LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Gipii. Gopijrig!|t l)o. Shelf .X£=* UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Jtostou School levies NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS Sititb 4Bobds from victual 3£ lamination papers JOHN TAYLOR AI/TIIOK OF " HOW TO COMPOSE AND WHITE LETTERS" AND "GREAT LESSONS FROM LITTLE THINGS" OCT 7 im BOSTON BOSTON SCHOOL SUPPLY COMPANY 1889 -p^ Copyright, 1S89, By Boston School Supply Co. C. J. PETERS & SON, Typographers and Electrotypers, Boston, Press of Berwick & Smith. PREFACE. Practical teachers have long felt the need of a small Manual of Notes of Lessons that could be put into the hands of a young teacher at the commence- ment of his career, and would guide, encourage, and help him to master the great secrets of his profession. Some books contain a vast amount of information, condensed, arranged in the form of notes, and pre- sented as models for imitation. Other books contain hints and advice on method, and many important notes on the art of teaching. And from these two kinds of books the young teacher has been required to gather his ideas of matter and method. The Author believes that a judicious combination of the two sources of information would be of great service to young teat hers. He therefore explains the Essential Features of a Lesson, sketches the Plan of a Lesson, discusses the Subject-matter of a Lesson, gives valuable hints on the Manner of a Teacher, with a short chapter on 3 4 PREFACE. Tact, and shows how to Prepare and Give a Lesson. The concluding chapters consist of Examples and Answers to Examination Questions. The Author has been a teacher, and has served many of the best years of his life as master of a large school. Twenty years' experience of public school life has enabled him to enter into a young teacher's feelings with deep sympathy. He has trained many who are now serving the cause of edu- cation successfully and honorably, and the methods he tested and found most valuable to them have been embodied in this little Manual. He trusts that it will render wise counsel, valuable information, and timely help to his young friends. JOHN TAYLOR. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction 7 CHAPTER I. The Essential Features of a Lesson ... 10 CHArTER II. The Plan of a Le>son 18 CHAPTEB III. The Subject-Matter of a Lesson .... 26 CHAPTER IV. Tin: Manner of the Teacher 35 CHAPTER V. Tact 42 CHAPTER VI. Tiie Preparation of a Lesson 48 CHAPTER VII. Outline Notes: Mediterranean Sea — Idleness- Railroads of England— Coal — The Cow — Cli- mate — The Whale— British India — Riveks — Gibraltar — Sugar — The Lion .... 57 5 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. PAGE Preparation of Full Notes: The Camel— A Read- ing Lesson ^ CHAPTER IX. Full Notes : Seeds — Auxiliary Verbs — The Rein- deer—A Posted Letter 90 CHAPTER X. Examination Questions 100 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. INTRODUCTION. In teaching, as in all other professions, progress is slow and gradual. A youth begins with the purely mechanical parts of his work, and spends much of his time in learning how to use his tools and handle them efficiently. He must learn to serve before he can be permitted to rule. And it is only by practical ex- perience and skill that he can .hope to rise in his profession. A young teacher spends much time in observing and studying the example of other teachers, and in purely mechanical work, such as the examination of the children's lessons, or the oversight of their writ- ing and dictation. As his experience ripens, and his knowledge of the profession improves, he is promoted to a more responsible and important duty. He attempts to give lessons in reading, or spelling, or arithmetic. Thus he gradually gains knowledge, and experience, and confidence, and power. The highest aim of his ambition is to be able to give a good oral or collective lesson. He has seen a clever teacher take a class, or two or three classes 7 8 NOTES OF LESSONS FOP. YOUNG TEACHERS. grouped together, and give them a collective lesson ; but he has no idea of the difficulty of the task till he attempts to give a lesson for the first time. A good oral lesson is a highly complex and intel- lectual production. It depends for its success on many conditions. There must be suitable matter, wisely arranged on an intelligent plan, and clearly illustrated. There must be a definite purpose before the teacher, and he must be able to command and sus- tain the attention of the children, and present his facts in an agreeable manner. I have sometimes said that a good lesson should be like a good dinner, pre- pared with a great variety of materials, well cooked, tastefully served, easily digested, and highly nutri- tious. The teacher who can give a good oral lesson has conquered all the practical difficulties of his profes- sion. He is ready to be thrown upon his own resources, and to feel that the success of the lesson depends en- tirely on himself. He can supply from his own stores of information facts that will instruct and interest the children. He can direct their thoughts into right channels, and lead them to wise conclusions. Next in importance to the delivery of a good lesson, we recognize the importance of preparing a lesson. We can only teach what we know, and things are easy or difficult according to our knowledge of them. We must therefore ask ourselves : What is a les- son ? How should a lesson be given ? How should INTRODUCTION. \) a lesson be prepared ? Can any young teacher become a successful teacher ? If these questions are answered intelligently, and young teachers can be induced to take the hints and follow the advice of an old teacher, they may find themselves some day in the front ranks of their pro- fession. Many of the books on " Notes of Lessons " are simply crutches to help the lame to walk. Young teachers require wise instruction, judicious advice, and encouraging words of sympathy, to teach them how to walk without crutches. In the following chapters, advice, and information, and hints on matter and method are presented to the young teacher as freely and candidly as a master would teach his pupil. If these hints are accepted and adopted, they cannot fail to produce beneficial results. 10 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER I. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. A lesson is literally a " gathering " of information (L. ledum, to gather). It is a term used to describe a conversational method of imparting information that is highly complex in its character, and more easy to illustrate than define. I. A Lesson is not a Lecture. A lecture is an attempt to convey instruction by discourses. A multitude of facts and figures may be given by the speaker. He may clearly express his own opinions, and state the general results of his own investigation and inquiry. But if he neglects to fix information in the minds of his hearers by questions and tests of personal application, he is not enabling them to gather information for themselves. He must present his facts, and arrange them so that the pupils can arrive at the conclusions by their own reasoning. He must insist on the pupils acquiring, and under- standing, and retaining, and applying the information with which he supplies them. So that a lesson is a method of instruction more powerful, and impressive, and valuable, than a lecture, or a sermon, or a speech. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 11 II. A Lesson is not a Series of Questions. Socrates the Greek philosopher was a master of the art of questioning. Without affirming any propo- sition, or milking any statement, or expressing any opinion, he would lead his pupils to any conclusion he desired by a series of questions. His aim was to make his pupils discover truths for themselves. Each answer given was used as a means of attaining a further result. He held the opinion that a wise teacher should expose the ignorance of his pupils by searching ques- tions, and lead them to supply their lack of knowledge by the same method. Where skilful questions lead to successive steps of reasoning, and help children to arrive at a correct conclusion, they have a great edu- cational value. But it is necessary to state facts, and give illustrations, and adduce reasons before children are in a position to answer some questions. The chief value of questioning is to test the amount of informa- tion pupils possess, to expose to them their own igno- rance, and to awaken a desire for more knowledge. So that while questions may be profitably and wisely used in every lesson, they are not to take the place of exposition, or illustration, or experiment. III. Exposition must have a Prominent Place ix Every Lesson. By the term exposition, I mean a statement of facts in their simplest forms — literally, "a setting out" (L. position, to set). This statement of facts must 12 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. remove all difficulties, and give the children a full, clear, and comprehensive view of the subject. It may take the form of — 1. Explanation (L. planus, even). — Figuratively the path of knowledge may be beset with difficulties. There are mountains to climb, valleys to descend, and rivers to cross. A skilful teacher must bring down the mountains, and till up the valleys, and bridge the rivers. He must make the path plain and even by timely and wise explanation. Everything in a lesson that the children do not understand must be set out and made plain. They must not be permitted to ad- vance one step in doubt or obscurity. There is a tendency to assume that the children know and fully understand things which seem to the teacher very simple. And the overlooking of one single link in the chain of instruction may damage the whole of the workmanship. Hence the importance of a few search- ing questions to reveal the true condition of the pupils' minds. And when ignorance is discovered, the teacher must promptly remove it. He should remember that "a lesson is never given till it is received." If he fails to make his subject plain, he commits an error that no other excellences of his lesson can redeem. 2. Description (L. scrvptum, to write). — Description is copying m words. It is reproducing with the tongue what has been seen with the eye of the teacher. The clear, bold outlines of forms and figures that present THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 13 themselves to a teacher's mind need to be sketched and traced in words, so that the pupil may see them as he sees them, and form his own opinion of them. Words are the signs of ideas, and by a judicious use of suitable language these forms and figures may be made to appeal to the imagination and understanding, and may live in the memory. But even this valuable help to exposition may be abused. It may be too lengthy. It may distract the thoughts of the pupils from the more important points of the lesson. 3. Picturing out (L. pictum, to paint). — Picturing out is the art of presenting truth in striking colors, and giving reality and life to dull, dry facts and figures. Thus in a lesson on the " whale," you may describe it in words, and give Us Length, and form, and size, in clear and plain Language. Or you may picture out a whale lying the whole Length of your schoolroom. His huge head touches the wall at one end of the room, and his tail touches the other end. Open his mouth and take out his tongue, and you have a place as large as a small class-room. 5Tou may give in a few sen- tences a picture that children will understand, and appreciate, and remember. All these forms of exposition should be studied carefully by young teachers, and used as part of their tools and stock in trade. It should be the aim of every teacher not only to speak so as to In- understood. but so that it is impossible to be misunderstood. 14 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. IV. Illustration is an Important Part of a Lesson. To illustrate is to throw light upon a subject (L. luceo, to shine). Figuratively, the landscape of truth is placed before the pupil, and he is asked to admire and enjoy it. But its outlines are hazy and indis- tinct. The mists and shadows linger in its valleys, and the mountain-tops are covered with clouds. But the sun rises. The clouds disperse. The shadows fly. The landscape stands out in the light, clear, dis- tinct, and beautiful. Illustration may take the form of example, experi- ment, diagram, or analogy. 1. Example (L. eximo, to take out). — An example is a sample or pattern of one taken out of many. The teacher is arriving at certain general conclusions from a series of facts he has noticed. He may confirm his own teaching, and impress it upon the children, by calling on them to furnish him with examples. For instance, he may arrive at the conclusion that all -animals that chew the cud feed on herbs, have cloven hoofs, and are generally horned." He may ask the children to give examples and verify in every case the truth of his statement. Or he may descend from the general to the particular in his teaching, and choose a representative case to illustrate and confirm his statement. One good example is worth a thousand theories. It stands out as a living witness for the truth. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 15 2. Experiment (L. experior, to try). — Aii experi- ment is a trial. Its object is to discover something unknown, or to establish and confirm what has he. mi already discovered. In a lesson on chemistry, or electricity and magnetism, for example, experiment must have a very prominent place. It would be im- possible to state in words all that can be shown by experiment. And the actual test has a lore.' and con- viction of truthfulness that language could not con- vey. Wherever an experiment can be successfully and quickly performed in presence of the pupils, it should be adopted as one of the most powerful expe- dients at a teacher's command. 