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EPITOME OF ANCIENT, MEDIiEVAL, 
 AND MODERN HISTORY 
 
 BT 
 
 CARL PLOETZ 
 
 TRANSLATED 
 
 WITH EXTENSIVE ADDITIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST 
 
 i: ^ik e a . ] ^iU. 1 >■- i^-v^ss; I <? w, J 
 
 BOSTON 
 HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANT 
 
 New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street 
 
 (€f)c lliUcrsiDe press, Cambritifie 
 
 S 
 
^. 
 
 
 5:iG60 
 
 Copyright, 1883, 
 Bt WILLIAM HOPKINS TILLINGHAST. 
 
 AU rights reserved. 
 
 ^^J- 
 ^^^ 
 
 EIGHTEENTH IMPRESSION. 
 
 Thf. Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A. 
 Electrotyped and Priated by II. 0. Houghton & Company. 
 
PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION. 
 
 The appearance of a ninth edition of this work may not unfairly 
 be taken as an indication of approved usefulness ; whereat a trans- 
 lator may without breach of decorum express gratification. He 
 takes the chance, also, to thank those readers who have notified him 
 of errors. All discovered errors are here corrected, and it is hoped 
 that any which have escaped detection will be made known by who- 
 ever may find them. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 f\ Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked with 
 a t have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Intuoduction. ix 
 
 t Divisions of universal history 1 
 
 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. EASTERN PEOPLES. 
 Hamitic. 
 
 1. Egyptians , 2 
 
 Semitic. 
 
 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... . . 7 
 
 3. Babylonians and Assyrians 12 
 
 4. Phoenicians and Carthaginians 16 
 
 5. Lydians. * Phrygians 20 
 
 Aryan. 
 
 t 6. Indians 22 
 
 7. Bactrians, Medes, Persians 24 
 
 TURAMAX. 
 
 * 8. Parthians 29 
 
 * 9. Chinese 30 
 
 * 10. Japanese 32 
 
 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. 
 Aryans. 
 
 * 1. Celts 34 
 
 a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34 
 
 b. Celts of the British Isles 36 
 
 Britain 36 
 
 Ireland 38 
 
 2. Grecian history 39 
 
 Geographical survey of ancient Greece 39 
 
 ♦Religion of the Greeks 41 
 
 First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period .... 43 
 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian 
 
 Wars 47 
 
 Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Ciineronea . . 56 
 Fourth Period (338-146). Grajco - Macedonian or Hellenistic 
 
 Period 73 
 
iv Table of Contents, 
 
 PAGB 
 
 3. Boznan history 81 
 
 Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 
 
 * Religion of the ancient Romans 84 
 
 Ethnographical sketch of Ital}-- 85 
 
 First Period (x— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 
 
 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 
 
 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 
 
 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . . 123 
 Fifth Period (31 b. C.-476 A. D.). The Roman emperors to the 
 
 fall of the Western Empire 147 
 
 * 4. Teutons 162 
 
 * 5. Slavs and Lithuanians 168 
 
 II. MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 
 
 1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes 170 
 
 » 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 176 
 
 3. The Franks under the Merovingians 181 
 
 4. Mohammed and the Caliphate 182 
 
 5. The Franks under the Carolingians 183 
 
 * 6. JMew Persian empire of the Sassanidse 187 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 
 
 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- 
 perors) -. . . "T ^. 193 
 
 t 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 201 
 
 t 3. England (West Saxon kings)*. T^ ...... 203 
 
 * 4. The North. Denmark 2Q7 
 
 SAveden, Norway 208 
 
 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 
 
 6. The East. Eastern Empire 210 
 
 * India 210 
 
 * China 211 
 
 * Japan . . , 212 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 
 
 1. Crusades 213 
 
 2. Germany and Italy _ , ; 1 : — • 218 
 
 t 3. France 226 
 
 t 4. England 229 
 
 * 5. The North. Denmark 235 
 
 Sweden 237 
 
 Norway 238 
 
 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 
 
 7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols ..... 240 
 
 * India. * China 241 
 
 * Japan 243 
 
Table of Contents. v 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 
 
 1. Germany to Maximilian.!,-- -. . • .... 244 
 
 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy - — ;-^ 245 
 
 Leagues of the cities 249 
 
 t 2. Prance to Charles Vm 254 
 
 3. Italy _JL— -'*^ ^^^ 
 
 t 4. England to Henry VII. 263 
 
 5. Spanish Peninsula 275 
 
 6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia .... 276 
 
 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 
 Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) 
 
 * China. * Japan } * ' ^^^ 
 
 in. MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 
 
 1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 
 
 * 2. America. Discovery 280 
 
 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 
 
 Plymouth Company .... 293 
 
 b. Dutch colonies 298 
 
 c. Swedish colonies 298 
 
 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 
 
 3. Germany to the Thirty Years' 'War. Keformation . . 300 
 
 4. Thirty Years' "War 308 
 
 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 
 
 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 
 
 3. Swedish " 1630-1635 311 
 
 4. French " 1635-1648 .314 
 
 t 5. France 318 
 
 6. Italy 326 
 
 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands .... 328 
 
 t The Netherlands 328 
 
 * 8. England and Scotland . . . . ,• . . . 333 
 9. The North and East 351 
 
 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . , . 352 
 
 Turks. * India 353 
 
 * China 354 
 
 * Japan , . 355 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) 
 
 A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 
 
 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 
 
 t 2. Prance under Louis XIV 365 
 
 3. Germany under Licopold 1 371 
 
 4. The North and East. Sweden 373 
 
 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 
 
vi Table of Contents. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 * 5. England , . o . 375 
 
 * 6. India 389 
 
 * 7. China • . 390 
 
 B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 1 . The War of the Spanish Succession 390 
 
 2. The Northern W ar 394 
 
 3. Germany to the Kevolution of 1789 397 
 
 4. The North. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 
 
 Kussia, Poland 410 
 
 5. Spain and Portugal 414 
 
 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 
 
 (Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 
 
 * 7. America. British colonies . 417 
 
 War of Independence 426 
 
 * 8. Great Britain 433 
 
 * 9. The East. India 442 
 
 The British in India 443 
 
 China 444 
 
 Japan 445 
 
 t 10. Prance to the Kevolution of 1789 ..... 445 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) 
 
 First French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars . . . 447 
 
 Causes of the Revolution 448 
 
 Constituent assembly 449 
 
 Legislative assembly 451 
 
 War of the First Coalition. National Convention . . . 452 
 
 Directory 457 
 
 War of the Second Coalition 460 
 
 The Consulate , 461 
 
 First French Empire 465 
 
 War of the Third Coalition 467 
 
 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 
 
 Peninsula War 471 
 
 (Fifth) War with Austria . , 471 
 
 (Sixth) War with Russia » . 474 
 
 The War of Liberation 475 
 
 Congress of Vienna 482 
 
 The Hundred Days (War of 1815) 483 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815-x.) 
 
 1. Inventiona. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- 
 
 graph 485 
 
 2. Continental Europe 487 
 
 War of Grecian Independence ....... 488 
 
 Revolution in Belgium 489 
 
 Revolution in Poland 490 
 
 Revolt of Mehemet All . o . . . ' . . . 491 
 
Table of Contents. vii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Civil war in Switzerland 492 
 
 Confusion in German}' ; attempts at union .... 492 
 
 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 
 
 Crimean War 499 
 
 Kingdom of Ital}' . . . . . . . ' . .503 
 
 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 
 
 Austro-Prussian War 507 
 
 Austro-Italian War 510 
 
 North German Corifederation 511 
 
 Franco-German AVar 513 
 
 German Empire 519 
 
 Turco-Russian War 522 
 
 Congress of Berlin 524 
 
 t 3. France (1815— x) 526 
 
 July Revolution of 1830 529 
 
 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic . . . 530 
 
 Second Empire 531 
 
 Third Republic 532 
 
 * 4. Great Britain 1(1783— X) 535 
 
 The British in India (1785-1836) 541 
 
 Great Britain (1837— x) 542 
 
 The British in India (1836— x) 540 
 
 * 5. The United States of America 1 547 
 
 War of 1812 551 
 
 War with Mexico 554 
 
 The Civil War 557 
 
 * 6. China (1796— x) 560 
 
 * 7. Japan (1787— x) 562 
 
 Restoration of the Mikado 563 
 
 * Index , . 565 
 
 1 Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran 
 teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high 
 reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than 
 the " Epitome of Universal History." ^ The admitted excellence of 
 the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an 
 extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose 
 of the work may not be out of place. 
 
 "The present * Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged 
 and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use by the upper classes in 
 higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook in the historical class- 
 room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- 
 tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- 
 tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the 
 memory. 
 
 *' I have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- 
 ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. 
 
 " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, 
 Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. 
 
 "Mediaeval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier 
 editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, 
 moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number of 
 genealogical tables. 
 
 "In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial 
 prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which 
 alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system 
 of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. 
 
 " Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose 
 and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed 
 narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- 
 ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a 
 religious or a political sense. 
 
 " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out 
 the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them 
 from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a 
 basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- 
 ment and extent of such a work. 
 
 " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- 
 structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, 
 holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of 
 an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 
 
 1 Auszug aus der alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte von Karl Ploetz. 
 Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. 
 The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author of 
 Geschichte der Karthager^ i. 1880. 
 
X Introduction, 
 
 some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in the 
 hands of the pupils in the class-room. 
 
 " 1 am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in 
 the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- 
 ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to 
 the instructor." 
 
 The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the 
 hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial 
 value in this country. 
 
 Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the 
 ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but 
 believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can 
 hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak 
 guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- 
 factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent 
 groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a 
 wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the 
 best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us 
 with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- 
 ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, 
 each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, 
 is dangerous if taken for knowledge.^ 
 
 The speculations m regard to the early inhabitants of the British 
 Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- 
 ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. 
 
 The mythical history of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has 
 been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The 
 undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part 
 which they play in general literature will explain the presence of 
 even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a 
 theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy history 
 has been kept constantly in view. 
 
 The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- 
 sia under the Sassanidse, which the stricter limits of the German 
 work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of 
 India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the 
 meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- 
 tion. 
 
 The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 
 
 1 " We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a 
 fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain 
 from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- 
 nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so 
 often taken for granted. It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, 
 but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or 
 not the future will succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen ; 
 until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use 
 of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Groeco-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- 
 man." (B. Delbriick, Einleitunr/ in dns Sprachstndium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf 
 & Hiirtel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, -^ upon what 
 point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say 
 upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of consid- 
 eration. 
 
Introduction. xi 
 
 land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the 
 beginning with a fulhiess of detail proportional to that observed by 
 the original in the history of (ierniany. 
 
 In the additions nothing more than a compilation from reliable, 
 but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes have 
 been inserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of the 
 orighial, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla- 
 tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed of 
 sufficient importance. 
 
 Absolute accuracy camiot be looked for in a work dealing with so 
 vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the 
 translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has 
 endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- 
 ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform 
 him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- 
 served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open 
 to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to 
 the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book 
 to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening 
 its completion. 
 
 Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian 
 wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, 
 no attempt has been made to condense the original. 
 
 Various cii'cumstances have delayed the appearance of the book 
 much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last 
 ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward C banning, of Harvard 
 College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections 
 which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 
 1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The 
 thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of 
 Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been 
 made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
 and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin 
 Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. 
 
 To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- 
 delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use 
 certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful 
 « Outlines of History." i 
 
 The distingiushing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement 
 whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- 
 graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- 
 out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has 
 been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark 
 and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and 
 also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the 
 use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although 
 the mamier of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 
 
 1 Labberton, R. H., Outlines of History, with orifjinal tables, chronological, 
 genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & 
 Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. Ttie tables used are II., III., XVI., 
 which appear on pages 2G5, 256, 332, of the present work. 
 
xii Introduction. 
 
 respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been 
 made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical 
 dictionary, as well as a chronology. 
 
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 X B. c. — 375 A. D. I. Ancient history, from the begin- 
 ning of historical information to the commence- 
 ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 
 
 375 — 1492. II. Mediaeval history, from the commence- 
 ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to 
 the discovery of America. 
 1492 — X. III. Modern history, from the discovery of 
 America to the present time. 
 
 Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- 
 sions : 
 
 A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, As- 
 
 syrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- 
 trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan) ; Parthians, Chinese, 
 Japanese (Turanian?). 
 
 B. Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons 
 
 (Aryan). 
 
 Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 
 375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the 
 Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 
 843-1096. 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the beginning of the 
 Crusades. 
 1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 
 
 1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of 
 America. 
 
 Modern history can also be divided into four periods: 
 
 1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of 
 
 Westphalia. 
 1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of Westphalia to the outbreak of 
 
 the first French Revolution. 
 1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of tlie first French Revolution 
 
 to the Congress of Vienna. 
 1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. 
 
Ancient History. 
 
 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 A. EASTERN PEOPLES. 
 
 § 1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. 
 
 Geography : Egypt ^ {Kem, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) 
 is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low 
 hills for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. 
 It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thehes or Dios- 
 pulis, called by Homer 6KaT6fM-n-u\os, the " hundred gated," a designa- 
 tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since 
 the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lower Egypt (Memphis; 
 in the Delta, Tanis, Bubastis, Naucrdtis, Sals; west of the Delta, 
 Canopus, now Aboukir; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- 
 ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). 
 These divisions were originally, m all probability, independent coun- 
 tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate prmcipali- 
 ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- 
 memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, 
 " lords of the upper aiid lower country," " lords of the two 
 crowns." 
 
 Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical 
 animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the 
 highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred 
 bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra,'^ wor- 
 shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting 
 and preserving power of the godhead embodied m the sun. Khem, 
 was the god of generation and growth. Reverence was also paid to 
 the goddess Neith, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks 
 to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at 
 Buhastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the 
 Nile. 
 
 At Thebes, cult of Ammon (Amun), the god of heaven, later united 
 with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid 
 to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or 
 Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and 
 double horns, and later becoming united with Amnion to form one 
 divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. "mother"). The educated 
 classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the 
 one Divmity. 
 
 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 
 
 2 According to Rosellini and Lepsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from 
 this name, and means Son of the Sun. Ebers and BruRsch derive ' from 
 Pe-ra(o), the " great house." (Compare "Sublime Porte.") 
 
B. C. Jigi/pti(fns. 3 
 
 Myth of Osiris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and 
 thrown into the sea by Set (^Ti/p/wn), the destructive force in Nature 
 (especially drou<j^ht ) ; soug'ht after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the 
 earth), he was avenged by their son Iloros, who slew Set; restored to 
 life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- 
 rection of the creative force in nature; innnortality of the soul). Con- 
 joined with Horos, the goddess Halhor, considered by the Greeks to be 
 the sanu^ as Aphrodite. 
 
 Highly developed moral code. 
 
 Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the 
 regular overflow of the Nile, begimiing at the end of July and last- 
 mg four months. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- 
 wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which 
 represented the language of daily life, the dialect of the common 
 people. 
 
 Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) 
 
 Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of 
 foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious 
 prescriptions. 
 
 Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. 
 These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one 
 another. 
 
 Form of Government: Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, 
 also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of 
 the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never 
 controlled the supreme power.^ 
 
 The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty 
 still exist.2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and 
 still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at 
 Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are 
 cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to 
 the sun-god Ra; the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. 
 
 Chronology: The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the 
 first of the historic line of kings, by the assumi)tion of three dynas- 
 ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of 
 kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 
 250 B. c), in his liistory of Egypt. He arranged them in thirty dy- 
 nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and 
 dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a 
 difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties 
 of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in ditterent parts 
 of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate his son with 
 himself during the latter part of his reign, and that the son after- 
 wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence 
 the systems of chronology, drawji up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. 
 There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- 
 cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 
 
 v^-Sne Duncker, TJistoryof AntuptUij, I. 180. 
 
 .jpsius saw traces and remains of sixty se'.cii pvramiils; Brugsch of 
 ^loie than seventy. 
 
4 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 5702 (Boeckh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- 
 cated ill England, wlierem the dates assigned to Mena vary between 
 2700 and 2440. In the following pages the chronology of Lepsius 
 is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, wliich 
 Lepsius gives as 3892 b. c. These dates should be compared with the 
 lists given by Brugsch ^ and by Rawlinson.-^ Before 
 
 3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- 
 ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition 
 by Mena ^ {Menes) . Capital : Memphis. 
 
 2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according 
 
 to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of 
 
 the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the 
 
 " Pyramid dynasty." 
 
 About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to 
 
 Thebes. 
 
 Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- 
 
 hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt 
 
 up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who 
 
 continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- 
 
 nemhat II.; Usurtasen 11. ; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 
 
 2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. *' lake of inundations "), a large 
 
 reservoir for regulating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of 
 
 this lake the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for ceremonial acts 
 
 and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of 
 
 Thebes). 
 
 About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 
 The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, and Schasu, shepherds, 
 contracted into Sos) were wandering tribes of Semitic descent. 
 About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native 
 rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long 
 contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- 
 pletely under King Aahmes (Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659).^ 
 Their epoch covers the Xlllth to XVIIth dynasties. 
 
 1670 — 525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), 
 under Thutmes III. {Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth 
 dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 
 
 1524-1488, Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- 
 hotep III. (Amenophis), successful expeditions against the 
 Syrians (^Rutheti) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 
 
 1 History of Egypt. Appendix. See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 
 
 2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 
 
 3 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their 
 chronology. I have given first some form of tiu^ true Egyptian name, as found 
 on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brugsch, and have followed it by 
 the more common name, as given by Manetlio, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- 
 tures, in parentheses. [Trans.] 
 
 •1 Called by the Greeks M(£ris (Moipos, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inter- 
 preted as a royal name. 
 
 s Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. 
 
B. c. Egyptians. .*) 
 
 Erection of ma<!;nificent palaces and temples at Thebes. 
 (Ruins near the present villaji^es of Carnac, Luxor, and Medl- 
 net-Abu; near the latter two sittino^ colossi, statues of Amen- 
 hotep, one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of 
 Memnon.) 
 1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti I. (Sethos). 
 Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. Tem- 
 ple of Amnion on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. 
 His son, 
 
 1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great (Sestu-Ea, Ramses), 
 was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could 
 not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXtli dy- 
 nasty). 
 
 In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- 
 tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 
 110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-58), and to whom they ascribed 
 fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to 
 have had its origin in the bombastic expressions connnon to the royal 
 inscriptions of the Egyptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earlier 
 victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- 
 lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenhotep, of Seti and 
 Ramessu III. 
 
 During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. 
 Splendid palace known as " the House of Ramses," south of Carnac; 
 temple of Amman, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal 
 between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the 
 oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 
 1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- 
 dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8).^ 
 
 1269-1244. Ramessu III. {Rhampsinitus, XXth dynasty). 
 
 Successful resistance offered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes; 
 
 expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft 
 
 from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 
 1244-1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name 
 
 of Ramses. 
 1091. A new dynasty (XXI.) came to the throne mth King Hirhor 
 
 (Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, in the Delta, 
 
 wdience they are called Tanites. 
 
 Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of Na- 
 
 pata or Meroe was founded. 
 9G1-940. Shashang I. (Sesonckis, Shisak), from Bubastis, founded a 
 
 new dynasty (XXII.).^ He undertook (949) a successful ex- 
 pedition against Judcea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 
 
 1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name; the date of 
 whose reii^n, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, Avould 
 have to be placed several decades earlier, in agreement with Duncker and 
 Maspero. 
 
 '^ The opinion of Brugsch, History of Efiypt, TI. 1!)8, that an Assyrian con- 
 quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Sliashaiit/ J. was the son of the 
 conqueror, Nimrod, king of Assyria, has not found favor amonj; Egyptologists. 
 [Tkans.] 
 
6 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 730. The Ethiopians, under Shahak (Sahako), conquered Egypt, 
 which they governed for fifty-eight years mider three succes- 
 sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 
 
 672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddon (p. 15), 
 against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshur- 
 hanipal (Sardatiapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- 
 opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of 
 Shahak), and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty 
 governors, most of whom were natives. 
 
 653. One o£ these governors, Psamethik, in alliance with 
 Gyges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- 
 cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, 
 and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sa'is). 
 The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- 
 otus and Diodorus), accordmg to which Psammeticus defeated his 
 eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is 
 derived from the twelve courts of colunms in the Labyrinth, which, 
 according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, 
 whereas this gigantic building had already been standing 1500 years 
 (p. 4). 
 
 653-610. Psamethik I., king of Egypt, from the mouths 
 of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- 
 pians held the su23remacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) 
 
 New capital, Sals, in the Delta, where Psamethik built a magnifi- 
 cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored in the 
 army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek 
 factory at Naucrdtis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste ; emi- 
 grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. 
 
 Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phcenicia, and Palestine; they 
 were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his 
 frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. 
 These wars led to no lasting conquests. The son of Psamethik, 
 
 610-595. Neku (Necho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite 
 the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in 
 carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by 
 Phcenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where 
 he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judah in the 
 battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the 
 Babylonians in the 
 
 605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. 
 Neku's son, 
 
 595-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- 
 cess. His son, 
 
 589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lasting success against 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against 
 Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated 
 at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and 
 strangled. 
 
B. C. 
 
 Je 
 
 570-52G. Aahmes (.Imasw), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended 
 the throne. Knconragement of foreigners, especially of tlie 
 Greeks, carried still farther; numerous (irei-iau temples erected 
 in Naucrdtis. Friendship with Cyrene and Polycratea of Samos. 
 Magnihcent buildings, especially in Sals. The son of Amasis, 
 
 525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Pelusiuni 
 by Cambi/ses. Egypt a Persian province. 
 
 § 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Semitic. 
 
 Geography. Tlie land of the Jews is bounded N. by Ccelo-Syria; 
 W. by Phuenicia, the Mediterranean, and the laud of the Philistines; 
 S. by Arabia Petrcea; E. by the Arabian Desert. 
 
 The name Canaan,^ i. e. " low land," was originally applied to the 
 region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland 
 country. 
 
 The names Canaanite and Phoetiician have properly the same mean- 
 ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the 
 uiliabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. 
 
 Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, wliich 
 was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines (Pelishtim) 
 wliich had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and 
 Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country 
 is called " the promised laud," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to 
 the children of Israel. 
 
 The river Jordan, which rises in the mountain range of Antilebanon 
 and empties into tlie Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah), runs through the 
 middle of the country. After the Jewish conquest the country was 
 divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes ; after the death 
 of Solomon into the kingdjoms of .ludah and Israel; at the time of 
 Christ \\\io four districts: 1. Jud^a {.Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushala'im; 
 Greek 'UpoaShvfxa, with the fortress of Zion and the Temple on Mt. 
 Moriah; Bethlehem, Jericho, Joppa, now Jaffa, on the coast) ; 2. Sama- 
 ria {^Samai-ia, Sichem); 3. Galileea (Nazareth, Capernaum on the sea 
 of Tiberias or Genezareth, Cana) ; east from Jordan 4. Peraea. 
 
 In the country of the Philistines, the coast region between Pales- 
 tme and Egypt: Ashdod, Ascalon, Gaza, Ekron, Gath. 
 
 Chronology.^ As is the case with the earliest history of all na- 
 tions, the chronology of Jewish history is uncertain. There is a long 
 and a short system, but here the short system found favor on the con- 
 tinent, while the long system prevails in England. 
 
 2000 (?). Abraham (Ahram), Patriarch of the Hebrews 
 (i. 8. "those from the other side," because they immi- 
 grated from Ur in Babylonia), Israelites, or Jews. 
 
 According to the traditions of the Hebrews, Abraham had two sons: 
 Ishmael by Hagar, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Arabians) ; and 
 Isaac, by his lawful wfe Sarah. The son of Isaac by liebekah, Jacol 
 
 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlns nnW/uim, Tab. IH. 
 
 2 Cf. DuQCker, History uf Aniltjuify, II. 112, note. 
 
8 Ancient History, b. c. 
 
 or Israel, the true tribal ancestor of the Hebrews. Jacob's twelve 
 sons : by Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon: hy 
 Rachel — Joseph, Benjamin; by Bilhah — Dan, Napktali; by Zilpah ^ 
 Gad, Asher. 
 
 1550 {•)• Joseph. The tribe of the Hebrews migrated to 
 Egypt. They settled in the land of Goshen, on the right 
 bank of the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. It is claimed that 
 the master of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd khigs 
 of Egypt (see p. 4, where the chronology does not agree 
 with the theory, which, however, is no objection, as it could be 
 easily made to conform.) 
 
 1320 (^)-^ Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt. 
 Ten cominandnients at Mt. Sinai. The laws of 
 
 Moses. 
 
 About 1250. The Israelites (Joshua) after a long nomadic life in the 
 peninsida of Sinai and on the east of Jordan conquered the 
 Promised Land, but without entii-ely subjugating the former 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Theocracy, i. e. the nation was under the immediate guidance of 
 Jehovah. The office of the high priest was hereditary in the family 
 of Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Tabernacle, a portable temple 
 or holy tent. The Ark of the Covenant. To the family of Levi (son of 
 Jacoh-Israel) was given the exclusive care and service of the taber- 
 nacle and all thmgs used in the religious ceremonial. 
 
 The other twelve tribes (named from ten sows of Jacob (see above) 
 and two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh) settled in separate 
 districts, which were more or less cut oif from one another by remnants 
 of the former inhabitants, and formed an exceedingly loose union of 
 twelve small states under tribal chiefs, wliich was at times hard 
 pressed by neighboring tribes. 
 
 Judges (Shofetim) : men raised up by Jehovah in times of need, 
 especially military leaders in the wars against the Canaanite tribes: 
 Amorites (of whom the Jebusites were a part), Amalekites, Hittites, 
 Hivites, and against the Philistines, Midianites, Ammonites, Moabites. 
 Judges : Ehud ; the heroine Deborah ; Gideon, conqueror of the Mid- 
 ianites; Jephthah, conqueror of the Ammonites; Samson, the terror 
 of the Philistines. 
 
 1070. The Philistines subjugated the whole country this side Jor- 
 dan. 
 
 At the demand of the people, Samuel, the last "Judge in Israel,' 
 anointed a brave man of the tribe of Benjamin, 
 
 1055 (?). Saul, as king of the Jews. 
 
 Victory of Said over the Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, and Amalek- 
 ites. Samuel, being at variance with Saul, anointed David, from the 
 tribe of Judah, as king, at the command of Jehovah. David fled to 
 the Philistines from the persecution of Saul. Saul defeated by the 
 Fhilistmes, put an end to liis life (1033 ?). For seven years David 
 
 1 English scholars place the Exodus at 1652 or 1491. 
 
B. c. Jews. 9 
 
 was recotriiized as kinjy by the tribe of Jiidah only, the other tribes 
 uiuler the intiueiu'e of tlio c'a])tain, Aimer, adhering to Saul's son, /.sA- 
 hosheth. Aftci- the murder of Aimer and Ish-hoshetk, all the tribes 
 ac'kn(n\ led<;ed David as kuig- in the assembly at Hebron. 
 
 1025 (')' David. Kingdom of the Jews at the highest point 
 of its power. David wrested Jerusale7n from the Jehusites, and 
 made it his residence. He restrained the Philistines within 
 their own borders. His sway extended from the N.E. end of 
 the Red Sea to Damascus. Erection of a royal palace at Zlon. 
 Ark of the Covenant placed in Jerusalem. Organization of 
 the army. Religious poetry of the Hebrews at the height of 
 its development. The Psalms. Revolt and death of Absalom 
 (Ahithophel). David passed over his son Adonijah, by Ha(/- 
 gitk, and other sons, and appointed his son by Bathsheha his 
 successor. 
 
 993 (?)• Solomon. Erection of the Temple of Jehovah and 
 a new palace in Jerusalem, with the aid of workmen from 
 Tyre. Magnificent court. Standing army. Extensive com- 
 merce. Defection of Damascus. Foundation of Tadmor in 
 an oasis of the Syrian desert. At the close of Solomon's reign, 
 toleration of foreign idolatry in Jerusalem. After the death 
 of Solomon, 
 
 953 (?)j Division of the kingdom of the Jews.^ 
 
 The tribe of Judah, the tribe of Simeon, which had become united 
 with Judah, and a part of Benjamin with the Levites, remained true to 
 Rehoboam the son of Solomon, and formed the KUngdom cf Judah 
 (capital, Jerusalem); the other tribes, under Jeroboam, formed the 
 Kingdom of Israel farther north (capital at first Sichem, still later 
 Samaria and Jezreel). These two kingdoms were frequently at wjw 
 with one another. 
 
 Kingdom of Israel. 
 
 After the death of the energetic Jeroboam (953-927), his son Na- 
 dab was murdered by the captain Baasha, who ascended the throne 
 (925). His s«i and successor Elah was slain by Zimri; Tibni and 
 Omri disputed the throne, but Omri prevailed m the end (899). The 
 son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, whereby the 
 practice of Phcenician idolatry {Baal and Astarte) was extended in 
 Israel. 
 
 Contest of the Prophets (Elijah, Elisha, etc.) with the idola- 
 trous monarchy. Israel and Judah united for a short time. Ahab's 
 son Ahaziah (853-851). The captain Jehu, anointed king by Elisha, 
 slew the brother of Ahaziah, Joram (851-843), and put to death 
 Jezebel and seventy sons and grandsons of Ahab. Jehu (843-815) 
 destroyed the temple of Baal and put to death the priests of that god. 
 Decline of Israel's power, which was only temporarily revived by the 
 
 1 About the chronology, cf. Duncker, II. 234, note. The long system 
 gives 975 b. c. 
 
10 Ancient History. B. C. 
 
 fourth king of the line of Jehu, Jeroboam 11. (790-749). After the 
 fall of the house of Jehu, the kuigclom of Israel became tributary to 
 the Assyrians. Tiglatli-Pileser conquered the northeastern part of 
 the kingdom. Hoshea, the last king of Israel (734), tried to free his 
 coimtry from the Assyrian yoke, but was defeated and captured by 
 Shalmaneser IV. After a three years' siege, 
 
 722.^ Samaria was captured by Sargon, king of the Assyr- 
 ians, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and a 
 part of the people carried away and settled in Assyria 
 and Media. 
 
 Kingdom of Judah. 
 
 In the reign of Reliohoam the country was overrun by the Egyptians 
 under the Pharaoh Shashang (^Shishak). 
 
 Sack of Jerusalem (949). RelwhoairCs grandson Asa (929-873) 
 abolished idolatry, which was prohibited by the law. He was compelled 
 to buy assistance from the king of Damascus against Baasha of Israel. 
 Energetic reign of his son Jehoshaphat (873-848). In the hope of put- 
 ting an end to the war with the Kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat mar- 
 ried his son Jehoram (848-844) to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of 
 Israel and Jezebel. After the son of Athaliah, Ahaziah, was nmrdered 
 while on a visit to the kmg of Israel, together with the whole royal 
 family of the Kingdom of Israel as above described (p. 9), Athaliah 
 (843-837) seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, put to death her 
 own grandchildren in order to destroy the tribe of David, Joash alone 
 being miraculously rescued and brought up in the Temple of Jehovah, 
 and introduced the worship of Baal in Jerusalem. Athaliah was over- 
 thrown and put to death by the high priest Jehoiada, and the young 
 Joash raised to the throne. The worsliip of Baal was abolished. 
 
 Joash (837-797) was obliged to purchase the retreat of the army 
 from Damascus wliich was besieging Jerusalem. Murder of Joash. 
 Under his son Ainaziah (797-792) Jerusalem was captured by the 
 Israelites; the Temple and palace plundered. Amaziah was murdered; 
 but his son Uzziah (^Azariah, 792-740) successfully resisted the mur- 
 derers and raised the kingdom again to a position of power and au- 
 thority. The Prophet Isaiah. 
 
 Under the successors of Amaziah, the Kingdom of Judah, hard 
 pressed by the Kingdom of Israel and by Damascus, became tributary 
 to the Assyrians. King Hezekiah (728-697) again abolished idolatry, 
 refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, and allied himself with the 
 Egyptians. The Assyrians under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 
 vain, but carried off many of the inhabitants of the open country into 
 captivity. Hezekiah'' s son Manasseh (697-642) transformed the Tem- 
 ple of Jehovah into a temple of Astarte, and sacrificed to Baal and 
 Moloch in spite of the opposition of the prophets ; he submitted again 
 to the Assyrians, was carried captive to Babylon, but m the end re- 
 
 1 In the date 722, the Hebrew chronolosfv agrees with that of the Assyrian 
 monuments. ^ Cf» Schrader, Die Keilinschriften u. das alte Testament, 1^1% 
 1882, and Menant, Annates des Rois d'Assyrie. 1874. 
 
B. c.-A. D. -Jews. 11 
 
 stored to his throne. Under liis grandson Josiah (640-609), the coun- 
 try was ravaged by Scythians. 
 
 lieligious reaction against idolatry (Jeremiah). Reformation of 
 the worship of Jehovah, according to the hook of the hiw of Moses 
 which was rediscovered in the Temple (622). King Josiah fell in the 
 battle of Megiddo (601)) against the Egyptian king Necho (Neku). 
 
 The Kingxlom of Judah subject to the Egyptians, and, after the de- 
 feat of Necho at Carchemish (605), to the Babylonians. Jehoiakim en- 
 deavored to revolt, but was put to death. His son, Jehoiachin, was 
 carried uito captivity with many of his subjects by the Babylonians 
 (597). An attempt on the part of the last king, Zedekiah, to regain 
 independence was unsuccessful in spite of Egyptian assistance. Jeru- 
 salem was besieged (588-o86) ; an Egyptian army advancuig to its 
 relief was defeated and compelled to retreat. 
 
 586. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusa- 
 lem. Destruction of the city and burning of the Teni2)le. 
 Many of the Jews were slain ; those who were left were 
 carried into the Babylonian captivity. (The prophet 
 Ezekiel.) 
 
 537. The Jews sent back to Palestme by Cyrus. Rebnildmg of the 
 Temple (Zerubbabel), wliich was not completed, however, un- 
 til the time of Darius I. (516). The Jews subject at first to 
 the Persians (538-332), then to Alexander the Great (332-323), 
 afterwards to the Ptolemies (323-198), finally to the Seleu- 
 cid kings of Syria (198-167). 
 
 167-130. Emancipation of the Jews by the Maccabees, or 
 Asmonseans, after a struggle lastiufj^ nearly fourteen 
 years. Leaders : the priest Mattathias, and his five 
 sons, especially Judas Maccabseus, 
 
 A great-grandson of Mattathias, Aristobulus, assumed the title of 
 king (105). Under his successors, strife between the Pharisees and 
 Sadducees. 
 
 63. Pompeius, called in to help the Pharisees, made the Jews tribu- 
 tary to the Romans. 
 40. Herod (the Great), son of the Idum?ean Antipdter, recognized by 
 the Roman Senate as dependent king of Judcea. 
 
 Birth of Christ (four years before the beginning of our 
 era ? ) . 
 
 6 A. D. After a short reign of the three sons of Herod, Judrea be- 
 came a part of the Roman Province of Syria. (Two Te- 
 trarchies, however, remained mdependent: Galilcea, until 32 
 A. D.; Perrea, until 33 a. d.) 
 
 41^4. Juda3a again a dependent kingdom under Herod Agrippa /., 
 a grandson of Herod the Great; then a Roman province again. 
 Agrippa II. was made king over a small portion in dependence 
 on Rome. 
 
 66. Revolt of the Jews agamst the Roman supreriiacy,' ending in the 
 
12 Ancient History. b. o. 
 
 70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 
 A large part of the Jews assembled in Jerusalem for the observance 
 of the passover perished by starvation and the Roman sword ; many 
 thousands were taken captive to Rome. (The liistorian Josephus.) 
 132-135. Another uprisal of the Jews, under Hadrian, on account 
 of the foundation of the colony, ^lia Capitolina, on the site of 
 Jerusalem, wherem more than half a million perished. Dis- 
 persal of a great part of the survivors ; nevertheless a consid- 
 erable number remamed in Palestine. 
 
 §3. BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS. Semitic. 
 
 Geography : Babylonia,^ called by the Hebrews Shinar, is the 
 country lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and stretching from 
 the point where these rivers approach one another, about 350 miles 
 from their mouth, to where they empty mto the Persian Gulf by sev- 
 eral arms, as Pasitigris (now Skatt-el-Arab). In the neighborhood of 
 the present village of Hillah stood Babylon (in the Babylonian form, 
 Babilu, called by the Hebrews Babel, i. e. gates or dwellmg of the 
 god Bel), a huge rectangular city, situated, since the time of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, on both banks of the Euphrates, about tliirty-four miles in 
 circumference (Clitarchus; Herodotus gives about forty-five miles), 
 and surrounded by two brick walls of unusual tliickness and height. 
 The city was large enough to afford a refuge to a great number of the 
 inhabitants of the country durmg mcursions of nomadic tribes, and 
 contained fields of considerable extent, woods, and gardens. In Baby- 
 lon: (a.) The temple of Bel (Tower of Babel), a huge square build- 
 ing of brick, consisting of eight diminishing stories rising m pyramidal 
 form. It is said to have been origmally GOO feet high.^ (b.) Two 
 Palaces, the one on the east side of the Euphrates havmg the Hangirig 
 Gardens, the construction of which is wrongly ascribed to Semiramis, 
 and wliich were terraced pleasure grounds. 
 
 Assyria (Assliur) is bounded on the N. by the highlands of Arme- 
 nia, on the E. by the plateau of Iran, on the S. by the Didla, a branch 
 of the Tigris, and on the W. by the Tigris itself. The smaller region 
 called Assyria by the Greeks lay within this territory, between the 
 Tigris and its branch, the Great Zab, which flows into the Tigris below 
 the present Mosul. On the Tigris stood Nineveh (Ninua, "the 
 Palace," v Ni^s) surrounded with huge walls. The rums lie opposite 
 the present Mosul. Oldest residence of the kings, Asshur; afterwards 
 founded, Calah; founded by Sargon, Dur-Sarrukin (Khorsabad). 
 
 Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The religion of the 
 Semitic peoples, with the exception of the Hebrews, was a worship of 
 nature, wherein divinity was conceived as the personified force of na- 
 
 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant'tquus, Tab. II. 
 
 2 According to Oppert {Exped. Scient. en Mesopotamie) the temple of Bel is 
 to be soufjht in the ruins of Burs-Nimrud (on the site of old Bot^sippa). Raw- 
 Anson ( The Five Great Monarchies of the East) disputes this, because Borsippa 
 was a sejjaratc village lying outside the walls of the capital until the reign oJ 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and finds the Tower of Babel in a great quadrangular ruin, 
 called Bdbil, by the Arabs, on the east bank of the Euphrates in Babylon. 
 
B. c. Babylonians and Assyrians. 13 
 
 ture ill Iminan form, male and female. Among the gods of the Baby- 
 lonians the oldest was El, aiiioiijn;' those of the Assyrians, yI.v.s//»/r. Tlie 
 third, Bel {Baal), the " Lord of all," a|)i)eared as the creative, but 
 also the destnictive foire in Nature. The goddess Belit or Baaltis 
 (in Herodotus Mylitta), the queen and mother of the gods, is the 
 fruitful and reproductive princii)le, the goddess of love, fertility, and 
 birth. Her opposite is Istar, the goddess of war and destruction. 
 Confused with Belit is the goddess who brings alternately life and 
 blessing, death and destruction (like the Ashera-Astarte of the Phce- 
 nicians and Carthaginians). lu Babylon there was a complicated sys- 
 tem of star-worship. 
 
 The Chaldeans, or caste of priests, in Babylon, possessed some 
 astronomical and astrological skill. This name was properly that of 
 the Semitic population of Babylonia, but western writers applied it 
 chiefly to the priests. 
 
 Civilization. An exact system of weights and measures, which 
 was used far outside the borders of Babylonia. Cuneiform writing, 
 a system of characters formed by the gradual abbreviation of hiero- 
 gl^-pliics. Magnificent structures of brick. System of canals for the 
 ii-rigation of the country, and for the regulation of the yearly overflow 
 of the Tigris and Euphrates. Important manufacturing industries 
 and extensive commerce. 
 
 Chronology. An astronomical system and a mythical history 
 closely resembling the Biblical account of the creation and deluge 
 (epic of Izdhuher). The inscriptions give many names ; but few 
 dates are satisfactorily established before 900 b. c. 
 
 4000-731. Old Babylonian (so-called Chaldcean) Em- 
 pire. 
 
 4000-3000. Civilization, originating, perhaps, in a non-Semitic people 
 (Sumir and Accad?), was adopted, with the cuneiform writing, 
 
 by a Semitic people, who came, probably, from the S. Independent, 
 
 hostile cities : Ur, Erech, Larsam ; Agade (Accad?), Babylon. Sar- 
 
 gon, 3800, reached the Mediterranean, Hammurabi united Babylonia.^ 
 
 2300-2076. Supremacy of Elam (Elymais, Susiatia), a non-Semitic 
 kingdom E. of Babylonia (the second dynasty of Berosus '^). 
 Kudurnanchundi ; Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv.). 
 
 About 2000. Babylonia, after 300 years, again independent. 
 
 About 1900. Assyria settled by emigrants from Babylonia (Nim- 
 rod ?). 
 
 152o-12o7. Cassite kings of Babylonia (the Arabians of Berosus). 
 
 1500-710. Constant wars with Assyria. Final subjugation of 
 Babylonia after the revolts of Merodach-Baladan. 
 
 1 Delitzsch (1884); Smith (1877) ffave 1700 and 1750. 
 
 2 Berosus, at the time of Alexander, compiled from Babylonian records j 
 history in wliicli he mentioned the followin^r dynasties (dates from Delitzsch) 
 Ante-diluviaii, ten kings, 482,000 years. Post-diluvian: I. Eijifhty-six kings 
 3;5,0!)1 years. II. Eight Median tyrants, 224 years (2300-2070). III. Elevei 
 kings. IV. Forty-nine Chaldcean kings, 458 years (1983-1525). V. Nine Ara 
 bian kings, 245 years (1525-1257). VI. Forty-tive kings, 526 years (1257-731). 
 
14 Ancient History. b. c 
 
 1900-608 (605). Assyrian Empire (p. 12). 
 
 Colonized, probably, from Babylonia (Gen. x.), Assyria grad- 
 ually grew into a powerful rival of the mother-state. The chronol- 
 ogy falls into five periods.^ I. 1900-1500. II. 1500-1300. Wars 
 with Babylonia, ending in Babylonia?! overlordship. III. 1220-930. 
 Assyria again independent. IV. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch. 
 V. 626 (?)-608 (605). Fall of the empire. 
 
 1900-930. Of the first three periods little is known. Tiglath-Adar /., 
 about 1310, conquered Babylonia, but Assyria was soon subju- 
 gated. Tiglath-Pileser I., 1115-1105, conquered from Bagdad and 
 Babylon to the Mediterranean. 
 
 93(^-626 (?). Brilliant epoch of Assyrian history. The inscrip- 
 tions become frequent, full, and exact. It was a time of ex- 
 pansion, conquest, and great activity in architecture, sculpture, and 
 literature. Among the kings may be mentioned : 
 886-858. Asshur-natzir-pal.2 (Sardanapalus). Military expedi- 
 tions to Zagros, Armenia, Babylonia, Syria. Erection of a 
 palace at Calah. His son, 
 858-823. Shalmaneser II., fought with Ahab in Syria and subju- 
 gated Jehu. 
 810-781. Ramannirari captured Damascus and made Samaria and 
 Philistia tributary. His wife Sammuramit (Semiramis). 
 A tradition of later growth reported by the Greeks {Diodorus on 
 the authority of Ctesias) connects the establishment of the Assyrian 
 supremacy over almost the whole of western Asia, the building of 
 Nineveh and Babylon, mth the names of the king Ninus and his con- 
 sort Semiramis. Both Ninus (son of the god Bel) and Semiramis 
 (daughter of the goddess Mylitta) are mythical creations, into whose 
 reigns tradition has condensed the deeds of a long series of warlike 
 rulers, so that no achievements were left for their successors, and these 
 from Ninyas down appear as effeminate weaklings. Ninus is unknown 
 to the Assyrian monuments, and Semiramis first appears in the ninth 
 century. On the other hand we know that a goddess answering to 
 Istar-Belit was worshipped m Syria under the name of Semiramis. 
 
 Medo-Persian bards seem to have changed the divinities Bel and 
 Istar-Belit into heroes, and have formed the names Ninus and Ninyas 
 from the name of the city Ninua {Nineveh).^ 
 
 1^-121. Tiglath-Pileser II. (identical with the king Pid men- 
 tioned in the Bible) (see p. 13) made Babylonia, which was at 
 that time divided into several states, western Iran, Armeyiia, 
 Syria, Phoenicia, Judah and Israel, subject to Assyria. 
 727-722. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phcenician 
 
 cities and the Kingdom of Israel. 
 722-705. S argon (Sarrukin) conquered Samaria and destroyed the 
 Kingdom of Israel (see p. 10). He received tribute from 
 Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus, suppressed revolts in Armenia, 
 Media, and Babylonia, and united the latter with Assyria (710) 
 
 1 Delitzsch. 
 
 2 Formerly called Asshur-idanni-jfal. Kawlinson, Five Great Afonarchies, 
 II. 246, note' 10. 
 
 3 Duncker, II. 17. Sehrader, Die Keilinschrlften, etc. M-enaxit, Annales, 
 etc. Lenorinant, Letlres Assy rial ogigues. Smith. Assyrian Discoveries. 
 
