations at variance 
 with my principles, proves the noble, pure, and uncommon character 
 of his friendship. If he would resist less, he would love me less." 
 
 The sentiments contained in the above declaration, testifying as 
 they do to the honorable character of Niederer, contain, however, 
 indications of the fact that Pestalozzi's friendship for him was not 
 founded so much upon sympathetic attraction of heart and feeling 
 as upon gratitude and respect for his superior intellect. Those who 
 knew Niederer personally were aware that there were sharp edges to 
 his character which could not fail to injure the feelings of susceptible 
 persons. He could scarcely bear contradiction when he believed he 
 defended the right. Whenever he saw vice and falsehood he was, as 
 he confesses in one of his letters, rather disposed to " strike with the 
 club " than to use the more gentle and winning weapons of forbear- 
 ance. 
 
 When Pestalozzi began gradually to defer to the advice of Schmid, 
 and change the character of the school, it roused the excitable temper 
 of Niederer; for he had no confidence in the fidelity or honesty of the 
 adviser, and he saw the gulf into which Pestalozzi would plunge him- 
 self, his fame, and the Institution. In the controversy that ensued 
 the teachers were nearly a unit against Schmid, greatly preferring 
 their own imperfect organization to one more systematic founded upon 
 absolute authority, — one in which obedience was compelled from with- 
 out instead of being voluntarily rendered through love, respect, and a 
 true sense of duty. They claimed, and very justly, that the proposed 
 changes violated the most fundamental principles of the system which 
 Pestalozzi had established and upon which the school was founded. 
 They further claimed that changes so revolutionary would deprive 
 I he school of all the characteristics which had given it celebrity, and 
 would be a confession that the principles which had guided them in 
 the pasf were false and illusory. 
 
 Pestalozzi, however, bending under the weight of seventy years; 
 
JOHANNES NIEDERER. 85 
 
 weary of the cares and responsibilities of his position ; conscious of 
 his own want of administrative talent ; misled by the flattering rep- 
 resentation and apparent honesty of his evil adviser; and persuaded 
 that he could safely trust the guidance of the school to younger and 
 more skillful hands, and so be rid of his overwhelming burdens, — 
 refused to listen to the protests of his teachers, and persisted in carry- 
 ing out fully the new plans. This refusal caused the resignation of 
 the German teachers, and their example was soon after followed by 
 Kriisi and Niederer. 
 
 At the final termination of Niederer's connection with the school, 
 an angry and protracted controversy arose between him and Schmid 
 in regard to financial matters ; but the teachers of the school, who 
 knew best about the matter, were nearly unanimous in favor of 
 Niederer; and public opinion, which usually bases its decisions on the 
 character of the contending parties, was clearly on the same side. 
 
 After his separation from Pestalozzi, Niederer and his wife opened 
 at Yverdon a boarding-school for girls. This school obtained a repu- 
 tation for its high moral tone and sound intellectual culture. Madame 
 Niederer's book, "Glances into the Nature of Female Education," is 
 an earnest and able statement of the importance of extending to girls 
 an opportunity for the same liberal culture that is enjoyed by the 
 other sex. As the management of the Institution was chiefly in the 
 hands ol* Madame Niederer and her assistants, it was hoped by the 
 friends of education that Niederer would employ his leisure in 
 preparing the biography of Pestalozzi, for which task no other man 
 was so well fitted. But the contemplated labor was never performed. 
 This neglect was, in part, caused by some of the late writings of Pes- 
 talozzi, in which he seemed to disparage and almost disown Niederer's 
 great services ; and, in part, by a feeling which Niederer shared in 
 common with all the first teachers of the school — a reluctance to de- 
 scribe the events in which they themselves had been the principal 
 actors. 
 
 After a residence of more than twenty years at Yverdon, Niederer 
 and his wife transferred their Institution to Geneva, where they could 
 have the advantages of refined society and a wider sphere of action 
 and influence. There he contentedly spent the declining years of his 
 life. He died on the 2d of December, in 1843. 
 
 The composure he felt when upon his death-bed, and the sentiments 
 he uttered during his last moments, are a sufficient refutation of the 
 charges of his enemies, that his religious belief was hollow and un- 
 real. "I am more fortunate than Herder," said he, "who wished 
 that some great thoughts might enter his mind. God gives me great 
 
86 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 thoughts, and my soul is filled with admiration and thanks." Again 
 he said: "Many go to the other world complaining that their mission 
 has not been fulfilled. Mine you will find expressed in the words 
 which I wish to have written on my tombstone ; " and, with a last 
 glow of fervor beaming from his eyes, he uttered solemnly the follow- 
 ing verse of a German hymn : 
 
 " Ueber Staub und Welt erhaben, 
 
 Werd ich wieder auferstehen ; 
 Siehe da, ich werd begraben, 
 
 Schoner aus der Graft zu gehen. 
 Hallelnja! mit Enziicken 
 
 Sefc' ich Erd' und Hinimel an! 
 Weil der Tod mich nnr beglucken, 
 
 Aber nicht zerstoren kann." 
 
 Freed from earth's unhallowed glitter, 
 
 Christ bids me to rise again ; 
 If Death's cup appears but bitter, 
 
 It is balm for every pain. 
 Hallelujah ! with emotion 
 
 Do I look to yonder sky, 
 For my death is but promotion 
 
 To blest regions there on high. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 GUSTAV TOBLEE. 
 
 LIKE Kriisi and Niederer, Tobler, who was born in 17fi9, was a 
 native of the canton of Appenzell, where he received the ordi- 
 nary instruction of a village school, until his tenth or twelfth year. 
 From this time, until he was twenty-two, he assisted his father, but 
 employed his leisure in study. He then began his classical studies 
 in preparation for the ministry, and soon after entered college, but 
 was unable to complete the course. In order to obtain funds he en- 
 gaged as private tutor in one of the aristocratic families of Basel. 
 In preparation for his new task, he studied the most noted educa- 
 
 (87) 
 
«5 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 tional systems of his time, and, like Kriisi, entered into the labyrinths 
 and deceptive mazes of catechetical teaching. But when, through the 
 enthusiastic report of Kriisi, he became acquainted with Pestalozzi's 
 views, he was at once impressed with their truth. He had previously 
 read li Leonard and Gertrude," and his great admiration for this work 
 had made him favorably disposed toward its author ; therefore, when 
 Kriisi came to Basel expressly to invite him to join the school at 
 Burgdorf, he eagerly accepted the offer, and at once commenced his 
 labors. 
 
 At Pestalozzi's request Tobler wrote an account of his life previous to 
 his coming to Burgdorf; and from this sketch we make copious ex- 
 tracts, in which many a fellow-sufferer may find his own story told : 
 
 "After teaching six years I found that the result of my labors by 
 no means equaled my expectations. The energy and mental power 
 of the children did not increase according to the measure of my exer- 
 tions, nor even in proportion to the extent of the positive information 
 which they acquired ; nor did the knowledge which I imparted to 
 them appear to have a sufficiently strong hold upon their minds, or 
 to be well connected in its various parts. 
 
 "I made use of the best books that were, at that time, to be had; 
 but they contained many words that were unintelligible to the chil- 
 dren, and ideas far beyond the sphere of their experiences ; and, con- 
 squently, formed so strong a contrast to their usual mode of thinking, 
 feeling, and speaking, that it took too much time to explain all that 
 they could not understand. This process was in itself tedious, and 
 did no more toward advancing their true development than is done 
 toward dispelling darkness by introducing a few detached rays of 
 light into a dark room, or into the obscurity of a dense, impenetra- 
 ble mist. These books descended to the profoundest depths of hu- 
 man knowledge, or ascended above the clouds, even to the uppermost 
 heavens of eternal glory, without giving opportunity to rest the feet 
 on the solid ground of mother earth, on which it is absolutely neces- 
 sary that men should stand if they would learn Avalking before flying; 
 and, moreover, if it is indeed to be flying, wings must have time to 
 grow. 
 
 "A vague idea of the truth induced me, from time to time, to 
 entertain my younger pupils with matters of immediate perception, 
 and to clear up the ideas of the elder ones by conversations. The 
 result of the former plan was, that the little ones acquired a knowl- 
 edge of various facts not generally met with at their age. I endeav- 
 ored to combine this mode of instruction with the methods found in 
 the most approved works, all of which were written in such a man- 
 
GUSTAV TOBLER. 89 
 
 ner as to presuppose a knowledge of language — the very thing 
 which the children were to acquire by them. The consequence was, 
 that my Socratic conversations with the elder pupils led to no better 
 results than all other explanations of words by words which the chil- 
 dren do not comprehend. The explanation which they seemed to 
 understand to-day was soon completely obliterated from their minds; 
 and the more pains I took to make every thing plain to them, the 
 less did they evince energy to work for themselves. 
 
 "At that time, Fischer, in several of his letters, gave me a de- 
 tailed account of Pestalozzi's work. From this, I saw that the end 
 at which I was aiming could be reached without my circuitous 
 means ; that most of my difficulties arose out of the very nature of 
 the plan which I followed ; and that the artificial methods invented 
 in our age were the very sources of all the defects of modern educa- 
 tion. 
 
 "Pestalozzi, on the contrary, was free from my peculiar difficul- 
 ties, and I accounted for this by the fact that he rejected all our in- 
 genious contrivances, — all our well-framed systems. Some of the 
 means employed by him, that, for instance, of making the children 
 draw on slates, seemed to me so simple and obvious, that I could 
 not understand why I had not thought of them. But his principle 
 of educating mothers for that for which they were originally destined 
 attracted me most. 
 
 " Kriisi, at his visit in Basel, gave, in the girls' school there, prac- 
 tical examples of Pestalozzi's mode of teaching Spelling, Reading, 
 and Arithmetic, which showed me that his method was based upon 
 philosophical principles; and J soon decided to join him, according to 
 his wish. 
 
 " I went to Burgdorf, and found my expectations fully realized. \ 
 was astonished to see what a degree of enthusiasm the children gen- 
 erally evinced, and how simple, yet manifold, were the means by 
 which their energy was elicited. Pestalozzi took no notice of the 
 existing systems and methods. The ideas which he presented to the 
 minds of the pupils were extremely simple, and his means of in- 
 struction distinctly classified — each part being adapted to a precise 
 period in the progress of development. Whatever was complicated 
 and confused he rejected. By a few words he conveyed much, and 
 with little apparent exertion produced a powerful effect. He kept 
 always close to the point under consideration. Some of his branches 
 of instruction seemed like a new creation, and my admiration was 
 raised to the highest degeee. 
 
 " Some of his experiments, however, seemed to me unnatural ; for 
 
90 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 instance, the repetition of difficult and complicated sentences, which 
 could not at first fail to confuse the pupils ; but, on the other hand, 
 I saw with what a power he afterward led the children to a clear 
 perception of the ideas which they contained. When I mentioned 
 my doubts to him, he answered, ' Nature herself presents various 
 perceptions to our senses in confusion and obscurity, and brings them 
 to clearness afterward.' To this I made no reply, because I saw that 
 he attached no value to the details of his experiments; but tried 
 many of them, only to throw them aside again as soon as they 
 should have answered their temporary purpose. With many of 
 them, he had no other object than to increase the mental power of 
 the children, and to obtain for himself further information concerning the 
 fundamental principles on which all his 'proceedings rested. I resolved 
 not to notice the apparent inadequacy of some of his means, espe- 
 cially, as I had come to the conviction that the further pursuit of 
 the method necessarily involved the improvement of its details. . . . 
 
 "Every day I saw more clearly that the different means of in- 
 struction were so connected that each was instrumental in promoting 
 the success of all the others, and in developing and strengthening the 
 faculties generally. In short, the impressions produced upon my 
 mind by Pestalozzi's experiment have reestablished in my heart that 
 faith in the possibility of popular improvement which I held so dear 
 at the outset of my career, but which I had almost lost under the 
 pressure of systems sanctioned by the fashions of the day." 
 
 The reader is requested to notice, in particular, the gentle but im- 
 partial manner in which Tobler criticises the work which he saw at 
 Burgdorf. Although he does not reply to Pestalozzi when he at- 
 tempts to justify a bad practice by reference to a correct principle, 
 yet what follows clearly shows that he fully understood the falsity 
 of the argument. He probably saw that Pestalozzi, like other re- 
 formers, though comprehending in the abstract the principles he at- 
 tempted to establish, was, through enthusiasm for a particular point, 
 often led to use those imperfect means and apparently useless experi- 
 ments, which make some of his first work seem so inconsistent. 
 
 During Tobler's stay in the Institution improvements were intro- 
 duced in Arithmetic, Drawing, and Language, and also in his own 
 branch of Geography, in which the greatest errors had been committed. 
 
 Tobler, while at Burgdorf, established the principle of teaching 
 Geography by reference to the actual surface of the earth, with a suc- 
 cess which entitles him to the name of Fattier of the new method in Ge- 
 ography. Upon this foundation the celebrated Bitter completed a 
 structure of Physical Geography, which the world has justly admired. 
 
GUSTAV TOBLER. 91 
 
 Tobler followed Pestalozzi to Yverdon, where he, however, did not 
 remain long. His reasons for leaving are thus somewhat obscurely 
 stated by Raumer: "Tobler's personal relations with Pestalozzi were 
 neither fortunate nor enduring. The latter had not the faculty of 
 determining the proper place for each of his assistants, and of lay- 
 ing out for each an appointed work. He required from Tobler sim- 
 ple, rapid, and immediate results from his investigations; but the 
 real value of his views could not be brought out without their com- 
 plete display in actual operation." To this must be added the fact 
 that Tobler, who was married, may have been compelled to look else- 
 where for the support of his family. In 1810 we find him at Miihl- 
 hausen, a manufacturing town in the neighborhood of Basel, where 
 he founded an Industrial School, which at one time contained about 
 five hundred pupils. It came, however, to a sudden termination 
 through the distrustful spirit of some of its patrons. 
 
 He next engaged as teacher in a private school at Glarus, from 
 which he was dismissed, in 1817, on account of the famine. After a 
 temporary residence at Arbon, he established himself at St. Gallen, 
 where for many years he was at the head of a flourishing seminary 
 for boys. The educational reform, which was commenced in the 
 Protestant cantons in 1830, gave such a prominence to public schools 
 as to render private establishments superfluous. The Government of 
 the canton, however, appreciating the zeal and experience of Tobler, 
 intrusted him with the training of young teachers. For this task he 
 was eminently qualified, and no one could behold the venerable old 
 man, with his mild, expressive countenance and glistening eyes, with- 
 out partaking of his enthusiasm. His principles for the moral and 
 intellectual training of the young were strictly in accordance with 
 those of Pestalozzi, as we learn from the introduction to one of his 
 courses of Geography: "We must lead the child to truth; but that 
 only is truth to the child which he finds to be so by his own labor and 
 investigation ; therefore, we must lead him to search and find every 
 thing for himself, excepting the revelations of history and the Bible, 
 which are beyond the reach of his reason. The child arrives at in- 
 dependent results chiefly by his observation and intuition. To see, in 
 a physical sense, means to obtain the image of an object, as a form 
 on the retina of the eye ; in an intellectual sense, to obtain the per- 
 ception of that object in the mind by a process of intuition. If 
 teachers wish to develop the minds of the children, they must make 
 use of their senses as a medium through which to appeal to their 
 understanding ; hence the necessity of resorting to a system of ques- 
 tioning The questions must not be so arranged that they aid only 
 
92 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 in the formation of new ideas, but also rouse, exercise, and strengthen 
 the intellectual powers." 
 
 Although Tobler did not, as far as we know, publish any work on 
 science, he wrote many articles upon general topics of education for 
 the journals. In his younger years he also published some novels, 
 which are distinguished for their originality and the success with 
 which they mingle instruction with amusement. 
 
 His last years, which were passed in the family of his son, at Nyons, 
 near Geneva, were full of that quiet enjoyment which results from a 
 life spent in endeavors to promote the welfare of mankind. 
 
 He died in 1843. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 JOHANNES BUSS. 
 
 JOHANNES BUSS was a native of Tiibingen, Wiirtemberg His 
 father held there a subordinate position in a theological school, and 
 was, therefore, able to secure for his son good instruction in his early 
 years. Before the boy was twelve years old he had acquired considera- 
 ble knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, Logic, and Rhetoric. He also ap- 
 plied himself to the study of Drawing and Music, but through want of 
 means he was obliged to give these up, and at the age of sixteen was 
 apprenticed to a book-binder. 
 
 On account of failing health, he left his trade and went to Basel, 
 Switzerland, hoping to earn his bread there by his knowledge of mu- 
 sic. He was too shy to obtain what he wanted, and was obliged to 
 resort again to his trade. He, however, still dreamed of the time 
 when a better opportunity might enable him to pursue a literary 
 career. 
 
 About this time, he became acquainted with Tobler, who informed 
 him that Pestalozzi was in need of a master of music and drawing. 
 Buss says: "I was fully aware of my deficiencies, and the ho]:>e that 
 I should find an opportunity for improvement induced me to go to 
 Burgdorf in spite of the warnings which I received against forming 
 any connection with Pestalozzi, who, they said, was crazy, and knew 
 not himself what he was about. In proof of the assertion they re- 
 lated several stories ; as, for instance, that he once went to Basel 
 with his shoes tied with straw, because he had given his silver buck- 
 les to a beggar. I did not doubt about the buckles, but that he was 
 mad I questioned. Determined to see for myself, I went to Burg- 
 dorf to fill the vacant position. 
 
 "At our first interview, he came down from an upper room with 
 his stockings about his heels, and his coat covered with dust. His 
 whole appearance was so miserable that I was inclined to pity him; 
 yet there was something in his expression so grand that I looked 
 upon him with veneration. His benevolence, the cordial reception 
 
 (93) 
 
94 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 he gave me, his unpretending simplicity, and the dilapidated condi- 
 tion in which he stood before me — the whole man impressed me 
 powerfully. I was his in one instant. No man had ever so sought 
 my heart, none so won my confidence. 
 
 "The following morning I entered his school, and at first, I confess, 
 I saw in it nothing but apparent disorder and an uncomfortable 
 bustle. ..... I thought the children were de- 
 tained too long at one point; but I was reconciled to this when I saw 
 the perfection which they attained in their first exercises, and the ad- 
 vantages which it insured to them in their farther progress. I now 
 perceived, for the first time, the disadvantages under which I myself 
 had labored, in consequence of the incoherent and desultory manner in 
 which I had been taught in my boyhood; and I began to think that 
 if I had been kept to the first elements with similar perseverance, I 
 should have been able afterward to help myself, and thus to escape 
 all the sufferings and melancholy which I had endured. 
 
 "This experience perfectly agrees with Pestalozzi's idea, that, by 
 his method, men are to be enabled to help themselves, since ' there is 
 no one,' as he says, ' in God's wide world, who is willing or able to 
 help them.' I shuddered when I read this passage for the first time 
 in 'Leonard and Gertrude.' But, alas! the experience of my life has 
 taught me the truth of it. I saw clearly that my inability to pur- 
 sue the plan of my younger years in an independent manner arose 
 chiefly from the superficiality with which I had been taught. I had 
 learned an art — that of drawing — -but I was ignorant of the basis 
 on which it rested ; and, when I was called upon to apply it in a 
 manner consistent with its nature, I found myself utterly at a loss to 
 know what its nature was. ........ 
 
 "I tried to reduce the science to its elements, and in my endeavors 
 to reach them, I drew an endless variety of figures, which, it is true, 
 might be called simple, but which were utterly unfit to illustrate the 
 elementary laws of which Pestalozzi was in search. At last I began 
 to suspect that I ought to know less than I did know, or that, at 
 least, 1 must temporarily discard a portion of my knowledge, in order 
 to descend to those single elements by which I saw him produce such 
 powerful and, to me, unattainable effects. In this I succeeded at last. 
 
 "But I fell into another extreme. Before, I had seen nothing 
 but objects; now, I saw nothing but lines; and T imagined that chil- 
 dren must be exercised on these lines exclusively, in every branch of 
 drawing, before real objects were to be placed before them for imita- 
 tion, or even for comparison. 
 
 " But Pestalozzi viewed his drawing lessons in connection with the 
 
JOHANNES BUSS. 95 
 
 whole of his method, and with nature, which will not allow any 
 branch of art to remain isolated. His intention was, to lay before 
 the mind two distinct series of figures, of which one should be con- 
 tained in his book for little children, and the other should furnish 
 practical illustrations. The first was intended to supply the percej> 
 tion of the children with a knowledge of things in connection with 
 their names ; the second was calculated to combine the practical appli- 
 cation of art with the theoretical knowledge of its laws, by linking 
 the perception of abstract forms to the outline of objects, which cor- 
 responded with these.* ......... 
 
 "I was afraid lest, by giving to the child real objects, his percej)- 
 tion of the outline would be disturbed; but Pestalozzi did not wish to 
 cultivate any power contrary to nature, saying : ' Nature gives no 
 lines, but only objects. The lines are presented to the child, that he 
 may view the objects correctly; but to take the objects from him, in 
 order to make him see lines only, would be exceedingly wrong.'" 
 
 Buss labored zealously in his new position, although he could not at 
 first see the relation between the principles and means suggested to 
 him by his enthusiastic teacher. Even after he thoroughly under- 
 stood the application of the method to his own subjects, he seemed 
 unable to comprehend its relation to other branches. This, probably, 
 explains the fact that we do not find him, after leaving Pestalozzi's 
 Institution, engaged in any prominent educational work. 
 
 * This plan lias been adopted and carried out in "Kriisi"s System of Draw- 
 ing " — the first series corresponding to the exercises of the " Inventive Course ; " 
 the second, to those of the "Applied Course." 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 
 ASSISTANTS OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
 TOHANNES RAMSAUER, who was a native of Herisau, canton 
 f J of Appenzell, was born in 1790. He was the youngest of seven 
 children, all of whom assisted their widowed mother in the business 
 which supported the family. When eight years of age he was sent 
 to school, and in two years scarcely learned to read and write. 
 At home he received from his good mother lessons in industry, order, 
 and obedience. 
 
 Although not so entirely destitute as many at that time, his mother, 
 at his urgent request, allowed him to emigrate with the poorer chil- 
 dren. The boy, now only ten years of age, first wandered to Schleu- 
 nicn, but finally went to Burgdorf, where he was received into Kriisi's 
 school. In the same year this school was united with that of Pesta- 
 lozzi : thus Ramsauer became a pupil of the great reformer. 
 
 "In the school," says Ramsauer, "I learned no more than the 
 rest ; but Pestalozzi's holy zeal, self-forgetting love, and earnest, im- 
 pressive manner knit my childish, grateful heart to his forever." 
 Ramsauer remained several years at Burgdorf, as pupil, table-waiter, 
 and finally as under-teacher. He was a favorite with Pestalozzi, and 
 was often employed by him as private secretary, working in this ca- 
 pacity from early dawn till late at night. 
 
 In 181(5, he left the Institution to teach at Wiirzburg, and also to 
 attend the lectures at the University there. He acquired such a rep- 
 utation that, in the autumn of the same year, he was invited to be- 
 come teacher of the Princes Alexander and Peter, and also to take 
 charge of an elementary school for children of the educated classes 
 in Stuttgart. He accepted both these situations, and in 1820 at- 
 tended the young princes to the court of their grandfather at Olden- 
 burg, in order to continue their education. 
 
 In 1<S2(>, lie was appointed teacher of the Duchesses Amelia and 
 Frederika, of Oldenburg, and at the same time he conducted a 
 (96) 
 
JUS ASSISTANTS. 97 
 
 school for girls with great success. While there he published a work 
 on "Drawing," and another entitled "Instruction in Form, Size, and 
 Substance;" also "Brief Sketches of my Pedagogical Life," in which 
 he narrates many events of the school life at Burgdorf and Yverdon, 
 and makes many interesting remarks on education in general. From 
 the latter we select as follows : 
 
 "While a pupil, Pestalozzi often took me for a walk along the 
 banks of the river Em me; and for recreation and amusement he 
 looked for different kinds of stones. I also took part in this occu- 
 pation, although millions lay there, and I did not know for which 
 to search. He only knew a few kinds, but, nevertheless, he dragged 
 along home every day with pockets and handkerchiefs full ; though, 
 after once deposited, they were never looked at again. It was not an 
 easy thing to find a whole pocket handkerchief at Burgdorf; all of 
 them had been torn carrying stones. Pestalozzi retained this fancy 
 through life." 
 
 "At Burgdorf an active and entirely new mode of life opened to 
 me. So much love and simplicity reigned in the Institution ! life 
 was so simple ! so patriarchal ! Not much was learned, it is true, 
 but Pestalozzi was the father and the teachers were the friends of 
 the pupils. Pestalozzi's morning and evening prayers had such a 
 fervor that they carried away every one who took part in them. 
 He read and explained the hymns impressively, exhorted each of 
 the pupils to private prayer, and heard them repeat every evening 
 those they had learned at home; while at the same time he taught 
 them that mere reciting prayers by rote was worthless, and that 
 every one should pray from his own heart. ..... 
 
 "Such exhortations became more and more rare at Yverdon. So 
 long as the Institution was small, Pestalozzi could, by his thoroughly 
 amiable personal character, adjust at once any slight discordance. 
 He stood in close relation with each individual member of the circle, 
 and could thus observe every peculiarity of disposition, and influence 
 it according to necessity. 
 
 "This ceased when the family life was transformed into that of an 
 organized school. Now the individual was lost in the crowd, and, con- 
 sequently, there arose a desire on the part of each to make himself 
 felt and noticed. Every day egotism made its appearance in more 
 prominent forms. Envy and jealousy rankled in the hearts of many. 
 Pestalozzi, however, remained the same noblediearted man, living 
 only for the welfare of others, and infusing his own spirit into the 
 household." 
 
 I*. 7. 
 
98 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 " I have already said that the finer social graces must cither be in- 
 born or developed by culture. Even of the simple politeness of a 
 boy's manners this is true. Those to whom this gift is natural are 
 usually of rather weak or superficial intellects ; but they get well 
 through the world, that is, easily attain eminence in society. This 
 opinion has led me to another and a more important one, namely, that 
 in practical life it is of little moment whether one has 'a good head.' 
 It is of much greater importance, what is one's character for truthful- 
 ness and perseverance; and much more that he keeps his faith, 
 through which, if it be the right kind, comes the blessing. 
 
 "Every one of even moderate experience will agree with me that 
 those men who have filled important places in the world are in- 
 debted to their truthfulness, perseverance, and uprightness, much 
 more than to their ' good head ' or their genius. Even in the ele- 
 mentary schools this truthfulness and perseverance can be cultivated, 
 proved, and established; but it is home education which must do 
 most of it. 
 
 "It has often troubled me to hear of a 'smart boy' in a family or 
 school, and to see those undervalued who lack such a qualification. 
 Such praise discourages those reckoned inferior (who subsequently 
 may excel them), and only makes those possessed of this apparent 
 talent conceited and heartless. . ...... 
 
 "There are teachers who lay great stress upon learning quickly, 
 forgetting that the most superficial scholars are often the quickest. 
 Such will find that these forget just as quickly ; Avhile things acquired 
 with more pains remain longer in the memory, and are better under- 
 stood. The principal thing is thoroughness : it is this only which 
 truly educates — which tells upon character. Merely to know more 
 or less is of little significance. Whoever imagines that he knows 
 A-ery much, does, in fact, know pitifully little. This thoroughness 
 should be a characteristic even of the lowest elementary school':, it 
 is a result of perseverance. A condition preparatory to this thor- 
 oughness is, that the pupil be constrained — without any apparent 
 force, however- — into thinking and laboring independently. I have 
 often said to an indolent or compliant pupil, who imitated others too 
 easily, 'Your own eating must make you fat; your own thinking 
 must make you wise, and your own practice must make you dex- 
 terous.' 
 
 "A condition of thoroughness is repetition — constant repetition. 
 This is to many teachers too wearisome or slow; but a teacher whose 
 hearl is in his work will lie drilling often and earnestly, and always 
 in new ways; so that both the pupil and himself will always be get- 
 
HTS ASSISTANTS. 99 
 
 ting at a new and interesting side of the subject. A teacher who 
 labors in two or three departments of study with vivacity and pleas- 
 ure, and gives really thorough instruction — such as educates — will 
 naturally have neither time nor wish to spend several hours daily in 
 mere amusements. His work and progress in Avhat is really useful 
 for time and eternity will constitute his greatest happiness." 
 
 He sums up the different experiences of his life thus: "I learned 
 at home to work, pray, and obey ; in Schleumen, to run, climb, and 
 jump; with Pestalozzi, to work, think, and observe; during my vari- 
 ous journeys, to be independent, and help myself; in Wiirzburg and 
 Stuttgart, to be more modest, and to know more of family life ; in 
 Oldenburg, to love the word of God, to endure good and evil with 
 equanimity, and that it is possible to live very happily here below 
 and, at the same time, prepare for the better, future life." 
 
 Joseph Schmid, whom we have already mentioned in the life of 
 Pestalozzi, went to Burgdorf from the mountains of Tyrol. He was 
 entirely without culture and refinement, but possessed a rare talent 
 for Mathematics, great industry and energy of character, and an un- 
 bounded ambition. He was a devout Catholic, and is said to have 
 pi*ayed to the Virgin Mary " to grant him strength to become the 
 first scholar in the school." He evidently did not rely upon faith 
 alone to accomplish his purpose ; for Pestalozzi says of him : " On 
 account of his quiet, efficient activity and eager efforts after every 
 attainment in learning, he soon surpassed all his teachers, and even 
 became the instructor of those who, but a short time before, had con- 
 sidered him the most uncultivated child that had ever been in the 
 Institution." 
 
 Schmid's practical business capacity and habits of order and thor- 
 oughness — qualities which Pestalozzi did not possess — enabled him in 
 time to obtain great influence in the management of the school. His 
 demeanor, however, toward the other teachers became so disagreeable 
 and arbitrary, that, in 1810, an open feud broke out, and he was 
 dismissed. 
 
 Soon after, he took charge of a school at Bregenz, where he pub- 
 lished a work entitled, " My Experience and Ideas of Education, In- 
 stitutions, and Schools," in which he attempted to vindicate himself, 
 and throw all the blame of the quarrel upon the other teachers. 
 
 The absence of his practical guidance and financial skill was deeply 
 
 felt bv all. Even Niederer, who had led the opposition against him, 
 
 L.or 0. 
 
100 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 wrote in a conciliatory manner, and, in 1815, gave him a pressing- 
 invitation to return, which he accepted. At once he commenced a 
 complete reform in the economy of the school, and interfered with 
 the other teachers in such a domineering spirit, that a silent but 
 great antipathy to him again arose. This at last broke out into open 
 hostility, the result of which we have narrated in the first part of 
 this work. 
 
 Of his life after Pestalozzi's school was broken up but little is 
 known. We last hear of him in Paris, where he gave private lessons 
 in Drawing and Mathematics — no doubt with his usual ability. In 
 1850 he died there, alone and uncared for, save by a servant. 
 
 Steiner was a rough, uncouth peasant boy from the canton of 
 Berne, who, from an intense desire for knowledge, went to Burgdorf. 
 Not having sufficient money to pay his board, he engaged in some 
 manual labor which allowed him to attend school a portion of the 
 day. He was deficient in verbal memory, but, by steady industry 
 and perseverance, he developed great logical and reasoning powers, 
 which soon gave him prominence in the mathematical department of 
 the school. After leaving Pestalozzi he taught in a gymnasium in 
 Germany, and ultimately became Professor of Mathematics in the 
 University of Berlin. While there he published some valuable and 
 original works upon Mathematical Science, and attained considerable 
 eminence in the literary world. 
 
Part hi 
 
 EXTRACTS 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 Writings of Pestalozzl 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 THE writings of Pestalozzi were published in a collected form in 
 1819, by Cotta, in Stuttgart. They appeared under the super- 
 vision of Sehmid, who, however, neglected to give them in their chron- 
 ological order, and omitted some important documents. 
 
 With few exceptions, these works have not been translated into 
 English ; partly on account of their experimental and theoretical char- 
 acter, and partly because the subjects treated, until within a compara- 
 tively recent period, have attracted little attention from the English- 
 speaking people. Besides, from their want of logical arrangement, 
 and the peculiar style in which they are written, they would hardly 
 have received justice at the hands of critics, or have been understood 
 in the spirit in which they were originally conceived. 
 
 We make these extracts now, because we believe the time has come 
 when there is a wide-spread demand for all possible light on educa- 
 tional subjects ; because the extracts seem indispensable to a complete 
 idea of the character of the man ; and because they contain those 
 germs of thought from which the educational reform had its origin. 
 
 We need hardly say that a writer constituted like Pestalozzi, with 
 an ardent imagination, and without that early mental culture which 
 secures due subordination in all departments of thought, would ex- 
 hibit a style that transcends the limits of logic and appears visionary 
 and strange. To persons, however, who are actuated by intense and 
 ever-active feelings of compassion for the poor and unfortunate, there 
 is often given a power of divination, which looks forward to the real- 
 ization of cherished hopes and plans, and sees the world kindled into 
 flame from the sparks of wisdom and morality, which they have fanned 
 into existence. Such men are usually impelled by a deep religious 
 sentiment which pervades their every feeling and action. 
 
 We would naturally expect that a productive mind, moved by phil- 
 anthropic purposes, would discuss all the relations existing between 
 the individual, the state, the church, and the school. In his earliest 
 
 (103) 
 
104 PEKTALOZZL 
 
 ■ 
 
 writings, we find Pestalozzi an ardent patriot, sharply criticising the 
 existing abuses and inequalities of society, which imposed its burdens 
 upon the many poor and conferred its privileges upon the wealthy 
 few. 
 
 As earlv as 17<S2 we find, in his contributions to a Swiss journal, 
 the following topics discussed: "The Temptations which Surround 
 Females of the Lower Classes;" "Corruption of Servants in Great 
 Houses;" "The Want of Even-handed Justice between the Rich and 
 the Poor;" "Men With and Without Influence;" "The Hypocrisy 
 of the Privileged Classes and their Indifference to the Real Suffering 
 of the People;" "Popular Education;" "The Prevalence of Honest 
 Principles in the Legislation of Former Times, Compared with the 
 Laxity and Compromising Spirit of Modern Legislation ; " " Destruc- 
 tive Agency of Quackery and Superstition ; " " The Tendency of Pe- 
 nal Laws to Increase rather than Diminish the Sources of Crime ; " 
 "The Organization of Prisons;" "The Moral Improvement of Crim- 
 inals and the Defects of Charity." 
 
 In all these articles Pestalozzi espouses the cause of the poor and 
 oppressed. The improvements which have taken place in many of 
 the departments then under discussion, show that a reform was ur- 
 gently needed. Our first extract is from an address delivered in 
 1788, on a national anniversary, and will give an idea of his power 
 and enthusiasm at that early period : 
 
 " ' Thou art free ! ' Thus spoke to Helvetia her guardian angel on 
 the triumphant day of her liberty. ' But suffer thy people to enjoy 
 this freedom in all the purity in which I now give it to thee, or it 
 will be taken from thee,' added he, with a frown on his brow and a 
 flash in his eye. 
 
 "Helvetia's sons understood the warning of the oracle, and for cen- 
 turies lived like brethren in their mountains and valleys. 
 
 "Guardian angel of Helvetia, show me once more the sires of our 
 land ! Cause to appear before my eyes the image of the founders of 
 our union and liberty ! . . . I see them — men of high stature, 
 with majestic beards, flowing down to their girdles, and with mighty 
 swords hanging at their sides; but their countenances are friendly and 
 cheerful. Their arms, though scaled with iron, are ready for the em- 
 brace of pious affection ; their hands, terrible in battle, are faithful in 
 promise ; they live for those whom they love, and die for those to 
 whom they have sworn But now, oh, hide thy counte- 
 nance and mourn, thou priest of liberty ! Thy altars are without 
 a gift : the people of Helvetia are burning incense to strange gods. 
 They have become like the starving people in the lands of the kings 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 105 
 
 around them. The sons of those men, who knew nothing but their 
 fatherland, now know nothing but themselves — know nothing but 
 their families, while they forget the honor and interest of that coun- 
 try to which they owe their existence and their glory. 
 
 "Ye men of Helvetia! flee discord; for by discord you sink to the 
 level of the countries which divide their bread with their kings. In- 
 dustry and zeal for the welfare of your country established your 
 homes. Depart not from the fashion of your forefathers and from 
 the duties of your stations ! Guardian angel of the land ! raise thy 
 voice, and send it from mountain to mountain and from valley to 
 valley ! With a sound of thunder declare the great truth, that the 
 liberty of all is in the protection of the right of all. Angel of lib- 
 erty ! defend us ! Oh, defend forever this small spot of earth in the 
 hands of this people ! Preserve the rulers of Helvetia, that they 
 may never cease to be the fathers of the people, and that the uni- 
 versal tie of the fatherland may bind us more and more firmly to- 
 gether ! Oh, raise us up again, and kindle the last spark of patriot- 
 ism that is left in our veins into a mighty flame ! When danger 
 lurks behind our mountain passes, and wild torrents threaten to inun- 
 date our peaceful fields, then fan our ancient fire into a sacred flame, 
 that we, Helvetia's faithful sons, may battle and die for the father- 
 land!" 
 
 Pestalozzi published, in 1795, under the title " Figures to my Spell- 
 ing Book," a collection of fables, all bearing more or less upon the 
 political and social conditions of his age. Although a vein of satire 
 seems to pervade them, we find occasionally a hidden grief under the 
 mask of hilarity, as will be seen in the introductory fable. 
 
 THE PAINTER OF MEN. 
 
 "He stood at the easel, and the people thronged around him and 
 said: 'So thou hast turned painter! Truly thou hadst done better 
 to mend our shoes ! ' 
 
 "And he answered: ' I would have mended shoes for you ; I would 
 have carried stones for you ; I would have drawn water for you ; but 
 you would not have any of my services; and, therefore, in the com- 
 pulsory idleness of my despised existence, what else could I do but 
 learn painting.'" 
 
 THE MUSHROOM AND THE GRASS. 
 "The Mushroom said to the grass: ' I spring up in a moment, 
 
106 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 whilst thou must grow for a whole summer, in order to attain to what 
 I am.' 
 
 " ' Very true,' replied the grass, ' but, before I am worth any thing, 
 thou — worthless thing — must spring up and perish a hundred 
 times.'" 
 
 THE APE AXD THE SERPENT. 
 
 "A young ape meditated a long time, and could not find out what 
 humility is. At last, seeing a serpent crawling on his belly, he said 
 to his mother: 'To sneak thus through the world without hands or 
 feet is, I suppose, what they call humility.'" 
 
 CHRISTOPHER AND HIS WATCH. 
 
 "'If I set thee going, thou wilt wear out; and if I wind thee up, 
 thy chain may break,' said Christopher, to whom a watch had been 
 bequeathed. After mature reflection, he said : ' Thou hadst better 
 stand still, and then these dangers will be averted.' " 
 
 WHERE SHALL IT END. 
 
 "His great-grandfather trusted in his armor and sword; his grand- 
 father, in his fist ; his father, in his tongue ; he trusts in his quill ; in 
 what will his son trust?" 
 
 EQUALITY. 
 
 "A dwarf said to a giant, 'We have equal rights.' 'Very true, 
 my good fellow,' replied the giant, ' and yet thou canst not walk in 
 my shoes.' " 
 
 THE PRIVILEGES OF THE FISHES. 
 
 " The fishes of a pond complained that they, more than their neigh- 
 bors in other ponds, were persecuted by the pikes ; whereupon an old 
 pike, who was the judge of the pond, pronounced this sentence: 'The 
 defendants, to make amends, shall in future permit every year two 
 common fishes to become pikes.'" 
 
 THE TWO MAGISTRATES. 
 
 " ' I am again weary to death, ami yet they are not satisfied/ said a 
 groveling magistrate, at the close of his session. 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 107 
 
 " Another, who understood the art of governing exceedingly well, 
 replied : 'I, on the contrary, am never fatigued, and yet they are 
 always contented with me.' ' I would buy thy secret with gold, if it 
 were for sale,' said the first. The other replied : ' It would be to 
 thee of no use. When Kitty cooks her turnips, and Johnny manures 
 his land, and Harry waters his donkey, I pass on, whistling, and 
 think to myself, ' What is that to me ? ' 
 
 "' Well, and I think the village would go to ruin if I had not 
 knowledge of every thing,' said the weary one." 
 
 Our next extracts are from a political work, entitled " Inquiries 
 into the Course of Nature in the Development of the Human Spe- 
 cies." This was, doubtless, written under the influence of Rousseau's 
 works, in which lie was greatly interested at that time. That he 
 was in a morbid and despairing frame of mind, induced, probably, 
 by witnessing the injustice and inhumanity of the existing govern- 
 ments, will be seen by one of the conclusions at which he arrives : 
 "The social compact is nothing more than a truce, entered into by 
 the animal propensities of all parties, which would otherwise be at 
 constant war with each other." The questions which he proposes to 
 consider are the following: "What am I? What is the human 
 species? What have I done? What is the human species doing? 
 What has the course of life, such as it has been, made of the hu- 
 man species? On what ground does the volition of the human spe- 
 cies and its opinions rest, and on what must they rest under the cir- 
 euuastances in which it is placed?" 
 
 As a preliminary to their solution he gives the following outline of 
 the march of civilization : 
 
 " By the helplessness of his animal condition, man is brought to 
 knowledge. 
 
 "Knowledge leads to acquisition; acquisition to possession; posses- 
 sion to the formation of society; society to power and honor; power 
 and honor to the relation of ruler and subject ; the relation of ruler 
 and subject to the distinction of nobles and commons, and to the 
 crown. 
 