3. Diagram or Picture. — Pictures appeal to the eye, and help the mind to realize the tacts of the case more readily than mere words. They maybe printed and mounted on sheets as maps, or they may be sketched by the teacher on a blackboard. The art of using a blackboard and chalk skilfully should be acquired by young teachers. It is a valuable aid to instruction, and saves many words and much time. 4. Analogy. — Analogy points out features of like- ness in some respects between things thai otherwise differ. Thus a bird and a fish differ in many respects, and yet, for the sake of illustration by analogy, seve- ral points of resemblance suggesl themselves. The tail, tor example, is used as a rudder, and steers the bird through th ran of air, as it steers the fish through the ocean of water. The wing, again, pro- 16 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. pels and helps to guide and steady the bird, as the fin performs a similar service for the fish. Examples might be multiplied, but the young teacher will see the value of this form of illustration, and will find in it a powerful aid to success. All these forms of illustration are within every teacher's reach. They will arrest attention, and carry conviction, and produce permanent results. V. A Lesson must produce Practical Results. By a judicious mixture of questioning, and exposi- tion, and illustration, the teacher must make an im- pression on his pupils that will be real and abiding. I have indicated resources of strength that should enable him to overcome all difficulties, and produce the best practical results. 1. Knowledge must be imparted. — New truths must be learned and understood. The area of the pupil's mental vision must be enlarged and expanded. He must be richer in his stores of knowledge, and the lesson must result in a clear and decided gain of in- formation. A conscientious teacher will insist on each lesson aiming at giving every child a step on- ward and upward in the path of knowledge. 2. Intelligence must be awakened. — It is often very difficult to awaken thought, and arouse intelligent activity. Children do many things mechanically, and remember facts by the effect of repetition. A great result is grained when a teacher can "set them think- THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 17 ing." If he can provoke thought he stimulates in- quiry, and arouses curiosity, and calls into activity the highest mental faculties. A glorious victory has been won when apathy and indifference, and purely mechan- ical efforts, have been crushed, and when children can be induced to take an intelligent interest in their lessons. 3. Good moral effects must be produced. — The dis- cipline of a school greatly depends on the quality of the teaching. Instruction that is thorough, and pains- taking, and conscientious, and intelligent, will stamp its own likeness on the children. They will catch the energy, and force, and fire of the teacher. They will breathe his spirit, and copy his example, and bear his likeness. On the other hand, teaching that is cold, and lifeless, and aimless, and unattractive, will de- press and damage the children. They will form habits of inattention, indolence, and indifference. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the man- ner as well as the matter of the instruction should receive attention. A good teaelier will make an attractive and useful lesson out of very very poor materials, and a bad teacher will make a worthless lesson out of the best materials. There is no profession in which so much depends on the tact and skill of the workman. Having pointed out the essential features of ales- son, we now proceed to consider the plan of a lesson. We have answered the question, What is a lesson ? and must now consider how to give a lesson. 18 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER II. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. Every lesson must be wisely introduced, clearly arranged, and practically applied. I. Introduction. 1. The subject should be introduced attractively. — You will not attempt to begin the lesson till you have perfect quietness and can command the attention of the children. The first few minutes of the lesson will be your golden opportunity, and must be wisely im- proved. If you can awaken interest, or excite curi- osity, or enlist sympathy during that brief period, the rest of your task will be comparatively easy. But if your own manner is dull and drowsy, if your mat- ter is dry and uninteresting, or if you begin to depre- ciate your own abilities, or make any apologies, you will destroy all chances of success. Your aim is to gain attention that you may keep it throughout the lesson. Study therefore to create a favorable impres- sion at first by presenting your subject the best side out. 2. The subject should be introduced simply. — It is sometimes necessary to recall a previous lesson and THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 19 refer to what lias been said before, for the sake of gathering up facts and conclusions that may serve you now. But nothing should be mentioned that will not help to concentrate attention on your subject, or illustrate and enforce your teaching. Lengthy intro- ductions are always to be avoided. They distract attention by leading the children to think of foreign matters, and they waste precious time. Choose the most direct introduction you can find, and plunge into your subject without apologies. 3. The subject should be introduced easily. — If it is entirely new to the children, you might mention some other subject with which they are familiar that is either very much like it, or in striking contrast with it. Y<>ur purpose may sometimes be served by comparing things like and contrasting things different. Find out what they know by a searching question or two. Start from the level of their knowledge, and proceed to make them wiser by your teaching. Never "train out" a subject, or ask them to guess it. I heard a young teacher trying to "train out" the word "sugar." He began by telling the children that as he came down the street lie passed a shop window and saw something that was to be the subject of his lesson. The children guessed bread, boots, pictures, fish, tea, butter, tripe, beef, bacon, etc., and at last one said " sugar." In this case no good end 20 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. was served by these answers, valuable time was wasted, and much disorder occasioned. II. Arrangement. 1. The subject should be arranged logically. — The true starting-point of all teaching is the level of what your children know. Having discovered that, place them in a position to increase their wealth of knowl- edge, and teach them how to use their facts logically. If you have an effect and wish to find a cause, throw all the light on the subject you are able, and patiently work till you have discovered it. But there must be no confusion of cause with effect, or conduct with motive. You must produce facts and give information to enable your pupils to arrive at some new conclusion beyond their present attainments. But these facts and conclusions must be stated in the order of their dependence upon each other. Take the following examples of logical arrangement, and observe that each fact is the result of observation that may be verified by experiment at any time. Re- member also that these results are uniform and un- varying, so that we can deduce from the facts a law that never changes. Having the fact and the law clearly made known, we can apply our new knowledge to various useful calculations and contrivances. The logical order of fact, law, and application will illus- trate the value of the arrangement suggested. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 21 ">. With a single glass (as eyeglass, sun-glass, etc.) we can greatly increase the light and heat. 4. A prism or lens will show seven dif- ferent colors, as in a rainbow, when only one white ray falls on it. 3. Millions of rays of light will pass through a hole as small as the point of a needle if pricked in cardboard, etc. 2. If an obstacle be placed between the light of a candle and ourselves, we can- not see the light. FACT. 1. The sun is nearly 90 millions of miles distant from tlie earth; yet light travels the distance in eight minutes. 5. The light of the sun may be collected into one point. 4. Every white ray consists of seven pri- mary colors. 3. The particles of light are exceedingly small. 2. Light always ra- diates and moves in Straight lines. I. AW. 1. Light travels 12 millions of miles in a minute. 5. Burning- glasses arc formed on this prin- ciple. 4. We can make lenses, mirrors, etc., for beautiful illustra- tions of this law. 3. We can concen- trate the light in lenses and tubes. 2. Choose a central and prominent position for your lights. APPLICATION. 1. We can ascertain the distances of the plan. 22 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 2. The subject should be arranged correctly and naturally. — No "definite law of arrangement can be stated that will apply to all cases and meet all circum- stances. You must be guided by your own judgment in the end, but hints and suggestions may help you to a right and wise conclusion. Like a wise master-builder, you must make sure of your ground first. Lay a good foundation. Measure and contrive your walls, doors, and windows. Build wisely, prudently, and patiently, till the roof is com- pleted and the windows are fixed. Do not worry about the roof till you have secured the foundation. Let the chimneys alone till you have built the walls. There is a natural order of proceeding with every- thing. First the seed, then the blade, then the stalk, then the flower and fruit, then the harvest. Follow this natural order of dealing with your lessons. Do not invert nature's order, but imitate it, and make it a source of strength to you. In giving a history lesson, for instance, on the life and character of any man, you may gather up the leading events of his life. You may present these actions and indicate his motives. If the life is plainly sketched, the man's character will be accurately judged by your pupils. In giving a geography lesson on any river, you may describe its surroundings. You may show the char- acter of the mountains near it, the extent of its gather- ing ground ; and if you give the children sufficient data to form an accurate estimate of the causes at work, they will give you the general results. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 23 It is most important that your arrangement should be correct. A single false statement may lead to a false conclusion, just as a single worthless plank may sink a fine ship. Verily every fact before you make use of it. Turn to your notes or 3-our books of refer- ence if you have any doubts. A teacher is utterly worthless when he ceases to be accurate. 3. The subject should be arranged clearly. — You need not indicate the arrangement of your lesson to the children ; you must avoid the firstly, secondly, and thirdly of sermon-makers. But there must be a me- thodical treatment of your subject that omits nothing, and gives due prominence to each part of the lesson. The different stages or divisions of the lesson should follow each other logically and naturally ; they should be crisp, (dear, and complete in their treatment of the subject. " It is a great art to give clearness and system to the body of the lesson without obtruding the divisions too nakedly" Keep this aim steadily before you, and with patience and practice you will learn one of the most valuable secivts of your profession. III. Application. 1. The application should be short and clear. — In a few well-chosen sentences you should review the whole lesson, and bring into prominence the general results. Many things you have said will be forgotten, but if your lesson is a success it will add to their stork of information, it will leave them wiser than it found 24 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. them, and they will apply the principles they have understood. Two or three minutes spent in a power- ful recapitulation of the leading points of your lesson will be of immense service to the pupils. 2. The application should be testing. — You may vary the form of your words and sentences so as to put the information in different aspects, and satisfy yourself that your teaching is successful. The great test of a successful lesson is the amount of information that the children retain. Nothing can be more distressing to a conscientious teacher than a conviction that he has been laboring in vain. Bring your work to the test of careful scrutiny. By a few earnest, direct, searching questions, find out how much of the lesson remains in their minds. 3. The application should be practical. — The aim of all teaching is to make us wiser, and stronger, and more powerful for good. Each lesson should instruct, and lead, and encourage the children to better and higher aims. All that is base, and mean, and selfish, and wrong must be unsparingly condemned. All that is noble, and true, and good must be fostered and en- couraged. The meanest task a teacher can attempt is honorable if it makes one poor child wiser, or stronger, or braver, or better. Many devoted teachers have spent their lives, and denied themselves many of life's enjoyments, in battling against ignorance, vice, superstition, bigotry, and crime ; and many more are THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 25 entering the same noble, self-denying army. They have not only bad habits to conquer and subdue, but they must cultivate a thirst for knowledge, a love of self-denial and self-culture, a determination to rise in the world to a position of usefulness and honor, and a willingness to work for the good of others. No work on earth can be more honorable or impor- tant. Amid conflicting opinions and warring interests, let us be pure in our aims and faithful to our purpose. Let us be practical. Our names may die, but our deeds will live; We shall leave some marks behind us. 26 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER III. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. The raw materials of which a lesson must be con- structed are information and illustration. I. Information (L. forma, shape) is the act of put- ting facts into convenient shape. We must carry about with us everywhere a large amount of knowledge, and it is the duty of the teacher to present it in a conven- ient form, that it may always be at our service. 1. It must be full and accurate. — All the facts that children ought to know should be stated fully, clearly, and without reserve. No material truth should escape notice or be kept back. A common error into which young teachers fall is that of supposing that because they know a thing, therefore everybody must know. The consequence is that many important statements are purposely omitted. The opposite error is that of telling the children too much. Be quite sure that your information is correct. If you have any haziness or uncertainty about your facts, verify them by a reference to standard text-books and notes. The schoolroom is not the place to display your ignorance, and if you are in doubt about your in- formation, the lesson will be a feeble, halting failure. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 27 2. It must be digested. — Your lesson must be the result of much reading, and labor, and thought. It matters not where your facts came from or how you obtained them. Knowledge is common property, and you have as much right to it as to the sunshine or the rain. But you must master your facts, and appropri- ate them to your own use, and make them serve your purpose. You must not reproduce them in the frag- mentary, haphazard way you found them. You can- not commit them to memory and recite them. You cannot safely trust to memory, or notes, or books. You must convert the facts to your own use. As the food you eat is digested, and becomes blood, and muscle, and bone, and helps to sustain and prolong life ; so the facts you glean must be understood and applied to give intellectual nourishment and strength. Or, to change the figure, you are in want of money to pay your way. I show you a mine where nuggets and grains of gold are to be won by hard labor. You must gather them, put them into the crucible, melt, refine, mould, and stamp them with your own image and superscription. Do not try to pass off another man's coin as your own. This secret can only be discovered by continued effort and steady labor. 3. It must be graphic. — It must appeal to the intel- lect. It must catch the eye and win the ear. It must be attractive and telling. Two men will speak on the same subject with equal 28 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. knowledge, but with different results. One will pour a mass of information on his hearers, and read to them long extracts from books, and take great pains to make himself clearly understood. He will go into minute details, and descend to particulars. He will speak for an hour, and utterly weary everybody. If you could question the audience you would find that his speech had made no impression for good. It had been stale, flat, and unprofitable. But the second speaker arranged his facts and con- densed his information into two or three strong points. He presents his case clearly and intelligently, and advocates it warmly. He speaks deliberately, power- fully, and convincingly. He arrests attention, he evokes sympathy, he commands approval, and he rouses and stimulates his audience to a high pitch of enthusiasm. In half an hour he has stated his case, produced a profound impression, and the memory of that speech will live for years. Seek the power to seize upon the strong points of your subject. Describe events with force and accu- racy. Delineate with boldness and skill. Paint in striking colors. If there is any real power in you, dare to be singular. 4. It must be adapted to your circumstances. — (1) Consider the time at your disposal. — Half an hour will be abont an average length of time for a good lesson. Do not attempt too much. Condense your matter and concentrate your thoughts on a few strong features of THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 29 the subject. Make it incisive and telling. A modern humorist has compared public speaking to boring in an oil cask. He says that if you are boring three- quarters of an hour and fail to strike oil, you are either boring in the wrong place, or you are using very bad tools. (2) Consider the capacity of the children. — Your matter must be made very plain and simple if you are teaching children. It must be increased in quantity and varied in quality if you are speaking to senior scholars. One of the philosophers uses the allegory of a small bottle with a narrow neck being filled at a pump. If you pump heavily and pour out a large vol- ume of water, most of it runs down the sides of the bottle. You must adapt the stream to the capacity of the bottle, if you would fill it easily. In other words, you must present your information in such quantities and forms as young minds can absorb and retain it best. (3) Consider the nature of the subject. — If it is simple, you will need fewer illustrations than if it is complex. If it is elementary, you can make more rapid progress than if it is advanced. Decide in your own mind the nature of the work you have set before you, then adopt the expedients that will enable you most effectually to carry it to a successful issue. II. Illustration (L. luceo, to shine) is the act of throwing light on a subject. Illustrations may be given by words, by pictures, or by objects. 30 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 1. By words. — You may compare your subject with another of a similar kind by a simile, or a metaphor, or an allegory . A simile is a comparison which is limited to one point. Thus, in the phrase " the light of truth," we have light and truth compared. They are two widely different things, and yet they have one property in common. They are both diffusive. You can no more cover truth, and limit its area, than you can hide the light of the sun. A metaphor is a figure of speech by which the name and properties of one object are ascribed to another. Thus, in the phrase "the clouds of adversity," we compare adversity to the clouds. They are different in many respects, and yet they have several things in common. They come without our control. They serve some beneficent purpose. They are gloomy. They are temporary. An allegory is the representation of one thing by another analogous to it. It is a continuous metaphor. Perhaps the finest allegory in the English language is Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," in which human life is compared to a journey. The metaphor is preserved throughout, and adapted to all the changing circum- stances of life. A fable is a common form of allegory. The qualities or acts of a higher class of beings are attributed to brutes and creatures of a lower sphere. The creatures thus introduced always follow the law of their nature, but their acts are used to represent those of a higher THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 31 race. Thus the fables of ^sop represent human mo- tives and conduct by the motives and conduct of brutes and beasts. This is a most powerful form of illustra- tion, but requires great skill to use it successfully. A parable is a higher form of allegory. It requires thought, and effort, and intelligence to make it plain. Its chief purpose is to illustrate and enforce moral and religious teaching. The parables of the Old and New Testaments are the best examples of this method of illustration. You may contrast your subject with others that differ from it. The mind gathers vividness and clear- ness by contrast. This mode of expression is called antithesis. Antithesis) or placing against, is an opposition of thoughts or words that bring out a clear and striking rout rust. Thus we speak of "life and death," "peace or wax," "honor and shame," ''light and darkness.*' These figures of speech require skill and experience to use them profitably. You may employ anecdote, or emblem, or proverb, or any figure of speech or mode of expression that will place your subject in a clearer light. The resources of the English language are inexhaustible, and they are all at your service. Study the art of putting things. Vary the illustration, and change the figure till you have made a lasting impression. 2. By pictures. — Let every description be illustrated by a picture or sketch on the blackboard. Knowledge 32 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS- comes to a child as readily through the eye as the ear. But it comes with great weight and power if both eye and ear unite to receive instruction. The power of observation is encouraged also. If children can be trained to use their eyes intelligently, they will note and observe and compare facts for themselves, and become successful students. It is a great advantage to unlock the stores of knowledge to a child, and place the wealth of learning before him. But it is of more importance that he should be trained to gather infor- mation for himself, and supply his own needs by his own efforts. The power of imitation is also called forth. Children watch with admiration and delight the few bold strokes drawn on a blackboard by an in- telligent teacher. They admire the ease and skill with which the outlines of a figure are made plain, and they are sure to imitate the drawing, and try to reproduce it. The poorest child in your class may have latent genius slumbering within him, that some light word or kindly deed of yours shall call into activity. Who knows but in the dullest pupil you have a sleeping giant, who shall be roused by your fairy touch ? 3. By objects. — In some of the best schools I have seen cabinets of objects stored by the children and teachers for purposes of illustration. Foreign coins, and curiosities of dress and fashions from distant countries, were to be found side by side with speci- mens of minerals, and metals, and fossils, and stones. Cotton, wool, flax, and silk were shown in the raw THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 33 material, and in every stage of manufacture. The special productions of the neighborhood were repre- sented in every variety and form. The children were familiar with every kind of manufacture, and left the school to become intelligent and superior workmen. They were trained to habits of observation and inves- tigation, and in after-life they became successful stu- dents of botany, or geology, or some other favorite science, and skilful in the use of the microscope or other scientific apparatus. (1) Use illustrations to impress what is new on the children's minds. — In teaching a class of young chil- dren to read, the word shallow occurred, and no one could tell me the meaning. I contrasted a cup and saucer, and asked them to tell me the difference. They told me a cup was deep, but a saucer was " not deep." I asked them to use the word shallow instead of the words not deep, and they remembered its meaning in connection with the saucer. The illustration was val- uable because it was familiar. (2) Use illustrations to impart interest and give reality to a subject. — One hot day I had to teach the properties of a circle, and show how to find the area if the radius was stated. It was a dry, tedious lesson in mensuration, and required some expedient to arouse the flagging interest. I represented the centre of the circle as a post. The radius became a rope tied at one end, and stretched out to the circumference. It only required another stretch of imagination to tie a donkey so that it should feed on an acre of ground, 34 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. and no more. This vivid and appropriate illustration served my purpose, and sustained the attention of the children. (3) Use illustrations to meet and remove particular difficulties. — A model, or a picture, or a diagram, or a sketch on the blackboard, will often make plain what would otherwise remain obscure. A wise teacher will use every opportunity of these powerful aids to instruction. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 35 CHAPTER IV. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. The success of a lesson greatly depends on the per- sonal bearing of a teacher, and the fertility of his resources. I. His Personal Bearing. By his personal bearing is meant the " way he carries himself." This part of the subject can be more easily illustrated than defined. Suppose a skilful teacher is about to give a lesson to a group of children. We are to stand aside, and observe, and criticise. Let us notice his attitude, his voice, his temper and spirit. 1. Attitude. — In approaching the children he takes up a commanding position. He stands where he can see every child, and where all can see him. His ex- perienced eye sweeps round the group instantly, and sees everything at a glance. He arrests and commands attention. His movements are easy and natural. He is neither fussy nor awkward. His materials and illustrations are in order, so that he can point to a map or a pic- 36 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. ture, or draw a sketch on the blackboard, without breaking the continuity of his lesson. He is free from affectation. He seeks to make his lesson useful rather than showy. He has no tricks of style. He does not imitate other men's looks or ges- tures, but modestly and quietly gives his own lesson in his own way. He commands the respect of the children. They see in him nothing to condemn, but many things to admire. There is a soberness and dignity about his behavior they are compelled to acknowledge and respect. 