B, C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 15 
 
 Residence: Dur-Sarrulm, now Kkorsabad, not far from Nine- 
 veh. His son, 
 
 705-^81. Sennacherib (8in-aklii-iiil)) retained his hohl ui)on Baby- 
 lonia in spite of rei)eated insurrL'ctions, but was iinsueeessf ul in 
 his wars with Egypt and Ju(bih, and k)st the supremacy over 
 Syria. Fleet in the Persian Gulf. Foundation of Tarsus. His 
 son, 
 
 681-068. Esarhaddon (Asshur-akh-iddin) suppressed a new revolt 
 of the Babylonians, reeon{piered Syria, Phcenicia, Cyprus, Ju- 
 dali, and a part of Arabia, and in 072 conquered Egypt from 
 the Ethiopians, entrusting the government to 20 governors, 
 most of ^\llom were natives (see p. 6). 
 Assyria at the height of her power. One of his sons was made 
 
 viceroy of Babylonia, the other, 
 
 668-62(3. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), defended Egypt, at 
 first with success, against the kmgs of Ethiopia and native in- 
 surrections, but lost it in 653 by the revolt of Psammeticus 
 (see p. 6). On the other hand he strengthened the Assyrian 
 power in Syria, Arabia, Cilicia, as well as in Babylonia, where 
 his brother had revolted, conquered the Kingdom of Elam, and 
 received tribute from Lydia. Erection of magnificent palaces. 
 Foundation of a library at Nineveh. Highest development of 
 Assyrian art. About 
 
 640 (650). Revolt of the Medes. Of the Medes little is known 
 until they were attacked by the Assyrians about 830 b. c. 
 About 710 their resistance was broken and their country was 
 soon subjected to Assyria, and so contunied until about 640. 
 Phraortes (Fravartis), son of Defaces (Dahycwka), a petty 
 chief among the Medes, revolted but fell in battle. 
 
 633. His son Cyaxares {Uval'hshatara) contmued the struggle, 
 which was, however, soon interrupted by the 
 
 632. Irruption of Scythian tribes which had wandered 
 about western Asia, plunderuig as they went, as far as the bor- 
 ders of Egypt, for 28 years it is said, though 8 is the more prob- 
 able number. After Cyaxai*es had rid the country of them, he 
 made another attack on Assyria, which had been much weakened 
 by the Scythians. For the purpose of destroying the Assyr- 
 ian kingdom, Cyaxares allied himself with the Chaldean Nabo- 
 poiassar {Nalm-liabal-umr), Assyrian governor of Babylon 
 since 625, who had made himself mdependent. Desperate 
 struggle with the Assyrian king Sarakos (Asshur-ebil-ili), 
 626-608 (625 ?), son of Sardanapalus V. After a long siege, 
 
 608 (605 ? 1) Nineveh -was taken and destroyed; as the enemy 
 broke uito the city, Sarakos set fire to the royal palace and 
 perislied in tlie fiames with his wives and treasurer. End of 
 the Kingdom of Assyria. Nahopolassar united with Baby- 
 
 1 The date is doubtful. Herodotus implies a date as late as 608-fi0.5. Be- 
 rosus (as reported hy Ahijdenm^ and Po/yhlstor) ,i,''ives 62o. The foriner date 
 is advocated by Clintoa and Duncker {//iston/ of Antn^., HI. 2tifJ-2!)2), 
 tlie latter by G. Rawlinaon {Fin' Grenl Miiintrrliits, II. ;j!tl, note 5), and 
 Lienormant {Ltttrts Ai>s^riulo(jtout)<, I § 12, esp. pp. 84, 85). Delitzsch, 608 
 
16 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 Ionia the whole of northern Mesopotamia on the right bank of 
 the Tigris, the rest falling to the share of Cyaxares,^ who had 
 already subjugated Armenia and the Iranian portions of the 
 kingdom of Assyria. 
 The Grecian story of the effeminate Sardanapalus (Ctesias m Dio- 
 dorus, II.) is the counterpart of their tales about the masculine Semi- 
 ramis. According to this story, Sardanapalus, on the fall of the city, 
 burns himself upon a magnificent bier, 400 feet high, wliich burns for 
 15 days. This story seems to be an application of the myth of the 
 god who burned himself and rose from the flames, whom the Semitic 
 peoples associated with Istar (Astarte), and whose nature they con- 
 founded with hers.'^ 
 
 608 (605)-538. (New) Empire of Babylon. After the 
 Assyrian conquest of Babylonia, about 710 (see p. 14); the 
 latter country continued subject to Assyria, with intervals 
 of rebellion, until the successful combination of Nahopolas- 
 sar and Cyaxares destroyed the power of Assyria. Babylon 
 then took the lead among the nations of the East, rivalled by 
 Media alone. 
 604-561. Nebuchadnezzar {Nahu-kud^ir-ussur), son of Na- 
 bopolassar, during the reign of his father defeated Necho, king 
 of Egypt, at Carchemisch on the Euplrrates (605), conquered 
 Syria, destroyed Jerusalem (586), and subdued Tyre (585). 
 Enlargement and adornment of Babylon (on the east bank of 
 the Euplrrates). Construction of a bridge over the Euphrates, 
 and of a new palace, with the " hanging gardens " which tradi- 
 tion assigns to Semiramis. Erection of the Median tvall from 
 the Euphrates to the Tigris. Magnificent water works. The 
 reservoir at Sippara (Sepharvaim). After Nebuchadnezzar^ 
 rapid decline of the dynasty, which became extmct m 555. 
 
 588. Babylon (last king Nabonetics, or Nahunahid, reigning 
 in conjunction with his son Bel-shar-ussu7% the Biblical 
 Belshazzar) taken by Cyrus. Babylon a Persian prov- 
 ince. 
 § 4. PHCENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. Semitic. 
 (Down to the war of the latter with the Romans.) 
 
 Geography .3 Phoenicia (^oir-i/cT?, Phoenice) is the Grecian name of 
 Canaan (see p. 7), and was derived from the tribal name 
 iolvii,. In the narrower sense the name denotes the strip of 
 coast, 5-14 miles wide and 150 miles long, which lies N. of the 
 country of the Philistines and the Hebrews and W. of Mt. Leb- 
 anon. This strip was inhabited by three tribes : 1. Sidonians, 
 i. e. " fishers " (cities: Sidon, Zor, called by the Greeks 2\p'os); 
 2. Arvadites (city : Arvad, in Greek Arados); 3. Giblites 
 (cities : Byhlus or Gehal, and Berfftos). 
 
 Eleligion of the Phoenicians. The god Baal {Bel, of the Babylo- 
 
 1 For the Median Empire, see p. 25. 
 
 2 Duncker, II. chapter i. ; also III. 265- 
 
 3 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 
 
B. c. PhceniciaJis mttl Carthaginians. 17 
 
 iiians) and the goddess Ashera {Baaltis, Belit of the Babylo- 
 nians), the divinities of life, birth, and the genial forces of na- 
 ture, were opposed to the god Moloch (i. e. "king," the 
 Babylonian Aflar), the devouring and destroying, and yet cleans- 
 ing tire, also god of war, and the maiden goddess Astarte. 
 Human sacrifices: to Moloch, boys and youths ; to Astarte, 
 youths and maidens. Afterwards Baal and Moloch were con- 
 fused into 07ie divinity, who, under the name of Melkart (i. e. 
 " king of the city " ), became the guardian divinity of Tyre. In 
 the same way yli'Aera and Astarte were united into one divinity, 
 who when represented as a grim wandering goddess vanishing 
 with the changing light of the moon bears the name Dido, but 
 when represented as a kind and gentle divinity newly restored 
 to the knowledge of mankind that of Anna (i. e. " pleasant "). 
 Tlie Political Constitution of the Phoenician cities was an he- 
 reditary monarchy, but the royal power was checked by the existence 
 of two senates. 
 
 1300. Period of Sidon's greatest power. Favored by the sit- 
 uation of their country, and urged by an energetic industry 
 which led to the invention or development of many arts and 
 manufactures, such as purple dye, weaving, glass-making, min- 
 ing, work in metals, and architecture, the Phcenicir.ns estab- 
 lished at an early period, certainly not later than 1500, a car- 
 rying trade by land (to Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Ai'meuia) 
 as well as by sea, wliich time only made more extensive. 
 In close connection with the commerce by sea was the foundation 
 of numerous colonies. Thus in Cyprus were founded Citium, Ama- 
 thus, Paphos, the centre of the worship of Ashera, whence originated the 
 Grecian worship of Aphrodite, that goddess " born of the foam of the 
 sea " (i. e. whose cult came to Greece by sea). Other colonies were 
 founded in Cicilia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera, as well as on many of the 
 islands of the iEgsean sea, and at points along the coast of Greece; 
 further west, again, colonies were planted in Mellte or Malta, in Sicily 
 (on the southern coast Minoa, Gr. Heraklea, on the northern coast 
 Soloeis (sela == " cliff "), Panormus (Machafiath ?), at the western end 
 of the island Motye^, on Sardinia (Cardlis), on the north coast of Af- 
 rica (two cities of Leptis, Hadrumetum, Utica, the two towns of Hip- 
 po), in the country called Tarsis or Tarshish, i. e. southern Spain, 
 beyond the columns of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), Gadir or 
 Gades, i. e. " walls," " fortress," now Cadiz, founded about 1100. 
 
 From this point the Phcenicians extended their commercial deal- 
 ings still further to the western coasts of Africa, and to the Islands 
 of Tin (the Cassiterides), Britain, i and the coasts of the German 
 Ocean, where they bought amber which the native tribes obtained by 
 barter from the Baltico 
 
 Mythical representations of these voyages and settlements of the 
 Phcenicians are contained in a series of well-known Grecian tales. 
 
 1 English antiquarians of the present day consider it probable that the Phr?- 
 nicians never set foot either in the Scilly Isles or in Britain, but received what 
 British tin they did obtain, at second or third hand, from the Celts of Gaut' 
 ^Veneti?). Tin was found in the river beds of western Gaul. [Tkans.] 
 2 
 
18 Ancient 'History. B. c 
 
 Story of the rape of Europa (i. e. " the grim "), daughter of PhcB* 
 nix (i. e. " the Phcenician ") from Sidon by Zeus in the form of a bull 
 (whereby is denoted the moon-goddess Dido-Astarte, who flees to- 
 wards the west). Story of Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, the 
 powerful ruler of Crete; his wife is Pasiphae (i. e. " she who shines 
 upon all "). Story of the Minotaur (i. e. Bull of Minos, another con- 
 ception of Baal-Moloch), shut up in the Labyrinth, to whom Athens 
 had to send human offerings. Dcedalus, builder of the Labyrinth in 
 Crete, is the personification of that technical dexterity which the Hel- 
 lenes acquired from the Phoenicians. 
 
 Cadmus, too, who in search of his sister Europa landed in Thera 
 and Thasos, built the Cadmea in Bceotia, and invented the alphabet, 
 is the mythical representative of Phcenician settlements from which 
 the written alphabet and other elements of eastern civilization were 
 carried to the Greeks. 
 
 1100. Tyre, though younger than Sidon, attained the first 
 rank among the Phoenician sea-board towns. 
 
 1001-967. Tyre, at the height of its prosperity, under king 
 Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon, and the lat- 
 ter's friend. Exploring expedition of the Tyrians, accompanied 
 by the servants of Solomon, through the Red Sea to the coast 
 of India (Ophir). 
 Hiram filled in the space between the island upon which stood the 
 temple of Melkart, and New Tyre (which was also situated on an 
 island), and erected buildmgs on the new land. He also narrowed 
 the strait between New Tyre and Old Tyre on the main land. 
 917 (?). Ethbaal (Ithabalus), high priest of Astarte, murdered PhaleSj 
 the last descendant of Hiram, and made himself king. 
 About seventy (?) years later, according to a Grecian authority, a 
 grandson of this Ethbaal decreed in his will that liis minor son Pyg- 
 malion and his daughter Elissa should govern Tyre in common under 
 the guardianship of their uncle, the high priest Sicharhaal, who was 
 to marry Elissa. The democratic party deprived Elissa of her share 
 in the government, and Pygmalion, coming of age, murdered Sichar- 
 baal. In consequence of this internal strife, and influenced probably 
 by the unfavorable state of the foreign relations (advance of the 
 Assyrian power towards the Mediterranean, see p. 15), a large part 
 of the older families left Tyre with Elissa. On an excellent site, 
 on the north coast of Africa, they founded about 
 
 850.^ Carthage ^ (in Punic, Kathada, i. e. " the new city "), 
 between Utica in the W. and the present cape Bon m the E., 
 not far from the present Tunis. Double harbor. Citadel 
 Byrsa. Later the foundress, Elissa, became confused with the 
 goddess, Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony.^ 
 
 1 According to TimSBus, 814. Concerning the chronology, see Duncker, 
 II. 270. 
 
 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Anfiquus, Tab. VIII. 
 
 3 The credibility of this narrative and the interpretations put upon it, both as 
 regards the chronology and the facts, are contested by O. Meltzer, Gesch. d 
 
n. c. Phcenicians and Carthaginians. 19 
 
 CartliatTfe, so far as it comes ^vitllill the realm of history, appears to 
 have been an anstoe'i'atic re})ublic', with two Sufetes, or jiulges, fre- 
 quently called "kings," and compared with the Spartan kings, and 
 two senates, a large and small. Oidy upon occasion of a disagree- 
 ment between these branches of the government were the jjcoplo 
 called upon to give their opinion. The government tended constantly 
 toward the oligarchical form. 
 
 850. Decline of the i)ower of the PhoBnician cities, especially of 
 Tyre, which was distracted by civil dissension. 
 The Plicenicians fell repeatedly under the rule of the Assyrians, and, 
 for a time, under that of the Egyptians. After the fall of the Assyr- 
 ian empire (025, COG), they became dependent upon the Babylonians, 
 Tyre alone maintaining its freedom until 573. 
 
 Favored by the political situation, the Greeks, who had already 
 (about 1000) driven the Phoenicians out of the ^gean Sea, began to 
 extend their iiiHuence in the eastern Mediterranean, and, especially 
 after the second half of the eighth century, along the coasts and 
 islands of the western Mediterranean, and in Lower Italy and Sicily 
 (p. 51). 
 
 Foundation of Cijrene (p. 49) and Massalia (about 600), attempted 
 settlements upon Corsica, Sardinia, and the shores of Spain. In short, 
 the Phceiiician power was tlireatened with destruction throughout the 
 :)ntire West. 
 
 Brought face to face with this danger, Carthage, which had mean- 
 time grown considerably stronger, began about GOO to gather the 
 other PhcEuician cities under its control, to subjugate the country 
 around its own commercial stations, and to secure its possession by 
 the establishment of new colonies. The Carthaginians annexed to 
 their territory the African coast from Hippo in the W. to beyond 
 Leptis in the E., and opposed armed resistance to the advancing power 
 of Ci/rene. In the peace which was concluded, the altars of the Phi- 
 Ueni, E. of Leptis, were made the boundary. The Carthaginians 
 subjugated Southern Spain and Sardinia, and, with Etruscan aid, drove 
 the Phocceans from Corsica (537 ?). 
 
 586-573. Tyre successfully endured a thirteen years' siege, from 
 the land side, by Nebuchadnezzar, but was finally forced to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Babylon. 
 538. After the destruction of the Babylonian monarchy, by 
 Cyrus, Phoenicia became STd)ject to Persia. The Phcenician 
 cities, however, retained their independence and their native 
 kings. The Phcenicians henceforth furnished the principal 
 part of the Persian fleet. An ex|)edition for the conquest of 
 Carthage, proposed by Cambyses, king of Persia, after the con- 
 quest of Egypt, was rendered impossible of execution by the 
 refusal of the Phcenicians to figlit against their colony. 
 During the Persian supremacy, Sidon was again the first city of 
 Phoenicia. The Carthaginians, favored by the civil dissensions of the 
 
 Karfhnf/er, B(L I., 1879, wlio admits the truth of these statements only : that 
 Carthage was a Tyvian colony, and was certainly founded before the eighth 
 century. 
 
20 Ancient History. b. c 
 
 Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the 
 Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes ?) 
 
 480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selimis, 
 against the other Greek cities in Sicily. 
 
 The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was utterly defeated* and 
 scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse {jZvpdKovcai) and 
 Jlieron of Agrigentum ('AKpdyas)- 
 
 The Carthaginians purchased peace for 2000 talents, thereby sav- 
 ing their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Solosis, Motye. 
 
 409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and 
 Greeks in Sicily. 
 
 The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta (^'Ey^cTTo) against Seli- 
 nus, after conquering Selinus, Hhnera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured 
 the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they 
 maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timo- 
 leon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge 
 them. 
 
 332. Capture of the island city, New Tyre, by Alexander the 
 Great after a seven months' siege. 
 
 Phoenicia became a part of the great Grae co-Macedonian 
 monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, 
 and for a time of that of the Ptolemies. 
 
 317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks 
 in Sicily. 
 
 Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his 
 rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged 
 Syracuse. Agathocles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran 
 a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans re- 
 pulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syra- 
 cuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; liis army, which he left before 
 Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Cartha- 
 ginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306). 
 
 After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the 
 advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in 
 Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at 
 first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his sever- 
 ity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced 
 to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a 
 Carthaginian fleet (276). 
 
 § 5. LYDIANS AND PHRYGIANS. 
 
 Lydians, Semitic. 
 
 Geography : Lydia, in the strict sense, or Mseonia, was the middle 
 one of the three divisions of Asia Minor lying on the ^gsean Sea, the 
 aorthern being Mysia, the southern Caria. Rivers : Hermus, Caystrus, 
 
B. C. Lydians and Phrygians. 21 
 
 Pactolus (golden-sand) in Lydia; Mceander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: 
 Sardes at the base of the Tmolus range. The Lydians belonged to 
 the Semitie race, like the Cilicians, and pr()bal)ly the Carians, whereas 
 the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans. 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent reached 
 to the Ilalys river (now the Kisil Irmak), and included, beside the 
 countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlayonia on the Pontus 
 Euxinus (Black 8ea), and the inland country of Phrygia. 
 
 Religion : Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses 
 Bla (JMylitta-Ashera) and Ala (Astarte). The last two became united 
 in one goddess, under the name " the great mother " {Cyhele), who 
 was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis (Diana). 
 
 Chronology : Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynas- 
 ties, the Attyadce from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), 
 and the Sandon idee, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229- 
 724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and 
 called this dynasty, therefore, the Heradidce. The last king of this 
 line, Candaules, was murdered (689^) by his favorite Gyges in collu- 
 sion with the king's consort. With Gyges the 
 
 G89 2-549 (?). Dynasty of the Mermnadae came to the throne. 
 Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffering 
 severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to 
 Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended 
 his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two succes- 
 sors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war 
 with the Grecian cities on the sea coast. 
 
 Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnadce, warred watli CyaxdreSf 
 
 king of Media, wdtli success. 
 
 610(?). Indecisive battle between ^/?/a/tef and Cyaxdres. Eclipse 
 of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty 
 of peace the Halys was made the bomidary between the 
 Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was 
 given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxdres. Alyattes sub- 
 dued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the 
 south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the re- 
 maining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal 
 palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal 
 tombs north of Sardes. 
 
 503-549 (?). Croesus, Son of Alyattes, 
 captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities 
 of the coast, Ionian, ^olian, and Dorian, with the exception of 
 Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with 
 European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the 
 deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the 
 Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the am- 
 biguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Inde- 
 «isive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Croesus returned 
 
 1 Eupebius, 609 ; Herodotus, 719. 
 
 2 Duncker, Hist, oj Antig., 111. 414, note 2. 
 
22 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who de- 
 feated him ill a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Croesus 
 prisoner (see p. 26). 
 
 549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united 
 with the Persian empire. 
 
 Phrygians. 
 
 750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in N. W. 
 Phrygia, having its capital at Gordmum. Its monarchs, the 
 dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordias 
 and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyat- 
 tes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Croesus (570-560). 
 Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.) 
 
 § 6. INDIANS. Aryan. 
 Geography : India, the central peninsula of the three which pro- • 
 ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast 
 triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded ' 
 on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of 
 Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- 
 graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central 
 range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the 
 Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the : 
 E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of ' 
 the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by 
 the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Suldimdn, and the 
 Hdlas separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are 
 pierced by the Indus River, the Khaihar Pass (3373 ft.), and the 
 Boldn Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. 
 
 II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the 
 drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima- 
 layas. River systems: Indus, SutleJ (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the 
 five streams,! Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu- 
 tdna ; cities : Calcutta, Benares^ Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra 
 (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. 
 
 III. The Deccan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges 
 valley by the Vindhyd mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the 
 East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, 
 Krishna, Kdveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of 
 Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. 
 
 Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the 
 Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of 
 Heaven; Farima, the sky; /nc/m, the rain- vapor; Agni,¥iie; Maruts, 
 gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this 
 primitive faith underwent a change. 
 
 History : The Indians (^Hindus) migrating from the northwest, 
 came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence 
 slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges^ 
 
 1 Indus, Iheluni, Chenaub, Ravi, Sutlej (modern names). 
 
B. C. Indians. 23 
 
 where they were prohah'y established as early as 1/500 b. c. The 
 native tribes whom they t(mn<l in the country tlu!y either enslaved or 
 pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the JJeccan in the 
 S. {Draruiiinis). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts 
 of the Decean and reached Ceylon. 
 
 Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered 
 district strict separation of the Aryan eon(pierors from the subjugjited 
 aborigines. L>evelo})ment of the royal power and of the j)ricstly in- 
 fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmaus, priests; Kshattriyas, 
 warriors; Vaisi/as, agricultural settlers. These three were of purt; 
 Aryan descent. The Sudras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal 
 descent, the Ddsas, " slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith 
 into the religion of Brahma : Brahma, the creator ; Vishnu, the pre- 
 server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the 
 Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- 
 mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the 
 Vedas ("revelations"), or services for the various religious cere- 
 monials: Rig-Veda, the simplest form; Sama-Veda ; Yayur-Veda 
 (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached 
 prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one 
 being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the 
 Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-bhdrata, 
 RamCiyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- 
 ance watli strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about GOO ?) 
 gathered together into the book of the laws of Manu, being, as it 
 was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the 
 whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- 
 scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the 
 second birth. 
 
 Magnificent monuments of Indian arcliitecture, especially tlie 
 Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- 
 low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. 
 
 In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. 
 "the enlightened" (023 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid- 
 dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Sud~ 
 dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a 
 philosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the 
 attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essen- 
 tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. 
 
 The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes in 
 the old system, a strong Brahmanistic reaction. The war of the re- 
 ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main- 
 tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by 
 great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 
 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 
 327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 
 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of 
 Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and 
 his grandson, 
 263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of A90- 
 ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grieco-Bactriau 
 
24 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- 
 ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian 
 rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- 
 nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and 
 along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya 
 agauist the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was 
 the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings, who were 
 succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch 
 of the Indo-Scytliians making their way down the Indus came 
 into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the 
 Hindus of the south. In the 
 
 78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated 
 and are henceforward not mentioned. 
 The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were 
 
 overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the 
 
 fifth century A. d. 
 
 § 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan. 
 
 Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the 
 plateau of Iran,i between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- 
 ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea 
 on the N., and the Erythrcean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the 
 western border of this highland: Media (Ecbatana, Med. Hangma- 
 tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along tiie 
 Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargddce, Persepolis), Carmania; on the Ery- 
 thraean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the 
 Paropanisddce, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu Koosh) ; ^ on the 
 northern border, Bactria or Bactriana (Baktra), Parthia and Hyr- 
 cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, ylriia and Drangiana- between 
 the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda). 
 
 East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana 
 (the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian 
 kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates 
 the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, 
 from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to 
 the south and west. 
 
 About 1000 (?). Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- 
 trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was 
 contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one 
 only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered 
 against the Daeva,^^ the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as 
 set forth in the Avesta^ is the conception of a continuous war- 
 fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- 
 viazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the 
 evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- 
 ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 
 
 1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 
 
 2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39. 
 
 •3 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence Zend> 
 mvesta, and the expressions Zend-languayt, Zend-people. 
 
B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Pcisidiis. 25 
 
 jury, of mail and his soul after death. In this new doctrine 
 Alithra the sun-jii'od, orij^inally the hi<i^hest of the Iranian gods, 
 aj)i)t'ared as a creature of the creator Ahurarnazda, but never- 
 theless the e(jual of tlie latter in dignity and divinity. Worshij) 
 of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; 
 reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of 
 Ahurnmazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athao, fire), 
 by the Bactrians, and Magians {Maghush) by the Medes, 
 formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was 
 copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the 
 general accei)tance in that country of the: reformed faith, 
 which came to them from Bactria, through Media. 
 
 About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bac- 
 tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings 
 are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet 
 Firdusi (about 1000 a. d.). 
 
 As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expedi- 
 tious against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth 
 century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, be- 
 came permanently subject to Assyria. 
 640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians. 
 
 640-558. Median Empire. 
 
 The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 
 
 708-655. Dejoces (Atjjo/ctjs, old Pers. Dahyauka), to whom is as- 
 cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatdna. He does not 
 appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or 
 to have been independent, but rather to have coutiuued to pay 
 tribute to the Assyri<ixis. His son, 
 
 G55-633. Phraortes (<I>paopTr7s, Pers. Fravartis) , wslh the first 
 who united the whole country under one ruler and established 
 the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, 
 although their native ruler AclicBmenes {Hakhamanis), who was 
 raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- 
 syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- 
 queathed it to his descendants. 
 
 After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 
 15) his son, 
 
 633-593. Cyaxares (KwalapT/s, Pers. Uvahksathra) succeeded him 
 and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of 
 the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), 
 Cyaxares subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of 
 Lydia (p. 21). 
 
 606 (625?). Cyaxares, in alliance with Nahopolassar of Babylonia, 
 captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria 
 (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to 
 the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the 
 death of Cyaxares was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. 
 His son, 
 
 593-558. Astyages ('Ao-TuoyTjs), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of 
 
26 Ancient Hlstorij. b. c. 
 
 the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- 
 sargadce, whicli reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, 
 deposed Astydges. 'J'he supremacy passed (558) from the 
 Medes to the Persians. 
 Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent 
 of Cyrus through his iwother Manddne, daughter of Astydges, which 
 js adorned after the Oriental maimer, with the dream of Astydges, the 
 interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- 
 ognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpdgus, his 
 treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, 
 who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger. 
 
 According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astydges was named Amy- 
 tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of 
 Astydges and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 
 
 558-330. Persian Empire founded by 
 
 558-529. Cyrus (KCpos, Pars. Kuriis) . 
 
 Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of 
 Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over the 
 Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia 
 (p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (564:?), Cyrus 
 advanced on Sardes, defeated Crcesus in a second battle on the 
 Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Crasus, and deprived him 
 of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and ad- 
 viser (554).^ 
 The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to 
 burn Crcesus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with 
 Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous 
 quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, wiio had formerly re- 
 ceived valuable presents from Crcesus, betrays a purpose of bringing 
 Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal 
 is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the 
 Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the command of the Persian 
 faith, not to contaminate the sacred fire. Probably Croesus wished 
 to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, 
 according to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the 
 Lydian story, the sun-god Sandon does not accept the offering, but 
 puts out the flames with rain. 
 
 Cyrus returned to Ecbatana. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly 
 repressed. Mazdres and Harpdgus made the Grecian coast cities 
 tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Plioccmns migrated to 
 Corsica; driven thence (see. p. 19) they went to Elea ( Velia) in 
 southern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lycia. 
 
 539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. After 
 a siego of nearly two years (diversion of the Euphrat'^s) 
 Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire ■was in 
 corporated •with the Persian ; the Phoenicians and CiUciam 
 
 1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Duncker (Book viii., chap. 6), 
 gives ^A^. 
 
i{. C. Bdclrions, Mules, Persians. 27 
 
 retained their native rulers under Persian suprema,cy ; the 
 Jews were sent iroiu Babyh>« hack to Palestine (p. 11). 
 529. Ci/ras, who was occupied during- the last nine years of his 
 reij^n with wars against the eastern peoj)les, fell in one of these 
 expeditions. The story of his death, like that of his l)irth, 
 has been poetically adorned and variously related. Accordiii*^ 
 to one tradition, probably of Median origin (Herodotus, 1. 
 202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tomyris, the queen of 
 the Massac/etce, whose son he had overcome by deceit. She 
 thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skin- 
 bag of blood that he might " drink his fill of blood." Ac- 
 cording to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound 
 which he received m a victory over the Derbices. The son 
 antl successor of Cyrus, 
 
 529-522. Cambyses {Kaii^varj^, Pers. Kamhiijiya), con 
 
 quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7). 
 525.^ Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward Ethiopia; 
 failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to tiirn back. 
 The tyrant ot Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cam- 
 byses, but a projected attack ujion Carthage by sea was pre- 
 vented by the refusal of the PhoeJiicians to lend their ships 
 (p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the 
 temple of Jupiter xVmmon (Oasis Sivah). 
 Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis ^ (?), and mani- 
 fested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the 
 way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental 
 wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and pro- 
 claimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 
 
 522. Bardija (Gr. 2/x6p5is), who had been murdered at Cambyses' 
 command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death 
 by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most intluential 
 of whom, 
 
 521-485. Darius (Aapeto*;, Pers. Darayavus), son of Hys- 
 taspes ( Vistagpa), was made king. 
 
 The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line 
 of the Achcemejiidce (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and 
 Bardija) and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son^ 
 Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later 
 his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote 
 of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85.) 
 
 Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only 
 after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopyrus, 
 in order to deceive the Babylonians.) 
 
 518 (?). Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken 
 out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Partliia, 
 etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus. 
 
 1 Accordinc: to Brugsch, 527. 
 
 - See on tliis point Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt, II. 289 ff., who, by the 
 genealogy of the Api, showed the improbability of the story. 
 
28 Ancient History. B. c. J 
 
 513 (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians 
 with a land force of 700,000 men. The Heet of the Greeks of 
 Asia Minor was conducted by the tyrants of the Ionian cities. 
 Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister 
 (Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of provisions in- 
 duced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued 
 by the faithfulness of Histiceus of Miletus (against the advice 
 of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia 
 made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent 
 from Egypt. 
 Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence 
 of the " Great King " (jSaaiAeus twj/ ^aaiXecov, fx4yas ^aaiXcvs, Pers. 
 Khshayathiya-Khshayatluyandm, whence the modern Persian Shahin- 
 shah). Ecbatdna in Media was the summer residence. Erection of 
 a new royal palace at PersepoUs in Persis, where ruins with inscrip- 
 tions and sculptures have been discovered, as well as at Susa. At 
 Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings. 
 
 Divine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants 
 was the final purpose of the state. Maintenance of a costly court, 
 with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. 
 Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which Ramessu 
 11. had begun and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of 
 postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. 
 Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap 
 (Persian Kkshatra-pati, i. e. " lord of the province "), with regal 
 accommodation in palaces surrounded by extensive gardens (Para- 
 disice). Subject cities or tribes, and mdeed whole nations, enjoyed 
 their own laws and separate administration, under native though de- 
 pendent princes. 
 
 600-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by His- 
 ticeus of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and sum- 
 moned to Susa, and his son-in-lavs^ Aristagoras. With the 
 assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and 
 burned. The lonians, defeated by the Persian army, were 
 abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet 
 was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The lonians were 
 again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of 
 i)arius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris. 
 
 493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks (p. 56). 
 Great preparations for a new expedition against Greece. Re- 
 volt among the Egyptians. 
 
 485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son, 
 
 485-465. Xerxes I. {a^p^vs, Pers. Khshayarsha). 
 
 480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- 
 dered by Artabdnus, captain of the body-guard. The second 
 son of Xerxes, 
 
 465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called Ma«:p<^xf'P, Ltm- 
 gimdnus, succeeded to the throne. 
 
 462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under Indros, assisted by 
 
B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 29 
 
 the Athoiiians, su])pressed by the satrap Mefjahyzus (Amj/r- 
 tifus alone maintained hinis 'It' abont the months of the Nih'). 
 Wars with the (ireeks (j). Gi5). Beginnin*;- of the internal de- 
 cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Merce- 
 nary troops. The son of Artaxerxes, 
 
 424. Xerxes II., after rnling one month and a half, was mui'dered, 
 by his brother, 
 
 Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered 
 by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 
 
 424-405. Darius II., Nothus. He was under the influence of his 
 wife Parijsatis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained 
 their independence for sixty years (414-354). 
 
 405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the 
 younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked 
 the king in the neighborhood of Babylon. 
 
 401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in personal combat with his 
 brother. 
 
 400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon {Anahash). 
 
 302-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the rhoenicians and Egyptians 
 suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp- 
 tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 
 
 338^36. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a great- 
 grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 
 
 336-330. Darius III., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. 
 War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the 
 satrap Bessus wdiile fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela 
 (331). 
 
 330. Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 
 4th period, p. 74, 
 
 § 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanianf'2' 
 
 Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates 
 to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the h^dian 
 Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the 
 same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many 
 ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the 
 Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of 
 Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 
 250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of 
 
 a tribe of the Dahcc (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 
 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He w^as suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 
 247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of 
 
 Parthia. His son, 
 214-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. 
 Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates /.) accom- 
 plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 
 
 1 Kawlinson. 
 
 2 The use of this name must not be understood as implying belief in the racial 
 unity of all the peoples to whom it is apjilied. It denotes merely the mass of 
 Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family. 
 
30 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. 
 
 174-136. Mithridates I., founded the Empire of the Par- 
 
 thians, extending* his sway over Media, Sicsiana, Per- \ 
 sia, Babylonia, Bactria. Subject nations were permitted 
 to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The 
 Parthian civilization was rude and of a low order. 
 
 13&-127. Phraates II. {Arsaces VII.) repressed a revolt of Baby^ 
 Ionia, but fell fighting against the Turanians. The incursions 
 of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus 
 {Arsaces VIII.), 127-124, who likewise fell in battle against 
 them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- 
 ridates II. {Arsaces IX.), 124-87, who also extended the 
 power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close 
 of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Under 
 Phraates III. {Arsaces XII.), 69-60, the Parthians first be- 
 came embroiled with Eome, war with this power breaking out 
 in 54. Under Orodes I. {Arsaces XIV.), 54-37, Expedition 
 of Crassus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against 
 Phraates IV. {Arsaces XV.). From 37 b. c. to 107 a. d. 
 Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns 
 were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Volo- 
 geses I., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 
 
 107-121 A. D. Chosroes {Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia 
 brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, 
 whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. 
 Vologeses III. {Arsaces XXVII. ), 149-192 a. d., became in- 
 volved in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the 
 complete submission of the Parthian. His successor, Vologeses 
 IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. 
 
 215-226 A. D. Artabanus III. {Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- 
 thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of 
 Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had 
 regained its former power, when the empire was brought to 
 an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under 
 Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian 
 monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- 
 dom of the Sassanidae, or the Ne-w Persian Empire (2£6- 
 652 A. D. (p. 187). 
 
 § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. 
 
 Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, 
 embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proj^er, 
 is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow 
 Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin 
 China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of 
 the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises 
 less than half of the Chinese empire, Oeiug about 1474 miles long by 
 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountahious 
 and hilly in south. Rivers: Hwang-ho {Yelloio River); Yang-tsze- 
 Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking, 
 
13. c. Chi'nese. 31 
 
 the capital of the empire; 2, Kennf/soo, the most populous and best 
 watered of the proviiu-es, with tlie cities, Nan-kinfj, Shanxj-hai; 3, Gan- 
 hioiuj; 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-k-eanr/, with the city N'mg-po; (3, Fuh-keen, 
 comprising- the island of Formosa ( Taiwan) ; 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nan-, 
 9, Ho-nan; 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Shan-se; 
 12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kwang-tung, with the 
 cities, Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; IG, Kwang- 
 se; 17, Yun-nan; 18, Kinei-choiv; 19, Shing-king. 
 
 Peligion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- 
 nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichisn\ 
 while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship of Ti. Their 
 religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of 
 spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and 
 yin), hea\'en and earth, male and female, from whose interaction 
 all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system 
 of rewards and punishments. System of offerings; never human sac- 
 rifices. In the fifth century B. c. appeared the philosopher Con- 
 fucius (ICung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and 
 did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal 
 influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- 
 val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of 
 the Golden Rule.^ Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the 
 author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method 
 of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- 
 opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a 
 system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of 
 Taoism, deified Ldo-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of 
 the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about a. d. 65, where 
 it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- 
 otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. 
 Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of 
 the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated 
 by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. 
 No state religion; toleration of all faiths. 
 
 Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- 
 eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from 
 the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the fii-st 
 settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. 
 
 The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- 
 lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have 
 severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 b. c. are probably 
 wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between 
 two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- 
 vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- 
 mous emperors Yeiv-chaou She (" nest builder ^^),Suy-jin She, the dis- 
 coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, 
 who first drained the valley of Hwang-ho. These sovereigns are to ])o 
 regarded as largelv mvthical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-176(3} 
 and Shang (1766-1123). 
 
 1 Legge, Reliyions of China, 137-139. 
 
32 Ancient History, b. c.-a. d. 
 
 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty ' 
 we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. 
 The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence 
 the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- 
 der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 B. c. 
 
 255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic 
 monarch Cht-wang-te (240-210), who extended the empire to 
 the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 
 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, Che- 
 wang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical 
 and philosophical books. 
 
 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of East and West Han. 
 Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the 
 feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- 
 ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan. 
 Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. D.). Annexation of 
 Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great 
 confusion. 
 
 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wei, in the north; 
 Wu, in the east; and Sliuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. d., re- 
 united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of 
 Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which 
 continued until 
 
 590 A. D. Yang-Kian, prince of Sny, in the northern king- 
 dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the 
 whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of 
 Suy. 
 
 § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. 
 
 Geography: The Japanese^ empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of Isl- 
 ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- 
 churia, and Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu- Sliiko- 
 ^w;Hcndo,2 or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three 
 thousand small islands.^ Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, 
 volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of 
 the east coast of Hondo. Rivers numerous but small; among the 
 largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gawa, Kwa-gav^a, Ti-gaiva. Lake Biwa 
 in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or ToJcio, Yokohama, Osaka. 
 
 Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native 
 name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better kno\\^i 
 abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which 
 comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 
 
 1 Japan {Zipnnrju in the Middle k^e) is a name given to the empire by 
 foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 
 
 2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- 
 ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon, the 
 name frequently given it by foreigners, is the name of the whole empire. 
 
 3 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in excliange for the Kurile islands. 
 
B. c.-A. D. Japanese. 33 
 
 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritnal for the worship of 
 those deities. The chief coninmnd of the religion was implicit obedi- 
 ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. 
 It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political 
 engine. In oo'i a. d. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where 
 it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among 
 others S/tln-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- 
 dhism for a time overshadowed the older religion, but the present 
 government has fully reinstated the Shintu faith. 
 
 Chronology : The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- 
 vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage 
 Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly 
 a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. 
 
 While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, 
 followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and 
 who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years 
 each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic 
 history is 660 B. c. ; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much 
 later. 
 
 660-585 B. c. Jimmu Tenno,^ the first Mikado,^ being 
 the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. lie was leader of 
 the invasion, and conquered Kiitshiu, Shihoku, and a part of 
 the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars 
 as a mythical character. He wos the founder of an unbroken 
 dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122 d 
 (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin 
 (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- 
 tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of 
 the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- 
 perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were 
 pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is 
 the reign of the 12th mikado, 
 
 71-130 A. D. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, "the 
 warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the Koanto. The 
 14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife 
 the renowned 
 
 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- 
 though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion 
 in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, which she re- 
 duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her 
 son and successor, 
 
 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as 
 
 "'■ His true name was Knn-yamato-iware-hiko-no-milcoto. After the introduc- 
 tion of Chinese characters, the lonf? native names of gods and emperors were 
 transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for 
 the mikadns to receive after death a different name from that which they had 
 borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jimnm, "spirit of 
 war," to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, "lord 
 of heaven." 
 
 '- Mikado, the most f^eneral title of the emperors, fs derived either from Mi, 
 "honorable," and Kar/o, "gate" (compare "Snlilime Porte," and "Pharaoh " 
 p. 1, note 3), or from Mikn, "great," and to, " place." 
 
34 Ancient History. b. ( 
 
 the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- | 
 ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. 
 From this time to the sixth century the aunals of Japan are 
 marked by no great events. 
 
 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. 
 
 § 1. CELTS. Aryan. 
 
 Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of 
 authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- 
 longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of 
 that family be accepted,^ were the first branch to enter upon the 
 westward migration. 
 
 a. Continental Celts. Gauls. 
 
 Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), 
 Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (K^XtoI) or 
 Gauls (TaKKoi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: 
 Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, 
 the Marne, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, 
 but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts."-^ Tribes : 
 Remi, Suessiones, Nervii,^ Menapii. Gauls, ^ dwelling between the 
 Seine, Marne, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes ; In the 
 valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- 
 orum, now Paris), Senones ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : 
 Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boii, ^dui, Averni ; W. of the Seine : \ 
 Treviri ; in the valley of the Saone &\\(\. Rhone : Sequani, Allobroges. 
 The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not j 
 Celts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. 
 
 Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was 
 largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman 
 gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose 
 nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It 
 was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- 
 ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fomitains. Among the 
 great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, 
 Grannus (Apollo), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, 
 Cannulas {Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama {Minerva ?); 
 Taramicus {Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- 
 ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal 
 honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but 
 were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 
 
 1 See Introduction. 
 
 2 The Belgians are also claimed as non-Aryans, of the same i-ace as the 
 Aquitanians. 
 
 3 Dahn, Urrjesch. d. Germ. Ill 20, note 9. 
 
 ■* In spite of Cajsar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own 
 lanijfuage, the two names are not considered SA'nonymous. It is probable that the 
 Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from the Celtic tribes (using Celt in the 
 narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has even been made to draw 
 the geographical boundary between them. 
 
B. C. 
 
 Celts. 35 
 
 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of jtiiis- 
 '.liftion. Unman saeritiees. 
 
 Civilization : That tha Celts of Ganl had reached qnite an ad- 
 vanced stage of civilization ^ is clear from tiic readiness with which 
 they accepted the higher civilization of Home, and from tlie fact tiiat 
 their social state as depicted by Ctesar exhibits a degeneracy which 
 was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- 
 trian state under the Merowingians, in the fiftli and sixth centuries B. C. 
 Chronology: Before the concpiest the history of the Celts of 
 Gaul is tlie history of their collisions with the southern nations. 
 
 Tiie Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind 
 at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, wiiere 
 many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. 
 According to some writers the Celts innnigrated in two bands, the 
 Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- 
 Ihonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. 
 Not earlier than 
 
 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their 
 principal settlements were made in central France. They 
 here attained their highest culture, and from this point 
 detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were 
 four principal emigrations. 
 
 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 3G. 
 
 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants 
 and formed the Celtiberians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- 
 tus in the fifth century B. C. 
 
 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places 
 this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 b. c. 
 Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied 
 (Gallia Cisalpina). Tribes : Biturige.^ (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and 
 Verona), Boii (Bologna), Senones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 
 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. 
 
 military leader. 
 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the 
 
 Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 
 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat 
 
 of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. 
 
 Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. 
 
 In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to 
 
 take up arms, but in the 
 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken 
 
 and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 
 
 4. To Greece and Asia Minor, In 278 a band of Gauls under a 
 Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon 
 Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where 
 they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. 
 
 - The stacje of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must 
 be largely determined by the dejjfrec of complexity found in their social and 
 political system?. In our day, wlieti material comforts and conveniences form 
 a so much larp^er part of the pojndar idea of civilization than they ever did 
 before, it is well to reuieuiber this iu judging the civilizations that are gone. 
 
36 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. 
 Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic 
 migration had made itself felt in tha west, but the details of the 
 conllicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there 
 interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 
 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a 
 province {Gallia Narhonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri 
 may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes 
 played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 
 
 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after 
 which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. 
 
 b. Celts of the British Isles. 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and 
 is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the St7^aits of Dover and 
 the English Channel, W. by St. Georgeh Channel, the Irish Sea, North 
 Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical 
 divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. 
 The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith oj 
 Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- 
 ous small lakes {Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply 
 cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly 
 in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. 
 Eastern rivers : Humber {Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, 
 running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western 
 rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater 
 part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, 
 of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsioecdd covered a large 
 part of tlie counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a 
 huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hain- 
 ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much 
 more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of 
 Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. 
 
 Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than 
 their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza/- 
 tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- 
 toms and religion. Druids. Bards. 
 