 "All these relations call for a code of laws; law calls for civil lib- 
 erty. 
 
 "The want of law entails tyranny; that is, a state of things in 
 which men constitute a society without regulations for the improve- 
 ment and maintenance of mutual obligations." 
 
 "Following the course of nature in another direction, I find in my- 
 
108 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 self a certain benevolence, by winch acquisition, honor, property, and 
 power ennoble my mind ; while without it all these privileges of my 
 social condition only tend to degrade me more deeply. Tracing this 
 benevolence to its source, I find it to be essentially of sensual, animal 
 origin ; but I find, likewise, within myself a power, which will enno- 
 ble its very root ; and benevolence so ennobled I call love. 
 
 "But there is danger still of love being lost in my desire for self- 
 gratification. I feel desolate, and I seek to rise beyond the power of 
 imagination — beyond the limits of all the research and knowledge that 
 are possible here below — to the fountain-head of my existence, in order 
 to derive from thence help against the desolation of my being — against 
 all the ills and weaknesses of my nature." ..... 
 
 "Let the social constitution resemble ever so well a whitewashed 
 wall, and let the dispositions of power wear ever so admirably the 
 mark of humanity, man never will truly and freely submit to an ar- 
 rangement which gives any one the right to punish the aberrations 
 of his animal tendencies. The relation of man to man in the social 
 state is merely animal. As a mass — as a people — man does not 
 submit himself to the powers of the state. There is nothing he con- 
 templates less than the service of God and the love due to his neigh- 
 bor. He enters society with a view to gratify himself and to enjoy 
 all those things which, to a sensual and animal being, are the indis- 
 pensable conditions of satisfaction and happiness. 
 
 "The social law is, therefore, in nowise a moral law, but a mere 
 modification of the animal law. 
 
 "Meanwhile, social power is deeply interested in my moral con- 
 dition, that my animal tendencies may never conflict with its own 
 gratifications. 
 
 " This is why, all over the earth, it endeavors to represent the so- 
 cial relation as a moral tie, at least on one side. But the disposition 
 of power to represent itself as morally related to the people, does not 
 alter the position in which it really stands to them. If the persons 
 in power, stimulated by their immoral tendencies, encourage the de- 
 lusion for their own ends, with a view to cover their civil lawlessness 
 and their social injustice, they do only what the wolf and fox would 
 do, if they could, to inspire the sheep and the hen with unbounded 
 confidence. Nevertheless, the hen does well to sleep on trees by 
 night, and the sheep to keep by the shepherd, in spite of what the 
 wolf may say," 
 
 A\ hen he penned the following passage, he seems to have had be- 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 109 
 
 fore his eyes all the horrors of the French Revolution ; the sufferings 
 
 of a degraded people ; the dissipation and selfishness of kings and no- 
 bles; the sudden rise of the masses, and their acts of maddened fury 
 and despair : 
 
 "Incalculable is the misery of our continent. An eternal and un- 
 changeable law turns the balance of moral existence forever on the 
 side of the animal forces and tendencies ; and he who combines with 
 them the advantages of power, will ever say to the weaker part of 
 his species, ' Ye are made for my sake ; ' and he plays on their 
 crowded ranks as on the wires of a dulcimer. As many wires as 
 break, he throws away, and draws new ones across his damaged in- 
 strument ; for what is it to him whether the wires break or not, they 
 are only wires. 
 
 "Alas! they are men; but they grow up in the inexpressible deg- 
 radation of a lawless servitude. Like the claws on the paws of a 
 bear, they know not what is the design of the growling animal that 
 rests on them ; but they are always ready to tear out the entrails of 
 any one against whom he may growl. ...... 
 
 When once power has become un- 
 faithful, and has learned to paliate the sin of treason by cold unmean- 
 ing language, then the law of humanity has departed from the earth. 
 
 Enthralled by a power which acknowledges no law against itself, man 
 sinks back into all the helplessness and obtuseness of his natural cor- 
 ruption ; and the general spread of Sansculottism leads to the dissolu- 
 tion of the social ties. 
 
 "Before this comes to pass, kings, like the oak, grow hardened on 
 their thrones ; deep horror hovers round their crowns ; they stand 
 isolated, like barren rocks, surrounded by bottomless abysses ; celiba- 
 tarian monks and misanthropic knight -bachelors become the last pil- 
 lars of the state, till they, too, begin to give way, and then, in the 
 desolation of anarchy, which wanton lawlessness has brought on, 
 nations sink into dissolution." 
 
 This wa>, undoubtedly, a gloomy view of the existing state of 
 things ; but it was the gloom in his own soul which made him see, 
 at that time, every thing in a dim and distorted lights. Let v» »©* 
 forget that when he wrote the above — in 1797 — he mourned over 
 the destruction of his most cherished plans ; mourned over the 
 breaking up of his school for the poor, for which he had sacri- 
 ficed his money, his time, and his health; mourned over seventeen 
 years spent in unprofitable labor, amidst contempt, poverty, and pri- 
 vation. Shall we wonder that he closes with a kind of funereal 
 
110 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 inscription to himself, which is full of deeji pathos, and almost sub- 
 lime in its unselfishness? 
 
 "Thousands pass away in the corruption of sensual gratification, 
 and they seek no more. 
 
 "Tens of thousands are overwhelmed by the burdens of craft and 
 trade, by the weight of the hammer, the yard-stick, or the crown, 
 and they seek no more. 
 
 "But I know a man who did seek more. The joy of simplicity 
 dwelt in his heart, and he had faith in mankind, such as few men 
 have; his soul was made for friendship; love was his element, and 
 fidelity his strongest tie. But he was not made for the world, and 
 wherever he was placed he was found wanting. The world asked not 
 whether it was his fault or the fault of others; but it bruised him 
 with an iron hammer, as the bricklayers break an old brick to fill up 
 crevices. 
 
 "Though bruised., he still trusted in mankind; and he proposed 
 to himself a great purpose, to attain which, he suffered agonies, and 
 learned lessons such as few mortals have learned. 
 
 " He did not flatter himself that he could be generally useful, but 
 for his purpose he was better fitted than most men are for theirs. 
 He expected justice at the hands of mankind, but he found none. 
 Self-appointed judges confirmed the sentence, that ' he was generally 
 and absolutely useless.' This was the grain of sand which decided 
 the doubtful balance of his wretched destinies. 
 
 " He is no more ; thou wouldest know him no more ; all that re- 
 mains of him are the decayed remnants of his destroyed existence. 
 
 " He fell as a fruit that falls before it is ripe, whose blossom has 
 been nipped by the northern gale, or whose core has been eaten by 
 the gnawing worm. 
 
 "Stranger, who passeth by, refuse not a tear of sympathy. Even 
 in falling the fruit turned toward the tree, on the branches of which 
 it had lingered through the summer, and whispered, ' Verily, even 
 in my death will I nourish thy roots.' 
 
 "Stranger, spare the perishing fruit, and allow the dust of its de- 
 cay to nourish the roots of the tree on which it lived, sickened, and 
 died." 
 
 These are the sentiments of absolute despair. With the expiration 
 of his hopes the writer seems to draw his last breath. Advanced be- 
 yond the meridian of his life, and expecting to die, his only sorrow 
 is that his earthly mission remains unfulfilled. 
 
 Mark the contrast! Eighteen years afterward, when he had risen 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. Ill 
 
 to immortal fame, his feelings and sentiments were of quite a differ- 
 ent character. In his "Appeal to My Fatherland," the last of his 
 political writings, we find this remarkable passage upon the character 
 and mission of Napoleon, whose sun of glory had just sunk beneath 
 the horizon : 
 
 " The nature of sovereign power, as the guardian of individual 
 rights and the protector of the weak and suffering, not only gave 
 Bonaparte a right, but imposed upon him a solemn obligation to in- 
 terfere decidedly with every violation of the primitive and most sa- 
 cred relationships of society ; but his right of interference was en- 
 tirely derived from his position as sovereign, and from the duties 
 which that position involved, and was wholly unconnected with his 
 personal standing. He had no right, therefore, to appropriate the 
 funds — the maladministration of which he was bound to oppose — to 
 his own personal use, or to the purposes of his empire, at the expense 
 of individual interests: he had no right to seize them for covering the 
 wants of the military, finance, and police systems created by him, and 
 for satisfying the claims of his avaricious agents. He ought to have 
 exerted his sovereign power, which was derived from God, for arrest- 
 ing the abuse which those whom the state protects in their possessions, 
 might make of their property, to the injury of any of their fellow- 
 citizens, <>r to the prejudice of the public weal. 
 
 " But, considering Bonaparte's character, his career, and the spirit 
 of the age in which he lived, it must be admitted that it was not 
 easy for him to take so just a view of the matter. A rich man can 
 hardly enter the kingdom of God ; and so, likewise, a man with a 
 character and energy like that of Bonaparte, who rose up in the 
 midst of an enervated generation, and was carried along in his career 
 by all the charms and impulses of universal corruption in its full ma- 
 turity, could hardly regard Ins sovereignty as a sacred office, by which 
 he was bound to exert his power in the service of views and objects 
 entirely foreign to him. He could hardly be expected to make, be- 
 tween church property and other charitable corporate institutions 
 on one hand, and the public revenue on the other, that distinction 
 which can only arise out of a higher view of the social relations. 
 
 "The peculiar difficulty of his position is not sufficiently taken into 
 account ; and when I see certain people whose weak powers are per- 
 severingly engaged in hunting up means for the accomplishment of 
 their own bad purposes, so very forcibly struck by the greater wick- 
 edness of the energetic chase instituted by the late lion, I am some- 
 times tempted to whisper to them : ' He that is without sin among 
 you, let him first cast a stone at him.' 
 
112 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "On the other hand, it is very true that he seemed not made to 
 realize the ideal of a king in the true, divine sense of the word. He 
 was not made to form the center for every thing great, good, and 
 holy that might be found in the state, and among mankind at large. 
 If he had exercised against himself that heroic strength which he ex- 
 hibited in his struggle against the world ; if he had conquered him- 
 self for the sake of his brethren, for the sake of suffering humanity, 
 he might have been the deliverer of our deeply-degraded age, the fos- 
 tering angel of Europe, the crown of its sages, the sovereign of its 
 hearts. 
 
 " But he was nothing of all this. He conquered the world, but 
 was overpowered by his own weakness and a selfishness ill-suited 
 to the elevation to which he was raised. . . . The events of his 
 early career marred in him those germs of pure and holy feelings 
 which exist in the bosom of every great man. All that was truly 
 generous in him was destroyed; yet the consciousness of the powers 
 which he possessed gave him a feeling of superiority, in which con- 
 tempt for those who could get no ascendency over him was combined 
 with impatience of all control. In the moment of decision he felt 
 that he was able to sway the world ; and he became an autocrat, the 
 scourge of the nations, destined to rouse mankind from the slumber 
 of weakness and sloth, to show forth the spirit and the character of 
 that war which our carnal nature ever Avages against morality and 
 sanctified humanity, and to exhibit all the abomination and all the 
 horrors of that conflict. 
 
 "In that war he was successful. Had I not faith in God, I should 
 say he was successful in the work of hell as no mortal and no sinner 
 was before him. I am unable to give a picture of what he made of 
 himself. The idea which stands forever as a landmark between hu- 
 manity and inhumanity, the watchword of all tyrants hardened in 
 the wicked principle of treating mankind as collective masses, the 
 question which Cain dared to ask (bid Almighty, 'Am I my brother's 
 keeper?' was established by Bonaparte as a maxim of government, 
 with infinitely more energy and success than by any ruler before 
 him; and it was long, very long, before that blasphemy caused him 
 to become a fugitive and vagabond in the earth. His warfare against 
 human kind prospered from the north to the south, from the Rhine 
 to the Volga. Carefully evading every discussion of their just claim-, 
 with tiger's strength he vindicated as a right what his predecessors 
 had, like cunning foxes, gained by subterfuge. 
 
 "His career was great, (bid, who directs the affairs of men, made 
 use of him for the purpose of warning this generation, more emphat- 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 113 
 
 ically than ever before, against that stumbling-block which has ob- 
 structed, and ever will obstruct, the welfare of society — the prefer- 
 ence given to the mass in its collective capacity over the rights of 
 individual members. . . . The rapidity with which he enslaved 
 the minds of men, from the lowest rabble up to the heads of church 
 and state, and the long continuance of the bondage in which he kept 
 them, is ever to be considered as a masterpiece of human art in the 
 deepest corruption of which man is capable. 
 
 "This was not the work of his sword. Before that the world fled; 
 but the blood which he shed with it, the waste which he created, the 
 widows and orphans whom he made desolate, won him no hearts. 
 The submission of men's minds to his rule was not the work of his 
 sword, but of his genius, which laid hold of the weaknesses of the 
 age with irresistible power. He spoke to the honor of the age : 
 ' Contaminate thyself for me, and crown thou for me the beggar and 
 the scoundrel ; ' and honor ceased to be honor ; it contaminated itself, 
 and crowned for him beggars and scoundrels. He spoke to the cour- 
 age of the age: 'Be regardless of justice, and bold, like myself, in 
 injustice;' and courage regarded not justice, and was bold in injus- 
 tice. He spoke to the lust of the age : 'Assist thou me, and for my 
 sake outdo thyself;' and lust came to his assistance, and surpassed 
 itself in his service. He spoke to the light of the age : ' Vanish 
 thou from the sight of the nations, and shine only to me, and 
 through me, and for me ; ' and light was changed into darkness for 
 the nations ; and he alone saw, and no one saw but through him and 
 for him. He spoke to the faith of the age : ' Be thou unfaithful for 
 my sake ; ' and faith became unfaithful for his sake. He spoke to 
 the industry of the age : ' In chains shalt thou work for me ; ' and 
 industry worked for him in chains. He spoke to the men of his 
 age : ' If you do this, I will reward you ; ' and they and their rulers 
 shrank from no deed, however abominable, however base, however 
 revolting, for they lusted after his reward. He said again: 'If you 
 do it not, I will take vengeance on you ; ' and the men of his age 
 regarded nothing, however holy — regarded not the feelings of their 
 own bosoms, nor the throbbings of their own hearts, for the fear of 
 his vengeance. He was the soul, he was the breath, he was the 
 spirit and the life of every impulse of violence in his day. He was 
 the center of every lawless feeling, of every unjust deed, from the 
 throne down to the ale-house. He was the soul of all thinkers, and 
 of all politicians, whose philosophy and whose politics went not be- 
 yond the five senses. He was also a terror and a cause of wailing 
 to all who, with similar desires in their hearts, had not the same 
 P. S. 
 
114 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 marrow in their bones, nor the same blood in their veins, whose 
 senses were not supported by an equal strength of nerve. 
 
 "This was his character, this his power, this the secret of his as- 
 cendency, this his pro}), when he rose to the throne, when he taught 
 mankind lessons such as had not been taught for centuries, — the rev- 
 erence which sovereign power ought to have for the primitive claims 
 of individual existence; the necessity of a power raised above the 
 corruption of the mass and the degradation of its tools; the want of 
 a holy king, whom both his character and the law of his kingdom 
 would constitute the free father of all his children, and the guardian 
 of the rights of every individual among them; the contrast be- 
 tween a divine and a carnal spirit in power, in subjection, and in 
 freedom. 
 
 " It was his will that Europe should erect him a temple, under 
 Avhose high arches no sunbeam should penetrate, but on whose altar 
 a flame was to burn bright above all flames that ever were kindled 
 by the hand of man; and in the brightness of that flame should be 
 read the words : 
 
 'This is the light which Bonaparte grants to Europe.'" 
 
 In this same appeal, he gives excellent advice to his countrymen, 
 who, after the downfall of the great arbiter of the destinies of Eu- 
 rope, were discussing the best forms of government for their own 
 country : " Be not deceived, O my country. Thy liberty, thy hap- 
 piness, will not drop down from the clouds. Nations, generally, 
 attain no greater prosperity than that which they deserve ; nor is this, 
 thy sacred hour, given thee for the display of perfection. God grant 
 that thou may est employ it in preparing for a better state. There 
 are no abrupt transitions in nature from the deepest corruption to 
 the highest pitch of perfection ; but they are all gradual. Severe ill- 
 ness is not followed by health, but by convalescence, a careful atten- 
 tion to which can alone lead to the return of perfect health. My 
 country! the present period is for thee only a time of convalescence, 
 and the blessing which it may bring thee will entirely depend on thy 
 turning it to account scrupulously and with holy solicitude. 
 
 "Friends of humanity! fathers of generations to come! let us not 
 deceive ourselves. The real internal blessings of humanity are not 
 the fruits of the external forms of the civil constitution, but of the 
 moral and spiritual condition of the individuals. 
 
 "My country! a charmer is presenting a garden of fruitful trees to 
 thy eyes. Thou ait amazed: hungry and languishing, thou stretch- 
 est out thy hand for one of its fruits, and behold, in an instant, the 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 115 
 
 whole garden disappears from before thine eyes. There is a terrible 
 illusion in constitutional freedom, especially when newly established. 
 A small seed is deposited in the ground, which soon springs up ; but 
 its stem is feeble, and, arrested every winter, its growth is slow, 
 while many dangers beside have to be averted ; thus, much time 
 passes away before it yields fruit in abundance. 
 
 "O my country! old constitutions, when curtailed in root and 
 branch, and transplanted to a new soil, grow no more than old 
 trees when thus treated. Blessed art thou, if thou art able to nurse 
 up new ones from a seed of truth and life, and to bestow upon 
 them that maternal solicitude which they recpiire. Blessed art thou, 
 if thou art not blinded to the most urgent and the most sacred claims 
 of this present period." 
 
 This patriotic appeal shows an important stage in the development 
 of Pestalozzi's ideas of the acquisition of true liberty and independ- 
 ence. He no longer accuses the rulers and lawgivers of being the 
 sole authors of all the social evils ; but traces those evils to their real 
 source, which is chiefly found in the ignorance and depravity of the 
 individuals that compose the nation. Who will deny this truth? 
 There would be no despots, if there were no cringing slaves ; no po- 
 litical deceivers, if all the rest were honest ; no hypocrites, if simple 
 piety always found its reward ; no cpiacks and humbugs, if the num- 
 ber of dupes were not so great. 
 
 What could Pestalozzi do after coming to the conviction that it is 
 folly to expect the salvation of a state by outward forms and organi- 
 zations — what, but implore the nation to give its full attention to 
 the improvement of the individual, in order to raise on this founda- 
 tion the firm structure of political regeneration ? We find that he, 
 through all his temporary doubts and aberrations, became more and 
 more convinced that the true remedy for existing political evils is 
 the education of the masses. 
 
 In the year 1780, directly after giving up his school for the poor 
 at Neuhof, he prepared an article, entitled "Evening Hours of a 
 Hermit," for a journal published at Basel. "It is," says Raumer, 
 " made up of a series of aphorisms, which, nevertheless, are cast in 
 one mold, and stand in the closest connection. Fruits of the past 
 years of his life, they are at the same time seeds of the coming 
 ones — programme and key to his future educational labors." 
 
 The most prominent of these aphorisms are the following: 
 "Why does man investigate truth without order or purpose? Why 
 
116 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 does he not seek what his nature needs, that therewith he may obtain 
 pleasure and blessings? Why does he not secure truth, which will 
 afford him inward peace, develop his faculties, make his days cheerful 
 and his years blessed? 
 
 " Source of the deepest peace of our existence, pure power of our 
 nature, blessing of our being, thou art no dream ! To seek thee, to 
 investigate thee, is the end and destiny of man ! Thou art both a 
 necessity to me and an impulse from the deepest part of my soul ! 
 
 "Nature develops all tlie human faculties by practice, and their growth 
 depends upon their exercise. Men, fathers, force not the faculties of 
 your children into paths too distant before they have attained 
 strength by exercise ; avoid harshness and overfatigue." 
 
 "When the right order of things is inverted, the faculties of the 
 mind are weakened and lose their steadiness. You do this when, be- 
 fore making children sensitive to truth and wisdom by the real knowl- 
 edge of actual objects, you engage them in the thousand-fold confu- 
 sions of word-learning. 
 
 " The artificial mode of the schools, which every-where crowds in 
 this array of words — instead of the easier and slower method of na- 
 ture — endows men with an artificial show of acquirement, which 
 varnishes over their lack of inner natural powers, but at the same 
 time satisfies the people of the present century." 
 
 "Man loses all the balance of his power, the efficacy of his wis- 
 dom, if his mind is too one-sided, or too forcibly applied to any one 
 subject. Nature's mode of teaching is not a forcible one; but steady, 
 consistent, and strictly economical. ...... 
 
 " Tlie circle of knowledge, through which evert/ man in his own place 
 becomes blessed, begins immediately around him, from his own being, and 
 from his closest relations. It extends from this beginning, and at every 
 increase must have reference to truth, that central point of all blessed powers. 
 
 "The man who with rapid course flits over every subject, and does 
 not fortify his acquirements by steady investigation, loses the power 
 of observing cheerfully and steadily — loses the genuine pleasure of 
 sensibility to truth. 
 
 " Man must be trained to inward peace, to contentment with his 
 condition, and with the pleasures attainable in it ; and to patience, 
 reverence, and faith in the love of the Father. 
 
 "Peace and quiet pleasure are the first objects of human educa- 
 tion. Man, thy knowledge and aims must be subordinate to high 
 purposes, or thy curiosity and ambition will become gnawing agonies 
 and curses. 
 
 "Man, thou livest not for thyself alone. Nature educates thee 
 
SOCIAL AXD POLITICAL SUBJECTS. 117 
 
 for intercourse with those about thee. The domestic relations are 
 the first and most important ties of nature. 
 
 " Man labors in his calling and endures the burden of a citizen, 
 that thereby he may enjoy in quiet the pure blessings of his domes- 
 tic happiness. Home, thou art the school of morals! O man! thy 
 family and the best of thy pleasures will not last thee forever. 
 
 "In God, as the Father of thy house, the source of thy blessings, 
 findest thou peace, power, and wisdom, which no pain nor the grave . 
 can destroy. | 
 
 "Faith in God is the fountain of peace; peace produces inward 
 order ; inward order is the source of the unerring application of our 
 powers: and this again causes the growth of those powers and of 
 their training in wisdom ; wisdom is the spring of all human bless- 
 ings. 
 
 "Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and all blessings, and 
 is nature's road to the pure education of man. 
 
 "Faith in God, thou art the portion of the people in every clime; 
 thou art the power of men in every exaltation, and their strength in 
 every adversity; thou art not a sequel and result of educated wisdom; 
 thou art a pure endowment of simplicity — the hearkening ear of 
 innocence to the voice of nature, whose father is God." 
 
 "God the Father! God, an existence within the dwellings of men! 
 God within my own inmost being ! God, the giver of his own 
 gifts, and of the pleasures of my life ! He is the source of this 
 faith." 
 
 " When the flames of misery burn over thy heart and destroy thee, 
 will the dictum of wise men support thee? But when thy Father 
 strengthens thee, makes thy days cheerful, lifts thy being above all 
 sorrows, and develops within thee blessed enjoyments, then does thy 
 faith in God grow strong." 
 
 " If God is the Father, then the day of death is not the fulfillment 
 of existence ! Man, thy inward sense is a sure guide to truth and 
 duty. Dost thou doubt when this sense summons thee to immortal- 
 ity ? " 
 
 "O man, believe in thyself; believe in the inward intelligence of 
 thine own soul; for then shalt thou believe in God and immortality. 
 God is the Father of humanity. God's children are immortal." 
 
 " Sin is the source and consequence of unbelief: all unbelief is ar- 
 rogant. Sin is the source of the perversion of our first fundamental 
 ideas and of our pure natural feelings. Sin destroys faith in God 
 and child-like feelings toward him." 
 
 "Open sin — defiance of God by man." 
 
118 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "I base all freedom upon justice; but I see no certain justice in 
 this world, except that inspired by simplicity, piety, and love. All 
 family administration of justice — which is the greatest, purest, and 
 most generally enjoyed — has no source except love." 
 
 "As all justice rests upon love, so all freedom rests upon justice. 
 The source of justice and of all worldly blessings, the source of the 
 love and brotherhood of men, is the great idea of religion — that we 
 are all the children of God." 
 
 " Forgetfulness of God, neglect of the filial relation of humanity, 
 is the source of the destruction of all morality and wisdom. There- 
 fore, the loss of a filial feeling toward God is the greatest misfortune, 
 since it renders all God's paternal instruction impossible. The resto- 
 ration of this lost filial feeling is the salvation of the lost children of 
 God on earth." 
 
 "The Man of God who, through sorrow and death, reestablished 
 this universally-lost filial feeling toward God is the Savior of the 
 world — the Mediator between God and god-forgetting humanity. 
 His teachings are pure justice ; an instructive philosophy for all peo- 
 ple ; the revelation of God the Father to his lost children." 
 
 This essay, omitted by Schmid in the publication of Pestalozzi's 
 works, is the more interesting, as it shows that he had at that early 
 period formed clear ideas of the natural processes of education ; and 
 that he considered education, not merely in its reference to mental 
 training, but in its widest sense — in its relation to domestic life, to 
 moral and religious growth. But, judging that most people would not 
 be gained by mere aphorisms of truth, he wisely determined to de- 
 tail his ideas further in the shape of an educational novel, which 
 would place a faithful mirror before the eyes of the people, expose 
 their foibles, vices, and disorders, and at the same time supply the 
 remedy in the form of good examples. 
 
 This was accomplished in 1781, by the publication of "Leonard 
 and Gertrude " 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 "LEONARD AND GERTRUDE." 
 
 THE simple style in which it is written, the truthful and animated 
 pictures of common life which it contains, and the absence from 
 its pages of abstruse reasonings and exhibitions of party spirit, procured 
 for this work a great popularity. It is also characterized by its sin- 
 cere and earnest pleading for all that ennobles man, restores peace to 
 the soul, puts an end to the conflict between the innate aspirations for 
 truth and the tendency to ignoble passions, and establishes confidence 
 between rulers and subjects by a due appreciation of their respective 
 rights and duties. Well might Pestalozzi exclaim, in the preface to 
 the first edition: "I take no part in the disputes of men about 
 opinions ; but I consider that every thing which tends to make men 
 good, true, and faithful, which cherishes love toward God and our 
 neighbors, and brings blessing and peace into our dwellings, should 
 be implanted in the hearts of all." In the preface to the second 
 edition, he says: "Whoever wishes to do his duty to God and to 
 posterity, to public right and public order, and to the security of fam- 
 ily happiness, must, in one way or another, accord with the spirit of 
 my book, and seek the same object. This is my comfort: when these 
 truths germinate, for germinate they must, they will bear fruit." 
 
 The materials for "Leonard and Gertrude" were gathered during 
 long years of suffering and disappointment ; and the Avork itself was 
 the result of an intense love, which made the cause of the poor and 
 friendless its own. He had already failed in a practical attempt to 
 relieve the unfortunate, but he had obtained a deeper insight into 
 the causes which pei-petuated the evils of society. With a bleeding 
 heart, he had seen that poverty, unless counterbalanced by a healthy 
 culture of the mind and soul, was generally accompanied by moral 
 and physical wretchedness ; by intemperance, ignorance, and supersti- 
 tion. He was also able to trace part of the sufferings of the poor to 
 the selfishness and hardness of the rich, many of whom derived a 
 shameful profit from the improvidence of their unfortunate brethren. 
 
 (119) 
 
120 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 He had also, occasionally, seen in the cottages of the poor, cheerful- 
 ness, peace, and comfort; and this spirit he had, with great certainty, 
 always traced to the influence of a sound home education, conducted 
 by an intelligent mother. 
 
 The characters of this tale, far from engaging in brilliant or daz- 
 zling actions, are great in their very simplicity and truth to nature. 
 The principal ones are : Gertrude, a pattern of a good and in- 
 telligent wife and mother — an educator who tries to fulfill the 
 duties of her office to their fullest extent, without troubling her head 
 with plans of emancipation; Leonard, her husband, who, however, 
 plays only a secondary part ; Arner, the lord of the manor, who tries 
 to effect a thorough reform in the administration of the parish en- 
 trusted to his care; Ernst, a worthy clergyman, who assists Arner, 
 and works on the hearts and convictions, and not on the fears and 
 prejudices, of his parishioners; Glulphy, the school-master, in whose 
 teaching and discipline Pestalozzi embodies some of the favorite ideas 
 of education which he afterward matured ; Hummel, the bailiff, 
 chief magistrate, and judge of the village — the personification of 
 wickedness, avarice, and pride — a man with a heart hardened through 
 many years of mismanagement and crime ; and Rudi, one of the 
 victims of the bailiff, whose story forms some of the most affecting 
 chapters of the book. 
 
 To exhibit the intention of the author and the spirit which ani- 
 mated him in his work, we make the following selections : 
 
 A KIND-HEARTED MAN, WHO, NEVERTHELESS, MAKES HIS WIFE 
 AND CHILDREN VERY UNHAPPY. 
 
 There lived in Bonnal a mason. He was called Leonard, and his 
 wife, Gertrude. He had seven children, and some property; but he 
 had this fault — that he often let himself be tempted to the tavern. 
 When he was once seated there he behaved like a madman, and was 
 often led from drinking to gaming, and thus deprived of the produce 
 of his labor. Whenever this had happened at night, Leonard re- 
 pented in the morning; for, when he saw his wife and children want- 
 ing bread, it went so to his heart that he trembled and cast down his 
 eyes to conceal his tears. 
 
 Gertrude was the best wife in the village ; but she and her bloom- 
 ing children were in danger of being robbed of their father and 
 driven from their home, and of sinking into the greatest misery, 
 because Leonard would not let wine alone. 
 
 Gertrude saw the approaching danger, and felt it most keenly. 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 12 L 
 
 When she fetched grass from the meadow, when she took hay from 
 the loft, when she set away the milk in her clean pans, whatever she 
 was doing, she was tormented by the thought that her meadow, her 
 haystack, and her little hut, might soon be taken away from her. 
 When her children were standing around her, or sitting in her lap, 
 her anguish was still greater, and the tears streamed down her 
 cheeks. 
 
 Hitherto, however, she had been able to conceal this silent weeping 
 from her children ; but, on Wednesday before Easter, when she had 
 waited long, and her husband did not come home, her grief overcame 
 her, and the children saw her tears. "O mother!" exclaimed they, 
 " you are weeping," and they pressed closer to her. Sorrow and 
 anxiety were on every countenance. With deep sobs, heavy downcast 
 looks, and silent tears the children surrounded the mother, and even 
 the baby in her arms betrayed a feeling of pain hitherto unknown, — all 
 this quite broke her heart. Her anguish burst out in a loud cry, and 
 all the children wept with her, and there was a sound of lamentation 
 as Leonard opened the door. 
 
 Gertrude, who lay with her face on the bed, heard not the opening 
 of the door, nor the entrance of the father ; neither did the children 
 perceive him, for they saw only their weeping mother. Thus did 
 Leonard find them. 
 
 God in Heaven sees the tears of the wretched, and puts a limit to 
 their grief. The mercy of God brought Leonard to witness this 
 scene, which pierced his soul. The paleness of death was on his 
 countenance, and he could scarcely articulate, "Lord Jesus, what is 
 this!" Then the mother saw him for the first time, the children 
 looked up, and their loud expressions of grief were hushed. 
 
 "Tell me, Gertrude," said he, "what is this dreadful trouble in 
 which I find thee ? " 
 
 "Oh! my dear," answered she, "heavy cares press upon ray heart, 
 and when thou art away, sorrow preys more keenly upon me." 
 
 "Gertrude," said Leonard, "I know why thou weepest, wretch that 
 I am ! " 
 
 Then Gertrude sent away the children, collected all her strength, 
 and took courage to urge him not to bring any further trouble and 
 misery upon his children. She was pious, and trusted in God ; and 
 before she spoke, she prayed silently for her husband and children ; 
 her heart was comforted, and she said: "Leonard, trust in the 
 mercy of God, and take courage to do nothing but what is right." 
 
 "O Gertrude! Gertrude!" exclaimed Leonard, and his tears fell 
 in torrents. 
 
ffPff 
 
 A Kind-hearted Mail. 
 
 (122) 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 123 
 
 " Oh, take courage, and trust in thy Father in Heaven, and all will 
 be better with thee. It goes to my heart to make thee weep. I would 
 gladly keep every trouble from thee. Thou knowest that, by thy side, 
 I could be content with bread and water, and the still midnight is 
 often to me an hour of cheerful labor for thee and the children. But, 
 if I concealed from thee my anxiety lest I be separated from thee and 
 these little ones, I should be no mother to them, nor true to thee. 
 Our children are yet full of gratitude and love toward us ; but if we 
 do not continue to act as parents, their love and tenderness must 
 needs decrease ; and only think what thou wouldst feel if Nicolas had 
 no longer a home, and must go out to service ; if he and all these 
 dear children should become poor through our fault — should cease to 
 thank us, and begin to weep for us, their parents. Leonard, couldst 
 thou bear to see thy children driven out of doors to seek their bread 
 at another's table? Oh! it would kill me." 80 spoke Gertrude, and 
 the tears fell down her cheeks. 
 
 Leonard, not less affected, cried : " What shall I do, miserable 
 creature that I am? What can I do? I am more wretched than 
 thou knowest. O Gertrude ! Gertrude ! " He was again silent, and 
 wrung his hands. 
 
 " O my dear husband, do not distrust God's mercy ! Whatever 
 it be, speak, that we may consult together and comfort each other." 
 
 Till- EVENING BEFORE A SABBATH IN THE HOUSE OF A GOOD 
 
 MOTHER. 
 
 Gertrude was alone with her children. The events of the week and 
 thoughts of the approaching festiyal filled her heart. In thoughtful 
 silence she prepared the supper, took from the closet the Sunday 
 clothes for the family, and laid them out ready for the morrow. 
 When she had completed her work she assembled her children around 
 the table to pray with them. It was her custom on Saturdays, at the 
 hour of evening prayer, to remind them of their faults and of such 
 • occurrences as were peculiarly calculated to interest and please them. 
 This day she remembered, especially, the loving-kindness of God 
 toward her during the past week ; and she wished, as far as possible, 
 to impress deeply on the minds of the children the tokens which 
 they had received of the goodness and mercy of God. 
 
 The children sat round her in silence, with their little hands folded 
 for prayer, and the mother began thus : 
 
 "Children, I have good news to tell you. Your dear father has 
 had very excellent work given to him this week, by which he will 
 
124 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 earn much more than he could before; and we may hope, my chil- 
 dren, to eat our bread with less care and sorrow in future. Give 
 thanks, therefore, unto God, our loving Father in Heaven, for his 
 goodness toward us. Remember often the old times when I was 
 obliged, with care and anxiety, to portion out to you every mouth- 
 ful of bread. Oh, it grieved my heart that many a time I 
 could not give you enough. But our heavenly Father knew that 
 it would be better for you, my dears, to be accustomed to poverty 
 and patience, and learn to conquer your own desires, than to live in 
 plenty. Oh, my children, remember, as long as you live, our days 
 of poverty and the distress and sorrow we have endured, and if our 
 condition is improved, henceforth be mindful of those who surfer 
 even as you have. Will you do so ? " 
 
 " Oh, yes, dear mother, we will," replied the children. 
 
 " Well, then, Nicolas, whom dost thou know that is suffering most 
 from hunger? " 
 
 " It is little Iludi," said Nicolas. " He is almost starving. He eats 
 grass from the ground." 
 
 " Wouldst thou like to give him thy supper now and then?" 
 
 "Oh, yes, mother. May I to-morrow?" 
 
 " Certainly, thou mavest," said the mother. Then turning to 
 Betti, she asked: "And thou — to whom wouldst thou give thy supper?" 
 
 Betti named some poor child, and so did the other children as each 
 was asked in turn, all being delighted in anticipation of the pleasure 
 they would bestow. After some moments the mother remarked : 
 "That is enough, my children. Now see what beautiful presents 
 his lordship Arner has made you." 
 
 " Oh! the bright pennies! Will you show them to us?" cried the 
 children. 
 
 "Yes, after prayers," said Gertrude; and the children shouted with 
 
 joy- 
 
 "You are noisy, my children," chided the mother. "If something 
 good comes to you, always think of God, the giver. I rejoice with 
 you ; but, when people are loud and violent in their joy or sorrow, 
 peace and evenness of temper are lost. You see, children, when 
 you thank your father for something, you do not make much noise; 
 you fall upon his neck silently, and when you really feel it in your 
 lien its, the tears come to your eyes. So it should be toward God. 
 If you feel very much joy on account of the good He does you, and 
 at the same time it touches your heart, I am sure you will not say 
 many words or make much noise, but the tears will come to your 
 eyes in thinking how good your heavenly Father is." 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 125 
 
 Gertrude, after giving more advice to her children, changed the 
 subject of conversation by asking: "But, my dears, how has your 
 conduct been this week ? " The children looked at each other, but 
 said nothing. 
 
 "Anne, hast thou been a good girl this week?" asked Gertrude. 
 
 " No, mother ; thou knowest what I did with my little brother," re- 
 plied Anne. 
 
 "Oh, yes, Anne. The poor child might have been very much in- 
 jured. Babes left in that way have sometimes died. Besides, only 
 think, if thou wast shut up by thyself in a room, and left to cry and 
 to suffer thirst and hunger. Really, Anne, I should not be able to 
 leave this house for a moment if I were not so sure that thou wouldst 
 take care of the baby." 
 
 "Trust me, dear mother; I will not leave him again for a single 
 moment," pleaded Anne. 
 
 " Well, I hope thou wilt not give me another such fright. Nic- 
 olas, how has it been with thee this week ? " 
 
 "I know of nothing wrong," he quickly answered. 
 
 "Hast thou forgotten that thou didst throw down Kate last Mon- 
 day," said the mother. 
 
 " I did not do it on purpose, mother." 
 
 "To be sure thou didst not. To do such a thing on purpose would 
 be wicked, indeed. Art thou not ashamed to make such an excuse?" 
 
 "I am sorry for it. I will be more careful," said Nicolas. 
 
 " Be sure not to forget it, my dear. Believe me, thy carelessness 
 will certainly make thee unhappy. Well, Betti, how hast thou be- 
 haved this week ? " 
 
 "I am sure I can not think of any thing wrong, mother," replied 
 she. 
 
 "Art thou quite sure, Betti ? " 
 
 " I am, indeed, mother, as nearly as I can recollect. I should not 
 mind telling it if I knew." 
 
 "It is very odd that even when thou hast nothing to tell, thou 
 answerest with as many words as another who has a great deal to 
 say." 
 
 "Well, what have I said then?" asked Betti. 
 
 " Thou hast said nothing, I know, but thou hast given a long answer. 
 We have told thee a thousand times that thou art too forward. Thou 
 never thinkest what thou shouldst say, and yet thou art always talk- 
 ing." Gertrude here brought to Betti's recollection a piece of for- 
 wardness — giving an envious neighbor some information which 
 brought her father into trouble. 
 
126 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "I am very sorry for it," replied Betti ; "but neither thou nor 
 father bad said a word about not wishing me to tell of it." 
 
 "Then it will be necessary that to whatever we say in this room 
 Ave must always add: Now, this is a thing which Betti may gossip 
 about at the neighbors' door, and at the fountain ; but not this, and 
 this," replied Gertrude. 
 
 "I do beg thy pardon, mother; I did not mean it so." 
 
 " Thou hast been told once for all, that thou art not to talk of any 
 thing which is no business of thine ; but it is all in vain. There is 
 no setting thee out of that habit, except by severe means ; and the 
 very first time I overtake thee in idle gossip, I shall make use of the 
 rod." 
 
 The tears burst from poor Betti's eyes when her mother mentioned 
 the rod. Gertrude saw it, and said: "The greatest mischief, Betti, 
 often arises out of idle gossip, and thou must be cured of that fault." 
 
 Thus the mother discoursed with them all. Afterward, Nicolas re- 
 peated the Saturday evening prayer which Gertrude had taught him: 
 "Dear Father in Heaven, thou art always kind to men on earth. 
 From thee all things come that our dear lather and mother give us. 
 Dear Father, we that are sitting here and praying 
 together, are brothers and sisters ; therefore, we will be kind to each 
 other, and do to each other no harm, but all the good we can. We 
 elder ones will take care of the younger ones with all faithfulness 
 and diligence, that our dear father and mother may go comfortably 
 about their work for our bread. Alas! this is all we can do for 
 them, for all the trouble and expense they have for our sakes. Re- 
 ward them, Father in Heaven, for all they do for us, and make us 
 obedient unto their commands, that we may remain dear unto them 
 to the end of their lives." 
 
 Here Nicolas was to stop, and they prayed according to what 
 had happened through the week, as follows: "We thank thee, O 
 heavenly Father, that thou hast lightened the heavy burden of our 
 parents, and the care for the bread for themselves and their chil- 
 dren, and hast blessed our dear father with good and profitable em- 
 ployment. We thank thee that our lord Arner with paternal affec- 
 tion protects, comforts, and assists us in all our misery and distress. 
 We thank thee for all the blessings which thou hast betowed on us 
 through him." 
 
 Then the mother taught Betti to pray in this manner: "Forgive 
 me, O my God, my besetting sin, and teach me to bridle my tongue; 
 to be silent when I ought not to speak, and to answer considerately 
 and directly when I am asked." 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE: 127 
 
 And Nicolas thus: "Preserve me, Father, from all hastiness, 
 and teach me to he on my guard, and to see what I do, and who is 
 ahout me." 
 