2. Voice. — He speaks in a cheerful tone. While his voice is loud enough to be heard by every child, there is no waste of strength by shouting or using too much force. He avoids a harsh and scolding tone. His voice is carefully modulated and well managed. He speaks kindly, gently, and effectively. His articulation is clear. Every syllable is dis- tinctly uttered. He avoids drawling on the one hand, and gabbling on the other. He speaks deliberately, clearly, and distinctly. He pronounces his words correctly. He avoids provincialisms. He makes no grammatical blunders. His language is pure and correct, and serves as an ex- cellent pattern that the children may safely imitate. 3. Temper and spirit. — He is energetic. From the beginning of the lesson to the end the interest never THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 37 falters. There is no listlessness, no apathy, no indif- ference. You can see that he is in earnest, and his energy is infectious. The children catch his spirit, and are roused by his example. The force and power of his energy carry all before them. He succeeds where a quieter man would fail. And much of his success in life is due to the energy and force of his character. He is sympathizing. He recognizes children's diffi- culties and discouragements. He remembers that he was once a child, and had to contend with a child's trials and sorrows. He is able to enter into their views and feelings. He knows exactly how to help them. If they are disheartened by failure, he can rouse them to renewed effort. If they are unkindly treated, he will protect them. He recognizes every good quality, and gives it a word of praise. He de- fends the weak from the tyranny of the strong. He is the children's friend, and they know that he will pity and help them when they are needing sym- pathy. He is attractive. He seldom loses the attention of the children. He rarely threatens and seldom pun- ishes. A look or a hint will usually suffice to bring a thoughtless child up to its duty promptly. He finds it much easier to draw than to drive. As honey attracts more flies than vinegar, so a good temper and a cheerful spirit will gain more love than peevishness or sourness. His good temper and kindly spirit win the admiration of his pupils, 38 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. and make the lesson run smoothly and agreeably to its close. Let us now consider — II. His Resources. As the lesson proceeds we begin to see what large and varied resources are at the teacher's command. He is like a plain, unassuming merchant who would pass for a poor man, but who has a large capital and a valuable stock in trade. It is only as he needs these resources that he makes them public. 1. Language. — He speaks with fluency. He never falters or hesitates for a word. He is able to choose the word that will most clearly express his meaning, and can always put the right word in the right place. His language is choice, and varied, and expressive. He speaks correctly. He seldom calls back a word after he has uttered it. He not only avoids grammati- cal mistakes and errors of pronunciation, but he never offends good taste. He uses words well and wisely, to express his meaning clearly and fully. His language is simple. He uses words that can be understood by the youngest child, and yet they are not silly or childish. They are clear and dignified. He calls things by their right names. He describes things in plain, vigorous words. It is impossible to estimate the value of such a com- mand of language. The English language is so full, and rich, and expressive, that it can describe every THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 39 conceivable position and circumstance. And the teacher who is master of his own mother-tongue is well equipped for his duties. 2. Apparatus. — The children of this generation have enormous advantages over their parents. And the teachers of the present day are richer than those who preceded them. Patent desks, blackboards, good maps, pictures, and diagrams, cheap slates, books, paper, pens and ink, are to be found in every school to-day. A generation ago many of these aids to in- struction were utterly unknown. Some of them existed, but they were so poor in quality, and so high in price, that they were of little service to the teacher. The teacher of the present day knows the value of scientific apparatus. He is quick to seize on any thought or figure that will illustrate his teaching. He makes diagrams, pictures, maps, objects, and specimens familiar to the eye, and thus enforces and impresses information on the mind. He readily ap- plies any new thought or clearer light that may come to his mind. He is skilful in drawing on the black- board any figure that may be helpful to the children. He neglects no opportunity of calling in any method of illustration that will save time and economize labor. 3. Questioning. — The teacher makes a skilful use of questions. If a child becomes careless, a direct personal question arrests his attention, and provokes 40 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. thought. If a child is too confident, a question reveals his ignorance and points out his weak places. These questions are never suggestive. They can never be answered by a " yes " or " no." They are problems requiring thought. They call for a prompt, a wise, and a definite answer. They are distributed impartially. They come to the heedless, and restless, and thoughtless, at most incon- venient times. They cannot be ignored. They must be answered, or disgrace and exposure will overtake the delinquent. In the hands of a judicious teacher, the power of wise questioning must have a high educational value. 4. Discipline. — The teacher can maintain order. He checks inattention and restlessness promptly. He will not allow the eyes to wander or the thoughts to stray from his subject. He is prepared at all times to enforce his own authority and compel obedience. But he forbears threatening, and rules by wise and firm discipline. He secures mental activity. It is impossible for any child to take part in his lesson without being made to think, and compelled to reflect and try to understand the subject. He appeals to eye, and ear, and under- standing. He rouses, and stimulates, and directs the mental powers. He makes every child think and act, and directs their thoughts and actions to a wise and practical purpose. It is clear, therefore, that a good teacher has enor- THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 41 mous resources at his command. But in order that he may make a wise and extensive use of them, he must have peculiar skill in adapting himself to his circum- stances. It is evident that an untrained teacher would be unable to use them successfully. Let us consider how this peculiar skill may be acquired. 42 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER V. TACT. In the preparation and delivery of a lesson, the young teacher will need tact. Tact (L. tactus, touch) is peculiar skill in adapting ourselves to circa instances. It is a power that is not easily defined or lightly acquired. It is one of the most valuable secrets of the profession, and should be sought and prized more than gold. It requires presence of mind, keen percep- tive powers, ingenuity, promptness to seize an advan- tage, and a good address. 1. Presence of mind. — A teacher should never be thrown off his guard by any unforeseen circumstance. He should never be taken unawares by any disaster or disappointment. Other people may be nervous and excited, but he must always have; his wits about him. Others may use random words and do unwise things, but he should keep cool, and know exactly what to do. and do it at the most convenient time. He should never lose his self-possession and self-control, but maintain under the most trying circumstances his calmness and confidence. TACT. 43 He can only do this by self-denial and discipline. He must learn to "rule his own spirit," and he will have gained a greater victory than " he that taketh a city." 2. Keen perceptive powers. — A teacher must have eyes that see everything at a glance, and comprehend all the circumstances in a moment. He must have ears that catch the faintest indication of change or movement. He must have a delicacy of touch that will enable him to feel and understand the intellectual and moral atmosphere in which he moves. He must be able to tell whether his teaching makes any impres- sion on the children or not. Be must find out intui- tively the weak and strong points of his lesson. He must be able to note instinctively every circumstance in his favor, and every difficulty he must surmount. Nothing must escape his notice. He must be quick to see, prompt to understand, and keen and clever in supplying a remedy for every emergency. Just as the practised eye of a sailor discerns a sail on the distant horizon where a simple landsman would fail to see anything, so he must note what a stranger would overlook. As the trained ear of a musician would detect one false chord in the music where a novice would fail to notice it, so he must be able to discover what others would not even suspect. These powers can be acquired only by continued exercise and careful training. 44 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 3. Ingenuity. — The best-laid plans will sometimes fail. The most promising schemes will occasionally end in disaster and disappointment, The tools we thought would serve us best will now and then spoil the work and wound our hands ; but a teacher who possesses tact will never throw down his tools in de- spair. He will never say fail. Out of the materials of his failure and disappointment he will somehow manage to serve his purpose and carry his scheme. By his ready mother-wit he will be saved from stick- ing fast in every slough of despond. By his power of ready invention he will make a bridge when retreat is cut off, and save his reputation when all seemed to be lost. By his quickness in combining ideas, and his skill in using them, he will prove himself a workman that needeth not to be ashamed. We have seen in the preceding chapter the enormous resources at the command of a teacher, and the great value of his stock-in-trade. By ingenuity he may make them all contribute to his success, and promote his own advancement. Ingenuity is partly natural and partly acquired. Like every other mental power, it may be stimulated and improved by cultivation and exercise. 4. Fromptness to seize an advantage. — In teaching, as in all other human affairs, there arc golden oppor- tunities that now and then fall in our way. We have only to stretch out the hand and seize them, and hold them fast, to make them our own. If we neglect to TACT. 45 seize them at the right moment, they will drift away from us on the ebbing tide, and be lost to us forever. By the exercise of tact we may save ourselves from loss and disappointment. We may take advantage of every tide and current that will serve our purpose. We may catch and use every breeze that will aid our progress. But there must be no hesitation. He who hesitates is lost. Opportunity is the forelock of time. Father Time is represented as an old man with a scythe and hour- glass. He has a venerable beard, but his head is bald, except one single prominent lock on his forehead. If we mean to get any good out of him, we must be ready as he passes to seize that lock of hair, and make him do our bidding. If we let him pass a moment, we need not clutch at the back of his bald head, for there is nothing to hold him by. Once lost may be lost for- ever. Make hay while the sun shines. Strike while the iron is hot. Be prompt to seize every advantage. 5 A good address. — A teacher must seek to make himself agreeable. He cannot win the confidence and respect of his pupils, or gain their esteem and affec- tion, without attending to the courtesies and acts of kindness that beget esteem and respect. He must pre- serve his own dignity and self-respect. He must be clean and neat in person. He must be gentlemanly and courteous in behavior. He must be a pattern of integrity, honesty, and uprightness. But he must not 46 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. be cold, and hard as an iceberg. He must have a tender heart and a kindly sympathy. He must be attentive to the needs, and difficulties, and trials of his pupils. He must give them the opportunity of knowing, and trusting, and loving him. He must occasionally un- bend himself, and throw off his official reserve, and approach them kindly. He must gain the power of personal friendship, and be able to guide, and mould, and influence their characters for good. He must study the art of putting things. He must make truth agreeable. He must habitually present facts in such attractive forms that he can always com- mand eager and willing hearers. He must cultivate a love of learning. The feeblest effort to gain informa- tion should have his approval and smile. And if he sees a child struggling with difficulties, and manfully striving to master some difficult task, he must aid it by kindly sympathy and wise counsel. A word fitly spoken may sometimes influence the whole of a child's future life. A new way of putting an old truth will often impress that truth on the mind forever. An original illustration, or a quaint and humorous com- parison, will frequently make a truth plain when all other modes of presenting it had failed. Young teachers should cultivate their talents by exercise, and observation, and self-denial, and disci- pline. Is is only as we conquer our tempers, our natu- ral dispositions, and inclinations, and habits, that we can rule our own spirits. TACT. 47 We may learn much from books and from teachers, but we may learn more from observation and experi- ence. A young soldier may learn to drill, and march, and use his weapons in the barracks for years ; but one short campaign, in which he helps to defeat the enemy, will teach him more than years of drilling. So in teaching; we may give hints, and information, and advice, but it is only by actual experiment that the full value of our instruction can be appreciated. We have now answered the questions, " What is a lesson ? " and " How should a lesson be given ? " We believe that any young teacher may become success- ful by diligent and intelligent application. Let us now consider " How a lesson should be prepared." 