 History, a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- 
 agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- 
 abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their 
 race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard 
 of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, 
 son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. 
 Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 
 (a. m.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed 
 by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, 
 Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a 
 descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain 
 
B. C.-A. D. 
 
 CeUs, 37 
 
 until 2890 a. m. or 1108 b. c, when the line of Japhct recovered the 
 island in the person of Brute, <;reat-<>i'an(lson of yJ-Jneas of Troy. 
 Brute built Trot/noaant, aftervvanls LmFs Toicn, Lond:m. lie was 
 followed by his descendi;nts, among whom we may mention Bladud, 
 founder of Bath, Leir (811-791), Ferrex and Porrex (490^91), with 
 whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into live king- 
 doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of 
 Cloten king- of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left his island 
 home to saek Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of 
 Galatia.^ Among tlie sueeessors of Malmucius were Colli (100-140). 
 Pijrrhus (00-01), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began 
 to reign in 09) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Cresar), Cymbeline (19 
 B. c.-lO A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigeni (44o-15o (485) A. D.). Arthur 
 (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the 
 kings and princes of Wales. 
 
 h. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came 
 to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very 
 early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or 
 northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it 
 is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, 
 dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired 
 race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without 
 exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- 
 turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time 
 it was the Bri/thonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stA)ck, who crossed 
 the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Cfesar, 
 and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion 
 of the island. Tribes : Cant'd, the most civilized, Attrebatu, Belgce^ 
 Damnon'd, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. 
 
 The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from 
 Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century 
 B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English 
 scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the 
 rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes wdio imported it from 
 Britain. With 
 
 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Csesar, the actual 
 history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was 
 transitory. 
 
 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and liis 
 generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 
 
 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 
 
 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman 
 arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth 
 to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of 
 the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet 
 part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas 
 covered its soil in profusion. 
 
 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 
 1 Brennus killed himself afte^- the repulse from .">eiphi; his army settled iu 
 
 Galatia. 
 
38 Ancient History/. b. c. 
 
 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severm 
 
 advled new defenses to that of Hadrian. 
 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to 
 
 Christianity, after which the new religion spread throngh- 
 
 ont the conntry, a chnrch was organized and bishoprics founded 
 
 at Canierbarij and York (.^). 
 With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops 
 were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in 
 supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the 
 third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew 
 more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered 
 from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the 
 Saxon Shore,^ the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash 
 and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. 
 From 
 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed 
 
 himself emperor of Britain. 
 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 
 
 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- 
 
 drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A 
 period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- 
 lowed, broken by the 
 
 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- 
 manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii^ 
 Vortigern (Guorthigen), either by usurpation or election, ob- 
 tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as 
 the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- 
 ors (p. 176). 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. 
 by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all 
 other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with 
 hilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes {Lough Corrih, L. 
 Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree^, and 
 rivers {Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Black water. Shannon). 
 
 Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find 
 Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic cidture, but both in 
 a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, 
 that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of 
 primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. 
 
 History: Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of 
 very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- 
 vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- 
 land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 
 
 1 Comes Litoris Snxonici per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lap- 
 penberf?, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons 
 upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been 
 asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref- 
 erence to our " Indian Froutier," by which is meant land held by the whites 
 but molested by Indians, might di"s])el this objection. The argument from 
 coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be 
 proved. 
 
c. 
 
 Greeks. 39 
 
 Ireland 300 years, and >hen died of the plaj^'ne, and were succeeded 
 by II. Nemed, from SeyMiia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- 
 bolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various i)arts of 
 the island. IV. The Tuatlia De Dananii, of the race of Nemed, who 
 defeated and nearly exterminated the Firboigs. V. Milesians or 
 Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and 
 conquerhig the Tuatha De Dunann, divided Ireland among- the sons 
 and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes hack 
 to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at 
 })resent to be that Ireland at the conmiencement of the Christian 
 era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts {Cruithni, Picts) ; 
 in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes {Cymric), and in 
 the southwest (Munster) by a people of southern extraction {Ibe- 
 7-ians ?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established 
 incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- 
 tory is tilled. Tuathal (died IGO A. d.), a powerful king who reigned 
 over Leinster and Meath, and warrecl with the rival kingdom or 
 kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- 
 ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in 
 the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the 
 Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The 
 Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladias, 
 sent to Ireland, 431 a. d., died soon after. St. Patrick (Succath or 
 Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. 
 Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- 
 tury attained ^vdde renown for the learning of their members. 
 
 § 2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. 
 
 The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ^ *EAAo$) bounded N. by Mace- 
 donia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare jEgceam, 
 S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into 
 four prinaipal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, 
 Epirus. 
 
 A. Peloponnesus (7? TleXoiTSvvncTos, Island of Pelops), coimected 
 wnth the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the 
 N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine dis- 
 tricts : 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by lonians, in twelve com- 
 munities, or cantons. jEgium, capital of the confederacy, Paine. 
 2. Elis or Eleia, in iEolic dialect, Valis, drained by the Alpheus and 
 Peneus. It is subdivided into Eiis Proper, or Hollow Elis : Elis 
 and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis : Olympia, not a city but a temple of 
 Zeus, in a walled grove ("AAtis), with places for games, altars, and va- 
 rious buildings, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia : Pylos, the home of 
 Nestor, opposite the island of Sphacteria, Messfne, built in 369 B. c, 
 the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia (AaKooviKr)), with 
 the mountain range of Taygetns, ending in the promontory Ttenarus : 
 Sparta (^TrapTT?), on the right bank of the EurOtas ; north of Sparta, 
 Sellasia . on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, 
 
40 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 5. Argolis (rb "Apycs, v 'Apyeia) comprised many cantons, politicall5i 
 independent of one another : Argos, with its liarbor Nauplia, on the 
 gulf of Argolis, near by Tirj/ns, with Cyclopean walls, Hermiuney 
 Troezen, Epidaurus, on the Saronicus sinus; inland, Mycence with 
 Cyclopean structures. The Lion Gate, the so-called Treasure House 
 of Atreus. G. Phliasia : Phlius. 7. Corinthia : Corinth, formerly 
 Ephfira with its, c\iii(\.e\. Acrocorinthus. 8. Sicyonia: Sicyon (^lkvwv). 
 9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges 
 Cyllene aud Erymanthus on the borders of Acliaia; Mantinm, Tegea^ 
 Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. 
 
 B. Central Greece,^ also divided into nine districts: 1. Megaris, 
 since the Dorian conquest, belonging ethnographically and politi- 
 cally to Peloponnesus: Megara, and its harbor Niscea. 2. Attica 
 (^Attlkt)) with the mountains Parnes, Brllissus (Pentelicus}, HymettuSy 
 and the promontory of Sunium, the rivulets Cephissus and Ilissus. 
 Athens {'AdT^vai) with the Acropolis (Propylcea, Parthenon, Erech > 
 theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (Tleipaievs), connected with the 
 city by the Long Walls (to, jxaKpa nlxv ; ra aK€\r)), the two unimportant 
 harbors Munychia and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served 
 as a roadstead. Attic denies : Eleusis, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 
 3. Bceotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copa'is, traversed 
 by the Cephissus; Thebes (eirTdnu^os), with its citadel the Cadmea ; 
 Thespice ; Leuctra ; Platcem, which separated itself very early from 
 the Boeotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, 
 Orchomenos. On the coast; Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan- 
 dgra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (AeA^ot), 
 with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, 
 Cirrha ; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (AoKpol rj^oi), ior a time di- 
 vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntiau 
 Locrians with the town Opus, and the northern of the Epicne- 
 midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) 
 with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (AoKpol eairipioi, called 
 by the other Grecians AoKpol dC6\ai, "the stinking"). Amphissa^ 
 Naupactus. 7. Doris {Aoipls), between the mountains CEta and Par- 
 nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of 
 the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four unim- 
 portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. iEtolia, Calydon, Pleuron, and 
 Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time 
 of the vEtolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; 
 Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxfAwos) which separates Acarna- 
 nia from JEitolia. 
 
 C. Tliessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the 
 mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus; in the 
 S. Othry^; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Cambu- 
 nla.i mauutains.2 Five divisions from S. to N.: 1. Phthiotis, in the 
 jnost soutliorn part, Malis, on the Sinus Maliant-^ was the Pass of 
 Tliermopylce, i. e. " gate of the warm sjirings ; " Lamia. 2. Thessa- 
 liotis, Pharsdlus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannon, Larissa on the 
 
 1 T!ie expression Tlellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; the 
 Greeks never used Hellas for the name of tliis i^articular part of the country. 
 ^ But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geogr., § 210, note 1. 
 
,15. <;. Greeks. 41 
 
 IVneus. 4. Hestieeotis. o. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, 
 lolcos, on the Si/ius J*n(/as<rns, Dctncfrias. 
 
 D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited hy Illyrian tribes not of 
 pnro Grecian blood. Princii)al tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- 
 tory was Amhnicia, not far from the Ambracian ^ulf, and iJodona 
 (oracle of Zens); Thesprotians, Pandosia on the Acheron, Chao 
 nians. 
 
 In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following 
 places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the 
 rei^ii of A^'chelans (formerly yEgne or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- 
 tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice: Oltpitkus, Potidrea, Staglrus. In 
 Thrace: Amphipvlh near the mouth of the Stri/mon, Phllippa', Ahderci, 
 J^erinthus (Heraclea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: 
 Sestos, opposite Abi/dos in Asia Minor, 
 
 Most important islands: In the JEfcan sea: 1, Crete 
 {KpvTT], ^KarSixTToAis): Cnosus (GnosSus), and Gortyn(a); 2, Thera, a 
 colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene in Africa (p. 49), 
 Melos; 3, the 12 Cyclades: Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- 
 los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, Andros, Tenos, 
 etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, jEg'ina (^Pdyi.va)\ o, Salamis. In the sea 
 of Eubcea; 6, Eubcea with the promontory of Artemisium in the 
 north, Chalcis, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- 
 thrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S.: 10, 
 Tcnedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, 
 Lesbos: Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, »S'artiOS opposite the prom- 
 ontory of Mycdle; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. 
 
 In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, 
 (Kvirpos), cities (originally Phcenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis 
 (Schalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite 
 (Venus Amathusia). 
 
 In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with 
 temple of Aplu-odite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, CephaHe?iia, called by Homer 
 Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucasj G, Corcyra (KVp^ypa), perhaps the Scheria 
 of Homer. 
 
 RELIGION OF THE GREEKS.^ 
 
 The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship, 
 distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their 
 intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail 
 which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great 
 gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities: Zeus "the 
 God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; 
 Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god 
 of some local district, the divinity of Avisdom, of healing, of music and 
 poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephestus, 
 god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set 
 apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, 
 commercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 
 
 1 Rawlinson. JReliyions of (he Ancient. \V<>rU. Also Grote, Hist, of Greece, 
 vol. I.; Curtius, (Jri'tch. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 pas-.^un. 
 
42 Ancient History. b. c< 
 
 sort of Zeiis; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of 
 Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of hoiisewifery; Artemis, god- 
 dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother 
 Phoebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob= 
 ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of 
 the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. 
 
 In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned : Diomjsius, god of 
 wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, 
 the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, e'.c. The fields and forests, the 
 ocean and the rivers were crowded with Njjmphs and Hamadryads, 
 Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order. Satyrs (among 
 whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters 
 (^Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. 
 
 Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- 
 mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus 
 (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). 
 
 The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered 
 in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- 
 provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all 
 divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- 
 shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- 
 manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- 
 ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant 
 coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe 
 and race, each city, district and country had its recurring fes- 
 tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- 
 ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in 
 July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth 
 (9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the 
 Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. 
 These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- 
 nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionios (p. 51), a reli- 
 gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political 
 side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- 
 ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of 
 secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No liierarchy 
 of priests; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- 
 cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. 
 
 Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced 
 minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- 
 sential oneness of divinity. 
 
 GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. 
 
 ^-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian 
 migration. 
 
 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- 
 stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 
 
 500-338. III. Persian rears and internecine strife for the hegemonij 
 down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 
 
 338-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the- 
 subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction of Corinth. 
 
B. c. G reels. 43 
 
 FIRST PKRIOD. 
 
 Mythical time, do-wn to the Thessalian and Dorian migration 
 
 (x-1104?).! 
 
 The Greeks,"^ or as tlicy called themselves the Hellenes ("EAA77J/6S), 
 beh)iig to the Itido-Euro/fean or Aryan family. 
 
 Tlie Cireeks state that the ori<;iiial inhabitants of their country 
 were the Pelasgians. The meanini;- of this name is much disputed. 
 Aci'ordiuii^ to some scholars it denotes the hand wliich afterwards 
 divicUnl into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view rej>ards the 
 Pt'lasoians and Hellenes as the same i)eo[de, but holds that the latter 
 name is a})j)lied to those tribes which, " endowed with peculiar abil- 
 ities and inspired v.ith peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above 
 the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within 
 the same by force of arms," ^ so that their name became in historic 
 times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name 
 l^ehugian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Pluenician in- 
 habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce of Orchomenos, and 
 afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of 
 Epirus, Acadia, etc. 
 
 Dodona, in Epirus, ^vith the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, 
 was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains 
 of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in 
 Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bojotia. 
 
 Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided 
 into various tribes. Of these the Achaeans were most prominent 
 during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer 
 to den.ote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the 
 Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are 
 then classed together under the name JBolian, and the dialects 
 which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are kno^\^l as jEolian. The 
 following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very 
 late period, and to have originated at Delphi. 
 
 Hellen (son of Deucalion) 
 
 ^olus (i, e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exile) 
 
 Ion Achjeus. 
 
 We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- 
 lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, 
 a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of tlie Do- 
 rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous 
 region of northern Greece, where they establislied tliemselves as 
 shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the 
 ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- 
 
 - According to Duncker, IJlst. o/Antiq., 100 years later. 
 
 2 Griiken (Grivci, Vpai<6i) was the name ^nveii to the (ireeks by the people /)f 
 Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Heiloiu-s 
 MX general. 
 
 3 Curtius, Griechische Geschickte, I. 29; Hist, of Greece, N. Y. 1876, I. 41 
 
44 Ancient History. B. c, 
 
 gia, by way of the valleys, to the coa3t of Asia Minor, were there 
 transformed into a race of seamen^ and gradually spread themselves 
 over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.^ (The 
 former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). 
 
 Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civilizar* 
 tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- 
 authentic immigrations.^ 
 
 Cecrops (Ke«po;//), according to the original story autochthonus 
 king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropia (Acropolis of Athens), 
 was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian 
 and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of 
 Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented 
 as an Egyptian immigrailt from Sais. 
 
 The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were 
 called the Cecropia, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of 
 the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- 
 tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in 
 Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropia was per- 
 sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops 
 was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two 
 becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechtheion^ 
 the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. 
 The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- 
 athencea and conqueror of Eumolpiis (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, 
 the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in 
 the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries). Eleusis was 
 united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to 
 the legend, was succeeded by Qineus, the latter by jEgeus, the father 
 of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 45). 
 
 A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of yEgyptus, came from 
 Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- 
 aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- 
 bands, the sons of yEgyptus, and were for this crime condemned to 
 fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- 
 aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert 
 themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from 
 them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend 
 the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. 
 
 On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Pelopidae 
 from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foundation. Pelops, 
 son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came 
 to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the 
 help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns 
 and Mycence, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of 
 Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while 
 Menelaus became king of Sparta and' Messina. The buildings and 
 sculptures in Mycense, which are ascribed to the Atridce, resemble 
 Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest 
 by way of Lydia. 
 
 "•^ Curtius, I, Griech. Ge.<ic/i.. \. 29 .«qq. ; Hist, of Greece., I. 41. 
 2 Cf. Duncker, Ges^ch. des Alih.. III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, 
 Griech. Gesch., I. 58; //i.it. of Greece, I. 73. 
 
3. C. Greeks. 45 
 
 Cadmus, the mytliieal founder of the Theban state, is the j)er- 
 5onilic-ati()u of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization 
 which Hellas had received from Phoenicia (p. 18). 
 
 riio national heroes of Grecian legend. 
 
 The myth of Heracles ('Hpa/cA^s, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- 
 mena, grew np out of the union of various religious, historical, and 
 thical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity 
 whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In 
 him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- 
 god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- 
 tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at 
 the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the 
 eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer 
 activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends 
 connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- 
 plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as 
 their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, 
 Heraclidee ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. 
 Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition 
 to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula {Auglas in 
 Elis, Tyndareus in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding 
 Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of 
 heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- 
 ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- 
 cules). 
 
 Theseus (@r]aevs), son of JEgeus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the 
 family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. 
 He cleared the road from I'roezen, where, according to the legend, 
 he was born, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers (Periphetes, 
 Sinn is, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes), so that the lonians of the 
 Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the 
 isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the 
 Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens 
 sent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the ^vild bull 
 which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the 
 Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging 
 the rape of Antiope. These three myths express the historical fact 
 of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the 
 Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human 
 sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the 
 Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician 
 goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances 
 in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of 
 the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the sejjaration of the 
 people into the tlu-ee orders: Eupatridre (nobles), Geomori (peasants), 
 and Demiurf/i (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four 
 ancient classes (Phylre) : Geleontes (nobles), Hoplites (warriors), 
 Argadeis (artizans), jEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the 
 Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion 
 (p. 43). 
 
46 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 The Grecian legends adopted Minos (m/vcos), also originally of 
 Phcenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians 
 who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor 
 of piracy. 
 
 Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. 
 
 Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. 
 
 Phrixo^, son of the king of the Minyse, Athcimas of lolcos, in Thessaly, 
 whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, 
 Hed with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was 
 given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell 
 into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near 
 Abydos. Plirixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king 
 Aretes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a 
 grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from lolcos, in- 
 cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the 
 head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of 
 Minyai alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by 
 Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- 
 session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter 
 of ^etes. Return to lolcos. Pelias nuirdered at the instigation of 
 Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of 
 Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glauca, 
 the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her 
 own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of 
 A^geus. 
 
 This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The 
 golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the "cloud," sends, is a repre- 
 sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- 
 parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of 
 blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of 
 blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, 
 iEetes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded 
 and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the 
 Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyae. The principal site of the wealth and 
 power of the Minyse was Orchomenos in Bceotia; but the gulf of 
 Pagdsce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter- 
 course by sea. 
 
 "War of the Seven against Thebes. 
 
 The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and 
 was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. CEdipus (olUirovs), son of 
 Jccasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is 
 exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied 
 injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polyhos in 
 Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, mtliout recognizing him, 
 solves the riddle of the Spliinx (What creature is there which goes 
 on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), 
 becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his 
 crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters 
 Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('EtcokA^s) and 
 
B. c. Greeks. 47 
 
 Polynlces (UoKwdK-qs) . Polynices attacks Thebes with his allies : 
 Adrastus, Ti/deus, Anij)hiarduSj Capnneus, Hippomtdon, Parthenopwus. 
 The hostile brothers fall in personal contest; of the other princes all 
 perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of 
 Thebes. 
 
 War of the Epigoni. 
 
 Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seven). 
 Thebes captured and plundered. Thersander, sou of PolynlceSy made 
 king of Thebes. 
 
 1193-1184. Trojan War. 
 
 Priam was king of Ti'oi/, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was 
 Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the 
 legend : Hector ("Ektwp), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris 
 {Alexandros). The latter abducts Helena ('E^evr]), wife of Meneldus, 
 of Sparta. Tlie noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. 
 Agamemnon of Mycense, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the 
 Greeks; Sthenelus of Tiryns ; iVestor of Pylos ; Achilles ('AxtAAeus), 
 king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and 
 the Nereid Thetis; Patroclm; Ajax (A'ms), and Teucer, sons of Tela- 
 mou of Salamis; the younger Ajax, son of Oileus, leader of the 
 Locriaus; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, 
 son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. 
 
 Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon 
 and Glaucus, leaders of the Lyciaus, troops from Mysia, Mceonia (in 
 Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and Pceones from 
 the other side of the strait. 
 
 The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the 
 fact of a militar}' expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans 
 and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. 
 Perchance the ^olian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the ^ 
 ensuing contests vv^ith the native population gave rise to the romance 
 of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before 
 the Dorian migration. The preliistoric existence of a powerful city 
 in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpolv and "IMou, is 
 certain. 
 
 Comiected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the 
 return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by Ms wiie 
 Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children 
 Orestes and Electra. Tlie ten years wandering of Odysseus and his 
 many adventures (Polyphemus, LastrygoneSj Circes Calypso, the 
 Phfeacians, etc.). 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning 
 of the Persian Wars, (1104 (?)-500.) 
 
 Migration of the Thessalians from Pvplnis to the valley of the 
 Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of .the former inhabitants, 
 ■^olians, part became serfs (v^vicncu), part fled the country. A por* 
 
48 Ancient History. b- c. 
 
 tion of the latter conquered Boeotia. The previous inhabitants of 
 Boeotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyae in Orchome- 
 nos, and. the Cadmeans in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- 
 tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward vm- 
 known to history. 
 
 The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They 
 had inhabited the country about the Othrys and (Eta, and the small 
 mountainous region where they maintained themselves after the in- 
 vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which 
 emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by ^tolian 
 bands, they crossed to the Peloponnesus between Naupactus, where 
 they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the 
 so-called 
 
 1104 (?).^ Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- 
 ponnesus by the Dorians and ^tolians, according to 
 the story, under the leadership of the Heraclidse (^Teme- 
 niis, Cres])/w7ites, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. 
 
 The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Pelopomiesus 
 without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on 
 the western coast. The inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being | 
 subdued, the ^tolians established themselves here, and founded anew; 
 commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the ^tolians and 
 Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through 
 southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- 
 lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The 
 native population, consisting of Achseans and ^olians, were in 
 part expelled, in part placed in subjection; wliile in some regions they ! 
 gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last i 
 was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with 
 the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their 
 princely rights and support in their supremacy. 
 
 So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after 
 much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- 
 ties: 1. Messenia (Cresphontes) ; 2. Sparta (Procles and Eurysthenes, 
 ions of Aristodemus); 3. Argos (Temenus),at first the most powerful 
 state, at the head of a league, to which Epidaurus and Troezeriy under 
 their own rulers, belonged; 4. Phlius; 5. Sicyon; 6. Corinth, these 
 three containing many of the old inhabitants, who lived among the 
 new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus: 7o 
 Megara; and 8. the island -fflgina (A^y iva). 
 
 The remains of the old population, the Achaeans, who were driven 
 from their homes, expelled or subjugated the JEgialian lonianSy who 
 inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. 
 
 The whole region was henceforward called Achaia. 
 
 10G8 (?). Codrus (KcJSpos), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- 
 untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. 
 According to the legend, Codrus was the son of the Nestorian 
 Melauthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 
 
 1 See p. 43, note 1- 
 
H. C. 
 
 Greeks. 49 
 
 The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was 
 the practice of colonization, on a great scale, vvhicli at first was car- 
 ried on by the tribes wliich had been expelled from their homes, but 
 in which the conquering Dorians soon took active part. 
 
 The Pelasgic popidation, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on 
 the peninsula Chalcidice, partly in Crete, and partly on the coast of 
 Mt/sia ; the Minyce from lolcos, and Orchomenos occupied Lemnos, 
 Liibros, Samothrace. More important were the 
 
 1000-900 (•") ^olian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which 
 settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islands. 
 
 ^olian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Methymna on the 
 island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on the mainland of Asia Minor 
 (^Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). 
 
 The lonians, who were driven away by the Achfeans, fled first to 
 Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a 
 common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of 
 which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephtsus, 
 Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon, and occupied the islands of Samos and 
 Chios. 
 
 Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicarnassus and Cni- 
 dus. Dorians and Achceans founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, 
 where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in 
 Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north 
 coast of Africa. 
 
 1000 (?).i Homer and his successors (Homeridse). Iliad and 
 Odyssey. 
 
 Constitution of society and government. During the heroic 
 period, and at the begimiing of historic times, we find everywhere a 
 patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived 
 their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation 
 in all states of a repuhlican constitution, partly tlirough the extinction, 
 partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. This republican 
 constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democratic, 
 frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- 
 acy of a Tyrant (yifiavvos), a name applied to every one who attained 
 supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the 
 idea of an arbitrary or cruel government. 
 
 The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern- 
 ment in which the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- 
 ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In 
 nost of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, 
 iot of citizens, but of slaves. ^ Democracies in the modern sense 
 dvere almost unknown in ancient times. 
 
 In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly 
 distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatce {'SirapTiaTai, comprising o/jloloi, 
 
 1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch of Homer differ almost five 
 hundred years from one another. 
 
 2 Cf. Becker, Charicles (trans.), 361; and Schoemann, Antiquities oj 
 a recce, I. 100 foil. 
 
 4 
 
50 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 i, e. those having full rights, and vnofielovfi i. e. those of less means, 
 who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- 
 vided into three Phylee, each composed of 10 Obfe (wBai) ; these were 
 the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La- 
 conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending 
 to the sea; 2. Lacedcemonians or PericEci {irfpioiKOL, i. e. they who dwell 
 round about), descendants of those Aclueans who had submitted to 
 the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- 
 utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without 
 political rights, but were, however, bound to military service;' 3. 
 Heiots (from dKuns, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were 
 divided among the Spartiatse by lot, and tilled their lands, paying to 
 their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Perioici 
 was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the 
 Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- 
 riceci. 
 
 820 (?)• Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. 
 
 Lycurgus (AvKovpyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and 
 guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the 
 three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His i 
 code of laws was for the Spartiatse alone. The form of government 
 was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings 
 (generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid 
 race, one a member of the Agidm (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the 
 other of the Eurypontidce (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see 
 p. 48). The Council of Elders (yepovaia, 28 Gerontes, at least 60 years 
 of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had : 
 1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the 
 popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular 
 assembly (a\ia), consisting of all Spartiatse over thirty years of age, 
 who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and 
 decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- 
 spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, 
 acquired great power (p. 56). 
 
 Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, 
 which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of 
 the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these 
 lands. No new division of all landed property.^ (Tradition makes 
 Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatse, 
 and 30,000 for the Perioeci.) Establishment of social unions or com- 
 pulsory clubs {(TKt)va[), whose members ate together, even in time of 
 peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, 
 and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. 
 The Crypteia (KpuTrrem), an organized guard over the Helots by young 
 Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots.^ 
 
 776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in which 
 
 1 Grote, Uid. of Greece (Boston, 1851), II, 393 foil. 
 
 2 Sclioemann, Antiq. of Greece, 1. 195. 
 
B. C. 
 
 Greeks. 51 
 
 tlio name of the Olympian victor was recorded. (The first was 
 Coroibus.) 
 
 Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par- 
 ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nemean games since 573, in honor of Zeus, 
 Isthniean games (Poseidon, since o8*«:), and Pf/thian games (ApoUo, en- 
 larged after oDU). Oraek^ of Apollo at Delphi, founded, according 
 to tradition, at the connuiind of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians) 
 from Cnosus. Amphictyouies, societies for connnon worship (per- 
 formance of sacrifices), the nu)st important of which was the Delphic. 
 734. Foundation of Syracuse ^ by the Corinthian Archias. 
 7'4:3-72'4. (?) First Messianian war. Aristodtmus king of the Mes- 
 senians. Defence of Ithome. Those Messeniuns that did not 
 emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- 
 cated as concpiered territory. 
 708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 
 645-628.^ Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira 
 (Ei'pa), for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- 
 panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part 
 of the Messenians fled to Sicily; Zancle, also, was occupied by 
 them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana 
 before the fifth century.^ The remaining Messenians became 
 Helots. 
 In Athens government of the nobles {Eupatridce) since the death 
 of Codrus (1008 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, 
 at first (1007-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- 
 clusively, afterwards (752-083) elected for ten years, the first four 
 only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- 
 tridce in general. 
 
 From 082 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and 
 servmg only one year, taken from the Eupatridce alone, and chosen 
 by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Epofiymus (i. e. he from 
 whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, l e. 
 king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of 
 the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to 
 iStrateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other 
 six were Thesmothetce, judges, heads of the department of justice. 
 624 (021 ?). Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the 
 constitution, oidy reform of the criminal law, and the law re- 
 lating to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of 
 the death penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as 
 the " Law of Draco, written with blood." 
 612. Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his 
 father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- 
 lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon MegadeSy 
 of the family of the Alcmoionidce, and his followers were put to 
 
 1 Concerning the dale of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Sicilien*, I, 
 881 eqq. 
 
 - Acc'ordin^^ to Duticker, Gesch. des Altherth., and Curtius, I. 2-10. Ao 
 cording to the older hut very (U)uhtful assumption, 685-608. 
 
 3 Holm, Gtsch. Siciliens, I. 2UU. 
 
52 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account 
 of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Re- 
 ligious purification of Athens by Epimenides of Cnossus. 
 Solon, of the family of the Nelidse, gained great influence by 
 the recapture of Salamis, wliich had been taken by the Megarseans, 
 and through his share in the 
 
 600-590. 1 First sacred war against Crisa and CirrJia, whose in- 
 habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The 
 Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the 
 inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the 
 Pythian Apollo. 
 Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the 
 nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three 
 parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain {oi e« rov ireSiov), the 
 Supatridce. 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts {hiaKpioi), 
 3. The inhabitants of the coast {irdpaXoi), a well-to-do middle class. 
 
 594. Solon, while Archon Eponymus, being authorized 
 by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- 
 racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the 
 Seisachtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts 
 secured by mortgage were reduced about 21 fo by the intro- 
 duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Eubceai 
 talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; 
 personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines 
 as yet unpaid were remitted. Amnesty for all who had been 
 deprived of their political rights (6.Tifxoi). Return of the 
 Alcnifeonidffi. 
 
 The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established 
 for the citizens (TroArrai) only. Excluded from all political rights 
 were: 1. The metoeci (jueVot/cot, foreigners not citizens, but living in 
 Athens under protection of the government), who were regarded 
 in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron 
 (Trpoa-TctTTjs) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The 
 slaves (SovKol). 
 
 The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. 
 In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated 
 at 90,000, the metceci at 45,000, the slaves at 360,000. So that in 
 the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed 
 a small minority of the population. ^ 
 
 Division of all citizens, for purposes of military service and the 
 exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received 
 from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of 
 any kind. The imit of measure was the medimnus (52.53 liter), for 
 grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive 
 oil. The following four classes were formed : — 
 
 1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 
 500 medimni and metretes. 
 
 1 According to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ao 
 cepted was 596-586. 
 
 2 Cf. Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. 
 
B. c. Greeks. 53 
 
 2. Knights ('nnre75), yield of estates 300-500 medlmni. 
 
 3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their hiud with cue span of mides), 
 field of estates at least 150 mediiuni. 
 
 4. Thetes, comprising- all who owned land yielding less than 150 
 medinini, or possessed no land, hut were either day laborers in the 
 
 ountry, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. 
 
 Taxation consisted in the dnty of the citizens, as arranged in these 
 fonr classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- 
 tary service. The members of the Jirst three classes served as hoplites 
 (iTrAtTat), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of the Jirst two classes 
 served also in case of need as cavalry, furnishing their own horses, 
 while members of the Jii'st class furnished sliips for the fleet at their 
 own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrarise; 
 the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or 
 apon the fleet, only to defend the country from invasion. There was 
 no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without 
 pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by 
 the jdeld of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- 
 tax laid on the metaeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary 
 taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes 
 described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. 
 
 After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first 
 class; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (fiovKt]) 
 of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward 
 open to all citizens of the Jirst three classes over thirty years old. The 
 popular assembly (eKKXriaia) consisted of all citizens over twenty years 
 old. 
 
 The Areopagus (from "Ape^os irdyos,^ Hill of Ares, or Mars), the an- 
 cient court which had jurisdiction over murder and arson, and a general 
 supervision over the entire administration of the state, was, after this 
 time, composed of archons who had retired from office. Legal mat- 
 ters were adjusted by the heliasts (7}\ia(rTal, so called from the halls, 
 r}\iaia, where they sat), bodies having something of the nature of both 
 judge and jury, and consisting of citizens over thirty years old, chosen 
 by the thesmothetse, out of a list of 6000 citizens which was formed 
 by lot. 
 
 Tliis timocratic constitution of Solon paved the way from aristocracy 
 to democracy. In itself it was essentially conservative, since the 
 larger landed estates were nearly all in the hands of the nobles. 
 Solon also established a code of ia"ws for regulating the entire civil 
 life, which was not completed until later. 
 
 Solon left Athens for ten years. Travels in eastern Asia, Crete, 
 and Egypt. New party divisions in Athens. The nobles were led 
 by Lycurgus; the middle class by the Alcmaeonid Alegdcles; the poorer 
 classes by Pisistrdtus, who, in spite of the opposition of Solon, who 
 had returned to Athens and was now an old man, constantly gained 
 new supporters, and finally made himself master of the Acropolis. 
 
 1 The hill only was so called by the ancients. Tne court was known as r) iv 
 
 *Apei<f ndyto /5ouAjj. 
 
54 Ancient Historfj. b. c. 
 
 560-627' Pisistratus (rieto-tWparos), tyrant of Atliens. 
 
 Emigration of Athenian nobles, under Miltiades the elder, to the 
 Thracian Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asir. 
 Minor. Conversation with Crcesus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died 
 (559) at Soli, in Cyprus (?). 
 
 Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti-- 
 tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should 
 always choose archons who suited him. Driven out by a coalition 
 of the nobles and the moderates, 569, he returned five years later 
 (554). A second time exiled in 552, he again regained his power 
 after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- 
 tion from 541 to 527. New emigration of noble families, particu- 
 larly that of the Alcmceonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government t; 
 until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to hisil 
 son, I 
 
 627-510. Hippias ('iTTTrias), under whom | 
 
 619. Platcece seceded from the Boeotian League and entered intoi 
 alliance with Athens. The Bceotians were defeated by the 
 Athenians. Hippias conducted the goverimient after the man- - 
 ner of his father, until liis brother, Hipparchus, was murdered I 
 by Harmodius (^Apjx6^ios) and Aristogiton (^'A.piaro'ydTwv) in 514. . 
 (See Thucydides, VI. 5^59, where he criticises the traditional I 
 tale of Harmodius and Aristogiton.) Hippias took a cruel I 
 revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis-- 
 thenes at the head of the AlcmcBonidoe^ in comiection with ai 
 Spartan army under Cleomenes, He took refuge with Darius, , 
 king of Persia. 
 
 509. Reforms of Clisthenes (KXeLaOivrj^), son of Mega- 
 cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of Sicyon. 
 
 This was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform 
 as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but 
 only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- 
 ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- 
 ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonship 
 was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the 
 council to the first three classes. 
 
 With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- 
 mffionidte, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian 
 tribes ((i)v\al), Geleontes, Hoplites, Argddeis, JEgicoreis{^. ^^), which 
 Solon had left in existence, were set aside, and there were substituted 
 for them ten new tribes, which were political and religious unions. 
 These new tribes did not form connected territorial divisions.^ 
 Each tribe consisted of ten derties, or local communities, wliich, how- 
 ever, were not contiguous, but were scattered about the coimtry and 
 interspersed ivith denies belonging to other tribes. In all there were 100 
 denies, later 174. This arrangement was designed to break up the 
 local iirfluence of the aristocracy, and put an end to the old patri- 
 archal condition of things, wherelty only nobles and large land-owners 
 1 Duncker, IV. 454; Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 369. 
 
B. c. Greeks. 55 
 
 could hold the position of demarch {^r,ixapxos^, tlie presiding officer of 
 a coniinunity. 
 
 Ileiieefoiward every two denies formed a naucrary, which was ex- 
 pected to tit out and man a trireme (a vessel with three banks of 
 oars) ; whereas the old division of Attica, made in 682, into 48 nau- 
 craries, had been based on the old poUtico-reliqions division into tribes 
 and phratries. These phratries {(ppaTpiai, 12), the subdivisions of the old 
 tribes (<puA.o/), were untouched by the reform of Clisthenes, but they 
 were reduced to the condition of religious corporations for keeping 
 lists of birtlis, marriages, and deaths, but without political impor- 
 tance. 
 
 The council (BovXr}) was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty 
 for each tribe ; and each of these sets of fifty presided in the council 
 for the tenth part of a year (prytany, Trpvrai/ela) ; the members of 
 these presiding committees of fifty were called prytanies. Instead of 
 four popidar assemblies in a year, as formerly, ten were held hence- 
 forward. 
 
 507. The Athenian nobility, headed by Isagoras, ^vith the help of 
 a Spartan army under Cleomenes, brought about a short re- 
 action. Clisthenes fled; the Acropolis was delivered to the 
 Spartans by a treacherous archon. A revolt of the Athenian 
 popidace compelled Cleomenes to make a disgraceful capit- 
 ulation : withdrawal of the Spartans without arms, and sur- 
 render of the leaders of the aristocracy. The latter were put 
 to death, and Cljsthenes was recalled. 
 500. An expedition of the Spartans against Athens under their kmgs, 
 Cleomenes and Demeratus, at the head of their Peloponnesian 
 allies, was broken up by the sudden withdrawal of the Corin- 
 tliians and the lack of harmony between the Spartan kings. 
 The allies of the Spartans, the Boeotians and the Chalcidians 
 from Euboea, were defeated by the Athenians. The latter con- 
 quered a part of Euboea, and apportioned 4000 peasant holdings 
 among Attic farmers, who retauied their Athenian citizenship. 
 The Athenian democracy derived an accession of strength from a 
 reduction in the powers of the archons. The place of holding the 
 popular assembly was changed from the market-place (ayopd), where, 
 according to a custom sanctified by its antiquity, the first archon 
 presided, to the rocky hill of the Pnyx ; and the duty of presiding 
 in the popular assembly and in the council was fixed upon an olii- 
 cer (eTno-Tarrjs), who was chosen by lot from the prytany, for the time 
 being, and who was changed every day. This officer also held the 
 keys of the Acropolis and of the archives. It is uncertain how far 
 Clisthenes had introduced the use of the lot, in selecting state offi- 
 cials (of course, oidy from the numbers of qualified candidates). 
 Election of ten Strategi, one from ei^.ch tribe, each of whom had by 
 turns the cliief command of the army, which formerly belonged to the 
 archon polemarclius. The right of ajipv^al from the decision of the 
 thesmothetse to the heliasts, which had been introduced before Solon 
 for certain cases, was now extended to all cases. Establishment of 
 the ostracism (6(TTpaKi(T/j.65, used until 417^, i. e. the power of the 
 sovereign popular assembly to decree, by means of a secret ballot, 
 
56 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 with bits of pottery (6(rrpaKa), the banishment of any citizen who en- 
 dangered the public liberty, without process of law.^ 
 
 In Peloponnesus, during this period of internal development at 
 Athens, Sparta had become the first power. Soon after the first 
 Messenian war, an essential increase in the powers of the Ephors 
 had taken place (under king Theopompus). About 560, another re- 
 form had been accomplished by the Geront Chilon, with the aid and 
 religious consecration of Epimenides of Cnossus, which completed the 
 aristocratic form of government at Sparta, and gave increased strength 
 to the commonwealth. The Ephors received an extraordinary dis- 
 ciplmary power over every individual, not excepting even the kings. 
 The power of the latter gradually dwindled to a shadow. After the 
 victory at Thyrea (549), the power of Argos, wliich in the seventh 
 century had again attained, under King Phidon, a transient increase, 
 was broken, and the Argive league was dissolved. The Spartan 
 state, which was everywhere the opponent of tyranny and the pro- 
 tector of republican-aristocratic governments, became the leader of 
 a league of the Peloponnesian states, and claimed the Hegemony over 
 all the Hellenic cantons. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the beginning of the Persian wars to the loss of inde- 
 pendence by the Battle of Chceronea. 500-338. 
 
 500-449. Persian wars. 
 
 500-494. Eevolt of the Ionian Greeks against the Persians (p. 28). 
 The assistance rendered them by Athens and Eretria was the 
 immediate cause of the attempt of the Persians to subjugate 
 European Greece. 
 
 493-479. Attack of the Persians upon the Greeks. 
 
 493 (492 ?). First expedition of the Persians against Greece, 
 under Mardonius. 
 
 The land force subdued the coast of Thrace ; the fleet conquered 
 the island of Thasos. Alexander, king of Macedonia, submitted volun- 
 tarily. The Persian army, surprised by a Thracian tribe, suffered 
 great loss ; the fleet was for the most part destroyed by a storm off 
 the promontory of Athos. Mardonius thereupon decided to return. 
 
 Construction of citadels on the Thracian coast to serve as points 
 of support in future campaigns : Byzantium, Sestos, Abdera, received 
 Persian garrisons. 
 
 491. The Persian heralds, who required signs of submission (water 
 and earth), were sacrilegiously murdered at Sparta and Athens 
 The Cyclades and Angina promised submission to Persia. The 
 Athenians received from the Spartans ^ginetan hostages. 
 
 490. Second expedition of the Persians against Greece, un- 
 
 1 The ostracism Avas in no sense a sentence or a juridical decision, but 4 
 purely political act of the Inghest power in the state. 
 
B. C. 
 
 Greeks. 57 
 
 , (\er Artaphernes (the youiif!^ nephew of Darius) and an 
 older general, the Mede Datis. 
 
 A fleet of 600 triremes and the same number of transports, with 
 100,000 infantry and 10,000 eavalry on board, crossed the iEgean sea. 
 After destroying the city of Nnxos, the Persians landed in Euhoen. 
 The city of Eretria was stormed, and taken by treachery ; those of 
 the iuluibitants who were not put to death were sent as prisoners to 
 the great king at Susa. By the advice of Hippias (p. 54) the Per- 
 sians landed on the east coast of Attica, and encamped in the vicmity 
 of Marathon. 
 
 At Athens the entire military power of the city (9-10,000 Hop- 
 lites)* was called to arms under the ten Strategi of the ten tribes, 
 among whom were Aristldes, Themistocles, and Miltiades (the 
 younger), who had been recalled from the Chersonese. The Athenians 
 crossed the Brilessus and advanced to meet the Persians; they en- 
 camped m face of the enemy for nine days in a position strengthened 
 by entrenchments, and whence they covered the road to Athens. Re- 
 inforced by 1000 Plataians, they attacked the Persians without wait- 
 ing for the arrival of the assistance which had been sought from 
 Sparta. It is probable that the Persians had at this time embarked a 
 portion of their army, especially the cavalry, in order to attempt a 
 second landing in the immediate neighborhood of Athens. After 
 hard fighting the Athenians defeated the enemy in the 
 
 490. 12 September. Battle of Marathon, 
 under the leadership of Miltiades. 
 
 The plan of the Persians to surprise Athens from the sea was 
 prevented by a forced march of the army back to the city. The Per- 
 sian fleet returned to Asia Minor. Hippias died in Lenmos. 
 489. Ill-considered and unsuccessful attack of Miltiades, who had 
 been clothed with unrestricted power as military commander, 
 upon Paras. Miltiades, on his return to Athens wovmded, was 
 brought to trial at the complaint of Xanthippus, and con- 
 demned to pay the costs of the expedition, amounting to fifty 
 talents, which sum was paid by liis son Cimon, after the death 
 of his father. 
 Aristides and Themistocles were now the leading statesmen at 
 Athens. The latter devoted special attention to increase and im- 
 provement of the fleet, the necessity of which was proved to the 
 Athenians by an unsuccessful war with JEgina, which occurred at 
 this time, and for wliich they were obliged to hire ships from the 
 Corinthians.'-^ On the motion of Themistocles, the income from the 
 silver works at Laurium were spent upon the fleet, and 20 triremes 
 were built every year. 
 
 i83. As the growing rivalry between Aristides and Themistocles 
 endangered the commonweal, at the suggestion of the council 
 the assembly decided between the two men by the ostracism 
 (p. 55). Aristides was condemned to ten years' exile from 
 Athens by more than 6000 votes. 
 
 1 Duncker, Gesch.d.Alterthum, IV. 673. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 246. 
 
 2 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 262. 
 
58 Ancient Niston/. b. c. 
 
 Themistocles urging the fortification of Pir?eiis, a strong wall wa^ 
 built, the foundations of wliich are yet visible, which also enclosed 
 the small harbors of Munychia and Zea on the southeast of Piraeus. 
 Radical reform of the naval department. The naucraries (p. bo), 
 which had not been able to furnish all the ships needed by the state, 
 since the year 500 b. c, were dissolved, and their place supplied by 
 a new arrangement known as the trierarchies. The building of ships 
 and the supply of the more essential portions of their equipment were 
 undertaken by the state ; the completion of the equipment, the repairs, 
 and the supplies of the crew, during service, of one sliip was assigned 
 as a service due the state {KeiTovpy(a) to one well-to-do citizen, who 
 in return was appointed trierarch, or commander-in-chief of the 
 ship. Whereas in the naucraries the expenses of the sliips had 
 fallen exclusively upon the Pentakosiomedimni (i. e. the large land- 
 owners, s. 53), and all citizens, whether land-owners or not, whose 
 property exceeded a certain standard could be called upon for this 
 purpose, and luere entitled to the honor of the trierarchy.^ 
 
 481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, 
 under Xerxes. 
 