 And Anne: "I am sorry, pood God, for leaving my dear little 
 brother so thoughtlessly, and so frightening my dear, good mother. 
 I will not do it again in all my life. Forgive me, I pray thee, OGod." 
 
 The mother then said: "The Lord he with you; the Lord bless 
 you; the Lord let the light of his countenance shine upon you and 
 be merciful unto you." 
 
 After this, mother and children sat yet a little while in that solemn 
 silence which a true prayer always imposes. 
 
 Betti interrupted this silence: "Wilt thou show us the new pen- 
 nies?" said she to her mother. 
 
 " I will," replied the mother; "hut thou art always the first to 
 speak, Betti." 
 
 Nicolas now jumped from his seat, and pushed forward that he 
 might be nearer the candle and see the new pennies better, and in 
 doing so hurt the baby, so that he began to cry. 
 
 Then said the mother: "Nicolas, this is very had. Thou didst 
 promise, not more than a quarter of an hour ago, that thou wouldst 
 be more careful, and now see what thou hast done." 
 
 "O mother," said Nicolas, "I am very sorry for it. It shall not 
 happen any more." 
 
 "That is what thou didst just now promise to God Almighty, and 
 yet thou hast been careless again," said the mother. "Thou shalt go 
 to bed without thy supper." 
 
 Thus saying, she led him away into the chamber. His brothers 
 and sisters all stood about grieved, for they were sorry that poor Nic- 
 ola- should go to bed without his supper. " What a pity it is that 
 you will not be governed by kindness," said the mother, when she 
 came back. 
 
 "Let him come out again for once," begged the children. 
 
 " Xo, my dears; he must be cured of his thoughtless habits," was 
 the mother's reply. 
 
 "Well, then, we will not see the pennies till to-morrow, that he 
 may see them with us," said Anne. 
 
 "Well spoken, Anne," answered the mother; "he shall see them 
 with you." 
 
 After this she gave the children their supper, and then led them to 
 the chamber where Nicolas was still crying. 
 
 " Be very careful another time, my dear Nicolas," said the mother 
 to him. 
 
128 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Nicolas answered: "Pray forgive, dear, dear mother! do forgive 
 and kiss me ! " 
 
 Gertrude kissed him, and a burning tear flowed down her cheek, 
 when she said to him : "O Nicolas, try to become more careful." 
 
 Nicolas threw both his arms round her neck, and said: " O mother, 
 forgive me." 
 
 Gertrude once more blessed her children, and then returned to her 
 room, which was lighted by a small lamp. 
 
 She was now quite alone, and her heart was still in silent prayer, 
 which inexpressibly moved her soul. The feeling of God's goodness, 
 the hope of life everlasting, the sense of that internal joy and peace 
 which dwells in those who trust in their Heavenly Father, — all 
 stirred her soul, and she fell on her knees, and a flood of tears flowed 
 over her cheeks. 
 
 [The moral to be drawn from this lesson is contained in the follow- 
 ing directions to parents in regard to their children : 
 
 First. — Observe the nature and propensities of your children, in 
 order to be able to educate them according to their individual wants 
 and talents. 
 
 Second. — Speak to them in a simple, intelligent manner, that your 
 words and sentiments may be fully understood. A prayer from the 
 heart, applied to circumstances, is better than a formal one mechan- 
 ically repeated. 
 
 Third. — Do not content yourselves with preaching of love and 
 charity ; but try to make the children loving and charitable. Lead 
 them to experience the pleasure of self-sacrifice, that they may better 
 understand this crowning excellence of the human character. 
 
 Fourth. — Act as the mediator between your children and God; for 
 they can not appreciate his goodness and greatness. In order to be 
 able to do this, become yourselves examples of love, truthfulness, and 
 justice. 
 
 Fifth.— Be firm, and, at the same time, kind. Real love never 
 overlooks faults: it corrects them. The ultimate gratitude of chil- 
 dren is of more value than their temporary gratification.] 
 
 THE DEATH-BED OF THE (iRANDMOTHER. 
 
 Rudi was at home with his four children. His wife had died three 
 months before, and Ins mother, who now lay dying on a miserable bed, 
 
LEON, MID AND GERTEUDE. 129 
 
 said to him': "Dear Rudi, bring me some dried leaves to till the 
 coverlet: I feel so cold." 
 
 "I will, mother," said Rudi, "as soon as the fire in the stove is 
 out." 
 
 "Is there any wood left, Rudi? I fear there is not. You can 
 not well go into the woods and leave me and the children. Oh ! my 
 son, I am a burden to thee." 
 
 " Do not speak thus. Thou art no burden to me," said Rudi. " Oh 
 that I could give thee what thou needest ! Thou sufferest from thirst 
 and hunger, and dost not complain : this pierces my heart, mother." 
 
 "Be easy about me, Rudi. The Lord be praised, my pain is not 
 great. God will help me soon, and my blessing will be upon thee, 
 and reward thee for thy love." 
 
 " Never before was I so grieved at my poverty as now, when 1 can 
 not help thee. O God ! in thy sick and suffering state there is 
 nothing to relieve thy wants," said Rudi sadly. 
 
 "When the end approaches we want but little, and what we want is 
 given by our Father in Heaven," said the mother. "I thank Him, 
 my son. He gives me strength in my dying hour." 
 
 "Dost thou really think, mother, that thou wilt not get well?" 
 
 "Yes, Rudi ; I am sure of it." 
 
 "O God!" 
 
 " Be consoled, my son : I enter into a better life. Be comforted : 
 thou wert the joy of my younger years, and now thou art the conso- 
 lation of my age. Even now I thank God that thy hands will soon 
 close my eyes. Then I shall come to God and pray for thee, and 
 thou wilt prosper. Remember, all the sufferings of this life, when 
 they are over, are but a blessing to us. When the fruit of life 
 ripens in autumn, and the tree casts off its leaves for the sleep of 
 winter, then the sorrows of life are sacred, and the joys appear like 
 a dream. Remember my words, thou wilt prosper in spite of thy 
 sufferings. But there is one thing I must tell thee," said the dying 
 woman. 
 
 "What is it, mother?" 
 
 "I saw yesterday how Rudeli hid himself behind my bed; and 
 ate baked potatoes. He also gave his brothers and sisters, and they 
 ate in a stealthy manner. O my son, these potatoes were not ours, or 
 the boy would have thrown them on the table, and loudly called his 
 companions to share them. Alas! he would have brought one to his 
 grandmother, as he has often done before. I was always touched when 
 he brought me something in his hand, and said, in his pretty way, 
 ' Eat, grandma.' O my son, only think, if this darling boy should 
 P. 9. 
 
130 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 become a thief. How this thought lms tormented me since yester- 
 day! Where is he? Bring him here, that I may speak to him." 
 
 The father sighed, went in search of the boy, and led him to the 
 bed of his grandmother. The dying woman raised herself up, laid 
 her hand upon the boy, and bent her weary head upon his. 
 
 The little one cried: "Grandma, what is the matter? Thou wilt 
 not die! Oh, do not die, grandma!" 
 
 She answered, in a broken voice: " Kndeli, 1 certainly shall die 
 soon." For want of breath she could not proceed, and was obliged to 
 lie down. Father and son were melted in tears. Soon the sufferer 
 recovered a little, and said : "I am better now, when I lie down." 
 
 "Thou wilt not die now, grandma! Do not die!" pleaded the 
 little boy. 
 
 "Do not grieve about it, Rndeli ; I like to die, for I shall go to a 
 kind Father. If thou eouldst know how I long for it, thou wouldst 
 not weep for me." 
 
 " I will die with thee, grandma," said Rudeli. 
 
 The grandmother, smiling feebly, replied : " No, my love ; thou wilt 
 not die with me. Thou wilt, if it pleases God, live long and become 
 a good and honest man, and a help to thy father when he shall be 
 old and feeble. Wilt thou promise me to be obedient to him, and to 
 behave well ? " 
 
 "Oh, yes, grandma; I will do so certainly." 
 
 "O child, our Father in Heaven, to whom 1 shall soon go, sees 
 and hears all we do and promise. Dost thou know this, and believe 
 it, Rudeli?" 
 
 " Yes, grandma ; I know this, and believe it," answered the little 
 boy. 
 
 " Why, then, didst thou yesterday eat potatoes that were not ours?" 
 asked the grandmother. 
 
 "Pardon me, grandma," entreated Rudeli; "I shall never do so 
 any more." 
 
 " Were they stolen?" 
 
 " Ye -es, grandma," faltered the boy. 
 
 " From whom were they stolen?" 
 
 " From —the — mason, Leonard," stammered Rudeli. 
 
 "Thou must go to him and ask his forgiveness," said the grand- 
 mother. 
 
 "O grandma, for God's sake! I have not the courage to do this." 
 
 "Thou must go without fail, child. Thou wilt think more of what 
 is right in future. But, I beg, do not steal any more, even if thou 
 shouldst feel hungi'v." 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 131 
 
 "I will not steal any more, grandmother, even if hunger should 
 kill me," answered the boy. 
 
 " AVell, then, may God, in whom I trust, bless thee and preserve 
 thee, my dear ! " She pressed him to her heart, and then weeping 
 said: "Thou must now go to the mason and ask his pardon. Rudi, 
 go with him, and tell Leonard that I am sorry not to be able to re- 
 turn the potatoes, and that I invoke for him and his family the bless- 
 ing of God. I am grieved to think of them, too ; they also lack the 
 necessaries of life, and if Gertrude did not exert herself day and 
 night, they could hardly support their large family. Thou, Rudi, I 
 am sure, wilt work for them till the wrong they have suffered is 
 made up." 
 
 "With all my heart, mother," said Rudi. At tins moment the 
 bailiff Hummel knocked on the window. The sick woman recognized 
 him by his cough, and said, "Oh, woe to us, Rudi ! It is the bailiff! 
 I am sure the bread and butter you procured for my soup is not yet 
 paid for." 
 
 " I pray you, mother, do not trouble about it," said Rudi. "It is 
 of no consequence; I shall work for him and help him reap his corn 
 at harvest time." 
 
 "Alas! he will not wait till then," said the mother. Rudi left the 
 room to see what the bailiff wanted. The mother, left alone, said to 
 herself: "God forgive the poor misled man. Since our unfortunate 
 lawsuit, I have always felt as if pierced by a dagger on seeing him ; 
 and now, alas! must he come in my dying hours to the window? 
 But it is God's will that I forgive him, that I conquer my feelings 
 and pray for his soul. I will do so. O God, thou didst watch our 
 lawsuit ; Father in Heaven, forgive him." 
 
 She heard the bailiff talk in a loud voice, and said tremblingly: 
 " lie is angry. Poor Rudi! for my sake, thou tallest again into his 
 power." She heard his voice once more, and fainted. Rudeli ran 
 out of the room, crying, "Father, do come in: I believe grand- 
 mother is dead." 
 
 Rudi, in great fright, said: "Excuse me, bailiff, I must go back to 
 the room." The bailiff shouted after him, "Oh, what a misfortune 
 if the old witch should die at last ! " 
 
 Rudi, hastening back to his mother, did not hear these shocking 
 words. She had recovered from her fit, and, opening her eyes, said: 
 "He was angry, Rudi, was he not? He would not wait for the 
 payment?" 
 
 "No, mother," replied Rudi, "he brought a very good message. 
 But hast thou entirely recovered?" 
 
132 PESTALOZZL 
 
 " I have," says the mother, fixing her eyes on him in deep anxiety. 
 "But what good can this man bring? Dost thou mean to deceive 
 me in order to sutler alone? I know he lias threatened thee." 
 
 "No, mother, not at all," said Kudi. "He has announced that I 
 have work at the church which is going to be built, at half a dollar 
 per day." 
 
 " God be praised!" said the mother. "Is it really true?" 
 
 "There is no doubt of it," answered Rudi ; "and the work will 
 last more than a year." 
 
 "Now I can die in peace," said the mother. "Thou art good, O 
 God. Be thou a good Father to this family until the end of their 
 days. O Rudi, believe what the proverb says: 'The more threaten- 
 ing the rod, the nearer is God.'" 
 
 She was silent for awhile, and then continued: "I believe my end 
 is near. My breath becomes shorter. The Lord's will be done. I 
 will now take leave." 
 
 Rudi took off his cap with a trembling hand, fell on his knees at 
 the side of his mother's bed, folded his hands, raised his eyes toward 
 heaven, and sobbed in the agony of his emotion. 
 
 "Cheer up," said the mother. "I trust in life eternal, where we 
 shall meet again. Death is a moment which passes soon, and I fear 
 it not, I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at 
 the latter day upon earth ; and though worms destroy this body, yet 
 in mv flesh shall I see God. I shall see him for myself; mine eyes 
 shall behold him, and not another's." 
 
 Rudi so far recovered as to say: "Then give me your blessing, O 
 my mother, (rod grant that I may follow thee soon to a better life." 
 
 Then said the mother: "Father in heaven, hear me, and give thy 
 blessing to my child, the only one thou hast given me. Rudi, my 
 (Joel and Redeemer will be with thee, and as he blessed Isaac and 
 Jacob for their father's sake, so may he grant thee abundance of good 
 for my sake, that thy heart may again rejoice, and exult, and praise . 
 his name. Hear me now, Rudi, and do what I tell thee. Teach thy 
 children order and obedience, that they may not become disorderly 
 and dissipated in their poverty. Teach them to trust in God in 
 heaven, and to remain united as brothers and sisters through troub- 
 les and joys; then they will be happy. Forgive also the bailiff, and, 
 when I am dead and buried, go to him and tell him that I have died 
 with a reconciled heart, and that if God will listen to my prayers, 
 he will, for his own good, come to a knowledge of himself before his 
 death." . 
 
 After awhile she continued: "Rudi, give me my two Bibles, my. 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 133 
 
 prayer-book, and the document which is in that box." Rudi arose 
 from his knees and brought the desired objects to his mother. "Now, 
 bring me all the children," said she. 
 
 He called them from the table, round which they sat crying, and 
 they, too, knelt at the bed of their grandmother, who addressed them 
 thus: "Po not weep, O my beloved ones! Your Father in heaven 
 will protect and bless you. You are dear to me, my children, and 
 I am grieved to leave you so poor and without a mother to care for 
 you. But trust in God, and hope in him always, and you will find 
 in him more than a father's help and a mother's care. Remember 
 me, my beloved ones: I leave you nothing but my love, and I take 
 your love with me. My Bibles and my prayer-book are almost all I 
 have, but they have given me peace and consolation a thousand 
 times, during my hard pilgrimage. Let God's word be your conso- 
 lation and joy. O my dear children, may you help and advise each 
 other, and be sincere, kind, and obliging toward all men, for then 
 will your lives be happy. Rudi, keep for Bessie the larger, and for 
 Rudeli the smaller Bible, and for the two little ones the prayer-book 
 in memory of me. Alas ! I have nothing for thee, Rudi ; but thou 
 wilt not need any thing to remind thee of me." 
 
 Once more she was obliged to stop from faintness ; her breath be- 
 came shorter; but, making another effort, she said to Rudeli: "Give 
 me thy hand, my dear, and never steal any thing again." 
 
 "No, no, grandmother, believe me," repeated the little boy, with 
 a flow of tears. 
 
 "Well, I do believe thee, and pray God for thee," said the grand- 
 mother. "Look here: this paper I give to thy father; it is a testi- 
 monial from the clergyman in whose house I have served. When 
 thou art older, read it and think of me, and be pious and honest." 
 It was a testimonial from the late clergyman of Eichstadt, to the 
 effect that Catherine had served in his house for ten years, and had 
 helped him train his children after the death of his Avife, and had 
 done it in a most trustworthy manner, and that he could never forget 
 what she had done for himself and his family in his need. Cather- 
 ine had indeed earned a considerable sum in the service of this cler- 
 gyman, and had given it to her husband for the purchase of land, 
 which the bailiff afterwards had claimed and obtained through per- 
 jury and fraud. 
 
 After a few directions in regard to the children's clothing, and to 
 the care necessary for their health, she again said: "I am very sorry 
 to leave thee so forsaken ; but take courage and do what thou canst. 
 The wages which thou, Rudi, wilt earn in thy new engagement, will 
 
134 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 help thee considerably. How I thank God for this blessing!" She 
 then paused, and father and children remained on their knees for 
 some time longer, and said all the prayers they knew. They then 
 arose, and Rudi said to his mother: "I will get thee dried leaves for 
 thy coverlet." She answered: "There is no need for it now, since 
 the room feel- warmer. Thou hadst better go to the mason with the 
 little boy." 
 
 Rudi whispered to Bessie to take care of grandmother, and if any 
 thing should happen, to send Annette to the mason's house, where 
 she would find him. Rudi then took his trembling boy by the hand, 
 and went with him to the mason's. Gertrude, who was at home 
 alone, saw immediately that both had tears in their eyes. " What 
 do you want, neighbor? Why do you weep? Why does this little 
 one weep ? " questioned she, taking Rudeli by the hand. 
 
 " Gertrude, I am wretched," said Rudi. " I must see thee, be- 
 cause Rudeli has taken potatoes from thy cellar. Grandmother saw 
 him eat them yesterday, and he has confessed it. Pardon me, Ger- 
 trude, my mother is dying. O God, she has taken leave of us. I 
 am so troubled that I hardly know what I say. I am sorry not to 
 be able to give them back now, but I will work willingly for thee. 
 Pardon him ; the boy did it when tormented with hunger." 
 
 "Do not speak of this, Rudi," said Gertrude; "and thou, dear 
 boy, must promise me never again to take any thing of any body." 
 She then kissed him and said: "Thou hast a good grandmother; 
 try to be as good and pious as she." 
 
 "Forgive me, lady, I will not steal any more, I assure thee," said 
 Rudeli. 
 
 "No, child, do not steal any more. Thou dost not yet know how 
 miserable and wretched thieves become. If thou art hungry, come 
 to me and tell me so, and when I can, I will give thee what thou 
 needest." 
 
 Then said Rudi: "I thank God that I can now earn something 
 through the building of the church, and hope that hunger will no 
 longer lead him astray." 
 
 " We were glad to see that Arner did think of thee in this build- 
 ing," replied Gertrude. " I am so glad that thy mother could live 
 long enough to hear this consoling news." 
 
 " Oh, tell thy husband that I will work honestly for him from 
 morning till evening, and I insist on having the price of the potatoes 
 deducted from my wages." 
 
 "Not a word about that, Rudi," replied Gertrude. "My husband 
 knows his duty better. We also have been much relieved by the 
 
LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 135 
 
 contract for the church. But, Rudi, I will go with thee to thy 
 mother, if she is so near death." 
 
 Gertrude filled Rudeli's pocket with dried fruit, and then they all 
 went to Rudi's house. She saluted the dying woman, and, weeping, 
 took her hand. 
 
 "Thou art weeping," said Catherine. " We ought to do so. Hast 
 thou quite forgiven us?" 
 
 "Forgiven thee what? Catherine, thy misery affects me, and 
 more still thy goodness and care. God will certainly hless thee for 
 the care thou hast bestowed on these poor children." 
 
 "Hast thou forgiven us?" again asked Catherine. 
 
 "Do not mention this! O Catherine, I do wish I could help thee 
 in thy present sickness," answered Gertrude. 
 
 "God will soon help," answered Catherine. "Rudeli, hast thou 
 asked her pardon. Has she forgiven thee?" 
 
 "Oh, yes; see how kind she is!" answered Rudeli, showing her 
 the pocket of fruit. 
 
 "Slumber creeps over me," murmured the dying woman. — "But 
 hast thou asked her forgiveness with all thy soul?" 
 
 " Yes, grandmother, believe me I was in full earnest," said Rudeli. 
 
 "Slumber overpowers me, and my eyes get dark. Gertrude — I 
 want to ask you something — but may I? — This wretched child — 
 has stolen from thee — these poor forsaken children — they are so 
 forsaken — (she stretched out her hand, but her eyes were shut) 
 may I hope — obey her, Rudeli." Without finishing her sentence 
 she expired. 
 
 Rudi, believing that she slept, said: "Let no one speak a word! 
 she sleeps. Oh, that she might recover ! " Gertrude, conjecturing 
 that it might be death, said so to Rudi. ..... 
 
 I will not attempt to describe the desolation of the poor man and 
 his children. Reader, let me pause here and weep ; for it moves my 
 heart to think how humanity rises from the dust of poverty to im- 
 mortal bliss, and how it withers in the pomp and splendor of this 
 world. 
 
 Oh, man learn to appreciate the value of life at the death-bed of 
 the just; and you who despise and pity the poor without knowing 
 them, tell me, whether he has been unblessed or unhappy who can 
 die thus? 
 
 PASSAGE FROM A FUNERAL SERMON. 
 
 " Blessed is the man, of whom, when he is dead, no one speaks 
 much; blessed is he, if the poor, in silence, shed tears to his memory; 
 
136 PESTAXOZZI. 
 
 blessed if his wife, his children, his friends, his servants, grieve for 
 him. But if thousands follow his bier, and every one speaks of him, 
 then ask T with mistrust, if the hearts of his wife and children bleed, 
 if his friends and servants weep because he is with them no more. 
 And generally I find the eyes of all these dry." 
 
 With these extracts, which serve to show the aim of the book, we 
 must be content. It is one of the works of Pestalozzi, which has 
 been translated into other languages, and lately into English by Hon. 
 Henry Barnard, late U. S. Commissioner of Education. It is not 
 probable that the work will ever become very popular with a people 
 differing so widely in thought, feeling, and sentiment from those to 
 whom it was first addressed. Yet human nature is the same every- 
 where, and to those who can pierce through the shell of local man- 
 ners to the love, the wisdom, the pathos within, it may prove a 
 source of pleasure and profit. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 "CHRISTOPHER AND ELIZA." 
 
 DOMESTIC education and social reform were considered so im- 
 portant by Pestalozzi, that, after completing " Leonard and Ger- 
 trude," he wrote another treatise upon these subjects, entitled " Chris- 
 topher and Eliza," which was published in 1782. In the preface to 
 the first edition of this book, Pestalozzi remarks that it was written 
 principally to supply a commentary to " Leonard and Gertrude," the 
 moral lessons of which he wished to impress upon the convictions of 
 the people. He concludes by saying: "I know it will appear tedi- 
 ous to mere novel readers, but I desire that it should be read in 
 humble cottages, many of the inmates of which will find in it senti- 
 ments corresponding to their own experiences." 
 
 Forty years afterward, when preparing for the republication of his 
 works, he confesses that the book did not get into the hands of the 
 common people, that it could not be found even in the village 
 where he lived. As the principal cause of this apparent neglect, he 
 accuses the spirit of the times, which, he says, "was opposed to his 
 reformatory notions on education and other subjects." 
 
 We do not think this criticism either just or true, since the public 
 had welcomed the same ideas in " Leonard and Gertrude." On the 
 contrary, we believe, this want of popularity was entirely attributable 
 to the manner in which the subject was treated. Truths are popular 
 when presented in the guise of an interesting story, written in simple 
 language; but they are exceedingly unpalatable when in the form of 
 abstruse reasonings and dry expositions. 
 
 In the book under consideration, Pestalozzi committed several grave 
 errors; yet it contains many passages which bear the stamp of the 
 vigor and originality of his thought. 
 
 The personages, who, during thirty evenings, are supposed to read 
 and discuss as many chapters of "Leonard and Gertrude," are: 
 Christopher, a wealthy and intelligent farmer; Eliza, his wife; Jo- 
 siah, their servant ; and Fritz, their son. 
 
 By a strange anomaly, which is in strong contrast with the usual 
 
 (137) 
 
138 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 order of things, Josiah is the principal speaker, and the one who 
 deals most in abstruse reflections. Christopher is next in importance; 
 while Eliza only occasionally makes shrewd and sensible remarks, 
 mostly upon moral and educational questions. Fritz is a silent list- 
 ener, but, at the end of each conversation, is requested to sum up 
 all the maxims which he has gathered from the story or the discus- 
 sion. The little prodigy does this with such an amount of w r isdom, 
 originality, and wit, and in such flowing language, that one is aston- 
 ished at the precocity of even an imaginary child. We select the 
 following : 
 
 "That is my chapter, father," said Eliza, when Christopher had 
 read the twelfth chapter of the book. "A pious mother, who herself 
 teaches her children, seems to me to be the finest sight on earth." 
 
 " It is very different from any that we see in the school-room," said 
 Josiah. 
 
 "I did not mean to say that schools are not good," interposed 
 Eliza. 
 
 " Nor would I allow myself to think so," added Christopher. 
 
 '• The school-master's instruction will never reach children's hearts 
 in the same way as the lessons their parents teach them," said 
 Josiah; "and I am sure that in going to school, there is not all the 
 good that people fancy there is." 
 
 "I fear, Josiah," said Christopher, "that you are out of your 
 sphere. We ought to thank God for all the good there is in the 
 world, and as for our schools, we can not be sufficiently thankful 
 for them." 
 
 "Well spoken, master," answered Josiah. "It is well that there 
 are schools ; and God forbid that I should be ungrateful for any good 
 that is done to us. Yet, I think he must be a fool, wdio, having 
 plenty at home, runs about begging; and that is the very thing 
 which our villagers do, when they forget all the good lessons which 
 they might teach their children at home, and send them every day 
 to gather up the dry crumbs which are to be found in our miserable 
 schools. I am sure that is not quite as it ought to be." 
 
 " Nor is it quite as you have put it," said Christopher. 
 
 "Nay, master," continued Josiah; "only look it in the face, and 
 you will see it the same as I do. What parents can teach their chil- 
 dren is always what they most need in life; and it is a pity that 
 parents should neglect this, by trusting in the words which the school- 
 master makes them learn by heart. It is very true, they may be 
 good and wise words, and have an excellent meaning to them ; but, 
 
CHRISTOPHER AND ELIZA. 139 
 
 after all, they arc only words, and, coming from the mouth of a 
 stranger, they do not come half as near home as a father's or 
 a mother's words." 
 
 " I can not see what you aim at, Josiah," said Christopher. 
 
 "Look, master. The great point in bringing up a child is that 
 he should be well trained for his own home. He must learn to know 
 and use those things on which his bread and happiness will depend 
 through life ; and it seems to me very plain that fathers and mothers 
 can teach that much better at home than any school-master can in 
 his school. No doubt the school-master tells the children a great 
 many things that are right and good ; but they are never worth as 
 much from his mouth as from that of an upright father or a pious 
 mother. 
 
 " The school-master, for instance, will tell the child to fear God, 
 and honor his father and mother, for such is the word of God ; hut 
 the child understands little of what he says, and generally forgets it 
 before he comes home. But, if at home, his father gives him milk 
 and bread, and his mother denies herself a morsel, that she may give 
 it to him, the child feels and understands that he ought to honor his 
 father and mother, who are so kind to him ; and he will not forget 
 his father's words, when he tells him that such is the word of God. 
 In the same way, if the child is told at school to be merciful, and to 
 love his neighbor as himself, he learns the text by heart, and, per- 
 haps, thinks of it for a few days, till the nice words slip from his 
 memory. At home, he sees a poor neighbor's wife, calling upon his 
 mother, lamenting over her misery, her hunger, and nakedness ; he 
 sees her pale countenance, her emaciated and trembling figure — the 
 very image of wretchedness ; his heart throbs, his tears now ; he lifts 
 up his eyes full of grief and anxiety to his mother, as if he were 
 himself starving; he sees his mother bring refreshments for the poor 
 sufferer, in whose looks the child now reads comfort and reviving 
 hope ; his anguish ceases ; his tears flow no longer ; he approaches 
 her with a smiling face; the mother's gift is received with sobs of 
 gratitude, which again draw tears to the child's eye. Here he learns 
 what it is to be merciful, and love one's neighbor. He learns it with- 
 out the aid of words, by the real fact; he sees mercy, instead of 
 learning words about mercy." 
 
 To this Christopher replied: "I must own I begin to think that 
 too much value is put upon the school-master's teaching." 
 
 "Of course," said Josiah; if you send your sheep up into the 
 mountains, you rely upon their being well cared for by the shepherd, 
 who is paid for doing it. and you do not think of running after 
 
140 PESTA I.OZZI. 
 
 them. It is just the same thing with the school, with this difference: 
 it is easy to get in pastures better food than can be found in stables , 
 but it is not so easy to find a school in which the children are better 
 taught than they might be at home. The parents' teaching is the 
 kernel of wisdom, and the school-master's business is only to make a 
 husk over it, and even then it is a chance if it turns out well." 
 
 "Why, you make one's brain whirl," said Eliza. "I think I see 
 now what you are after. I fancy many a poor ignorant mother, who 
 now sends her children to school without thinking any thing about it, 
 merely because it is the custom to do so, would be very glad to be 
 taught better." 
 
 "There is yet another part of the story," said Josiah. " If the 
 children must be sent to school, the school-master should be an open- 
 hearted, affectionate, and kind man, who would be like a father to 
 the children ; a man made to open children's hearts and mouths, and 
 draw forth their ideas. In most schools, however, it is just the con- 
 trary. The master seems to shut their hearts and mouths, and bury 
 their common sense. This is the reason why healthy and cheerful 
 children, whose hearts are full of joy and gladness, hardly ever like 
 the school ; while stupid dunces, who have no pleasure with other 
 children, are the bright ornaments there. If there is a boy among 
 them who has too much good sense to keep his eyes for hours fixed 
 on a dozen letters which he hates; or a merry girl who, while the 
 school-master discourses of spiritual life, plays with her little hands all 
 sorts of temporal fun under the desk, the master, in his wisdom, de- 
 clares these the goats who care not for their everlasting salvation." 
 
 Thus spoke the good Josiah in the overflowing of his zeal against 
 the nonsense of the village schools, and his master and mistress gave 
 more anil more attention to what he said. 
 
 After discussing the subject more fully, the father turned to Fritz, 
 and said: "Well, Fritz, what have you gathered from this evening's 
 conversation ?" 
 
 " That men are foolish to ask alms outside the house, when there 
 is abundance within," answered Fritz. 
 
 "What else?" 
 
 "That the country children ought to be educated for the field, the 
 barn, the house, and not merely for talk." 
 
 "What more?" asked Christopher. 
 
 "That school knowledge is to many a child like unaccustomed 
 food, upon which he will not thrive." 
 
 "Is that all?" said Ins father. 
 
 "That a father's instruction is like the kernel, and the school- 
 
CHRISTOPHER AND EI,IZA. 141 
 
 master's, at most, like a shell protecting it, and that the common 
 people need common sense most." 
 
 " Any thing more?" 
 
 "That the school ought to be an auxiliary to the nursery, where 
 father and mother plant the germs of all virtue and all knowledge." 
 
 " It has always appeared to me that cunning is not true wisdom, 
 for only honest men can possess that," said Christopher. 
 
 "That is so," said Josiah. "True wisdom proceeds from love, and 
 brings blessing and peace to its owner, and to all those who depend 
 on him. Cunning proceeds from selfishness and want of love, and 
 brings trouble and suffering upon a man who acts under its influence, 
 and to those whom he rules or serves. If you are anxious to observe 
 the effects of such cunning in a man, go to the poor, whom he uses 
 as his tools, and they will tell you how small is his wisdom. < hie 
 will tell you that he has to praise his lean ox as a fat one, in order 
 to induce some greenhorn to buy ; another has to lure a stranger into 
 his net. They will also tell you that they have to speak highly of 
 his honor and virtue, even when their hearts bleed from his injustice 
 They must cover his sins and deny his cruelty, at least within his 
 hearing and knowledge. 
 
 " But he who indulges in such tricks, or incites others to them, 
 feels flattered if people talk of his keen understanding, merely be- 
 cause he practices his wit day and night in matters with which 
 honest people will have nothing to do. On the other hand, he 
 shows himself often quite foolish and inexperienced in important 
 matters with which honest men are thoroughly familiar. No scoun- 
 drel has ever been able to keep that admixture of folly and madness 
 which characterizes vice, always under his control, so that it will not 
 ooze out when he least expects it." 
 
 " What do you think is the reason that men live so unwisely till 
 their last hour comes?" asked Eliza. 
 
 "The neglect of home, without doubt," answered Josiah. "Man 
 must have for his heart a hearth, where the fire never goes out ; 
 there he must get strength, rest, and refreshment. After leaving his 
 home, he goes to Ins work with new courage. Love of mankind is 
 not nurtured in the barren regions of a vagabond life ; it requires 
 fostering care in the sanctuary of home, as the noblest and tenderest 
 plants require the greatest care at the hand of the gardener. But 
 when the tender plant of home-grown virtue has taken root, let it 
 be transferred to any soil, and it will thrive. If one behaves well 
 
142 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 us father, mother, son, you may trust him anywhere, although he 
 may change his relations ; since the propelling motive of his actions 
 will always be the same, whether you call it duty, obedience, or 
 tender affection." 
 
 "Heed my words, Fritz," said Eliza, "and do not scoff at any 
 thing which is sacred to thy fellow-men, and necessary to their peace 
 and welfare; which protects good order in society, and renders the 
 last hours of man serene." 
 
 "Yes, my son," added Christopher, "you must fear God, love 
 your parents, and honor your superiors, if you would wish to fare 
 well on earth." 
 
 " Do so, my dear boy, with an innocent and simple heart," said 
 Josiah. "Yet never be afraid to search after truth and to stand by 
 it ; to oppose him who uses arbitrary power, and wishes to circum- 
 vent you with lies in order to effect wrong. Least of all, do not suffer 
 yourself to be blinded by priests, when, under the name of religion, 
 you see them only intent on furthering their own interests. When 
 they teach you immortality, then listen to them in faith and grati- 
 tude, for it is God's word. If you hope to be pious, abhor the man 
 who weakens the simple faith of the people in immortality, and ridi- 
 cules the word of God in his intercourse with the poor and helpless, 
 who are most in want of it. Such a man is like him who despises 
 bread and feeds on husks. Oh, flee from the insane one, who 
 scotts at that which refreshes and comforts so many thousands of thy 
 brethren. The hope of immortality lies deep in the inmost soul, and 
 he who teaches it, teaches the word of God." 
 
 [The fact, that, in the chapter which we have quoted from 
 " Leonard and Gertrude," relating to the death of the grandmother, 
 the dying woman's thoughts were fixed on things of earth rather 
 than heaven — the fact that she was more anxious in regard to 
 the helpless and motherless children she was leaving than for her 
 own future condition, afforded a pretext for a great deal of adverse 
 criticism from the religious teachers of the day. 
 
 IVstalozzi was accused of holding materialistic views concerning 
 dentil, and of not having true piety and devotion. The zeal with 
 which these charges were urged was doubtless intensified by the fact 
 that he never tried to conceal his aversion for a religion which con- 
 sisted in words and dogmas, and was not accompanied by acts of 
 love, fidelity, and sacrifice. In the following extract we have a reply 
 to his detractors.] 
 
CHRISTOPHER AM) ELIZA. 14o 
 
 "The greatest thing that religion can give us is strength for all 
 that is good and useful," said Christopher. "Religion ought to give 
 me the conviction that on leaving earth I leave nothing, that my 
 soul absorbs its cares, and that my hopes reach beyond this temporal 
 abode ; but for this very reason it must enable me to use my strength 
 for the benefit of my family and my race. 
 
 " Religion does not call men away from the duties of this earth, 
 but it gives them strength to the last moment to take care of what 
 has been intrusted to them. Did not Christ, when on the cross, 
 show his care for his earthly mother by recommending her to the 
 care of his favorite disciple? I may be misunderstood, and perhaps 
 do not express accurately my idea when I say, that man is not made 
 for religion, but religion for man. Religion is an essence which takes 
 possession of a man's soul, and leads him away from his own carnal 
 tendencies ; it consists rather in powers than in words ; it is a store- 
 house full of good instruments, rather than a saloon filled with 
 charming ami fascinating images. That which presents itself to men 
 as an idol with which to make a constant display, is not religion. 
 
 " The way to heaven is the fulfillment of all our duties on earth ; 
 and the neglect of these can only be retrieved to some extent while 
 man is well and active, but never on a sick-bed at the approach of 
 death. Our forefathers were wiser in this respect than we. One 
 proof of this is that they generally disposed of their property while 
 still in health. Not only were wife and children remembered, but 
 also servants, institutions, the poor, and every thing which the dic- 
 tates of humanity, as well as religion, had inspired in their hearts. 
 In our days it is not so. Death is allowed to surprise many, and 
 they are unable to do what they intended for their family and fellow- 
 men. We often hear people say, ' If father or mother had disposed of 
 this or the other matter, we should have been spared much care and 
 vexation.' It is but a shallow excuse that the departed ones were so 
 occupied with spiritual things that worldly ones were forgotten." 
 
 "I have known people," said Christopher, "who, unsolicited, have 
 promised to take charge of children soon to become orphans. I have 
 also seen this sacred duty neglected. To understand these seeming 
 contradictions, Ave must assume that all men have moments in which 
 they make good resolutions; but, unless a man is thoroughly firm and 
 honest, these good resolutions are transitory as the light of the sun, 
 when it rises in the splendor of the morning, while the sky, with the 
 exception of a narrow strip along the horizon, is. covered with rain 
 clouds. These clouds approach from all sides ; the sunlight is extin- 
 
144 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 guished ; the whole heavens become gray, and the finer the illumina- 
 tion, the more will the rain fall." 
 
 It will be seen that the works of Pestalozzi, which we have men- 
 tioned, are mostly of a miscellaneous character, and only incidentally 
 treat of education. The only work of a strictly educational character 
 which he found time to prepare, is "How Gertrude Teaches her Chil- 
 dren." From this we make copious extracts in that part of our work 
 which treats of the principles and methods involved in the reform. 
 
 Among his writings are some volumes chiefly devoted to an exposi- 
 tion of the character of his school, and to the polemic warfare which 
 was carried on at that time. These are of little interest, except as 
 giving facts and details of a strictly local character. 
 
 His last works, "The 8ong of a Dying Swan," and "Events of 
 my life," which reflected upon all his old associates, must be regarded 
 as the production of a man of intense emotional nature, suffering 
 keenly from misfortune and failures, which might have been avoided 
 had he possessed the power of discerning the causes of these evils. It, 
 however, is a consolation to know that Pestalozzi in part recovered 
 from his delusion, and repented of his hasty and ill-advised action. 
 A short time before his death, he made to Nabholz, one of his most 
 trusty and faithful teachers, this important declaration : 
 
 "The work, 'Events of my Life,' was written in a state of mind 
 bordering on insanity, and therefore it was impossible for me to take 
 a correct view of things. By circumstances and the influence of those 
 around me, I was compelled to make assertions, which, upon calm 
 consideration, I find myself obliged to retract as opinions not my own, 
 but forced upon me against my convictions. This is particularly ap- 
 plicable to those passages in which I reject, as untenable and not 
 founded on my own views, the method formerly established and pub- 
 licly advocated by me. I intend to avail myself of the first oppor- 
 tunity to make a public declaration to this effect; but if I should die 
 before having done so, I beg you to do it in my name, and expressly 
 stale that I have commissioned you to do so." 
 
 We lay greater stress upon this declaration from the fact that some 
 reviewers have quoted largely from these works as showing that Pes- 
 talozzi himself repudiated the principles upon which his school was 
 founded. From these facts the reader can readily determine how 
 much consideration should be given to the works in question — works 
 which Pestalozzi himself declared were the effects of the lowering 
 clouds which were spread around the horizon behind which the sun 
 of his life was about to set. 
 
ADDRESSES. 145 
 
 His Christmas and New-year's addresses contain much of his char- 
 acteristic fervor of style and exuberance of fancy. We select the 
 following from one of these addresses, some passages of which seem 
 to give a pleasant farewell to the scene of his labors. We have 
 slightly condensed some portions of it, otherwise it remains un- 
 changed: 
 
 " You, my little children, whom we love almost as Jacob did his 
 Benjamin and Joseph, what shall I wish for you? Live in innocence 
 and love ; maintain your cheerfulness ; live happily in nature's arm-, 
 and keep your eyes open to her impressions ; imbibe her charms in 
 full draughts, whether they are fluttering in the shape of a butterfly 
 over your head, or lying before you, a brilliant stone, or growing, a 
 lovely flower. When you have found one of these treasures and feel 
 happy, oh then think of your father and mother, who, perhaps, weep 
 secret tears, because they can no more witness your happy smile. In 
 thinking of them, a tear will, perhaps, fall from your eyes, because 
 you are now deprived of the happiness of looking into their faces. 
 With a thankful heart, wish them a good year, and pray to your 
 Father in Heaven, who is also the Father of your parents, to bless 
 them, and make you good and pious for their future jov and conso- 
 lation. 
 
 "And you, older children, what shall the new year be to you? 
 Von are more conscious of the meaning of life than these little ones; 
 you begin to feel its purposes and duties; you begin to understand the 
 mighty words, ' whatsoever a man sows, that shall he reap ; ' you do 
 not merely see nature's form, but begin to see God in nature. Chil- 
 dren, we have found much in you that is pure and noble. We have 
 been satisfied with you, and are confident that your exertions have 
 not been in vain. As the growing fruit smiles upon the gardener from 
 the tree, so does the fruit of your labors appear in your contented 
 faces. We can read it in your animated look ; we perceive it in the 
 blooming appearance of your cheeks ; we hear it in your sensible re- 
 marks. But, my children, lovely ones, appearance is deceptive and 
 passes away; it is only the soul that lasts. Seek perfection in what 
 is eternal and imperishable. Children, the world is evil, and our 
 house is a little world. Fear Cod. and beware of all wicked doings- 
 Be children of God in love,' fear, obedience, and gratitude." 
 