48 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER VI. THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. Many books have been published during the last few years containing full notes of lessons. These notes are valuable, because they contain facts in a condensed and convenient form, and provide methods of illustration suggested by practical teachers. They save much time in reading, comparing, grouping, and arranging facts ; but they are of little practical use to young teachers. A young teacher should not be furnished with a per- fect example and merely told to imitate it. He should be trained to select his own materials and finish the work on well-defined principles. The builder's apprentice is not taken to a new house and told that the walls are of bricks and mortar, the floors and rafters of wood, the windows of glass, and the roof of slate, and then sent home to construct a house for himself. He helps to draw plans and pre- pare estimates. He assists in choosing and buying bricks, and stone, and timber, and other building ma- terials. He takes part in every department of his master's work, and gains his knowledge by practical experience and labor. So a young teacher should be taught to prepare his 47 THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 49 own notes, and construct his own lesson. It will be a real kindness to throw him on his own resources early in life, and give him the means of providing for his own necessities. Let us therefore consider the nature and method of preparation. I. The Nature of Preparation. It is a mistake to suppose that the best speakers need no preparation. Our most talented actors, act- resses, and vocalists never present to the public what they have not rehearsed privately repeatedly. Most of them have a few stock pieces that they have per- formed hundreds of times, in which every tone, look, gesture and accent has been carefully studied and interwoven with the text. Our popular lecturers and orators carefully prepare the matter of their discourses, and study every art and device that can adorn the style and make it attractive. Even the pulpit serves to illustrate this truth. No great preacher would risk his reputation by preaching a sermon that had not cost him hours of labor and thought. In many cases the manuscript is read in the pulpit. In some cases the manuscript is not pro- duced, but every line of it has been committed to memory. And in all cases where a preacher hopes to gain the public ear, and move popular sympathy, lie must devote much time and attention to careful preparation. 50 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. If it is necessary to prepare whatever must catch the eye, and gain the ear, and attract the sympathy of adults, surely it must be necessary to prepare for the instruction of children. 1. The object of the lesson. — We must have some definite aim before us. We must have some practical end in view, such as increasing the knowledge of the children, or exercising their mental powers, or pro- viding for their moral improvement. And we must adapt all our means to reach that result. An increase of knowledge should be one object of every lesson, but it is often necessary to arrange a carefully graduated series of lessons, by which chil- dren may be led up from one position to another. Each lesson in the series gathers up the results of the previous lessons, and a iter a careful recapitulation, enables the children by natural and easy stages to make decided progress. The mental powers may be exercised by any lesson that will compel them to think and express their thoughts intelligently. Mental arithmetic, for ex- ample, is an excellent method of sharpening children's w r its. Much good often results from object lessons, but perhaps the most powerful weapon for breaking down mental apathy is the power of skilful question- ing. Questions of morality often occur in connection with school discipline, and valuable truths are illustrated and en forced by the common occurrences of every-day life. THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 51 A teacher must ask himself: What is the point I wish to reach ? Which is the wisest, way to reach it ? 2. The plan of the lesson. — Having chosen a topic that will answer our purpose, we must arrange the matter clearly and definitely. We must, bring out the leading features of the subject in bold and striking colors. We must adapt all the parts of the lesson to the end we have in view. In our own thoughts we musl be able to see tin- end from the beginning, and clearly understand tic relation of all its parts. We must decide the method of treatment. This will vary according to the subject. Analysis) or "taking to pieces," will explain one subject best. Synthesis^ or '-putting together," will help you to understand auol her more readily. While a third will need a judicious mixture of exposition and illusl ration. For example, if I were giving a lesson on a human heart, I would buyasheep's heart for the sake of illus- tration. I would show its position in the body, and briefly explain its functions. Then with a. knife I would analyze, or take it t<> pieces. I would expose the cavities and valves. I would show their action, and compare them with 1 he act ion of tic human heart. Analysis would explain and illustrate that subject best, and would make it interesting and impressive. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis. It gathers many scattered particles, and puts them together to 52 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. build ii}) a conclusion. Thus in the history of a king's reign we may note the leading events in the history of the time, the causes that are at work to influence par- ticular movements, the motives that urge the king to certain conduct, and from all these sources form our opinion of his character. But perhaps the most common form of treatment is the judicious mixture of exposition and illustration. We must be guided by our own judgment as to the mode of treatment, arrangement, and delivery of the lesson. No absolute rule of conduct can be devised to meet every case. 3. The matter of the lesson. — In selecting matter, the children must guide us. For infants we recpiire simple facts and elementary principles, that can be readily explained and easily understood. For junior classes we require a larger quantity of matter, of a more advanced character, and adapted to their ages and attainments. For senior classes the matter should be more complicated and difficult, with fewer illustra- tions, and it should make a greater demand on their attention, patience, and intelligence. 4. The illustration of a lesson. — In providing illus- trations, we must also consider the children. Pictures, models, objects, and specimens of every kind should be used freely among little children. Lessons on form, size, and color can only be taught by example and illustration, and we should accustom children to an inspection of the form, color, and qualities of every THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 53 object around them. But older scholars need more verbal illustration. Figures of speech should be freely used and explained, especially the figures and emblems occurring in poetry. They should also be familiar with maps, charts, and diagrams of every kind, and be able to make an intelligent use of them. All these points must be considered before we com- mit our thoughts to paper in the form of notes. II. The Method of Preparation. 1. Text-books. — Use any reliable, trustworthy book on the subject of your lesson as a text-book. Gather in your memory all the facts it can supply. Do not confine your reading to one author, but read several, and gather your facts from widely different sources. If different authors express different opinions, read both sides, and try to form a fair and candid opinion of the whole question for yourself. The wider your range of knowledge of your subject, the better opportunity you will have of presenting it attractively. Remember that the first condition of successful teaching is, know your subject well. Facts are the raw material ; a lesson is the manufactured article. Text-books are only to be used for obtaining facts. Do not seek for method, arrangement, or language from them. Trust to other sources for these. 2. Matter. — The facts you have gleaned from text- books are now at your service. You need not try to 54 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. remember the form or language in which you found them, because they will be of little use till you have appropriated them and made them your own. If you attempt to state facts in another man's language, you will be found out and condemned. Condense your information into a few definite, con- venient, prominent thoughts. Let your matter be suitable to the intellectual condition of the children. Let it be interesting and graphic. Do not attempt to use too much, or introduce anything irrelevant. Digest your facts, and verify them by reference to the most reliable authors. Arrange your matter to the best advantage. Set it out in the most attractive style. Make the most of your intellectual capital by a wise arrangement and a judicious investment. 3. Illustration. — Provide more than one illustration for the same difficulty. Present truth in various aspects and under different forms. A verbal illus- tration or explanation may be perfectly clear to one mind and obscure to another. Change the figure and vary the illustration till the dullest mind per- ceives it. If you have a choice of illustrations, provide a real object instead of a picture. If you cannot obtain a specimen or model, of course you must be content with a picture. But do not be content with a simple de- scription of anything without a picture or diagram to illustrate it. If you use the blackboard and chalk, do not draw your picture before the lesson, but sketch it THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 55 during the lesson, and allow the children to notice your every movement. They will be greatly interested, and will try to reproduce it afterwards. 4. Notes. — Take a sheet of note-paper, or use a page of an exercise-book for your rough outline notes. Your full notes should be entered in a large exercise-book, or kept for reference in some permanent form. (1) Outline notes. — Gather the facts you intend to use into a few brief words and phrases. Compress them into small space, and condense them into a few leading thoughts expressed in a few simple words. Note every particular that you intend to employ, and write it in logical order. Keep the different parts of your notes separate and distinct, so that when they are complete you may run your eye over the page and take in the whole at a glance. Verify every statement by a reference to your text- book, and see that all your figures are accurate. A little experience of this kind will enable you to give the essence of a book in a few pages. By patient practice you may soon be able to classify rough notes, and group them into convenient and natural classes, so as to give a comprehensive view of any subject. (2) Full notes. — You will have greater difficulty with full notes, because they require a wider expe- rience and riper judgment than most young teachers possess. They should include chief heads, condensed matter, method, object, class, and time of a lesson. The most important points are the heads, matter, 56 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. and method, which had better be arranged in three columns, as in the exercises and examples in this book. Under the first head, the chief divisions or parts only of a lesson should be stated. The second column should contain all the informa- tion in the outline notes arranged according to the divisions in the first column. The third column should contain all the verbal illus- trations, introduction, and hints for the teacher. Young teachers are advised to study carefully the outline notes given in the next chapter, and try to imitate them by making notes on other subjects. OUTLINE NOTES. 57 CHAPTER VII. OUTLINE NOTES. Outline notes should be brief, comprehensive, and clear. In an examination you cannot afford to devote many minutes to any particular question, and it is of the utmost importance that you should be able to express much in little time and space. The following subjects are selected from the Gov- ernment examination papers, and the outline notes are offered as models for imitation. It is presumed that every young teacher knows enough about the subject to find materials for a use- ful lesson. The hints and advice will enable him to use his knowledge to the best advantage. I. Give Notes of a Lessox ox the Mediterranean Ska, its Physical Character and Commer- cial Importance, now ani» in Past Times. This is a subject peculiarly adapted to Classes IV.