 This expedition, plamied by Darius, was carried out by his son 
 Xerxes, after extensive preparations. Pisistratus, son of Hippias, 
 and Demaratus, the deposed kuig of Sparta, accompanied Xerxes on 
 the expedition. 
 
 Construction of a canal at Acanthus by the force on the fleet 
 and the subject Thracians, to avoid the storms about Mt. Athos. 
 Bridge over the Hellespont, between Sestos and Ahydos, built by 
 Phoenician and Egyptian laborers. Erection of large magazines in 
 Asia Mmor and on the coast of Thracia. 
 
 481. The troops from ths eastern and southern parts of the empire 
 assembled at Crlldlla in Cappadocia, whence they were con- 
 ducted to Sardes by the king in person. 
 480. In the spring depaj-ture from Sardes (about 900,000 men). 
 March through Mysia. Passage of the Hellespont, lasting 
 seven days. March through Thrace and Macedonia. Passage 
 of the fleet (more than 1300 triremes, among which were over 
 400 Grecian ships from Asia Minor) tlu-ough the canal at 
 Acanthus. 
 After the Greeks had given up the plan of defending the pass of 
 Tempe, the Persian army traversed Thessaly without opposition. Not 
 only the Thessalians, but also the Boeotian cities, with the exception of 
 Platcece and Thespice, sent the king symbols of submission. 
 
 480. July. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Ther- 
 raopylae (i. e. warm gates, a pass at the foot of Calli- 
 dromus, near hot springs) against the army of Xerxes. 
 
 The Spartan king Leonidas, defended the pass of Thermopylae, 
 with about 6000 Hoplites, among whom were 300 Spartiatce, and 
 1000 Lacedaemonian Perioeci, against the overwhelming force of the 
 
 1 Boeckh, Public Economy of the Athenians (Lamb's trans.), 359, 695-745 
 
B. C. 
 
 Greeks. .'iO 
 
 lO 
 
 rorsiaiis, while 1000 Phociam guarded the footpath over (Eta. Tl 
 Persians, guided over this path by the traitor Ephialtes, drove back 
 the Phocians and attacked the (Jreeian army in the rear. Leonithis 
 ordered the Tericjeei and the troops of the allies to retire, and died 
 a heroic death with his oOO Spartiatie and 700 Thespians, who re- 
 fused to leave him. The Thebans, who had fought under Leonidas 
 against their will, laid down their arms; part of them were cut down: 
 part branded, at the king's command, and sent back to Thebes. At ' 
 tlie same time 
 
 480. Indecisive sea-fight at Artemisium, 
 
 a promontory and temple at the northern point of Euboea. 
 During the first day about 'iSO Grecian ships, under conduct of the 
 Spartan Euri/biddes, fought against the Persian Heet, under Achm- 
 mCnes, which was weakeiied through losses by storms, and the dis- 
 patch of 200 ships around the southern end of Eubcea. Night put an 
 end to the indecisive battle. Loss of the 200 Persian sliips which 
 were sent around Euboea. 
 
 On the second day the Grecian fleet, reinforced by 53 triremes, 
 had a victorious contest with Cilician ships. 
 
 On the third day, also, the battle remained undecided, although 
 the Persians attacked with their whole fleet. , 
 
 On receipt of the news of the capture of the pass of Thermopylae, 
 the Grecian fleet hastened to the Gulf of Salamis. The Pelopon- 
 nesian army, having established itself on the isthmus, began the con- 
 struction of a w^all across the istlunus, instead of coming to the as- 
 sistance of the Athenians. 
 
 Xerxes traversed central Greece, without meeting with resistance. 
 Locrians and Dorians submitted. He ravaged the land of the Pho- 
 cians, the detachment sent to Delphi was, however, driven back, with 
 the help of a thunderstorm. Bceotia was treated as a friendly coun- 
 try, Thespire and PlatrecE alone were destroyed. 
 
 The Athenians abandoned their city, leaving only a garrison in the 
 Acropolis. The fortifications of the Pirpeus being incomplete, the 
 fleet conveyed the old men, women, and cliildren, with all personal 
 effects, to Salamis, ^gina, and Argolis, in which latter place the 
 Athenian children were provided with schooling at the expense of 
 the inhabitants. Return of the exiles permitted. Xerxes entered 
 the city, the Acropolis was taken by storm, the temples thereupon 
 and the city burned to the ground. 
 
 480. 20 Sept. Naval battle of Salamis. 
 
 The Grecian fleet, now united and strongly reinforced (378 tri- 
 remes, 7 fifty-oared vessels), was under the conmiand of the Spartan 
 Eurybiades, The Grecians, being through the contrivance of the 
 strategus Theinistocles, surrounded by the enemy and forced to fight, 
 wo.n a brilliant victory over the Persian fleet, which still numbered 
 750 (?) vessels. The island of PsyttaUa, wdiich the Persians had oc- 
 cupied, was recaptured by Aristldes, who had hastened from iEgina to 
 take part in the combat. The Greeks lost 40, the Persians 200, shii»s. 
 The Persian fleet anchored in the bay of Phaltron. Retreat, wJ 
 
60 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 flight, of Xerxes. Mardonius was left in Thessaly with the best part 
 
 of the army (260,000 men). 
 
 480. Nov. Xerxes, after suffering great loss through drought and 
 
 lack of provisions, reached the Hellespont, where he found 
 
 the fleet, which transported the army, the bridge having 
 
 been carried away by storms. 
 
 The Grecian fleet, instead of pursuing the Persians, as Themis- 
 
 fcocles wished, laid unsuccessful siege to the city of Andros. The 
 
 Athenians returned to their city, and at once began its reconstructiono 
 
 479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. 
 
 After Mardonius had in vain offered the Athenians, through 
 Alexander of Macedonia, a separate peace with recognition of their 
 independence, he entered Attica and advanced on Athens^ strength- 
 ened by a reinforcement under Artabdzus, and by contingents from 
 his allies in northern Greece, Thessalians, Boeotians, a part of the 
 Phocians, and the Ar gives. The Athenians, being a second time faith- 
 lessly left in the lurch by the Spartans, retired again to Salamis. 
 Whatever had been rebuilt in the city, the Persians destroyed. 
 Finally the whole Peloponnesian force of 30,000 hoplites and twdce 
 as many light-armed troops having crossed the isthmus, Mardonius 
 retired, and took up a favorable position in Bceotia on the Asopus. 
 More than 10,000 Athenians, Platceans, and Thespians joined the Hel- 
 lenic army. Pausanias was the leader of the Spartans and of the 
 whole force. He commanded the most imposing army that Hellas 
 had ever seen. The Hellenes, however, had no cavalry. 
 
 479. Sept. Battle of Plataeae. 
 
 After long delay and much marching back and forth, Pausanias, 
 who had twice entrusted the most dangerous positions to the Athe- 
 nians under the command of Aristides, decided to retreat without 
 offering battle; being, however, attacked by Mardonius and com- 
 pelled to defend himself, he fought bravely at the head of the Pelo- 
 ponnesians, and, being well supported by the Athenians, gained a 
 decisive victory. Mardonius fell. Rout of the Persians; their 
 camp captured by the Greeks. 
 
 The Grecian army advanced before Thebes; the leaders of the Per- 
 sian party were given up, and executed on the isthmus. 
 
 At the beginning of the campaign against Mardonius a Grecian 
 fleet under the Spartan king, Leotychidas, — Xanthippus conmianding 
 the Athenians under him, — had been dispatched to patrol the ^gean 
 Sea. At the call of the Samians the fleet sailed for Asia Minor, and 
 took the offensive against the Persians. 
 
 479-449. Offensive war of the Grecians against the Persians. 
 The Persian admiral, Mardontes, distrusting the Greeks of 
 Asia Minor, who were in liis fleet, did not venture to accept 
 the naval battle offered him near Samos. He beached liis 
 fleet at the promontory of Mycdle, opposite Samos, and en- 
 trenched himself. The Grecian marines landed, and utterly 
 defeated the Persians in the 
 
B. c, Greeks. 61 
 
 479. Battle of Mycale 
 
 (on the (lay of the battle of Platrese ?), captured tlie camp and 
 burned the Peisian ships. Several of tht; island cities, par- 
 ticularly Saynos, Lesbos, and Chios, and aftiu'wards the (ireeian 
 coast towns of Asia Minor, joined the Hellenic league. The 
 Peloponnesians returned home; the A thetiians and lonians con- 
 quered Si'stos in the Thracian Chersonese. 
 Rebuilding- and enlargement of Athens, which, in spite of the ol)- 
 jection of the Peloponnesians, was surrounded with strong walls, 
 (Stratagem of Themistocles.) Completion of the fortification of 
 Piraeus, where a large city grew up. 
 
 178 (?). Reform of Aristides, from which dates the real supremacy 
 of the democracy in Athens. The state offices -were opened 
 to all four classes alike (p. 53). 
 Under the command of Pausanias, the united fleet of Peloponne- 
 sians, Athenians, and Ionic Greeks of Asia Minor conquered Byzan- 
 tium, and acquired a rich booty. The overbearing demeanor of 
 Pausanias toward the other members of the league, and the winning 
 manner of the Athenian leaders, A ristldes and Cimon, brought it about 
 that after the recall of Pausanias by the Ephors 
 
 475 (?). The Hegemony (chief conduct of the war) was 
 transferred from Sparta to Athens, and a Hellenic con- 
 federacy (symmachy) was formed, the political head of 
 which was Athens, and whose religious centre was the 
 temple of Apollo in Delos, where the treasury of the 
 league was also established. The smaller states contrib- 
 ute money ojili/, instead of furnishing contingents of ships. 
 Rivalry between Themistocles and Cimon. The supporters of the 
 latter procured the ostracism of Themistocles. He retu'ed to Argos. 
 Wlule there suspicion attached to him of being implicated in the 
 treasonable intrigues of Pausanias. The latter, threatened with im- 
 prisonment by the Ephors, took refuge in the temple of Athena at 
 Sparta, and there died of starvation (467?). Themistocles, driven 
 from Argos, went to Corcyra, thence to Epinis, and finally to Susa^ 
 \vhere he offered tlie Persian monarch his services against his native 
 land. Artaxerxes I. (p. 28) gave him a princely domain in Asia 
 Minor, where he died (460). 
 
 After the retirement of Aristides from political life, and his death, 
 which occurred soon after (467 ?), Cimon became the leader of the 
 Athenian commonwealth. He began the construction of the two long 
 walls (to. oTKfX.'n), one of which connected the city with Pirseus, and the 
 other with Phaleron.^ 
 
 Cimon, the victorious leader ci the fleet of the league, captured 
 those places on the Thracian coast which were still occupied by the 
 Persians (Ei'on, 469) ; chastised the pirates of Scyra, and carried the 
 bones of Theseus to Athens; captured Naxos, which had revolted 
 
 1 Oncken {Athen u. IJellas, I. 72) holds tli;it the \va\ls were begun during 
 the banishment of Cimon; so also Ad. Schmidt, Das perikleische Ztitalter, 
 I. 57, who, however, places the banishment of Cimon in 461. 
 
62 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 from the league, and now lost its independence, as punishment (467) j 
 defeated the fleet and army of the Persians in the 
 
 465. Battle of the Eurymedon, 
 
 in Famphylia. Cimon conquered the Chersonese and punished 
 
 the island of Thasos, which had seceded from the confederacy. 
 464. Earthquakes in Sparta; insurrection of the Laconian helots, 
 
 a portion of whom joined the Messenian helots and occupied 
 
 Ithume. 
 
 464-456. Third Messenian war, 
 
 in which the Spartans were forced to implore the help of 
 
 Athens, which was furnished at the instance of Cimon, but was 
 
 afterwards sent back by the suspicious Spartans (461). The 
 
 Athenians, offended, allied themselves with the Argives, the 
 
 principal enemies of tlie Spartans in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 In Athens, rivalry between Cimon, head of the aristocratic party, 
 
 and Pericles, the son of Xanthippus, leader of the democracy. The 
 
 latter party succeeded in establishing the payment of citizens serving 
 
 in the army, or as judges, and the bestowal of alms of the state upon 
 
 the poor at festivals out of the public treasury. The beginning of 
 
 the decline of the Athenian democracy. 
 
 The Athenians sent aid to the Egyptian rebel Inaros (p. 28) against 
 the Persiansr The expedition came to an unfortunate end, the Athe- 
 nian army being surrounded on one of the islands of the Nile, and 
 compelled to surrender. 
 
 460. The law of Ephialtes took from the court of Areopagus the cen- 
 sorship over the state, which had been intrusted to it by Solon 
 (p. 53), and limited its sphere of action to its judicial powers. 
 459. After tliis democratic victory Cimon was banished from Athens 
 by ostracism. 
 About tliis time (between 460 and 454), the treasury of the con- 
 federacy was transferred from Delos to the Acropolis of Athens. 
 The contributions of the members of the league thereby acquired the 
 character of a tribute paid to the Athenians. The confederates be- 
 came for the most part subjects of Athens, which became the capital 
 of a great coast and island empire.^ 
 
 459. Megara, threatened by Corinth, yEgina and Epidaurus, was 
 placed under the protection of the Athenians, who connected 
 Megara with its port, Niscea, by long walls. 
 458. The Athenians, after suffering a defeat in Argolis, gained two 
 battles at sea over the allied Corinthians, Epidaurians, and 
 iEginetans ; blockaded ^gina, and energetically defended Meg- 
 ara. This great development of power, on the part of Athens, 
 caused a 
 
 457-451. "War of the Spartans and Boeotians against 
 Athens. 
 A Spartan army under Nicomedes, the guardian of the young king, 
 Plistoanax, had been sent to Central Greece to protect the Dorian 
 
 1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 378. 
 
B. C. Greeks. G3 
 
 tetrapolis against the attacks of the Phoeiaiis, who were compelled 
 to give up their conquests. The Spartan army, cut oft" from a return 
 over the isthmus by tlie Athenians, retired to Jioeotia, where it assisted 
 the Boeotians against Athens. 
 
 457. Battle of Tanagra, a Sj)artan victory, which they neglected 
 to utilize. They concluded an armistice with Athens and re- 
 turned to Sparta. 
 Very soon the Athenians again invaded Bceotia, defeated the 
 Thebans at G^)iophi)Ui (ioO), and replaced the aristocratic govern- 
 ments in most cities by democratic, which were friendly towards 
 Athens. The Phocians and Opuntian Locrians joined Athens, 
 ^gina was forced to surrender to the Athenians after a long siege, 
 gave up its ships of war, and became tributary (450). The Athenians 
 laid waste the coasts of Laconia, and conveyed the Messenians, whom 
 the Spartans had granted a free departure from Ithoine, to Naupactua 
 (p. 40), where they formed a settlement. Reconciliation between 
 Pericles and Ciinon; the latter recalled after an exile of nearly five 
 years (454). The influence of Cimon brought about an 
 451 (?). Armistice between Athens and Sparta for five years, and 
 a new naval expedition against the Persians. Cimon conducted 
 '200 ships to Cyprus. He died during the siege of Citium. 
 After his death his fleet gained a brilliant victory over the 
 Persian (i. e. Phcenician, Cilician) fleet, and the hostile troops 
 on the land in the double 
 449. Battle of Salarais (2aXa/xis) in Cyprus. 
 
 New party struggles in the Boeotian cities. The aristocrats, who 
 had been driven out by the Athenians, returned ; the Athenians, called 
 to the assistance of the democrats, were defeated at Coronea (447). 
 The old aristocratic constitutions were restored, not only in Bceotia 
 but also in Locris, Phocis, and Megdra, which became free from 
 the supremacy of Athens. After the expiration of the five years' 
 armistice the Spartans sent an army under their young king, Plis- 
 toanax, to Attica, in order to assist the Eubceans in a revolt against 
 the Athenians. Pericles bribed the advisers of the young king 
 md secured the withdrawal of the army; then hastening back to 
 Eubcea with an Athenian army, he subdued the island anew (440). 
 Second assignment of Eubcean lands to Athenian citizens. 
 
 445. Thirty years' peace between Athens and Sparta. By 
 this peace, or more properly armistice, the Pelop'Juuesia'i 
 and Athenian lea^^ues acknowledged themselves to be two 
 distmct and independent confederaciea. 
 About this time, or at least afte?- the death of Cimon, negotiations 
 for peace were opened between Athens and Persia, and an Athenian 
 embassy under Callias was sent to Susa. No formal peace, howevir, 
 was concluded, but peaceable intercourse under a tacit recognition of 
 existing political relations gradually took the ])lace of a state of war. 
 The Athenians gave up Cyprus and sent the P^gyptian rebels no 
 further aid. They continued to control the iEgean Sea, and the 
 Grecian coast towns of Asia Minor were mostly their allies or sub- 
 jects, — in any case, practically free from the Persian sceptre. The 
 
64 Ancient History. B. C. 
 
 so-called peace of Cimon, wherein the king of Persia is said to have 
 fonnally acknowledged the independence of the Greeks of Asia 
 Minor, and promised to send no more ships of war into the -^geau, 
 wonld seem to be the invention of a later time.^ 
 
 444. At Athens Thucydides (the son of Melasias, not the historian 
 of the same name), became the leader of the aristocratic 
 party. His party attempted to secure the ostracism of Peri- 
 cles, but when the votes were counted it was found that 
 Thucydides was banished. 
 
 444-429. Athens under the administration of Pericles, 
 
 who, although never archon, conducted the government of the 
 city by his influence in the assembly, and in his official capac- 
 ity as strategus, as superintendent of the finances (Tamias or 
 Epimeletes), and as superintendent of public buildings and 
 other public works. 
 440^39. Revolt and subjugation of Samos. 
 
 443. Foundation of Thurii in Southern Italy on the ruins of Sybaris. 
 437. Foundation of AmphipoUs on the Strjanon. Completion of the 
 fortifications of Athens by the construction of a third long ivall, 
 parallel with the first leading to the Pirreus (p. 61). Mag- 
 nificent buildings, especially on the Acropolis : the Hall of the 
 Caryatides in the Erechtheion, the Propylcea, the Parthenon, or 
 Hecatompedon, the bronze statue of Athena Promachos, a co- 
 lossal figure over 50 feet high. 
 By the Age of Pericles is commonly understood the whole time 
 of his political activity (465-429), or even the entire period from the 
 Persian expeditions to the Peloponnesian war. This was the most 
 brilliant epoch in the history of Athens, not only in its political 
 power, its trade and commerce, but in art and literature. The tragic 
 dramatists: .ffischylus, 525-456; Sophocles, 496^05; Euripides, 
 480-406 ; later the comic dramatist, Aristophanes 456 (?)-380 ? 
 The historians: Herodotos of Halicarnassus, 484-424? ; Thucy- 
 dides, 471-396 ? The sculptor : Phidias ; the architects Ictinus, 
 Callicrates, and Mnesicles; the painter Polygnotus. The phil- 
 osophers, Socrates, 469-399, Zeno of Elea, Anaxagoras, Prota- 
 goras. Aspasia of Miletus. 
 
 431-404. PELOPONNESIAN ^A^AR. 
 
 Causes: Envy of the Dorian confederacy at the power of Athens^ 
 the ambition of the Athenians, and the discontent of those of their 
 allies who had been reduced to subjects. 
 
 Immediate causes: 1. The interference of Athens in the war 
 between Corcyra and Corinth (435^32), which had broken out con- 
 cerning Epidamnus (afterwards Dyrrhachium) in lUyria, a colony of 
 Corcyra. The democrats of Epidamnus, hard pressed by the exiled 
 nobles in alliance with Illyrian barbarians, implored aid from their 
 
 1 Cf. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 456 (after Dahlmann and Krii^er). 
 Other writers consider that a treaty was concluded. Cf. Hiecke, De Pace 
 Cimonica, 1803. E. Miiller, Uher den cimon Frieden, 1866-1869. Ad 
 Schxaidt, Das perikleische Zeitalter. 
 
B. c. Greeks. 65 
 
 mother city CorojTa in vain, but obtaincfl help from Corinth, the 
 mother city of Corcyia. Knra<;v(l at this, the Corcyrreans took sides 
 with the aristocracy of Epidannms, defeated the Corinthians at 
 Aclium (435), and captured Epidannms. Corinth and Corcyra vied 
 with one another for helj) from Athens. The Athenians decided in 
 favor of Corcyra, and took })art at first with 10, afterwards with .'50, 
 ships in the battle of Si/huta (432), between the Corintliians and Cor- 
 cyneans, wherein the Corinthians, at first victorious, afterwards retired 
 before the Athenians. 2. The inhabitants of Potidcea, a Corinthian 
 colony on the peninsula of Chalcidice, revolted from the Athenian 
 league (432), and received support from Corinth. The Corinthians 
 were, however, defeated by the Athenians at Olynthus, and Potidaja 
 was surrounded and besieged. 
 
 The Corinthians, supported by the Megareans, who (since 432 ?) 
 had been excluded from all Attic harbors and markets, and by the 
 -^ginetans,ventered a complaint against the Athenians at Sparta. 
 The popular assembly at Sparta having voted that the Athenians had 
 broken the treaty, the Peloponnesian Congress resolved on preparation 
 for war. 
 
 Military power of both parties: Achaia and ^r^ro.s remained 
 neutral at first. The Peloponnesians were joined by the Megareans, 
 Baotians, Opuntian Locrians, Phocians. Independent allies of the 
 Athenians: Platcece, Corcyra, Zacynthus, Chios, Lesbos, Thessalians, 
 Acarnanians. The Athenian league, including almost all the islands 
 and coasts of the archipelago and the regions beyond, had been 
 transformed, by naval stations and garrisons, into an extensive em- 
 pire. 
 
 431. The war ^ began ^vith the surprise of Platfese by the Thebans. 
 The gates were opened by treachery; but the Thebans were 
 driven out of the city ; many were captm-ed or cruelly slaugh- 
 tered. 
 
 431-425. Five invasions of Attica by the Peloponnesians, 4 un- 
 der the Spartan king Archidamus, the 5th under Agis. While 
 the Athenian fleet laid waste the coasts of Peloponnesus, the 
 inhabitants of Attica took refuge in Athens, Pirteus, or en- 
 camped between the long walls. The ^ginetans were en- 
 tirely driven away from their island by the Athenians, and their 
 land divided among Athenian citizens. The country around 
 Megdra was harried by an Athenian army. 
 430. A ]>estilence resembling the plague broke out at Athens, of 
 which 
 
 429. Pericles died. 
 
 In the spring of this year capture of Potidrea. Cleon ^ came for- 
 ward as the leader of the democratic party; the head of the aris- 
 tocratic party was Nicias. 
 
 1 This first period of the Peloponnesian war, down to the peace of Nicfns 
 (421), commonly known as the Archidamian war, is called by Thucydides (V. 
 
 25) 6 SfnaeTTji; TroAe/uo?. 
 
 2 Not a tanner, but an owner of manufactories, who carried on his businesJ 
 by means of slaves. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, III. 61. 
 
 5 
 
C6 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 428. Revolt of Mytilene in Lesbos {Methymna remained faithful to 
 the Athenians). Before the arrival of the help promised Ly 
 
 427. the Peloponnesians, Mytllme was compelled to surrender Ly 
 the Athenians mider Paches. The Athenian assembly decreed 
 that all citizens of Mytilene should be put to death, a sentence 
 which on the following day was restricted to the aristocrats. 
 More than a thousand were slain, the city was razed, and the 
 land on the island, with the exception of the territory of Meth- 
 ymna, divided among Athenian citizens. 
 
 427. Platcece forced to surrender. The survivors of its brave defenders, 
 225 in number, were executed by the Spartans. Bloody party 
 contests in Corcyra, where victory at last remained with the 
 democrats. Suecessfid expedition of the Athenians under De- 
 mosthenes to assist the Acarnanians against the Amhraciots, 
 who received help from the Peloponnesians. 
 
 425. Demosthenes landed in Messenia and fortified the ruJfted fortress 
 of Pylos. The Spartans under Brasidas occupied the island of 
 Sphacteria, opposite Pylos. The Athenian fleet under Nicias 
 cut off their retreat. Spartan envoys in Athens offered peace, 
 but their proposals were rejected at the instigation of Cleon, 
 who, being appointed by the people strategus in place of Nicias, 
 took Sphacteria by storm, and brought 292 of the enemy, among 
 whom were 120 Spartiatce, with him to Athens. The Athenians 
 threatened to put the prisoners to death whenever the Pelo- 
 ponnesians should invade Attica again. 
 
 424. The island of Cythera occupied by the Athenians. From 
 Cythera and from Pylos, to which latter place the Athenians 
 conveyed Messenians from Naupactus, the Laconian territory 
 was harassed incessantly. The Athenians invaded Boeotia, but 
 were defeated by the Boeotians at Delimn {Socrates, Alcihiddes). 
 Expedition of the Spartans under Brasidas by land to Mace- 
 donia and Thrace, with the design of putting an end to the su- 
 premacy of the Athenians there. Revolt of several towns from 
 Athens; Brasidas G?i^i\\vedi AmpMpdlis, on account of which the 
 Athenian general Thucydides (the historian), who lay with a 
 squadron at Thasos, was banished. The Athenians sent Cleon 
 to Tlirace. Cleon was defeated in the 
 
 422. Battle of Amphipolis 
 
 by Brasidas, and fell during the flight. Brasidas died of his 
 wounds. 
 
 421. Peace of Nicias, 
 
 concluded for fifty years. Both sides restored conquests and pris- 
 oners, a condition which was, however, but imperfectly executed. Al- 
 though Sparta even entered into alliance mth Athens to force this 
 peace upon their confederates, the war broke out again in three yeart;, 
 when Alcibiades persuaded the Athenians to join the league which 
 Argos had formed with several Peloponnesian states, in order to op- 
 pose the oppressive ascendancy of Sparta. The united Ar gives and 
 Athenians were defeated in the 
 
B. c. Greeks, 67 
 
 418. Battle of Mantinea. 
 
 By this victory the Spartans regained their supremacy in Pelo- 
 ponnesus. 
 
 416. The Athenians captured Melos and put all the citizens to death. 
 
 415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse, 
 
 Suggested by the request of Egesta for help against Selinus and 
 S_i/racuse (Herniocrates), which was granted by the advice of Alci- 
 biddes. A fleet of 134 triremes, carrying 36,000 men inclusive of 
 sailors, among which number were 5100 hoplites,^ sailed for Sicily 
 under Alcibiddes, Nicum, and Lamdchus. After the occupation of 
 Naxoa and Catana, Alcibiades was recalled to answer to a charge of 
 participation in a sacrilege (mutilation of the Hermce, ridiculing the 
 Eleusiuian mysteries). lie went to Argos, was condemned to death 
 in his absence, and his property was confiscated. Seeking revenge on 
 his enemies, he forthwith went over to the side of Sparta. 
 414. Nicias gauied a victory before Syracuse and besieged the city 
 with some success. Death of Lamdchus. At the advice of 
 Alcibiades, the Spartans sent a small fleet under Gylippus to 
 the assistance of Syracuse. The Athenians attacked the city 
 413. by storm, and were repulsed. They sufl'ered from sickness and 
 want. Reinforced by 73 triremes and 5000 hoplites under 
 Demosthenes, they were nevertheless defeated in two naval bat- 
 tles ui the harbor of Syracuse ; their fleet was surrounded ; the 
 413. remnants of their army on the retreat by land (on the Assi7ia- 
 Sept. rus) were in part cut to pieces, in part captured. Nicias and 
 Demosthenes were executed in Syracuse; 7000 prisoners were 
 sent to the quarries (xaTo/xiai). 
 413. By the advice of Alcibiades the Spartans occupied and forti- 
 March. fled the village of Decelea in Attica, The last nine years of 
 the Peloponnesian war are therefore known as the 
 
 413-404. Decelean war. 
 
 The Spartans made forays from Decelea into all parts of 
 
 Attica. 
 Distress of the Athenians, flight of slaves, financial difficulties of 
 the government. The influence of the aristocratic party revived. 
 Establishment of a new board of ten councillors (irpoihuKoi) .'^ Regu- 
 lation of the finances. Renewed preparations for war. Alcibiades 
 induced Chios, Erythrce, Clazomence, and Miletus to revolt. He was in- 
 strumental in forming an alliance between the Spartans, who declared 
 their willingness to abandon to the Persian king all Greek cities for- 
 merly subject to him, and the Persian satrap, Tissaphemes, who paid 
 a subsidy to the Spartans. A new Athenian fleet appeared off the 
 coast of Asia Minor and defeated 
 412. the Peloponnesian fleet near Miletus, but was prevented from 
 
 taking the city by a squadron from S^Tacuse. The Athenian 
 
 fleet, increased to 104 ships, anchored off Samos. Alcibiades, 
 
 1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, III. 357. 
 
 2 Tlu'ir functions are a matter of dispute. Cf. Grote, History of Greecef 
 VII. 362. 
 
68 Ancient History. b. c. |B'< 
 
 being suspected and maligned by the Spartans, went to Tissa- 
 pliernes, over whom he soon exercised great influence. At the 
 same time he intrigued with the oligarchs in the Athenian 
 army, whom, however, he only kept in suspense and finally 
 deceived. In the mean time 
 411. the oligarchs overthrew the democratic constitution at 
 March. Athens by a coup d'etat. A new oligarchical council of 400 
 citizens was established ; the popular assembly was limited to 
 5000 members; the payment of all state salaries, with the ex- 
 ception of the pay of citizens serving in the army, was abol- 
 ished. The oligarchy entered upon negotiations for peace 
 with Sparta, and endeavored to break up the new order of 
 things by executions and banishments. Their rule, however, 
 was of short duration. The army before Samos refused to rec- 
 ognize the alteration of the constitution; elected new leaders 
 {Thrasyhulus) and recalled Alcibiades, who assumed com- 
 mand, but refused to lead the lleet against the oligarchs in 
 Athens, and insisted that it should remain in the face of the 
 enemy. At Athens the oligarchical rule of the new council of 
 400 was broken after it had lasted four months without direct 
 interference on the part of the army; the old council of 500 
 was reestablished; the popular assembly remained limited to 
 5000 members (until 410?). The abolition of salaries was 
 not repealed. 
 The Spartans broke off all connection with Tissaphernes, and en- 
 tered into alliance with Pharnabdzus, satrap of Bithynia. 
 
 The Athenians under Thrasybulus defeated the Peloponnesian fleet 
 under Mindarus and Pharnabdzus in the 
 
 411. Sea-fight at the promontory of Cynossema, near Abydos. 
 July. Tliree months later Alcibiades defeated the Peloponnesians 
 
 in a 
 411. Second sea-fight at Abydos. 
 
 Alcibiades, taken prisoner by Tissaphernes, soon escaped, as- 
 sumed command of the Athenian fleet again, and annihilated 
 the Peloponnesian fleet in the 
 
 410. Battle of Cyzicus, 
 
 Feb. where he also gained a brilliant victory over the enemy after 
 he had escaped to the land. Having subdued the coasts of the 
 
 409. Hellespont and Propontis, and captured Byzantium, 
 
 408. Alcibiades returned to Athens in triumph. 
 
 June. The sentence of Alcibiades was repealed, and he was ap- 
 pointed commander by land and sea, with unlimited power. 
 He guarded with the army the festal procession to Eleusis, 
 which had been for a long time discontinued. Alcibiades con- 
 ducted the Athenian fleet to Asia Minor. The Spartan, Ly- 
 sander, had in the mean time assumed the command here, and 
 the brother of the future king of Persia, Artaxerxes IL, the 
 younger Cyrus (son of Darius II.), a friend of the Spartans, had 
 become satrap of Asia Minor. While Alcibiades was engaged 
 on a foraging expedition in the country around I^hoca:a, the 
 
I. c. Greeks. 69 
 
 Athenian fleet was involved by the junior commanders in an 
 enj^ao-enient, and defeated by Lysander in the 
 
 :07. Battle of Notium, in the gulf of Ephesus. 
 
 On account of this misfortune, Alcibiades was deposed from 
 his command. He retired to the Hellespont, and died in 404. 
 The new Spartan admiral Callicratides, surrounded the Athenian 
 
 leet under Conon at Mytiltne. The Athenians with the greatest ex- 
 
 rtions fitted out a new fleet, which hastened to the aid of Conon. 
 
 The united Athenian fleet completely defeated the Pelopomiesians in 
 
 he great 
 
 t06. Battle of Arginusae, 
 
 >ept. {al Apyivovaai, small islands off the coast of Asia Minor, east 
 of Lesbos). Six of the victorious generals were sentenced to 
 death in Athens for having abandoned shipwrecked troops in a 
 storm and not buried the bodies, and were actually executed. 
 
 Lysander, again appointed admiral by the Spartans, defeated and 
 mnihilated the Athenian fleet in the 
 
 105. Battle of ^gospotami (Alyhs TroTa/xol, goat river), opposite 
 A.ug. ? Lampsacus. Conon escaped with eight ships. Slaughter of 
 3000 Athenian prisoners. Lysander, having flrst completely 
 destroyed the Athenian power on the coasts and islands, and 
 everywhere established oligarchical constitutions, appeared with 
 the Peloponuesian fleet before Pirseus, while the Peloponnesian 
 army enclosed Athens on the land side. Starvation caused 
 the 
 
 404. Surrender of Athens and end of the war. 
 ^pril. The walls of Pirteus, and the long walls between the city 
 and the harbors, were torn down. All ships of war but twelve 
 were delivered to the enemy. The democracy was overthrown, 
 and the government entrusted to thirty men of the oligarchical 
 party. 
 
 404-371. Second Hegemony of the Spartans. 
 404-403. Government of the so-called Thirty Tyrants, of Avhora 
 the best known is Critias, at Athens. 
 The Thirty, instead of forming a new constitution, endeavored to 
 secure the permanent control of the state, and to strengthen their 
 power by receiving a Spartan garrison in the Acropolis, and by nnmer- 
 3US executions. At last, one of the Thirty, Theramenes, was put to 
 leath at the instance of Critias. Thrasybulus assembled the demo- 
 ratic fugitives in Phyle, defeated the troops of the Thirty, and seized 
 Pirajus ; Critias was slain. Ten more moderate oligarchs took the 
 place of the Thirty. Through the mediation of Pausamas, king of 
 Sparta, an understanding was reached between Thrasybiilus and the 
 oligarchs in Athens. Tbe remainder of the Thirty were put to death. 
 General amnesty. Reestablishment of a moderate democracy. The 
 government was rearranged by the revision of the laws made by 
 Euclides (403). 
 
 401-400. Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon (p. 29). 
 399. Socrates (4G9-399) executed in Athens by poison. His 
 scholar, Plato (427-348). 
 
70 Ancient History, b. c 
 
 |).C. 
 
 399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. Thcj 51 
 Persian satrap, Tissaphernes, attempted to punish the Greel 
 cities of Asia Minor for their share in the expedition of the 
 younger Cyrus. The Spartans came to the aid of the cities. 
 at first under Thibron, then under Derci/Uidas, finally under 
 Agesildus. The latter forced his way into Asia and defeated 
 Tissaphernes, who was executed by command of his successor.! 
 Tithraustes. Persian gold produced the 
 
 395-387. Corinthian war against Sparta, whose liarmosts (apfioo-rai,^^ 
 governors) had made themselves universally hated. Coalition 
 of Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, joined by Athens. The Spartani 
 
 395. Lysander fell at Haliatus in Bceotia, in battle with the allies.^i 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet was defeated in the 
 
 394. Battle of Cindus by the Athenian Conon and the Persian^ 
 satrap Pharnabazus. The Spartan harmosts were driven fromi 
 the Grecian cities of Asia Minor. Agesildus was recalled,! 
 traversed Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, and defeated thei 
 allies in the 
 
 394. Battle of Coronea in western Bceotia. Conon and the Per- 
 sian satrap Pharnabazus plundered the coasts of Laconia. Conon 
 rebuilt the (2) long walls with Persian money. After some 
 years of fighting, in which Iphicrdtes and Chabnas were the 
 Athenian leaders, the 
 
 387. Peace of Antalcidas was concluded between the Grecian states 
 and the Persians. It took its name from the Spartan admiral 
 who was sent as envoy to Susa. The Grecian cities of Asia « 
 Minor and the islands of Clazomence and Cyprus were abandoned I) 
 to the Persians. The Athenians retained control of LemnoSy 
 Imbros, and Scyros only ; all other states and islands were to be 
 independent under Spartan and Persian guaranty. 
 
 379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta, caused by the 
 occupation of the Cadmea in Thebes (383) by the Spartan 
 Phcebidas, who was urged to take this step by the aristocratic 
 party in Thebes, as he was conducting an army through Bceotia 
 against Olynthus. 
 The Tlieban democrats had taken refuge in Athens, whence under 
 Pelopidas they liberated Thebes in 379 and compelled the Spartans 
 to withdraw from the Cadmea. Cleombrotus and Agesildus were dis- 
 patched to Bceotia, but met with little success. The Spartans at- 
 tempted to surprise Pirfeus. This induced the Athenians to enter 
 into open alliance Avith Thebes. They founded a new confederacy 
 (symmachy), embracing seventy communities, under more just con- 
 ditions than those of the first league (378). The Spartans were re- 
 peatedly defeated at sea by the Athenians Chabrias, Phocion, and 
 Timotheus. Peace between Sparta and Athens. Cleombrotus invaded 
 Bceotia anew, but in the 
 
 371. Battle of Leuctra, he was defeated by Epaminondas, and 
 fell on the field. 
 
 371-362. Hegemony of the Thebans. 
 
. C. Greeks. 71 
 
 70. First invasion of Peloponnesus by the Tliebans, under Epam- 
 inondas and Pelopvlas in order to protect the Arcadians, 
 who had revolted from Sparta. Megalopolis founded. \\i 
 attack by the Thebans on Sparta proved unsuccessful, but 
 they ravas^ed Laconia and proclaimed the independence of the 
 Messenians. Foundation of Measme. The Athenians came to 
 the aid of the Spartans. Retreat of the Thebans. 
 »69. Second Theban invasion of Peloponnesus. 
 j( »67. Third invasion. Sicyon revolted from Sparta. Tlie third in- 
 vasion produced a momentary alliance of Achaia and Thebes. 
 The Corinthians and Phliasians concluded peace with Tliebes. 
 In the north the Thebans sent several expeditions a<j^ainst the 
 tyrant Alexander of Pherre for the liberation of the Tliessalians. 
 On the second expedition Pelopidas was captured, but soon set 
 free by Epaminondas ; on a new expedition he fell as victor at 
 564. Cynocephdke (nuvhs Ke(i)a\al). 
 
 Fourth expedition of the Tliebans against Pelopomiesus. Epam- 
 .nondas fell in the 
 
 362. Battle of Mantinea as victor against the Spartans and their 
 allies (among others (3000 Athenians). 
 General peace between the Grecian states, which the Spartans 
 xlone refused to accept, not being willing to acknowledge the inde- 
 pendence of Messenia. Agesildus went to Egypt to the assistance of 
 the rebels under Tachos, whose fleet was commanded by the Athe- 
 nian Chabrias. Agesildus died on the voyage home (358). 
 
 Rise of the Macedonian power. 
 
 359-336. Philip (^iKnnTos), son of Amyntas, had passed three years 
 (308-365) in Thebes as a hostage, and had there learned to 
 appreciate Grecian culture and military science through intercourse 
 with Epaminondas and other men of note. After the death of his 
 brother, Perdiccas, he succeeded him as king of the Macedonians at 
 the age of twenty-three. Gifted with courage and a clear political 
 insight, he strengthened the royal power in a country torn by party 
 strife, defended the borders against the restless Pceonian and Illyrian 
 tribes, and established a standing army (^Phalanx). After he had 
 given his own state a firm organization, he turned his attention to 
 extending his power along the Thracian coast, and by cumiing trick- 
 ery encroached on the Athenian territory. He captured Amphipolis 
 (357), Pydna, Potidcea, gained possession of the Thracian mines, con- 
 cluded an alliance with Olynthus agamst the Athenians, and founded 
 Philippi} 
 
 357-355. Social w^ar of the Athenian league against Athens. 
 Since 378 Athens had regained nuich of her former influence. 
 It was speedily lost. Chios, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium 
 revolted. Chabrias perished in the harbor of Chios. Iphicrates 
 and Timotheus, leaders of the Athenians. The latter were 
 forced to acknowledge the independence of their former allies. 
 
 355-346. Second Holy War against the Phocians, who 
 i Curtius, Hist, of Greece, V. 60. 
 
72 Ancient History. b. c.1 
 
 had been condemned by the Amphictyonic council to pay ani 
 enornioiis fine for having' used the holy land of Cirrlia (p. 52), 
 which was consecrated to the Delphian Apollo. The Thebans 
 managed to have the collection of the fine entrusted to them- • 
 selves. 
 
 The Phocians plundered the temple of Delphi and were thereby\l 
 enabled to maintain by means of mercenary troops a long and! 
 dubious war against Thebans, Locrians, and Tliessalians. Leaders of 
 the Phocians, Philomelus (f 354), Onomarchus, his brother Phayllus, 
 and son Phalcecus. After a long contest Onomarchus fell (352) 
 in battle against Philip of Macedonia, whose entrance into central 
 Greece was prevented by an Athenian army at Thermopylffi. At a 
 later period Philip was called upon by the Thebans for assistance 
 against the victorious Phalcecus. The Phocians forced by Philip, who )i 
 had subdued the Tliessalians and secured Thermopylae, to lay downi 
 their arms; their cities were deprived of their walls by a decree off 
 the Amphictyonic council; the inhabitants were separated into vil-- 
 lages, and made tributary to the Delphian god, Philip was elected I 
 to the Amphictyonic council in place of the Phocians. 
 
 Philip, whose power had steadily increased, had been at war with 
 Athens since his occupation of Amphipolis. In Athens Demos- 
 thenes (383-322), smce 351, when he delivered liis first Philippic, 
 was the soul of an organization of a national opposition to the threat- 
 ening power of Macedonia.^ 
 
 Olynthus, having revolted from Philip and made peace with 
 Athens, was hard pressed by the king, and begged aid from Athens. . 
 The three Olynthiac orations of Demosthenes. Before the arrival 
 of the Athenian assistance Philip captured Olynthus by treachery 
 and destroyed the city (348), as well as a large number of smaller 
 places in Chalcidice, and sold the inliabitants as slaves. 
 
 The opponents of Demosthenes, Eubulus and .^schines (Alax^vrts). 
 Formation of a Macedonian party m Athens. Negotiations with 
 Philip, which, in spite of the opposition of Demosthenes, led to the 
 shameful peace of Philocrates (346), which left all conquests in the 
 hands of the king. A complaint being entered at Athens by Hy- 
 perides against Philocrates, he went into exile. Demosthenes lodged 
 a complaint against ^schines, who was declared not guilty (343). 
 
 Philip endeavored to extend his power to the Propontis and the 
 Pontus Euxinus, and founded numerous colonies in Thrace {Philip- 
 popoUs). The national party at Athens succeeded in forming a 
 league of Hellenic states (among others Megdra, Achaia, Corinth), 
 under the lead of Athens agahist Philip. The kmg besieged 
 Perinth and Byzantium in vain. The Athenians declared war against 
 him, sent a fleet and an army to Byzantium, and forced him to raise 
 the siege. Athens derived her supply of gram from the countries on 
 the Black Sea; hence her sensitiveness in regard to Byzantium, which 
 was the key to the Euxine. 
 
 339-338. Third Holy War (against Amphissa). At the insti- 
 gation of Philip (^^schines) the Amphictyonic council had 
 decreed the punishment of the Locrians of Amphissa for hav* 
 1 A. Scliaefer, Demosthenes u. seine Zeit. 
 
: 
 
 B. C. Greeks. 73 
 
 int^- occupied some grouiul wliich was consecrated to Apollo. 
 Philip, entrusted with the execution of the sentence by the 
 Aniphictyons, seized Elatca, wliich commanded the entrance 
 to Bteotia. Great dismay in Greece. The Athenians fitted 
 out a fleet and an army at the instance of Demosthenes, who 
 went in person to Thebes and induced the Thebans to form an 
 alliance with Athens. The allied Thebans and Athenians were 
 defeated in the 
 
 338. Battle of Chseronea (Xaipwi/eia) by Philij), whose son 
 Aii>^-. Alexander decided the battle l)y annihilating the Holy 
 
 Band of the Thebans. Philip punished the Thebans severely and 
 placed a garrison in the Cadmea; to the Athenians he granted 
 a favorable peace. Peace of Demades. He advanced into 
 Pelopomiesus, took a large part of her territory from Sparta, 
 and divided it among the Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. 
 