 '• Daughters of my house, I do not exhort you to show grace and 
 loveliness, since nature has supplied your sex with these; but this 1 
 entreat you, show pow'er in your grace. () my daughters, think not 
 too much of yourselves, and distrust somewhat the opinions which 
 others profess to have of you. Have faith first in God, in order that 
 P. 10. 
 
146 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 you may believe in yourselves, and that you may educate others in 
 that faith. The world needs educators. If mothers do not care for 
 the moral weal of their children, what will become of them? Lend 
 us your aid in the attainment of an improved domestic education, in 
 order that you may become fit instruments of God, a blessing to your- 
 selves and to the circle in which you live." 
 
 We pass over the equally impressive addresses to the young men 
 and teachers of his house, to his oldest associates and to his faithful 
 wife, and content ourselves with quoting his general remarks addressed 
 to the whole assembly. 
 
 "When I close my eyes, my last words to you will be these: Do 
 not deceive yourselves about the height of the mountain you have to 
 ascend; it is much higher than you suppose. On reaching one alti- 
 tude you stand at the foot of others ; yet, if you pause, you will lose 
 your strength and be disabled for climbing farther. 
 
 "Whosoever among you is strong, oh, let him help the weak; but 
 whosoever is weak, let him not despair, for God is powerful to the 
 weak. He does not regard strength : he regards the will. If this 
 were not true, I should not stand before you, nor would our work 
 exist. But what is our work ? 
 
 "Like a river falling from the mountains, our work takes often an 
 arbitrary direction: we at its source, sometimes hardly know whither 
 its current tends. If the work of man, it stands still before the ob- 
 stacles of opposing rocks ; but if the work of God, it pierces triumph- 
 antly the stony masses, and appears again with waters purified by 
 the struggle. But, my beloved friends, the stream is not ours: ours 
 are but the drops falling from the cliffs. That these drops are not 
 dried up, that they are able to pierce the clefts, and reach that depth 
 where God's waters roll in majestic power, is God's work. May this 
 new year behold us floating peacefully on the gentle waves toward 
 our great aim. When I cast my eyes on the circle around me, what 
 duties do I feel imposed upon me! O Father, Thou hast placed me 
 on a mountain which I did not ascend myself. Thou hast assigned 
 to me a place which I am not worthy to occupy. As a steward man- 
 ages the house of his employer, so will I work for my Master during 
 the remainder of my life. O my beloved ones, live in harmony and 
 love. Under your protecting shelter let me take my last tottering 
 steps to that rest for which I long; for my soul is weary, my body 
 craves slumber, and my head the pillow from which it will rise no 
 more. Amen." 
 
 We will close this part of our work by quoting from the address 
 
ADDRESSES. 147 
 
 which he made at the inauguration of the Poor School, that was 
 founded with the money raised by subscription to his works : 
 
 "This solemn day, in which I arrange and settle my worldly 
 affairs before passing through the valley of death to the regions of 
 life and resurrection ; this day, when I intend to erect a monument 
 to the glory of God for purposes of love and faith, I come before 
 you and pray : Oh, do not regard me in the nothingness of human 
 weakness, as a crushed reed or a feeble glimmering wick, but receive 
 my words as if spoken after my resurrection from the grave. 
 
 But I tremble; dare I pro- 
 nounce such words, unless I have seen the face of the Lord ! Oh, no ! 
 My address to you bears the impress of the flesh and of human 
 nature, which, though full of good-will, is ever wandering through 
 labyrinths of wrong and error ; yet, I pray you, listen with attention 
 and confidence to my words. Accept them as the words of your 
 father, who is approaching the grave, and who has deeply felt the 
 misery of the poor, especially of that portion which can be relieved 
 by the blessings of education. Alas ! it is only near the end of my 
 life that I am enabled to give a mite for this purpose, and to leave 
 its execution as a legacy to you. Let my care for the sanctity of 
 education devolve on you. May you be- filled by the thought of a 
 better future, which is to bless coming generations ; be witness of the 
 spirit which animated my youth, and which continues to gloAv even 
 in my old age. Let every harsh and unkind feeling be banished 
 from your hearts, through the power of faith and love. Let no one 
 say : Christ does not love him who has done wrong. He loves him 
 with divine love. He died for him. He did not find the sinner faith- 
 ful, but he made him so by his own faith ; he did not find him hum- 
 ble, but he made him so by his own humility. Friends, if we love one 
 another as Christ loved us, we shall conquer all difficulties, and found 
 our house on the eternal rock on which, through Jesus Christ, God 
 has placed the welfare of the human race." 
 
r - 
 
FART IV. 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND METHOD 
 
 OF PESTALOZZI. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 
 
 TO state clearly the principal features of the method of Pestalozzi 
 is no easy task. The difficulties encountered arise, in part, from 
 the scientific nature of the subject, and, in part, from the complicated 
 character which the work has assumed at the present day. The crit- 
 icism of an educational method is very different from that of a phil- 
 osophical system ; since the latter has a stereotyped outline, given it 
 by the words of the book, while the former is a living organism, 
 with all the features which the spirit of the times and the experience 
 of half a century have impressed upon it. Under these circum- 
 stances, the first duty is to state the original intention or plan of its 
 founder and the results of his initial experiments. 
 
 The work, " How Gertrude Teaches Her Children," in which Pes- 
 talozzi embodies his own ideas of education, will supply the principal 
 quotations of this chapter. The reader, from the character and pecul- 
 iarities of Pestalozzi, will not expect to find in this work a mature 
 system, expressed in concise, elegant, and symmetrical language ; but 
 rather the effusions of a thinking philanthropist deeply absorbed in 
 his experiments, and " bearing within himself an -unborn universe," 
 of whose untrodden shores he tries to give an intelligent account. 
 When he looked at the moral, intellectual, and l'eligious condition of 
 the people of Europe, and at their means of instruction, he found a 
 state of things which he not inaptly describes in the following 
 simile : 
 
 "As far as I am acquainted Avith popular instruction, it appears to 
 me like a large house, whose uppermost story shines in the splendor 
 of highly finished art, but is occupied by only a few. In the middle 
 story is a great crowd, but the stairs by which the upper one may be 
 reached in an approved and respectable manner are wanting; if the 
 attempt be made in a less regular way, the leg or arm used as a 
 means of progress may be broken. In the lowest story Is an im- 
 mense throng ol people, who have precisely the same right to enjoy 
 
 (151) 
 
152 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 the light of the sun as those in the upper one ; hut they are left in 
 utter darkness, and not even allowed to gaze at the magnificence 
 above. ............ 
 
 "Europe, on the one hand, stands higher than any other part of 
 the world; but, on the other, no land has descended to lower depths. 
 Like the image described by the prophet, it reaches to the sky with its 
 golden head of arts and sciences; but its foundation, which should be 
 popular instruction, like the feet of the same image, is but miry clay." 
 
 Pestalozzi, in his holy indignation, rejected as an empty mockery, 
 the superficial book-knowledge which, up to that time, the most 
 enlightened had made the basis of education. He says: "A man 
 who has only word-wisdom is less susceptible to truth than a savage. 
 This use of mere words produces men who believe they have reached 
 the goal, because their whole life has been spent in talking about 
 it, but who never ran toward it, because no motive impelled them 
 to make the effort ; hence, I come to the conviction that the fun- 
 damental error — the blind use of words in matters of instruction — 
 must be extirpated before it is possible to resuscitate life and 
 truth." 
 
 With these views of the state of education, is it strange that Pesta- 
 lozzi should have earnestly sought a remedy for these evils, and 
 should have endeavored — to use his own expression — "to wheel the 
 educational car of Europe upon another track " ? And where could 
 this track be found except where the foot-prints of the Creator are 
 clearly seen in the light of eternal laws and principles. 
 
 With an impetuosity characteristic of his strong feelings, he makes 
 frequent appeals to mothers, the natural teachers of childhood, — ap- 
 peals not unmixed with indignation against those who sneer at his 
 faith in human nature and the sanctity of home. He says: "It is 
 the main design of my method to make home instruction again possi- 
 ble to our neglected people, and to induce every mother whose heart 
 beats for her child, to make use of my elementary exercises. To do 
 this, she must be in advance of the child. My heart is lifted up by 
 the blessed hopes which spring from this idea. When I first ex- 
 pressed these hopes, I was answered from all sides, 'The mothers will 
 not approve.' Not only uneducated men, but those who teach — who 
 teach Christianity — said to me scoffingly : 'You may search all our 
 villages through, but you will find no mother who will do what you 
 require of her.' To this I answered : ' Then I will, by these means, 
 enable heathen mothers from the farthest north to do it. 
 
 If these men dare wash their 
 hands of the blame, and say, 'We are guiltless of this inexpressible 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 153 
 
 shame of the people in peaceful Europe ; we are guiltless of this un- 
 speakable disgrace of the best-natured, most teachable, and patient 
 of all European nations, the Swiss ; we and our fathers have done 
 what it was our duty to do, to prevent this decay of the first founda- 
 tions of morality in our father-land, ' — then will I advise them to cry 
 out to these unnatural mothers, in the spirit of Christ's appeal to Je- 
 rusalem, Mothers, mothers ! how often have we wished to gather you 
 under the shelter of wisdom, humanity, and Christianity, as a hen 
 gathers her chickens under her wings, and ye would not ! If these 
 men dare not make this assertion, then will I not believe in them, 
 but in the mothers, and in the hearts which God has given them; 
 and I will go my way like a wanderer, who, in a distant forest, hears 
 a wind whose breath he does not feel." 
 
 We quote the above passage in full to show a peculiarity often 
 ol (served among enthusiasts, that, while they may be entirely right 
 in regard to a principle, they often mistake the order of time and 
 nature in the realization of their aspirations. That the child begins 
 to learn with his birth, and that the mother is his natural educator, 
 do not admit of a doubt ; but it must also be conceded, that for an 
 intelligent and effective system of education, the mother, as well as 
 the teacher, must be trained for her special work. The rightly edu- 
 cated child is the coming father and mother. 
 
 At a time when home education is in danger of being more and 
 more disregarded, when but little moral instruction or firmness is ex- 
 hibited to counteract the increased inducements to excesses of all 
 kinds, it seems but an act of justice to vindicate Pestalozzi from the 
 accusation of striving to cultivate the intellectual faculties only, and 
 to show that he based the success of his method, and even of moral 
 and religious life, upon the firm rock of sound domestic education. 
 
 We wish also to say a word in regard to the spirit in which the 
 writings of Pestalozzi should be interpreted. Learned scholars, who 
 at first were disposed to question the ability and reprove the bold- 
 ness of a partially educated man who dared to enter upon abstruse 
 philosophical discussions, have been disarmed and partly converted 
 by the nobility of the thoughts uttered, and the real humility of the 
 man who expressed them. The magnitude of the work, and the 
 terrible need of the suffering poor, were the motives which urged 
 him to write. Though often crude in expression, his writings all 
 contain precious germs of thought: 
 
 " What I desired, and still desire, is not to teach the world any 
 new art or science, for I know none; but to make it more easy for 
 the people to master the beginnings of all arts and sciences; to 
 
154 PESTALOZZL 
 
 develop the powers of the poor and weak, who are now neglected and 
 given up to desolation ; to open the avenues of learning, which are 
 the approaches to humanity ; and, if possible, to burn down the bar- 
 riers which keep the more lowly of the citizens of Europe far behind 
 the barbarians of the North and South in independent intellectual 
 power, which is the basis of all efficient acquirement. They are kept 
 so, because, notwithstanding our empty boasting of universal enlight- 
 enment, nine men in ten are deprived of the right of all men, the 
 right of instruction ; or, at least, the possibility of using it. May 
 these barriers, after my death, burn with a bright flame ! I know 
 that I am only a feeble coal lying in wet straw ; but I hear a wind 
 not far off, which shall fan the coal to a blaze. The wet straw 
 around me will gradually dry, grow warm, kindle, and at last burn. 
 Yes, however wet it is around me, it will burn, it will burn! 
 
 "The highest attainments can only be reached by means of a 
 finished art of teaching, and the most perfect psychology ; thus secur- 
 ing the utmost perfection in the mechanism of the natural progression 
 from confused impressions to intelligent ideas. This is in truth far 
 beyond my powers. 
 
 "The Egyptian who first fastened a shovel with a crooked handle 
 to the horn of an ox, and thus taught him to perform the labor of 
 a man, prepared the way for the invention of the plow, although he 
 did not bring it to perfection. My services are only the first bending 
 of the shovel handle, and the fastening of it to a new horn. But 
 why do I speak in similes? I ought to state my meaning plainly, 
 and will do so. 
 
 "I desire to remove the imperfections from common school instruc- 
 tion ; to knit it to the immovable power of nature herself, to the 
 light which God kindles and ever maintains in the hearts of fathers 
 and mothers, and to the desires of parents that their children may be 
 respectable before God and man." 
 
 In the following extracts Pestalozzi sets forth, with great power 
 and earnestness, the faults and short-comings of the school systems 
 prevalent in his day. It will be seen that in this, as in all his work, 
 he is moved by a profound indignation against the unnatural and 
 u n philosophical processes pursued. 
 
 "Children are left till their fifth year in the full enjoyment of 
 nature. They are allowed to imbibe its cheerful influence through 
 every pore. After having thus tasted this bliss of sensuous life, the 
 fair scene of their pleasures at once vanishes from their eyes. They 
 are thrown into badly ventilated rooms; they are doomed for hours, 
 days, and years to the contemplation of dry, monotonous letters. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF THE PESTALOZZIAN METHOD. 155 
 
 Friend, tell me, can the blow of the executioner, which transfers 
 the criminal from life to death, have a greater influence on the body 
 than such a transition from the pleasant teachings of nature to the 
 miserable discipline of our schools ? Will men remain blind forever ? 
 Will they never look to those primitive sources from which the con- 
 fusion of minds, the destruction of innocence, the ruin of strength, 
 and all the consequences thereof arise, and which doom many of us 
 to an unsatisfactory existence, and thousands of others to a premature 
 death, or to the abode of the raving maniac?" 
 
 The remedy for the evils so vividly pointed out is found in a sys- 
 tem of education which recognizes as its object the development of 
 the faculties of the mind in the order of their growth and use, and 
 the adaptation of instruction to this particular end. 
 
 Pestalozzi says: "My experiments led me to trace the various 
 branches of instruction to their very elements. I endeavored to find 
 out the exact time of life when instruction should begin, and I soon 
 arrived at the conviction that it is the hour of birth. The first tutor 
 is nature, and her tuition begins from the moment that the child's 
 senses are opened to the impressions of the surrounding world. The 
 feeling of novelty with which life surprises the infant, is in itself 
 nothing but the unfolding of the capability of receiving these impres- 
 sions. It is the arousing of the germs of mental power. The animal 
 is entirely formed, and something above the animal is awakened, 
 which, while it clearly testifies to the destination of the new-born 
 being, gives him, at the same time, a positive impulse toward the 
 attainment of that purpose. 
 
 " Whatever, therefore, man may attempt to do by his tuition, he 
 can do no more than assist in the effort which the child makes for 
 his own development. To do this so that the impressions made 
 upon him may always be commensurate to the growth and character 
 of the faculties already unfolded, and, at the same time, in harmony 
 with them, is the great secret of education. 
 
 "The knowledge to which the child is to be led by instruction, 
 must, therefore, necessarily be subjected to a certain order of succes- 
 sion, the beginning of which must be adapted to the first unfolding 
 of his powers, and the progress kept exactly parallel to that of his 
 development. 
 
 "I soon perceived that the simplest and only way to impart in- 
 struction, or to frame really instructive school-books, is to discover 
 this order throughout the range of human knowledge, and especially 
 in all those essentials in which the human mind takes its beginning. 
 I saw clearly that the child may be brought to a hijjh degree of 
 
156 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 knowledge, botli of things and language, before it would be rational 
 to teach him reading or spelling. Seeing this, I felt the necessity of 
 presenting things to children, from earliest infancy, in a manner cal- 
 culated to draw forth the action of their different faculties." 
 
 Thus far no philosopher would object to Pestalozzi's conclusions 
 and statements. Their very enunciation seems to command assent; 
 and yet, in practice, they are generally ignored or violated. The 
 necessity of obtaining knowledge through experience, that proper 
 mental development may be secured, is stated in the following : 
 
 " Instruction without the assistance of art does no more for us 
 than nature herself; and the only advantage we derive from art is, 
 that it accelerates the progress of nature, thus enabling the individ- 
 ual to keep pace with civilization. Nature, in her advance toward 
 development, invariably follows the important law, that the degree 
 of clearness of our knowledge depends on the greater or less distance 
 of the objects which we perceive. Every thing in the surrounding 
 world appears confused in proportion as it is distant from us ; what- 
 ever, on the contrary, is near, appears more distinct. As far as I 
 am an inhabitant of this world, my five senses are myself; and 
 therefore the clearness or obscurity of my ideas must depend on the 
 distance from which each impression reaches these senses. I my- 
 self, as the center of all my perceptions, become the object of my 
 perceptive faculties. Whatever I am in myself, I can feel and un- 
 derstand better than what is outside of myself; for the former are 
 always clear and distinct, while the latter are often confused: con- 
 sequently, the course of my knowledge concerning myself is one step 
 shorter than that which I acquire concerning other objects. What- 
 ever I know concerning myself is a matter of distinct consciousness; 
 moreover, what I truly know is part of myself, as it is included 
 in the knowledge I have of myself: hence it follows, that I am the 
 point from which I must set out for the acquisition of clear and dis- 
 tinct ideas. Of all things, nothing can be clearer than the principle 
 that all man's knowledge of truth is founded upon his knowledge of 
 himself." 
 
 jS'ext, we have the account of the process by which Pestalozzi ar- 
 rived at his conclusions concerning the classification of the sciences 
 in their relation to the work of primary instruction. "It occurred 
 to me upon one occasion to concentrate my attention upon the man- 
 ner in which a man, whose mind is already cultivated, must proceed 
 in order to analyze properly and to comprehend the objects that come 
 before him in confusion. The result of my inquiry is, that the 
 attention must be directed to the following points : 
 
GENEKAL VIEW OF THE PESTAEOZZIAN METHOD. 157 
 
 "First. — How many objects and how many kinds lias he before 
 him ? 
 
 " Second— -What is their appearance, their shape, their outline? 
 
 " Third. — What are their names? In what manner may each be 
 represented by a sound or word ? 
 
 "To succeed in this examination he must have the power — 
 
 "First. — To view dissimilar objects in regard to their shape, and 
 to form an idea of what is contained in each. 
 
 "Second. — To distinguish these objects either in the plurality in 
 which they exist, or in the unity which is given to them in the 
 mind. 
 
 "Third. — To designate, as early as possible, by corresponding 
 names, all the objects which have thus come to their knowledge. 
 
 "Hence, I concluded that Form, Number, and Language, when 
 brought into connection with each other, are the elements of instruc- 
 tion; inasmuch as the external properties of objects are contained 
 within the sphere of their outline and numerical proportions, and are 
 brought distinctly to our consciousness by language. It is, therefore, 
 a fundamental law that all instruction is founded on this threefold 
 basis. 
 
 " It follows that the object of our first instruction must be to de- 
 velop, in a manner most conformable to nature, the subjects Form, 
 Number, and Language ; for a healthy cultivation of the faculties 
 requires that the means by which they are developed should be 
 brought to the utmost simplicity and to perfect harmony with each 
 other. 
 
 "The only doubt that occurred to my mind after I had made this 
 discovery was, how is it that the other properties of things of which 
 our five senses apprise us do not ('(institute elementary ideas of knowl- 
 edge as well as these three, number, form, and name? I soon found 
 that these belong universally to all objects, whereas other properties 
 are not common to all, but vary, and hence can not be considered 
 fundamental points of knowledge." 
 
 From further details given in this connection, it appears that Pes- 
 talozzi assigned to Form the subjects Drawing, Writing, and Geom- 
 etry; to Number, Arithmetic in all it departments; and to Lan- 
 guage, Speaking, Reading, Singing, and all the possible exercises of 
 the organs <>f speech by which sound is produced. Educators will 
 generally concede the correctness of these deductions. 
 
 In his next step, however, Pestalozzi has committed grave errors. 
 One of these consists in placing under Language, besides the branches 
 named above, Geography, History, and Natural Science. He does 
 
158 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 this because these subjects are presented through the medium of Lan- 
 guage. By the same process of reasoning, Form, Number, and 
 every possible department of thought might be placed under the 
 same head. 
 
 Another error is, to consider the name a property of objects; 
 since it is evident that objects exist before they are named, and that 
 it is possible to form an idea of them without knowing the word by 
 which the idea is to be expressed. 
 
 Again, Pestalozzi assigns as a reason for his threefold basis for 
 instruction, that each of these properties belongs to all objects ; but 
 it is not quite clear why he should not have assigned an equally 
 important place to color, weight, etc. , which also belong to all 
 objects; or in what part of his classification these qualities would 
 have found their natural place. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 conformity of pestalozzfs method to the natural 
 order of human development. 
 
 THE future reviewer, in considering the system of Pestalozzi from 
 his own stand-point, both in regard to science and the human 
 mind, will have, on account of his broader view and calmer investi- 
 gation, an advantage over Pestalozzi or any of the writers of the 
 present era. He will have no jDartisan prejudices from having actu- 
 ally engaged in the strife, and will be guided by the light which 
 comes from a long series of careful and critical experiments and in- 
 vestigations. 
 
 The limits of this work forbid an attempt at this thorough review. 
 Even had we inclination for such a task, the time is not yet come 
 when it could be successfully accomplished. The experiments are 
 still going on. The conflict between the old and the new is still rag- 
 ing ; and, though substantial progress has been made, final results are 
 not yet reached. From these considerations, we shall content our- 
 selves with giving a general view of the subject, with sufficient appli- 
 cation in detail to illustrate and exemplify the points examined. 
 
 To present Pestalozzi's idea of the aims and office of education, we 
 again quote from one of his last writings: 
 
 "Sound education stands before me symbolized by a tree planted 
 near fertilizing waters. A little seed, which contains the design of 
 the tree, its form and proportions, is placed in the soil. See how it 
 germinates and expands into trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and 
 fruit! The whole tree is an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, 
 the plan of which existed in its seed and root. Man is similar to the 
 tree. In the new r -born child are hidden those faculties, which are to 
 unfold during life. The individual and separate organs of his being 
 form themselves gradually into unison, and build up humanity in the 
 image of God. 
 
 "The growth of man is God's work, and the result of universal 
 laws conferred on his nature. • 
 
 "The education of man is a purely moral result. It is not the 
 
 (159) 
 
1(30 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 educator who puts new powers and faculties into man, and imparts to 
 him breath and life. He only takes care that no untoward influence 
 shall disturb nature's inarch of development. The moral, intellectual, 
 and executive powers of man must be nurtured within himself, and 
 not from artificial substitutes. Thus, faith must be cultivated by our 
 own act of believing, not by reasoning about faith ; love, by our own 
 act of loving, not by fine words about love; thought, by our own 
 act of thinking, not by merely appropriating the thoughts of other 
 men ; and knowledge, by our own investigation, not by endless talk 
 about the results of art arid science." 
 
 From this extract, as well as from the general spirit and tendency 
 of Pestalozzi's work, we think that the one great fundamental princi- 
 ple which forms the basis of his system is the natural, progressive, and 
 symmetrical development of all the poivers and faculties of the human being. 
 
 Many truths, closely related to this fundamental principle, can in 
 nowise be considered as discoveries of Pestalozzi. Some of them 
 may be more ancient than the oldest of human records; some have 
 been distinctly enunciated by Socrates, Plato, and others; and some 
 have been given to the world by the profound thinkers of the Chris- 
 tian era — by those who have lived since the emancipation of the 
 sciences and of the human mind from the thralldom of ancient sophis- 
 try, book learning, and the rule of political and ecclesiastical despot- 
 ism. They should be kept constantly before the mind, to counteract 
 the tendency of instruction to fall into thoughtless routine. 
 
 These truths are of a twofold nature: first, subjective, considering 
 the mental processes themselves ; second, objective, referring to the 
 facts of science as a means of growth. Their value does not depend 
 upon the fact that they can be traced to the words of some master; 
 but, rather, that they correspond to the consciousness of the human 
 mind and to the facts of human experience. The subjective truths 
 may be stated as follows: 
 
 All human growth and power spring from inborn capabilities. 
 Development, or the unfolding of human power, comes from the ac- 
 quisition of knowledge; and, to produce this development, the ele- 
 ments of knowledge must be brought into contact with the faculties 
 of the mind. 
 
 The individuality of every human being is determined at birth, as 
 certainly as the character of the plant is marked out in the seed ; 
 and in all educational processes this individuality should be respected. 
 
 As the secretion, distribution, and assimilation of chemical elements 
 from the great laboratory of nature, is the parent of all organic 
 growth, so is experience the mother of all wisdom; and the process 
 
HIS METHOD. 161 
 
 of acquiring it should be so regulated that the successive steps follow 
 each other in the exact order of dependence. Education is thus 
 analagous to the development of organic life, where each step in 
 growth depends on the completeness of the preceding one. Hence, 
 the true work of education must be a work of art, — symmetrical, 
 progressive, based upon natural laws, and applied to the faculties of 
 the mind-. 
 
 Faculties of the Mind. — In our farther examination of the 
 method employed for mental development, we shall consider the 
 mind as a unit, manifesting itself in different directions and for 
 different purposes. To each of these distinct manifestations we 
 shall give the general name faculty. In speaking of these faculties, 
 Ave shall accept the name and classification in most general use. 
 
 Knowledge comes to us from without and from within — through 
 our senses and through our consciousness. The faculty which takes 
 cognizance of the former, we call Perception ; and of the latter, 
 Reflection. The faculty which retains knowledge, we term Memory ; 
 and this includes not only the power of retaining ideas, but also of 
 recalling them. That faculty which enables us to recombine facts 
 which come to us through sensation or consciousness, we term Im- 
 agination. That faculty which guides imagination to proper results, 
 which traces cause and effect, which places all knowledge in the order 
 of dependence, and which discovers relations between different pro- 
 cesses of thought, we denominate Reason. 
 
 Perception. — The perceptive faculty is the first one aroused into 
 activity. The sensations received by the child are so numerous and 
 varied that curiosity is stimulated; "which indicates," says Pesta- 
 lozzi, "that a desire is created to change dim perceptions into those 
 which are clear and complete." Children manifest this curiosity by 
 the ceaseless activity of body and mind, and by never-ending ques- 
 tions. These manifestations, which clearly indicate nature's provision 
 for obtaining knowledge, are the very ones which are restrained, re- 
 pressed, and, as far as possible, prohibited in many of our schools. 
 
 The mere sight of an object does not satisfy a child. He must 
 handle it. weigh it, smell it, taste it, and examine it in all its parts, 
 in order to gain a complete idea of it. In addition to this, he engages 
 in playing, running, shouting, and laughing, each of which is an ex- 
 pression of a feeling, and an indication of the healthful condition of 
 both body and mind. He turns from one sport to another with 
 celerity ; which shows that variety of impression and rapidity of ac- 
 quirement are not only possible, but are demanded with an urgency 
 that can not be resisted with impunity. 
 P. 11. 
 
162 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 A feature not to be overlooked in the sports of childhood is the 
 intensity of the attention bestowed upon objects. It is often said 
 that children will take in the contents of a whole scene at a single 
 glance, including details which an adult might not have noticed. 
 This is but partially true. The eye can only take cognizance of that 
 which is directly in the range of its axis, and it obtains a knowledge 
 of adjoining objects only by changing this. The quickness with 
 which this change can be effected, and with which a knowledge of ;i 
 large object or scene may be obtained, shows the rapidity with which 
 the mind acts when it is aroused. The earnestness of attention 
 which a child bestows upon any thing which he sees for the first 
 time shows that he obtains ideas before he has words to express 
 them. 
 
 When children arrive at school age, three ways are presented by 
 which their education may be conducted. 
 
 First. — To give names to letters, figures, and other symbols, fol- 
 lowed by definitions, rules, and a limited number of facts, most of 
 which have no relation to those already known to the child. The 
 whole process deals in ideas which have not come within the child's 
 experience, and, consequently, are not his own. They are clothed in 
 words not in common use, the meaning of which is frequently en- 
 tirely unknown. 
 
 Second. — To allow children to continue for a time in school the 
 plays which they have learned at home, thus giving vent to their 
 natural activity; but gradually mingling pleasant instruction with 
 the play, training their hands to make beautiful objects, and leading 
 them to the full, free exercise of their inventive faculties. 
 
 Third. — To place objects before them in which they are interested, 
 and which tend to cultivate their perceptive faculties ; and, at the 
 same time, lead them to name the object, to describe its parts, and 
 to state the relation of these parts. Thus language also is cultivated ; 
 and, from the observation of a single object, the pupil is led to com- 
 pare it with others, and the first steps in classification are taken. 
 
 The first of these methods may be styled the old method; or, since 
 it is largely practiced now, the usual method. It is the result of 
 habit, thoughtlessness, or ignorance, and can not, for a moment, stand 
 the test of philosophical criticism. 
 
 The second of these methods is known as the Kindergarten system. 
 This word literally signifies children's garden, but means a pleasant 
 place where children are educated. The Kindergarten system was 
 originated, after the time of Pestalozzi, by Frobel, an eminent Ger- 
 man educator, and is rather supplementary than antagonistic to Pes- 
 
HIS METHOD. 163 
 
 talozzi's work. Fnibel takes children at a very early age, and pro- 
 poses to systematize their plays, train their activities, and, in some 
 measure, arrange their ideas in an orderly manner before the com- 
 mencement of school life. Pestalozzi assigned the same work to the 
 mother, as a part of necessary home education, without, however, 
 considering her want of culture, means, or time for its accomplish- 
 ment. 
 
 The third is the method which has more directly grown out of 
 Pestalozzi's work, and has given rise to what are known as Object 
 Lessons. These lessons are designed specially to cultivate the per- 
 ceptive faculty; and hence, in any true system of education, they 
 must be considered as fundamental — not only in their relation to the 
 faculties, but as giving the first ideas, or laying the foundation of all 
 branches of knowledge. Object Lessons in form lead directly to 
 Drawing, Writing, and Geometry ; in sound and form, to Language, 
 including Reading, Speaking, and Spelling; in place, to Geography; 
 and in animals, plants, minerals, etc., to Natural History. Every 
 branch of science has its primary course, the first ideas of which can 
 best be derived from objects, which are viewed from all sides and in 
 all relations accessible to perception, so that distinct ideas may be 
 formed both for present use and as the basis of future work. 
 
 The examination of natural objects, such as minerals, plants, shells, 
 and animals, not only serves to awaken the observation, but also 
 affords a glimpse of the laws of beauty and symmetry manifest in all 
 God's works, and awakens a love for the study of nature in all her 
 forms. The interest thus excited will often lead to the collection of 
 specimens, which, in their turn, stimulate to farther investigations — 
 a result very different from that which follows when the study is 
 commenced with definitions and scientific classification. 
 
 The term "Object Lesson," or "Object Teaching," has obtained a 
 signification far too narroAV to express the full meaning of the process 
 of instruction which is based on experience. Objects can not always 
 be procured, and they are by no means indispensable. A model or 
 picture may sometimes be used instead, but the method of procedure 
 is the same in either case. 
 
 Again, in many instances objects are merely used as means to de- 
 velop an idea. We say three apples, four pebbles, two beans; yet 
 neither the apples, pebbles, nor beans are essential to the conception 
 of the numbers three, four, and two. In the higher branches, 
 as moral and intellectual philosophy, ideas forming a part of our 
 experience are the objects which, as the name implies, are placed, 
 or thrown up, before us for special consideration. 
 
164 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 This method commences with an examination of objects and facts, 
 then institutes comparisons by which resemblances, differences, and 
 relations are observed; and with the results so obtained, repeats the 
 process until the remotest relations are known and the highest gener- 
 alizations reached. This process may, with propriety, be called the 
 Objective Method or Objective Teaching. 
 
 Objective Teaching, in this enlarged sense, includes Object Lessons, 
 and a great deal more. It comprehends the unfolding of the facul- 
 ties in the order of their growth and use, and the presentation of the 
 several branches of instruction in their natural order. Its great aims 
 are mental growth and the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 Memory. — This faculty includes those powers of the mind, which 
 enable us to store up knowledge, and recall it for use. That which 
 makes the strongest impression, not only remains longest with us, but 
 is most easily recalled ; therefore, those educational processes which 
 conduce to this end are most desirable. Strong and deep impressions 
 are made whenever ideas are connected or associated by similarities, 
 contrasts, cause and effect, time, place, or other relations. 
 
 Again, the impressions are much stronger when made upon more 
 than one sense ; or, rather, when those made upon one sense are cor- 
 roborated and enforced by those made upon another. For example, 
 if an object, interesting to children, is presented to them, its parts 
 and relations discovered and pointed out, and the whole impressed by 
 the use of familiar language on the part of both teacher and pupil, 
 the ideas gained will only need to be occasionally recalled to become 
 enduring. On the contrary, a lesson read or repeated in language 
 not thoroughly understood, will make an impression so weak that it 
 will speedily be effaced. The objective method of education continu- 
 ally stimulates the power of association, while the old system appeals 
 mainly to verbal memory. 
 
 Morell, in his Inductive Philosophy, says: "The power of mem- 
 ory may be represented by a spider's web, which sends out its thread 
 in all directions, establishing connection with every part and with the 
 central point of the whole. When the mind has woven such a web 
 around an object, it can pass along the threads at pleasure to any 
 given point." 
 
 This view of memory is important, since it shows that only by 
 association can we fix any truth indelibly on the mind of the pupil, 
 and enable him to recall it at will. Hence, the teacher questions and 
 cross-questions to see that the fact he desires to impress does not lie 
 as an isolated idea in the mind; if it does, he endeavors, by numer- 
 ous ties, to bind it to other ideas, so as to multiply the bridges by 
 
HIS METHOD. 165 
 
 which the mind can return to it at any future time. Therefore, the 
 cultivation of memory does not merely imply the exercise of a single 
 faculty, but aho (lie order and connection of our idem. 
 
 The objective method of teaching not only makes use of existing 
 associations, but creates new ones. In Arithmetic, for instance, if the 
 fact that three times four is twelve is associated with three groups, 
 each containing four objects, the result can always be recollected in 
 the same manner as originally found, even if the sentence which ex- 
 pressed the process has faded from the memory. Again, if, in Geog- 
 raphy, the ideas of a mountain and a river and the relations between 
 them are fully developed, the ideas of falling water, of mills, manu- 
 factories, and thriving cities, can be established and associated, so 
 that they can always be remembered and easily recalled. 
 
 In a majority of the schools of the present day very little attention 
 is paid to the systematic development of associated memory. Discon- 
 nected and imperfect ideas are presented, and, in many cases, words 
 which convey no meaning are given. The vitality is exhausted in a 
 vain effort to make arbitrary memory do the work of natural associa- 
 tion. The strain which an effort to memorize isolated facts and dis- 
 connected and unmeaning sentences produces, has a tendency to par- 
 alyze the whole mind, and to produce a dislike for all mental work. 
 The brilliant feats of word-memory, so often witnessed at examina- 
 tions and exhibitions, can only deceive those who are not able to dis- 
 tinguish appearance from reality, shadow from substance. 
 
 In those schools where the pupils are made to rely mainly upon 
 verbal memory, there will be found generally the least originality, 
 the least invention, and the least amount of true, vigorous, mental 
 discipline ; while conceit and deception are engendered and honest 
 efforts discouraged. 
 
 Imagination. — The power of creating new forms and combinations 
 out of the elements which nature furnishes, the faculty which never 
 lets the mind rest content with mere perception, but is constantly 
 urging it to new activities, is the imagination. Its work is demanded 
 in every department of human thought and action ; and, therefore, 
 this faculty should be carefully and thoroughly trained. Its impor- 
 tance in educational work is generally overlooked ; partly, from a mis- 
 understanding in regard to the faculty itself, and partly from a lack 
 of system in the treatment of all the faculties. 
 
 Imagination is usually regarded as synonomous with fancy — very 
 pleasant to amuse, but of little worth in real labor. It is thought to 
 be poetic, sentimental, impracticable, and of service in the avocations 
 rather than the vocations of life. Even writers upon mental philoso- 
 
166 PESTALOZZIi 
 
 phy seem to have been lost in a kind of fog when attempting to de- 
 fine its nature and office. 
 
 The mind must have the power to use the ideas it obtains, or 
 they are of little worth; and, to use them well, it must combine them 
 into new forms, thus discovering new relations. Imagination is usu- 
 ally considered reproductive as well as productive. The former, how- 
 ever, means but little more than a vivid recollection, while the latter 
 alone expresses the true idea of the recombining or inventive faculty. 
 Before the imagination can be developed and trained, the mind must 
 be in possession of a large number of definite ideas, and have the 
 ability to perceive the relations that exist between them. Both of 
 these conditions are furnished by the Objective System in a much 
 higher degree than by any other. 
 
 Again, by furnishing the mind with proper and congenial subjects 
 of thought, the disastrous consequences of a perverted imagination are 
 avoided. When occupied with ideas which have a real and tangible 
 basis, the mind obtains quicker perceptions of true relations and a 
 desire for further investigation ; thus (he imagination is impelled in 
 the right direction. Deprived of this food, it uses the impulses 
 which spring from ill -regulated appetites and passions, and creates a 
 world which is unreal, and may be grotesque or prurient. The task 
 imposed upon pupils of studying words instead of ideas, of trying to 
 understand subjects above their comprehension, tends to paralyze the 
 imagination, or force it into channels unnatural and dangerous. The 
 baleful influence of improper sights and immoral books is a matter 
 that is continually forced upon the attention of teachers and parents. 
 So potent are the evils arising therefrom, that it has become a seri- 
 ous question with many well-meaning people, whether the imagination 
 is not a faculty of evil rather than beneficence, one that ought to be 
 destroyed rather than developed. 
 
 When the mind is filled with pleasing ideas ; when it is stimulated 
 through all the organs of sense; when its energies are taxed to the 
 utmost; when its powers are brought into action in the exact order 
 of nature, — then will the imagination find plenty of employment in 
 the real world, and will not so readily wander away into by and for- 
 bidden paths ; and the evils now so deplored, and so largely attributa- 
 ble to false methods of instruction will disappear. 
 
 Reason. — We do not propose to give here an exhaustive disserta- 
 tion upon the subject of reason, or to attempt to reconcile the con- 
 flicting ideas of philosophers concerning it. The general office of 
 reason seems, however, to be well understood. Leading through 
 definite processes to definite results, it is the guide to imagination. 
 
HIS METHOD. 167 
 
 It places all knowledge in due order of dependence, and discovers 
 ultimate relations through a succession of logical steps. Its activities 
 lie entirely in the field of knowledge ; and its conclusions are val- 
 uable just in proportion to the breadth of the foundations upon 
 which its premises rest, and to the exact dependence of the steps of 
 its processes. 
 
 Generalization, which is indispensable to classification, supplies pre- 
 mises from which new and important deductions can be made, and 
 is an outgrowth of reasoning. The reasoning, which is the re- 
 sult of limited observation and imperfect investigation, arrives at 
 results which are as likely to be false as to be true, and are calcu- 
 lated to deceive from their resemblance to true logical conclusions. 
 The person who indulges in such reasoning, or is influenced by it, 
 not only accepts false conclusions, but his mind becomes contracted, 
 and he loses all desire for that broader investigation necessary to the 
 establishment of genuine truth. He is content to take the semblance 
 for the reality. 
 
 Again, if reason, whose office is to arrange facts in their order of 
 dependence or to construct science, has a narrow basis of facts, its 
 classification is incomplete and worthless. The value of the process 
 of tracing cause and effect, and the results obtained, are in direct pro- 
 portion to the number of facts taken into consideration, and to the 
 care and minuteness with which these facts have been observed and 
 investigated. No exceptional or special power of reasoning can com- 
 pensate for the lack of that knowledge upon which it is based. In- 
 deed, the stronger the process of reasoning and the more perfect the 
 logic exercised upon a narrow and insufficient foundation of facts, the 
 greater is the certainty of false conclusions and distorted views of 
 life, culminating in unwise actions. 
 
 The work of the educator in regard to reason seems to be very 
 plain. He is to so prepare the mind of his pupils that reason may 
 guide them invariably to truth. To do this, the perception must be 
 cultivated in such a manner that conclusions will be based upon ex- 
 perience. The retaining and recollecting faculties must be active and 
 faithful, and the imagination must be so exercised as to perceive 
 the relations which come from all possible combinations. When a 
 pupil is thus trained, reason will act correctly, and he can be easily 
 led from simple facts and relations through easy and logical steps 
 to the solution of complicated problems in science and in life. 
 
 From this examination of all the faculties of the mind, the order 
 of their development, and their modes of action, we are able to estab- 
 lish the truth and excellence of Pestalozzi's work, and the importance 
 
168 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 of the great educational movement which he inaugurated. No matter 
 how slowly these ideas may make their way; no matter how fiercely 
 they may be assailed, they are like leaven in the measure of meal. 
 These truths, which form the basis of the Pestalozzian method, had 
 long existed as intellectual convictions in the minds of philosophers, 
 and had even been expressed in proverbs and apothegms ; but it was 
 Pestalozzi who first showed, by actual experiment, how they might be 
 made the basis of universal education, and the means by which hu- 
 manity might be elevated. When he proved that the faculties should 
 be unfolded in an orderly and intelligent manner, he undermined the 
 very foundation of empiricism ; Avhen he pointed out the value of 
 Objective Teaching, the idolatrous worship of words was placed under 
 the ban of human intelligence ; and when he so eloquently and faith- 
 fully demonstrated the necessity of observing and respecting the indi- 
 viduality of every child, arbitrary authority and routine became 
 obsolete. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPECIAL APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZI'S METHOD. 
 