-VL, and should be studied by the aid of a map of the hemispheres and a good bold map of Europe (Hughes series). 58 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. Mediterranean — literally, " the middle of the earth ; " so called because ancients believed that all the land in the world lay around it. Point out every place named on the map. 1. Physical character. — Large inland sea — 2320 miles long, 1080 miles broad, nearly 1,000,000 sq. miles — bounded X. by Europe, E. by Asi;i. S. by Africa, W. by Atlantic, but approached only by the Straits of Gibraltar. Land-locked on every side — coast broken up into numerous inlets, affording many safe harbors — containing important islands belonging to many different nations. Water deep — in some places over 6000 feet — tides scarcely perceptible — seldom 5 feet — subject to peculiar winds, as "solano" or "Levanter" — rich in corals, sponges, and other fishing industries. 2. Commercial importance. — Surrounded by coun- tries rich in natural productions, and in ancient times skilled in arts and manufactures, it gathered 1 he world's commerce to itself. From Africa caravans came with ivory, ostrich feathers, slaves, gold-dust, etc. From Egypt came grain, spices, slaves, etc. From Asia came coffee, spices, rich damasks, silks, swords, etc. From Europe came grain, cattle, slaves, etc. These were gathered and again distributed by Egyptians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, etc. All the great nations of antiquity flourished near it; the OUTLINE NOTES. 59 greatest events in the world's history occurred in its vicinity. On its waters the ships of all nations have sailed. But time has changed its commercial importance. The discoveries of Columbus, Vasco di Gama, etc., diverted commerce from the shores of the Mediterra- nean. Venice, Rome, Carthage, Athens, Alexandria, declined as the Dutch, British, Americans, etc., ac- quired commercial supremacy. The Suez Canal will always be the highway of vessels from Western Europe to Asia. Its natural productions, and the productions of the lands on its shores, will always be sought and acquired, but it can never again regain its ancient supremacy. There are peaceful victories yet to be won. The Nile must be made the highway to Central Africa. Syria, Armenia, etc., must be developed. The Volga will contribute some of Russia's enormous food supplies, and the Danube will bring Central Europe within the influence of Mediterranean commerce. II. Wrttk Notes of a Lesson ox Idleness. This is a subject applicable to any age or class of children. We will adapt it to children from seven to nine years of age. IDLENESS. Idleness = vain and profitless use of time. " He is idle who might be better employed." 1. Nature of idleness. — (1) Dislike for work. — Shown in want of attention and application — time 60 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. wasted in useless trifling — constant change and rest- lessness. Describe conduct of a lazy boy in school — generally late — always unprepared for his lessons — usually full of excuses — lazy people always clever at excuses. (2) Uselessness. — Never to be trusted unless con- stantly watched and urged to duty — needs as much driving as a mule — spends in idleness time that others spend in study and work. Does no more than he can help, and complains all the time. Goes to work un- willingly — wastes time thoughtlessly — produces no good results. " An idler is a watch that wants both hands, As useless when it goes as when it stands." 2. Effects of idleness. — (1) Ox the idler himself. — Idleness ruins his prospects in life. — All his plans will fail — the situation he would like will be given to another — his friends will find him out, and be un- able to help him. Our prisons, workhouses, asylums, and hospitals are filled with idle people who might have been doing well. Idleness wastes his own powers. — Picture two boys leaving school for work. One reads, studies, works at his books. The other flings books aside and neglects them. In five years one will be wise and clever, the other ignorant and helpless. The more we do, the more we can do. The less we do, the less we are able to do. Idleness impoverishes. — A shabby hat, a torn coat, a wretched home, a miserable family, are signs by OUTLINE NOTES. 61 which we may know where idleness dwells. There can be no fire without smoke, no idleness without poverty. (2) Ox others. — Idleness is infectious. — One lazy boy will soon ruin a class. An idle man corrupts a workshop, and sometimes spoils a whole street by his bad example. Idleness demoralizes. — Admit laziness, and you must admit other vices. Gambling drunkenness, bad lan- guage, dishonesty, and crime will follow. Idleness is often the first step to the prison and the gallows. Hard work is often a great blessing by keeping men out of mischief and danger. Beware of the beginnings of evil. Habits of indus- try and thoughtfulness contracted now will save us from future sorrow and suffering, and help others by our example. III. Write Notes of a Lessox ox the Railroads of Exglaxd. Tins subject may be used with advantage in the Third Class. It should be illustrated by a large map of England (Hughes series). It is an excellent sub- ject for combining geographical information with a knowledge of the social and commercial benefits con- ferred by railroads. THE RAILROADS OF ENGLAND. Railroads — name given to lines spread over the country on which rails are laid for conveying trains. Idea of railroads first suggested for carrying coals 62 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. smoothly and easily in days when roads were rough and bad. First trains drawn by horses, then by fixed engines, till the locomotive was invented. Watt, Stephenson, Newcomen, etc., perfected locomotives, and railroads began to be used for public convenience. 1. The chief lines of railroads. — Those usually take their names from the direction in which they run. (1) Great Northern starts at King's Cross, London, and runs to the north, through Peterborough, Gran- tham, Newark, Doncaster, and York, with branches to all the large towns in its way. Passengers can go by this route to Edinbii¥gh, Perth, Aberdeen, and all parts of Scotland. (2) Midland starts at St. Pancras, London, and runs through the middle of England by way of St. All tans. Bedford, Leicester, Nottingham. Derby, Sheffield, Leeds, Bradford, Keighley, Skipton, Settle, to Car- lisle, and by Lancaster to Morecambe. It has branches to Manchester, Liverpool, Bristol, Birmingham, etc. (3) London and North-Western starts at Euston, London, and runs to the northwest of England by way of Rugby, Lichfield, Stafford, Birmingham, Crewe, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Lancaster, to Carlisle, with branches to Holyhead, Leeds, etc. (4) Great Western runs from Paddington to the west of England, by way of Oxford, Bristol, Bath, Gloucester, Cardiff, and South Wales to Milford Haven, with branches to Shrewsbury and Devon and Cornwall. OUTLIKE NOTES. 63 (5) Great Eastern runs from Cannon Street, London. to the east of England, touching Ipswich, Colchester, Yarmouth, Norwich. Cambridge and Chelmsford, etc. (6) South-Eastern runs from London Bridge to the southeast of England, touching Rochester, Canter- bury, Maidstone, Dover, etc. (7) Lancashire and Yorkshire runs through the counties named, from Liverpool to Bolton, Manches- ter, Rochdale, Leeds. Wakefield, and Normanton, with branches to Southport, Preston, Fleetwood, Blackpool, Blackburn, Accrington, Burnley, Colne, Clitheroe, Staleybridge, Oldham. Bacup, Bradford, Halifax, etc. (8) North-Eastern^ from Normanton and York to Berwick-on-Tweed. (9) Other lines, such as the London, Chatham, mid Dover; the Furness Railroad, from Carnforth to Bar- row and Whitehaven; the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire, from Manchester to Hull and Lincoln; the North Staffordshire; and the Metropolitan, in and around London, should be pointed out. 2. The advantages of these railroads. — (1) Every part of the country can be reached. Travelling be- comes easy, cheap, and rapid. We can breakfast in Liverpool, dine in London, and sleep in York on the same day. (2) Railroads improve the value of land and prop- erty where they exist. A new station soon causes a new village or town to spring up. Employment is found for the poor; all classes derive some benefit. 64 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. (3) They save time, labor, and money, by enabling men to do business more quickly and comfortably. (4) They are great educators. We learn geography quickly when we are travelling constantly. One Inspector of Schools told me that he had set the previous question to all the pupil-teachers in his district for a whole year, and, to his surprise, it had never been answered. He was prepared to award high marks to any paper that showed an intelligent acquaint- ance with the subject, but it had never even been attempted. He accounted for this by a rigid observ- ance of text-books among young teachers, and a want of familiarity with subjects outside the immediate range of the schoolroom. IV. Write Notes of a Lesson on Coal. This subject is one that can be made interesting to young children, so we will adapt our notes to young scholars. COAL. Show a ynece of coal ; ask what it is ; train out its properties. 1. Properties. — Black and bright to the eye — hard and brittle to the touch — easily burned by fire. 2. Where found. — In many parts of the United States, England, and in distant countries. Name some places, as Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Ken- OUTLINE NOTES. 65 tucky, Iowa, and Colorado, in the United States ; and Newcastle, and parts of Northumberland and Durham, in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, South Wales, etc., in England. Found by boring a hole to a great depth in the earth, sinking a shaft, and sending men to dig out the coal with pickaxes, spades, etc. 3. How obtained. — Coal lies in beds or layers under- ground. Roads are made as coal is taken out, so that men and small horses can bring coal from all parts of the mine. These roads are small and dark. Some- times men are in danger of being drowned in floods, choked for want of air, or burned by explosions. The mines are dangerous, and the work is difficult. 4. Uses. — (1) Fuel for our fires. — For warmth in our houses and cooking our food. (2) Fuel for manufacturing purposes. — Engines worked by steam made from coal. (3) Making gas, gas tar, and other valuable products. V. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Cow. This subject must be made sufficiently simple and elementary in its treatment for young children. THE COW. Show a picture of a cow, ask its name, and how many children have seen a cow. 1. Description. — A large animal, about four and a half feet high — a quadruped with cloven hoofs, and 66 NOTES OF LESSONS FOP. YOUNG TEACHERS. generally with, horns — covered with short hair, gen- erally brown, or white, or black — feeds on grass, hay, and vegetables — after eating, and when resting, it chews the cud. In some countries cow is used like horse as a beast of burden. In this country it is kept by the farmer for the sake of its milk, and does no work. 2. Uses. — (1) Alive. — Its milk is used for food, and is most suited for children. Butter comes from the milk by churning. Describe a churn, and mode of making butter. Cheese is made from the milk after it has been made sour. (2) Dead. — Beef is flesh of the cow. The flesh of a calf is called veal. Leather is made from the skin after tanning. Glue, etc., made from the hoofs and horns. 3. Habits. — Harmless and gentle — loves to pasture quietly at home — fond of herding together. VI. Wrtte Notes of a Lesson ox Climate. This subject would be best understood by children in Classes IV.-VI. A terrestrial globe or a map of the hemispheres should be used for illustration, and a blackboard and chalk might profitably be employed for the same purpose. OUTLINE NOTES. 67 CLIMATE. Introduction. — Some countries are very hot and dry : others are very cold and wet ; others are neither very hot nor very cold, and are called temperate. When we speak of these differences of heat and of the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere, we use the word " climate." 1. The causes of differences of climate. — (1) Dis- tance from the equator. — Countries near the equator are always hot, because they receive the perpendicular rays of the sun. Countries near the North and South Poles are always cold, because they receive the rays of the sun obliquely. Thus Greenland is colder than Norway, and Norway than France, and France than Egypt. (2) Elevation. — In climbing a mountain, the higher we rise the less is the heat. Mountains, even in the hottest parts of the world, have their tops covered with snow. Quito, the highest city in the world, is just under the equator, at an elevation of 9600 feet. Two men have been known to meet in its streets, one shivering with the cold from the snows of the moun- tains above it, and the other perspiring with heat from the hot valleys beneath. (3) Nearness to the sea. — The sea remains about the same temperature all the year. The land changes temperature rapidly. In summer a sea-breeze cools the land, while in winter it makes it warmer. Towns 68 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. near the coast are more temperate than towns far away from the sea. (4) Nature of the winds. — A south wind from the deserts of Africa makes Italy and Spain hot. A north wind makes Central Europe cold. (5) Nature of surrounding country. — High moun- tain ranges shelter some countries from cold or heat, as the Himalayas affect Thibet or India. 