 Macedonian Hegemony. At a national assembly at Corinth, 
 where the Spartans only did not appear, Philip caused himself 
 to be chosen leader (with dictatorial power) of the Grecian 
 forces against the Persians (^o-rpaTTjyhs avTOKpdrwp tcSu 'EWtjuwu). 
 In other respects the Grecian cantons were to retam their 
 autonomy; a congress {aweSpiov} at Corinth should adjust 
 their differences. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 Graeco-Macedonian or Hellenistic Epoch down to the Sub- 
 jugation of Greece by the Romans (338-146). 
 
 After the murder of Philip, who was on the point of beginning 
 the war against Persia, by Pausanias (336), the Macedonian throne 
 was occupied by his son, who had been educated by Aristotle 
 ('ApicrTOT€\r]s, 384-322), and was now 20 years old. 
 
 336-323. Alexander the Great ('A\e^ai/Spos).i 
 
 He forced the Greeks to transfer to him the Hegemony and the 
 command against the Persians, quickly reduced the revolted Thracians 
 (Triballians), Getce and Illyrians in the north, appeared on the news of 
 a Grecian uprising (of the Athenians and Thebans) for the second time 
 in Greece, defeated the Thebans, destroyed Thebes ynth. the exception 
 of the house of the poet Pindar (522-442 ?), and sold the inhabitants 
 as slaves. The terrified Athenians submitted and were pardoned. 
 Antipdter left as vicegerent in Macedonia. In 330 revolt of the 
 Spartans put down by Antipater in the bloody battle of Megalopolis, 
 where oOOO Spartans, under their king Agis II., met a heroic death. 
 
 334. Expedition of Alexander against Persia," 
 Spring. which was not merely a war of conquest, but also a scien- 
 
 1 Droysen, Geschichte Alexanders des Grosscn (Gcschichte des Ilellenismus, 
 2 Anil., 1877, Th. I. with 5 maps bj' R. Kieport). Hertzberg, Die asiatischen 
 Feldziif/e Alexanders d. Gr., with a map bv H. Kie|)t'rt. 
 
 * For the route, see Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 
 
74 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 tific expedition, and a journey of" discovery. Alexander crossed 
 the Hellespont at Ahydos with 30,000 infantry and 5000 cav- 
 alry (generals: Perdiccas, Clitus, Parmenio, Hephcestio, Craterus, 
 Ptolemceus, Antigunus), defeated the Persian satraps and Mem- 
 non, leader of the Grecian mercenaries of Darius, completely 
 in the 
 
 334. Battle of the Granicus (a rivulet in Troas). 
 
 Rescue of Alexander by CUtus. Advancing through Mysia and 
 Lydia, Alexander proclaimed the freedom of the Grecian cities and 
 islands from Persian rule, conquered Miletus and Halicarnassus, and 
 traversed Caria and Lycia. Prevented from advancing further by 
 the steep mountains, he went northward through the land of the Pisi- 
 dians to Phrygia by way of Celcence, Gordium (tlie Gordian knot), and 
 through Cappadocia to Cilicia (bath in the Cydnus). At Tarsus he 
 was taken ill, but speedily recovering (potion of the physician Philip- 
 pus) he passed through the Syrian Gates to Myriandrus on the coast 
 in Syria. Meantime the Persian king, Darius III. (p. 29) had ap- 
 proached from the Euphrates with a large army and got to the rear 
 of the Macedonians. On hearing this, Alexander turned back from 
 Syria and gained a brilliant victory over the Persians in the 
 333. Battle of Issus, in Cilicia. 
 
 Nov. An immense number of Persians fell; the rest were captured 
 or scattered. Darius escaped, but his mother, his wives, and 
 daughters fell into the hands of the victor. 
 In order to completely destroy the Persian power at sea, Alexander 
 conquered Syria, Phoenicia, where he besieged Tyre for seven months, 
 and Palestine, advanced into Egypt without opposition, and went 
 from Pelusium to Memphis. Foundation of Alexandria on a well- 
 chosen site. Expedition across the Libyan desert to the oracle of 
 Zeus Ammon in the oasis of Sivah. Leaving Egypt, Alexander passed 
 through Palestine and Syria by way of Damascus, crossed the Eu- 
 phrates at Thapsacus, traversed Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and 
 defeated the Persian army, Avhich outnumbered his own 20 times, in 
 the 
 
 331. Battle of Gaugamela or Arbela (ra "Ap^eXa), 
 Oct. not far from the ruins of Nineveh. While Darius fled north- 
 ward, Alexander crossed the Tigris a second time, entered 
 Babylon without resistance, traversed Babylonia, crossed the 
 Tigris a third time, captured the capital of Persia, Susa in 
 Susiana, and traversed Persis. Capture of Pasargddce and 
 PersepoUs. 
 In the spring of 330 Alexander set out in pursuit of Darius. 
 Crossing Media to Ecbatana in the north, he hastened through the- 
 Caspian gates to Parthia. There, in the neighborhood of Heea- 
 tompylos, Darius Codomannus was murdered (330) by the satrap 
 Bessus, who fled to Bactria and assumed the royal title. After an 
 expedition northward to Hyrcania against the Grecian mercenaries, 
 Alexander traversed Parthia toward the east, turned southward, for 
 the purpose of punishing an insurrection of satraps, and crossed 
 Aria and Drangiana. In Prophihasia discovery of the conspiracy of 
 
5. C. Greeks. 75 
 
 f hilotas, wlio was eoiuleimied by the army and executed ; his father, 
 Parmenio, was put to death in EcbatCina (330) at Alexander's eoni- 
 nand. 
 
 Alexander now crossed Arachosia in a northeasterly direction, 
 'rossed the Paropanisus (p. 24), or Indian Caucasus, in the spring 
 )f 329 (foundation of a navf Alexandria), advanced into Bactria, pur- 
 uied Bessus. who had retreated beyond the Oxus, but was delivered 
 ;o Alexandei", and idtimately crucified. Alexander went northward 
 is far as the Jaxartes (the modern Sir Daria), where he founded 
 ilexandria Eschdta; after some short expeditions against the nomades 
 [Scythians) on the other side of the Jaxartes, he remained for some 
 time in Sogdiana (murder of Clitus in 328 in Maracanda, now 
 vimarcand), after which he went to Bactria. Marriage witli Rox- 
 aua, daughter of a Bactrian prince. Alexander began at this time 
 to adopt oriental clothing and customs. 
 
 327. Expedition of Alexander to India. 
 
 Having once more crossed the Paropanisus, Alexander, after sharp 
 fighting with the mountain tribes, reached the Indus, crossed it, and 
 entered tlie Punjab (country of five rivers). In alliance with the 
 Indian prince Taxiles, at the 
 
 326. Battle of the Hydaspes ( FiVas^a, now Ihelum) 
 
 he defeated Porus, and took him prisoner, treated him, how- 
 ever, with magnanimity, and replaced him on his throne as a 
 dependent prince. 
 Foundation of Niccea and BucepMla. Alexander w^ent eastward 
 as far as the Hyphasis (Vipa^a, now Vjdsa, or Bey as), when the 
 Macedonian soldiers refused to go farther, and compelled him to re- 
 turn to the Hydaspes. Construction of a fleet of some liOOO (?) 
 ships, which conveyed a portion of the army down the Hydaspes to 
 the Acesines (now Chenaub), while the remaining part (with 200 ele- 
 phants) marched along the shore. Contest with the Malli. Alex- 
 ander's rash bravery and severe wound. After his recovery the fleet 
 and army proceeded, and finally reached the junction of the united 
 Punjab rivers with the Indus. In 325 army and fleet went down 
 the Indus. Craterus returned to Persis with a part of the army by 
 the short route to the west. Alexander continued with the fleet and 
 land force to the delta of the Indus, where the fleet under Nearchus 
 entered the Indian Ocean. Ebb and Jiow of the tide. Nearchus 
 coasted to the west, and discovered the entrance to the Persian Gulf, 
 while Alexander conducted the rest of the army through the desert 
 of Gedrosia (Baluchistan). After terrible suffering and severe loss 
 he arrived in Carmania, met Craterus, and later Nearchus on the 
 coast. The latter was dispatched to discover the mouths of the Tigris 
 and Euphrates. 
 
 324. Return of Alexander to Persis ; arraignment and punishment 
 Jan. of the avaricious and cruel governors who had given up tlie 
 king and his army for lost. Arrival in Susa. Here Alexan- 
 der disclosed his great plan of Hellenizing the East, uniting 
 the victor and the vanquished into one great nation and found- 
 ing a great Macedonian-Persian universal empire on a 
 
76 Ancient History. b. o 
 
 •basis of equality of the Gi-ffico-Maeedonian and the Oriental po 
 pulation. Marriage of Alexander with the eldest daughter o: 
 Darius III. and the youngest sister of Artaxerxes III., whih 
 Hephcestion took to wife the youngest daughter of Darius III 
 Eighty Macedonian officers married Persian ladies of gooo 
 family, and in consequence of rewards offered by the kingi 
 10,000 Macedonians took Persian wives. Great plans for open^ 
 ing commercial relations with other nations and for the con 
 struction of roads on a large scale. Alexander, as successoii 
 of the Great King, required to be worshipped as a divinity. I 
 324. A mutiny of the Macedonian army at Opis on the Tigris was 
 July, quelled by Alexander's courage and wisdom. The veterans 
 were disbanded after receiving great rewards and sent tc 
 Macedonia under Crater us, while Antipdter was to bring new 
 troops thence. Death of HephcEStion. Alexander undertoo' 
 the exploration of the Euphrates. 
 
 323. Death of Alexander the Great, 
 
 June, at Babylon, which he had destined for the capital of the newi 
 empire. 
 
 323-276. Wars of the Diadochi (successors of Alex-j 
 ander.)^ I 
 
 These long and complicated contests, which broke out immediately^! 
 after the death of Alexander, destroyed the newly founded universal 
 empire, but carried on successfully in another way the work which 
 Alexander had begun of Hellenizing the east, and spreading Grecian 
 language and culture. {^Hellenistic language, ^ kolvt) S/aAe/cros), so thatt! 
 the new Persian empire which afterwards grew up on tliis ground 
 was very different from the old Persian monarchy, and a worthy 
 rival of its great opponent, the empire of Rome. 
 
 Perdiccas became regent in Asia for Alexander's half brother 
 Philip Arrhidceus and his posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander. An- 
 tipater and Craterus shared the regency of the west. The other 
 generals received lieutenancies : Ptolemaeus, Egypt ; Antigonus, 
 Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycla; Eumenes, Alexander's secretary, Pa- 
 phlygonia and Cappadocia, which however he had first to subdue; 
 Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the Hellespont. The plan 
 of Perdiccas, who married Alexander's sister, to make himself king, 
 caused a league of the other generals against him. Perdiccas was 
 nmrdered by his own troops while on an expedition against Ptolemseus 
 (321). The new regent, Antipater, made a new assignment of the 
 lieutenancies, wherein Seleucus obtained the satrapy of Babylon. 
 After the death of Antipater (319) a war followed between his son 
 Cassander, and the aged Polysperchon over the regency. Antigonus, 
 in league with Cassander, was victorious in Asia over Eumenes, who 
 was betrayed by his own soldiers and whom he executed, while Cas- 
 sander was victorious in Europe (316). Lysimachus made himself 
 master of the lieutenancy of Thrace. 
 
 Antigonus wishing to bring the whole empire under his sceptre, a 
 
 1 Droysen, Geschichle des Hellenismus, 2 Ed. Pt. 2 u. 3, 1877, 78 
 
B. C. Greeks. 11 
 
 l4315-301. war broke out between Antigonus and tbe otber 
 generals, 
 
 III in the course of which Antigonus and his son Demetrius 
 
 Poliorcetes {Uo\iopKr)T'ns) assumed the royal title (300). 
 Their example was followed by Seleucus, L//sini<ich>(s, Cassander. 
 During- this i)eriod, atinie abounding in hoirors, every luendjer 
 of the royal family of Alexander j)erished, mostly by murder. 
 
 ]His ambitious and cruel mother Olympias was condemned to 
 death at the histance of Cassander, and stoned by the relatives 
 of her own victims. 
 After a long contest attended with varying success, the war against 
 Antigomis was ended by the 
 301. Battle of Ipsus {"Ixl/os in Phrygia). 
 
 Antigonus fell, his son Demetrius fled and led for many years 
 an adventurous life as a pirate. 
 In Europe the war still lasted. After the death of Cassander (296), 
 his two sons quarreled about the succession. Demetrius took the 
 opportunity to seize the supreme power in Macedonia and Greece. 
 He lost his power indeed through arrogance and desire for conquest 
 after a reign of seven years, but his son Antigonus Gonatas after a 
 changeful career gained permanent possession of Macedonia (278). 
 
 Thus after many divisions and the formation of many sovereignties 
 of but short duration, there grew up out of the Macedonian-Persian 
 universal empire, five monarchies, of decidedly Hellenistic character, 
 in which Greek was the language of the court and the government, 
 of inscriptions and coinage, and of the educated classes, and in some 
 of which Grecian art, literature and learning reached a high develop- 
 ment. Nevertheless, these five monarchies, from their formation to 
 their fall, bore the imprint of the deepest moral decay. These five 
 states, to which we must add the republic of Rhodes and the Grecian 
 Cantons, were : 
 
 1. Egypt under the Ptolemies or Lagidse with its capital 
 
 at Alexandria. 
 
 Ptolemceus I. (323-285), called Soter, i. e. saviour, because he sent 
 aid to the Rhodians, or Lagi, i. e. son of Lagus, founder of the king- 
 dom. Ptolenueus II. (285-247) called Philadelphus from being the 
 husband of his sister Arsinde; foundation of the museum with the Alex- 
 andrine library. Ptolemceus III. (247-221), called Euergetes, i. e. 
 benefactor, by the priests, temporary conquest of Caria, Lycia, Cilicia, 
 Cyprus. Ptolemceus IV., Philopater (221-205), decline of the power 
 of the monarchy. Ptolemceus V., Epiphdnes (205-181); Egypt be- 
 comes dependent on the Romans. 
 
 2. Syria, under the Seleucidae. Ca})ital at first Seleucia, 
 
 on the Tigris, afterwards Antiochia on the Orontes. 
 
 Seleucus I. Nicator (312-280), founder of the kingdom. AntiocJius 
 I. Soter (280-262). Antiochus II. Theos (2G2-247). Seleucus II. 
 (247-227). Seleucus III (227-224). Antiochus III. the Great (224- 
 187). Defeated at Magnesia (190) by the Romans, Antiochus was 
 
78 Ancient Hlstury. B. C. 
 
 compelled to accept a peace, which struck the kingdom of the Seleu- 
 
 cidje from the roll of the great powers. 
 
 The following states separated themselves from the Syrian realm of 
 
 the Seleucidse, and did not belong to the Hellenistic system of states. 
 
 278. a. The confederacy of the Galatians (p. 35) in Asia Minor, , 
 between Bithynia, Phrygia, Lycaonia and Cappadocia, founded 
 by Gallic tribes, who, during the wars of the Diodochi, had 
 ravaged Macedonia and Greece, crossed the Hellespont and 
 in 278 settled in Asia Minor. They consisted of the three 
 tribes of Trocmi, Tectdsages and Tolistohoii (each under four 
 Tetrarchs) with the three capitals Tavia, Ancyra and Pessinm. 
 In the first century before Christ, Deiotdrus became king of 
 all Galatia, which Augustus made a Roman province. 
 
 250. b. The Parthians (p. 29) who under the Arsacidae (250 
 B. c. to 226 A. D.) conquered all lands between the Euphrates 
 and the Indus, and formed a dam, in the east, first against the 
 Hellenistic and afterwards against the Roman power. 
 
 167. c. The Jews under the Maccabees (p. 11). 
 
 The two following countries were never dependent on the emjjire 
 
 of the Seleucidae. 
 
 a. Pontus, which had, it is true, submitted to Alexander the Great, 
 but was recognized as independent under its own kings of Persian 
 descent (of the Achfemenidfe it was claimed, p. 25), by the victors 
 at Ipsus (p. 77). The last kings were Mithridates VI. the Great, 
 and his son Phamaces (see Roman History, Fourth Period, p. 129). 
 
 b. Armenia, although kings of Armenia first appear after the 
 battle of Magnesia, (190). 
 
 3. The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalidae, Capi- 
 
 tal, Pergamus in Mysia. 
 Founded by Philetcerus (283-263) who had been appointed gov- 
 ernor by Lys'imachus. Eumenes I. (263-241). Attdlus I. (241-197). 
 Eumenes 11. (197-159), founder of the library of Pergamus. Atta- 
 ins II. (159-138). Attdlus III. (138-133), who bequeathed the 
 kingdom to the Romans. 
 
 4. Bithynia. Capital, Nicomedia. 
 
 Founded by iV^icome^es /. (277-250?). ZeiYas (250-228?). Pru- 
 sias I. (228-183), with whom Hannibal took refuge. Prusias II. 
 (183-149). Nicomedes II. (149-91). Nicomcdes III. (91-75), who 
 bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 
 
 5. Macedonia under the descendants of Demetrius Poli- 
 
 orcetes. Capital, Pella. 
 Antigonus Gonatas (278-239). Demetrius II. (239-229). Antigonus 
 Doson (229-221). Philip V. (Ill), (221-179) defeated by the 
 Romans at Cynoscephdlce (197). Perseus (179-168). After the battle 
 of Pydna (168) Macedonia became a dependency of Rome, in 146 
 it was made a Roman province (p. 122). 
 
 6. The island of Rhodes (To'So?), 
 
 iince the battle of Ipsus (301) an independent state ; since the sec- 
 
B. C. 
 
 Greeks. 79 
 
 Olid century (b. c.,) dependent ally of the Romans ; made a province 
 by the Emperor Vespasian, 71 A. D. 
 
 7. The Greek cantons, 
 
 under the lead of Athens, made a futile attempt, immediately after 
 the death of Alexander the Great, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. 
 From the city of Lamia in Thessaly, in the neighborhood of which 
 the war was principally waged, it was known as the 
 
 323-322. Lamian War. 
 
 The Greeks were at first successful under Leosthenes, and defeated 
 Leoimdtus, but were defeated by Antipdter and Craterus at Crannon, 
 south of the Peneus. The cantons submitted one after another. 
 The Athenians were compelled to receive a Macedonian garrison in 
 MumjcMa and to give up their democratic constitution. (Phocion 
 and Demddes, the political leaders). Citizenship was regulated by a 
 property census. Demosthenes fled and took poison on the island of 
 Calauria (Argolis). During the war between Cassander and Polys- 
 perchon (p. 76) the democratic party regained its supremacy in Athens, 
 and Phocion was executed ; later, however, Demetrius of Phaleron^ 
 the political companion of Phocion, became under Macedonian su- 
 premacy, the ruler of the Athenian commonwealth (317-307). In 
 the course of the wars of the Diadochi Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 gained possession of Athens several times and made the Acropolis 
 the scene of the greatest debauchery (307-295). The last attempt to 
 throw off the Macedonian yoke and regain its old importance in 
 Greece was made by Athens under Glaucon and Chremomdes in 
 263 B. c. but it was defeated after a three years' war and continued 
 to be tributary to the Macedonians. Thenceforward Athens had no 
 political influence in Greece ; it retained, however, its autonomy as 
 regarded its municipal administration, and continued to be the seat of 
 culture and learning. 
 
 Thessaly, during this period, was a Macedonian province ; Epirus 
 was for a time a separate state, afterwards it was allied with Mace- 
 donia. Most of the cantons of central Greece and Peloponnesus became 
 allies, more or less dependent, of the Macedonian sovereigns. The 
 complete subjugation of Greece by Macedonia was prevented by the 
 
 280. .^tolian League founded about 280, and the Achaean 
 
 League which was renewed at the same time. 
 Tlie latter grew to considerable power and acquired the hegemony 
 in Peloponnesus after it was joined by Sicyon (251) which was 
 freed from its tyrants by Aratus, and by Corinth (243), which Ara- 
 tus had freed from the Macedonian garrison. 
 
 Jealous of this hegemony the ^tolian League and Sparta, wliich 
 had completely lost her ancient simplicity of life, and was in the 
 hands of a wealthy oligarchy, joined forces against the Achfean 
 League. The young king Agis IV. paid with his life for liis attempt 
 to induce a reform of the Spartan state (241 ?). A similar at- 
 tempt made by King Cleomtnes III. had better success, though for a 
 time only : he caused the ephors to be surprised and put to death, 
 
80 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. 
 Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinta, and waged successful war 
 against the Acluean League. Aratus sought aid against Sparta from 
 the Macedonian king Antigonus Boson, and delivered the Acropolis 
 of Corinth into his hands. 
 
 The Spartans were defeated in the 
 
 221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laconia). 
 
 Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The 
 Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon 
 the Spartans an alliance with the Achrean League, now under Mace- 
 donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- 
 volved in a war with the iEtolian League, during which the Spartans 
 took sides against the Achseans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- 
 aged (220-217). 
 
 About this time the ^^tolian League formed an alliance with the 
 Romans against Philip V. {III.), of Macedonia, who was allied with 
 Hannibal. (First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, 
 p. 116). 
 
 Philopoemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- 
 came Strategus of the Achsean League in 207, and defeated the 
 Spartans under their tyrant, Machanidas, in the 
 
 206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second 
 Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achcean 
 League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. {III.), 
 who, after the battle of CynoscephaUe (197), was forced to 
 abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed 
 the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support 
 everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- 
 ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- 
 quently appealed to as arbitrators. 
 After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nahis, 
 Philopoemen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter 
 the Achaean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to 
 death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- 
 stance of Deinocrdtes (183). After the death of Philopoemen, decline 
 of the poTver of the Achaean League, which made a final exertion in 
 the so-called Achaean war against the Romans, which ended with 
 the 
 
 Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 
 
 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth, 
 
 The Corinthians were sold as slaves; a part of their land was 
 given to Sicyon ; the rest became the property of the Roman 
 state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- 
 ness, and for the most part retained their own administration 
 and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of 
 Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and 
 Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province 
 under the name of Achaia. 
 
C. Roman History. 81 
 
 II, 
 
 ir §3. ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 
 
 (See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VIL, VIII., and IX.) 
 
 Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of 
 le peninsula, which is traversed hy the Apennines and extended to 
 le Macra and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before 
 hrist ; as applied to the ichole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was 
 i-st employed in scientific usage by Polyhius (about 150) ; it was not 
 sed officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- 
 ustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and 
 lovrer Italy. 
 
 I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Fadns (Po), and the 
 [th<^sis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- 
 dnus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Bena- 
 us (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before 
 Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, 
 ^ercellce (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, 
 ?urin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, 
 [1 distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bra- 
 ata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- 
 ■lum (Como) ; Mediolanum (Milano, Milan) ; Ticlnum (Pavia), on the 
 Ficlnus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the 
 Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, 
 he birthplace of Vh'gil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- 
 iana: Placentia CPiacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the 
 ^adus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in 
 mcient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace 
 Livius, Aquiltia. 
 
 IT. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and 
 Rubicon in the N., Sildrus and Frento in the S., was usually divided 
 nto six districts : Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhe- 
 mm, or Inferum; Umbria, Pioenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad~ 
 -iaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N, to S., divided 
 Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The 
 lame of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern 
 nland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were 
 related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa- 
 rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marrucmi 
 and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts 
 of the Sabines, Pceligni, and Marsi. 
 
 1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in 
 twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- 
 federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly 
 loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: 
 Pisfc, Volaterrre, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west 
 of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusiuin (Chiusi), 
 Volsinii, Tar(iuinii, Falerii, CcerCy Veii 
 6 
 
82 Ancient History. b. qi b. 
 
 2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini : Roma, oi' 
 the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trasteven 
 and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of tin 
 city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on sevei 
 hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Ccclius, Esquilinus. 
 colles : Viminalis, Quirinalls). ^ On the southern summit of the 
 Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol* 
 inus, and the Tarpeian Rock; on the northern summit, separatee 
 from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple o\ 
 Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romdnum (tlw 
 market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitiwn. 
 with the speakers' platform {Rostra, named from the prows of the 
 ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the 
 republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g^ 
 Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but 
 masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the' 
 palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flaviumi 
 (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to tliei 
 Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martius, during the republic 
 an open field used for military practice, atldetic sports, and political 
 gatherings, after Csesar and during the imperial period covered 
 with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The: 
 buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urhs 
 proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, par- 
 tially on the Mojis Vaticanus, where the Vatican and the church of | 
 St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum' 
 Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must^ 
 be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads 
 ran from Rome in various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to 
 the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to 
 the W., etc. 
 
 Ostia,^ the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed 1| 
 at the time of the kings; under the emperors a second harbor, Portns, 
 on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suei<.-^a 
 Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitrm not far distant. Alba 
 Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, 
 Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the 
 Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the 
 brook Allior. 
 
 In the land of the jEqui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. 
 In the land of the Hernicce, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, 
 Fregellce, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, 
 Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptme marshes. 
 In the land of the Aruncii : Formice, Minturnce, on the Liris (Gari- 
 gliano) ; Suessa (Aurunca), near the Afons Massicus and the Ager 
 Falernus (famous wines). 
 
 1 The expression " seven-hilled city " applies properly to old Rome, the pala- 
 tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republicnn Rome is the result of a 
 later misunderstandnij^. The description of the city of the time of Con- ; 
 staatine, leaves out the two colles, Qiiirindlis and Vimincdis, and increases the i 
 number of montes to 7 by addini,' the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which '\ 
 lay outside of the city proper. See Momnisen, Hist, of Rome, I. 116, note, j! 
 
B. c. Jiomnn History. 83 
 
 8. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the 
 mountains (faums and V'^esucius near Naples. Two bays separated 
 from one another by a rocky istlimus: Sinus Cwnanus (Bay of 
 Naples), and Sinus Pcestnnus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: 
 Liternum; Cumce (Kv/xr], founded by a colony from Chalcis in P]uba3a 
 in 1050 ?) ; Alisemun near the promontory of similar name ; 
 Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Bai(r. near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering 
 place ; Parthenope or PalcwpoUs, the oldest part of NeapoUs (NidiroKis, 
 Napoli, Naples); Herculaneiun and Pompeii, buried in 70 a. d. by 
 lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernurn on the Sinus P;estanus, the 
 chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: 
 Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an 
 immense amphitheatre; Nola. 
 
 4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena 
 Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentlnum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 
 
 5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum. 
 
 0. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the 
 Sahini : ^miVernum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures^Reate. In the land 
 of the Pceligni : Corfinium ; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium 
 proper: Bovianum; vEsernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mal- 
 ventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudiue Pass {Furculce 
 Caudince). 
 
 III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna 
 Gra3ca ('EAAas t] /xeyaK-n), was divided into four districts : Apulia, 
 Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium ^ in the west. 
 
 1. Apulia : Luceria, A{u)sciilum Apulam, Canme, Venusia, birth- 
 place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. '2. Calcibria : Brundisiuni 
 (Briudisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tapas, see 
 p. ol). 3. Lucania: Pcestum (Posidonia, Uoaeilwvia), Avith notable 
 liiinsof temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('HpaKAem). 4. Bruttium: 
 S//hdris {^.vdapis), destroyed in 510,' by the Crotonians ; TJmrii 
 al'terwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton {KpSrccv), 
 not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpol 
 'Eni{e(pvpioi) ; Kheginm {'Piiyiou, i. e. rent, from ^iiyvvfiij the present 
 Ueggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). 
 
 Italian Islands. 
 
 Sicilia (2i/ceAfa), separated from Italy by the Fretuin Siculum 
 (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, w^ith 
 its three capes, or promontories: Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in 
 the south, and Lilylxeum in the west. On the eastern coast from 
 north to south : Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromeninm 
 (Taormina), Catdna (Catania) at the base of ^tna, Syracusae 
 l^vpaKovaai, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent 
 comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also 
 called Nasos, which now forms the w'liole cit}^ with the spring of 
 Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipolce, at first a suburb. 
 
 1 This form (instead of Brntfii, BniUius Ager) has, however, no ancient 
 authority. The Hyzniitines aft<'r the tenth century, A. n., gave TJruttium 
 tlui name fdl/thriil, after llie Noruians hail di^po-sessed them of Cahibria 
 proper, and the eastern peni>isula was known after that time as Apulia. 
 
84 Ancient Histortj. b. c. 
 
 On the south coast: Camarlna, Gela, Agrigentum ('AKpdyas, now 
 Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, 
 not far from the mouth of tlie (southern) river Himera ; Selinus 
 (2eAi(/oDs). On the west coast: Lihybceum, Drepdnum, Eryx. On the 
 north coast: Panormus (Tldvop/xos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, 
 Mylce. In the interior of the island: Henna. 
 
 Sardinia (2apSc6): Caralis (Cagliari). 
 
 Corsica (Ku/jj/os): Alalia, \iitev the Roman colony of Aleria. Of 
 the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now 
 Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insulce 
 JEgates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybseum. 
 3. The Insulce jEolice (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipara, 
 north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and ^fiaria, now Ischia, at 
 the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, 
 Pandataria. 6. llva, now Elba. 
 
 RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS. ^ 
 
 The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from 
 that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, 
 though probably early receivmg Etruscan and Grecian elements. 
 In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was 
 imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state re- 
 ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms 
 of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. 
 
 The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deifica- 
 tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as 
 was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, 
 the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the 
 poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove 
 few fancies about them. 
 
 The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods 
 and men; " Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess 
 of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most 
 representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; 
 Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth, 
 where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god 
 of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Her- 
 cules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mer- 
 curius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea. 
 
 Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. 
 She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified 
 with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there 
 were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, 
 and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, 
 Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, 
 represented with a double face, (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, 
 open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates. 
 presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. 
 
 1 Rawlinson, Reliyions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommsen, 
 Uid. oj Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist, of Rome, chap. IV. 
 
( . Roman History. 85 
 
 "Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of 
 prenionies, — prayers, sacriiiees, games, — of strictly prescribed 
 .)rm, with the object of securing the good-will, .averting the anger or 
 scertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life tliese ceremonies 
 i-ere performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the 
 atcr fam'dias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which 
 ■ as a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king 
 resided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrijiculus was 
 pi)()inted to perform those religious acts wliich were formerly the 
 xclusive right and dut}^ of the king. 
 
 The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " 
 aving general supervision over religion and all matters connected 
 llere^vith. The most important were: The college of PontificeS; 
 our in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious 
 ower in the state. Witii them rested the decision as to which days 
 k^ere suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and 
 vhie-h not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, 
 vhereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the 
 laiuls of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- 
 ion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex 
 laximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the Jiamines and vestales. 
 IJoUege of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- 
 ulted the \\\\\ of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation 
 f the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College 
 )f Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- 
 ween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conelu- 
 ion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- 
 laration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile 
 erritory.i Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sihylline 
 jooks. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of 
 he gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims, 
 riiey were an Etruscan institution. 
 
 2. Colleges of officiating priests: Flamines, who presided in va- 
 ious temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing 
 briests, of Qalrinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred 
 shields of Mars (ancilke). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred 
 ire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. Lu- 
 perci, Fratres Arvales, etc. 
 
 Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the 
 priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, 
 Feb. loth), Ferice Latince, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.^ 
 
 At the extreme south the lapygians. Their descent is not certainly 
 established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European 
 family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- 
 nants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true 
 Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization. 
 
 '^ ^yhen the 2;rnwth of the Roman dominion had made this a m-^tter of diffi- 
 rulty. a j)l()t of ground in Koine was set a[)ait to represent hostile territory, and 
 into tliis the spear \v;is imrlcil. 
 
 - Momirsen, Hist nf liomc. I. cliap 2. 
 
86 Ancieiit History. B. c 
 
 To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants 
 of central Italy, the Italic! proper, who were divided into the Latin 
 and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next ol 
 kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latim 
 occupied the western lowlands {Latium, comiected with Idtus),^ the 
 Umhro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part oi 
 Central Italy {Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Mar si, Hernici, Volscii). 
 A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain 
 region which was named after them, and drove back the lapygians. 
 From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campdnians. 
 called after the plain {Campus) which they settled along the Tyr- 
 rhine sea. 
 
 Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language," 
 religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, 
 Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their 
 ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. 
 The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indo- 
 Eviropean family and the Etruscan language closely related to the 
 Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure. ^ 
 
 Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif- 
 ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Raetian Alps, while 
 the other came by sea. 
 
 Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the 
 Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the 
 Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. 
 
 The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 
 500 B. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians soutli- 
 ward. 
 
 Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, 
 colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the 
 Hellenes, in Sicily and Lower Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcid- 
 ians (i. e. lonians), and jliioUans were principally engaged therem). 
 
 Roman History can be divided into five periods. 
 
 753(?)-510(?) 1. Mythical time of the kings. 
 
 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between 
 Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Cen- 
 tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic loars. 
 
 264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the univer- 
 sal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage and 
 Corinth. 
 
 146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of 
 Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch 
 of the civil ivars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule 
 of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actium. 
 
 1 The Ansonii (Aurunci, in Campania) probabh' belonged to the Latin race, 
 as well; also, perhaps the Italici in the nnrrotoer sense, who dwelt originally in 
 the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi. 
 
 '^ "W. Corssen, Ueher die Sprache der Etrushev, 1874. "W. Deecke, 
 Etruskische Forschnnr/en, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. Miiller, Dit 
 Etrusktv, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1877.' 
 
B. c. Roman History. 87 
 
 31 H. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Ccesars, down to the fall 
 of the Roman Empire of the west. 
 The last period extends into Mediaeval History. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 1-510). 
 
 Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. 
 
 Kiii^- Numltor of Alha Longa, the descendant of ^neas, who had 
 settled in Latium with some Trojan refngees, was deprived of his 
 throne hy his brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused 
 his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the 
 Ihie of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, 
 the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command 
 of the king, tlu-own into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their 
 cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were 
 rescued from drownmg, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought 
 up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Ronnilus 
 and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. 
 At the festival of the LupercaUa, they were surprised by robbers ; 
 Romulus was taken prisoner, brouglit before Numitor, and accused 
 of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized liis grandsons. 
 The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of 
 their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather 
 Numitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- 
 mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the 
 Tiber where they had been exijosed. (Festival of Palilia or Pariliay 
 April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) lu 
 a (piarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was 
 killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after 
 himself, Roma.'^ 
 
 Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- 
 ern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- 
 man story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an 
 invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly 
 clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their 
 name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the 
 name Romulus was formed by the inventors of che legend from the 
 name of the city and the people.^ All tribal heroes are of divine 
 origin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of 
 agricidture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the 
 exposure of the t^\^ns and of their miraculous preservation and recog- 
 nition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the jouth of 
 Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan /Eneas as- 
 cribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 
 
 1 According to Yarro's era 753, according to Cato's 751 ; but to change 
 years of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minu- 
 end. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 80. 
 
 2 Livius, I. 1-7. 
 
 3 Compare besides Mommsen, Schwegler, Riivi. Gesch., and Peter, Eouk 
 Gesch., 1. 56. 
 
88 Ancient History, b. 
 
 Grecian writers {Stesichorm in the sixth century, Thnceus in the thi 
 century, B. c). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants fr( 
 Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a nai 
 attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and .unhealtl 
 lloman Campagna by connecting it with the common metropolis o 
 Latium. 
 
 Nothing can be considered historical except that Rome was, a: 
 regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement 
 The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a whollj 
 unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances 
 The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and jusi 
 at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natura 
 highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- 
 acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to tlit 
 sui)position that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-posi 
 of the Latins." ^ Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, aft.i 
 the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village 
 where the imports and exports of Latium, wliich was essentially an 
 agricultural district, were exchanged. 
 
 The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot l^e 
 maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Romuii 
 language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual 
 to a degree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships 
 (Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramn s 
 (identical with Romani), the Titi{em)es,?a\^t\\e Luceres), the first wan 
 certainly, the third in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it is 
 true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele- 
 ments, as the Roman language shows. 
 
 The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.^ 
 
 75^716. Romulus, 
 
 warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Ap-- 
 pointment of 100 Senatores ov P aires (fathers), whose descendants are' 
 called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Ramnes, Titi(ens)eSf 
 and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war Avith the Sabines fol- 
 lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol 
 through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans 
 and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried 
 off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the 
 common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War 
 of Romidus with Fidence and Veii. Romulus is translated during a 
 thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 
 715-673. Numa Pompilius 
 
 of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from 
 among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of 
 the Romans according to the advice of the Camoenas (prophetess) 
 Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five 
 PontiJiceSf the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flamines, 
 
 1 Mommsen> Hist, of Rome, Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 
 
 2 liivius, I. 8 foil. 
 
li, c. RonKui. Jlislory. 89 
 
 Fetiale^, the four A uffurea, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased 
 
 to six. 
 
 673-G41. Tullus Hostilius, 
 
 warlike king-. War with Alba Lorif/n; contest of the Horntii und 
 Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alha is obliged to sid)niit. 
 War with Veii and Fidcnce; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius 
 Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- 
 habitants are transferred to Rome. 
 641-610. Aucus Marcius, 
 
 grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike ("et 
 Numte et Romuli meinor "). Development of the institution of the 
 Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of 
 which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancm Marcius is 
 represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the 
 founder of the class of the j)lebeians.^ Fortification of Janiculum, con- 
 struction of a bridge of piles (po7is sublicius) over the Tiber. 
 
 Foundation of the harbor of Ostia. 
 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus, 
 
 who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of 
 Tarquinii, and for whom Grecian descent from the Bacchiadce of Cor- 
 inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and 
 was elected to the tlu'one. Commencement of the construction of the 
 temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacce. 
 The Senate increased to 300 members; the number of equites doubled. 
 Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Eirus^ 
 cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Amicus, 
 678-534. Servius Tullius 
 
 becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son 
 of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by 
 Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became 
 the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Veii. Rome joins the 
 Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of 
 the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius 
 Tullius murdered by his son-in-law, 
 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, 
 
 represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus 
 (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- 
 metia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- 
 sion of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. 
 Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. 
 Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle 
 at Delplii. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, 
 who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life 
 against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain 
 the name of Brutus. Siege ol'Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, ^vife of 
 L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Colldtia), hy the king's son, Sextus, 
 lends to the ex|)ulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. 
 The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend 
 makes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an 
 imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 
 1 Peter, Rih... Gesc/i., l^ ^5-3 Compare, on tlie oth?r liaml, p. 90. 
 
90 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 called the people to arms, and incited tlie army against the king, who 
 found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, I., 
 57-CO). 
 
 Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings.i 
 
 There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state 
 was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlemeni^ 
 had become an independent community, the highest power in Rome 
 was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the 
 same stem as regere, to govern). 
 
 But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, 
 nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- 
 nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The 
 artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately v/arlike and 
 peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- 
 ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league was not acquired 
 without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms; but the story has 
 come down to us in a fabulous form and has been arbitrarily revised. 
 The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latium, is an his- 
 torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- 
 ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of a 
 war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- 
 ions. 
 
 As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered liistorical that 
 the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin ; that under 
 its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; 
 that the division of the people into c/asse.s, the erection of the so-called 
 Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- 
 tion of the first cloacse date from their reigns. 
 
 At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found 
 to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens 
 with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants 
 without political rights (like the Lacedtemonian Periceci and the 
 Athenian Metoeci; see pp.50 and 52). The traditional legend gives no 
 explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those 
 contradictory.^ Tlie citizens having full rights are evidently the de- 
 scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. 
 Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- 
 ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such 
 rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. " Children of the fathers." 
 The people who were not included in these families, but stood under 
 their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patronus), 
 v/ere distinguished by the name Clientes (from cluere). Their dc 
 scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered 
 in war, formed gradually a second Rcrtnan community, whose mem- 
 bers were not citizens. These Were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 
 
 1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Home, Book I. cliap. 4. Peter, Edm. Gesch. 
 F 54-50) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditioiia' 
 history of the kings. 
 
 2 See pase 88 the reii;n of RodiuJus. and p. 89, that of Ancus Marcius. Comp- 
 MommaeB, Ilist. of Rome, Book I. chap. 5. 
 
B. c. Roman History. 91 
 
 ^lehe^, connected wtli pleOy plenum) ; i. e. the masses, the (jreal mob. 
 As the majority of tlie population of conquered cities were compelled 
 I to enter the plebeian class, whether they were settled in or near Home 
 i or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs 
 I composed of poor people entirely ; there were from the beginning 
 many wealthy and respected families among them. 
 
 Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, 
 from the legend, the Constitution of Romulm, the Patricians alone 
 formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- 
 nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military 
 service. They were divided into curice, districts, at first 10 in num- 
 ber, after the union of the Titus and Luceres with tlie Ramnes 30 
 (p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or gentes. The 
 assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king 
 when he had an announcement or an inquiry to make, formed the 
 comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the 
 right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the 
 consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- 
 tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the community only 
 when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- 
 sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, 
 seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but 
 representing the gentes after a manner. 
 
 This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a 
 reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which 
 tradition has coupled with the name of Servius Tullius. Military 
 service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on 
 all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants 
 of the class of metoeci. Every freeholder between seventeen and 
 sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed 
 of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of 
 double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- 
 beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the 
 cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences 
 in making up the infantry, but the kind of armor to be furnished by 
 the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- 
 tion. This is the 
 
 Servian classification,^ for military service and taxation, 
 of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- 
 sus). 
 
 A. Cavalry (Equites). 
 
 C pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in all 
 1800 horse, all of the first class. 
 
 1 The census was not expressed in monev until the time of Appius Claudim 
 iB. c. 312). Leighton, Hist, of Rurue, p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 
 
92 Ancient History. b. i 
 
 B. Foot-Soldiers (Pedites). 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 Number of Centuries. 
 
 Property in Assea 
 
 .1 Armor. Weapon 
 
 1. 
 
 
 '80 C. with 20 jugera 
 
 100,000 
 
 galea, clipeus, oc- 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 re£e, lorica 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 !| 
 
 20 C. with 1 as much 
 
 75,000 
 
 galea, scutum, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ocrege 
 
 ■ oT 
 
 3. 
 
 3 
 
 20 C. with I as much 
 
 50,000 
 
 galea, scutum 
 
 s 
 
 4. 
 
 >-> 
 
 20 C. with 1 as much 
 
 25,000 
 
 scutum 
 
 'i 
 
 5. 
 
 
 28 C. with H 1-10) as 
 much 
 
 12,000 
 
 J 
 
 fundi 
 
 It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in th 
 different classes, that the division of the land at that time was sue] 
 that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and i 
 farm of that size was considered the standard. 
 
 In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 
 16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions juniores (firs 
 levy, 17-4:6 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniorei 
 (second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added arc 
 3 centuries of fabri (pioneers), tubicines and cornucines (musicians) 
 2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- 
 tarii and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. As 
 the population increased the number of centuries was not enlarged, 
 but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new. 
 recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. 
 
 This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was 
 henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the 
 army had been when divided into curiae. This was at first the only 
 privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved 
 to the coniitia curiata, which consisted exclusively of patricians. 
 It was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the 
 new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, 
 and that a new popular assembly, the coniitia centuriata, de- 
 veloped out of the new military organization. The reform ascribed 
 to Servius had originally a purely railitary character. It gave the 
 Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the 
 way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants 
 who were not land-owners, be they cUentes or foreign metceci, were 
 henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants 
 who owned no land were called, after the money wliich they had to 
 pay for protection, aerarii.^ 
 
 For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided 
 into four wards (Tribus), so that each legion contained the same 
 number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a 
 new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purification 
 (lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of five 
 years. 
 
 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rorne, Book I. chap. G. Livius, I., 42 and foil. 
 
 2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. 
 
B. C. Roman Histort/. 93 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation 
 of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of the Punic Wars 
 (510-2G4). 
 
 510 (■'). Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a Republic. 
 
 Accoi'ding to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the 
 republic were 
 
 509 ('?). Lucius Jimius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. 
 The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, 
 soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- 
 cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the 
 lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanuni 
 ad versus provocationem (p. 91) neceret neve verberaret). On 
 the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius 
 (oOl, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Polybius calls the 
 consuls of the first year 
 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius.i 
 
 We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated 
 about the details of tliis revolution. This alone is certain, that the 
 arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the 
 banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepulchre has 
 been discovered in Ccere, in Etruria). The fear lest the common- 
 wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united 
 the patricians and plebeians for a short time. 
 
 We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional 
 change, since on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- 
 tions which we find in existence in liistoric times. The change in the 
 constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative 
 in character. The sovereign reigning during life was replaced by 
 two rulers holding office for a year, taken from the patricians. They 
 were called at first Praetores, Judices, or Consules ; later, the lattei 
 name only was applied to them.^ They exercised, generally, regal 
 power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in zrar and /leace) ; auspicia publica 
 (i. e. supplication of the gods m behalf of the state) ; convening the 
 popular assembly and the senate ; taking the census ; appointment of 
 senators and the two patrician qucestors. The latter, whose office was 
 established during the time of the kings, exercised the functions of 
 crimmal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state 
 treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were 
 assigned 12 lictores as a public indication of their official power. 
 
 i Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treat}^ be- 
 tween Rome and Carthage fell in the first year of the Kepublic, ie disputed by 
 Mommsen ( /?o/ft. Chronoloyie bis auf Ccesar, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly 
 defended by JMissen {Jahrbiicher fiir Philologie, 18G7), and others. 
 