 A METHOD of treating this subject which shall deal justly with 
 the principles involved, the experiments of Pestalozzi, and 
 the transformation which the work has undergone, is not easy to find. 
 We might present a faithful sketch of Pestalozzi's own experiments 
 and scattered exercises before they were rearranged by his associates; 
 we might give a description of the workings of his Institution in the 
 most flourishing stage of its existence ; or we might describe the 
 manner in which the branches of instruction are treated in the so- 
 called Pestalozzian schools of the present day. In either case, our 
 presentation would be one-sided and partial, and would give little 
 idea of the extent to which these principles have been applied to the 
 different departments of education. Many of Pestalozzi's own exper- 
 iments were obviously failures, and were abandoned as soon as tried. 
 Subsequent investigation has shown that they were often antagonistic 
 to the principles which they sought to embody. Even as modified 
 by his associates and used in his Institution they were necessarily 
 crude, and have since been greatly improved. 
 
 We make this statement in consideration of the fact that the 
 American public, through Barnard's Review, has been made ac- 
 quainted with a criticism of Pestalozzi's method by Raumer, an emi- 
 nent German writer, a friend and cotemporary of Pestalozzi. This 
 criticism was written for readers in Germany, where the principles 
 of Pestalozzi were well-known and appreciated, and was mainly in- 
 tended to show how far the application of the method fell short of 
 the principles on which it was based. This view of the subject is 
 calculated to mislead the American reader who has no knowledge 
 of the real nature of Pestalozzi's work, and whose attention is thus 
 called only to its accidental crudities and defects rather than to its 
 intrinsic merits. 
 
 In regard to the treatment of the branches in the Pestalozzian 
 schools of the present day, there are wide differences. Even in the 
 
 (169) 
 
170 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 same school, the principles which are followed in one department are 
 often violated in another. To examine and intelligently criticise all 
 that has been done, and all that educators are now doing in this di- 
 rection, would far exceed the scope and limits of this work; and we 
 shall, therefore, content ourselves with giving Pestalozzi's own ideas 
 upon some branches and the leading characteristics which all his 
 followers have mainly observed. 
 
 Pestalozzi, in the sketch of his early experiments, dwells exclusively 
 on the elements of each science ; and wisely, for they furnish a safe 
 foundation. In the old system they were entirely neglected. 
 
 Spelling. — This subject had previously been taught by using only 
 the names of the letters; but neither the frown of the austere school- 
 master, nor the birch scepter in his hand, could induce the trembling 
 culprit on the bench to find out, without many a blunder, the true 
 pronunciation of a word from repeating the names of the letters 
 which compose it, — to see that aitch a tee should produce the word 
 hat. Pestalozzi substituted the real sounds for the names of the 
 letters, and thus gave a powerful impulse to the phonetic method, 
 now r in use in all good schools. 
 
 Number. — Pestalozzi and his associates made more radical changes 
 in the teaching of Arithmetic than in that of any other branch of 
 science; but the methods which they developed are now so univer- 
 sally practiced that nothing new can be said of them. These methods 
 were introduced in the face of a fierce and prolonged opposition from 
 the advocates of the formal method of "ciphering"; but the excel- 
 lencies of the new system were perfectly demonstrated by its advo- 
 cates. A series of carefully graduated exercises, conforming to the 
 natural development of the faculties of the mind, were arranged by 
 Kriisi, and were afterward revised and extended by Ramsauer, 
 ►Sehmid, and others. 
 
 Pestalozzi's first views upon the subject are shown by the following 
 extract from "How Gertrude Teaches her Children": "The science 
 of Arithmetic arises altogether from the combination and separation 
 of units. Its fundamental formula is this : One and one are two ; 
 one from two leaves one. Any number, whatever its name, is noth- 
 ing but an abridgment of this elementary process of counting. It is 
 of the utmost importance that this ultimate basis of all number should 
 not be obscured in the mind by arithmetical abbreviations. The 
 science of numbers must be so taught that their real properties and 
 proportions may lie deeply impressed on the mind. If this be neg- 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 171 
 
 lected, the study of number will be degraded into a mere plaything 
 of the child's memory and imagination, and its object, of course, 
 entirely defeated. 
 
 "If, for instance, we learn by rote that three and four make 
 seven, and we then build upon this seven as if we actually compre- 
 hended it, we deceive ourselves ; we have no real apprehension of 
 seven, because we are not conscious of the real fact, the actual sight 
 of which can alone give truth and reality to the hollow sound. 
 
 "The first impressions of numerical proportions should be given to 
 the child by illustrating the variations of more and less with real ob- 
 jects placed in his view. My first arithmetical exercises may be found 
 in the ' Mother's Manual,' the first tables of which are intended to 
 bring distinctly before the eyes of the child the ideas of one, two, 
 three, etc., up to ten. I then call upon him to select the pictures of 
 the objects which represent one ; then those which are double, triple, 
 etc. After this I make him go over the same numbers with his 
 fingers, with beans, pebbles, or any other objects which may be at 
 hand. He is still more deeply impressed by repeating them many 
 times a day on the spelling-tablet,* first dividing each word into its 
 syllables, and then asking : ' How many syllables has this word ? ' 
 ' What is the first, the second, the third?' 'How many letters in the 
 first, second, third syllable?' etc. In this manner children are made 
 perfectly familiar Avith the elements of numbers, and the conception 
 of them remains present to their minds while learning the use of their 
 abridgments, figures, in which they must not be exercised before the 
 former be fully secured. The most important advantage gained hy 
 this proceeding is the acquisition of clear ideas, and it is almost in- 
 credible how great a facility in the art of calculating the child derives 
 from this method of teaching. 
 
 "Any objects may be used for teaching Arithmetic, each one rep- 
 resenting a unit. An object is presented, and the teacher asks: 
 ' How many objects are there here ? ' The children answer, ' There 
 is but one.' The teacher, adds one, and asks again : ' One and one, 
 how many are there?' Answer: 'One and one are two.' And so 
 I go on, adding first one at a time; then two, three, etc. 
 
 " After the child has, in this manner, come to a full understanding 
 of the combinations of units up to ten, and has learned to express 
 himself with perfect ease in each particular case, the objects are again 
 presented, but the questions are changed : ' If we have two objects, 
 
 *The Spelling-tablet is an apparatus on which the letters, fixed on little 
 squares of pasteboard, arc made to slide in and out. 
 
172 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 how many times one object?' The child looks, counts, and answers 
 correctly : ' If there are two objects, we have two times one object.' 
 
 "The child having thus distinctly and repeatedly counted over the 
 parts of each number up to ten, and having obtained a clear view of 
 the number of units in each, the question is again changed — the ob- 
 jects being still before him: 'Two, how many times one is it?' 
 ' Three, how many times one ? ' Or, again : ' How many times is one 
 contained in two, three?' etc. After the child has, by these means, 
 been made acquainted with the simple operations in addition, multi- 
 plication, and division, subtraction is to be taught upon the same plan. 
 The ten objects being placed together, the teacher takes away one of 
 them, and asks: 'If I take one from ten, how many remain?' The 
 child counts, finds nine, and answers: 'If you take one from ten, it 
 leaves nine.' The teacher then takes away a second object ; and so 
 on to the end." 
 
 These exercises may be continued in a great variety of forms with 
 all the numbers up to ten. The table which was intended to bring 
 these facts before the perception of the pupil, formed, for a long time, 
 a prominent feature in all Pestalozzian schools. It even appeared in 
 the first edition of Warren Oolburn's Mental Arithmetic ; but has 
 since been superseded by the ball -frame, and other meatus used in 
 infant schools. We give above a representation of the original table, 
 which, executed on a large scale, might still form a useful addition to 
 school apparatus. 
 
 "When the child lias mastered these tables," says Pestalozzi, "he 
 will have acquired so complete a knowledge of the real properties and 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 173 
 
 proportions of numbers that he will be able to enter, with the utmost 
 facility, upon the common abridged modes of calculating by figures. 
 His mind can not be confused : his computations are a rational pro- 
 cess, not a mere mechanical work of the memory. 
 
 " But increase and diminution are not confined to units: they apply 
 also to that second department of Arithmetic in which we find every 
 unit capable of division and subdivision into an indefinite number of 
 parts. In the discussion of units, a line was used for illustration. 
 For this new department, it is necessary to find a figure which may be 
 divided to an indefinite extent in such a manner that each part is an 
 independent unit analogous to the whole ; and that the child may 
 have the relation of the fraction to the whole as clearly before his 
 eyes as by three distinct lines he sees the relation of three to one. 
 
 "The only figure adapted to this purpose is the square. By means 
 of it, the diminution of each single part and the proportionate increase 
 of the number of parts by the continued division and subdivision of 
 the unit may be made as evident as the ascending scale of numbers 
 by the addition or multiplication of units." 
 
 From our present stand-point, it is quite evident that the use of the 
 square, a mere figure, upon which Pestalozzi so much relied, is a 
 much less philosophical means of teaching fractions than a real object, 
 like an apple, as the latter appeals to more than one sense. The 
 method was right, although the means employed were not the best 
 that could have been devised. There is a strong tendency on the 
 part of teachers to confound method with the means by which it is 
 illustrated ; and at one time Pestalozzi and some of his followers fell 
 into that error. 
 
 The pupils of Sehmid and Ramsauer attained a clearness, precision, 
 and rapidity in the solution of questions of Mental Arithmetic, which 
 excited the admiration of all who heard them, and which have hardly 
 been surpassed in the present day. This success is due, in part, to 
 the enthusiasm with which the work was performed ; and, in part, to 
 the fact that illustration was carried to a far greater extent than it is 
 now. 
 
 We append the report of a lesson in number, made by Von Turk, 
 when he visited the school in its earlier days. It may be presumed 
 that the idea of number from one to ten had already been developed. 
 
 " ' What do you see here?' 
 
 " 'Beans.' 
 
 " ' Of what color are they?' 
 
 " ' Yellow, with a white spot.' 
 
 " ' How are they placed ? ' 
 
174 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 " ' In a .straight row.' 
 
 "'On which side are the germs or white spots?' 
 " ' On the left side.' 
 
 " 'How do the distances between them compare?' 
 " 'They are equally distant from each other.' 
 ' ' ' How many are there ? ' 
 " ' There are eight beans.' 
 
 "The children were here required, as an exercise in language, to 
 describe the color, position, and relative distance of the beans from 
 each other ; as, 'I see eight beans lying in a straight row on the 
 table; they are yellow, and equally distant from each other.' 
 
 "In the second part of the lesson, changes were made while the 
 children turned away from the teacher. They were then required to 
 give an account of these changes in answer to questions like the 
 following : 
 " ' What change do you see in the position of the beans?' 
 " 'They are farther apart.' 
 " ' Is there any change in the number?' 
 " ' There are eight beans, as before.' 
 " ' What other change do you see?' 
 " 'They lie in a crooked row.' 
 " ' Any other change ? ' 
 " ' The germs are on the right side.' 
 " ' What do you see me do now?' 
 " ' You take away two beans.' 
 " 'How many are left?' 
 " 'There are six left.' 
 
 "The teacher places the remaining beans farther apart, asking: 
 " ' How many do you see now?' 
 " ' We see six beans.' 
 
 " ' Look at the space they occupy; are there not as many as before?' 
 " 'They occupy the same space, but they are farther apart.' 
 " ' What, then, do you say when two beans are taken from eight 
 beans ? ' 
 
 " ' Two beans taken from eight beans leave six beans.' 
 " ' How many beans must be added to six beans to make eight beans?' 
 " 'Two beans.' 
 
 "The summing up of the changes which were made gives rise to 
 composition in which the verb is used in the past tense and in con- 
 nection with adverbs of time ; as, ' You placed the beans farther 
 apart, and then turned the germs toward the right side, and laid 
 them in a crooked row,' etc." 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 175 
 
 We would like to call especial attention to the principles that 
 characterize this exercise, considered as an object lesson. 
 
 First. — That a full recognition is made of the fact, that children 
 gain their practical knowledge of things in connection with many 
 circumstances which they consider in turn, although they alternately 
 fix their attention upon each point. 
 
 Second. — That the language of a child is far better cultivated by 
 a full account of what is passing before him, than by isolated words 
 or fragmentary sentences. 
 
 Third. — That a mingling of play with instruction is a healthful in- 
 centive to the attainment of knowledge, and conduces to the well- 
 being of both mind and body. 
 
 Drawing. — It is an interesting fact that Pestalozzi, though no 
 adept in many of the branches for the teaching of which he tried to 
 establish a better method, seemed to know, as by intuition, the real 
 foundation of the sciences, and the principal defects in the manner in 
 which each had been taught. This was preeminently true of Draw- 
 ing; for he was hardly able to draw a line correctly. He says: "In 
 endeavoring to teach Writing, I found I must begin by teaching Draw- 
 ing; and when I took the latter in hand, I saw that the art of meas- 
 uring was involved. 
 
 " The common method of proceeding is to begin with an incorrect 
 view and a crooked representation of the object ; to erase, draw 
 again, and repeat this tedious process until, by degrees, an instinctive 
 feeling of the proportions is awakened. At last, measuring, which 
 should have been the first process, is resorted to. 
 
 "Our artists do not measure; but, by long practice, they acquire 
 a greater or less precision in imitating outlines, and this obviates the 
 necessity of measuring. Each has his own method of procedure 
 but he is unable to explain it ; hence, if he teaches others, he leaves 
 them to grope in the dark, even as he did, and to acquire, by great 
 exertion and perseverance, the same instinctive feeling of proportions. 
 This is why art has remained exclusively in the hands of a few priv- 
 ileged individuals, who have talent and leisure to pursue a circuit- 
 ous road. Yet, Drawing ought to be a universal acquirement, be- 
 cause the talent for it is universally inherent. 
 
 "A taste for Drawing invariably manifests itself in the child with- 
 out any assistance from art ; while the task of learning to read and 
 write is. on account of its difficulty, so disagreeable to children that 
 it requires great art or great violence to overcome the aversion which 
 they often evince. In some instances, they sustain a greater injury 
 
17(3 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 from the means adopted to gain their attention and to force their 
 application, than can ever be repaid by the advantages accruing to 
 them from the possession of these acquirements. 
 
 "In proposing, however, the art of Drawing as a general branch 
 of education, it must not be forgotten that I coirsider it as a means of 
 leading the child from vague perceptions to clear ideas. To accom- 
 plish this object, it must not be separated from the art of measuring. 
 If the child be made to imitate objects before he has acquired a dis- 
 tinct idea of their proportions, his instruction in the art of Drawing 
 will fail to produce upon his mental development that beneficial in- 
 fluence which alone renders it valuable." 
 
 The principles so clearly enunciated can not fail to command gen- 
 eral assent. They may be considered as the foundation of all reform 
 in this important branch of education. In determining the consecu- 
 tive exercises for a course of instruction, Pestalozzi is less fortunate; 
 for in this we find, mixed with truth, many errors, arising from his 
 inadequate knowledge of the details of science. To Buss was in- 
 trusted the difficult and somewhat mysterious task of constructing an 
 " alphabet of form." This alphabet was found in the various lines of 
 a figure drawn within a square, and consisting of vertical, horizontal, 
 and diagonal lines, and in arcs placed in the four principal points of 
 direction. The error of this plan is more in application than in gen- 
 eral conception. Pestalozzi was evidently in search of the elements 
 of form, out of which simple figures or patterns, corresponding to 
 words in language, could be constructed. These patterns are again 
 united to form figures more and more elaborate, as words are to form 
 sentences, and sentences discourse. The alphabet which he formed, 
 consisting of straight lines and the arc, is not, however, sufficient to 
 express all the varied forms of nature's work, and therefore is incom- 
 plete. 
 
 Pestalozzi had but little knowledge of Geometry, Perspective, and 
 their kindred branches; hence, when he entered into the minute de- 
 tails of Drawing, he was liable to circumscribe the subject within too 
 narrow limits, and to lav a foundation without sufficiently consider- 
 ing the superstructure to he erected upon it. 
 
 Language. — Pestalozzi found in Language the same want of system 
 as in Drawing. He was obliged to enter upon the field of untried 
 experiment, and the circuitous routes which he traversed could not 
 fail to lead him astray, although he pursued, in the main, the right 
 direction. 
 
 The exercises which he suggested as an introduction to reading, 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 177 
 
 though imperfect, contain the germ of that instruction which has 
 rendered Language the interpreter of reality and the expression of 
 thought. He says: "After I began to teach reading, T found that 
 my pupils wanted first to be taught speaking; and when I attempted 
 this, I was forced to begin with single sounds, and from these to 
 build up words, and from words, sentences." 
 
 His remarks upon the necessity of making observation the basis of 
 language, thinking of speaking, and speaking of writing, are very im- 
 pressive. His denunciations can not be called severe, when we con- 
 sider that the system of education then in vogue had led the people 
 to become worshipers of words. Many of our schools are open to the 
 same criticism. 
 
 "The people of our portion of the world are sunk to such a depth, 
 because,for more than a century in their common schools, an influence 
 over the human mind has been accorded to words, which not only 
 destroys the power of attention to the impressions of nature, but 
 mars the very susceptibility of men toward them. I say once more, 
 that while this has been done, and has made some of our European 
 people the most wordy chatter-boxes on the face of the earth, they 
 have not been taught to speak. 
 
 "This being the case, is it a wonder that the civilization of this 
 century and of this part of the world is sunk to its present low con- 
 dition ? or, is it not rather a wonder that, considering the clumsy and 
 absurd methods which have been practiced, human intelligence has 
 retained so much of its native force as to be still recognized ? But 
 God be praised! the folly of all these apish methods will, in the end, 
 find an antagonist in human nature itself; and when they have 
 reached the greatest extreme of apishness which can be endured, they 
 will cease to injure our race. Folhj and error, in whatever garb, con- 
 tain the seals of their own dissolution. Truth alone, in every form, con- 
 tains within itself the seed* of eternal life." 
 
 We make no extracts from the exercises which were given on this 
 subject ; partly, because they apply to words and forms peculiar to 
 the German language, and partly, because they were but crude 
 experiments. 
 
 Geography. — In his efforts to systematize Geography, Pestalozzi 
 seems to have violated the principles of a sound system of instruction. 
 This resulted from an undue attention to an alphabetical and, there- 
 fore, arbitrary arrangement of Geographical names, which he wished 
 to impress upon the mind or, rather, upon the memories of the pupils. 
 He evidently had not, at that time, a correct conception of the true 
 T\ 12. 
 
178 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 office and purpose of Geography, but considered it as a means tor the 
 cultivation of language ; yet, through his general views of education, 
 he inspired his personal friends, Tobler, Henning, Schacht, and Ritter, 
 with an enthusiasm for that branch, which has resulted in making it 
 one of the most useful pursued in our schools. 
 
 The principles of Pestalozzi, that the facts of elementary hwtvledge 
 should be clearly impressed on the perceptions of children, and that in- 
 struction should proceed from that which is near to that which is distant, 
 are perhaps more imperatively demanded in Geography than in any 
 other study ; and yet in no branch of instruction are these princi- 
 ples more constantly violated. 
 
 The pupil, to pursue the study of Geography correctly, should 
 understand the art of measuring, so as to be able to give the relative 
 position of places. A true conception of the cardinal points of direc- 
 tion is also requisite at the outset, and these should be obtained from 
 the position of the sun in rising and setting, so that the false im- 
 pression, obtained from the study of the maps, that north is up 
 and south is down, shall never be made. From the knowledge so 
 obtained, the pupil may be led to observe and describe the school- 
 room, the play-ground, the garden, the farm, and all places with 
 which he is familiar. 
 
 Whatever he sees, he should be taught to represent in the form of 
 a map, in the construction of which the ideas of measurement and 
 proportion should always be observed. The perception of a hill will 
 lead to the comprehension of a mountain ; of the windings of a brook, 
 to the knowledge of an island, a peninsula, an isthmus, a bay, a 
 cape, and a sea. With this sure basis of thorough home knowledge, 
 the pupil is prepared to comprehend the essential features of the 
 countries which lie beyond the reach of Ins personal observations; 
 for then he holds the key of all geographical knowledge. 
 
 Singing. — We have already stated that Pestalozzi is generally cor- 
 rect when governed by his feelings, though he sometimes erred in 
 his judgment. Of the science of music he knew nothing, and, al- 
 though he by no means undervalued it as an intellectual process, 
 yet he regarded it chiefly in its softening and humanizing effects 
 upon character and society. He says: 
 
 " It is not proficiency in music which I consider most important. 
 It is the marked and most beneficial influence which it has on the 
 feelings, and which I have always thought to be very efficient in 
 preparing and attuning us for the best impressions. The exquisite 
 harmony of a superior performance, the studied elegance of the exe- 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZI'S METHOD. 179 
 
 eution may give satisfaction to a connoisseur ; but it is the simple 
 music which speaks to the heart. The natural melodies, which have 
 from time immemorial been resounding in our native valleys, are 
 fraught with reminiscences of the brightest parts of our history, and 
 of the most endearing scenes of domestic life. The effect of music 
 in education is not alone to keep alive a national feeling: it goes 
 much deeper. If cultivated in the right spirit, it strikes at the root 
 of every bad or narrow feeling, of every ungenerous or mean pro- 
 pensity, of every emotion unworthy of humanity. 
 
 " Those schools and families, in which music has retained its cheer- 
 ful and chaste character, have invariably given evidences of moral 
 feeling and, consequently, of happiness, which leave no doubt of 
 the intrinsic value of that art which has sunk into neglect or degen- 
 erated into abuse, only in the ages of barbarism or depravity." ' 
 
 The first application of Pestalozzi's principles to the teaching of 
 singing was made by his friend Nageli, an eminent and successful 
 Swiss composer, well-known to the musical and educational world. 
 The question which he undertook to solve was, how to make music, 
 with all its elevating influences, a popular branch of instruction, and 
 not merely an appendage or ornament of fashionable circles. This 
 could be done only by reducing it, like other sciences, to its true ele- 
 ments ; and by leading the pupils to combine these elements in a pro- 
 gressive manner, so that they could appreciate the essential parts of 
 a musical composition. Time, melody, and force were the three 
 points to which especial attention was given. Nageli made it the 
 duty of the teacher to lead his pupils to a thorough mastery of the 
 length, quality, and pitch of tones, rather than to a mere imitation 
 of Ins own voice. In this manner, he could avoid the unnatural 
 strain of the voice, and the mere rote teaching, incident to the old 
 methods, and could lead his pupils to the discovery of pleasing com- 
 binations, thus stimulating their invention and developing their taste. 
 
 The most approved systems of teaching music, at the present day, 
 are but modifications of that devised by Nageli, and are the results 
 of a wider experience and of a more systematic application of the 
 principles of Pestalozzi. 
 
 Farther quotations from Pestalozzi's writings would only tend to 
 corroborate what has already been clearly shown, that, in applying his 
 principles of education to specific branches, he often wandered from 
 the true path ; but that running through all are philosophic ideas 
 worthy of the great fame of their author. We have already stated 
 that it was Niederer, who, in answer to a demand which had become 
 
ISO PESTALOZZI. 
 
 imperative when Pestalozzi's enterprise had attracted the general at- 
 tention of the people of Europe, first attempted to give a calm and 
 systematic exposition of the principles and their application. The 
 impassioned appeals of the latter were better calculated to win the 
 heart; and the clear, sharp, philosophical utterances of the former 
 to convince the intellect. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF PESTALOZZL— Continued. 
 
 WE have already stated that the principles which underlie Pes- 
 talozzi's method have been partially recognized by enlightened 
 men of all ages. This does not, however, deprive him and his fol- 
 lowers of the merit of having discovered and opened new avenues of 
 thought and action, by which to reach the faculties whose develop- 
 ment is the very soul of education. For instance, as soon as the im- 
 portance of imagination as an educational agent was recognized, 
 invention was appealed to. The most elementary, and, at the same 
 time, the most pleasing, application of this principle is found in the 
 exercises known under the name — 
 
 Inventive Drawing. — In the introductory exercises of this course of 
 Drawing, objects representing length, like sticks, pencils, etc., are 
 placed in different directions, and the lines which represent them are 
 drawn on the board or slate. In this manner all the elements of 
 form, straight and curved, are introduced and mastered. The per- 
 ception is cultivated and the hand trained. These forms are now com- 
 bined by the pupils, and this stimulates and strengthens the inventive 
 faculty. For instance, the children are taught to combine curvilinear 
 angles of different forms, like the following : 
 
 so as to form pretty little designs, each containing only one kind 
 of angle. 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 
 (181) 
 
182 
 
 PKSTALOZZI. 
 
 By combining two kinds of angles the designs become modified in 
 various ways. 
 
 If to each a third kind of angle be added, the designs become more 
 complicated, and a great variety may be produced. 
 
 The progressive character of such exercises will be manifest to 
 every one. The hand of the pupil will be as well trained as by mere 
 imitation. Observation and imagination are both stimulated, and a 
 feeling of self-reliance is engendered, which is one of the great ends 
 of all education. The development of an independent art also rests 
 upon the basis of invention. Schelling, the German philosopher, re- 
 marks : "Every original product of art arises from the depth of im- 
 agination, branching out into an infinite variety of forms, and com- 
 bining, at last, into one graceful whole. This power of invention can 
 not be communicated, for it is a pure gift of nature." 
 
 Composition. — The relation of Grammar to language is ably ex- 
 pressed in the following passage, which breathes the spirit of Pesta- 
 lozzi, and is from the writings of the celebrated Dr. Chalmers: " In 
 former years, the acquisition of Grammar was believed to be a nec- 
 essary consequence of a classical education ; and little or no pains was 
 taken to acquaint the young with the peculiar forms of the native 
 tongue. Afterward, a course of English Grammar and Composition 
 was introduced into many schools ; but in a form inconsistent with 
 nature, and, therefore, incapable of success. According to this plan, 
 the pupils, often at a premature age, learn by heart the rules in a 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 183 
 
 little treatise. When these are mastered they are put to the prac- 
 tice of them in the composition of essays ; but without being able 
 to apply or make use of the knowledge they have acquired, because 
 it was only a knowledge of words, and not a perception of what the 
 rules meant. The result is that the pupils compose their essays by 
 mere imitation ; and at last leave school with little sense of the 
 principles, and as little acquaintance with the practice, of grammatical 
 composition as they had when they commenced. 
 
 "This plan, with its various modifications, being obviously insuffi- 
 cient, it becomes important to inquire, by what -means are we to 
 confer upon the young learner the knowledge of Grammar and skill 
 in Composition which he requires for so many of the most important 
 duties of life? In this inquiry, we join with those who proceed phil- 
 osophically ; in other words, we endeavor to ascertain the principle 
 established with reference to this subject in the unerring economy of 
 nature. What, in the first place, is the nature of Composition ? The 
 etymological meaning is putting together, in which sense it is employed 
 in painting, music, and language. In regard to language, this is a 
 process which commences at a very early period of life. The prattle 
 of an infant is in reality a composition; a putting together of words 
 to express ideas; a process the same in kind, though not in degree, as 
 that which takes place in the most matured mind. Now, in learning 
 to speak, the child is guided by no rules: no Grammar is required to 
 prepare him for oral composition. Necessity impels, imitation teaches, 
 practice establishes. Locke says, ' Remember, children are not to be 
 taught by rules which will always be slipping from their memories. 
 What you think is necessary for them to do, settle in them by indis- 
 pensable practice.' If, then, a child can compose spoken sentences 
 without any previous knowledge of rules, what is to prevent him 
 from forming written ones? In the one case, the instrument of ex- 
 pression is the tongue ; in the other, the pen : but the process of com- 
 bining ideas and the process of turning these ideas into conventional 
 terms, whether sounds or marks, are precisely the same in both. 
 Where, then, is the absolute need of Grammar to teach the pupil to 
 do this? Might it not as well be argued that he must be taught 
 Grammar before being allowed to speak? The legitimate sphere of 
 Grammar is correction, not suggestion. Language is the foundation, 
 the source of Grammar, and the pupil must be properly trained in 
 the former before the inferences of the latter can be of service. 
 Hence, not only is there no need of forcing one through a treatise of 
 Grammar to make him a composer, but it is positively injurious to 
 do so. 
 
184 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "Rule* are results; and, whatever be .the science or art, sound 
 mental training consists in leading the pupils up to the steps by 
 which these results are attained, so that he is not only interested in 
 the process, but capable of valuing the product. The habit thus 
 formed is the great end, which, however, can never be gained by 
 reversing the business, or, what is still worse, by handing the pupils 
 ready made rules, without even a hint as to the mode of their deduc- 
 tion. To learn Grammar, and Syntax, then, as the end, instead of the 
 beginning, is following precisely the course of nature, is learning the 
 language synthetically, learning it, in fine, the very way in which 
 the language itself has been formed. That part of intellectual educa- 
 tion which aims at teaching the mother tongue seems capable of ar- 
 rangement, in natural connection, under two heads : 
 " I. The acquisition of ideas by means of objects. 
 
 "II. The expression of ideas by words. 
 
 " With regard to the second, it is obvious that the pupil must 
 have been to a considerable extent prepared for it while acquiring 
 ideas ; for, in the plan proposed, the communication of a knowledge 
 of words goes hand in hand with a knowledge of things." 
 
 This extract clearly and forcibly expresses the general aim of the 
 language exercises in Pestalozzi's school, and those of his German fol- 
 lowers. The title of these exercises, Denk und Rede-ubungen — Thought 
 ami Language Exercises — shows that they considered thought first and 
 expression afterward. Thought, however, may be the result of 
 present and past observations, and, arising in either way, may be the 
 basis of exercises in language. 
 
 Pestalozzi, in his "Mother's Manual," made the human body, with 
 its parts and their relations, the first subject for contemplation and 
 description, considering the body of man to be nearest to man. He 
 made his pupils describe other things also, but committed the error 
 of forming the sentences which the pupils might have constructed for 
 themselves. Ramsauer says: "He lets the pupils repeat, or rather 
 scream after him, ' I see a wainscot : there is a long, narrow hole in 
 the wainscot: through the hole I see the wall,'" etc. In this manner 
 historical names and dates were taught. 
 
 The impatience of Pestalozzi, which impelled him continually to 
 prompt the pupil, both in the idea and expression of it, was not pos- 
 sessed by Kriisi, who prepared a course of lessons in which the 
 teacher and pupil alternately question and answer each other. This 
 course was arranged under the following heads: "Exercises," first, 
 "Concerning organs of sense;" second, "Organs of motion and 
 action;" third, "Organs of nutrition;" fourth, "Organs of speech." 
 
APPLICATION' OF PESTA LOZZl's METHOD. 185 
 
 We sec by this that Krusi considered effects as a better starting- 
 point for children than causes. Under the second division there 
 was a good opportunity to discuss the actions performed in different 
 trades; and he puts to the children such questions as these: Who 
 cuts? Where? When? Why? etc. In the exercises of the third di- 
 vision he asks: Who eats? When does he eat? Where? etc. In 
 this manner valuable information was often obtained; and all the 
 ideas were afterward summed up in the form of a little composi- 
 tion. Still the facts and actions discussed, although generally known, , 
 were not seen, and the lessons served principally as exercises in . 
 language. 
 
 These exercises give a very incomplete idea of what has been done 
 in this respect by the German teachers, many of whom show great 
 originality in making out their courses. In one of his reports, 
 Horace Mann says: "In the 'study-plans' of nearly all the schools, 
 I found a separate hour devoted to these exercises. The lessons 
 consisted of familiar conversations between teacher and pupils, 
 on subjects adapted to the age, capacities, and proficiency of the 
 latter. With the youngest classes, things immediately around them, — 
 the school-room and the materials of which it had been built; its dif- 
 ferent parts, as foundation, floor, Avails, ceiling, roof, door, fire-place ; 
 its furniture and apparatus ; its books, slates, paper ; the clothes of 
 the pupils and the materials of which they had been made ; then- 
 food and playthings ; the duties of children to animals, to each other, 
 to their parents, to neighbors, to the old, to their Maker. As the 
 children advanced in age and attainments, and had acquired full and 
 definite notions of the visible and tangible existences around them, 
 and also of time and space, so that they could understand descrip- 
 tions of the unseen and remote, the scope of these lessons was en- 
 larged, so as to take in the different kingdoms of nature, the arts, 
 trades, and occupations of men, and the more complicated affairs of 
 society." 
 
 < )l»ject Lessons, as introduced into England by Miss Mayo, and 
 into this country by Mr. Sheldon, are of quite a different character, 
 .since all the subjects are illustrated by objects or pictures placed be- 
 fore the children to be seen and handled, thus stimulating observation 
 and cultivating perception directly. This process seems best adapted 
 to the practical spirit of the Anglo-Saxon race, as it accords with 
 their habits of arriving at conclusions through ;i quickness of percep- 
 tion, rather than by reflection. 
 
 It is easy to criticise either method, when carried to an extreme. 
 While the exercises of the German method are admirably adapted to 
 
186 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 freedom of expression in oral composition, they are often desultory, 
 and there is a want of that novelty and animation necessary to the 
 nature of childhood. In the English there is an occasional tendency 
 to encumber the exercises with technical terms, and stiff, formal 
 sentences, before the full meaning of those terms and statements is 
 properly understood. 
 
 The highest result in the future will doubtless be obtained by the 
 judicious use of both these processes, pruned of their errors and com- 
 bined into one. The time is evidently at hand when what is now 
 termed Object Lessons will be embraced under the more compre- 
 hensive name of Objective Teaching, which will include all depart- 
 ments of instruction ; while the correct expression of all ideas thus 
 gained, whether in the form of discourse or of written composition, 
 will be a practical course of language. 
 
 Geometry. — Human reason is limited in its capacity and application. 
 Man is, nevertheless, entitled to its free use, and should have an op- 
 portunity of deciding for himself in regard to the truth or falsity of 
 assertions. He should be allowed to link one thought to another in 
 logical order, and express his thoughts and conclusions in his own lan- 
 guage. In most of our schools the importance of this internal growth 
 is overlooked, and the work itself altogether neglected. The mathe- 
 matical branches afford, perhaps, the best field in which this inde- 
 pendence of investigation and discovery can be exercised ; yet, in 
 many of them, the old routine of study is still preserved. 
 
 In Geometry, for instance, it is still the usual custom to have the 
 pupils learn from the book the solutions of problems which have 
 already been solved by others. No attempt is made to have them 
 discover the relations which exist between the lines and angles under 
 consideration ; nor are they led to make original application of gen- 
 eral principles to the solution of special problems. Often they simply 
 commit to memory the language. We do not hesitate to say, that, 
 when this is the case, the time is entirely lost. Again, they are led 
 to comprehend relations ; but the inventive faculties not being called 
 into action, the knowledge they gain is rarely assimilated, but remains 
 as something outside and apart from themselves. We will concede 
 that a good teacher, even under this system, may infuse some little 
 life into his teaching by frequent and varied questioning; but just in 
 proportion as he does this, he lays aside his old system and approxi- 
 mates to something better. 
 
 In the Pestalozzian schools, the problems of Geometry are solved 
 entirely by the ingenuity of the pupils. A preliminary discussion is 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl's METHOD. 187 
 
 held concerning certain first truths, and a foundation is laid for suc- 
 cessful work. The propositions do not always follow those of the 
 books, but are such as grow out of work already accomplished. 
 After the first few steps are taken such strength is gained that the 
 study becomes comparatively easy and progress very rapid. 
 
 Pupils taught in this way accomplish much more in the same time 
 than under the old system. Each problem is not only solved 
 by ' different members of the class, but frequently the same pupil 
 obtains several solutions. They express, in their own language, the 
 result of their own investigations, and this makes a much deeper im- 
 pression than could be made by the most concise and perfect argu- 
 ment learned from a book. The imagination suggests the means 
 through which the inventive faculty is called into action ; and the 
 subject, viewed in all its relations and connections, no longer remains 
 outside, but enters into the very texture of mind itself. 
 
 Use of Booh. — It is frequently alleged, that the Pestalozzian method 
 discards the use of books; and the maxim, "A child should never 
 be told what he can find out for himself," is quoted in proof of the 
 charge. We think, however, that, upon a critical examination, it will 
 be found that it is the abuse, and not the me, of books which is called 
 in question by the advocates of this system. When the Objective 
 System of teaching comes into general use, there will, undoubtedly, 
 be much less demand for text-books, especially for primary classes. 
 
 It is evident, from the examination we have already given to the 
 manner in which the mind must grow 7 , that the first lessons of child- 
 hood upon every subject must be presented through the senses. Chil- 
 dren should examine things, rather than read about them; they 
 should express the results of their investigations in their own lan- 
 guage, rather than adopt that which they find in books. This is 
 especially true in regard to the natural sciences, which can never be 
 thoroughly understood without illustration or experiment. Even the 
 elements of mental and moral philosophy are better taught by refer- 
 ring to the consciousness and experience of the pupil than by exam- 
 ining any system of philosophy, however profound. 
 
 In all these branches, after the elements are learned, books may be 
 consulted with profit; provided their statements are subjected to intel- 
 ligent criticism, and not accepted unquestioned. The records of the 
 past are preserved in language and transmitted to us in books, and it 
 is there alone that we can find the results which mark the progres- 
 sive march of civilization. The attitude of the Pestalozzian toward 
 books may be summed up in a single sentence. They are to be used 
 
188 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 to supplement experience, and to supply those tacts that are not 
 readily accessible by direct investigation. But every principle of 
 philosophy utterly condemns any system of instruction that dogmat- 
 ically enforces the doctrines of authors instead of leading the mind to 
 original discovery. 
 
 Morality and Religion. — In Ins whole work, Pestalozzi was inspired 
 by the highest morality and the deepest religious convictions. His ear- 
 nestness, his enthusiasm, his powerful appeals in behalf of the poor, 
 the lowly, and the unfortunate, came from sources deeper than mere 
 intellectual conclusions. His utterances, indeed, came directly from 
 his heart ; they glowed with fervor, and were delivered with passion- 
 ate eloquence ; but they lacked the order and method of mere intel- 
 lectual achievements. The impulse which caused him to commence 
 the work of teaching, at a time of life when most men are preparing 
 to retire from active duties, was an intense pity for a class of unfort- 
 unate children, who were deprived of the means of sustenance, of 
 protection, and of opportunity, by the march of invading armies. 
 
 Pestalozzi never claimed to be, in any sense, a religious teacher, 
 and yet his work lays the foundation of all spiritual culture. He 
 shows how the germ of conscience in the mind of an infant is quick- 
 ened into action, and what must be the successive influences which 
 will contribute to its growth. He makes all education culminate in 
 character, and by this standard he measures all educational processes. 
 In minds so quickened and cultured, the religious teacher finds his 
 ends half accomplished. 
 
 The child requires aid in the unfolding of his powers, analogous to 
 that which the plant receives from the warm rays of the sun, and 
 from the refreshing rain. But where shall the expanding mind first 
 obtain this aid? "Where," answers Pestalozzi, "but in the sanctu- 
 ary of the domestic circle, where God has placed the mother as the 
 first, best, and most impressive teacher of childhood." The following 
 extract from "How Gertrude teaches her Children," very fully gives 
 his views upon the origin of moral perceptions : 
 
 " 1 can not end my reflections without answering the question: 
 ' How is the mode of worshiping God connected with the principles 
 which I have adopted for the development of mankind?' I try 
 again to find the solution within myself; for, when I reflect upon 
 how the idea of God arises within, how it is that I believe in God, 
 that I feel happy in His love, and that I follow His commandments, 
 I find that the feeling of love, confidence, and obedience must be 
 develdped within myself before I can extend them toward God. I 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTAEOZZl's METHOD. 1 <S9 
 
 must love man, confide in man, obey man, before I can be elevated 
 to do the same with God. How can a man, who does not love his 
 brother whom he sees, love his Father in Heaven whom he does not 
 see? In tracing this sentiment to its primitive source, I find that it 
 arises chiefly from the relation which exists between the mother and 
 her infant. The mother is obliged by the power of instinct to nour- 
 ish, to protect, and to foster her child. She does so ; she satisfies his 
 wants ; she assists him in his weakness ; and the child feels happy in 
 her care. The germ of love is thus developed. 
 
 "An object which he never saw before is brought before his eyes. 
 He stares, and is afraid. The mother presses him closer to her heart;, 
 she plays with him, and his crying gradually ceases. When the ob- 
 ject reappears, she again takes him into her protecting arms, and smiles 
 on him. He does not cry now, but replies to the smile by a serene, 
 confiding look. In this way the germ of confidence is developed. 
 
 "The child recognizes his mother, and he likes those who resemble 
 her. He smiles at the approach of his parents, and loves those whom 
 they love, and those who love him. The germ of love toward his 
 brother — toward mankind — is developed. 
 
 "The first inclinations of sensual nature are opposed to obedience, 
 the cultivation of which is partly a work of art, and not a simple 
 consequence of instinct, though clearly connected with it. As love 
 is preceded by want, confidence by fear, so obedience is preceded 
 by a violent desire. The child will cry when he has to wait ; he 
 will be impatient before obeying. 
 
 "Patience is developed before obedience, for the child only obeys 
 through patience. This virtue also must be developed under the 
 guidance of the mother. The child must Avait before he receives 
 food ; wait to be carried about ; wait for an obstacle to be removed. 
 Nature is inflexible toward the impatient desires of the child. In 
 his anger he will beat upon wood and stone, but he only injures his 
 hand and will soon desist. In a similar way the mother has to be- 
 come inflexible toward his irregular desires. If, when he rages and 
 screams, the mother remains firm, he ceases to cry and learns to sub- 
 mit his will to others. This develops the first germs of obedience. 
 