2. The effects of differences of climate. — (1) Ani- mal and vegetable life improved by a warm climate. — In temperate and hot climates, plants, trees, and flowers grow to their natural size, and are strong and healthy. Animals are more numerous and diversified. In cold countries animals are few in number ; plants and trees are dwarfed and stunted ; even man seems to be dwarfed by the cold. (2) Different climates necessary for the varied natu- ral productions of the earth. — Materials for our food and clothing and comfort require every variety of climate. Silk, cotton, rice, sugar, tea, etc., require hot climates. Wheat, oats, butter, wool, etc., require temperate or cold climates. (3) Men adapt themselves to particular modes of life according to climate. — In hot countries men lose their energy, activity, and skill, and become listless and satisfied with the fruits of the earth. In cold climates men endure hardship, exposure, and cold till they be- come torpid and inactive. In temperate climates men work with hand and head, and exert their powers to OUTLINE NOTES. 69 the utmost. The most powerful nations have always lived in temperate climates. 3. Adaptation of man to every climate. — A man may live in any climate, if he will carefully study the effects of the climate, and adapt himself to it by his — (1) Food. — Eating and drinking only what is suited to the man, the place, and the climate. (2) Dress. — Wearing sufficient in quantity and of suitable quality for his health and comfort. (3) Habits. — Working only at the right time, sleep- ing during greatest heat of the day, avoiding intemper- ance, exposure, hardship, and the peculiar dangers of the country. VII. Write Notes of a Lesson ox the Whale. This subject is treated in the following notes for children from eight to ten years of age. A picture of a whale, with a piece of whalebone, may be used for illustration. THE WHALE. 1. Description. — Largest animal in the world. Show picture, and compare its length with length of schoolroom. Length : from 30 to 90 feet. Skin : smooth and slippery, usually black, but sometimes gray. Head : about one-third of body. Mouth : very large, wide, and containing whalebone instead of teeth. 70 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Tn top of mouth two holes allow it to blow water out while it retains its food. Eyes : small for so large a creature ; they are about the size of the eyes of a cow, and are set in its head widely apart. Flesh : coarse and red like beef. Tail : large, heavy, and exceed- ingly strong. 2. Where found. — In the ocean, chiefly in cold and temperate climates ; often near Greenland, in the Northern Seas. Some varieties are found in the Southern Seas. They migrate in search of food — smaller fishes, etc. 3. Mode of capture. — Whales differ from fishes in having warm blood, and in being compelled to rise to the surface of the water regularly to breathe. Hunters strike them with harpoons while they are breathing. If they are wounded, they dive to the bottom, drag- ging harpoon and rope with them. When they rise again to breathe, they are wounded once more, and so the fight continues till whale dies, and its body floats on the surface. It is then made fast to the ship, and cut up by the sailors. 4. Uses. — (1) Flesh. — Greenlanders, Laplanders, etc., fond of its coarse flesh for food. (2) Fat. — The blubber that lies between skin and flesh to keep it warm makes excellent oil. (3) Whalebone from its mouth is used for umbrella frames, etc. OUTLINE NOTES. 71 VIII. Write Notes oe a Lesson on British India. Point out on map of Asia the position of India. Show that its fertile soil, warm climate, commanding position, and immense wealth have made it valuable. It has always been regarded as a prize worthy of a conqueror's highest ambition. 1. History of British Settlements in India. — Discov- ery of Cape of Good Hope by Vasco di Gama gave an impulse to commerce. Portuguese, Dutch, and English began to trade with India. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to a number of London merchants, who formed the East India Company. About 1612 the Company obtained permission from the native princes to establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, Cambay, and Gogo. In 1640 they settled at Madras, in 1645 at Calcutta, and in 1665 at Bombay. As mer- chants, they sent out to India gold, silver, lead, quick- silver, woollens, hardware, etc., and carried home calicoes, silk, diamonds, tea, pepper, drugs, saltpetre, etc. Gradually the Company and their agents took part in the quarrels of the native princes, and began to make conquests and rise to the position of governors and rulers of small states. Lord Clive by his great victories raised the Company to great authority and power. Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis, Marquis Wellesley, and others increased this authority by sub- sequent wars, intrigues, and conquests till the Indian 72 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Mutiny of 1857, when Queen Victoria was proclaimed sovereign of India, and the power of the Company as rulers came to an end. 2. Extent of British Possessions in India. — From Himalayas to Cape Comorin 1800 miles. From Kur- rachi in Sinde to Rangoon in Pegu 1900 miles. Area, 1,500,000 square miles. Coast line about 4500 miles. Presidencies. — Bengal, Madras, Bombay. States. — Northwest Provinces, Punjab, Oude, Brit- ish Burmah, Berar, Saugor, Nerbudda territories, etc. Many states, such as Gwalior, Indore, etc., are ruled by native chiefs and princes under the political suprem- acy and protection of the British Government. 3. Benefits of British rule in India. — (1) Peace. — No foreign invader now overruns and devastates. Natives may cultivate soil and live in peace. British power is strong enough to protect them. (2) Order. — British will not permit quarrelsome, ambitious chiefs to rebel and disturb their neighbors. Good government is enforced in every state. (3) Justice. — Rich and poor have protection of just laws, honestly administered. IX. Write Notes of a Lesson ox Rivers. A river is a stream of water which flows into the sea, or into some other portion of water. 1. Parts of a river. — (1) Source or spring where the water first appears. OUTLINE NOTES. 73 (2) Bed or channel within which its waters are confined. (3) Right bank or border on the right-hand side of the stream looking from the source to the mouth. (4) Left bank or border on the left-hand side. (5) Mouth or termination where the water enters the sea. (6) Affluent or tributary, a smaller stream that flows into the river. (7) Confluence or place where the two streams unite. (8) Basin, the part of a country drained by a river with all its tributaries. (9) Watershed, the elevated land which divides one basin from another. (10) Waterfall, the sudden change in the level of the bed of a river causing the water to fall. (11) Cascade or cataract, a broken waterfall. (12) Rapid or part of the stream that runs swiftly. (13) Estuary, a very wide mouth of a river. (14) Delta, the land included between the extreme mouths of a river. 2. Uses of rivers. — (1) Fertility. — The Nile makes Egypt fertile. Rivers in hot countries prevent land from becoming desert. (2) Commerce. — Mississippi brings the Eastern and Western States of America into communication with other countries. (3) Drainage. — Danube drains districts that would otherwise be marshes, with malaria, etc. 74 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. X. Write Notes of a Lesson on Gibraltar. 1. Description. — Gibraltar, a rocky promontory in the South of Spain — 3 miles long, f mile broad — in- habited by 26,000 persons, chiefly English, Spaniards, Jews, and Moors. The Rock is 1439 feet high, con- tains many large caverns, and is most strongly forti- fied. The town is built partly in the British and partly in the Spanish style of architecture, and has a strange appearance. It is a free port, at the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea, and 16 miles from the coast of Africa. It has no rivers or springs of fresh water. The people store the rain in tanks or cisterns. It is a garrison town, always well stocked with ammunition, provisions, etc. 2. History. — Known from a very early period. Phoenicians called it and Ceuta, on the other side the strait, the " Pillars of Hercules," and considered it the western boundary of the world. It was captured by the Saracens in 711, and frequently changed owners during the long and bloody wars that followed. In 1462 the Spaniards took it from the Moors, and held it till 1704, when it fell into the hands of the English under Sir George Kooke. In 1704-5 it was besieged by the French and Spanish troops, and in 1727 it was attacked by an overwhelming force, but on both occa- sions the British repulsed their assailants. The great siege lasted 3 years 7 months and 12 days (1779 to 1783). The garrison were saved from star- OUTLINE NOTES. 75 vation by supplies brought by Admiral Rodney in 1780, and Admiral Darby in 1781, and landed in face of the combined French and Spanish troops. A terrific bombardment followed from the land batteries, line- of-battle ships, gun and mortar boats. The English returned the fire, and by using red-hot balls set the Spanish ships and gunboats on fire. In the great attack, which lasted from the 8th to 14th September, 1782, the Spaniards lost 2000 men in killed alone, all their floating batteries, and most of their ships. The English loss in the same week was only 10 killed and 68 wounded. 3. Government. — As a port Gibraltar is not safe. The anchorage is not good, and the bay is exposed to southwesterly winds. It is of little use to the Eng- lish except as a military station. It is governed by a Governor, who is also Commander of the forces. The inhabitants are subject to English laws, and live in peace and good order. XL Write Notes of a Lesson on Sugar. L Uses. — (1) Sweetening our food and making con- fectionery. (2) Preserving fruits as jam, candied peel, etc. (3) Molasses is obtained from the dregs. About 28 lbs. of sugar for each person is the annual average consumption in some countries. 2. Origin. — Sugar, a vegetable production, found in most plants, but especially in the — 76 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. (1) Sugar-cane. — A kind of tall grass, growing in the West Indies, Brazil, United States, and most tropical countries. When ripe the canes are cut and pressed to get out the juice or syrup, which is made into sugar. (2) Sugar-maple. — A tree found in North America and most temperate climates. A hole is made in trunk of tree, syrup drains out into a vessel placed to receive it. (3) Beet-root. — A vegetable used for feeding cattle ; is found in most temperate climates. Boot is washed, cut, crushed, and syrup made into sugar. During wars of French Revolution, Napoleon cultivated beet- root for making sugar in France with great success. 3. Manufacture. — Syrup boiled, strained, purified, refined. Molasses the least valuable part of the syrup. Moist or brown sugar imperfectly purified. White, loaf, or lump sugar the best. XII. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Lion. 1. Description. — Height, 4 feet ; length, 6 to 8 feet. Tail, about 3^ feet long. Head. — Large and round. The male has a mane, that grows longer and thicker as the animal grows older. The female has not a mane. Eyes. — Round and very large. When the lion is angry they shine like balls of fire. OUTLINE NOTES. 77 Feet. — Armed with strong claws, incased in sheaths like the claws of a cat, but very much stronger. Soles of feet covered with a pad or cushion as soft as velvet. 2. Peculiarities. — (1) Fierce. — Will attack any animal of greater size and speed by springing upon it from its lair or hiding-place. Deer, antelopes, etc., are its favorite food. (2) Strong. — Will carry off an ox as easily as a cat carries a mouse. Springs like a cat, and loves to take its prey by surprise. Seldom attacks openly. (3) Courageous. — When hunted will turn upon its pursuers, and sometimes kill the hunters. Lion hunt- ing dangerous sport. Men, women, and children often devoured. 3. Where found. — In tropical countries, as Africa and India. Makes its lair near spring or river, to catch animals that come to drink. Hides in jungle, often comes near villages, and does much mischief by carrying off cattle and killing people. In the preceding examples we have adapted the subjects to every class of children in an elementary school, and have answered each question as fully as the time and conditions of an examination would re- quire. An intelligent student should now be able to imitate these models, and produce excellent outline notes of his own on any subject with which he is fa- 78 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. miliar. He should remember the hints and advice given in previous chapters, and make his notes as brief, clear, and comprehensive as possible. The facts should be plainly written, and arranged in such a form that they may comprehend them at a glance. Taste, neatness, and sound judgment are nowhere more conspicuous than in the arrangement of good notes of lessons. We must now turn our attention to the preparation of " full notes ; " and in addition to the chief heads and condensed matter of the outline notes, we must add notes on method, with hints, explanations, and illustrations for our guidance in giving the lesson. As a practical example of how to prepare "full notes," we will take outline notes on the camel, and expand them by the addition of notes on method. We shall be able to make this plain to young teachers by the remarks, hints, and suggestions in the follow- ing chapter. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 79 CHAPTER VIII. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. If you are required to give outline notes of a lesson on "the Camel," you may summarize your facts in some such form as the following : — THE CAMEL. 