 2 The derivation of consul and prcetor is doubtful. Consul denotes either 
 "administrator of the state " {qui consulit reipnhlicce), or merely colleague. Prcs' 
 tor denotes "general" {qui prteit exei'citui, like the (Jerman Ilerzof/), or one 
 who presides over the state {qui praeit, praeest reipublicae). See Marquardt 
 Mommsen, Rom. Altertkiimer, II. p. 71 f. 
 
94 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 According to the lex Valeria de provocatione ^ (509), all citizens 
 had right of appeal from sentences of death pronounced by the con- 
 suls, which were not delivered according to military law, to the peo- 
 ple, even against the will of the consuls; and this appeal was not 
 to the old " populus," composed of patricians, but to the comitia 
 centuriata, the assembly of the new military and political com- 
 munity founded by the Servian constitution (p. 92). 
 
 The comitia centuriata acquired, moreover, in consequence of the 
 violent alteration of the constitution, the right to elect the consuls, 
 or rather, according to old Koman interpretation, the right of desig- 
 nating them to the consul who presided over the election, who there- 
 upon appointed them (creare). The comitia centuriata acquired 
 also the right of accepting or rejecting bills laid before it, but 
 the six patrician centuries of equites retained the important right of 
 voting first on any proposed measures. 
 
 The Senate, formerly consisting of patricians exclusively, was 
 now enlarged, or rather brought up to its legal number, by the ad- 
 mission of plebeians from the equites, i. e. the wealthy. Hence the 
 fornmla: Patres [et'] conscripti. 
 
 The nature of the changes which the comitia curiata (p. 91) 
 underwent in consequence of the revolution is much disputed; it is 
 certain only that it soon sank into complete insignificance. According 
 to the view which is most commonly received, it retained at first the 
 right of approving the elections or resolves of the comitia centuriata, 
 a privilege expressed by the formula patres (i. e. patricii) auc- 
 tores fiunt.^ Others understand the expression patres to apply to 
 the senatores, and claim the right of approval mentioned above for 
 the Senate.^ 
 
 At a tune of special danger the consuls were replaced by an ex- 
 traordmary official, the dictator, or magister populi, who was not 
 elected, but appointed by one of the consuls (dictatorem dicere) 
 without the participation of the citizens. (Practically, however, the 
 Senate commonly played an important part in the selection.) As 
 soon as danger was over the dictator resigned his office (dictatura 
 se abdicare), which he could not hold longer than six months in any 
 event. The dictator appointed his magister equitum (master of 
 the horse) ; the sign of his power, which was thoroughly royal, was 
 24 (?) lictors. Appeal from his decisions was allowed only in cases 
 where it had been permitted against the king (p. 91). 
 
 1 "The habeas corpus act of the Romans." Leighton, Hist, of Rome, 
 p 53. [TuA.Ns.] 
 
 - Becker, Eo7n. Alth. I[. 3, p. 183, u. Schwegler, Earn. Gesch. II. 160. 
 
 3 According to Mommsen {Hist, of Rome, I. 2U-i), all neio citizens, that is, 
 all land-uwnimj plebeians were in consequence of the revolution (510) admitted to 
 tlie comitia curiata, and the old body of citizens, or tha patricians, thereb}' lost the 
 rii;ht of debating and deciding iov jwlitical purposes, in an assembl}' apart from 
 the rest of the citizens. This opinion is opposed by other scholars, who main- 
 tain that plebeians were first admitted to the comitia curiata toward the end of the 
 Republic. Mommsen thinks that the right of approval belonged to the smaller 
 \)urely patrician senate, while the larger senate, increased by the addition oi 
 plebeian conscripti, was, during the lirst years of the Republic, an advisor;^ 
 council for the consuls. 
 
B. c. Roman History. 95 
 
 509. According to the Ptoman legend a conspiracy of young pa- 
 tricians was discovered in Rome, which purposed the restora- 
 tion of the monarchy. Execution of Brutus' son. 
 508. Unsuccessful war of the Romans against jJie Etruscan king 
 Porsena of Clnsium. The Romans were defeated, and com- 
 pelled to purchase peace by a surrender of territory and com- 
 plete disarming. Roman story of Horatius Codes, the brave 
 defender of the bridge over the Tiber, of the heroic courage 
 of Mucins Sccavola (i. e. left-handed ; the well-known story is 
 probably only an attempt to explain the name), and Cloelia, in 
 Livius II. 9-13. AVlien the Etruscans advanced further into 
 Latium they were defeated by the Latins and their allies from 
 lower Italy before Aricia, and could not maintain themselves 
 lon the left bank of the Tiber. In consequence of this Etrus- 
 can defeat, Rome seems to have freed itself from the dis- 
 graceful peace imposed upon it, and to have gradually re- 
 gamed its former powerful position. 
 496 (?). Tradition of a great victory of the Romans over the Latins 
 by the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum, won by the dictator, 
 Aldus Postumius, ^\^th the aid of the Dioscuri (Livius II. 19). 
 The inner history of the Roman community for this period deals 
 with two contests, one political and one social. 1. Contest of the 
 patricians, who gradually developed into an hereditary nobility, 
 against the new citizens, or plebeians. The latter, who could, it is 
 true, become senators (conscripti), but were excluded from the offices 
 of state and from the priesthood, aimed at complete political equality. 
 Since the offices of state in Rome, as among the ancients generally, 
 were administered without pay (hence, honores, officers of honor), it 
 was essentially the wealthier plebeian families alone who were mter- 
 ested in this contest. 11. The social contest between the well- 
 to-do property-o-wners and the owners or renters of small 
 farms, who were growing poorer, or had been deprived of their pos- 
 sessions. 
 
 The use of the ager publicus, i. e. the public land, acquired by 
 conquest (comprising both cultivated land and pasture), belonged 
 legally to the patricians only. \\\fact the senate made exceptions in 
 favor of the rich plebeian houses which had become members; the 
 small plebeian land-owners and renters were strictly excluded from 
 the privilege. Very seldom, on occasion of new conquests, a dis- 
 tribution of land was made among the poor plebeians, but the greater 
 part of the state domain was leased to the patrician land-owners for a 
 moderate rent, which was, probably, hardly ever regularly collected, 
 and these estates were soon treated as private property. Gradually 
 the tillage of the large farms was given over to slaves, and the ple- 
 beian tenants were thereby driven from their holdings. The plebeian 
 owners of small peasant holdings sank into a condition of the great- 
 est misery, through frequent military service, taxation, excessive in- 
 terest on loans, and the cruel Roman law of debt, which placed the 
 person and property of the debtor in the creditor's hands. In conse- 
 quence of this there were repeated uprisings and refusals to perform 
 military service, which, in 49o, was overcome only by the appointmer' 
 
96 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 of a dictator. Finally, when the patricians refused to grant the prom- 
 ised alleviations, and continued their ill treatment of those who be- 
 came their slaves through debt (nexi), the plebeian soldiers in the 
 victorious army, as,they were retiirning home, turned aside, under the 
 leadership of pleUeian military tribunes, to a small hill on the Anio 
 (later called Mons Sacer), and threatened to found a plebeian city in 
 that fertile region (three miles from Rome). This is the so-called 
 
 494 (?).^ Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred 
 Mount (secessio plebis in montem sacrum), which compelled 
 the patricians (Menenius Agrippa, fable of the belly and the 
 members) to make sincere concessions. After abrogation of 
 the oppressive debts, 
 
 494 (?). Creation of the tribunate (tribuni plebis) and 
 the plebeian sediles. 
 
 The tribunes of the people (at first 2 (?), then 5, finally 10), 
 were always chosen from the plebs.^ They were inviolable (sacro- 
 sancti). They had the right of protection (jus auxilii) for every 
 plebeian against injustice on the part of an ofticial. This privilege 
 developed into an extensive right of intercession (jus intercessionis) 
 against every administrative or judicial act, with the exception of the 
 imperium militare, - — that is to say, against the dictator and against the 
 consul when he was more than a mile from the city. From the first 
 the tribunes of the people exercised judicial functions, convened the 
 assemblies of the plebeians, and proposed criminal sentences for their 
 consideration. Later (448), the tribunes were admitted to the senate, 
 where, by their veto, they could deprive any resolution of the senate 
 (ssnatus consultus) of its legislative force, and reduce it to a mere ex- 
 pression of opinion (senatus auctoritas). The two aediles of the 
 people (cediles plebis) assisted the tribunes, and superintended the 
 business of the markets. Their name was probably derived from 
 the temple (cedes) of Ceres, where they preserved the official docu- 
 ment which decreed the establishment of the plebeian magistracy. 
 
 During this time (according to some authorities, not until later) 
 occurred the establishment of the important comitia tributa. In 
 this assembly the citizens voted according to wards or tribus; not, 
 however, the four wards of the Servian constitution (p. 92), but ac- 
 cording to a later (perhaps 495) division into 20 tribus, to which 
 was added the Crustuminian tribus (494), making 21, and the num- 
 ber gradually rose to 35. It is probable that, down to the time 
 of the legislation of the decemvirs, plebeians only, after that 
 time, however, the whole body of land-owning inhabitants, both patri- 
 cians and plebeians, voted in the comitia tributa.^ In this comitia 
 
 1 Cf. Moramsen, Hist, of Rovie, T. 279. 
 
 2 It is commonly assumed as probable that up to ;he lex Publilia (472) the 
 tribunes were elected in the comitia centuriata, and approved by the coviitia 
 curiata. According to the testimony of Dionyslus (IX. 41) and Cicero (pro 
 forn.), they were chosen by the curiata; according to Mommsen's view (p. 94, 
 note), this denotes that they were at tirst elected by the plebeians assembled bj 
 
 CU7-iiE. 
 
 ^ See the different opinions in Becker, Rom. Alther., II. 1, p. 175 and 399. 
 
c. Roman History. 97 
 
 ach trihm had one vote, which was decided by the majority of voters 
 the tribus. Compared with tlie comitia centuriata, therefore, the 
 
 scendeucy of tlie wealthy was done away with, as was also the privi- 
 
 ge, enjoyed by the nobility, of throwing their votes first. 
 
 93. In the consnlate of Spiirius Cassius, renewal of the eternal 
 alliance between Rome and the Latin league on a basis of 
 eqnality. Only gradually did Rome acquire again the he- 
 gemony over the Latins. Continual disputes with Etruscans, 
 Sabines, yEqiii, Volscians. Continuation of the contests be- 
 tween patricians and plebeians ; the institution of the tribu- 
 nate proving to be the organization of civil strife and anarchy. 
 An attempt was soon made to abolish the tribunate by the 
 patrician 
 
 91. Cn. (C. ?) Marcius, called Coriolanus (from the storm of 
 Corioli), w^ho, during a famine, proposed to grant the plebeians 
 grain at the expense of the state, only on condition that they 
 gave up the tribunate. When summoned by the tribunes be- 
 fore the comitia tributa, Coriolanus declined to appear; being 
 banished in his absence, he went to the Volscians, and, accord- 
 ing to the story, led their troops against Rome, but, at the 
 rebuke of his mother, Veturla, and the entreaties of liis wife, 
 Volumnia, gave up the war against his native city (Livius, 
 II. 40). 
 
 87. The Hernici invaded the Roman territory. Being defeated by 
 the consul Aquillius, and, in the next year, by the consul Spip- 
 rius Cassius, the 
 
 Sf). Hernici joined the Latin league. 
 
 86. Spurius Cassius Viscellinus ( Vecellinus ?), consul for the 
 third time, brought forward the first agrarian law. He pro- 
 posed to divide a part of the public lands among needy plebeians 
 and Latins ; the rest to be actually leased for the profit of the 
 public treasury. The patricians and wealthy plebeians joined 
 forces against Spurius Cassius ; the lower classes were dissat- 
 isfied that the Latins should also receive land and abandoned 
 him. After the close of his term of office he was sentenced 
 and executed. 
 
 79. Withdrawal of the gens Fabia and their 
 
 77. destruction by the Etruscans at the brook Cremera. 
 
 73. Murder of the tribune of the people, Gnceus Genucius, who had 
 ventured to call two consuls to account. 
 
 72. Law carried by the tribune of the people, Volero Publilius, 
 to the effect that the plebeian magistrates should, in future, be 
 elected by the comitia tributa (lex publilia: ut magistratus 
 plebei comitiis tributis creentur, p. 90). 
 
 33. Plague in Rome and throughout Italy. 
 
 62. Motion of the tribune of the people, C. Terentilius Arsa, for 
 the appointment of a body of ten men to reduce the laws to a 
 written code. Violent opposition of the patricians. 
 
 30. Surprise of the Capitol by Htrdonius at the head of some polit- 
 ical refugees (Livius III. 15). 
 Renewal of civil discord. In order to satisfy the plebeians, the uuni- 
 7 
 
98 Ancient History. b 
 
 ber of tribunes of the people was raised from 5 to 10 (457) ; in the 
 following year the Mons Aventinus was divided into building lots, 
 which were distributed among the poor citizens. Dictatorship ol 
 I,. Quinctius Cincinnatus, who rescued an army which had been siir- 
 rounded by the ^Equi (Livius III. 26). A compromise was reaclud 
 in regard to the codification of the laws, whereby three ambassadors 
 were sent to Greece to bring back copies of the Solonian laws and, 
 others (454). After their return 
 
 4:51. Decemvirs, a body of ten men, were chosen from the 
 patricians {Decemviri consulari imperio legihus scribundis), and 
 the consulate, tribunate, and right of appeal were for the time 
 suspended. The code of laws drawn up by the decemvirs was 
 accepted by the people, engraved on copper tables, and set up 
 in the forum. As an appendix seemed necessary, 
 
 450. Decemvirs were appointed again, three being plebeians, who 
 added two more tables. Henceforward the law of the city and 
 county of Rome, accordmg to which the consuls were to ex-; 
 ercise their judicial functions, was known as the laws of the' 
 twelve tables (Leges duodecim tabularum). By their 
 exposure the patrician administration was henceforth sub-' 
 jected to the control of public judgment. Instead of giving; 
 place to the regular magistrates after the completion of the' 
 two supplementary tables the decemvirs remained in office' 
 during the succeeding year (449). An attempt of the mod- 
 erate aristocracy, headed by the Valerii and Horatii, to« 
 compel the abdication of the decemvirs, was unsuccessful.! 
 The latter, under Appius Claudius, the head of the extreme! 
 party of the nobles, acquired the preponderance in the state.' 
 At first the people sidjmitted and acquiesced in a levy for thet 
 war against the Sabines and Volscians. The oppression of the* 
 decemvirs, especially of Appius Claudius: murder of the former 
 tribune of the peojDle, Siccius Dentatus, and the attack on thei 
 liberty and honor of the betrothed of the former tribune L. 
 Icilius, Virginia, whom her own father Virginius stabbed 
 in the forum, brought about an uprising (Liv. III. 44 foil.). 
 The plebeian soldiers occupied the Aventine and the Sacred 
 Mount. Valerius and Horatius managed a compromise, ac' 
 cording to which the decemvirs abdicated. Appius Claudius 
 and Spurius Oppius disembowelled themselves in prison, the 
 others were sent into exile. It is impossible to decide what 
 part of this romantic story is historical. It seems certain that j 
 the consulate and tribunate were reestablished. The power of 
 the nobility was further weakened by the 
 
 i48. Laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius {leges HoraticE)' 
 1. The resolves {plebiscita) of the comitia tributa were given 
 equal force with those of the comitia centuriata {ut quod tribu^l 
 tim plebs jussisset populum teneret). 2. Every magistrate, in- 
 cluding therefore, the dictator, was obliged, in future, to allow | 
 appeals from his decision (ne quis idlum magistratum sine pro vo^ 
 catio7ie crearet, qui crcasset,eumJusfasqueessetoccldi). 3. Recog- 
 
B. C. lion) (in It I story. 99 
 
 iiition of the inviolal>ility of the trihunes of the people, and ex- 
 tension of the same privileoe to the fediles {ut qui tribunis 
 plebis, cerlilibus nocuisset, ejus caput Join sacrum esset). About 
 the same time (447) t^vo queestors were appointed whose i)e- 
 culiar charo-e was the military treasury (making- in all 4 (pia^st- 
 ors, see p. 1)3) ; they were patrieians, but were ai)pointeil t)y the' 
 eomitia tributa, wherein both patricians and plebeians voted 
 henceforward, if not before (p. 90). In 421 the qujestorship 
 was opened to the i)lebeians. Moreover, the tribmies of the 
 people ac(piired the right of taking auspices, and were admitted 
 to the senate, though at first required to occupy a bench near 
 the door. 
 
 445. Law of the tribune Canuleius legalizing marriage between 
 patrieians and plebeians {lex Canuleki cle conuhio : ut cnnuhia ple- 
 bei cum patribus essent). The children inherit the rank of tlie 
 father. The motion brought forward by this tribune that tlie 
 consuls might be chosen from the plebeians (ut populo poteslas 
 esset, seu de plebe seu de patribus vellet, consules faciendi), was vio- 
 lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, 
 and it was decreed that instead of consuls 
 
 444. military tribunes (6) with consular power (tri 
 buni militum consulari potestate) 
 should be appointed, and that to this office plebeians could be 
 elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office, 
 that of censor. The two censors were elected in the eomitia 
 centuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but 
 every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3^ years out 
 of every five. Functions of the censors: 1. Taking the census 
 every 5 (^l ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling 
 the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators {lectio 
 senatus) and the equites {recognitio equikmi). 2. Preparation 
 and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- 
 erty, farming the indirect taxes (vectigalia), superintendence 
 of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality 
 {regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under 
 the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- 
 portance in the next century (Notatio censoria). 
 
 439. Spurius Mrelius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- 
 uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal 
 power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the 
 horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctiu's Cincinnatus. 
 
 405-396. Siege of Veil, 
 
 the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the 
 Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long 
 continuance and obstinacy of the war with Veii is proved by 
 the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not 
 interrupted during the winter. The residt was, that the citi- 
 zens who served in the armv now for the first time received 
 pay from the public trea-^'.iry (i. e. out of the taxes on the 
 public lands ).^ Capture and destruction of Veii by the 
 
 1 Leighton, Ilist. of Rome. p. 70, note 1. ['I'n/NS. 
 
 U ofc. 
 
100 Ancient History. b. c. i 8. 
 
 dictator, M, Furius Camillus. The fall of Veil marks the 
 beginning- of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was 
 hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Celts 
 (^Gauls) from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea 
 by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the Syracusans, 
 whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 
 391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- 
 justice in the division of the booty from Veil. 
 Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- 
 sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium, 
 against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the 
 three Fahii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. 
 The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 
 
 390 (July 18). Battle of the Allia, 
 
 a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven miles north of 
 Rome. Utter defeat and rout of the Romans on the right 
 bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. 
 Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolmus alone contin- 
 ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by 
 the Gauls under their Bremius, i. e. military ruler. Slaughter 
 of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. 
 The geese of Juno. AI. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven 
 months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was 
 purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- 
 sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the 
 haughty Brennus ( Vce victis !) in the forum, while the gold was 
 bemg weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of 
 emigrating to Veil broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- 
 lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon' regained its old 
 power, after the jEqui, the Volscia7is, and the Etruscans, who 
 had taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. 
 
 Equalization of the old orders. Origin of the new nobility. 
 
 Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians: 1, by 
 the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate; 2, by the 
 poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and 
 creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those 
 tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- 
 ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- 
 ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician IvI. Manlius Capi- 
 tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was 
 accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, 
 and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally 
 agreed upon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- 
 mons, whose results were seen in the 
 
 376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Sextus, trib- 
 unes of the people (rogationes Licinice). The first two were 
 designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; 
 the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the loug-wished-for 
 equality with the patricians. 
 
{. c. Roman History. 101 
 
 I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already 
 laid t'loiu the piincipul; the rest to be paid within three years in 
 hree installments {ut, deducto eo de capite quod usuritt pernumeratum 
 sset, id quod superesset triennio cequis porlionibus persolveretur). 
 
 II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public 
 ands {ne quis plus quam quingenta j ugera agri publici'^ possideret). 
 
 III. Abolition of the tribuni mUitum comulari potentate. One, at 
 east, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians {ne 
 rihunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe crea- 
 -etur). 
 
 After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the 
 lictatoiship had failed to accomplish anything, 
 
 367. The Licinian laws were passed. 
 
 366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first 
 plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great 
 colleges of priests (decemviri [formerly duociri'] sacris faciundis) 
 was opened to the plebeians. 
 
 In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- 
 partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the 
 establishment of a new patrician magistracy , the praetorship. The 
 praetor (since 243, one praetor urbanus, and one prajtor inter cives et 
 peregr'inos; since 227, four; since 197, six prsetors) had the jurisdiction 
 (dare sc. judicem, dicere, se.sententiam, a^f/Zcere, sc. rem), and was the 
 vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a 
 new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguish him from the plebeian 
 officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon 
 (probably since 364; certainly since 304) made accessible to the ple- 
 beians, and patrician and plebeian curule fediles were elected for 
 alternate years, 't'he duties of the two aediles curules were: 1. to 
 manage the ludi Roniani ; 2. to supervise the markets and the street- 
 police, and to preside in the police courts connected thercAvith. 
 
 Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- 
 ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and 
 even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open, 
 violation of the third Licinian law, cdl public offices were, neverthe- 
 less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession: the dictatorship 
 350 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- 
 nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the prcetorship 
 337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in 
 each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician 
 order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con- 
 tinued only as a social order or rank. 
 
 A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in 
 political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which 
 had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices 
 (summi honor es). These families regarded every citizen who obtained 
 office, but did not belong to their set, as an upstart (homo novus). The 
 
 1 The wordpuhlici is lackinf^ in the text of Liviiis (VF. 35). But it is clear 
 that the law could have referred to public land <nny. Cf. Niebulix, Hist, of 
 Rome, III. 11; and Mommsen, Ilist. of Rome, I. 304 foil. 
 
102 Ancient Hislory. li. • 
 
 new nobility could not, however, separate itself so sharply from 
 the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased 
 its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower 
 classes. 
 
 Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- I 
 tricians, the oHice of tribune, which was generally in the hands of 
 the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its ; 
 revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people 
 soon obtained not only seats and votes m the senate, but also the 
 right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from 
 this time on was the . principal executive body governing the state. 
 Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented 
 both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by 
 the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The 
 censors (p. 90) filled vacancies in the senate principally from the 
 numbers of those citizens which had occupied the oftice of quaestor 
 (p. 99) or a higher office. Their age was at least 30 j-ears ; prob- 
 ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appointed 
 for life, but subjected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the 
 censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators 
 were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- 
 getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of 
 her power which took place in the near future. 
 
 As formerly, the comitice exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, 
 especially the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa, in 
 which 'all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 9G), 
 while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata 
 (or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. 
 Here belong two of the three la^ws of the plebeian dictator, Pub- 
 lilius Philo (leges Puhlili(e), of the year 338 : 1. A vote of tli^' 
 comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- 
 proved by the comitia curiata (ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenererd). 
 2. Laws presented to the cen^Mrj'es shi.ll be approved beforehand {ut 
 legum, quae comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initium sujfragiuui 
 auctoresferent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex 
 plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius Philo became the first 
 plebeian praetor in 337. 
 
 In the year 312 the censor Appius Claudius included the inhab- 
 itants of Rome who mere not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- 
 ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- 
 reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata. 
 and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa- 
 bius Rullianus (Maximus) in the year 304. As regards the comitia 
 tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freecl- 
 men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,()<"k) 
 sestertes (about $loOOJ, were divided among the four city war 
 (tribus wr&ance), which now became the last in rank instead of tii 
 first. The country wards (tribus rusticce), the number of which had 
 by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of 
 the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholdeis, 
 and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comiti^ 
 
B. c. Roman Historij. 103 
 
 centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired 
 many privileges, equality of the freemen who Were and those who 
 were not freeholders was seciu-ed ; but the freedmen, with excep- 
 tion of those of the tirst two classes, were entirely shut out from the 
 centuries.^ 
 
 The Lieinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically 
 cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. 
 The law of the consul Poetelius (lex Poetelia), passed iii 320 or 
 313, secured to every insolvent debtor who should transfer liis prop- 
 erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa 
 nectatur, utique bona tantummodo ohnoxia sint). By these and other 
 ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of 
 citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence 
 of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced 
 into the background. 
 
 At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of 
 e arniy.2 Division of the new legion into 30 maniples, each con- 
 taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle m three lines 
 (hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to 
 property classification was abolished. Long lances {hasta) were re- 
 served for the tliird line, the first and second line receiving in their 
 stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- 
 ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 
 3C7-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled 
 in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and 
 thence made frequent mroads into central Italy. In the Jirst 
 war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- 
 gantic Gaul ; m the second, the first triumph of a plebeian 
 consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat mflicted 
 upon the Gauls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- 
 rius Camillus, the younger. Smgle combat of M. Valerius 
 Corvus with a Gaul. 
 362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice 
 
 of 31. Curtius. 
 362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities 
 (especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league 
 between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on 
 the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected 
 to the Romans than before. 
 358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and 
 Falerii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- 
 tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- 
 ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 
 348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage, ^ 
 
 the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 
 350-345. War wath the Volscii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- 
 cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- 
 pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way south- 
 
 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. 
 
 2 Mommsen, I/ist. o/ Mume, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, 1.3 222 foil. 
 
 3 See p. 'J3, note 1. 
 
104 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 ward without stay. This great development of Rome's power 
 brought about the 
 
 343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and 
 
 the Greek cities of Italy. 
 Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubicon and Macro, under 
 
 the supremacy of Rome. 
 
 343-341. First war with the Samnites. 
 
 Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both 
 Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the 
 Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, 
 who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- 
 tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. 
 
 According to the Roman tradition,^ their armies gained three vic- 
 tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- 
 vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cunise) ; victory of A. Cornelius Cossus, 
 after his army had been rescued by P. Decius Mus, a military trib- 
 une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was 
 ended by a treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites 
 Teanum. The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a 
 war with Tarentum, the Romans by the 
 
 340-338. G-reat Latin War. 
 
 The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded 
 complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate 
 were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates) 
 and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. 
 
 Victory of the {Roman and Samnite ?) armies over the Latins and 
 Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. 
 Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who 
 against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander 
 and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of 
 his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Minturnce and 
 Suessa) ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa- 
 nians. 
 
 Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- 
 ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the 
 Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connubium between 
 them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- 
 ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were 
 obliged to cede land, wliich was divided among Roman citizens ; others 
 were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The 
 orator's stand in the forum Romanum was ornamented with the bows 
 of the old ships of this city (hence rostra). The Roman power in the 
 territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the 
 settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capua and other cities 
 became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). 
 
 1 Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hist, uj 
 Rome, I. 3G5, note. 
 
B. c. Ruman History. 105 
 
 326-304. Second war with the Samnites and the other 
 Italians. 
 
 Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the 
 transformation of Fregellce into a Roman colony, and the captxire 
 of PaUwpoUs (twin city of Neojwlis), hy Q. Publilius Ph'ilo, the 
 fiist pro-consul. 
 
 Alliance of the Romans with the Apullans and Lucanians and, in 
 the course of the war, with the Sahellian cities south of the Volturnus 
 (iXola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at lii-st sided with the 
 Samnites. 
 
 The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and 
 crossed Sa77inium to Apulia, plundering as they went ; hut in 321 
 the consuls Sp. Postumius and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania 
 to the assistance of the Apidian city Luceria, were surrounded hy the 
 Samnites under Gavius Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculce 
 Caudinfe), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, 
 swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. 
 The whole Roman army was sent under the yoke. The Roman 
 senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the 
 Samnites, who refused to receive them. 
 
 The Sauuiites conquered Luceria in Apulia and Fregellce on the 
 Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. 
 In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, 
 released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under 
 the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- 
 ing fortune ; nevertheless, tlife Romans subdued their revolted allies 
 and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They 
 defeated the Sanmites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- 
 pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109). 
 Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through 
 the Pomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which still remains. 
 (Begun imder the censor Appius Claudius, 312). 
 
 After 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the 
 Etruscan cities took part in the war agamst Rome. Soon the whole 
 of Etruria, wliich was still independent, was in arms against the 
 destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, 
 Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fabius Rullianus 
 through the Ciminian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian 
 lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arretium, 
 to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 
 308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umhrians, Pi- 
 centini, Marsians, Frentcmians, Pcdignians, who had joined the Ital- 
 ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the 
 Hernicans. The fortune of war for a short time favored the Sam- 
 nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- 
 dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Samnites in a great battle 
 (309). Nuceria, the last Campanian tb^vn in alliance with the Sam- 
 nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to 
 surrender. First appearance of a Roman war fleet. The con- 
 sul L. Postumius invaded Sanmium from the Adriatic Sea ; another 
 
106 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the 
 Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the 
 Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and 
 wdth their Sabellian allies obtamed a renewal of the old treaties and 
 equality with Rome. 
 
 Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; 
 the Hernican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and ^quians were 
 obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction 
 of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called 
 Via Flaminia) extended to Narnia (Nequinum) ; the southern (later 
 Via Valeria) extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on 
 lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Marsi. 
 
 298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other 
 Italians. 
 
 Cause : The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into 
 power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians 
 in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New 
 rising among the Etruscans. 
 
 The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old 
 Latin inscription,^ discovered m 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- 
 can Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- 
 nium. 297, victory of RuUianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Decius Mus 
 at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en- 
 abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend their 
 own country, one for Campania, wliile the third was conducted by its 
 commander Gellius Egyiatius through tlfe Marsian and Umhrian lands 
 to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace 
 which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- 
 tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- 
 parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fahlus RuUianus and P. Decius 
 Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- 
 sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- 
 cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the 
 Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- 
 tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, 
 the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted 
 in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- 
 nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor 
 and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory 
 under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. 
 
 Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M\ Curius 
 Dentatus, as it seems, without cedmg territory ; but the Romans 
 
 1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was eU' 
 graved some time after the death of Scipio, was : — 
 
 Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbdtus 
 
 Gnaivod pntre pro^/ndtus fortis vir sapiensque 
 
 quoius forma virtutei pnrisuma ( parissinia) fuit 
 
 consol censor aidilis queifuit apud vos 
 
 Tnurdsid Cisauna Sdmnio cepit 
 
 iuhigit omne Loucdnam dpsidesque abdoucit. 
 
 1 
 
B. c. Roman History. 107 
 
 :hereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of 
 Italy. 
 
 This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which 
 diould serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturnce and Sin- 
 uessa in the territory of the Auruntvans, Hatria in Ficenuni, VenuHia 
 in Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, 
 after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite 
 wars, the 
 
 286 (?). Hortensiaii law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby 
 it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should 
 be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the 
 dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, 
 who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party 
 in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the 
 Janiculus (last secessio plebis). About this time questions of 
 peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri- 
 buta. 
 By the lex Maenia the second Publilian law (that the curiae, or 
 the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, 
 see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the 
 comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public 
 assemblies was declining ; they became more and more instruments 
 in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in 
 consequence of the peace with the Sanmites, there broke out a 
 
 285-282. -war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. 
 
 Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians 
 and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- 
 ians and Bruttians ^\dtli the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of north- 
 ern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian 
 mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. 
 The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part 
 driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the 
 north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), 
 and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After 
 a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the 
 non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii 
 received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 
 
 282-272. War with Tarentum. 
 
 Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman 
 ships of war from passing the promontoiy of Lacinium. A Roman 
 war fleet on its way to the Umbrian coast anchored in the harbor of 
 Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- 
 tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to 
 death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- 
 aration in Tarentum was insulted. 
 
 A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- 
 tines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned 
 general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan 
 of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 
 
108 Ancient History. b. ! 
 
 west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum 
 (281) ; lie himself landed in Italy, the following year, -with an army 
 of 25,000 men {Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- 
 phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of 
 an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against 
 the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king 
 in Tarentnm ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on 
 evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the 
 proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One 
 Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In 
 the 
 
 280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris, 
 
 the Romans were defeated, after a strnggle whose result was long 
 doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. 
 The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer 
 of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was 
 haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consvdar Ap- 
 pius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia in Campania, but 
 there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took 
 the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. 
 Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- 
 change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each 
 numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 
 279. Battle of A(u)sculum, 
 
 in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was 
 victor, but again suffered enormous loss. 
 The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), 
 had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon 
 Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in 
 Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- 
 thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, 
 but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in 
 Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon 
 captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and 
 Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed 
 in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed 
 by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 
 275. Battle of Beneventum. 
 
 1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the 
 victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- 
 turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until 
 after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at 
 Argos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum 
 to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- 
 tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and 
 destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- 
 istration. 
 After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Sam- 
 nites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- 
 ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe' 
 
 I 
 
B. c. Roman Histoi^y. 109 
 
 gium, which had been for ten years in the hanrls of Campanian muti- 
 neers, who were now punished with death. In 208 the Picejitini were 
 defeated and a \avge number of them transferred to Cami)ania. The 
 sid)jugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the 
 defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of 
 the con(piered towns to Rome we must distinguish: 
 
 I. Municipal cities {inunicipia), i. e. comnnmities having Roman 
 citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public ofhce at 
 Rome {sine suffragio etjure Jionorum). They had the burdens but not 
 the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to 
 keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of 
 their own choosmg ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely 
 abolished. 
 
 II. Colonies (colonice), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. 
 Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was 
 then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights 
 of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- 
 onies, like the patricians, wliile the old population was reduced to 
 inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- 
 tinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- 
 ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its 
 dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or 
 Roman citizens, who renounced their /us suffragiiet honorum. In the 
 municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of 
 a prefect {prcsfectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prcetor urbanus 
 (p. 101). 
 
 III. Allies (socii, civitates fcederatce), whose relation to Rome was 
 regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administra- 
 tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but 
 were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 Punic Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- 
 pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 
 
 (2G4-14G). 
 
 264-241. First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. 
 
 For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see 
 p. 16, etc. 
 
 Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between 
 Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the 
 west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- 
 tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states wliich were 
 hostile to both powers (pp. 7G and 108). Since 311 the Romans had 
 endeavored to form a fleet of "war. About this time establishment 
 at Rome of two commanders of the fleet {duumviri navales), later (2G7) 
 of 4 qucB'fttors of the fleet {qucestores classici). 
 
 Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly 
 Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized 
 the city of Messana and put the male population to death. They were 
 
110 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought 
 aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The 
 Roman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- 
 ance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships 
 of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived 
 in Rhegium. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- 
 ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the 
 citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- 
 sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians 
 declared war. 
 
 264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The 
 consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the 
 main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful 
 attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, 
 leaving a garrison in Messana. 
 263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul 
 M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians 
 and Syracusans. Hieru, king of Syracuse, deserted the Cartha- 
 ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south 
 coast of Sicily. 
 262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans, after defeat of a 
 Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The 
 Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the 
 first five-decker 1 (pentere) after the model of a stranded 
 Carthaginian ship. 
 260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipara, with 
 17 sliips, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the 
 consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- 
 ians. Immediately afterwards, however, 
 260. First naval victory of the Romans under C' Duilius at 
 Mylee, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- 
 ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war 
 was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; 
 the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in 
 the western portion of the island. 
 257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. 
 
 The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A 
 fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- 
 lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth 
 of the Hhnera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian 
 fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 
 256. Naval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) 
 
 it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- 
 ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The 
 Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste 
 the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the 
 army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being 
 defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily 
 and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except 07ie, 
 
 1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and 
 three-deckers, see pp. 105, 107, 109. 
 
B. C. RoUKin III story. Ill 
 
 and ackiiowledgineiit of llonie's supreniacy. Stung by these inso- 
 lent demands, the Carthaginians resolved upon most energetic prepa- 
 rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence nnmerous bands of mer- 
 cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippiis, went to Africa. 
 The Carthaginian army being thus greatly strengthened (the ele- 
 phants numbered 100), 
 255. Regulus was defeated at Tunes 
 
 and captured. A part of the Roman army escaped to Clupea. 
 The senate at once sent a tleet to Africa, which, after gaining a naval 
 victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on 
 board the Roman army, which was surrounded at Clupea ; but on the 
 return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The 
 Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landing in Lilybteum under 
 Hasdrubal, son of Hanno. The Romans built a new fleet. 
 £54. Capture of Panormus by the Romans. In the following 
 year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and h;id wasie 
 the coast. C)n the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it wac almost 
 annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the 
 naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 
 251. Victory of Panormus 
 
 over Hasdrubal under the consul CaBcilius Metellus, who at 
 his triumph in Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. 
 The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period 
 subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties 
 inflicted upon liim by the Carthaginians, probably an invention of a 
 later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged 
 Lilf/hceinn in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 
 249. Sea-fight at Drepanum 
 
 defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number 
 of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed 
 by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second 
 time, abandoned naval warfare. 
 
 248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily. The Car- 
 thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Barcas (i. e. 
 lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against 
 the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then 
 on Eryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through 
 the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally 
 built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatius 
 Catulus won the decisive 
 241. Victory at the ^gatian Islands 
 
 (opposite Lilybteum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. 
 Peace: I. The Carthaginians gave up all claims to Sicily. II. 
 They paid 3200 talents (.^4,000,000) war indenmity in ten ye:us. 
 The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov^ 
 ince ; the smaller eastern ^ part continued under the supremacy i-i 
 Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. 
 
 ' Tlie territory of Si/racusc, Acrce, Leontini, Megdrn. Helorum, Ketuni, 
 Tauruiiunium. (omp. Marquardt-Mommseu, Rom. Alth., IV. 91. 
 
112 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 24] (?). In this period, probably, occiiiTed the democratic reform 
 
 of the constitution of the centuries, concerning the de- 
 tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this is clear : 
 that the right of first vote was taken from the centuries of equites 
 and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote 
 {centuria prcerogativa) was determined by lot. It is probable that the 
 centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the tca7'ds (tribus). It 
 is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- 
 haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- 
 lished for each class (p. 92), and in this manner the preponderance 
 of the first class was abolished.^ 
 238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries 
 
 and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- 
 thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time 
 united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards 
 conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present 
 the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 
 229-228. War with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the 
 
 piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and 
 their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A 
 Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, 
 a.nd compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept 
 the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, 
 abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a 
 tribute. The Greeks attested their gratitude to the senate by admit- 
 ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries 
 (p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of 
 Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corcyra^ 
 Apollonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- 
 newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of Illyria by L. 
 jEmiliiLs Paullus. 
 225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul 
 
 brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes 
 inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by 
 numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 
 70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two 
 consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. 
 Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and amiihilated 
 in the 
 225. Battle of Telamon, 
 
 south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. Atilius 
 Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were 
 captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans 
 entered Gallia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Boii, submitted. 
 The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated 
 the Insubres. After two more victories in the following year (222) 
 the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- 
 subres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded 
 the fortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 
 
 1 Becker, Rom. Alterth. II.3, p. 9, foil. 
 
B. c. Roman History. 113 
 
 road tc Spolelium was extended across the Ai)enninos to the Adri- 
 atic Sea, and ak)ng the coast to Ariminum (Via Flaminia) . Further 
 nieasnres for the tirnier establisluuent of their power in Cisalpine 
 (iaul weie intornipted by the 
 
 218-201. Second Punic War.^ 
 
 Causes ; Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of 
 Carthago, springing from her recent acquisitions in Spain, and the 
 ettV)rts of the party of the Barcae to take revenge on Rome. 
 
 Special ctiUses : The conquests of Hamilcar Barcas in south- 
 ern and western Spain (23G-228) being successfully pursiied after 
 liis death by liid son-in-law Hasdrubal, the Romans concluded a treaty 
 with the Grecicin cities Zacynthus or Saguntum, north of Valencia^ 
 and Emporice, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and com- 
 pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor 
 cross the Ehro ^vitll the purpose of making further conquests. 
 After the nuirder of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of 
 Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. 
 In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the 
 Carthaginian government, Plaimibal conquered and destroyed Sagun- 
 tum (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. 
 A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy 
 m Carthage was followed by a declai-ation of war on the part of the 
 Romans. 
 
 The plan of the Romans to land their main army in Africa, while a 
 second army should engage the Carthaguiiau troops in Spain, was 
 thwarted by 
 218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy 
 
 by land.- Leaving a sufhcient number of troops in Spain, 
 Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees yni\\ 50,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 
 elephants, traversed Gaid i.ot far from the coast by way of Narho 
 (Xarbonne) and Nemausus (Niines). The Roman consul P. Cor- 
 nelius Scipio, who had stoppt^d at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, 
 heard of Hannibal's march, but liis attempt to prevent the Cartha- 
 ginians from crossmg the Rhodanus (Rhone) vni\\ a division of his 
 army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the 
 river above ^4 ye/2?rJ (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul 
 sent his brother Cn. Scipio vnth. the main part of the army to Spain, 
 while he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy 
 (Pisrc). Hannibal marched up the Rhone to Vienna, then turned 
 eastward tlirough the territory of the Allohroges and Centrones, where 
 he forced a way A\'ith great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the 
 pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions 
 and severe losses reached the valley of the Dora Baltea with about 
 i6,000 men and a few elephants. In upper It^ly a small Roman 
 irmy was engaged \vith the revolted Gauls. Hannibal defeated the 
 consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the cavalry and light- 
 armed foot soldiers, in the 
 
 1 Also called the Hannibalic War (Bellum Hnnnibnlictnn'). 
 
 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical ques- 
 tions have been settled bv the Englishmen Wickham and Cramer, 
 
 8 
 
114 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticinns, a northern branch of 
 Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- 
 years-okl son, the future " Afrieanus." Reuiforced by the 
 Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 
 218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other 
 Dec. consul, Tib. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled 
 from Sicily before the conimencenient of his African expedi- 
 tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the 
 remnant of the Roman force threw itself into the fortresses 
 Placentia and Cremona. 
 In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of 
 the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 00,000 joined his army. In Rome two 
 new consular armies were placed in the field for the next camijaign. 
 One under On. Servilius took the Via Flaminia to Ariminum in Um- 
 bria, the other under C. Flamlnius the Via Cassia to Arrethim in 
 Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- 
 nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the 
 Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert 
 Rome, he crossed the Apemiines, and marched, unexpectedly to the 
 Romans, through the swampy regions about the Arno. Severe losses. 
 Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this marcli he flanked the Roman i 
 defensive position. The consul Flamhiius followed him in all haste, 
 and allowed himself to be decoyed by Hannibal into a narrow pass. 
 In the 
 
 217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, 
 the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- 
 oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the 
 defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- 
 pointment of Q. Fabius Maxinius as dictator. Hannibal, how- 
 ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletlum 
 after an unsuccessful attempt to surprise it, traversed U7nhria across 
 the Apennmes to Picenum and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his 
 army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- 
 munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. 
 His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- 
 filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. 
 
 After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions 
 with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the 
 Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia, and 
 passed by Luceria to Arpi. Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence 
 his nickname Cunctator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken 
 the Carthaginian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed 
 the Apennines again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which 
 he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and 
 obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Voltiirnus, where Hannibal 
 gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he 
 had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to 
 Apiilia. 
 
 Meantime the military conduct of Fahius Maximus had so dis- 
 pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army 
 to the independent command of M. Minucius, master of the horse, 
 
B. c. Roman History. 115 
 
 who had had a fortunate skirmish with the Cartha<^iniaiis, as a second 
 dictator.^ The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and 
 only saved from complete annihilation by the first dictator, Fabius 
 Maximus. 
 
 The consuls for 21C were the veteran general L. ^milius Paul- 
 lus, elected by the optimatcs, and the incompetent C. Terentius 
 Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the 
 offensive against Hannibal with an army of 8G,000 Romans and allies. 
 On the day when he had the decisive vote in the comicil of war, Varro 
 imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous 
 position. The Komans suffered in the 
 
 216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aufidus), the most terri- 
 ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them 
 more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. JEmilius 
 Paullus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. VaiTO, with a small 
 troop, escaped to Canusium. 
 
 In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul 
 was almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- 
 nites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman 
 alliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannae. 
 
 Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning 
 for the families of the fallen was limited to tliirty days. Hannibal's 
 ambassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance 
 to the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men 
 and all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part 
 out of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- 
 lus, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- 
 mand of the new army, which joined the remnants of the army of 
 Cannje. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. 
 The Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumce, and Nola. 
 
 Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (III.) of Macedonia, 
 and Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse. 
 Hannibal went into whiter quarters at Capua. 
 
 215. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius 
 Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clau- 
 dius Marcellus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 
 
 215. Battle of Nola, 
 
 Marcellus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal 
 was obliged to assimie the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 
 men, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- 
 forcements from Spain was prevented by the successful 
 
 218-212. War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in 
 Spain. 
 