 "Obedience and love, gratitude and confidence, develop the first 
 germs of conscience. The child at last receives the impression that 
 it is not right to resist a loving mother ; he will feel that she is not 
 here for his sake alone, and that every thing has not been made for 
 him. Together with this discovery, he will make another highly im- 
 portant one, — that he is not in the world for his own pleasure alone. 
 The first germs of dutv and right are thus awakened. 
 
190 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 " Hardly has he become vaguely conscious of these important 
 truths, when the world, with all its temptations, opens its arms to 
 tear him from those of his parents, and seems to cry triumphantly, 
 'Thou art mine.' This world, which is now spread out before the eye 
 of the child, is not God's original creation : it is a world opposed to 
 his innocent enjoyments ; egotistic in its means and aims ; full of con- 
 tradiction, violence, presumption, lies, and fallacies. 
 
 "O mankind! here at the transition from infancy to the first al- 
 lurements of the world, when the tottering ground begins to give way 
 beneath the foot of the child, when parents cease, to be his guardians 
 — here at this critical point, thou oughtest to assert thy power by 
 keeping up the feelings of love, gratitude, confidence, and obedience ; 
 for God himself is embodied in these feelings. But alas! the world 
 seems blinded to such an extent that it has hardly any heart or 
 sympathy for this urgent appeal. Yet it can not be assumed that the 
 nobler part of humanity does not see the necessity of an uninter- 
 rupted series of means of development, by which to restrain the 
 egotism of our reason, through the preservation of the purity of the 
 heart, and to subordinate our sensuous impulses to conviction, our 
 appetites to benevolence, and to the influence of a corrected and ele- 
 vated will. 
 
 "The first law in the scale of progress will be this: Let the first 
 instruction of the child appeal to the heart and never to the head and 
 reason ; let the second instruction of the human race proceed slowly 
 from the exercise of the senses to that of the judgment ; let him re- 
 main a long time in the care of woman before he is intrusted to 
 man. What more shall I say? With these words, O Mother, the 
 eternal laws of nature lead me to seek thy hand. I can retain my 
 love, my obedience, my innocence, my nobler being only at thy side. 
 Oh, sanction thou the transition from thy heart to this world ! Dear 
 friend, I must cease, for my heart is moved, and I see tears in thy 
 eyes. Farewell." 
 
 It will be seen that Pestalozzi here alludes to the earliest develop- 
 ment of the religious sentiment; but it must not be inferred that he 
 was not also keenly alive to the influence of more advanced religious 
 culture. The extracts from "Leonard and Gertrude," already quoted, 
 show this. It is somewhat singular, however, that he seems to ignore 
 the moral and religious influence of the father of the family. While 
 we are ready to admit that the mother has the advantage in the de- 
 velopment of the earliest religious impressions, which are based on 
 love; yet the position of the father is peculiarly adapted to insure 
 the development of reverence, duty, and obedience. 
 
APPLICATION OF PESTALOZZl'S METHOD. 191 
 
 It is quite possible that this position resulted from observing how 
 little interest the men in his time took in the moral welfare of their 
 children. But, with all his omissions, it must be evident to every one 
 that he intended to call the attention of the public to the necessity 
 of connecting the principles of true religion with the love of the good, 
 reverence for truth, and with the practice of duty toward God and 
 man. 
 
 Had we time and space it might be both interesting and profitable 
 to notice the intimate connection between mental and moral develop- 
 ment — how the moral sentiments are stimulated and strengthened by 
 the free, natural development of the mental faculties. We can only 
 briefly allude to some of the most prominent of these manifesta- 
 tions. 
 
 In Pestalozzi's school, it was a matter of surprise to all to witness 
 the contentment and joyousness of the pupils while engaged in their 
 most difficult work ; and the surprise was still greater when the spirit 
 manifested was contrasted with that prevalent in the schools under 
 the old system. The pupils evidently regarded the teachers as their 
 confidants and friends instead of their natural enemies. 
 
 The cause of this is clearly and forcibly stated by Morel 1 : " Mem- 
 ory, or indeed any of the faculties, when properly developed, is drawn 
 into the range of human duty. To overlook any engagement or to 
 forget an obligation shows that there must be culpable neglect some- 
 where — that the mind has failed to entertain such a sense of the 
 value of human duty as to induce it to form a system of practical 
 activity." This would indicate that the natural and harmonious 
 working of the faculties produces a kind of honesty of feeling and 
 conviction, in which the deceiving of others would be regarded as a 
 self-deception. 
 
 Corporal Punishment. — A marked feature in all true Pestalozzian 
 schools is, the infrequency or entire absence of corporal punishment. 
 This is the natural result of a system that provides for the physical, 
 intellectual, and moral needs of the pupils, and where they may be 
 said to learn to love while loving to learn. We would remark here 
 in passing, that non-punishment is neither a law nor a principle of 
 Pestalozzians, as is often erroneously believed. It is true that pun- 
 ishments are of extremely rare occurrence ; but this is due to the 
 fact that each child is kept busy in the performance of actions which 
 tax his energies, while they are agreeable to his feelings. "To pre- 
 vent or to expel an evil, there is no better way than to open the 
 door by which good may flow in." The vital forces are so directed 
 
192 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 into useful channels that happiness, as well as mental growth, is 
 secured ; and there is little danger of the irregular overflow of spir- 
 its, which is the occasion of most of the trouble experienced with 
 children. With the exceptional cases where restraint becomes nec- 
 essary, the punishment should he adapted to the nature of the 
 offense ; such as, withdrawing privileges and abridging liberty, 
 where they have been abused. 
 
 Pestalozzi expresses his own views on this subject as follows: "Inter- 
 est in study is the first thing which a teacher should endeavor to excite 
 and keep alive. There are scarcely any circumstances where the want 
 of application in children does not proceed from a want of interest; 
 and there are, perhaps, none under which a want of interest does not 
 originate in the mode of treatment adopted by the teacher. As a 
 rule, when children are inattentive and apparently take no interest 
 in a lesson, the teacher should always first look to himself for the 
 reason. When a quantity of dry matter is before a child, when a 
 child is doomed to listen in silence to lengthy explanations, or to go 
 through exercises which have nothing in themselves to relieve or 
 attract the mind, there is a tax upon the spirits, which a teacher 
 should abstain from imposing. If, from the imperfection of his rea- 
 soning powers, or his want of knowledge of facts, the child is not 
 able to enter into the sense or follow the chain of ideas; if he is 
 made to repeat what, to him, is sound without sense, it is not strange 
 that he becomes restless and disobedient. When to this tedium, 
 which is in itself punishment, fear is added, it becomes absolutely 
 cruel. ........... 
 
 I do not venture to assert that corporeal punishment is inadmissible, 
 but I do object to its application, when the teacher or the method is In 
 fault and not the children." 
 
 With this we conclude our review of the method and principles 
 advocated by Pestalozzi. We trust we have not fallen into the com- 
 mon error of so exalting our subject as to be blind to the merits of 
 other systems and their authors. We have endeavored to conduct 
 our examinations with candor and fairness. Raumer says: "Pro- 
 found thoughts, born of a holy love and under severe pain, are 
 thoughts of eternal life, and, like love, shall never cease." It this be 
 true, then the work of Pestalozzi, born of a charity and love for the 
 poor and distressed, yet wide enough to include all mankind; nur- 
 tured under suffering, disappointment, and martyrdom; and proclaim- 
 ing profound and universal truths, must live to the end of all time, 
 and he a blessing for all generations. 
 
Part v. 
 
 SPREAD OF THE 
 
 PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM, 
 
 P. 13. (193) 
 
C HAP T E R- I . 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 THAT the land which witnessed the experiments of the great 
 school reformer, from their initiation to their ultimate triumph, 
 should be the first to adopt his methods and to profit by the princi- 
 ples which he established, would seem natural. This expectation 
 is heightened when we know that Pestalozzi and his oldest and 
 most honored associates were natives of this land, and that all stead- 
 fastly refused the invitations of foreign princes and governments to 
 leave the country of their birth. 
 
 But great men do not always have the most influence in their own 
 country. The saying of the Master, "A prophet is not without 
 honor save in his own country," is often verified in the history of the 
 world. There is always danger that the faults and weaknesses of a 
 reformer, in his struggles with existing ideas and circumstances, will 
 obscure, from the eyes of his immediate neighbors, the great principle 
 which he seeks to establish. They see his ideas and plans through 
 the distorted medium of prejudice or aversion ; and to them his 
 whole work appears grotesque or unreal. On the contrary, those who 
 commence their survey from a distance have their vision undisturbed 
 by local and ephemeral causes, and are able to form a more just esti- 
 mate of the value and importance of the truths enunciated. 
 
 Again, ideas whose full realization are essential to future progress 
 find root most readily in soil that has been best prepared for them. 
 In this regard, Switzerland was undeniably far behind some of her 
 more powerful and more fortunate neighbors ; and several causes con- 
 spired to prevent the rapid spread of the new, progressive, and al- 
 most revolutionary spirit. 
 
 The greater part of the Swiss territory lies buried among the Alps; 
 which, with the fact that its inhabitants in different cantons speak 
 three different languages, makes even the interchange of ideas a mat- 
 ter of difficulty. At the time of Pestalozzi, the people of the Catholic 
 cantons were under a bigoted spiritual control, which discountenanced 
 
 (195^ 
 
19(3 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 progress or change of any kind. Even in the Protestant and most 
 progressive cantons, the inhabitants of the rural districts and of the 
 old city corporations were so conservative that they looked with sus- 
 picion upon all efforts to change their old customs and institutions. 
 
 Under these circumstances, is it a matter of wonder, that, while 
 the schools founded by Pestalozzi at Burgdorf and Yverdon were 
 receiving enthusiastic pupils from all parts of Europe, the govern- 
 ments of Switzerland were slow to incorporate the new ideas into 
 their systems of public instruction? The city of Zurich was an ex- 
 ception to the general rule, and was the one truly progressive city 
 among the Alps. It had already given birth and substantial aid to 
 the great reformer, Zwingli, and to the philosophic Lavater ; and now 
 it cordially welcomed and supported the ideas advanced by Pestalozzi. 
 
 Among the men who, at an early period of Pestalozzi's labors, vis- 
 ited Burgdorf, was Karl August Zeller of Wurtemberg. Inspired 
 by the exercises which he witnessed, and filled with a fresh enthusi- 
 asm for the cause of education, he resolved to put the new ideas into 
 practical execution. His first experiments were made in the Charity 
 School at Tubingen, in 1806, the report of which he gave in detail 
 to that noble patroness of education, Princess Pauline of Detmold, 
 of whom we shall hereafter speak. In the same year, at Zurich, he 
 became acquainted with Senator Rusterholz, who had a scheme for 
 establishing a Normal School for the benefit of the teachers of his 
 canton. Zeller, to aid him in his work, gave three courses of lect- 
 ures, which were largely attended by teachers and clergymen. 
 Among these were a Catholic priest from Luzerne and three Canons 
 from the convent of Kreuzlingen, who were sent there by Wessen- 
 berg, the Bishop of Baden, a personal friend of Pestalozzi. One of 
 these lectures was delivered before the Swiss Diet, which brought the 
 subject prominently before the confederation. 
 
 Subsequently Zeller spent some time with Pestalozzi at Yverdon, 
 and afterward entered into the service of the king of Prussia. 
 
 Owing to some statements derogatory to the credit of the Institution 
 at Yverdon, the teachers in Pestalozzi's school, led by Niederer, peti- 
 tioned the Diet, then assembled (May, 1809) at Friburg, to appoint 
 a select committee to examine the principles and practical workings 
 of the school and report upon the same. The request was granted, 
 and Meriam of Basel, Trechsel, Professor of Mathematics at Berne, 
 and the venerable Father Girard of Friburg, were commissioned to 
 visit the school for that purpose. The visit lasted five days, and its 
 result was embodied in a report, which was transmitted to the diet. 
 The. report was so favorable to the principles' of Pestalozzi that an 
 
SWITZ ERLA XD. 1 97 
 
 ■official vote of thanks was unanimously accorded to him. It, how- 
 ever, contained some criticism of details, of which his enemies took 
 advantage. This caused a long and acrimonious discussion, in which 
 Niederer took the leading part in defense of the school. We quote 
 in full the concluding passages of this report: 
 
 " The educational methods of the Institution stand in very imper- 
 fect connection with our establishments for public instruction. The 
 Institution has, in no way, aimed at establishing harmonious relations 
 with these public schools. Determined, at any price, to awaken all 
 the faculties of the children, in order to guide their development ac- 
 cording to its own principles, it has taken counsel of its own views 
 only, and betrays an irresistible desire to open for itself new paths, 
 ■even at the cost of never ti*eading in those which usage has estab- 
 lished. This is, perhaps, the right way to arrive at useful discover- 
 ies ; but it is also a course which renders harmony impossible. It is 
 a pity that the force of circumstances has always driven Herr Pesta- 
 lozzi beyond the career which his pure zeal and fervent charity have 
 marked out for him. Good intention, noble endeavors, indefatigable 
 perseverance, should meet, and always will meet, with justice. Let 
 us profit by the excellent ideas which lie at the foundation of the 
 "whole undertaking ; let us follow its instructive examples ; but let us 
 also lament that an adverse fate must hang over the man who, by 
 the forced of circumstances, is constantly hindered from doing what 
 he would wish to do." 
 
 This report describes the condition in which all Pestalozzian schools 
 will be placed, whenever they are required to connect the results of 
 their training which is based upon the principle of development, 
 Avith those of one based upon mere mechanical routine. The idea 
 that education consists exclusively in a knowledge of Reading, Writ- 
 ing, Arithmetic, and the like, is much too narrow for the advocates 
 of this educational reform. They can use the old materials of educa- 
 tion, but only in a manner essentially new ; and they aim at making 
 each lesson in school a step in the gradual unfolding of the mental 
 forces. The apparent antagonism between the two systems can only 
 be harmonized when the public generally possess broader and juster 
 views of the aim of education, and when sufficient time has elapsed 
 to judge each system by its results. 
 
 In Switzerland, as in every other republic, the first impulses to any 
 permanent reform have come from the people. The French Revolu- 
 tion of July, 1830, roused the men of that country anew to examine 
 questions of reform and progress. Up to that time they had been 
 contented to live under their old aristocratic constitutions, which 
 
198 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 only grudgingly recognized the rights of the common people. Then, 
 however, a new era commenced, and education, especially, felt the 
 benefit of the spirit which had been aroused. 
 
 For many years, onerous and unfair taxes had been imposed; and 
 the money collected, instead of being devoted to public use, had been 
 hoarded for future contingencies. The reformers of that period saw 
 clearly that the question of their liberties was intimately connected 
 with universal education. They therefore devoted these accumulated 
 funds, and money derived from a more equal system of taxation, to 
 the formation of Normal Schools, High Schools, and other institu- 
 tions of learning. From that time the vocation of the teacher has 
 been more honored ; from that time the wealth, intelligence, and po- 
 litical power of Switzerland have steadily increased to an extent 
 which has made that country respected by other nations of Europe. 
 Many of the Principals of the Normal Schools were chosen from the 
 associates and pupils of Pestalozzi ; as, Kriisi, Tobler, Nabholz, 
 Wehrli, and others, who possessed, to an eminent degree, the art of 
 communicating knowledge. 
 
 We must not conclude our survey of the development of the edu- 
 cational spirit in Switzerland without alluding to the work accom- 
 plished by Emanuel von Fellenberg, a friend and cotemporay of 
 Pestalozzi. This distinguished educator was born at Berne, in 1771. 
 His father was a senator, and his mother a daughter of the celebrated 
 Dutch Admiral, Von Tromp. It was the teaching and example of this 
 pure and devoted mother that inspired young Fellenberg to conse- 
 crate his life to the improvement of the moral and social condition 
 of his fellow-men. She went with him into the dwellings of the 
 poor, in order to make him acquainted with their misery and wants ; 
 she showed him the blessings of benevolence, when accompanied by 
 kind words and sympathizing help. 
 
 After having completed his college studies, and made his debut in 
 the legislative assembly of his native canton, Fellenberg, in 1799, 
 voluntarily resigned all expectations and honors from the political 
 career which was opening before him ; 'and, stimulated by the ex- 
 ample of Pestalozzi and by his own predilections, he resolved to estab- 
 lish an Industrial School. He immediately bought two hundred acres 
 of barren, uncultivated land at Wylhof, a great portion of which 
 was a mere swamp. With the aid of young men from the lower 
 classes, he began to convert this land into rich and productive fields. 
 In spite of the sneers of his genteel friends, who wex'e shocked to see 
 a scion of the aristocracy engaged in such low pursuits, he succeeded 
 beyond his own expectations. By deep drainage, he converted the 
 
SWITZERLAND. 199 
 
 portion of his farm next the river into good pasture land, while the 
 arable soil was constantly improved. In a few years a rich growth 
 of wheat, flax, hemp, etc., waved over the former wilderness. By 
 an inversion of the original name, as if to designate the change 
 which had taken place, he called the farm "Hofwyl." The result 
 obtained encouraged him to enlarge the accommodations of his agri- 
 cultural school; and, aware that the expenses of this department 
 would at first exceed his income, he wisely founded a scientific 
 course for the sons of the wealthier classes, who could afford to pay 
 liberally for their tuition. He thus carried on a twofold enterprise 
 with an administrative power and skill which prevented him from 
 committing the mistakes of Pestalozzi, who had been ruined by a 
 similar undertaking. 
 
 At the head of the argicultural department, he placed Wehrli, a 
 man of great originality and simplicity of character, to whose kind 
 and intelligent treatment of the pupils much of the success is to be 
 attributed. The pupils did not belong to the dregs of society, which 
 in this country fill our so-called Reform Schools; but were mostly 
 sons of farmers or of business men, who wished their sons to become 
 acquainted with the details of agriculture without neglecting their 
 other studies. Although not more than half the elder pupils paid 
 board, Fellenberg suffered no loss thereby. He proved successfully, 
 that pupils who enter such an institution at the age of ten years, 
 and remain there till they are twenty, can, by their work alone, de- 
 fray the expenses for board, clothing, and tuition, and at the same 
 time learn a useful vocation. More than this, he showed how such 
 schools may be made self-supporting, and demonstrated that agricul- 
 ture is eminently adapted, in its various bearings and applications, 
 to develop the noblest powers of man. He increased his farm to six 
 hundred acres, and the erection of new and tasteful buildings gave to 
 Hofwyl the appearance of a small flourishing town ; and it had all 
 arisen through the genius of one man. Thence issued improvements 
 in the implements and methods of agriculture. The introduction of 
 new seeds and plants, as well as the improvement of existing species, 
 became of great importance, and thereby the whole community was 
 ultimately benefited. 
 
 During forty-five years, assisted by his sons and daughters, Fellen- 
 berg carried on his school, until, in 1H44, he was called to his final 
 rest. 
 
 This Institution, like that of Pestalozzi, attracted the attention of 
 governments and individuals, and received patronage from nearly 
 every country in Europe. The greatest benefit derived from these 
 
200 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 labors of Fellenberg and Wehrli lies in the solution of that question, 
 what shall be done with the young inmates of poor and work-houses, 
 and with neglected children every- where? They have shown that 
 this class of unfortunates may be separated from their older and 
 more wicked associates, and put under the care of humane and prac- 
 tical teachers, who will attend to their physical, intellectual, and 
 moral wants. The most important part of this system of education 
 is, that they are taught early to devote a portion of their time to 
 physical labor, and that during school life they also learn a trade, 
 which will secure to them an independent means of support in after 
 life. The kind of occupation to which each shall give especial atten- 
 tion should be determined by his own natural aptitude and liking. 
 
 The experiments instituted by Fellenberg, and their marked success, 
 led to the establishment of similar schools in other countries. To 
 this origin may be traced the Poor, Industrial, and Reform Schools 
 of the various countries of Europe and of the United States. 
 
 The first idea of establishing schools of this kind belongs to Pesta- 
 lozzi; but it was Fellenberg who first proved that such a school 
 could be self-supporting. Their work was not antagonistic, but rather 
 complementary. Each performed a necessary part in the great plan 
 of education. 
 
 " Pestalozzi's principal work," says Biber, "was to foster the inter- 
 nal growth of the intellectual and moral man. He asked, not for 
 what society, but for what God had destined the child. The position 
 of each pupil in his establishment was accordingly founded, not upon 
 the artificial institutions of society, but upon the spirit of freedom 
 and brotherly love." 
 
 Fellenberg, on the contrary, endeavored to trace the shortest and 
 most efficient way for rendering his pupils fit members of society. 
 The education they received was a practical one: every child was 
 placed in his establishment exactly in that rank in which he would 
 hereafter have to appear in life. 
 
 If these principles seem antagonistic it is in form rather than in 
 substance. If a child, up to a certain age, has received a fair and 
 complete education according to Pestalozzi's principles, he may then 
 well turn his attention to the practical wants of society, and to the 
 rank and position which birth or circumstances have assigned him. 
 However, we can not deny that there was something antagonistic in 
 the characters of these two men, which more than once prevented 
 their closer intimacy. Fellenberg, although superior in practical 
 energy and learning, and guided by excellent motives, did not pos- 
 sess that delicacy of sentiment, that overflowing fullness of feeling, 
 
.SWITZERLAND. 201 
 
 which induced Pestalozzi to sacrifice himself and all he possessed for 
 the interests of a great cause. Perhaps from early associations Fel- 
 lenberg preserved a certain love of command, of power, and, conse- 
 quently, of self, which, while it may conduce to secure organization, 
 obedience, and regularity, is little fitted to the details of teaching the 
 young, and often wounds or destroys the susceptibilities of those who 
 come under its influence. 
 
 He, therefore, possessed few intimate friends, while Pestalozzi was 
 beloved by all, and almost worshiped by some. The one died rich ; 
 the other struggled against poverty all his life. The names of both 
 will be honored in the annals of history ; for both have left living 
 monuments in the millions of children who, by their work and ex- 
 ample, have been saved from physical, moral, and intellectual star- 
 vation. 
 
C H A P T E K I I . 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 ALTHOUGH in Germany the form of government is monarch- 
 ical, we find, as in a republic, that all reforms are first intro- 
 duced by the private acts of noble-minded and enthusiastic thinkers. 
 But, while in a republic the mere ideas are left to make their own 
 way, slowly and painfully combating error, in a monarchy as soon as 
 they are recognized as conducive to the best interest of the nation, 
 they may be adopted by the government, and immediately reduced 
 to practical use. In the centralized governments, unity and harmony 
 of action can be secured at once ; and it is quite possible to arrive 
 at satisfactory results sooner than by the isolated efforts of private 
 individuals and corporations. It may be questioned, however, whether 
 the greater freedom and slower growth will not, in the end, produce 
 a more healthful and symmetrical development. 
 
 The connection of the educational reform in Germany with the 
 original undertaking of Pestalozzi can only be distinctly shown by 
 a description of the work which was accomplished by private 
 individuals and by the Government. Prominent among the earlier 
 educational missionaries, who were instrumental in disseminating Pes- 
 talozzian principles in Germany, were Johann Ernst Plamann and 
 Karl August Zeller, the latter of whom we have already noticed in 
 connection with the reform in Switzerland. Both of these men visited 
 Burgdorf in 1803, attracted thither by Pestalozzi's writings and the 
 fame of his school. 
 
 After leaving Burgdorf, Plamann engaged in several educational 
 enterprises; but he finally went to Berlin, where he established an 
 Institution, which soon obtained a wide celebrity, and became a cen- 
 ter for the dissemination of the new methods. His success was in- 
 strumental in determining the subsequent action of the Prussian Gov- 
 ernment in this matter. He published several works, showing the 
 application of Pestalozzi's principles to Language, Geography, and 
 Natural History. 
 (202) 
 
GERMANY. 203 
 
 Zeller delivered a course of lectures before the students of the 
 Agricultural School at Hofwyl, under the charge of Von Fellenberg. 
 The King of Wiirtemberg, while passing through Hofwyl, listened 
 to these lectures, and was so delighted with them that he offered 
 to him the position of school inspector at Heilbronn. While he 
 was considering this proposition, overtures were made him by Von 
 Schroter, the Prussian Minister of State, and a situation was offered, 
 which he finally accepted. He was sent to Konigsberg, where 
 he gave several courses of lectures to assemblages of teachers, clergy- 
 men, and superintendents. He succeeded in arousing an intense 
 interest in the cause of education in a part of the Kingdom where 
 little had before been done in this direction. He was afterward 
 commissioned to organize the Orphan Asylum at Konigsberg ; and 
 his labors in this Institution were crowned with such marked suc- 
 cess, from the improved methods which he introduced, that he at- 
 tracted the attention of educators from every part of the Kingdom. 
 In 1809, the King, Queen, and Minister of State visited the school 
 in person, and were so well pleased, that Zeller received the hon- 
 orary title, " Schoolrath," — Counselor of Schools. 
 
 Among the German States, the Kingdom of Wiirtemberg, in civil- 
 ization and social progress, ranks next after Prussia. To Gottlieb 
 Denzel, this state owes a debt of gratitude for the introduction of 
 Pestalozzian principles and a thorough reform of the schools. In 
 order to make himself familiar with the system of Pestalozzi, he 
 visited both Burgdorf and Yverdon. In 1811, he was appointed 
 Principal of the Normal School at Esslingen, and he presided over 
 this school for nearly twenty years with eminent success. By his 
 numerous writings on educational topics, his influence was extended 
 to other states. In 1817, he assisted in organizing the school system 
 of the Duchy of Nassau, and in establishing a Normal Seminary at 
 Idstein. 
 
 The educational movement, of which the work of these men 
 formed a part, was not the result of the slow and deliberate inves- 
 tigations of a period of peace ; but was conceived and carried out 
 amidst the din of arms, and during those great conflicts which shook 
 Europe to its center. The battle of Jena, which reduced the Prussian 
 monarchy, was fought in 1806 ; and for several years the domination 
 of Bonaparte in Germany was nearly absolute. The humiliation of 
 the Germans was complete. Their military posts were in the hands 
 of the conqueror. The only portion of government left to them was 
 the control of such civil and municipal affairs as were thought not 
 to interfere, in any manner, with military matters. National hide- 
 
:204 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 pendenee was at an end ; but national life was still undiminished in 
 vitality, and, amidst the wrecks of the old governments, the seeds of 
 national reconstruction took vigorous root. 
 
 During this dreary period of subjugation, political apathy, and de- 
 spair, the minds of the ablest and best of the German philosophers 
 and statesmen were engaged in devising means which should com- 
 mence the work or raising the physical, mental,, 'and moral character 
 of the people, so that in future struggles they might command 
 success. 
 
 The plans of these men for national regeneration were at first con- 
 sidered as chimeras of the imagination ; but as they were boldly set 
 forth and fortified by illustration and argument, they finally took a 
 strong hold of the public mind. The philosopher Ficlite, in a public 
 lecture at Berlin, promised deliverance to the Germans through 
 national education, which he considered would be the commence- 
 ment of an entire reformation of the human race, enabling the spirit to 
 obtain a complete mastery over the flesh. To the question, to which 
 of the existing institutions of the actual world he would give the duty 
 of carrying out this new plan of education, Fichte answered: "To 
 the course of instruction which has been invented by Henry Pesta- 
 lozzi, and which is now successfully carried out under his direction." 
 "Would that the State," he said to a Prussian audience, in which 
 were several high officers of state, " could look its present peculiar 
 position steadily in the face, and acknowledge to itself what that posi- 
 tion really is: would that it could clearly perceive that there re- 
 mains for it no sphere in which it can act and resolve as an independ- 
 ent State except that of education ; that this is all it can do, and the 
 merit of doing this would be conceded to it undiminished and unen- 
 vied. That we are no longer able to offer an active resistance is ob- 
 vious and acknowledged by every one. How, then, can we defend 
 our national existence against the reproach of cowardice and an un- 
 worthy love of life? In no other way than by resolving not to live 
 for ourselves, and by acting up to this resolution ; by raising up a 
 worthy posterity, and by preserving our own existence in order to 
 accomplish this object. Our constitutions are made for us; the alli- 
 ances which we are to form, and the direction to which our military 
 resources are to be applied, are indicated to us ; a statute book is 
 lent to us; even the administration of justice is sometimes taken out 
 of our hands; and we shall be relieved from all these things for 
 several years. 
 
 "Education alone has not been thought of. If we are seeking for 
 an occupation, let us seize this; for we may expect that in this we 
 
GERMANY. 205 
 
 shall be left undisturbed. I hope — perhaps I deceive myself, but as 
 I have only this hope to live for, I can not relinquish it — that I 
 shall convince some Germans, and lead them to see, that it is educa- 
 tion alone which can save us from all the evils by which we are op-, 
 pressed. 
 
 " It is a favorable circumstance, that our need will have rendered 
 us more disposed to attentive observation and serious reflection than 
 we were in the days of our prosperity. Foreign lands have other 
 consolation and other remedies. It is not to be expected, that they 
 will pay any attention, or give any credit, to this idea, should it ever 
 reach them. I will rather hope, that it will be a rich source of 
 amusement to the readers of their journals, if they ever learn, that 
 any one promises himself so great things from education." 
 
 A letter written to Pestalozzi in 1808, by Nicolovius, Prussian 
 Minister of Education, indicates that he, too, was looking to educa- 
 tion for the means of national regeneration. "At last, my venerable, 
 unforgotten friend, I have the pleasure of seeing some rays of thy 
 light penetrate into the schools of my fatherland.* What I have 
 dreamed at thy side, what we have discussed in letters, will soon 
 become realized as a work of absolute necessity. With us also the 
 destructive march of events has ruined every thing, yet courageous 
 men are bent upon reconstruction, taking care that the new order of 
 things does not become worse than the old. Oh, help us to foster 
 the work which thou hast founded ! 
 
 "The grain of seed shall become a tree under whose shade the 
 people will rest. Thy friendship is sacred to me, and the days I have 
 passed with thee have the same influence upon me which a pious 
 pilgrimage has upon the mind of a believer. May thy life be spared 
 in order to complete thy work as far as possible." 
 
 To further show how deeply the principles of Pestalozzi had taken 
 hold of the German mind, in this, the hour of its deepest affliction, 
 and how even the hereditary rulers turned instinctively to the humble 
 republican school-master for aid, we here copy portions of a letter 
 of the Princess Pauline of Detmold to Pestalozzi: .... 
 
 " I have since 
 received the second letter and pamphlet which you had the kindness 
 to write in answer to my questions. I never would have believed, 
 that some hasty lines, could give rise to a little work of such decided 
 merit. Genius requires but a spark in order to kindle a clear/ pure, 
 and warmth-giving flame. I confess that your Compte Rendu (School 
 
 Referring to the work of Planiann .before mentioned. 
 
206 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Report) has interested me more than the account of the finances of 
 all the empires in Europe. You have accomplished a great, great 
 work. The knowledge of this will hover around you like a friendly 
 angel; and if your life should become clouded, then think of all the 
 teachers and pupils who have become better and more useful through 
 your example. Thus happiness will be diffused around yoitr waning 
 life, and the tear of grief will turn into a tear of joy. Alas! how 
 rarely do we find in these selfish times an enthusiasm for things 
 which only the future can bring to maturity. .... 
 
 I think of you as the educational Howard of Switzerland — not 
 belonging to one canton alone, but esteemed and sought throughout 
 the world, and claimed also by my little State. 
 
 " Believe always in the unchangeable esteem of your faithful 
 
 " Pauline." 
 
 The enthusiasm of the Germans for the new principles was not con- 
 fined to school-teachers, officers of state, and princes; but it was also 
 shared by men of science, who were the acknowledged leaders of 
 thought in their respective fields of labor. Prominent among these 
 was Karl Putter, a man whom the world delights to honor as the 
 "Father of Physical Geography." Previous to his acquaintance with 
 Pestalozzi, Putter had acquired a high reputation as a teacher and a 
 man of science, and it might naturally be supposed that the philos- 
 opher, versed in all the erudition of the schools, could impart to the 
 comparatively illiterate school-master more than he could receive 
 from him. The testimony of Ritter himself is, however, conclusive 
 on these points, as he expresses his indebtedness to Pestalozzi in no 
 ambiguous terms. The following was written by him soon after his 
 visit to Burgdorf : " I can not cross the Rhine, your noble boundary, 
 without casting back a look of regret, as well as pleasure, toward the 
 place which I consider as a second home. I can not tear myself 
 away from the mountain scenery of Helvetia, without devoting to 
 thee, O Father Pestalozzi ! a silent tear. Oh, may it tell how deeply 
 I feel what thou art to humanity ! How could I ever forget the time 
 I have spent amidst thy new creations! Even had I gained nothing 
 by it, but a renewed faith in humanity, I would consider myself 
 amply repaid; for it gives me strength for my future researches. 
 My ardent desire to see the champion and martyr for truth and love, 
 and to be refreshed at the living source of his life and example, has 
 been granted ; and more than that, I have felt his love, and I return 
 with enlarged feeling into the cold vortex of life. I thank thee, 
 venerable father, for thy affection. It has taught me a warmer and 
 
GERMANY. 207 
 
 purer love ; it has strengthened my arm for the struggle with the 
 world, which every one, to whom life is more than death, must un- 
 dergo. I have recognized in thee that pure love of Christ which 
 warms the soul, whilst the vitality of thy ideas enlightens the mind. 
 Nevertheless, I am sorry to say that, on the whole, the world does 
 not yet seem ripe for thy work ; for men rarely cherish ideas, but 
 rather theories wherein they seek their ideal. Your method has un- 
 doubtedly also its ideal, but its law is (me of necessity and not of 
 fancy. To arrive at this conviction requires either a mind which 
 descends into its own depths, or a faith which is able to remove 
 mountains, or a happy mortal who has had the privilege of spending 
 a year with Pestalozzi and his friends. But blind humanity passes 
 by this law, which is great because simple, till a Newton shows its 
 application in mathematical science; a Lavoisier, through the maze 
 of experimental philosophy; and a Pestalozzi, in the wider field of 
 human development. 
 
 "I embrace thee respectfully, as a child embraces his father; and 
 hope to be remembered by thee even at a distance. 
 
 "Basel, 1808. Thy Ritter." 
 
 In another letter, written from Berlin, Ritter dwells upon his re- 
 peated but unsuccessful attempts to see Humboldt, who had just re- 
 turned from his tour in America, and to whom he wished to commu- 
 nicate Pestalozzi's ideas, which he thought could even influence the 
 vast and comprehensive mind of that great philosopher of nature. 
 Drawing a parallel between these two men, Ritter says : " Humboldt 
 explored the greatest depths as well as the most prominent heights of 
 our globe ; he viewed it in all its mathematical, physical, and chem- 
 ical relations ; he even went round it in order to make himself ac- 
 quainted with all the possible forms of nature, and to find the law by 
 which all the phenomena are linked together. He is a genius in the 
 inductive method of proceeding from the external to the internal ; 
 while Pestalozzi arrives at that law by a deduction from the internal 
 to the external. Humboldt is a noble man, and although some jeal- 
 ousy might arise in seeing two men arrive at the same result in op- 
 posite ways, yet I am sure he would be greatly pleased to take notice 
 of the vast bearing of Pestalozzi's ideas." 
 
 In 180S, through the intercession and influence of Queen Louisa, 
 the Prussian Government sent twelve young men to Yverdon to be- 
 come acquainted with the details of Pestalozzi's principles and meth- 
 ods, so that they might be introduced more rapidly into the Prussian 
 schools. The students were selected with great care by Suvern, 
 
208 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Minister of Education, and before their departure he addressed them 
 upon the subject of their mission. In this address he told them: 
 " The object in sending- yon to Pestalozzi is, not merely that you 
 may study the external or formal part of this system, or to acquire 
 skill in teaching, but that you may warm yourselves at the sacred 
 fire which is glowing in the bosom of that man, who is full of power 
 and love; that you may walk with a similar spirit in the path of 
 truth and in the observation of the laws of nature ; that you may 
 become simple as children, in order to obtain the key with which to 
 open the sacred temple of childhood; that you may never forget, 
 that a knowledge of the elementary part of each science is the most 
 difficult to obtain, since it requires a thorough perception of the 
 reality of things ; that the characteristic feature of the Pestalozzian 
 method is the fact of its being equally adapted for scientific research 
 and for popular application, since it does not spoil the desire for 
 knowledge by light and unwholesome food, but strengthens it by 
 vigorous nourishment." 
 
 These students made excellent use of their time at Yverdon, and 
 upon their return to Prussia they amply repaid their country for 
 benefits received by giving it better instruction. Among them were 
 Harnisch, Henning, Dreist, and Kawerau, who did excellent service 
 as Principals of Normal and other schools. 
 
 By these means the schools of Germany were speedily organized 
 upon a new basis, and the thrill of a new, vigorous life was felt 
 from one extremity of the land to the other. Napoleon, in the pride 
 and insolence of his power, scornfully turned from the philanthropist, 
 who pleaded for philosophic and universal education, saying: "I have 
 no time now to occupy myself with the A, B, C." 
 
 Germany, prostrate beneath the heel of the conqueror, adopted the 
 principles so ignominiously spurned, and "The stone which the build- 
 ers rejected" became the head-stone of the corner. Sixty years have 
 passed away, and Germany, vital with life and energy in every part, 
 once more grapples with her great adversary. In one short, sharp, 
 and decisive campaign, the military power which for nearly a 
 century had been the terror of Europe is broken; and the discovery 
 is made that much within the outer crust is hollow, and that neglect 
 of the elements of knowledge deprives a nation of the essential con- 
 ditions of true greatness and power. When an American asked Von 
 Moltke what was the most formidable weapon upon which Germany 
 relied for her offensive movements, he answered by pointing to a 
 common soldier, drawing a map of France upon the table before 
 him. In this last great conflict, we see that the influence proceeding 
 
GERMANY. 209 
 
 from the seemingly impracticable dreamer of Neuhof has been suffi- 
 cient to reverse the current of defeat and change the balance of 
 power in Europe. 
 
 When the arrogance of Schmid caused the resignation of the 
 German teachers, they found immediate employment in different 
 parts of Germany ; and thus the destruction of the school at Yver- 
 don caused a wider dissemination of Pestalozzian methods than could 
 have been accomplished in any other manner. Among these teach- 
 ers who became famous in their native land were Doctor Blochmann, 
 the director of a large school at Dresden ; Nabholz, principal of a 
 Normal School and an enlightened Catholic, who espoused with his 
 whole heart these and other liberal and progressive ideas ; Ladomus, 
 Schacht, and Steiner, mathematicians, who were not only teachers, 
 but discoverers in their respective branches. 
 
 Some years ago, in his travels through Germany, the author 
 formed an acquaintance with many of these men, who were then 
 holding important situations ; and their invariable testimony was, 
 that they considered their success as teachers and educators to be 
 chiefly, if not entirely, due to the new and enlarged ideas in regard 
 to the nature of education which they received during their stay 
 with Pestalozzi, and to the spirit and enthusiasm which they imbibed 
 in his school. 
 
 We will conclude our summary of the men, who introduced the 
 method of Pestalozzi into Germany, with a notice of the work of 
 the eminent educator, Von Turk. His labors in the cause of hu- 
 manity have been of such marked character that the}' deserve 
 more than a passing notice ; and we are fortunate in being able to 
 lay before our readers an account of them from the pen of Horace 
 Mann, who visited him in 1848 : 
 
 "At the head of a private Orphan Asylum in Potsdam is 
 the venerable Von Turk. According to the laws of the country, he 
 is a nobleman. His talents and acquisitions w 7 ere such, that at a 
 very early age he was elevated to the Bench. He officiated as judge 
 for fourteen years; but, in the course of time, so many criminal 
 cases Avere brought before him for adjudication, whose only origin 
 was so plainly referable to early neglect in the culprits' education, 
 that the noble heart of the judge could no longer bear to pronounce 
 sentence of condemnation against the prisoners ; for he looked upon 
 them as men, who, almost without a paradox, might be called 
 'guiltless offenders.' 
 
 "While holding the office of judge, he was appointed school -in- 
 P. 11. 
 
210 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 spector. The paramount importance of the latter office grew upon 
 his mind, as he executed its duties, until at last he came to the full 
 conception of the grand and sacred truth : how much more intrin- 
 sically honorable is the vocation of the teacher, who saves from 
 crime and wrong, than that of the magistrate, who waits till they 
 are committed and then avenges them. 
 
 " He immediately resigned his office of judge, with its life tenure 
 and salary ; traveled to Switzerland, where he placed himself under 
 the care of Pestalozzi ; and after availing himself for three years of 
 the instruction of that celebrated teacher, he returned to take charge 
 of an Orphan Asylum. Since that time he has devoted his whole 
 life to the care of the neglected and destitute. He lives in a plain 
 and inexpensive style like our well-to-do farmers and mechanics, and 
 devotes his income to the welfare of the needy. I was told by his 
 personal friends, that he not only deprived himself of the luxuries of 
 life, but submitted to many privations in order to appropriate his 
 small income to others whom he considered more needy than himself; 
 and that his wife and family cheerfully shared in his privations for 
 the same object. To what extent would our own community sympa- 
 thize with or appreciate the act, if one of the judges of our higher 
 courts should resign an office of honor and profit, to become the 
 instructor of children? 
 