1. Found. — Africa, Arabia, Central Asia, etc. — hot countries with great deserts. 2. Description. — Large quadruped, two humps on back, one hump on back of dromedary, long neck, small eyes, flat nose, dark brown hair, soft pliable feet, two stomachs. 3. Peculiarities. — (1) Adapted to desert life. — Feet, eyes, nostrils, stomachs, humps on back, teeth, food. (2) Domesticated. — Trained to kneel, obey, serve ; but quarrelsome, sometimes unruly. 4 Uses. — (1) Alive. — As beast of burden. — Kneels to be loaded, strong, patient, enduring. Will carry a load of 1000 lbs. Dromedary lighter, smaller, swifter, will carry twice as much as a mule. 80 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Milk. — A favorite article of food among Arabs. (2) Dead. — Flesh as food ; often salted or dried in the sun. Fat, melted, used for oil or butter. Hair, for painters' pencils, and coarse cloth. Skin, for leather, harness, etc. These notes express in the briefest and clearest terms the chief heads of the lesson, and the condensed matter. We have enough material here for an intel- ligent, practical, and interesting lesson. Our next question must be how to present it in the most attrac- tive form, and make the best use of the facts we have gathered. Let us consider, under the head of method, the introduction, with such illustrations, explanations, hints, and suggestions as may be helpful to young teachers. Introduction. — A lesson to young children in this country on the camel should be introduced by a good picture. Few American children see a camel except in a menagerie. They should be enabled by picture and comparison to form a correct idea of its form, size, and appearance. It is not enough to say it is eight feet high, the teacher should point to some ob- ject or piece of furniture in school that is the same height, for the sake of comparison. Illustrations. — Children eight years of age should know something about a map. The map of Asia should be shown, and the native home of the camel pointed PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 81 out. It should be explained that the camel has been imported to other countries having a different climate from its original home. In describing camels' hair, a painter's pencil should be shown, or a coarse piece of hair-cloth should be obtained, if possible. Any tradesman would lend a specimen for such purposes. In deciding what points of the lesson require illus- tration, we must be guided by the mental condition of the children. We must ask ourselves what a child of average intelligence in the class would be likely to fail to understand. We know that young children form ideas of what they have not seen by comparing them with things that they have seen. It is impor- tant, therefore, that our comparisons should be apposite and exact. Explanations. — Words that fully express our mean- ing should not be substituted for less expressive words because they happen to be a little above the children's present attainment. There is often a high educational value in the use of a new word that represents a new truth. Phrases that contain a figure of speech or poetic reference must be illustrated and explained. Hints and Suggestions. — Waste no time in needless description, explanation, or illustration. Keep closely to the subject, and progress as rapidly as you can with safety. Conclude as soon as you reach the end of your matter. Do not talk when you have nothing new to say. One of the greatest vices of the age is the habit 82 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. of talking when the matter is not of the slightest value. Close the lesson with a brief recapitulation, bring- ing out the leading features of your outline notes, and impress the fact by a few direct personal questions. Bearing these remarks on the method of treatment in mind, let us now proceed to apply them in the fol- lowing full notes on the camel. At the head of the paper write the subject, and give particulars of the age of the children for whom it is intended, the length of time you intend to occupy, the object of the lesson, and the apparatus you will require. Then rule your paper so as to allow three columns, for chief heads, condensed matter, and method, as in the following examples. Underline the most impor- tant words and phrases, such as are printed in differ- ent type, so as to arrest the attention. Write plainly, arrange the matter neatly, and put your thoughts in the most attractive forms. Carefully study the examples of full notes given in Chapter IX., and try to imitate them and reproduce the ideas in different forms. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 83 S 3 2" a s a a< fciD 03 <*-! .-. O ci £ ° o a a as cc-a o> cT g too »d as -a — I >T3 d a "^ a £ § £ | a ee s o T7TI 4) g o ^s» «j o e a a, .a. a a picture of camel, ildren ever saw one. in a show. It is a Lo this country, to map. 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O CO Q ,0 a a •^ a <•-■ 2* 5 ^ s; > t? ,-« t-i a en o J« 2 S3 "rd en O .2 8 43 Infill- If rn- en en 1^ -a .3 fl .2 be j?>>«~ 43 eS - d <"~ « S ° S en • ri 5:a P^om o ^ s *-a +3 *-~ ._. en 43 w a 03 d — • 43 43 ft C £ >— en -d as a -HO .2 & •d 43 "d 43 • 5'^ o SU o > o % j fl ^ m y sails ! « Q3 43 O 3 ■> i'^i. 43 ? _ O 43 43 5 f* 1 ; - hi O 43 *75 en .P "d ^ " , d , G *> w cn"'d "C 3 43 .2 i ^ s s *" a ' ~. 2 O G -^ 3 ~ r* f If!" l-sf °*" -S S3 - CG c o „ * - a) S 5 o 1*3 & S •/. Il >,£ II §1- S oJ a •_ ""3 —r g a> s «M . '— ■° s ° s "S * « «h 2 c PIS O S3 c<3 *=" * > - 5 5S d of Si *" ~rt> — — Ja £-><*-'— <^ G I- s &£« y a x ft— ft— 90 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. t— i H 55 co QrP o ► ft $3 0>£ CD p^j k^ o O ^H ft > *= ~ o o «* ♦3 t-c ~ |i| § j- a * »T ^« I «»:©■©,.§ 1 £~ v a r 1 1 — 1 2 ^ tfi^a a &« p 8 co c$ cp cS o a ■s »« &S fio a^ * £ co p * •» § §££ _« ^ ft, «* -J B ^ B ^ T3 +f T3 *£ at-'* S a > CO !> tn O) +3 . S tH W) 2 5 ® .9 ilii ~ o '~ co co O 3 ■a S •- « « -^ ft '- % s to a s 3 & fl , O O O * S p co co co o> ~ • 3 , • . . • "4-1 co p ) -t oCOH p ctf 1 "cy S ft > CD tH CD FULL NOTES. 91 92 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. end- Ail this orm o ft ^ 4) . o u a> eS ** co Q O X utte at-yi eat ts in O a 49 H S-, V — ' co e3 w 8*31 ,a S +3 Show- on we s only £ . o T3^J ^rr> 2 3 o o* CO W a o cu ■M cy<£ >> o Hit 3 c^ >> <» o ..2 . ,q cu T3 o> in o»5 S a TO CO 2 O t»S-3 o > > o - cy i i C25 a i « C g s o •3 fl 0) © r- * ££ o 8 3 &52.a-oo^a . ^-^^ s *ii limits ^.s-gS-agariSflg £t=^ 5 s-d 2-g^ £ S.S CO o cu £2.2.2*1 & a S S.2S fta « g, rH S^|8 8 ,N SS.-S.2r5.§ a fc >l

x a KM >, CO co- ^? a w .a a cs -^ ^5 « « '-a s 3 ^^ FULL NOTES. 93 CO ^ £ a 3* O) J o o ■3 03 g 03 £ 0^3 I 111 e S3 I *S '1 a H W Introduce the subject by asking what an auxiliary is, and requiring the children to give illustrations of its meaning. 1 Make the children give such a definition of this in their own words. 2 Write examples in the order the children give tliem. 3 Require the children to point out the relations. Explain "tense" = time; " mood "= manner ;" voice" = a particular mode of in- flection. H a H H < Q W CO w c •/; An auxiliary is a helper of any kind, as an as- sistant teacher to master, curate to rector, ser- vant to mistress. Some words will not express exactly what we mean by themselves; they require other words to help to make our meaning perfectly clear. Thus Me say, "I shall love" (future); "shall" is an auxiliary or helper to the verb " love." Hence, 1 auxiliary verbs are used to assist other verbs. I will write on the blackboard a list of auxil- iary verbs in one column, and show in the next column to what they relate. Now give me the names of several. Examines.' 2 Relatinrj to 3 shall, be tense and voice do, could mood may, should mood will tense CO a ft, a d 1 a O Examples. 94 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. X H W Vary the examples and re- lations till all the children understand them. 4 Let the children give these definitions in their own words from a variety of examples on the blackboard. 5 Explain " compound " = united. a H H < M w. w 'A did tense was, were voice is, be voice would, can mood might have been tense, mood, and voice would have mood and tense had been tense and voice 1. Auxiliary verbs* are used to express tense or time.— Shall, will, did, has, have, had, etc., belong to this class. 2. Auxiliary verbs are used to express mood. — Maw might, can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, must, etc., refer to the mode or manner of doing a thing. ... Auxiliary verbs are used to express voice. — Am, is, was, w T ere, be, been, etc., are of this kind. Verbs which tell of doing are said to be of the active voice; those which tell of what is done to them are of the passive voice. 4. Compound 5 auxiliaries are used to express mood, tense, and voice. — They give richness, variety, and fulness of expression to our lan- guage. 03 P w W w 5 w FULL NOTES. 95 bp w 3 o o e con of tl mark SS tin railro n in t bO o ,G a> ^ '3 d p Go <~ w «« M w o X H K Every office i keeps a rec d. " Defaced " h ink. Two cents i i ounce. On some line ers are sorted t-office car. 2 d » o d 49 <-" S Is £3 £ 5 5ft ll 11 ol t» ■a >»-d Tc2 Q « •sl OeS t before the post-office closes many people their letters, stamp them, and put them be box. Let iia go inside the office and see letters taken out of the box. rhey are counted, and the number of let- postal-cards, newspapers, books, etc., regis- i in a book. rhey are stamped with the name ot the where they are posted, and the date. All ge stamps are defaced - so that they cannot ed again. Heavy letters are weighed and charged it eavy. Letters without stamps are charged double. Thev are sorted according to direction, i s 1 W Q w H in 2 •4 ft O i, east, south, or west. Sorted again for different railroad itC. i ^ £ g ^ 7 .his bring into 1 1. ' ters, ] tered 2. ' place posta be us 3. too h 4. 5. nortl 6. ers, e / "2 ai •« o ^ U 98 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. ft - « 2 li-s 83 C O 5 2* g-Sg o.S o p £ ft •=5 2 S °~ " a; ,q ^ o d .- — u - — r d j: c t ~_ ~i U ~«wtH 33 ft ^ — •-■ _ c3 t; s Jl £ . ~ 2 - r m ? *a § 2 s< - ft] ^ ft 53 o i- co g g o 5 a ft ft a ^ A ft 03 • 2Z^ - 1 ~~ eg t; o o £ d o -d > S « 5 o> i i irj O — I d « ' " O Q O -- >> - £ ts ?: r^ '• i 2^~ 1 d w o> £ ./ — ft ■- " ~ — /; ., — K A S -S ib S s •- ft 2 S>5 § S 2 fe £ S 4 1 rt u 5 6 <2 c 8 * ^ O r- o 'J ijo ® •a:d s :o3i, 4 i»q'd — - ,a -^ a> - i ~~ ft 'd - 4h O «$ S § & S aa 5 ft - — T3 - 5 ^ 22 ZS 2 T3 ►J of bfl tr. d o = - 3^ ^lUi O 0) C-r! f-5 13 ^ ft Q X t-n co co *< — h H o -r SS h B S ? - ft^ ^^^ £ £3 CO * c > •£ ! c<3 ft c - "r £ a ^ ^ g § - •- oo ?■ C f- - :, :r - >- - c g rf^ d s a) ee *> d ^ a> c« a? -*-» *y ■- ft " o - = § .2 = o d S P S CH.2 .£ trj£ o - ^^ j2 a a-d c o a; • " r. J2 - ^ — - ft O ^ C ^ d — r> d -~ o > A — - P^ /-. i= = O "S *3 _- *> « / Z '} s > i I §*d ^ ^ t^ ^ :r 93 O W •U O W 3 . o FULL NOTES. 99 a — ♦J 93 03 3 « £ "G cu bo-2 v — , oo O O £ 00 bD j: ~ U NC5 - - : i3 ,Q "S co 52 .5 £ 1 8 g a o .- -r .S rt CU ,Q 2 3 £ o 5 = =8 r 'CO'— , - -_ o &, o : I — ^_ 7 |o D 1-1 - > CO "_ — - c5 i e!i _^ 13 oo to- c 3 3 - rt fee on j!r ~ O ' - r a? m - — « S cu - _ O > 3 0)Sgl : - '; S aT oo ■* 13 X u— : H - u '. '— ' w rrt I 'O X — - ft - - CO — -— — - ; : d k CU 2* ~ — .. O " '— 5 PS 60 ^3 fe lllf - K fl bJO a to _ a> o - r r2 cu - fi — -2 C TV ~ 00 3 a> oo — a; £ 2 'Gb 5 *3 -- 53 cu C+j — C o on 9 - wo J if 8 □ I ~: X o - - .. - 3 s- > — _ / — I Ph cu ti -^ ,a - - u toe c be - • - /' 1 '--I a O ° ZS o cu M 100 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER X. RECENT EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. Write Notes of a Lesson ox — Mountains. Snow. The Parts of a Flower. A Photograph. Courage. The Dog. The Caspian Sea. The Shape of the Earth. Corn. Pronouns. A Dictation Lesson. British Settlements in Farther India. The Gulf Stream. Silver. A Pane of Glass. A Writing Lesson. The Rivers of India. A Pump. The Tiger. British Settlements in China. Barley. The Beaver. Prepositions. The Construction of a Map. Salmon. Salt. Earthquakes. The Basin of the Danube. Australia. Persia. The Basin of the Medway. Silk. Malta. II. Write Full Notes of a Lesson on Intransitive and Transitive Verbs. Adjectives. Cleanliness. A Fraction. Any King's Reign. Coins. Egypt. Grammar. Vulgar Fractions. The Employments of Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania. The Fox. Gold. Cotton. Rice. Wheat. European Turkey. Verbs. Proportion. The Herring. The Otter. Evaporation. The Locomotive. A Telegram. RECENT EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 101 The Tropics and a Tropical Climate. — Illustrate your lesson by some colony, and draw a map of it. The Formation and Course of a River. The Formation of Coral Islands ; or on The Wild Animals of North America. Day and Night, and show how you would explain and illustrate — (a) The general cause; (b) The rea- sons for the different amount of light and darkness at different times of the year. Fruit Trees. Climate, showing particularly what parts of the earth's surface are hottest, which are coldest, and the reason why.. The Native Races of America, Africa, and Australia, under these heads — (a) Appearance; (b) Habits and pursuits ; (c) History and present condition. Grasses. Atlantic Ocean : its shape, boundaries, currents, depth, islands, and prevailing winds. Birds of Prey. The Mediterranean Sea : the rivers which flow into it. and the famous cities which stand on it. The River St. Lawrence, Mississippi, or Amazon. The Railroads which pass through your county. A Coal Mine. Latitude and Longitude: the lines by which they are marked, and the uses of these lines, especially to those at sea. Give examples in illustration. JUST PUBLISHED Four Volumes of Immense Value. 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