 The Romans, under P. Sdpio and On. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, 
 Hannibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- 
 trated the Carthaginian territory as far as the Bcetis (Guadalquivir). 
 There they defeated tlie Carthaghiians in two encounters at Illiturgi 
 
 I Estal>lished bv an inscription found in 1862. See Mommsen, i^owi. Geaoh.. 
 1.6, p. 699, note. " 
 
116 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 and IntibiU, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 212, 
 in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing the 
 Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax^ king of western 
 Numidia. The alliance with Pliilip of Macedon likewise brought no 
 help to Hamiibal. The 
 
 215-206. First Macedonian war 
 
 was successfully conducted by the Romans with scanty forces. 
 The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal of 
 landing m Italy. In 212 the Romans brought about a league of Gre- 
 cian states against Philip, under the lead of the JGtolians, which was 
 joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains of 
 Pergamus. The war was^ on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. In 
 206 peace was concluded between Philip and the Romans, against the 
 wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate. 
 
 The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hamiibal, as 
 the 
 
 214-212. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided by 
 Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction of 
 the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat and 
 disease in the swampy lowlands of the Anapus, 
 212. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a brave 
 resistance (A rchimedes) . 
 
 In Italy Hamiibal gained possession of Tarentum through treachery 
 (212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Death 
 of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in Samnium. Hannibal advanced to 
 Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capua, 
 after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucania and Apulia, 
 but retired to Tarentum. The Romans again laid siege to Capua. 
 
 In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in this same 
 year, 212. Both Scipios were defeated and killed by the Cartha- 
 ginians and their ally, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nu- 
 midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over the 
 Ebro. 
 
 211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He was 
 repidsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the siege 
 he marched through Samnium to the territory of the ^qui on the 
 later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, and 
 encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas !). Finding the 
 Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigh- 
 borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. 
 211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, 
 
 who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-tliree citi- 
 zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was de- 
 prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rhe- 
 gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian allies 
 abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. 
 VJ.O. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who fell in 
 Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with procon< 
 Bular powers CLivius, XX VI. 18). 
 
B. C. Jxoniuii History. 117 
 
 In Italy ITannil)al fji-aiued a victory over the proconsul Cn. Fulinu^ 
 at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agriyentum, slangh- 
 tering- the Carthaginian garrison and selling the popuhiee as shives, 
 and re(hiced the whole island under their power. Li Spain Scipio 
 crossed the Ehro (201)) and concpiered New Carthage. 
 209. M. MarceUus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- 
 nibal, gained a victory over him in a second battle on the fol- 
 lowing day. Q. Fabius Maximus captured Tarcntum ; 30,000 
 Tarentines were sold as slaves. liamiibal retired to Meta- 
 pontum. 
 208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Venusia. Great ex- 
 haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in 
 its own country, now in its tenth year. 
 In Spciin Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought 
 a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdrubal, and was unable to prevent 
 him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Hamiibal. 
 
 Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in inciting 
 the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) 
 to prevent his union with Hamiibal, who was advancing to meet him 
 through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was 
 sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C. Claudius Nero against Hannibal. 
 Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between iVero and Hannibal ; 
 the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped 
 by Canusium. Nero, who had followed liiin, left a part of the army 
 to watch Hannibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by 
 means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in 
 the bloody 
 
 207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaurus. 
 Death of Hasdrubal. On receijjt of the news of this defeat 
 (the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha- 
 ginian pickets), Hannibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain 
 victory of Scipio at Bcecula over Hasdrubal, so7i of Gisgo. 
 206. After completing the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain 
 by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret 
 alliance wath Massiiiissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. 
 For the following year 
 205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily 
 for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of 
 Hannibal, landed at Genoa wath the remnants of the Spanish 
 army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. 
 At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 
 204. Scipio landed in Africa. INIassinissa, who had been driven 
 from his tlirone by the Carthaginians, and by Sgphax, husband 
 of HasdrubaVs daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined 
 Scipio. 
 203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and St/phax by a night 
 attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations 
 for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago 
 from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal cm- 
 barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- 
 diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal 
 negotiations between Scipio and Hannibal the 
 
118 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 202. Decisive battle of Zama 
 
 was fought, wherein the Carthaginian army was defeated and 
 annihilated. Hannihal escaped to Hadrumetum. 
 201. Seipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- 
 ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all 
 Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the 
 kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute 
 of 200 talents (.'$2o0,000) ior fifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc- 
 tion of all ships of war except ten. 5. No war to be undertaken 
 without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Seipio, who received 
 the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumph in Rome with a 
 splendor never before witnessed (Syphax). 
 
 The Itidian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede large 
 portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- 
 prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini 
 dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. 
 
 In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls a.nd 
 the Ligurians, 
 
 200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- 
 gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained 
 their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- 
 pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis- 
 padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- 
 minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in part 
 reorganized. Via .Siinilia from Ariminum to Placentia. 
 
 Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It was 
 divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later TarracoJiensis ; and 2. Hispa- 
 nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- 
 ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war. 
 In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over the 
 Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections 
 soon began again. A victory of the prietor L. jEmilius Paullus (189), 
 and another, still more important, gained by the prsetor, C. Calpur- 
 nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania 
 ulterior. The victories of Q. Fulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- 
 chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. 
 
 200-197. Second Macedonian War. 
 
 Cause: A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate 
 maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. 
 King Attalus of Pergamus, the inhabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- 
 sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (III.) 
 of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antiochus III. was warring with 
 Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. 
 
 In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in lUyria, 
 under P. Sulpicius Galba. The Roman fleet guarded Pirseus and 
 threatened Eubcfia. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven 
 from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the 
 Italians and afterwards by the Achceans, carried on the war witK 
 Tarying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc- 
 
B. C. Roman Illstory. 119 
 
 tius Flamininus, took comniand of the army. lie Riil)(lut'd Epirus, 
 got into the icai- of Philip's strong position, and defeated the king 
 in the 
 
 197. Battle of Cynoscephalse (Kvi o? Kct^aAat', in Thessaly). 
 Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of 
 Greece, and in general all possessions outside of Macedonia 
 proper, and to pay 1000 talents (61,250,000) in ten years. He 
 was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and five ships of 
 war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without 
 the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- 
 tius Flamininus proclaimed, under general rejoicing, the de- 
 cree of the Roman senate declaring the Greek states free 
 and independent. The majority joined the Aclueau league. 
 The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of Nobis, 
 tjTant of Sparta, hoping thus to comiterbalauce the Achsean 
 league. 
 
 195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- 
 ried out by the influence of Hannibal. The oligarchs defamed 
 Hannibal before the Roman senate, which demanded that he be 
 delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 
 
 192-189. War with Antiochus III., of Syria. 
 
 Cause : Interference of the king of Syi'ia in Grecian affairs, and 
 of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court 
 of Antiochus. 
 
 Antiochus, deceived by the ^tolians who had fallen out with Rome, 
 and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began 
 the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in 
 Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasse, whence he went to Eubcea. Most of 
 the Greeks, especially the Achsean league, remained true to the Ro- 
 mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes of Perga- 
 mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. 
 Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glahio, in Epirus (191) and 
 march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Onto, conqueror 
 of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, 
 surprised the iEtolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the 
 consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, 
 who escaped to Chalcis vnth. a few soldiers, and there took ship for 
 Ephesus. The Romans besieged the ^tolians in Nanpactus ; their 
 fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antiochus at Chios. In the 
 following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, 
 under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Eurijmedon, 
 and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a 
 naval victory at Myonnesus. 
 
 A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, 
 L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio 
 Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Hel- 
 lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 
 
 190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, 
 
 not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king concluded peace in 
 
120 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and of 
 liis Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 
 Eubcean talents ($19,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of 
 Hannibal, who, however, escaped. This peace struck the kingdom of 
 the Seleucidfe from the list of great powers. The Roman senate 
 having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- 
 sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes 
 of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the 
 Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. 
 Manlius Volso), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In 
 Greece the iEtolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- 
 tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- 
 rels continued among the Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all 
 cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but 
 scanty remmieration for his services in the war against Syria. 
 183 (?). Death of Hannibal. He poisoned liimself at the court of 
 
 Pru^ias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed. 
 Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linternum, 
 whither he had retii'ed after he and his brother, Lucius, had been ac- 
 cused by M. Porcius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. 
 180. The lex annalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides 
 
 a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule 
 offices : ffidiles, 37 years ; prtetor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first 
 Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by 
 the public treasury, but by the tediles, which at once closed the office 
 to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, 
 and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- 
 leges of the nobility (p. 102). 
 
 171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the 
 Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the 
 Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried 
 forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his 
 brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus 
 informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. 
 
 During the first tJiree campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on 
 the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty 
 against the allied Achseans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to 
 actual desertion. At last L. ^milius Paullus, son of the consul who 
 fell at Cannse (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- 
 cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated 
 Perseus in the I 
 
 168 Battle of Pydna. ' 
 
 Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus 
 fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph 
 of .Sjinilius Paullus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im- 
 mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the trihutum. 
 Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed 
 into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of emi< 
 
B. c. IxoiiKiii Ilist.oru. 121 
 
 ^ration nor of intermarriage (commercium et cojinuhiniri) being allowed 
 them. Genth'us, king of Illt/ria, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- 
 ing soon con(iuered (108), that country was divided into 3 tributary 
 districts with federal constitutions, Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 
 towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. 
 Tlie Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- 
 tion of subject clients. 1000 Achteans of high standing, among whom 
 was the historian Polyhius, were carried to Rome for examination 
 (1()7), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- 
 veilhince. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and 
 Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during 
 ihe war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the 
 mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and 
 Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- 
 man ambassador, C. PopilUm Lcp.nas, arrogantly and insultiil^gly or- 
 dered Antiochus IV., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. 
 He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide 
 before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 
 
 149-146. Third Punic War. 
 
 Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power 
 had begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Rome 
 any reparation for several losses of territory which they had sustained 
 at the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The 
 Roman senate, on the instigation of AI. Porcius Cato (" Ceterum 
 censero Carthaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the 
 peace. 
 
 Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the 
 Carthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their 
 war-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and 
 make a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- 
 solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the 
 part of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age 
 or sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- 
 tured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An 
 attack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 
 147. P. Cornelius Scipio ^milianus (son of ^milius PauUus, 
 adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed 
 the command. He shut off the city completely on both the 
 land and sea side. 
 
 146. Capture and destruction of Carthage. 
 
 Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted 
 
 seventeen days. 
 The remaming inhabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land 
 from the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galatha (Galita), to 
 Thence, on the SjTtis minor, was made a Roman province under the 
 name Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell 
 for the present to the allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri* 
 umph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). 
 148-146. Fourth Macedonian War, 
 
122 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 against Andrhcus, who gave himself out as PMlippm, brother of Per- 
 seus (Pseudo-Philipjnis), and incited the Macedonians to rise against 
 the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured by 
 Q. Ccecilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman province 
 (146). 
 
 146. Achaean "War. 
 
 Cause : Return of 300 Aehseans from Italy, after an imprisonment 
 of 16 years (p. 121). The anti- Roman party was thereby strengthened 
 in all cities. Incited by Critolaus and Diceus, the Achaean league be= 
 gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate 
 pronounced the dissolution of the League. 
 
 Victory of Metellus over Critolaus at Scarphea in Locris. Diceus 
 summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, and 
 armed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummius 
 in the 
 
 146. Battle of Leucopetra. 
 
 Corinth, the chief city of the Aehjean league, was occupied 
 by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome, 
 and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city 
 was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public 
 land. 
 
 Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. 
 
 The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and 
 allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and jiiris- 
 diction), but in such a way that they were subordinated to the governor 
 of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 
 80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name 
 Achaia. 
 
 At the close of this epoch Rome possessed eight provinces: 
 1. Sicilia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania cite- 
 rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 
 6. Illyricwn (168). 7. Africa (I'lO). 8. il/acec?t>ma (146), and Greece 
 (Achaia). 
 
 The lirst four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so 
 that, counting the prcetor urhanus and the prcetor inter cives et peregri- 
 nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six prretors 
 elected every year. Later, however, it Avas decreed that all six (after 
 Sulla, 8) praetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, 
 4 (0) to preside over the standing courts {qucestiones perpetuce). Of 
 these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis),wii& established in 
 149 by the lex Calpurnia ; to this were added down to the time of 
 Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining 
 office (de ambitu), over high treason (de maiestate), over embezzle- 
 ment (de peculatu). Sidla created courts for the trial of cases of 
 murder and poisoning (de sicariis et venefciis) of forgery of wills and 
 of counterfeiting (de falsa). 
 
 For the year succeeding their year of office the prsetors went as 
 pro-praetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot 
 The proprietors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces 
 
B. C. Roman History. 123 
 
 which were considered (|uiet, and which coidd be administered with- 
 out any considerable niilit:iry force. Those which were still the 
 scene of warfare were assio^ned to one of the consuls in office, or to a 
 ■proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of 
 conmiand prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperiiim proro- 
 gare) or an ex-consul (vir consulai'is) or an ex-pr?etor (yir prcetorius) 
 being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later 
 period distinguished into proconsular and proprretorial. 
 
 The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen- 
 eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many 
 cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal 
 government {civitates Uberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded 
 with the Roman people (foedus, hence civitates foederatoi), or of a law 
 {lex) or decree of the senate (senatus consultum). The taxes of the 
 provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (jjublicani), mostly Ro- 
 man citizens of the equestrian order {oj'do equester) many of whom 
 also did business in the provinces as bankers {negotiatores).^ 
 
 In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for 
 the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy 
 in tliis epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. 
 The last dictator Avith military power was appointed after the battle 
 of Cannse (21G), and the last nominated for municipal business was 
 in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred 
 dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall 
 take measures for the public good according to their discretion." 
 (Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respuhlica capiat), which some- 
 what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 Firm Establishment of the Universal Power of Rome. Pe- 
 riod of the Civil Wars (146-31). 
 
 143-133. Numantine ^War. 
 
 Continuance of hostilities in Spain. War in Lusitania against 
 Viriatkus, 147-139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in 
 northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia,^ 
 which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable 
 generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally 
 P. Cornelius Scipio JEmilianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- 
 mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen 
 months' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- 
 fence. 
 
 133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. 
 
 Scipio -3^milianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the 
 fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, 
 was reduced under Roman government. 
 135-132. First servile war. 
 
 Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly ill- 
 treated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king AntiochuSf 
 
 1 Marquardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. 
 
 2 The preseut Garray^ an hour's walk north of Soria on the Duero. 
 
124 Ancient History. B. C] 
 
 and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main- 
 taining himself in Henna and Taurornenium, but was finally captured 
 and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. 
 
 133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gracchi, 
 
 excited by the political and social reforms urged through revo" 
 lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caius 
 Gracchus. 
 Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves 
 (Latifundia). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely increased 
 by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especially 
 with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was 
 thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed in the capital a 
 numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes 
 and gifts of grain. Bad government of the optimates (p. 101). Fam- 
 ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and 
 places in the senate. 
 
 Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con- 
 sul of the same name (through his mother, Cornelia, grandson of the 
 victor of Zama, p. 118), when tribune of the people proposed the 
 reenactment of the Licinian agrarian lavr (p. 101) wliich had! 
 long been forgotten, with this alteration, that besides the 500 jugera, 
 250 jugera of public land should be allowed for every two sons, and 
 that damages should be paid for all buildings erected on land which 
 had to be given up. Opposition of the tribune M. Octavius, who had 
 been gained over by the senate, and whom Tib. Gracchus caused to be 
 deposed by an unconstitutional popular decree. The agrarian law 
 was accepted by the people ; its execution was entrusted to Tib. 
 Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother C. 
 Gracchus. 
 
 133. Death of Attalus III., king of Pergamus, who left his kingdom 
 and his treasures to the Romans. 
 Tib. Gracchus proposed in the popular assembly, contrary to the 
 common usage, according to which the senate had the disposal of this 
 inheritance, to divide the treasures of Pergamus among the new land- 
 owners, in order that they might procure the necessary equipment. 
 
 Preparation of further popular laws of political tendency; shorten- 
 ing of the timie of military service ; extension of the right of appeal, 
 etc. 
 
 Tib. Gracchus tried, contrary to the constitution, to secure the election 
 to the tribunate for the following year. The election was forcibly 
 stopped by the senate. Tib. Gracchus and 300 of his followers 
 were killed by the optimates, armed with clubs and chair-legs, and 
 led by the consul, P. Scipio Nasica. 
 
 129. After the defeat of Aristonicus, a pretender to the throne of 
 the Attalidse, by Perpcrna, Pergamus became a Roman prov- 
 ince under the name of Asia. 
 133-129. The division of the public lands was partially carried out 
 as decreed. The struggle between the democracy and the 
 optimates continued. The leader of the latter party, P. Scipio 
 JEmilianus, husband of Sempronia, the sister of the Gracchi, 
 
B. C. lloman History. 125 
 
 who had successfully opposed the proposals of the democratic 
 129. tribune, C. Carbo, found dead in his bed (murdered?). 
 125. The democratic consul, AI. Fulvius Flaccus, who had unsuc- 
 cessfully proposed to give the right of citizenship to all Ital- 
 ians, was sent by the senate, which wished him out of the way, to 
 assist the Massiliotes against the Gauls, by whom they were hard 
 pressed. He laid the foundation of Roman supremacy in Transalpine 
 Gaul. The immediate purpose of this occupation was the establish- 
 ment of communication by land, between Italy and Spain. In 123 the 
 ^. u'onsul. S-n-i/n.<i, founded the colony of Aquce Sextirr. (Aix). Gallia 
 Narbonensis, so called after the colony Narbo Martins founded 
 m 1 18, a Roman province. lu 123 the Balearic Islands were sub- 
 jected to Rome. 
 
 123. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for tw^o years quaestor 
 in Sardinia, returned to Rome against the will of the 
 senate, and was elected tribune of the people. 
 
 Surpassing his brother in talent, force of character, and passionate 
 energy, C. Gracchus not only took up again the latter's social reforms, 
 but also brought forward, one after another, a series of proposals 
 looking to a revolutionary alteration of the constitution. Had they 
 been completely adopted, these imiovations would perchance have 
 substituted for the existing aristocratic republican government the 
 rule of one man under the form of a democracy. Whether C. Grac- 
 rhus desired such a power for himself is, however, very doubtful. By 
 the regular distribution of grain, at the expense of the state, C. Grac- 
 chus attempted to make the proletarii of the capital his willing tool 
 in coercing the comitfe. He was able to secure in 122 his election to 
 the tribunate for the second time. 
 
 The lex judiciaria transferred the jury-duty from the order of 
 senators to that of the equites, and made the preexisting separa- 
 tion between these two parts of the Roman aristocracy still more 
 abrupt. 
 
 The designation, " ordo equester,^^ which belonged originally to those 
 citizens only who actually did cavalry service, had been gradually 
 extended to all who, in consequence of having property to the amount 
 of at least 400,000 sesterces, were liable to such service. Since 129 
 the senators were obliged, according to law, on entering the senate, to 
 leave the centuries of equites. Hence " equites " denoted especially 
 the members of the aristocracy of ivealth, who were not members of 
 the senate ; yet the young men of senatorial families continued to 
 serve regularly in the centuries of equites. 
 
 Encroachments of C. Gracchus on the administrative privileges of 
 the senate by means of resolves of the popidar assembly. The lex 
 provocatio reenacted. Colonies sent out by decrees of the people in- 
 stead of by decrees of the senate. C. Gracchus himself established 
 the colony of Junonia on the site of Carthage. 
 
 The absence of the all-powerful tribune from Rome was utilized 
 by the senate, to secure him a dangerous opponent in the person of 
 the tribune, M. Livius Drusus. The proposals of this tribune, in the 
 interests of the lower classes, were constantly approved by the senate, 
 with th2 view of undermining the popularity of Gracchus. 
 
126 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 122. The motion of C. Gracchus and his colleague, M. Fulvius Flac- 
 cus, to grant the Latins all the rights of citizenship, and the 
 other Italians Latin rights, was defeated by the united opposi- 
 tion of the senate and the lower classes of the capital. C. Grac- 
 chus was not elected tribune for the following (third) year. 
 121. Civil strife in the city, occasioned by a murder committed by 
 one of the supporters of Gracchus. The democratic party oc- 
 cupied the Aventine, which, being poorly defended, was stormed by the 
 optimates. C. Gracchus and M. Fulvius were slain, along with 
 several hundred of their supporters. Of the prisoners about 3000 
 are said to have been strangled in prison.^ Restoration of the power 
 of the senate, and the former condition of things. After AT. Livius 
 Di'usus had removed the ground rent, and repealed the law prohibit- 
 ing the alienation of assignments of public land, and thereby given 
 tiie optimates opportunity to repurchase their confiscated lands, a 
 decree of the people. 111, converted all public lands in possession of 
 citizens into the private property (not subject to taxation) of those who 
 had formerly enjoyed the usufruct. 
 
 111-105.^ Jugurthine war. 
 
 Cause: Micipsa, Massinissa's eldest son, had decreed in liis will 
 that after his death his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, should reign 
 over Numidia in common with his nephew and adopted son, Jugur- 
 tha. Quarrels of the kings. Attempt to actually divide the king- 
 dom. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal and expelled Adherbal, who 
 sought protection in Rome. A commission of the senate, which was 
 bribed by Jugurtha, arranged a division of the kingdom entirely in 
 Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Adherbal anew, defeated him, 
 and besieged him in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the interven- 
 tion of the Roman senate, Jugurtha captured Cirta, and put to death 
 Adherbal and the whole male population of the city, including many 
 Italians. Indignation at Rome, and, finally, at the instance of the 
 tribune, C. Memmius, declaration of war against Jugurtha. 
 
 Jugurtha bought from the consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, a peace, 
 which the senate, upon the motion of Memmius, refused to ratify. 
 Invitation of the king to Rome. Jugurtha appeared in the city upon 
 guarantee of safe conduct, and gained partisans for liimself by his 
 money. When, however, he connived at the murder of Massiva, a 
 third grandson of Massinissa, in Rome itself, he was banished from the 
 city, and the war was renewed. 
 
 ■J.10-109. The war was unsuccessfully conducted by the Romans. 
 Jugurtha defeated a Roman army, sent it under the yoke, and 
 dictated a peace which was repudiated by the senate. 
 109. Q. Metellus, entrusted with the command, defeated Jugurtha 
 on the river Muthul. The Romans occupied Numidia with 
 two armies, one under Metellus, the other commanded by his 
 legate C. Marius (son of a day laborer from the vicinity of 
 Arpinum). 
 
 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, III. 101-130. 
 
 2 Concerning the chronology of this war, see Mommsen, III. p. 153, note. 
 
B. c. Roman History. 127 
 
 107. After fruitless negotiations, another Roman victory. Jiigiirtlia 
 withdrew to the oases of the desert and induced the nomads of 
 those parts (Gretulce) to take up arms against the Romans. 
 Pursued into the desert, he joined forces with his father-in- 
 law, Bacchus, king of Mauritania. 
 
 107. Marius, in spite of the opposition of the aristocrats, received 
 the consulate and chief command. He conquered the G?etu- 
 lians, repulsed a comhined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus 
 at Cirta, entered into secret negotiations with Bocchus through 
 
 lOG-lOo. his qufestor, L. Cornelius Sulla, and secured the deliv- 
 ery of Jugurtha into his hands. The captive king was led 
 in triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison. Numidia 
 was divided between Bocchus and Gauda, the last living grand- 
 son of Massinissa. 
 
 113-101. War against the Cipabri and Teutones. 
 
 The Germanic, or, according to others, Celtic, tribe of the 
 Cimhri (Chempho, i. e. warriors ?) made their way from the 
 113. north into the Alpine regions, defeated at Noreia, in Corinthia, 
 the consul Cn. Papirius Carho, turned afterwards westward 
 towards the Rhine, which they crossed, and defeated a Roman 
 109. army under M. Junius Silanus, who had hurried to the aid 
 of the Allohroges. Helvetian bands pressed into Gaul, and 
 107. defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus on the Garonne. The 
 Cimbri traversed Gaul in various directions, defeated and an- 
 nihilated two large Roman armies under Q. Servilius Ccepio 
 105. and Cn. Alcdlius Maximus at Arausia (Orange) on the Rhone. 
 Terror at Rome. Violent proceedings of the democratic 
 leaders against the incapable generals of the optimates. 
 Ccepio, Maximus, and others condemned. 
 10-1-100. Marius elected consul five times in succession. 
 
 The Cimbri meantime had crossed the Pyrenees and were wan- 
 dering aimlessly about among the Spanish tribes. Defeated by the 
 Celtiberians, they recrossed the Pyrenees, traversed western Gaul, 
 and gave Marius time to reorganize the Roman forces in the Provincia 
 Narhonensis (Provence). Defeated by the Belgians, the Cimbri 
 united with the Germanic tribes of the Teutones and with Helve- 
 tian tribes (Tougenes and Tigorini). These three peoples resolved 
 to enter Italy in two separate bands. The greater part of the 
 Cimbri and the Tigorini were to invade Italy from the north, while 
 the Teutoties with the Amhrones, the best among the Cimbri, and the 
 Tougenes were to force their way into Italy through southern Gaul 
 (102). Marius attempted to intercept the latter band. By his posi- 
 tion at the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, he covered the two 
 military roads which at that time alone connected Gaul and Italy 
 (JPass of the Little St. Bernard, and the shore road). Futile attempt 
 of the barbarians to storm the Roman camp. They passed the camp 
 on their way down the Rlione. Marius, following them, defeated 
 ftnd annihilated their army in the 
 
 102. Battle of Aquae Sextiee (Aix in Proveiice, see p. 125). 
 The king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was captured. Thereupon 
 
128 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 Marius crossed the Alps to the assistance of his colleague 
 Catulus, whom the Cimbri, having reached Italy by way of 
 the Brenner Pass, had discomfited upon the Adige and driven 
 behind the Po. The two consuls, having joined forces, ad- 
 vanced across the Po and annihilated the Cimbri in the 
 101. Battle of Vercellae (in campis Raudiis). Triumph of 
 Marius, who was hailed by the multitude, " the third Romulus," 
 " the second Camillus.''^ 
 At the time of the Cimbrian war occurred the complete abolition 
 of the Servian military organization, according to which military 
 service was principally a tax on property, but which had already 
 been several times altered. This had also long been the principle 
 upon wbich the military service of the Italian allies was regulated. 
 Hereafter the system of a citizen levy was supplemented by a re- 
 cruiting system, principally of course from the idle and lazy portion 
 of the population, and by a system of reinforcements, whereby cavalry 
 and light-armed troops were drawn henceforward from the con- 
 tingents of subject and vassal princes. A separate military order 
 was formed, which was distinct from the civil order and opposed to 
 it. The organization of the army, the strength and divisions of the 
 legions (henceforward 6000 men in 10 cohorts), also underwent im- 
 portant changes. 
 
 103-99. Second servile insurrection (in Sicily) under Tryphon 
 and Athenion, which was put down by the consul, Manius 
 Aquillius,iiitev a hard struggle. 
 100. Marius, for the sixth time consul, aiming at the royal power, 
 joined the leaders of the people, the prsetor C. Ser villus 
 Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus, with the purpose of overthrow- 
 ing the constitution. Saturninus, having gained the tribunate by 
 murder, procured by violent means a division of lands among the 
 veterans of Marius. The consul Q. Metellus went into voluntary 
 banishment. The murder of C. Memmius, who had been nominated 
 consul for the year 99, led to an actual contest in the forum between 
 the optimates and the popular party. Saturninus and Glaucia 
 being betrayed by their accomplice, Marius, were killed, with many 
 of their followers. 
 
 99. Q. Metellus recalled to Rome. Marius, hated by both parties on 
 98. account of his equivocal conduct, went for a time to Asia. 
 91. Three bills brought forward by the tribune M. Livius Dru- 
 sus : 
 1. Reform of the judicial department {lex judiciaria), which re- 
 stored to the senate the places on the juries which had been taken 
 from it, at the same time enlarging the senate by the addition of 300 
 eqiiites. 2. A new division of lands {lex agraria). 3. Bestowal of 
 the right of citizenship on the Italians {de civitate sociis danda). The 
 first two proposals were adopted by the comitiffi, but declared null 
 and void by the senate ; as he was on the point of bringing the third 
 before the people, Drusus was assassinated. 
 
 The disappointment of the Italian allies who had fixed their hopes 
 upon Livius caused the revolt of nearly all the Italians excepting the 
 Latins, most of the Etruscans and Umhrians and some southern cities, 
 and led to the 
 
B. c. Roman History. 129 
 
 90-88. Marsian or social war. 
 
 The Italians formed a federal republic under the name Italia, gov- 
 erned by a senate of 500 senators from all Italian tribes. The capital 
 was Corjinium. They appointed two consids and twelve praetors. 
 
 The terrible danger reconciled for the moment the parties at Rome, 
 and caused the adoption of energetic measures : repeated levies of 
 citizens, and enrollment of freedmen in the army. The best generals 
 of both parties offered to serve under the consuls. 
 90. At the seat of war in the north, Martus fought against th(7 
 Marsians and the other Sabellian tribes, for the most part, 
 successfully. The Roman consul, Rutilius, fell; Cn. Pompeius 
 Strabo, defeated at first, was afterwards victorious. At the 
 souther?! seat of war (Campatiia, Samnium, Lucania), the allies 
 got so decidedly the better of the Roman consul, L. Julius 
 Ccesar, in spite of the dashing forays of Sulla, that the Etrus- 
 cans and Umbrians, in the north, who had before remained 
 faithful, were encouraged to revolt. In order to prevent this 
 a law was passed 
 
 Granting the right of citizenship to the Latins and to all districts 
 
 among the above peoples which had remained faithful {lex 
 
 Julia). 
 89. Successful conclusion of the war in the north. Superiority 
 
 of the Roman arms in the south, especially under Sulla. 
 By the lex Plautia-Papiria Roman citizenship was given to all Ital- 
 ians who applied for it ; they were, however, included in 8 tribes only 
 which were especially designated. The towns of Cisalpine Gaul 
 which had municipal organizations received Latin rights {lex Pom- 
 peia). 
 88. By this concession the war in the south was also in the main 
 
 brought to a close. 
 
 88-84. First Mithridatic war. 
 
 Cause : Mithradates or Mithridates VI., king of Pontus (120- 
 63), had extended his power over the eastern shore of the Black 
 Sea (Colchis) and along the Cimmerian Bosphorus {Crimea, and 
 southern Russia). Kingdom of the Bosphorus. He had conquered 
 Paphlagonia and Cappadocia and had provoked the interference of 
 the senate by his encroachments on the client cities of Rome in Asia 
 Minor. Already had Sulla, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, in 
 92, taken arms against him, and reinstated a king in Cappadocia. 
 A second expulsion of this king, and quarrels of Mithridates with the 
 king of Bithynia, who was supported by the Roman consul M. Aquil- 
 lius, led to war. 
 
 88. Mithridates defeated Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, on the Am- 
 nias, a branch of the Halys, defeated the Roman generals, Op- 
 pius, C«.s.siu.s, and Aquillius (the latter being cruelly put to death), and 
 drove them out of Asia Minor. The Grecian cities of Asia joined 
 him, and upon an order issued from Ephesus, put to death in one 
 day all the Italians within their walls (80,000, or according to others 
 150,000). 
 
130 Ancient History. b. c, " 
 
 Sulla, the consul for 88, was on the point of starting for Asia to 
 attack Mithridates, when there broke out the 
 
 88-82. Civil war between Sulla (optimates) and Ma«i 
 rius (democrats). i 
 
 Direct cause : the revolutionary proposals of the tribune P. Sul4 
 picius, which were carried by the most violent means, and particularly 
 designed to secure the division of the new citizens, Italians and freed4 
 men, among all the 35 tribes (^ut novi cives lihertinique in omnes tribus 
 distribuerentur). 
 
 88. The populace under the control of demagogues deprived Sulla 
 of the chief command and gave it to his opponent MarluSj 
 with proconsular power. Sulla marched with his army from Nola^ 
 upon Rome and took the city by storm. Sulpicius and eleven other 
 outlaws were killed upon the flight. Marius escaped by way of Min-' 
 turnce to Africa. 
 
 Sulla restored the old order of voting in the centuries as it had 
 existed under the Servian constitutiqn, but had been given up in 241 
 (p. 112), and decreed that in future the popular assemblies should; 
 not vote upon any measure which had not previously passed the 
 senate. 
 
 87. An optimate, Cn. Octavius, and a democrat, L. Cornelius Ciiina,i! 
 were elected consuls. Sulla, as proconsul, took the command 
 in the Mithridatic war. 
 During Sulla's absence China endeavored to renew the laws of 
 Sulpicius by violence. After a bloody struggle in the forum he was^ 
 driven out by the optimates. He formed an army in Campania i 
 of armed bands of dissatisfied Italians, liberated slaves, etc., audi 
 uniting with the aged Marius, who had returned from Africa, with i 
 Q. Sertorius and Cn. Paplrius Carbo, advanced upon Rome, which was- 
 compelled to surrender. Revolutionary reign of terror in tlia 
 city. Five days' slaughter at Marius' command of all optimates wlio 
 had not fled (among others L. and C. Ccesar, M. Antonius, P. Croe- 
 sus, Q. Catulus), confiscation of their property, plundering and out- 
 rages of the armed bands. 
 
 80. Marius (for the 7th time) and Cinna, consuls ; Sulla deposed j 
 in his absence. Death of Marius, over seventy years old. 
 L. Valerius Flaccus was made consul in his stead and appoint < A 
 by the popular party to the command of the Mithridatic ww:. 
 87-84. Tyrannical government of Cinna at Rome, regardless of the 
 newly restored democratic constitution. 
 Meantime the outlawed Sulla was conducting the war against : 
 Mithridates. The latter had sent his general ArcJielaus with an army 
 and fleet to Greece, where most of the cities joined him at once, par- 
 ticularly Athens under the government of Aristion. 
 87. Sulla landed with 30,000 men in Epirus, advanced to Boeotia, 
 drove Archelaus and Aristion out of the country and besieged 1 
 the former in Pirceus, the latter in Athens. He defeated an i 
 86. armv of relief from Pontus, and after a tedious siege captured 1 
 March. Athens. Sulla defeated Archelaus, who had voluntarily 
 evacuated Pirpeus, gone by sea to Bceotia, and joined the rein- 
 forcements sent by Mithridates, in the 
 
B. c. Roman History. 131 
 
 86. Battle of Chaeronea and in tlie next year in the 
 85. Battle of Oicliomenus, after which he went into winter quar- 
 ters in Thessaly. In tlie following- year Sulla, su})i)orte(l by a 
 tieet of ships, collected from ^Vsia Minor and Syria by Lncullus, 
 inarched throu«>h Mace(U)nia and Thrace, crossed the Helles- 
 pont to Asia, and throu<;h the mediation of Archelaus concluded 
 84. Peace with Mithridates in Dardaiios. I. Evacuation of the 
 Kt)nian province of .isia, restoration of all conquests made by 
 Mithridates, and reinstatement of the kings of Bithynia and Cappa- 
 docia. II. Mithridates surrendered 80 ships of war and paid 3000 
 1 talents. After the conclusion of peace, Sulla turned his attention to 
 the Roman army of the democratic party which had gor^e to Asia iu 
 80 imder the consid Flaccus, and, after his murder, had fought suc- 
 cessfully under Fimbria (victory over the younger Mithridates at 
 MiletopoUs). A part of the army having gone over to Sulla, Fim- 
 bria committed suicide, whereupon the rest of his army joined Sulla. 
 After leaving these troops behind {milites Flaviani, two legions) under 
 Licinius Murena, and inflicting upon the Grecian cities of Asia Minor 
 the immense tine of 20,000 talents (^825,000,000), which Lucullus was 
 to collect, Sulla sailed from Ephesus to Pineus, went by land to Patrce, 
 and thence by sea to Italy. 
 
 83. Sulla landed with 40,000 men in Brundisium. After the death 
 of Cinna (84), during a mutiny in Ancona, where he intended 
 to embark against Sulla, his colleagues Carbo, the younger Marius^ 
 and Sertorius were the leaders of the democratic party ; never- 
 theless for the year 83 neither of them, but instead two uicapable 
 men, L. Scipio and C. Norbanus, were elected consuls. Sulla, who 
 upon landing was joined by the 23-year old Cn. Pompeius with 
 an army of volunteers, formally guaranteed their rights to the Ital- 
 ians and marched against the consuls. He conquered Norbanus on 
 Mt. Tifata and o;>ened negotiations with Scipio, in the course of which 
 the entire armv of the latter went over to Sulla. 
 
 82. Sulla rested for the winter in Capua, and fought durhig the fol- 
 lowing year against the younger Marius and Carbo, who had 
 been appointed consuls. At Sacriportus Sulla defeated Marius, who 
 retired to Prreneste, where he was surrounded by a division of the army 
 under Q. Ofella. Sulla perceived this, and passed rapidly through 
 Rome to attack the democrats in Etruria, whither also a part of his 
 army under Metellus, Pompeius, and Crassus had already forced its 
 way from Picenum and Uinbria and were pressing Carbo hard. On 
 receipt of the news that strong Samnite bands were advancing to the 
 relief of Prt^neste, Sidla went back to Latium, prevented the relief 
 of Prjeneste, and repulsed an attack of the Samnites upon Rome 
 (Nov. 82). More than 3000 prisoners were slaughtered at Sulla's 
 command. Prseneste surrendered, the younger Marius was put to 
 death by his slaves at his own command. The l)arty of Marius in 
 northern Italy had already been completely defeated at Faventia. 
 Carbo and Sertorius fled. Stdla took terrible vengeance upon the con- 
 quered cities and towns of Italy. The party of Marius in Spain was 
 defeated at a later time by C. Annius and Valerius Flaccus ; in Sicily 
 and Africa it was defeated by Pompeius, whom Sulla allowed to tri- 
 umph, and saluted with the surname of Magnus. 
 
132 Ancient History. B. c 
 
 82. • Sulla had himself appointed dictator in Rome for an un- 
 limited time, for the sake of reorganizing the commonwealth 
 (dictator reipublicce constituendcEy a power analogous to that of the de- 
 cemvirs). 
 
 Reactionary Reign of Terror. Proscription lists of the coil /i 
 minded {lex de proscribendis malis civibus). The number of the out- 
 lawed, on whose death a reward was set, and whose property v/r.s 
 confiscated amounted to 4700. Allotments of lands to the veterans 
 of Sulla and establishment of military colonies with full right of 
 citizenship in the territories of cities of the hostile party, whos3 
 right of citizenship was abrogated. Liberation of 10,000 slaves be- 
 longing to the proscribed citizens, and bestowal upon them of the 
 right of citizenship (the so-called Cornelians). 
 83-81. Second Mithridatic War, 
 
 conducted by the proprietor Murena (p. 131), who occupied 
 Cappadocia, which Mithridates, in spite of the peace, had not com- 
 pletely evacuated, and invaded Pontus, where he was defeated by 
 Mithridates and obliged to withdraw. The war ended in a treaty 
 which was a renewal of the first peace. 
 
 Attempt at a conservative aristocratic reform of the government 
 in Rome, by a series of laws originated by Sulla (leges Cornelire). 
 Reorganization of the senate which had suffered severely from tlie 
 proscriptions of the civil wars. It was now enlarged in an unprece- 
 dented manner by the addition of 300 members to be chosen by the 
 comitia tributa. Admission to the senate became a prerogative of tlie 
 quffistorship. Henceforward 20 qucestors were annually elected by 
 the comitia tributa. Abolition of the censors' privilege of revising 
 the roll of the senate every five years, and consequently introduction 
 of the irremovability of the senators. Thus the senate, for a short 
 time, was indirectly chosen by the people, and acquired a representa- 
 tive character. The places in the juries which C. Gracchus had 
 transferred to the equites (p. 125) were restored to the senate. 
 The privileges of the senate were further increased ; it acquired, hi 
 particular, the right of prolonging the term of office of proconsuls 
 and propraetors, and of removing them. The comitice lost the power 
 of electing the priests, which had been given them in 104, the 
 priestly colleges receiving again the right of filling their own vacan- 
 cies. On tlie other hand Sulla gave up the Servian order of voting, 
 the restoration of which had been attempted in 88. Powers of the 
 tribunes of the people reduced, misuse of the right of interpellation 
 punished with heavy fines, the right of the tribunes to initiate roga- 
 tions subjected to the approval of the senate ; it was also decreed that 
 acceptance of the tribunate conveyed incapacity for accepting higlier 
 offices. Reorganization of the department of justice, increase of the 
 perpetual courts {qiuMstiones perpetwe). Henceforward 8 praetors. 
 Criminal legislation (lex de sicariis, clef also, etc.). 
 81. Sulla permitted the election of consuls, but continued to conduct 
 
 the government under the title of dictator. For the year 
 SO. He caused himself and his companion hi arms, Q. Metellus, to 
 to be elected consuls, and so bridged the way to constitutional 
 government. 
 
B, c. Roman History. 133 
 
 79. Sulia voluntarily abdicated the dictatorship and retired to 
 
 jn-ivate litV;. 
 78. Death of Sulla, probably in consequence of a hemorrhage.' 
 78-77. Attempt of M. ^Emilius Lepidus (consul with Q. Liitatluo 
 
 CatuluSf 78) and the Marian M. Junius Brutus, to violently 
 overthrow the work of Sulla. Lepidus, on his way from Etruria to 
 Rome at the head of an army, was defeated on the Campus Martins 
 by Catidus • defeated a second time at Cosa, he fled to Sardinia, 
 where he fell sick and died. Brutus was forced by Pompeius to sur- 
 render at Mutina, and was afterwards put to death. 
 
 80-72. War against Sertorius, 
 
 who in 83 had been allotted Lusitania and Spain as Ais prov- 
 ince. He had been driven out (82) by Sulla's generals, and, after 
 leading a roving life as an adventurer along the coasts of Spain and 
 Africa, returned to Lusitania. Here this party leader, alike distin- 
 guished as statesman and general, had founded an independent sov- 
 ereignty. Q. Metellus and even Cn. Pompeius waged for a long time 
 misuccessf 111 war against him. He formed an alliance with Mithri- 
 dates, but was murdered, in 72, by his subordinate Perpema. The 
 latter was defeated and executed b}^ Pompeius. 
 
 73-71. War of the Gladiators and (third) Servile 
 War. 
 
 Bands of gladiators who had escaped from a gladiatorial school at 
 Capua occupied Vesuvius under command of two Gauls and the 
 Thraciau Spartacus, and from this vantage-ground plundered and 
 burned throughout the neighborhood. Reinforced by numerous 
 slaves they grew to an army, and defeated four Roman armies in 
 succession. Spartacus, who wanted to leave Italy, was forced by his 
 companions to remain. He marched upon the capital. Terror in 
 Rome. The prjetor M. Licinius Crassus received the cliief com- 
 mand. The insurgents refrained from attacking Rome and wandered 
 abont Italy ravaging and plundering. Crassus defeated them in two 
 battles, in the second of which, on the Siiarus, Spartacus fell, light- 
 ing valiantly. The remnants of the bands were annihilated by Pom- 
 peius, who was returning from Spain. 
 
 In 70 the consuls M. Licinius Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Mag- 
 nus restored to the tribunate the privileges whioh it had lost under 
 Sulla (p. 132). The Aurelian law (lex Aurelia), passed during their 
 consulate, repealed the enactment of Sulla that tlie jurors should be 
 taken exclusively from the senators ; henceforth one third should be 
 senators, two thirds men of the equestrian census (of these one lialf 
 should be taken from the so-called trihuni-(ernrii) . Already, in 72, 
 the privilege of the censors, of revising the roll of the senate, which 
 Sulla had abolished, had been restored (p. 132), and probably five 
 years became again the length of the censors' term of office. 64 
 senators were expelled from the senate by the censors GelUus and Len~ 
 iulus. 
 
 1 He did not die of the so-called Phthiriasis. Cf. Momiusen, flist. of Rome^ 
 III. p. 390. 
 
134 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 78-67. "War against the pirates. 
 
 The result of the neglect of the Konian marine since the destruc- 
 tion of Carthage, and of the oppression of the Roman governors in 
 Asia was a constant increase of piracy. There gradually grew up 
 an organized pirate-community, whose principal seats were Crete and 
 Cilicia. The pirates controlled the entire Mediterranean as far as 
 the columns of Hercules, and captured the vessels which were convey- 
 ing grain to Rome. 
 
 78. War had been waged with the pirates since 78, at first under the 
 proconsul of Asia, P. Servilius, who destroyed many pirate 
 75. cities, and in the year 75 took possession of Isauria, Pamphylia^ 
 Pisidia, for Rome, under the name of Cilicia, and afterwards 
 74. under the prietor M. Antonius, who possessed most extensive 
 powers, but accomplished little, and in 71 died at Crete aftei 
 being defeated by the Cretans. 
 68. Metellus after a long contest, subdued Crete (province since 67), 
 whose inhabitants lived for the most part, upon piracy. As 
 piracy still continued, 
 67. Pompeius received, on the motion of Gabinius (lex Gahinia), for 
 three years unlimited command over the whole Mediterra- 
 nean and its coasts for fifty miles inland ; the public treasuries and 
 resources of all the provinces and client states were placed imcondi- 
 tionally at his disposal. In three months Pompeius, in two short cam- 
 paigns, completedly cleared first the western, then the eastern, 
 Mediterranean of pirates, captured 3000 vessels, put to death 10,000 
 pirates, destroyed their fortresses, captured 20,000 men, and settled 
 them in the interior of the country. (Construction of Pompeiopolis in 
 Cilicia.) 
 74-64. Third Mithridatic war. 
 