 " Even now, in 1843, when the once active and vigorous frame is 
 bending beneath the weight of years, he employs himself in teach- 
 ing agriculture, together with the branches commonly taught in 
 Prussian schools, to a class of orphan boys. What warrior, who 
 rests at last from the labors of the tented field after a victorious 
 life ; what statesman, whose name is familiar in all the courts of the 
 civilized world ; what orator, who attracts toward himself tides of 
 men wherever he may move in his splendid course — what one of all 
 these woidd not, at the sunset of life, exchange his fame and his 
 clustering honors for that precious and abounding treasury of holy 
 and beneficent deeds, the remembrance of which this good old man 
 is about to carry into the other world? Do we not need a new 
 spirit in our community, and especially in our schools, which shall 
 display only objects of virtuous ambition before the eyes of our em- 
 ulous youth; and teach them, that no height of official station nor 
 splendor of professional renown can equal, in the eye of Heaven and 
 of all good men, the true glory of a life consecrated to the welfare 
 of mankind ? " 
 
 A work upon the present condition of the schools of Prussia by 
 Dr. Ilarnish mentions the visits of Victor Cousin, Kay, Shuttleworth, 
 
GERMANY. 211 
 
 Horace Mann, and Professors Bache and Stowe, as indicating a new 
 era in the history of civilization. These men, representatives of the 
 most enlightened nations of the world, unanimously report that in 
 Germany they found a system of schools most worthy of imitation ; 
 and a large share of this excellence they attribute to the impulse 
 given them by the principles of Pestalozzi. 
 
 A question of great interest, and now often asked, is, " How far do 
 the German schools deserve the name Pestalozzian ? " A brief sur- 
 vey of the field will afford a sufficient answer. In the Elementary 
 and Normal Schools the methods of Pestalozzi are generally adopted, 
 though they have undergone various modifications to suit the spirit 
 of the times and the advancing intelligence of the age. The Uni- 
 versities, Military Schools, and Gymnasiums have felt the impulse 
 of the great reform principally in the superior teachers which have 
 since been employed. 
 
 It matters little whether the name Pestalozzian is still used or has 
 been merged into one of wider application, adapted to the require- 
 ments of the age : the principles remain the same, and to these princi- 
 ples the German schools of to-day owe a large share of their reputa- 
 tion and excellence. 
 
 The centennial anniversary of the birthday of Pestalozzi was cele- 
 brated throughout Germany and Switzerland on the 12th of January, 
 1846. Thousands of teachers assembled at various educational centers 
 to listen to the story of the great reformer from the lips of his pupils 
 and friends, who were then the honored and acknowledged leaders of 
 educational movements. In many places the schools were closed, and 
 the bells rung as in commemoration of some event of national im- 
 portance, and, at the same time, very dear to the hearts of the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 The spontaneous gatherings of teachers and friends of education, so 
 universal throughout the land, was a higher testimony of the estima- 
 tion in which he was held than even the eulogies so lavishly bestowed 
 by his friends. A remarkable feature of the day was the endeavor 
 to raise a large sum by subscription as a memorial fund — not for 
 the purpose of erecting a monument of stone or brass, but for found- 
 ing asylums for orphans and friendless children. In several places 
 this philanthropic scheme was carried into successful execution, show- 
 ing that the spirit which animated Pestalozzi in his lonely struggles 
 with poverty at Neuhof was still vital in the hearts of his disciples 
 and successors. 
 
 To those who object to these methods on account of their source, 
 
212 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Ave recommend the following extract from the report of Horace Mann : 
 "If the Prussian school-master has better methods of teaching Read- 
 ing, Writing, Grammar, and Arithmetic, so that in half the time he 
 produces greater and better results, surely we may adopt his modes 
 of teaching these elements, without adopting his notion of passive 
 obedience to government. By the ordinance of nature, the human 
 faculties are substantially the same all over the world; and hence, 
 the best means for their development and growth in one place must 
 be substantially the best for their development and growth elsewhere. 
 If a moral power over the affections and understandings of the peo- 
 ple may be turned to evil, may it not also be employed for the high- 
 est good ? A generous and impartial mind does not ask whence a thing 
 comes, but what it is. Those who, at the present day, would reject an 
 improvement because of the place of its origin, belong to the same 
 school of bigotry with those who inquired if any good could come out 
 of Nazareth ; and what infinite blessings would the world have lost 
 had that party been punished by success." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 
 
 IT may be true, indeed, that a natural method of instruction 
 is not limited to any climate, nationality, creed, or language, 
 and that human nature is essentially the same every-where, and 
 follows the same laws of development ; yet it is equally true that 
 these conditions may greatly accelerate or retard the full ajipreciation 
 and adoption of the true method. It is obvious that Pestalozzi and 
 his principal associates had a much greater personal influence in 
 Switzerland and Germany than elsewhere. They were all Swiss by 
 birth, inheriting the peculiarities of that nation; and since all spoke 
 the German language, their ideas spread rapidly wherever that lan- 
 guage was spoken. The system, whose seeds were the fruits of Ger- 
 man culture, took deep root in German soil, and grew to fair pro- 
 portions. 
 
 In France, however, the conditions were quite different. Another 
 language was spoken, and, at the time when Pestalozzi was developing 
 his system, the military spirit so overshadowed every other interest 
 that there was little opportunity for the spread of ideas which had for 
 their object "peace and good-will to all men." The despotism, which 
 claimed and enforced the right to control the actions of the people in 
 all particulars, produced a general apathy in regard to matters of ed- 
 ucation. When the reaction took place, and France, exhausted and 
 nearly impoverished by war, commenced anew a career of peace, her 
 primary schools, unfortunately, were placed under ecclesiastical control, 
 and did not attain a high reputation, or exert a healthful influence 
 upon the character of the people. The warfare between freedom 
 and ecclesiasticism, in regard to the control and management of the 
 schools, is still going on ; but there are signs that regenerated France 
 will burst the fetters which have so long bound her hand and foot, 
 and will enter a new career of progress, in which education, based 
 upon the laws of human development, shall be universal and free. 
 
 If a history of science should be written, France would have a 
 
 (213) 
 
214 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 noble record, since in many of its departments she has led the world ; 
 and it is only since the commencement of the present century that in 
 her primary instruction she has fallen behind her great rival, Ger- 
 many. In this work, however, we have only to show how far the 
 ideas of Pestalozzi penetrated this country, and what was their effect 
 upon the schools. 
 
 His work was entirely neglected by the Government, but received 
 some attention from private individuals in that country. General 
 Julien, a companion of Bonaparte in the campaign of Egypt, came to 
 Yverdon, and studied the methods practiced there. After a full in- 
 vestigation, he gave the results to the French public in two com- 
 mendatory reports entitled Esprit de la Methode d'Education de Pesta- 
 lozzi, and Precis de I'Imtitut cV Yverdon en Suisse. Through the influ- 
 ence of these reports, thirty pupils went from France to Yverdon. 
 Whether the establishment of the first French Normal School at 
 Strasburg, in 1810, was a result of this action, we are unable to tell. 
 We know, however, that the idea of training teachers for their voca- 
 tion, which was so ardently entertained by Pestalozzi, has been 
 made a part of the educational system of France, through the influ- 
 ence of Victor Cousin and M. Guizot, both eminent scholars and 
 statesmen. 
 
 Neither the Napoleonic code for the schools, with its centralizing 
 tendencies, nor the reactionary doings of the Bourbons, who came 
 after, had, in any way, been successful in elevating the moral and 
 intellectual standard of schools and of their teachers. After the 
 despotism of Charles X. was ended, in 1830, a more intelligent spirit 
 was manifested in regard to matters of education, and Victor Cousin 
 was appointed Minister of Public Instruction. He first made him- 
 self acquainted Avith the best school systems of Europe, giving an ex- 
 tensive examination to the schools of Prussia ; while his colleague, 
 M. Cuvier, visited those of Holland, most of which had been organ- 
 ized substantially upon Pestalozzian principles. 
 
 Cousin's report abounds in important and practical suggestions. 
 He found the schools of Germany so superior to those of France, 
 that he recommended a reconstruction on German models. Thus 
 we see that France, thirty years after rejecting the principles offered 
 by her nearest neighbor, Switzerland, was obliged to obtain the same 
 at second hand, through Germany. 
 
 The close of this report seems like an apology for studying the 
 school system of a rival nation: "I have now arrived at the 
 termination of this long report. May it be of use to you in 
 the important work which now engages your attention. My illus- 
 
FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 215 
 
 trious colleague, M. Cuvier, has already presented to France the plan 
 of primary instruction in Holland. The experience of Germany, 
 and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon us. National 
 rivalries or antipathies would here be completely out of place. The 
 true greatness of a people does not consist in borrowing nothing from 
 others ; but in borrowing from all whatever is good, and in perfecting 
 whatever it appropriates. I am as great an enemy as any one to 
 artificial imitations; but it is mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for 
 no other reason than that it has been thought good by others. With 
 the promptitude and justness of the French mind, and the inde- 
 structible unity of our national character, we may assimilate all that 
 is good in other countries without fear of ceasing to be ourselves. 
 Placed in the center of Europe, possessing every variety of climate, 
 bordering on civilized nations, and holding perpetual intei*course with 
 them, France is essentially cosmopolitan ; and this is the main source 
 of her gx*eat influence. Besides, civilized Europe now forms one 
 great family. We constantly imitate England in all that concerns 
 outward life, the mechanical arts, and physical refinements. Why, 
 then, should we blush to borrow something from kind, honest, pious, 
 learned Germany in what regards inward life and the nurture of the 
 soul?" 
 
 The just and intelligent system advocated by Cousin was only 
 partly carried into execution ; and primary education in France never 
 received as much attention as in Germany. 
 
 Cousin's great successor, Guizot, endeavored to perfect the system 
 which was so ably commenced. In one of his addresses to the school 
 directors of France, we find the following passage, which not only 
 contains excellent advice, but breathes the very spirit which animated 
 Pestalozzi : 
 
 "It can not be too often repeated, that it is the master who makes 
 the school; and, indeed, what a well assorted union of qualities is 
 required to constitute a good school-master ! He ought to know much 
 more than he is called upon to teach, that he may teach with intel- 
 ligence and with taste. Though he lives in a humble sphere, he 
 should have a noble and devoted mind, that he may preserve a dig- 
 nity of sentiment and deportment, without which, he will never ob- 
 tain the respect and confidence of patrons and pupils. He should 
 possess a rare mixture of gentleness and firmness ; for, inferior though 
 he be in station to manv individuals in the community, he ought to be 
 the obsequious servant of none. He should be a man, not ignorant 
 of his rights, but thinking much more of his duties, showing all a 
 good example, and serving all as counselor — a man not given to 
 
216 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 change his condition, but satisfied with his situation because it gives 
 him power to do good. To educate teachers to such a model is a 
 difficult task, and yet Ave must succeed in it if we would do any 
 thing for elementary instruction." 
 
 It would scarcely be necessary to mention Spain in connection with 
 the spread of the new educational ideas, were it not for the fact that, 
 in 1806, the Institution at Yverdon received a number of pupils 
 from Spain, who were sent thither by the Government through the 
 instigation of the King, and by the influence of his all-powerful 
 favorite, Godoy, Prince of Peace. The English and Spanish histori- 
 ans have represented this latter personage as devoid of virtue and 
 intelligence, and as the embodiment of wickedness and hypocrisy. 
 That he was hated by the priests and common people, on account 
 of his favoring the French cause, is beyond all doubt ; and that, by 
 his lively interest in education, he rendered himself still more ob- 
 noxious to the Jesuits is very probable. The following letters, 
 written to Pestalozzi, show that he favored an educational reform 
 as a remedy for the evils, ignorance, and superstition, with which 
 this unhappy country was afflicted : 
 
 "Madrid, 28th July, 1807. 
 
 " I have received with much pleasure your letter of the first 
 of this month ; and its perusal has produced in me the same sen- 
 timents which the name of the benevolent Pestalozzi and his be- 
 loved cause have always excited. Childhood has always inspired me 
 with interest and tenderness, and this sentiment has contributed to 
 sweeten my troubles and to relieve my cares ; but the Pestalozzian 
 childhood has given me moments of joy and has excited in me feel- 
 ings of admiration that can not be better expressed than by what I 
 have done in favor of the method. I have ahvays contemplated with 
 lively pleasure the children who have been educated according to this 
 system, and have received with emotion the expressions of gratitude 
 from their parents and themselves. I have presented to His Majesty 
 three young Pestalozzians, who have given incontestable proofs of 
 their astonishing progress and of the excellence of the new method. 
 Your arithmetical tables are already an ornament in the cabinet of 
 the Prince Royal, who is being educated according to the philosophic, 
 solid, and sublime principles of the Regenerator of childhood. Not- 
 withstanding all I have done in favor of the new method and for 
 the renown of its respected founder, my heart is not yet satisfied ; 
 and I am looking out for a fresh opportunity to show my esteem and 
 constancy in their behalf. The Pestalozzian Royal Military School 
 
FRANCE, SPAIN, AND RUSSIA. 217 
 
 has had its detractors, as is the case with all new and useful estab- 
 lishments — for the number of the ignorant is always greater than 
 the number of the wise; but they have not dared to raise their 
 heads, for they have not found any cause for which to attack the 
 new system, and nobody has appeared on the arena to combat it pub- 
 licly. The Commissioners of Inspection have made their last report. 
 It is impartial, and worthy of the illustrious members who composed 
 it, and also of the glory of Pestalozzi. This benefactor of the human 
 race will have the consolation of knowing that Spain renders justice 
 to his true merits, and that the Prince of Peace loves him, and shall 
 do so all his life, as long as he can appreciate his virtues and the 
 fine and perfect fruit of his meditations. 
 
 " Signed, The Prince of Peace." 
 
 "Aranjuez, February, 1808. 
 
 " Statesmen, in their public life, are often obliged to act contrary 
 to their real convictions. This has been verified in the abolition of 
 the Pestalozzian Royal Military School. The ingratitude of some, 
 the fanaticism and superstition of others, and the ignorance of many 
 have attributed to the Institution dangerous qualities which never ex- 
 isted. Its abolition, therefore, became a matter of absolute necessity. 
 Nevertheless, being myself convinced of the excellence of the method, 
 and in order to show to the philanthropist Pestalozzi, and to all Eu- 
 rope, that I shall never be forced to act inconsistently, I intend to 
 take twelve orphan boys under my immediate protection, who shall 
 continue to be educated in these principles, and whose career and 
 support shall be my care. This news and the result of the last ex- 
 amination may, perhaps, tend to console your benevolent heart. 
 
 "The Prince of Peace." 
 
 By the contents of these two letters, we are enabled to form a 
 faint picture of the unhappy condition of Spain at that time, and of 
 the powerlessness of its rulers. A month after the date of the last 
 letter, the palace of the Prince of Peace was sacked and plundered, 
 while he barely escaped the fury of the exasperated mob. The 
 premature efforts in behalf of education were all rendered abortive 
 by the wars that for years desolated that unhappy land. When 
 peace was at length restored, by the aid of the British arms, educa- 
 tion was surrendered to the Jesuits and ecclesiastics ; and the nation 
 so far relapsed into barbarism that, up to a very recent period, not 
 
218 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 one-tenth of the inhabitants could read or write. The late revolu- 
 tions, however, have opened for her a new career, and education 
 emancipated is again reviving. 
 
 We can not, with certainty, state how far the Pestalozzian princi- 
 ples have obtained a foot-hold in Russia. In a former chapter, we 
 have given an account of the personal interview which took place 
 between the Emperor Alexander and Pestalozzi, and of the honors 
 which the latter received from his imperial friend. We may here 
 add that Alexander's name heads the subscription to Pestalozzi's col- 
 lected works with 5000 rubles, followed by that of the king of Prus- 
 sia with 400 thalers, the king of Bavaria with 700 gulden, the kings 
 of Holland, Wiirtemberg, and thirty -four other royal and princely 
 personages, for various amounts. 
 
 The Emperor obtained from Pestalozzi a preceptor for the imperial 
 princes, and gave his powerful patronage to Von Muralt, a former 
 assistant of Pestalozzi, who had established a private seminary at 
 St. Petersburg for the education of the higher classes. Blochmann 
 calls Muralt one of the most influential teachers and advisers of Pes- 
 talozzi, and speaks of him as follows: "He was born of a patrician 
 family at Zurich, and had already risen to a considerable degree of 
 scientific eminence before entering Pestalozzi's school at Burgdorf. 
 Having been in Paris for a long time, he was able to give instruction 
 in two languages. He was a strict disciplinarian, decided and digni- 
 fied ; yet cordial and sympathizing." 
 
 Such a man was well adapted for the position which he held at 
 St. Petersburg; and, since his influence was exercised near the center 
 of power, it has probably been felt wherever questions have arisen 
 concerning the physical, mental, or moral well being of the people. 
 
CHAPTER IV'. 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 THE circumstances attending the introduction and spread of the 
 Pestalozzian principles in England can not be fully understood 
 without a brief review of the condition of education in that country, 
 and of the efforts which had already been made to produce a reform. 
 
 One of the first conditions of the healthful development of a nat- 
 ural system of schools is, that it shall be kept free from the control 
 and antagonisms of sect and caste. An examination of the political 
 and social condition of England, at any time during the last century, 
 will show that this has been wanting. Although the material welfare 
 and commercial prosperity of the country have been constantly ad- 
 vancing, it is a fact too obvious to be denied, that national schools, 
 the advantages of which may be enjoyed by the whole people, have 
 never had an existence. 
 
 The chartered Colleges, Universities, and Grammar Schools — leg- 
 acies of the mediaeval ages, and accessible only to the privileged few 
 — lingered in the rear of civilization. The village and parochial 
 schools, dependent for support upon the lord of the manor, or under 
 the superintendence of the clergy, were entirely inadequate to meet 
 the requirements of education. The teachers, poorly qualified and 
 poorly paid, had neither disposition nor ability to raise their standard. 
 In the cities and manufacturing centers thousands of children grew 
 up in utter ignorance, the ever-living fountain in which the great 
 streams of pauperism and crime have their source. With society rent 
 by contending and antagonistic sects, and separated into castes by 
 customs almost as inexorable as those prevalent among the Hindoos, 
 there could be no concert of action, no general, system of schools that 
 could reach these unfortunate classes. Public and private charity, 
 strained to the utmost, entirely failed to meet the emergency ; and 
 history was obliged to record, that in the most prosperous and wealthy 
 nation of the world, where the arts and sciences and advanced civili- 
 zation have reached the highest state of perfection, one-half the peo- 
 
 (219) 
 
220 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 pie could neither read nor write, and were as uncultivated as if they 
 belonged to one of the barbarous races of the world. 
 
 To remedy these evils, and to afford, at least, a modicum of 
 instruction to the teeming thousands of the manufacturing cities, 
 the monitorial system was devised by Bell and Lancaster. This 
 system required the older pupils to hear the recitations of the 
 younger ones. These pupil teachers were termed monitors. This was 
 a poor device at best, .as the instruction was necessarily confined to 
 the mere recitation of words learned from a text-book, without 
 thought and without explanation. It was, however, much better 
 than nothing, and, as it partially met an imperative human need, it 
 spread rapidly and became exceedingly popular. 
 
 The work of Bell resulted in the establishment of the British and 
 Foreign School Society in 1805 ; and that of Lancaster, in the forma- 
 tion of the National Society in 1811. Both these societies had their 
 central establishments in London ; and to both, Normal Schools, for 
 training teachers, were afterward attached. 
 
 The principles of teaching, as pursued by these two societies, were 
 essentially the same : they only differed in the matter of religious in- 
 struction. The former, under the control of the dissenters, theoret- 
 ically founded their instructions upon the Bible, but read the word 
 without note or comment; while the latter, under the control of the 
 established church, required special instruction in the articles and 
 formulas of the creed. 
 
 It need scarcely be stated, that these were mostly charity schools. 
 Their supporters never contemplated the establishment of a system 
 that should meet the requirements and supply the demands of all 
 classes. 
 
 How much this system fell short of accomplishing even the limited 
 work which it attempted, may be gathered from the report of the 
 Commissioners of the Poor, in 1840. Tins report states that 64,570 
 children, under sixteen years of age, were found in the poor-houses 
 of England, none of whom received instruction of any kind. 
 
 In 1835, Lord Brougham brought the subject of national education 
 before the House of Lords by moving a series of resolutions, which, 
 among other tilings, advised the encouragement of infant schools, 
 the establishment of Others where good teachers might be trained, 
 and also suggested the appointment of a Board of Commissioners to 
 superintend these various institutions. No action, however, was 
 taken on these resolutions. In l<s:>(i and 1837, this indefatigable 
 champion in the cause of humanity and civilization again brought 
 forward his resolutions, with additional ones, providing for the ap- 
 
ENGLAND. 221 
 
 pointment of local school committees in corporate towns, for their 
 election in agricultural districts, and for the imposition of taxes- for 
 the support of schools. 
 
 The only one of these objects realized in 1839, was a Government 
 grant, to be divided among such Normal and other schools as would 
 place themselves under the supervision of the inspectors appointed by 
 the Government. The other objects contemplated by this bill, the 
 support of the schools by taxes, and the election of local boards of con- 
 trol, were not made a portion of the educational system until 1870. 
 In the first election under this law, several of the largest constituen- 
 cies of England took a step far in advance of any other portion of 
 the world, by the election of women to these school boards. 
 
 In the midst of the discouragements and difficulties which the 
 friends of education had to encounter nearly forty years ago, they 
 were cheered and comforted by the manly and prophetic utterances 
 of Lord Brougham, from which we make the following extracts: 
 " For the first time we have had the attention of Parliament fully 
 directed to the subject of education, attracted, no doubt, by other 
 motives than by real zeal for popular improvement. 
 
 It is thus that the wisdom 
 of an overruling Providence, bringing general good out of partial 
 evil, orders that some superficial irritation, some flying ache, shall 
 excite our attention to the deep-seated mischief that is preying upon 
 our vitals, shall lead us to probe its hidden source and enable us to- 
 apply the needful remedy, long after the superficial feeling that first 
 gave the warning has passed away and been forgotton. The igno- 
 rance of the people, the origin of all the worst ills that prey upon our 
 social system, has become at length the object of legislative regard ; 
 and I defy the constituted authorities of this free country to delay 
 much longer in applying the appropriate remedy to a disease as easily 
 cured as it is fatal when neglected. ....... 
 
 " It is certain, as things now stand, that the two great parties, into, 
 which the community is divided upon this mighty question, are 
 resolved that we shall have no system of education at all; no 
 national plan for training teachers, so as to make the schools which 
 stud the country deserve the name they bear ; no national plan for 
 training young children to virtuous habits, and thereby . rooting out 
 crimes from the land. This interdict, under which both parties join 
 in laying their country, is, by each, pronounced to be necessary for 
 the sacred interests of religion. O Religion ! Gracious God ! 
 Was ever the name of thy holy ordinances so impiously profaned! 
 "Was ever before thy best gift to man, his reason, so bewildered by 
 
222 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 blind bigotry, or savage intolerance, or wild fanaticism ; — bewildered 
 so as to curse the very light thou hast caused to shine before his 
 steps ; — bewildered so as not to perceive that any and every religion 
 must flourish best in the tutored mind, and that by whomsoever 
 instructed in secular things, thy word can be better sown in a soil 
 prepared, than in one abandoned through neglect to the execrable in- 
 fluence of the evil spirit? ........ 
 
 "I know that nothing like a provision has been made for infant 
 training — by far the most essential branch of tuition — to provide 
 which is the duty of our rulers above every other duty imperative 
 upon them, and which, if they discharge not, they forfeit their title 
 to rule. But, if they have not discharged that duty, if they have 
 planted no schools where the habits of virtues may be inculcated, 
 stretched forth no hand to extirpate the germs of vice, they have 
 kept open other schools, where vice is taught with never-failing suc- 
 cess. The infant school, which a paternal government would have 
 cherished, languishes ; but Newgate flourishes." 
 
 In response to this demand for the establishment of infant schools, 
 many systems were advocated by the various friends of education ; 
 but those which attained the highest success were the ones estab- 
 lished by the disciples of Pestalozzi. Without wishing to underrate 
 the labors of others, we would state, that the work actually accom- 
 plished was chiefly due to the indefatigable labors of Dr. Mayo, who 
 had spent considerable time at Yverdon, and enjoyed the personal 
 friendship of Pestalozzi and his associates. He was at the head of a 
 large and flourishing school for boys at Cheam, near London, which 
 was patronized chiefly by the higher classes. The wide popularity 
 which his school attained was owing, in part, to his own excellent 
 management; and, in part, to the superior teaching in the mathemat- 
 ical department, of Professor Reiner, a pupil of Pestalozzi. 
 
 In general attainments and classic learning, Dr. Mayo ranked as 
 peer to the first scholars in the land ; and his connection with the 
 Universities, and his wide reputation as a man of letters, gave him 
 ample opportunity to secure desirable positions in the higher paths 
 of science and literature. 
 
 He found, however, a more congenial occupation in the field of 
 education ; and devoted his time and energies to the task of benefit- 
 ing childhood, and of elevating the public schools of his country. 
 His earliest appeals in favor of a system of infant schools are re- 
 corded in a speech delivered before the Royal Institute, in 1826. 
 The sentiments contained in this address, and his subsequent acts, 
 show that he had the same philanthropic spirit and self-devotion in 
 
ENGLAND. 223 
 
 the cause of humanity that characterized the original founders of the 
 school reform. 
 
 Although, in order to meet the requirements of the English cur- 
 riculum of fashionable learning, much of the time of his school was 
 devoted to the classics, Dr. Mayo was constantly endeavoring to sup- 
 plement this instruction with that real knowdedge, which — as he had 
 learned from the precepts and practices of Pestalozzi — is necessary to 
 the full and harmonious development of all the powers of the mind. 
 He gave especial attention to his younger pupils, laying a broad 
 foundation for future development. In pursuing his object, he dis- 
 played, in an eminent degree, the combined characteristics of an orig- 
 inal thinker and a practical worker. Not satisfied with the mere 
 enunciation of high sounding and plausible theories, he submitted 
 every plan and method to the ordeal of experiment, and gave to the 
 public only such as had stood the test of the most critical analysis. 
 
 In this work he was ably assisted by his sister, Miss Elizabeth 
 Mayo, who planned and published a systematic series of Object Les- 
 sons. The following narrative from the pen of Dr. Mayo is par- 
 ticularly valuable, since it shows the superiority of a person who 
 lays hold of the central principles of a great movement, over one 
 who merely copies the mechanical portions, preserving the form but 
 losing the indwelling spirit : 
 
 "Pestalozzi was peculiarly solicitous that the idea of his method 
 of education should not be confounded with the form it might assume. 
 He felt, and strongly too, the value, the power, and the truth of 
 that idea ; and highly as he was disposed to appreciate the lahors of 
 his disciples in their practical application to the work of education, 
 he saw that they were, at best, superficial and incomplete, — embody- 
 ings of the grand and profound conceptions in which he might be 
 said, intellectually, to live, move, and have his being. 
 
 " Profoundly convinced of the truth of Pestalozzi's views, and 
 warned against his errors by long actual observation of the conse- 
 quences, the writer of these remarks determined to attempt the in- 
 troduction of the method into England, religiously preserving the 
 idea, but adapting the form to the circumstances in which he might 
 be placed. He considered that the most effectual mode of accom- 
 plishing this end was to devote himself to the formation of a school, 
 in which the arrangement and practical application of those princi- 
 ples might be made. To exhibit the system in operation ; to elab- 
 orate a course of instruction by means of experiments continually 
 repeated; and, above all, to prepare materials for an appeal to 
 actual results, seemed to him a far more useful and effectual, 
 
224 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 though less rapid and brilliant process, than that of dragging 
 it before reluctant audiences at public meetings, or of advancing 
 its merits in the periodical publications of the day. He was content 
 that it should be buried in oblivion for awhile, assured, that, if it 
 really possessed the life of truth, it would, "in due time, spring up 
 with renewed vigor. That time seems to have arrived. Attention to 
 the subject is renewed. Schools, professing to be conducted on Pes- 
 talozzian principles, are increasing in number; and publications issue 
 from the press, which point out with more or less success, the man- 
 ner of applying them to different branches of instruction. They are 
 the result of many years of experience, the corrected and re-corrected 
 editions of lessons actually given by different individuals. They may 
 want some of that ideal beauty discernible in works produced in the 
 closet by ingenious imagination ; but they possess, on the other hand, 
 the solid advantage of ascertained practicability and demonstrated 
 usefulness. 
 
 " It has been thought desirable to commence the series with a 
 course of Lessons on Objects. It is a field hitherto little, if at all, 
 cultivated. The distinguishing principles of the Pestalozzian system 
 are strikingly exemplified in it. The instruction given in infant 
 schools would be improved by the introduction of a similar plan, 
 and the early education of the nursery would receive a new and 
 interesting feature. 
 
 "This mode of instruction was suggested to Pestalozzi by the pecul- 
 iar circumstances in which he was placed at Stanz. The brutalized 
 state into which the poor children confided to his care had fallen ren- 
 dered it absolutely necessary to find some new mode of interesting 
 their minds and calling out their dormant faculties. Nature was the 
 only book with which they were conversant, and their first lessons 
 were consequently drawn from its pages. Experience and judgment 
 retained what necessity first imposed. The subjects ordinarily pre- 
 sented to the youthful mind appeared too remote from that knowl- 
 edge which the child acquires without regular instruction ; and, gen- 
 erally, they were taught in too abstract a manner. It was proposed 
 to bring education more in contact with the child's own experience 
 and observation, and to find in him the first link in the chain of his 
 instruction. 
 
 "The plan of teaching by objects was adopted, yet many inconven- 
 iences resulted from the arrangement. The. subjects which the room 
 itself, the building, the premises, presented were soon exhausted, or 
 thought to be so; the pupils were then taken into the fields, but the 
 weather was an occasional hinderance ; the variety of objects pre- 
 
ENGLAND. 225 
 
 sented out-of-doors distracted the attention of the pupils, and, though 
 much interest was at first excited, still, as there was no sensible prog- 
 ress, no perceivable end, it diminished rather than increased in force. 
 It was thought, too, that the exercises, so miscellaneous in character, 
 so devoid of systematic arrangement, were essentially defective as a 
 means of intellectual development. Upon these grounds the miscel- 
 laneous Object Lessons were abandoned, and the master (Kriisi) who 
 had conducted the class, substituted a course on the parts and func- 
 tions of the human frame. These are contained in the ' Manual for 
 Mothers,' a work presenting valuable hints for early education, mixed 
 with much that is insufferably tedious. At the period when the writer 
 of these observations was in the Institution at Yverdon, instruction 
 on objects had fallen into disuse ; but, having heard this history from 
 the teacher who had formerly given it, he felt strongly convinced 
 that a mode might be adopted by which its advantages would be 
 secured, and its contingent inconveniences avoided. Having commu- 
 nicated this impression to his sister, Miss Mayo, with a general no- 
 tion of the plan, he has left the execution of the details to her ; and 
 the result of her labor is the exercises now for the first time pre- 
 sented to the public. ......... 
 
 "As they are intended to be preparatory to instruction in Natural 
 History, they gradually assume a more scientific character, and thus 
 a feeling of progress is sustained in the pupil's mind. It has been 
 found, indeed, by long experience, that no lessons produce more con- 
 tinued interest, or more enlarge the minds of children, than those on 
 objects." 
 
 The "Lessons on Objects" were published in 1830, and were soon 
 followed by "Lessons on Number and Form," prepared by Professor 
 Reiner. About this time Mr. Greaves, an enthusiastic friend and ad- 
 mirer of Pestalozzi, and Dr. Biber, a learned German, who published 
 a life of Pestalozzi in English, called the attention of the British 
 public to the needed reform in education generally, and to the im- 
 portance of the establishment of infant schools in particular. 
 
 The result of these exertions was the formation of the Home and 
 Colonial Society in 1836. A building was selected in Gray's Inn 
 Road, and a school opened for the training of children. The necessity 
 of a Normal department was soon felt, since the school was expected 
 to be a nursery of other schools of the same kind. Through the 
 indefatigable exertions of its leading manager, Mr. Reynolds, a gen- 
 tleman of noble impulses and considerable wealth, the establishment 
 of the Normal department was secured, and the sphere of the use- 
 fulness of the society was enlarged. 
 P. 1 5. 
 
226 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 The wide celebrity of this Training School, however, is mainly due 
 to its vigorous adherence to the rational system of education, which 
 is a direct outgrowth of the principles of Pestalozzi. Its religious 
 foundation is sufficiently broad to embrace all the distinctive evan- 
 gelical sects, and it is as free from the influence of caste as it is pos- 
 sible to be in the present condition of English government and so- 
 ciety. 
 
 For its free spirit, and the reputation it has obtained in consequence, 
 the Institution is largely indebted to Dr. Mayo and his sister. Their 
 writings had attracted the attention of Mr. Reynolds, and profoundly 
 impressed him with the importance of placing his school upon a basis 
 which should secure to it the aid of enlightened and noble minds. 
 This basis he found in what Dr. Mayo calls, when referring to the 
 work of Pestalozzi, "the application of Christianity to the business of 
 education." Miss Mayo, who soon afterward moved into the neigh- 
 borhood of London, gave to the school her valuable assistance, until 
 her death. 
 
 In consequence of the new and superior methods pursued, the In- 
 stitution, from time to time, secured the cooperation of many efficient 
 educators, prominent among whom may be mentioned Mr. Robert 
 Dunning, of Scotland. He came from a country where the paro- 
 chial school system dates back to the time of the discovery of Amer- 
 ica, and where the Protestant element was so powerful as to scarcely 
 allow one of its citizens to grow up without being able to read the 
 Bible. The development of the Scotch school of philosophy, with 
 its sharp analysis of the powers of the mind, had also given education 
 an impulse in that country even before the agitation for reform com- 
 menced in England. The system of Mr. Stowe had the merit of 
 approximating the truth, but it lacked the true spirit of development. 
 Mr. Dunning, however, was not content with this half-way work. 
 His clear and discriminating mind soon saw that the basis of educa- 
 tion must rest upon the development of the perceptive faculties, by 
 appealing directly to the objects themselves, rather than by obtaining 
 the same result through the circuitous path of the imagination. 
 Thus, in hearty sympathy with the general spirit of the Institution, 
 Mr. Dunning was appointed to superintend its methods, and arrange 
 courses of instruction. He performed this service with great intelli- 
 gence and ability. 
 
 Mr. Coghlan, a native of Ireland, and to some extent a pupil of 
 the school, did important and valuable service in skillfully carrying 
 out the methods of instruction in the junior practicing school, and 
 in preparing exercises for some of the higher departments. 
 
ENGLAND. 227 
 
 Prof. Reiner, the teacher of Mathematics, was connected with the 
 school at Yverdon, until it was given up in 1826. He was afterward 
 associated with Dr. Mayo, and upon the death of the latter, he moved 
 to London and was employed in the Home and Colonial School, 
 where he rendered most excellent service in his favorite branch of 
 instruction. He also taught the children of Queen Victoria. 
 
 We should also mention here the services of Mr. Tegetmeier, in 
 the branches of Natural Science, and of the Misses Sunter, Tucker, 
 and Jones in the practicing and training departments. The latter we 
 shall meet again in our notice of education in America. 
 
 The author may be excused for mentioning his own connection 
 with this school. For five years his services were employed in de- 
 veloping exercises in various departments, among which was Invent- 
 ive Drawing, already mentioned in a previous chapter. 
 
 Among the agencies which have given this school just celebrity 
 for training teachers, is its practicing school, where the pupils are 
 obliged to apply the principles in which they have been instructed. 
 
 The influence of this school upon education in England can scarcely 
 be overstated. It has sent out more than four thousand well trained 
 teachers to take their places in the elementary schools. Above all, 
 it has steadily inculcated the true philosophic principles of education, 
 which sooner or later must permeate the whole social system of the 
 country. 
 
 It is but just to mention the Training School at Battersea, near 
 London. This school was established under the auspices, and, in 
 part, by the funds of Messrs. Tuffnel and Shuttleworth, two gentle- 
 men who had previously traveled through nearly every country in 
 Europe, in order to make themselves acquainted with the best sys- 
 tems of instruction. 
 
 They seem to have been most attracted by the labors of Fellen- 
 berg and Wehrli, at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, where the methods of 
 Pestalozzi were applied to agricultural and industrial training ; and 
 the school which they established was founded upon a similar basis. 
 This school has also accomplished an excellent work : directly, by 
 giving a scientific and practical education to its pupils ; and indirectly, 
 by extending a knowledge of the true processes of instruction to all 
 parts of the country through its pupils and graduates. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE development of the political and social institutions of this 
 country has been the result of such diverse and often antag- 
 onistic forces, and has proceeded so rapidly, that, at the present time, 
 it is scarcely possible to form a just estimate of it in all its varied 
 relations. The field of survey is so vast, and the progressive tenden- 
 cies so universal, that individual and particular movements are 
 merged and lost in the majestic march of the nation. 
 
 In a general review of the progress of education in this country, 
 we meet with the same difficulties. The movements have apparently 
 been so spontaneous and general that the schools seem rather a nat- 
 ural growth, than the result of deliberate action. In the North, edu- 
 cation for all was recognized as a fundamental principle from the very 
 first settlement of the country. This sentiment, broadening and deep- 
 ening in its course, kept pace with the tide of civilization advancing 
 toward the West, until now it is recognized as an integrant part of the 
 political and social fabric of American institutions. As interpreted 
 in this country, education for all, means education that is practically 
 free, without restrictions for class, caste, sex, or creed. It means 
 also, that while all shall have equal advantages, those advantages 
 shall be shared together in the same schools ; and although restric- 
 tions have been imposed, from time to time, they have usually been 
 both local and temporary in their character. 
 
 For the realization of this grand idea of education, the American 
 people have always made sacrifices that have excited the admiration 
 of the world. Legislatures and individuals have all brought their 
 most acceptable offerings to the great altar of human intelligence. 
 The methods have apparently not kept pace with the spread of edu- 
 cation. The fathers of the country adopted the best system known 
 in their time, and brought it within the reach of all ; but in the 
 hurry and excitement of material advancement, the old system be- 
 came crystallized and rigid, and for a long time little or no thought 
 was given to improved methods. 
 (228) 
 
UNITED STATES. 229 
 
 The Avork before us is, not to trace the history of education in this 
 country ; but, rather, to note to what extent, and by whom the im- 
 proved method as advocated by Pestalozzi has been introduced, what 
 has been its effect upon education generally, and what are the obsta- 
 cles in the way of its complete and general adoption. 
 
 As preliminary to this work, we would call attention to the gen- 
 eral progress of education ; and to the successive phases which it 
 must assume in the evolution of society, before the introduction of 
 new methods is possible, and when their application becomes a mat- 
 ter of necessity. 
 
 The first stage of progress is the awakening of the nation to the 
 consciousness that the elements of science must be acquired in order 
 to enable the individual to escape from the trammels of superstition 
 and ignorance. Europe entered this phase of education at the com- 
 mencement of the Reformation ; and with it America commenced 
 her career. 
 
 From the first stage there gradually develops an appreciation of 
 the needs of humanity. This leads to the second stage, in which 
 the schools, mistaking the shadow for the substance, draw their in- 
 spiration mainly from the classic sources of by-gone times. The mem- 
 ory is cultivated at the expense of the higher faculties of the mind ; 
 and the spirit of culture is lost in anxious efforts to preserve the 
 form. This phase of education amuses the people with the sem- 
 blance of learning, while it retards and discourages all efforts at 
 original thought. 
 
 The third stage is really a continuation of the second, though ap- 
 parently antagonistic to it. It comes in an era when physical wealth 
 and prosperity have advanced farther than mental culture ; and when 
 there is a general desire to obtain the results of learning without sub- 
 mitting to the conditions through which alone learning can be ob- 
 tained. Knowledge is regarded as something outside of man and 
 wholly foreign to his nature, rather than something which should 
 enter into the very texture of his being. Science, being of use, at 
 least its terms should be known. The memorizing of scientific state- 
 ments is, therefore, considered as equivalent to the acquisition of 
 facts; and the pupils who are stuffed with these mere symbols of 
 knowledge are often regarded as prodigies of learning. At school 
 exhibitions parents and school officers are struck with wonder at the 
 glibness of the recitations of the pupils, and are as satisfied with 
 these baubles of science as the savage is with his bright buttons and 
 glass beads. 
 
 Education at this time is full of fallacious promises, in which the 
 
230 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 fruit is to come before the blossom, and the full harvest before the 
 seed has been sown; it is full of professions which can never be real- 
 ized, because they are contrary to the eternal laws of God. 
 
 The schools of the United States seem still to be largely controlled 
 by the ideas that characterize this era. They have, it is true, gone 
 one step beyond the old system of memorizing merely classical sub- 
 jects ; and have, to a considerable extent, recognized the importance 
 of science in all its relations. 
 
 In the fourth era of educational progress, philosophy which has 
 been developed in other pursuits is directed toward methods and 
 systems. At this time people begin to discover that true education, 
 like true science and philosophy, must every-where be in harmony 
 with nature, and proceed in accordance with natural laws. They see 
 that intelligence must take the place of routine, and that education 
 must express an inward condition rather than an outward object. 
 At this period the idea begins to dawn that school life should be a 
 vital part of common life ; and that school exercises should all be 
 founded upon the previous experiences of the pupils, and should 
 proceed step by step to enlarge these experiences and to unfold the 
 mental powers. There arises, also, a perception that the true stand- 
 ard of excellence, in any process of instruction, is its capability of 
 generally interesting pupils, and of inciting them to originality and 
 independence of thought. The question is not, how much does this 
 pupil know upon this or that topic ; but, rather, how well is he pre- 
 pared to grasp any subject and treat it with intelligence? 
 
 This last era is yet to be fully realized ; but is one, if we mistake 
 not the signs of the times, upon which the American schools are rap- 
 idly entering. In this era the principles of Pestalozzi are impera- 
 tively demanded, and are necessary to the next steps of progress. 
 
 For many years isolated ideas of unmistakable Pestalozzian origin 
 have been presented to the American public by different educators. 
 In 1823, Warren Colburn made the first assault upon the old system 
 by publishing his " Intellectual Arithmetic," a work which has had 
 an immense influence in changing, and, indeed, in revolutionizing 
 teaching in that branch of instruction. The origin of the plan upon 
 which the book is constructed is seen in the principle of gradual and 
 systematic development, which is its characteristic feature ; and in 
 the fact that the Pestalozzian table of units as prepared by Krusi 
 was appended to its first edition. 
 
 The veteran educator and reformer, Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, 
 in an address before the Normal School at Bridgewater, Massachu- 
 setts, used the following language concerning Mr. Colburn's work 
 
UNITED STATES. 231 
 
 and the reforms that followed : " This little work gave not so much 
 the theory, as an example of what a school-book ought to be; and 
 throughout our schools it has changed not only the method of teach- 
 ing the science of which it treats, but the true method of teaching 
 the elements of all other sciences." 
 
 It seemed as if from that date, 1823, the demand for improved 
 methods of education became more urgent. Some men went like 
 missionaries from place to place, preaching a new educational creed, 
 in which not words alone, but their essence and spirit, as embodied in 
 facts, were to become the saving agency from ignorance and pedantry. 
 Others wrote publications to the same effect ; and others, again, 
 worked by practice and example in their respective spheres. 
 
 The Journal of Education, commenced by Professor AVm. Russell 
 in 1826, and published by him for several years, did good work. 
 The publication of Mrs. Austin's translation of Cousin's " Report of 
 the State of Public Instruction in Prussia;" and the accounts which 
 were brought by intelligent travelers from other European States, 
 made known the mortifying fact, that, during the preceding century, 
 very much more had been done to give the people of the monarch- 
 ical governments a thorough knowledge of the elements of literature 
 and science, than had been done by the freest and most intelligent 
 States of this Republic. 
 
 The Rev. Charles Brooks and others went about the country 
 lecturing upon the subject, every-where telling to large audiences the 
 story of our shameful deficiencies, describing the European seminaries, 
 and stating that no one there was permitted to be a teacher, who 
 had not been prepared for the work. Upon Seminaries and Normal 
 Schools, the thoughts of the wisest friends of education in our country 
 now concentrated. 
 
 Among those who, at this time, were quietly engaged in carrying 
 the principles of Pestalozzi into practical execution, were two remark- 
 able men, brothers, Dr. Wm. A., and Mr. A. Bronson Alcott. The 
 latter for some time taught a private school in a retired country vil- 
 lage, where, by following the principles of development in an original 
 manner, he had produced results of a most remarkable and satisfac- 
 tory character. Afterward he was associated with his brother in the 
 management of a private school in Connecticut. This school was con- 
 ducted on principles very far in advance of the times. From this 
 field of labor, he received an invitation to organize an infant school 
 in Boston, which he accepted with alacrity. 
 
 He entered upon the performance of his new duties with his whole 
 soul, and with a sincere desire to promote the welfare of the children 
 
229 
 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 committed to his care. He treated his pupils as moral, as well as 
 intellectual, beings ; and, like Pestalozzi, he was convinced that 
 moral impressions, to be durable, must be based upon experience 
 and upon ideas gained from real objects and actions. Proverbs, 
 apothegms, and moral precepts, though conveyed in fine words, and 
 repeated until indelibly impressed upon the memory, he thought 
 could never produce genuine moral convictions. Carrying out these 
 ideas to their logical conclusions, even in Bible lessons he listened to 
 the simple suggestions of the pupils with respectful attention, instead 
 of enforcing upon them the opinions of the authoritative expounders 
 of the text. He often refused to decide between their different opin- 
 ions, preferring to so lead their minds that they would see the truth 
 rather than have it stated for them. He had no confidence in the 
 efficacy of that system which memorizes words, that the ideas con- 
 tained in them might be comprehended at some future state of de- 
 velopment. 
 
 He was appreciated by the few, but condemned by the many. His 
 independence of opinion estranged from him many of his original 
 supporters ; for he never stooped to flatter, nor did he ever change 
 his course for fear of losing patronage. Like Pestalozzi, he considered 
 the children of the poor just as worthy of his consideration as the 
 children of the rich ; and his persistent refusal to remove a colored 
 child from his school, at a time when the slave power in America 
 not only dominated in politics, but extended its baleful influence 
 through every ramification of society, resulted in the withdrawal of 
 patronage, and the breaking up of his school. 
 
 With the spirit of the old martyrs, this noble descendant of the 
 Puritans faced poverty, obloquy, and social ostracism rather than be- 
 tray humanity ; and his act was one of the heroic deeds which re- 
 buked the servility of the times and helped to rouse the nation to a 
 sense of the terrible iniquity which was corrupting and debasing its 
 manhood and destroying the very foundation of its existence. He 
 7iiost heroically verified the truth of the poet, when he says: 
 
 "To side with truth is noble, 
 
 When we share her wretched crust, 
 Ere her cause brings fame and profit, 
 And 'tis prosperous to be just." 
 
 In 1826, Hon. James C. Carter, of Massachusetts, issued a pamph- 
 let in which he reviewed the condition of the schools of New Eng- 
 land, and suggested measures of reform. Of this Mr. May says : 
 " Mr. Carter descants wisely upon the inestimable influence of early 
 
UNITED STATES. 233 
 
 education ; pays a just tribute to the wise foresight of the founders 
 of New England in providing for the culture of all the young; and 
 shows the deteriorating effects which flow from the institution of 
 private Academies, of which there were none in Massachusetts until 
 after the Revolution. He then exposes the defects in the organ- 
 ization of the free schools, as well as in the methods pursued in them. 
 In conclusion, he shows that they can be made what they should be, 
 by a careful preparation of teachers for them, and gives some excel- 
 lent hints of an institution for the education of teachers. This last 
 was the great idea of his pamphlet. It has since been expanded 
 until it has grown into the present common school system of Massa- 
 chusetts, comjDrising a Board of Education, a number of Normal 
 Schools, and a body of wholesome laws for the government of schools 
 of different grades, which are now required to be kept at the public 
 expense in all the towns of the Commonwealth." 
 
 The labors of Horace Mann in the cause of education were of such 
 a character as to insure to his memory the gratitude, not only of 
 Massachusetts, which was the theater of his principal labors, but of 
 the whole country. Like Pestalozzi, his work was characterized by 
 a lofty and noble enthusiasm for the cause of humanity. He em- 
 ployed his great eloquence in defense of the right, and in oj:>position 
 to all ideas and customs which tended to keep his fellow -men in 
 physical or intellectual bondage. 
 
 We have already laid before our readers Horace Mann's notice of 
 the career of Von Turk, in which he expresses in the most eloquent 
 terms his appreciation of the nobleness of that spirit, which sacrificed 
 wealth, political preferment, and social distinction for the benefit of 
 the poor and unfortunate. Mr. Mann's own career furnishes another 
 example of a life sacredly dedicated to the cause of truth and justice, 
 and to the moral elevation of the people. 
 
 In 1837, Horace Mann, then a prominent lawyer, and a member 
 of the Senate of Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary of the 
 newly created Board of Education in that State. This post he occu- 
 pied for eleven years. Durilig that time he devoted himself with 
 untiring energy to the labors of his office, generally working fifteen 
 hours a day, thus depriving himself of ease, social pleasures, and rec- 
 reation. This self-immolation enabled him to accomplish a vast 
 amount of work ; but it also engendered a disease, which caused him 
 great suffering and finally shortened his life. That his course was a 
 matter of choice, and the penalty clearly understood, may be gathered 
 from the advice given on his dying bed to his pupils: "Be ashamed to 
 die unless yon have icon some victory for humanity." 
 
234 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 The following are some of the principal measures of reform adopted 
 during Mr. Mann's administration, and they are directly attributable 
 to his efforts : 
 
 First. — Paid school committees were appointed in the towns to 
 examine and employ teachers, and to superintend the schools. By 
 this measure, a responsible head was provided for the schools in each 
 town, and many abuses were corrected, by which the qualification of 
 teachers and the general standard of schools were raised throughout 
 the State. 
 
 Second. — A system of local reports from these committees to the 
 Board of Education, was required, so that the details of the schools 
 in every locality could be accurately known. 
 
 From these reports the comparative tables of the State Report Mere 
 compiled, and a new impulse was given to the schools by exciting an 
 emulation for an honorable position before the public. 
 
 Third. — County Conventions and Teachers' Institutes were organ- 
 ized, resulting in a free interchange of ideas and experiences, and 
 creating an esprit de corps, which excited teachers to renewed activity, 
 and stimulated and enlightened the communities, where they labored. 
 
 Fourth. — Normal Schools for the professional education of teachers 
 were established. 
 
 Mr. Mann early saw, that, unless teachers had an opportunity for 
 special preparation for their duties, the work of educational reform 
 could not go on, because it would rest on no solid foundation. . To 
 the creation of a Normal School, therefore, he gave special attention. 
 
 At the time, there was such a general apathy in regard to the 
 training of teachers, that it was impossible to induce the Massachu- 
 setts Legislature to make an appropriation, which, at the present time, 
 would scarcely be considered sufficient to build a village school-house. 
 Private generosity, however, furnished the means, which was refused 
 by public parsimony. Mr. Dwight, a wealthy merchant of Boston, 
 offered ten thousand dollars to the State for the establishment of a 
 Normal School, provided the Legislature would appropriate an equal 
 sum. This offer was accepted, and the "Normal School at Lexington 
 was opened on the 8th of July, 1838, within sight of the ground 
 where the sturdy yeomanry of New England struck the first blow 
 for their freedom in 1775. The first day of the session three pupils 
 timidly made their appearance, and placed themselves under the care 
 of the Principal, Cyrus Pierce, who afterward received from the teach- 
 ers of the State the affectionate title, " Father Pierce." This open- 
 ing, so apparently discouraging and inauspicious, marked the com- 
 mencement of a new era. The battle for professional training had 
 
UNITED STATES. 235 
 
 been won. We may easily excuse Horace Mann for the expression 
 of triumph and enthusiasm which is recorded in his diary: "Is it 
 not glorious ! I feel rather sublime ! Let the stars look out for my 
 head." 
 
 In 1843, under the auspices of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- 
 tion, but at his own expense, Mr. Mann visited Europe, as he says, 
 "To examine the schools, and to get such information as could be 
 made available at home." His " Seventh Annual Report," made 
 after his return, embodied the result of this tour. Probably no edu- 
 cational document in this country has ever had a greater circulation, 
 or created so deep a sensation. Wherever Mr. Mann went, he carried 
 with him a keen eye for what constitutes the true greatness of a 
 people. He was not indifferent to the beauties of nature, nor to the 
 achievements of art ; but, like Pestalozzi, he never allowed the aspects 
 of the external world to blind him to the condition of the people,, 
 and he was often pained and saddened by the contrasts presented. 
 In England, he did not find much that could be applied in his own 
 country. In Scotland, he was pleased with the order, zeal, and love 
 of learning manifested in many of the schools ; but he deplored the 
 time and energy wasted upon formulas and other outgrowths of 
 dogmatism. 
 
 In Germany, and particularly in Prussia, he seems to have discov- 
 ered the true secret of success in the processes of education. He is 
 most enthusiastic in praise of those schools which had partaken most 
 directly of the spirit of Pestalozzi, through the teachings of his im- 
 mediate friends and associates. He represents the teachers and pupils 
 of these schools to be in perfect harmony with each other : the 
 former, intelligent, self-reliant, and sympathetic ; the latter, con- 
 tented and happy under a course of training which supplied the 
 wants of the expanding mind, and obtained obedience without re- 
 course to force, or an appeal to mercenary motives. 
 
 The enthusiastic praise which Mr. Mann bestowed upon the Ger- 
 man schools, and the sharp criticisms conveyed in the comparisons 
 which he made between the methods he found in use there and those 
 practiced in his own country, drew upon him the ire and animosity 
 of a large number of pedagogues, whose self-importance he had so 
 disturbed, and whose claims to be considered leaders in the educa- 
 tional movements of this world he had so rudely called in question. 
 Thirty-one Boston school - masters united in the preparation of a 
 pamphlet, the object of which was to controvert the facts and deduc- 
 tions of this report, and to demonstrate the superiority of the Amer- 
 ican school system over that of any of the countries of Europe. In 
 
236 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 his reply Mr. Mann handled his adversaries " without gloves." He 
 overwhelmed them with testimony, and deluged them with argument. 
 
 To the sneering remark, that the institutions of a free country need 
 not he improved by any importations from the governments of the 
 Old World, he opposed the fact, that the rod had almost fallen into 
 disuse in some of these despotic countries, while, as yet, it sorely 
 troubled the backs and hands of many a budding republican under 
 the vaunted reign of self-control. 
 
 The public, which had become greatly interested in the contro- 
 versy, generally accorded to Mr. Mann a complete victory ; and he 
 Avas never afterward troubled by open attacks from school-teachers 
 whose self-love and zeal outran their intelligence and discretion. 
 
 Mr. Mann next advocated the grading of schools, which had now 
 become for the first time possible by the preparation of teachers 
 trained to their vocation. Before the close of his labors as Secretary, 
 large numbers of these schools were in successful operation, raising 
 the standard of education, and becoming centers for the dissemina- 
 tion of new ideas concerning it. 
 
 In 1849, Mr. Mann resigned his position to take his place in the 
 National House of Representatives, to which he had been elected as 
 successor to John Quincy Adams. After a few years' service as leg- 
 islator, he accepted the Presidency of a newly-founded college at 
 Antioch, Ohio. The extremely liberal policy upon which the Insti- 
 tution was founded — that of opening its doors to all without regard 
 to race, color, denomination or sex — fully met the approbation of 
 Mr. Mann ; and he entered upon the discharge of his duties with his 
 usual zeal and enthusiasm. But financial difficulties, arising from 
 broken pledges, mismanagement, and a thousand petty annoyances 
 from coarse natures that could in no way sympathize with the benefi- 
 cent ideas of the great-hearted philanthropist, embittered his life and 
 shortened his days. He died at his post, giving lessons of wisdom 
 with his latest breath. His native State has placed his statue in 
 bronze in the Capitol, side by side with those of her most honored 
 statesmen. But his most fitting monument is the noble school system 
 which he has built; and that gratitude which will increase rather 
 than diminish as long as virtue is cherished among men. 
 
 The successors of Horace Mann, as Secretary of the Massachusetts 
 Board of Education, were Dr. Barnas Sears, afterward President of 
 Brown University, and Hon. George S. Boutwell, since Secretary of 
 the United States Treasury. These men ably carried out the meas- 
 ures inaugurated by Horace Mann. Under their administration the 
 influence of Normal Schools and Teachers' Institutes greatly increased, 
 
UNITED STATES. 237 
 
 and the instruction given in them became more systematic in its char- 
 acter. Graded schools were also multiplied, and the district schools 
 of the towns were gradually consolidated, and placed under more 
 efficient and intelligent supervision. 
 
 Among those who early became imbued with the spirit of Pesta- 
 lozzi was Lowell Mason, of Boston, the eminent composer and teacher 
 of music. Believing thoroughly in the new principles of education, 
 he set about applying them to his own special branch of instruction 
 with a success so marked, that the methods which he devised are now 
 substantially adopted every-where in the country. He also devoted 
 much time and energy to the introduction of music into the common 
 schools ; and in this he succeeded so well that it is evident, that a 
 full realization of this idea is only a question of time, as the edu- 
 cational forces of the country now favor it. The manner in which 
 he first became interested in these principles is shown by the follow- 
 ing history — for some facts of which we are indebted to Barnard's 
 Review: Mr. Win. C. Woodbridge, a well- known educator, while 
 visiting the schools of Germany became so fully convinced of the 
 importance of singing as a branch of education, that he provided 
 himself with the most approved text-books for school and class in- 
 struction. Among these was the treatise of M. T. Pfeiffer and H. G. 
 Niigeli, entitled "Method of Teaching Music according to the Prin- 
 ciples of Pestalozzi." This book and others which had been prepared 
 with particular reference to the legitimate influence of song in moral 
 culture and the training of the affections, Mr. Woodbridge placed in 
 the hands of Lowell Mason, trying to induce him to make an experi- 
 ment of a course of singing on the new plan. Mr. Mason, with some 
 reluctance, consented, and was himself astonished at the result ob- 
 tained. He was fully convinced of the practicability and fitness of 
 the new method, which, while appealing to reason and common sense, 
 deals with reality rather than with its symbols, and thus combines 
 practice with theory. 
 
 In 1837, Mr. Mason visited Europe, chiefly for the purpose of 
 making himself acquainted with the best methods of teaching music, 
 although he did not neglect to bestow attention upon other branches, 
 in order to show the universal bearing of sound principles of educa- 
 tion. After his return from Europe, he had ample opportunities of 
 carrying out his principles of inductive teaching, and his methods 
 may not unjustly be mentioned as more rigidly exact and philosoph- 
 ical than even those adopted abroad. The suggestive views of Nii- 
 geli and Pestalozzi, Mr. Mason has carried further than any other 
 teacher has ever done, having that simplicity and clearness which 
 
238 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 enabled him to render the subject easy and popular, and a great zeal 
 and perseverance, which encouraged him to stand firm against preju- 
 dice. 
 
 The Massachusetts Teachers' Institutes established by Horace 
 Mann, presented another sphere of extensive Usefulness and influence. 
 " His long experience as a practical teacher ; his rare tact in devel- 
 oping principles in the simplest and happiest manner ; his endless 
 variety of illustrations ; his genial wit and humor ; his sympathy with 
 youth; his gentle, reformatory hints, and occasional grave reflections, 
 gave him an indescribable power over his audience. 
 
 "Nor is his mission limited to the single department of music. 
 His wide and comprehensive views embrace the whole field of educa- 
 tion. Horace Mann justly remarks : ' It is well worth walking ten 
 miles to hear a lesson of Dr. Mason ; for in it, he would hear a most 
 able exposition of the true principles of all teaching, as well as that 
 of instruction in music' " 
 
 In a second trip to Europe, Mr. Mason Was particularly interested 
 in the methods pursued at the Home and Colonial School, London. 
 The lessons which he gave there excited the admiration of all who 
 heard them. On the other hand, he had the advantage of finding a 
 lucid and practical exposition of Pestalozzi's ideas in the writings of 
 Miss Mayo, and in the discourses of Mr. Dunning. The lessons to 
 which he listened were not so abstract as those frequently given by 
 jjrofessed Pestalozzians ; and the pupils were supplied with more ob- 
 jects of illustration, than in the schools of Germany. Mr. Mason re- 
 turned with a still stronger conviction, that the experiments he had 
 hitherto made rested on a sure foundation. Although somewhat ad- 
 vanced in years, he prepared a powerful lecture upon Pestalozzianism, 
 which he delivered before the American Institute of Instruction at 
 New Haven, Connecticut, in 1854, and afterward in many other 
 places. 
 
 Many persons have contributed to the reform by the preparation 
 of treatises, and by practical teaching upon specific subjects. Among 
 these we must not forget to mention the labor and teaching of the 
 late Professor Agassiz, whose greatness rests, not merely in the result 
 of his many scientific discoveries, but in the success he achieved as a 
 teacher. His main task was to inspire his pupils with a love of na- 
 ture, and to show the way by which it is possible for every aspiring 
 mind to enter her labyrinths and to collect her hidden treasures. 
 He has given an entirely new impulse to the study of Natural His- 
 tory by his constant reference to the objects themselves as the only 
 .source of correct information. His reply to the pupil who asked him, 
 
UNITED STATES. 239 
 
 "What book shall I get for the study of the Crustacea;?" shows how 
 thoroughly he practiced the true objective system in teaching: "Get 
 no book ; go to the sea-shore ; collect there all the shells and marine 
 animals you can find ; observe them minutely, so that you can de- 
 scribe them accurately ; compare them one with another, and state 
 definitely their points of resemblance and difference. In this way you 
 will get a thorough knowledge of the elements of your subject, which 
 you can get in no other way." 
 
 When the announcement of his death caused deep mourning 
 throughout the land, and high and deserved praises fell from the 
 lips of sympathizing friends, there was one that surpassed all others : 
 "He was a true teacher, faithful to the end." His words of instruc- 
 tion, spoken near the close of his life to a congenial band of fellow- 
 workers on Penikese Island, were gathered like a sacred behest. They 
 are indeed worthy of one, who, although not directly a pupil of Pes- 
 talozzi, had breathed the same air on the beautiful shores of Lake 
 Neufchatel, and, what is more, was imbued by the same spirit — a 
 spirit which benefits and ennobles mankind. 
 
 From these we select the following : 
 
 "My intention is not to impart information, but to throw upon you 
 the burden of study; if I succeed in teaching you to observe, my end 
 is attained. As to myself, I must, to all intents and purposes, be 
 ignorant before you." 
 
 "When you have specimens (the most common are the best), try 
 to make the pupil observe and tell the most striking features. He 
 will thus compose a book of his own, which is much better than the 
 compilations thrown into his hands with an array of empty names 
 and undigested facts." 
 
 "Until you know an animal, or any other natural object, do not 
 care for its name." 
 
 " Never attempt to teach what you do not know yourself and 
 know well. It is a great mistake to suppose that any one can teach 
 the elements of science. To have a smattering of something is one 
 of the great fallacies of our time. A teacher ought to know some 
 one thing well." 
 
 " The study of nature is direct intercourse with the Highest Mind. 
 When you sit down to natural history work, it should be with the 
 intention to give yourself up to the thought. It is unworthy an in- 
 telligent being to trifle with the works of the Creator. Even to a 
 materialist, they are the works of the highest power. A laboratory 
 of natural history is a sanctuary in which nothing improper should 
 be exhibited. 
 
240 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 "I would tolerate improprieties in a church sooner than in a scien- 
 tific laboratory." 
 
 " Remember that science is the recovery of ideas that were in the 
 Creative Mind. Love, devotion, simple humility, and a submission 
 to nature — not an endeavor to control nature — give success to a 
 naturalist." 
 
 Professor Arnold Guyot, the intimate friend and countryman of 
 the great Naturalist, whose "Earth and Man," proclaims him a 
 worthy pupil of Ritter and an original thinker, deserves mention ; 
 since in his work — presenting the earth as a growing organism in 
 which all the parts are subservient to one great design — he has 
 aided in making Geography a complete science, not merely a con- 
 glomerate of isolated facts. 
 
 Without undervaluing the merits of other lecturers and writers in 
 this vast country, we may be permitted to mention some, who, al- 
 though not wholly pioneers in their respective sciences, yet working 
 together in unity of faith and purpose, and considering a knowledge 
 of the elements of one science as a step toward the comprehension of 
 another, did much for the cause of education. The harmony which 
 characterized the action of the lecturers of the early Massachusetts In- 
 stitutes — Louis Agassiz, and Arnold Guyot, Dr. Lowell Mason, 
 William Russell, Alpheus Crosby, Samuel Green, Dana P. Colburn, 
 Sanborn Tenney, and others — seemed to be a reflex of that harmony 
 existing between the different faculties of the mind, where each de- 
 rives its sustenance and vigor from the healthy cooperation of the 
 others. The power of these men lay in their enthusiasm, in the clear- 
 ness and thoroughness of their ideas, and in their skill in presenting 
 them. 
 
 So far we have noticed only the teachers belonging to New Eng- 
 land. It must not be supposed, however, that the reform was confined 
 to that section of the country. A direct effort was early made to 
 introduce these principles into Philadelphia. In an address delivered 
 before the National Convention of Teachers in 1862, Professor N. A. 
 Calkins gave the following account of this matter : 
 
 "During the summer of 1805, Mr. Win. McClure, of Philadel- 
 phia, while traveling in Switzerland, visited Pestalozzi's school, and 
 was so much pleased with the system of teaching that he resolved to 
 introduce it into America. Mr. Naef, then residing in Paris, was 
 recommended to him for that purpose. Moved by the generous in- 
 vitation of Mr. McClure to be his master's apostle in the New World, 
 he would have accepted immediately, but for his ignorance of the 
 English language. Mr. McClure allowed him, at his expense, two 
 
UNITED STATES. 241 
 
 years for the study of this indispensable means of communication. 
 In 1809, Mr. Naef published a small volume in the style of an ex- 
 tended prospectus, describing the plans and principles of the new 
 method of education, and inviting attention to his newly-formed pri- 
 vate school. He labored for several years in one of the suburbs of 
 Philadelphia; but, for some cause, probably from his inability to 
 adapt himself to the American mind, his enterprise failed. His sen- 
 timent, expressed in a work on language, that it was his highest 
 ambition to be an obscure, useful, country school-master, amidst a 
 hardy, vigorous community, reflected something of the spirit which 
 animated his ancient friend and master among the outcasts of Stanz. 
 It was not, however, calculated to gain him many admirers or im- 
 itators on this side of the ocean. Of his fate we are unacquainted, 
 nor do we know how far his teaching or work has influenced more prac- 
 tical men to bestow their mite toward methods of education more in 
 unison with the American character and the requirements of the 
 age." 
 
 Teachers' Institutes had their origin in New York, and in many of 
 them much valuable instruction has, from time to time, been given- 
 David P. Page, a Massachusetts teacher, was placed at the head of 
 the first New York Normal School, in 1845. He possessed, in an 
 eminent degree, the noble spirit of Pestalozzi ; and, before his death, 
 in 1848, he had introduced many improved methods of instruction,: 
 all tending in the right direction. Hon. Samuel Young, as head of 
 the school department of the State, gave a new impulse to education 
 by his criticisms upon existing systems ; and by his bold and per- 
 sistent advocacy of sweeping measures of reform. 
 
 Rev. Samuel J. May, D. H. Cruttenden, James Johonnot, and 
 others, disseminated, at Institutes and elsewhere, ideas concerning 
 true philosophical methods, until there prevailed, among the most en- 
 lightened friends of education, a general distrust of the value of the 
 old systems, and a corresponding desire to try something new. 
 
 With all this advocacy of correct principles, it is generally ad- 
 mitted, that there has always been a great lack in the adaptation of 
 methods to the practical work of teaching. In Institutes and Asso- 
 ciations the work was necessarily limited to the presentation of prin- 
 ciples and methods, leaving the practical application to the teachers 
 themselves. In the Normal Schools the theoretical part was given in : 
 a very fragmentary manner, with little opportunity to test its appli- 
 cation to practical work. Graduates were thus left to their own de- 
 vices, and each one was obliged to arrive at excellence through a 
 series of crude experiments and often failures, simply because his first 
 P. 16. 
 
242 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 efforts were not under the supervision of some skillful instructor. 
 The want of some systematic method of interesting primary classes 
 and of cultivating the perceptive faculties was also felt. In spite 
 of fine speeches upon this subject, and of the scattered private efforts 
 which were being made in its behalf, it seems to be true, that, as Mr. 
 Calkins remarks, "Up to 1860, object teaching had died out in this 
 country through the want of trained teachers." 
 
 To Mr. E. A. Sheldon, of Oswego, New York, is due the honor of 
 the first introduction and systematic application of the reformed 
 methods in the public schools. While superintendent of the city 
 schools of Oswego, he became more and more dissatisfied with the 
 results of the methods generally pursued. He entered into corre- 
 spondence with the best educators in the country; and visited the 
 most noted schools for the purpose of finding out, not only their 
 actual condition, but also what ideas were entertained by teachers in 
 regard to reforms. While on a visit to the Normal and Training 
 School of Toronto, in 1859, he first became acquainted with the 
 publications of the Home and Colonial Society, of London. In these, 
 especially in the works of Miss Mayo, he found systematically pre- 
 sented many of the ideas which, in a fragmentary way, he had ad- 
 vocated and endeavored to carry out. 
 
 He at once procured the books and apparatus necessary to put the 
 new methods in practice, and commenced a series of experiments, 
 looking toward a reabzation of his highest ideals of education. Many 
 were the difficulties encountered; for the methods were alike new to 
 superintendent, teachers, and pupils ; and no one familiar with the 
 system was at hand to direct or advise. The teachers met once a 
 week to compare notes and report progress. The whole corps of 
 teachers engaged in the work became, as they saw the results, more 
 and more interested in the system. The Board of Education of the 
 city of Oswego nobly seconded the efforts of Mr. Sheldon ; and, per- 
 ceiving that the introduction of the new method would be greatly 
 facilitated by the aid of an experienced teacher, they authorized him 
 to apply to the Home and Colonial Society for a competent assistant. 
 In response to this application Miss M. E. M. Jones came to Oswego 
 and commenced her work on the first of May, 1861. 
 
 An announcement was made that a few teachers besides those 
 belonging to the Oswego schools would be admitted to the class; 
 and upon the commencement of the work several persons were 
 present to take advantage of the opportunity offered. Miss Jones 
 continued her labors for nearly a year and a half, when she returned 
 to England. Her work was the one thing needful to bring the new 
 
UNITED STATES. 243 
 
 ideas ot education systematically before the American public. 
 Though the methods which had been developed to meet the demands 
 of the social system of Great Britain often needed modifications be- 
 fore they could be adapted to the wants of our own schools, still, in 
 the main, they were found to rest on true principles. 
 
 Many of the teachers who, with Mr. Sheldon, had been studying 
 and experimenting in this direction, became very enthusiastic over 
 the results of their work, and the new ideas attracted the attention 
 of thoughtful teachers throughout the country. At the close of Miss 
 Jones' labors, there was a general demand for the continuance of the 
 work, and a class was formed under the charge of those who had be- 
 come familiar with its details. This class soon outgrew its local and 
 temporary character, and a permanent school was organized. This 
 shows how much good can be effected by the hearty cooperation of 
 an active superintendent and his teachers ; and how many powers, 
 often undeveloped, can be made available for the interest and benefit 
 of schools. A method which appeals to the conviction and intelli- 
 gence of the teachers will prevent them from acting merely as the 
 parts of a machine, of whose construction and power they have no 
 idea. But in order that the teachers may gain a clear insight into 
 the nature of education and its means, there must be at first some 
 one who is capable of giving the proper impulse and direction to the 
 work by contributing to it the results of previous experience. With- 
 out this aid a movement of reform would partake of the character of 
 an experiment, and might lead into dangerous paths. When viewed 
 in this light, the work of Miss Jones and of those who supplied the 
 means for the initiation of better methods will find its due apprecia- 
 tion. 
 
 From the effect produced by the new method on pupils and teach- 
 ers, Mr. Sheldon came to the conclusion that its adoption into the 
 schools of this country was a matter of vast importance. As a neces- 
 sary preparation for this end, he issued, in December, 1861, an invi- 
 tation to some leading educators of different States to come to Oswego 
 and observe the practical working of the method. This invitation 
 was cordially responded to ; and the presence of such men as W. F. 
 Phelps, D. H. Cochran, David N. Camp, Thomas F. Harrison, H. B. 
 Wilbur, W. Nicoll, and George L. Farnham, who constituted the 
 committee of examination, Avas a sufficient guarantee that the mat- 
 ter would be conducted in a fair and impartial spirit. 
 
 Mr. Sheldon's address to the members of the committee shows 
 that, instead of boasting of the great results already obtained, he im- 
 plored them to give their earnest attention, and, if possible, a helping 
 
244 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 hand to a cause which was of so great importance: "For mo v e than 
 eight years we have been striving to improve our schools, and, when 
 we compare them with what they were at the time of their organiza- 
 tion, we feel that a decided progress has been made ; but never have 
 their deficiencies been so apparent as at the present moment. What- 
 ever the improvement, it certainly has not kept pace with our ideas 
 of what it ought to be. 
 
 " We have asked you here to examine a system of instruction 
 which we have been endeavoring "to incorporate into our schools, for 
 the origin of which we claim no credit ; neither do we claim that the 
 principles of this system are new in this country. For years they have 
 been quietly and almost imperceptibly creeping into our educational 
 theories ; and have, although in an isolated and disjointed manner, 
 made their way into our best schools. Good teachers every-where 
 are working more or less in accordance with these principles — modi- 
 fied perhaps in some degree — and are thus preparing the way for a 
 system of primary education, of which they constitute the very web 
 mid woof. It is this feature which we claim as new in this country. 
 We have never had any system of primary education based on sound 
 philosophical principles, and practically carried out in a definite and 
 well arranged curriculum. Whether such is the system to which we 
 now call your attention, Ave leave you to judge ; it is for this pur- 
 pose we have presumed to invite you here to-day. Should your 
 judgment, after a careful investigation, accord with our own, it can 
 but lead to a complete revolution in our methods of teaching : it will 
 make teaching a profession, a title which it has yet to earn." • 
 
 It would lead too far to enter into a minute report of the lessons 
 observed by the committee. It was, however, clearly demonstrated 
 that the children could observe, think, imagine, judge, and reason 
 without the help of books; and that the language used expressed the 
 thoughts and feelings of the children, much better than the stiff and 
 often unintelligible words and phrases of a memorized recitation. 
 
 We append the two closing resolutions of the report of the com- 
 mittee : 
 
 "Resolved, That in the opinion of your committee the system of Ob- 
 ject Teaching is admirably adapted to cultivate the perceptive facul- 
 ties of the child, t<> furnish him with clear conceptions and the power 
 of accurate expression, and thus to prepare him for the prosecution 
 of the sciences or the pursuits of active life ; and that the committee 
 do recommend the adoption of the system in whole or in part, where- 
 ever such introduction is practicable. 
 
 "Resolved, That this system of primary education, which in a great 
 
UNITED STATES. 245 
 
 measure substitutes the teacher for the book, demands of the teachers 
 varied knowledge and thorough culture ; and that attempts to intro- 
 duce it by those who do not clearly comprehend its principles, and' 
 who are not trained in its methods, can result only in failure." 
 
 The very timely and judicious warning, expressed in the last reso- 
 lution, ought to stimulate the managers of Normal Schools to exercise 
 great care in the selection of their pupils, giving more attention to 
 their moral character, and to their ability to acquire knowledge and 
 impart it to others, than to the number of facts memorized. 
 
 A great and important object, however, had been obtained by 
 means of this convention : it caused the work of reform to step out 
 of its obscurity and obtain the encouragement it so richly deserved. 
 Hon. V. E. Rice, State Superintendent of Public Instruction — whose 
 friendly interest and assistance for the Oswego school must be grate- 
 fully recorded — obtained from the State Legislature, in 1863, a 
 grant of $3,000 per annum toward its support. This appropriation 
 was afterward greatly increased, and, in 1865, the Oswego Train- 
 ing School was placed under the control of the State Superintend- 
 ent and a Local Board, and thus became a State Institution. 
 
 This school became widely known — pupils coming from more than 
 half the states of the Union — and as the number increased, the 
 course of study was, from time to time, enlarged and modified, until 
 the present curriculum was adopted, embracing three departments — 
 Elementary, Advanced, and Classical. The graduates from each of 
 these are required to spend one term of twenty weeks in teaching 
 under competent critics. 
 
 This was the first Normal School in the country where the object 
 lessons were made a distinctive feature, and where the pupils were 
 required to put in practice what they had theoretically learned. 
 Model Schools in which pupils observed the work done by competent 
 teachers have been more or less connected with Normal Schools ; but 
 it w r as in Oswego that a regular and severe course of practice under 
 the constant supervision of a critic teacher was first made an integrant 
 part of the school course. The experience obtained during a whole 
 term of hard work is calculated to produce excellent teachers, who 
 are conscious of the importance of the task, and have a knowledge 
 of the means by which the faculties of the mind may be successfully 
 cultivated. 
 
 Good teachers who graduate from a Training School are always its 
 best advertisers, because they recommend it by their work. Shall 
 Ave wonder that the Oswego school reaped the full benefit of this, 
 and that pupils came from all parts of the Union ? The annual re- 
 
246 pestat-ozzi. 
 
 ports of Mr. Sheldon, and a Manual, which showed the prmeinal 
 means used for the development and illustration of the elementarv 
 branches, also aided in the dissemination of its methods and prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 The great reputation and marked success of this school could not 
 fail to produce opposition ; but the attacks which it has received from 
 time to time have only more widely disseminated the great principles 
 upon which it was founded. The ill-concealed envy of some and the 
 influence of local matters may have caused a temporary ripple, hut 
 have had no more power to stem the advancing tide of sound educa- 
 tional principles than a pebble to stop a mighty river in its course. 
 Public opposition became gradually silenced, not so much by the 
 arguments of those who refused to make temporary errors in the 
 application of a method sufficient cause for its condemnation, as by 
 the logic of events. 
 
 The establishment of this school has given a great impetus to the 
 cause of education in this country. The possibility of establishing 
 teaching upon a scientific basis having been practically demonstrated, 
 the organization of a large number of similar schools in different 
 parts of the country speedily followed. The Fredonia Normal School 
 took nearly its entire corps of teachers from Oswego, Dr. Armstrong, 
 the principal, having been teacher there. The Normal Schools of 
 Brockport, Potsdam, Geneseo, Buffalo, and Courtland have been or- 
 ganized on the same plan, and each has employed one or more grad- 
 uates of the Oswego school. The great West, at a comparatively 
 early period, sent urgent calls for teachers capable of introducing 
 these methods into their training schools. Graduates have gone 
 to the State Schools in San Francisco and San Jose, California; 
 Mankato, Winona, and St. Cloud, Minnesota; Leavenworth, Kansas; 
 Kirksville and Warrensburg, Missouri; Terre Haute and Indianap- 
 olis, Indiana ; Iowa City, Iowa ; Peru, Nebraska ; Trenton, New Jer- 
 sey, and others; and also to the Training Schools of Boston and 
 Worcester, Massachusetts; Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; 
 New York, New York ; Davenport, Iowa ; Lewiston, Maine ; and 
 many other cities. This Institution is also represented in many 
 schools not strictly connected with the training of teachers, yet the 
 outgrowth of some progressive idea: these we find scattered from 
 north to south — from the eastern portions of Maine to the Sandwich 
 Islands. The graduates of the Oswego school have thus become 
 missionaries, carrying the fundamental principles of Pestalozzi into 
 every part of this land. 
 
 In tracing the history of Mr. Sheldon in connection with his school, 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 247 
 
 Wi *md many incidents which forcibly remind us of similar events in 
 Pestalozzi's experience. In both we find the same abiding faith ; n 
 principles, which ultimately overcomes all obstacles; the same zeal 
 .•aid perseverance in attaining their objects, and both have had faith- 
 ful and efficient supporters. May the mistakes which darkened the 
 last hours of Pestalozzi never be repeated in this school, to which so 
 many of its graduates look with fond recollection and gratitude ! 
 
 There are many obstacles to a full realization of the ideas which 
 all our Pestalozzian schools seek to embody. The pupils applying for 
 admission have generally been instructed according to the old system, 
 and are little prepared to enter at once upon the new. Much time 
 is consequently lost in the preliminary work of fitting them for the 
 reception of the new philosophy of education. There is also a desire . 
 on the part of most pupils to arrive at the highest results in the least 
 possible time, producing an impatience in regard to processes, an un- 
 natural strain upon the nervous system and mental powers, and a 
 habit of superficiality in the examination of subjects. To a greater 
 or less extent the public sympathize in this desire for quick results ; 
 and the schools are obliged, in some measure, to recognize this senti- 
 ment in the arrangement of courses of study. We need time to re- 
 move these obstacles,— time to establish a standard that shall be 
 higher and broader than the one which now measures education,— we 
 need time to bring the whole organic life of the people into unison 
 with the conditions requisite to true progress. 
 
 In conclusion we would say, that, in this brief history of Pesta- 
 lozzi and the educational movement which he inaugurated, we have 
 endeavored to be strictly just and impartial. We have gratefully 
 recognized the value of the ideas of the great reformer, and their 
 service to humanity; but we have nowhere considered him or his 
 sayings as infallible authority upon any subject. We regard with 
 profound admiration his keen insight into the very soul of childhood, 
 his loyal adherence to that which he believed to be true, and the sac- 
 rifice of ease and comfort which he made for the benefit of the poor 
 and destitute ; but for the principles which he sought to establish, 
 and for the plans carried out in his school, we ask the closest scrutiny 
 and the most rigid criticism. Through careful examination alone 
 can the value of his system be fully realized. We ask only one favor 
 in his behalf: let his work be judged rather by the great principles 
 which he established, than by the first crude experiments by which 
 he endeavored to put them in practice. 
 
 A clear distinction should always be made between educational prin- 
 ciples and educational means. The principles are eternal, and are the 
 
248 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 seed which unfolds into living and beautiful forms in accordance with 
 fixed and immutable laws : the means are the plow which prepares the 
 ground for the development of the seed and for the nutrition of the 
 plant. In the course of time, this plow must undergo important 
 changes to conform to the intelligence of the age in which it is used. 
 The mind of the child is the field to be tilled, and the teacher is the 
 laborer who directs the process, not in the spirit of self-will, but in 
 strict conformity and obedience to the laws of God. The perfect 
 harvest is the blossom and fruitage of noble character. 
 
 With this exalted view of the nature and aims of education, the 
 reader can readily determine how much the world owes to the phil- 
 anthropic spirit and practical experiments of the great Swiss Re- 
 former, Heinkich Pestalozzi. 
 
F rp 6 1903 
 
FEB 6 1903