 Cause : Strained relations between the Romans on the one side, and 
 Mithridates of Pontus and his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia, on 
 the other. The latter took possession of the kingdoms of Cappadocia 
 and Syria. When Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, likewise son-in-law of 
 Mithridates, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, and Bithynia wiis 
 made a Roman province, Mithridates declared war and occupied Bi- 
 thynia. 
 
 74. The conduct of the war was entrusted to the two consuls L. Lu- 
 cullus, who was to enter the kingdom of Pontus through Phry- 
 gia, and M. Aurelius Cotta, who sailed with the fleet for the 
 Propontis. Mithridates defeated the latter by land and sea at 
 Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus, which was relieved by Lu- 
 cullus, who hastened from the south. 
 73. Mithridates was forced to retreat with great loss. Lucullus as 
 proconsul conducted the war successfully at sea ; then took the 
 offensive on land, crossed the Halys (Kisil Irmak), traversed 
 Pontm, defeated Mithridates at Cabira, and drove the king 
 completely out of his kingdom. He took refuge with his son- 
 in-law, Tigranes, while Lucidlus, after a tedious siege, cap- 
 72-70. tured the trading cities Heraclea, Sinope, Amisus, and occupie^f 
 Armenia Minor. 
 
B. c. Roman History. 135 
 
 Without waiting for authority from the senate, Lucullus opened 
 war upon Tigranes, crossed the Euphrates into Armenia proper, de- 
 feated Tigranes I'l tlie famous 
 
 69. Battle of Tigranocerta, 
 
 captured that city, and then turned against the two kings who 
 had now joined forces. Luculhis forced the passage of the Euphrates 
 (08) by a second successful encounter with the enemy, crossed the 
 river here in its upper course for the second tinie,^ inarched through 
 the Armenian plateau toward Artaxata, the residence of Tigranes, 
 but was compelled by a nuitiny among his soldiers (P. Clodius, broth- 
 er-m-law of Lucullus) to begin a retreat over the Tigris to Mesopo- 
 tamia, long before he had reached Artaxata.'^ 
 
 Lucullus took Nisibis by storm, but was obliged to cross to the 
 right bank of the Euphrates again to rescue a division of the army 
 which had been cut off (67). Meantime Mithridates returned to Pon- 
 tus and defeated a Roman force under Triarius at Zela (Ziela^. 
 New mutinies in the army of Lucullus, who was at the same time in- 
 formed that he was slandered at Rome, that he had been recalled, and 
 the consul J7'. Acilius Glabrio appointed in his stead. Glabrio went to 
 Asia, but in coiisideratioii of the difficult position of affairs, did not 
 assume command. LuecUus conducted the Roman army by a mas- 
 terly retreat back to Asia Minor. 
 
 Mithridates, having not only reconquered Pontus, but also com- 
 menced to ravage Bithynia and Cappadocia, a law was passed at the 
 instance of the tribune of the people, C. Manilius (Cicero's oration, 
 pro imperio Cn. Pompeii, ot pro lege Manilla), entrusting 
 
 'Se. Cn. Pompeius with the command in Asia with unlimited 
 pow^ers. 
 
 Unfriendly meeting of Lucidlus and Pompeius at Danala in Galatia. 
 After concluding a treaty with the Parthians, whom he guaranteed 
 possession of Mesopotamia, Pompeius opened the campaign partly 
 with new troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, and defeated him 
 in the 
 
 66. Battle by night on the Lycos (Yeshil Irmak), near the future 
 Nicopolis in Armenia minor. Abandoned by Tigranes, Mithri- 
 dates fled to Colchis. Pompeius followed as far as the Phasis, return- 
 ing then to Armenia, where his ally, the king of the Parthians, had 
 meantime made an inroad. At Artaxata Tigranes gave himself up 
 to Pompeius, who permitted him to keep Armenia proper for his 
 own kingdom, but took from him all his conquests, Sijria, Phoenicia, 
 Cappadocia, and imposed upon him a fine of GOOO talents. 
 65. After an expedition northward, where he fought successfully 
 with the Caucasian tribes, Pompeius for the second time aban- 
 doned the pursuit of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the Tauric 
 Chersonese (Crimea), and went to Pontus, and thence to Syria. 
 
 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas AiUttpnis, Tab. III. 
 
 - The .•icfoni/ victory of Luculhis was not gained near Jrtaxata. CI 
 Mommsen, Hist, oj korm, IV. p. 70. 
 
136 Ancient History. B. C. 
 
 64-63. Organization of the Roman possessions in Asia, under Pom- 
 peius. New Provinces : 1. Pontus, comprising Bithynia 
 (already treated as a province since 74), the coast of Paphlagonia, 
 and the western part of Pontus proper, along the coast. The rest 
 of the kingdom of Mitlu-idates was given to vassal kings. 2. Syria, 
 comprising at first only the coast from the gulf of Issus to Damascus, 
 afterwards considerably enlarged. 3. Cilicia, reorganized by Pom- 
 peius, although it had been a province in name since 75. It uicluded 
 Pamphylia and Isauria (p. 134). These Asiatic provinces were much 
 cut up, and surromided by: (a) territories of autonomous cities j 
 (b) princely and priestly sovereignties under Roman supremacy. 
 The most distinguished of the vassal kings of Rome in the east were 
 the king of Cappadocia, and Deiotarus, king of Galatia (p. 78). In 
 Palestine, after the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple, Pompeius 
 restored Hyrcanus, who had been driven out by his brother, as high- 
 priest and civil governor, but made him tributary to Rome. 
 63. Mithridates, who had busied himself with gigantic schemes of 
 a land exjjedition to Italy, killed himself at Panticapceum, in 
 the Tauric Chersonese, in consequence of the revolt of his son, 
 Pharnaces. Upon receipt of this news Pompeius returned to 
 Pontus. He confirmed Pharnaces in possession of the kingdom 
 of the Bosphorus. 
 61. Return of Pompeius to Italy. He dismissed his army at Brvm- 
 disium, and entered Rome as a private citizen. Magnificent 
 triumph, lasting two days. 
 
 66-62. Conspiracy of Catiline. 
 
 Union of the democrats and the anarchists. Leaders of the demo- 
 crats: M. Crassus and C. Julius Caesar (born 102?, son-in-law of 
 Cinna, outlawed by Sulla, afterwards pardoned, 67 qusestor in Spain, 
 65 sedile, 63 pontifex maximus). Leader of the anarchists: L. Ser- 
 gius Catilina, ex-prsetor, one of Sulla's executioners. The demo- 
 crats dreaded the reconciliation of Pompeius, whose military dictator- 
 ship was the work of their own hands, with the optimates. Hence 
 they sought to overthrow the existing government before the return 
 of Pompeius, by a violent revolution, while the anarchists, in part pro- 
 letarians, in part young men of honoraole families who were sunk in 
 debt, hoped for plunder and confiscation of property. 
 
 T1\\Q first conspiracy, in 66, according to which the consuls for 65 
 were to be murdered, and Crassus made dictator, and Ccesar, master 
 of the horse, failed of execution through the indecision of some partici- 
 pants. At the close of the year 64, it was again renewed for the pur- 
 pose of securing the election of L. Catilina and C. Antonius (also a 
 former follower of Sulla) at the consular elections for 63, by the in- 
 fluence of Ccesar and Crassus, who were to remain in the background. 
 Antonius alone was, however, actually elected; his colleague for 63 
 was M. Tullius Cicero, a favorite lawyer and orator, belonging to 
 no party unreservedly (born 106, 75 qujBstor in Sicily, 70 prosecutor 
 of Verres, 69 jedile, 66 prfetor urbanus). The latter resigned before- 
 hand to Antonius, who was deep in debt, the lucrative governorship 
 of Alacedonia, thereby detaching him from the conspirators. 
 
J. c. Jiomun History. 137 
 
 Forniation of an insurgent army in Etrnria, nnder C. Manlius, a 
 onuiule of Catiline; at Rome or<;anization of the conspirators, who, 
 it a given signal, were to fire the city, and thereby pro(lnee universal 
 onfusion. Plan of Catiline to murder his competitors at the con- 
 ular election for 62, and the consul, Cicero, who would preside over 
 :he election. Cicero, informed of this by his spies, denounced the 
 .conspiracy in the senate, appeared on the day of the election sur- 
 [•ountled by numerous armed guards, and defeated the election of 
 T'atiline. The hitter's j)lan of having Cicero surprised and murdered 
 n his own house was also betrayed and failed. 
 63. Nov. 8. First speech of Cicero against Catiline 
 delivered in the senate. 
 
 Catiline left the city, and betook himself to the army of 
 Manlius in Etruria. 
 Nov. 9. Second speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. 
 Tlie accomplices of Catiline, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius^ 
 Statilius, and Cceparius, were taken into custody on the 
 strength of written proofs of guilt obtained by Cicero. 
 Dec. 3. Third speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. 
 Dec. 5. Fourth speech of Cicero against Catiline, in the senate. De- 
 cree of the senate that the traitors be strangled in prison with- 
 out trial and sentence {Ccesar opposed the resolution ; Cato's 
 speech determmed the vote), executed by the consul Cicero. 
 Cicero greeted as pate?' patrice. 
 The consul Antonius was entrusted with the conduct of the war 
 against Catiline. His lieutenant defeated Catiline at Pistoria (62). 
 Catiline and 3000 of liis followers fell on the field. 
 62. Caesar administered the prsetorship in Rome. A part of his 
 large indebtedness having been paid by Crassus, he went for 
 61. the year to Hispania Ulterior, as proprietor, where he laid the 
 foundation of his military fame, and where he found means 
 to discharge his debts. He returned bearing the honorary title of 
 " imperator," but refused to triumph, in order that he might become 
 a candidate for the consulship. The refusal of the senate to grant 
 the allotment of lands requested by Pompeius for his veterans, 
 led to a complete break between Pompeius and the government, and 
 resulted in the so-called 
 
 60. First Triumvirate, 
 
 a reciprocal agreement of the three statesmen Pompeius, 
 Caesar, and Crassus. They secured the election for the next year 
 of 
 59. Caesar as consul. 
 
 As his colleague, the optimate M. Bibulus, and the senate op- 
 posed the proposals brought in by Cjesar for an agrarian law, espe- 
 cially in the interests of Pompeius' veterans {lex Julia de agro cam- 
 pano : ut ager campanus plebi divider etur), and the ratification of the 
 organization of Asia, these measures were submitted to the popular 
 assemblies and passed by them, without the ai)proval of the senate. 
 Violence offered Bibulus and AI. Po7'cius Cato. Bibulus did not 
 dare leave his house again during his year of office. Intimate 
 
lo8 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 friendship and close family ties between Csesar and Pompeius. 
 Csesar's daughter, Julia, 23 years old, given to Pompeius in marriage. 
 On the motion of P. Vatinius, tribune of the people, Csesar received 
 by a popular decree the government of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyri- 
 cum for 5 years, with extraordinary powers. At Pompeius' motion 
 the astounded senate added Gallia Narbonensis (p. 125) to Caesar's^ 
 province. A. Gabinius, a friend and military companion off 
 Pompeius, and L. Piso, father-in-law of Csesar, were elected consuls 
 for the following year. The execution of the agrarian law was en- \ 
 trusted to Pompeius and Crassus. Before Csesar departed for his 
 province, 
 58. The absence of Cato and Cicero from Rome was procured l| 
 
 by P. Clodius, tribune of the people, who had secured this 
 office at the sacriiice of his patrician rank by hasty adoption into a 
 plebeian family. Cato was appointed by a popular vote to take pos- 
 session of the kingdom of Cyprus, which had been left to Rome by 
 will. Cicero was driven to flight by the decree, " Whoever shall have 
 caused the execution of a Roman citizen without legal sentence shall 
 be punished with outlawry " {lex Clodia : ut qui civem Romanum in- 
 demnatum interemisset ei aqua et igni interdicei^etur), and then banished 
 by a second lex Clodia to a distance of 400 Roman miles from Rome. 
 Clodius caused Cicero's house on the Palatine to be burned, and his 
 Tusculan and Formean estate to be ravaged. 
 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar. 
 
 Results of Csesar's eight years of brilliant warfare, and its 
 meaning in the history of the world. 
 
 1. Anniliilation of the Celts, as a nation, for whose lastmg Romani- 
 zation Csesar opened the way. 
 
 2. Creation of a dam which for four centuries protected the 
 Romano-Hellenic civilization against destruction by the German bar- 
 barians. 
 
 3. Enlargement of the loundaries of the old world, not only by the 
 immediate conquest, but also through the information obtained by 
 Csesar's expeditions to Britannia and Germania. 
 
 4. Acquirement of the means for accomplishing the change, now 
 become necessary, of the Roman republic into a monarchy : the vet- 
 eran legions and troops of the allied states, who had become at- 
 tached to their general and expert in war. 
 
 58. Victory of Csesar over the Helvetians, who had invaded Gaul, 
 at Bibracte,! and over the German prince Ariovistus, N. E. 
 of Vesontio (Besan^on) in the vicinity of Muhlhausen in 
 Alsace 2 (Csesar, Bellum Gallicum, I.). 
 
 57. Subjugation of the Belgii. Annihilation of the Nervii in Hen- 
 negau by a terrible battle on the Sambre, not far from Bavay 
 (B. Gall. III.). In the southeast, occupation of Octodurus 
 (Martigny), to secure the Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard. 
 
 56. Subjugation of the Veneti in Armorica (Bretagne) by Csesar, 
 
 1 On the site of the modern Aufun, according to v. Goler ; two miles west 
 Df Autun according to Napoleon JII. ( Vie ae Cesar.) 
 
 2 See Momnisen, Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 244, note. 
 
B- C. Roman History. 139 
 
 after h.ard fighting on land and sea, and of the Aquitnni by 
 his lieutenant P. Crassus, son of the triumvir. In the north- 
 east, successful war with the Mormi and Menapii (B. Gall. 
 III.). 
 
 50. Cresar drove the Germanic tribes of the Usipetes and Tenchtcri 
 
 back across the Rhine. Passage of the Rhine on a bridge of 
 piles, between Coblence and Andernach. After a stay of fifteen 
 days on the right bank, Csesar recrossed the stream. (5. 
 Gall IV.) 
 
 First expedition to Britain with two legions. Departure from two 
 ports, one of which was Itius partus, E. and W. of Cape 
 Grisnez, landing between Dover and Deal, probably at Walmer 
 Castle.^ (B. Gall. IV.) 
 
 54. Second expedition to Britain, with five legions. Cassivelaunus, 
 leader of the British Celts. Csesar crossed the Stour and the 
 Thames (between Kingston and Brentford), while Cassivelau- 
 nus attacked the Roman camp where the ships lay. Retreat 
 and embarkation of Caesar after he had received hostages. 
 {B. Gall. V.) 
 
 53. Insurrection of the Ehurones under Amhiorix, and of other tribes. 
 Cfesar crossed the Rhine a second time. {B. Gall. VI.) 
 
 52. General insurrection of the Gauls under the Arvernian, Vercin- 
 getorix. Siege and capture of Avaricum (Bourges) by Cjb- 
 sar, occupation of Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) by Labienus. 
 Unsuccessful siege of Gergovia, near Clermont in the Auvergne ; 
 Csesar, compelled to retreat, united with Labienus. Siege of 
 Alesia (Alise Samte-Reine at Semur in the Dep. Cote d'Or, 
 between Chatillon and Dijon) by Csesar, while the Roman 
 army was in turn surrounded and besieged by the insurgent 
 army of relief ; after a hard fight, complete victory of Csesar. 
 Vercingetorix forced to surrender himself. He was exe- 
 cuted at Rome, five years later {B. Gall. VII.). 
 
 51. Completion of the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul (cruel pun- 
 
 ishment of the insurgents). Ten legions located in detach- 
 ments throughout the country held it in obedience to Csesar. 
 While these magnificent feats of war were placing the older mili- 
 tary fame of Poinpeiiis in the shade, the latter was trying unsuccess- 
 fully to master the anarchy at Rome. Leader of the ultra-demo- 
 crats, the former tribune, P. Clodius (pp. 135, 138). In opposition to 
 him the recall of M. Tullius Cicero was procured in 57, by the efi'orts 
 of the tribune T. Annius Milo. In the same year M. Porcius Cato 
 returned to Rome. The aristocratic reaction opposed the armed bands 
 of Clodius, which patrolled the streets and forum, with the armed 
 bands of Alilo. The attempt of the republicans in the senate to free 
 themselves from the influence of the rulers, and the resolution to 
 revise the agrarian law passed during the consulate of Csesar, resulted 
 in a renewal of the alliance of the three statesmen. 
 
 1 Compare Heller, Ccesnr^s Expedition rrnch Brittanien, in the Zeitschrift 
 fur alii). Erdkunde, 18fi5. According to v. Goler, thfi Jirst expedition started 
 from Wissant near Cape Grisnez, the second from Calais. 
 
140 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 > ■ 
 
 In 56 a meeting of the triumvirs Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, 
 
 and their followers (200 senators) took place in Luca. In conse^ 
 quence of agreements there concluded, the election of Pompeius 
 and Crassus as consuls for 55 was carried by the use of force. A 
 decree of the people {lex Trebonid) then assigned to Pompeius the \ 
 government of both Spains for five years, and to Crassus that of 
 Syria, while Caesar's command in Gaul was prolonged for Jive years ^ 
 more, and the payment of those troops which he had recruited on his j 
 own authority was assumed by the state. The Roman aristocracy 
 was obliged to submit to these decrees. 
 
 After the close of his year of office as consul Crassus went to 
 Syria in 54, where he undertook in 53 an expedition against the Par- 
 thians. He suffered a terrible defeat at Carrhse in Mesopotamia, 
 and was shortly after killed by the Parthians during an interview 
 with one of their satraps. Pompeius remained in Rome, and dele- 
 gated the administration of his provinces to his legates. 
 
 In 52 Clodius and Alilo happening to meet on the Via Appia, a 
 fight sprang up between their followers, during which Clodius was 
 wounded, and then, at Milo's command, put to death. Clodius' 
 corpse was carried to the Curia Hastilia, near the forum in Rome, 
 and there burnt, together with the building. To put an end to the 
 disturbances of the mob which followed tliis event, Pompeius was 
 appointed "consul without a colleague" by the senate, and clothed 
 with dictatorial power. Trial of Milo, who was condemned by the 
 jurors, in spite of Cicero's oration ^ in his defence, to be banished. 
 Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. Breach between Csesar and Pompeius, 
 whose connection had been previously weakened by the death of Julia 
 (54). Pompeius selected his new father-in-law, Metellus Scipio, for his 
 colleague in office, caused his governorship in Spain to be prolonged 
 for five years, and deprived Cfesar of two legions, urging the impor- 
 tance of the Parthian war, which a victory had already ended. 
 
 Pompeius openly reassumed the leadership of the republican aris- 
 tocracy (lex de vi et ambifu). Caesar remained leader of the democ- 
 racy, which under a constitution without representation led of neces- 
 sity to monarchy. Demand of the senate that Caesar should resign 
 his command before the expiration of the term which had formerly 
 been granted him. Refusal of the senate to permit Caesar to stand 
 for the consulship during his proconsulship, as had been allowed by 
 the citizens. This brought about the 
 
 49-48. Civil war between Caesar and Pompeius. 
 
 The senate declared Caesar a public enemy (hostis) should he 
 not disband his army within a given time. The tribmies of the peo- 
 ple who favored Caesar fled to him at Ravenna. 
 49. Caesar, with one legion, crossed the brook Rubicon, the boundary 
 
 of his province, and thereby opened the civil war. Great con- 
 sternation at Rome. Pompeius, who had only commenced his prepa- 
 rations, and the greater part of the senate, fled to Brundisium. Caesar, 
 
 1 Not the one which we have. This was written for the occasion, but the 
 tumult and fear prevented its deliver}-. 
 
. c. Roman History. 141 
 
 nuforeod by .a second losi^ioii which had overtaken liim, marched 
 u-ougli Umhrla, Picenum, where Doniitius, at Corjinium, was obliged 
 ) suiTender, and Apulia to Bramlishtm, to which lie laid siege, after 
 third legion of veterans had joined him, and he had levied three 
 ew legions. Pompeius sncceeded in conveying his troops, by two 
 xpeditions, to Greece, before the capture of the city. Ctesar, unable 
 J follow him from lack of vessels, commenced the construction of a 
 eet, and went to Rome. There he quieted the apprehensions of a 
 'turn of the horrors of the first civil war. Maguauiinous behavior 
 oward his foes (Csesar, Bell. Civ. 1-33). 
 
 9. Cresar went by land to Spain to subdue Pompeius' legates, 
 
 pring. leaving Trebonius to besiege Massilia. The legates of Pom- 
 5J. peius, Afranius and Petreius, were compelled to surrender at 
 
 Vug. Ilerda (Lerida), N. of the Ebro, and their army was dis- 
 banded (Ciesar, Bell. Civ. I. 34-87). 
 Varro, who commanded in Hispania ulteriora, threw himself into 
 9ades (Cadix), but most of the cities joining Caesar, he capitulated. 
 3n Ciesar's march back to Italy, Massilia, which was suffering from 
 ;tarvation, surrendered on being threatened with a storm (Csesar, Bell, 
 Civ. II. 1-22). Meantime Csesar's legate Cujio had reduced Sicily 
 o subjection. He then crossed to Africa, wiiere he was at first victo- 
 rious at Utica, but was afterwards defeated at the Bagradas by Juba, 
 king of Numidia, who had declared for Pompeius, and fell in the 
 battle (Cffisar, Bell. Civ. II. 23-44). 
 
 Caesar, during his absence, was proclaimed dictator at Rome 
 by the praetor M. jEmilius Lepidus (on the authority of a new 
 lex de diclatore creando), but abdicated the office after eleven 
 days, and had himself appointed consid, ^vith P. Servilius, for 
 the year 
 
 48. wliile that part of the senate which had participated in Pom- 
 peius' flight to Greece prolonged the term of office of Pom- 
 peius and all the officials of the previous year. 
 Caesar landed in northern Epirus, at Oricum, not far from the 
 promontory of Acroceraunia, with a part of his army. The trans- 
 ports which returned for the rest of the troops were mostly captured 
 by the fleet of Pompeius; and the coasts of Italy being sharply 
 watched, Caesar was placed in a situation of great difficulty, as M. 
 Antonius was able to transport the second half of the army only after 
 several months. His army being at last united, Caesar inclosed the 
 army of Pompeius at Dyrrhachium by a long chain of military posts. 
 Daily skirmishes, for the most part favorable for Caesar. At last 
 however, Pompeius broke through Caesar's line. Caesar, defeated 
 and compelled to retreat, went to Thessaly, whither Pompeius fol- 
 lowed him, leaving Cato in Dyrrhachium. In the Thessalian plain 
 was fought the 
 
 48. Decisive battle of Pharsalus. 
 
 Aug. 9. Caesar, with about 22,000 men, defeated and completely scat- 
 tered the army of Pompeius, which had more than twice 
 that strength; 20,000 men laid down their arms. Pompeius fled to 
 the coast, and took ship for Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command 
 
142 Ancient History. B. c. 
 
 of the minister of the yoimti^ king, Ptolemjens, he was mnrdered upon 
 landing". Ciesar followed Ponipeius and landed in Alexandria with 
 4000 men (C«sar, Bell. Civ. III.). 
 
 Especial honors paid to Cfesar in Rome (consulate for five years, 
 tribunate for life, dictatorship for one year). Csesar having taken it 
 upon himself, at Alexandria, to decide between the ten-year old Ptole-' 
 mreus and his followers and his sixteen-year old sister Cleopatra, there 
 broke out the so-called 
 
 48-47. Alexandrine war, 
 
 an xiprising of the whole population of Alexandria, sup- 
 ported by the Koman army of occupation, which had been in garrison 
 there since the restoration of the king Ptolemceus Auletes (55). Csesar, 
 besieged in the royal palace, was in the greatest danger, from which 
 only his reckless daring rescued him. He caused the Egyptian fleet! 
 to be set on fire, whereby the famous library of Alexandria (s. 77) 
 was also burned. Cfesar, with the help of an army of relief which 
 arrived from Asia, defeated the Egyptian army on the Nile. The ; 
 young king Ptolemfeus was drowned on the flight. The government 
 was given to Cleopatra and her younger brother, under Roman su- 
 premacy, and a Roman garrison was left in Alexandria. Csesar went 
 to Asia Minor, and in a Jive days* campaign (veniy vidi, vici) ended 
 the 
 47. War against Pharnaces, 
 
 son of Mithridates (p. 136), who had occupied Pontus, Arme- 
 /lia Minor, and Cappadocia. Ceesar defeated liim at Zela and forced 
 him to fly. Pharnaces fell in battle against a revolted governor. 
 Arrangement of the Asiatic relations. Deiotarus, who had fought 
 against Cfesar at Pharsalns, lost the greater part of his kingdom. 
 
 Return of Cffisar to Rome. After he had subdued a mutiny of the 
 tenth legion, he undertook the 
 
 47-46. War in Africa 
 
 against the adherents of Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius, Scipio^ 
 Cato, Labienus, Petreius, king Juba. Csesar landed at Hadrumetum, 
 where he was in great danger, since the larger part of his force did 
 not arrive till later in consequence of a storm. After several unim- 
 portant encounters Cfesar defeated and annihilated the republican 
 army, v/liich far outnumbered his own, in the 
 
 46. Battle of Thapsus, 
 
 during and after which 50,000 of the enemy were slaughtered 
 by Cfesar's embittered soldiers. Scipio killed himself on the flight, 
 Cato committed suicide in Utica, Petreius and Juba agreed to kill one 
 another, in a personal contest. Juba struck Petreius clown ; and being 
 himself but slightly wounded, had himself killed by one of his slaves. 
 Labienus and Sextus Pompeius escaped to the hitter's brother, Cn. 
 Pompeius, in Spain. 
 
 A part of Numidia was united with the province of Africa by 
 Caesar; the rest was given to Bocchus, king of eastern Mauritania. 
 
 Return of Csesar to Rome, where he celebrated four triumphs, foi 
 
3. c. Homan History. 143 
 
 jQul, Egfipt, Phamacea, Africa. Entertainments for the people, splen- 
 iid giuiR'S, distribution of gold and grain. Cjesar was appointed dic- 
 tator for 10 years, and censor without a colleague, under the title 
 trrrfectus morum, for 3 years. Correction of the Calendar, by an 
 extraordinary intercalation of 07 days in the year 40; thereafter there 
 ^as a solar year of 305^ days (a leap-year every four years ivithout 
 exception). 
 
 46-45. War against the sons of Pompeius, 
 
 Cnceus and Sextus, and the rest of the Pompeian party. Al- 
 ;hough repulsed before Corduba by Sextus Pompeius, Caesar by great 
 exertions defeated both brothers in the 
 
 15. Battle of Munda, north of Ronda, between 
 
 Cordova and Gibraltar, in which he was obliged to lead the 
 legions against the enemy in person. Over 30,000 Tompeians were 
 jlain, and among them Labienus, Varus, Cn. Pompeius ; Sextus es- 
 aped. 
 
 After Cfesar had returned to Rome he caused the senate to appoint 
 [lim at first (4o) consul for 10 years, afterwards (44) dictator, and 
 L^ensor /or life. Since 48 he had borne the new official title Impera- 
 tor, which denotes the possessor of the imperium, the concept of civil 
 md military official power. ^ Tliis mcluded full control of the finances 
 md the military power of the state, and also the right of coining 
 money with the portrait of the ruler of the state. As prcefectus morum 
 (censor) Caesar had the right of enlarging the senate ; as pontifex 
 maximus he possessed the control of religious affairs ; as possessor 
 since 48 of a power resembling that of the tribunes, he had the ini- 
 tiative in legislation, and was the inviolable (sacrosanctus) protector 
 and representative of the people. Accordingly the position and 
 powers of the new democratic monarch were almost exactly analo- 
 gous to those of the old Roman kings. 
 
 The people retamed, nevertheless, at least in form, a share of the 
 sovereignty, all laws affecting the constitution requiring, as under the 
 republic, to be ratified by the comitiae, which were, however, easily 
 controlled. The senate became again, what it had been under the 
 kings, an advisatory council only. Caesar brought the number of 
 members up to 900 and increased the number of quaestors from 20 to 
 40. Election to this office, it will be remembered (p. 132), admitted 
 the holder to the senate. The democratic monarch, however, exercised 
 to the utmost his right of appointing senators, and thereby gravely 
 offended the nobility. Ex-centurions, Spaniards, Gauls, sons of freed- 
 men, etc., found through him admission to the senate. The monarch 
 had an extensive right of nomination at the elections of magistrates. 
 
 Restoration of the old royal jurisdiction exercised by decision 
 of the monarch alone, from whose sentence there was no appeal, — a 
 right which, of course, was but rarely exercised (trial of Ligarius and 
 of Deiotarus). In general the ordinary judicial system was retained. 
 Praetors increased to 16. 
 
 Reorganization of the military system. Creation of legati legionis 
 
 1 Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. 468, note. 
 
144 Ancient History. b. c. 
 
 pro prcEtore, appointed by the imperator. Reform of the Jinnncial ad" 
 ministration. The system of tax-farming was exchanged for the im- 
 position of direct taxes. Allotment of the Italian domains, particu- 
 larly among the veterans. Wide-spread colonization in the provinces 
 with the view at once of Latinizing the provinces, and of diminishing 
 the number of proletarians in the capital. Commencement of mag- 
 nificent buildings in Rome. New system of provincial administration! 
 for the protection of the provinces against the extortions of the gov- 
 ernors. Sumptuary laws. Criminal legislation. Arrangement of the- 
 relations of debtor and creditor. 
 
 Project of a war against the Parthians, to revenge the Roman de- 
 feat under Crassus (p. 140) and add to the security of the easterm 
 boundary of the empire. Conspiracy . of some 50 republican aristo- 
 crats against Caesar's life {M. Junius Brutus, C. Cassius, LonginuSy 
 C. Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Tellius Cimber, etc.). 
 
 44. Assassination of Csesar during a session of the 
 March 15. senate, 
 
 which on that day was held by chance in a hall in the theatre 
 
 of Pompeius. Csesar fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot I 
 
 of a statue of Pompeius. 
 For a moment the senate took the reigns of government again, audi 
 decreed that Caesar's laws should continue in force, and offered an' 
 amnesty to his murderers. But the populace of the capital, incited 1 
 by the funeral oration of M. Antonius, violently assaulted the conspira- 
 tors. The leaders of the conspirators departed for the provinces which i 
 the senate had assigned them : M. Brutus to Macedonia, Cassius to 
 Syria, Decimus Brutus to Gallia cisalpina. 
 
 In Rome M. Antonius (consul with Dolabella), having possession! 
 of Csesar's papers, assumed an uncontrolled power under pretext oft 
 executing the will of the dictator, and caused Macedonia, the prov-- 
 ince of M. Brutus, to be assigned to himself with five of the six 
 legions which Caesar had dispatched thither for the Parthian war. 
 Dolabella received Syria, the province of Cassius, while the provinces 
 of Crete and Cyrene were assigned to M. Brutus and Cassius. Anto- 
 nius, moreover, procured from the popular assembly the province of 
 Gallia cisalpina, which the senate had refused him. In the hope of 
 balancing the usurped power of Antonius, the senate entered into 
 negotiations with the eighteen-year-old C. Octavius, Csesar's grand- 
 nephew and adopted son, henceforward known as C. Julius Caesar r 
 Octavianus. The latter, who was beloved by his soldiers, took com- 
 mand of two legions. Antonius, endeavoring to eject Decimus Bru- 
 tus from his province of Gallia cisalpina, there broke out the so-called 1 
 44-43. "War of Mutina. 
 
 As was advocated by Cicero in the Philippics, Hirtius and 
 Pansa, consuls for 43, and the young Octavianus as proprretor, were 
 sent against Antonius, who was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina 
 (Modena). Pansa died at Bononia of a wound received in the first 
 encounter ; Hirtius fell as victor in the 
 43. Battle of Mutina 
 
 against Antonius, who was now declared an enemy of the state 
 
i. c, lioman History. 14.3 
 
 ' hosti<t). While Decimita Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, 
 Dctavianus, now sole coniinamler of the army which was orijriually 
 he anuy of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his ajjpoint- 
 nent to the consnlship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the 
 conspirators, and their sentence {lex Pedia). This accomplished, he 
 ook the field, in appearance, against Antonius, with whom he 
 ilready had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was 
 ibandoned by his troops, captured upon his flight, and put to death 
 it Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 
 
 43. The Second Triumvirate was formed 
 
 Nov. avowedly for the " Organization of the State " (triumviri rei- 
 publicce constituend(B) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepi- 
 dus, the former magister equitum of Cajsar. Tliis new assumption ol 
 power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. 
 New proscriptions ; several hundred senators and 2000 equites 
 outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The 
 triumvirs began 
 
 43-42. "War against the republican party 
 
 and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Bru- 
 tus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his 
 province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolahella in Syria and 
 di'iven him to commit suicide. In the 
 
 42. Battle of Philippi 
 
 in Thrace, Antonius, who commanded the right wing, de- 
 feated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while 
 Brutus Avith the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavia- 
 nus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius 
 caused one of his slaves to put him to death. Brutus, being defeated 
 by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself . 
 
 Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then fol- 
 lowed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at 
 Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out 
 the promised allotments of land among the veterans. Quarrels 
 between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 
 
 41-40. Civil war of Perusia 
 
 between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius 
 Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the 
 other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavia- 
 nus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul 
 and Spain, while Lepidus was put oft" with the government of Africa. 
 Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, 
 which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octaria, the 
 sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided 
 between the triumvirs, so that 
 
 40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepi- 
 dus Africa. 
 39. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to ^. 
 make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who liad created a naval r~~ 
 10 
 
146 Ancient Historij. B. c. B. 
 
 empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut off the grain supplies from t 
 Konie. By the treaty of Misenum Sextiis Pompeius received Sicity^ tl 
 Sardinia, Corsica (J) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reim- \ 
 bursement for the loss of his paternal property. C 
 
 Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part witlil 2 
 Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Par-j 
 thians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in ' 
 person (3G), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 
 
 38-36. Sicilian war 
 
 between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Octavianus, aban- 
 doned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone 
 at first, and suft'ered great loss at sea. A difference between Octa- 
 vianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, audi 
 Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, 
 while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against 1 
 Sextus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got! 
 the upper hand of Sextus, especially since AI. Vipsanius A grippal 
 commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa att 
 Myke, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, l^epidus, 
 who had landed in Sicily, demanded this island for himself. Aban- 
 doned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, wlio 
 permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sentjt 
 him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa-- 
 vianus. 
 
 35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpme tribes, the Dal- 
 matians, and the Illyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, 
 king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter pre- 
 sented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the 
 sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a 
 popular decree removing Antonius from his command and declaring 
 war upon Cleopatra. 
 
 31-30. War between Octavian and A.ntonius, 
 
 also called Bellum Actiacum. 
 During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesn>;, 
 Athens, and at Patrce in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations 
 and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under 
 the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleo- 
 patra, which outnumbered it, in the 
 
 31. Battle of Actium, 
 
 Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and 
 was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered 
 to Octavianus without a blow. 
 
 30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth con- 
 sulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a 
 
 revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched through Syria to 
 
 Eg}"pt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, killed himself on hear- 
 
B. c. Roman History. 147 
 
 ing- a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced 
 that Oetavian spared her only that she nii<;ht ^vaim^ his trinnij)li in 
 Rome, ])oisoned lierself . Octavianus made Egypt a Roman province. 
 Octavianus sole ruler, after the maimer of Caesar (p. 143). 
 129. Octavianns celebrated three trinmphs in Rome, and the temple 
 of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history.^ 
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 
 
 Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the 
 Western Empire.'^ 
 
 31 (30) B. C.-476 A. D. 
 
 B. C. A. D. 
 
 31-08. The five Julii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, 
 31-14. Caesar Octavianus Augustus. 
 
 The surname Augustus (ijJie Illustrious, the Sublime), which was 
 given Octavianus by the senate in 27 b. c, is the name by wliich, as 
 sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also 
 became, like Princeps,^ Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the 
 Roman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- 
 tion of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. 
 
 Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high 
 census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. 
 The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held 
 for a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a 
 special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). 
 The prcefectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the 
 prrefectus prcetorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine 
 (afterwards ten) praetorian cohorts, became the most important of- 
 ficers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. 
 
 B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising 
 those quiet provinces which could be admmistered without an army 
 {Africa, Asia, Acliaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta., with Cij- 
 renaica, Blthynia, Sardinia, Hispania Boetica), and imperial, including 
 those where an army was maintained, and which were administered 
 by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- 
 tania ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narbonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- 
 tania, and Belgica ; Germania superior et inferior, McEsia, Syria, Cilicia, 
 Cyprus, jEgyptus).'^ Aerarium and Fiscus. 
 
 Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Mcpce- 
 nas (f B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets : 
 p. Vergilius Maro (70-19 b. c), Q. Horaiius Flaccus (C5-8 b. c.) ; 
 
 1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [Trans,] 
 
 - Peter, Rom. Gesch. III.3, 1871, and Rom. Gesch. in kiirzerer Fassunq, 
 
 1 0.1. 1878, p. 475 foil. 
 
 3 Frinceps Avas, it is true, not an ojjicinl title. About tlie meaning of this de- 
 
 iru.ition and its relation to the fliijiiity of the Princeps senatus, see Max- 
 quardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth. II.-, 2, p. 750 foil. 
 
 ^ Lnter many changes were made in this division. All provinces created 
 after 27 v.. c. were assigned to the emperor. 
 
148 Ancient History. b. c 
 
 the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-54 b. c), Albius Tibullus 
 (54-19 B. c. ?), S. Propertius (49-15 b. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (bom 
 43 b. c, 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinus, f 17). 
 The historian T. Livius (59 b. C.-17 a. d.) 
 
 Family of Augustus. 
 C. Julius Csssar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 b. c, f 14 a. d. 
 
 
 
 Married : 
 
 
 1. Claudia. 
 
 
 2. Scribonia. 3. Livia. 
 Tiberius and Drusus, 
 Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nero 
 and Livia. 
 Julia, t A. D. 14. 
 
 
 
 Married : 
 
 
 1. Marcellus, 
 
 son of Octavia. 
 
 t B. c. 23. 
 
 
 2. M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 
 t B.C. 12. 
 
 3. Tiberius. 
 
 Gaius C^sar. Lucius Csesar. Agrippina. Julia. Agrippa Postumus. 
 
 t A. D. 4. t A. D. 2. t A. D. 33. t A. D. 28. f A. D. 14. 
 
 Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria because 
 of her excesses. Gaius Ccesar. and Lucius Cmsar were adopted by 
 Augustus B. c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the 
 elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of 
 the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa 
 Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to 
 the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. 
 Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, 
 was adopted by Augustus, A. d. 4. 
 
 29. Mcesia subjugated (made a province in 16 b. c. ?). 
 
 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the 
 operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sick- 
 ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 
 
 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. jEUus 
 Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of 
 the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prcetoria (Aosta). 
 
 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dig- 
 nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 
 
 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Pe- 
 tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 
 
 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Phra- 
 ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored 
 the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. 
 Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe- 
 rius. 
 
 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cantabri 
 and Astui-es. 
 
 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary 
 of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a Roman province, 
 along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum.. now Augsburg) 
 and Noricum. 
 
c.-A. D. Roman History. 149 
 
 2-0. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior 
 and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 
 27), Drusus undertook four cani])aigns in (xerniany proper, 
 and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus 
 died upon the way back. 
 -7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- 
 mand, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a 
 portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine 
 to recognize the supremacy of Rome. 
 
 Birth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our 
 era?). 
 
 5-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- 
 bod was interrupted by an insurrection of the lUyrian and Pan- 
 nonian tribes, wdiich were reduced to subjection only after a 
 severe contest. 
 
 .0. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- 
 ince. 
 
 )(?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated 
 in the Teutoburg forest, by Arminius (Hermami ?), a 
 leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. 
 Lex Papia Poppcea and Lex Julia direcliied against celibacy. 
 
 L4. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 
 
 14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), 
 
 step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- 
 picious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from 
 ;lie comitice to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) 
 was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- 
 eign. Rewards given to informers (delatores). 
 
 Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of 
 the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the 
 younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annales. I. 16-49). 
 14-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. 
 On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed 
 at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman 
 victory in the battle on the Campus Jdistaviso (according to 
 Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the 'elves ") over Arminius, 
 between Minden and Hameln, In spite of the success of the 
 Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. 
 Ann. II. 5-26). 
 
 17. Germanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- 
 rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made 
 Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- 
 son, administered by Piso?). 
 23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By 
 uniting the praetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus 
 laid the foundation of the future power of the prcetorians. 
 23. Sejanus poisoned Drusus, son of Tiberius. 
 27. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprerr. (Capri). 
 29. Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia f . 
 
150 Ancient History. A. C* 
 
 31. Trial of Sejaniis, who was executed in company with many others, 
 (accomplices in the conspiracy?). Macro succeeded Sejauus 
 in the favor of Tiberius. 
 
 37-41. Caligula (properly, Gains Ccesar Germanicus), 
 youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caligula 
 (bootling), a cruel, half-crazy tyrant {oderint, dum rnetuant!). Self- 
 adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expedition 
 with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39^0), which ended 
 with tlie collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder the 
 praetorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, 
 
 41-54- Claudius {Tiberius Claudius Nero), 
 
 son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a weak- 
 minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the freed- 
 men Narcissus smd Pallas) and his wives: 1, the shameless Messalina, 
 and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippina, 
 daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI. and XIL), 
 43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the command 
 of A. Plautius and his legate, T. Flavins Vespasianus ; the 
 southern part of Britain became a Roman province (Tacitus, 
 Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31-40). 
 During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporated : 
 in Africa, Mauretania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (42); 
 in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judcea, which had been a de- 
 pendent kingdom 4l1-A4:, became in 44 a province again. 
 
 Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by Cn. 
 Domitius (he took the name of Nero at his adoption), and to appoint 
 him his successor in place of liis own son by Messalina, Britannicus, 
 whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claudius 
 showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoned 
 him. 
 
 54-68. Nero {Nero Claudius C(rsar Augustus Ge7'ma7iicus), 
 proclaimed imperator by the prjetorians, was for the first 
 five years of his reign under the guidance of the prcefectus prceto- 
 rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the influence of 
 his mother Agrippina from becoming predommant. Law against 
 informers. 
 
 With Nero's passion for the freed woman Acte, and afterwards for 
 Poppcea Sabina, the opposition between himself and liis mother grew 
 stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poisoned 
 (55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened to 
 make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from him 
 his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and married 
 Poppcea Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appeared 
 in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawling 
 servility of the senate (Tac. Ami. XIII.-XVI.). 
 61. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius Paulinus. 
 58-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the capture 
 and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corhulo forced King 
 Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, 
 
A. D. Roman Hhtory. 151 
 
 64. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting 
 tlu'ee days, destroyed a large i)art of Rouie (set by Nero's 
 eoniniand, in order that he might rebuild the city more beau- 
 tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of 
 Christians of setting tire to the city. 
 
 64. First persecution of the Christians.^ 
 Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero 
 (clomus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to 
 the Esquiline. 
 
 65. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f). 
 
 68. Revolt m Gaul (C Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, 
 where the governor Sulpicius Galba, then 73 years of age, was 
 proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed 
 himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- 
 hood of Rome. 
 
 68-69. Galba (Servlus Suljncius Galba), 
 
 June- Jan. whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers 
 (Tac. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 
 
 69. OtlcLO {Marcus Salu las Otho Titianus), 
 
 Jan.-Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. I. II.) The legions 
 on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 
 
 69- Vitellius {Aulas VitelUus), 
 
 Apr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremona, 
 entered Rome and made the city the scene of his senseless 
 gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 
 
 69-96- The three Flavian emperors. 
 
 69-79. Vespasianus {Titus Flavins Vespasianus) 
 
 proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinim Muci- 
 anuF, governor of Syria, at fii-st in Alexaiidria, afterwards by his own 
 legions and those Of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the 
 war against the Jews who had been in revolt since C6. Vespasianus 
 transferred the military command to his son, Titus, and went to Rome, 
 after a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already 
 put Vitellius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and 
 order in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 
 69-71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius?) 
 
 Civilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), 
 
 one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first 
 declared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, 
 but against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained 
 tlie assistance of a large part of the Roman soldiers in those parts. 
 Claudius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced 
 by Cxernians from the other side of the Rhine, thirsting for booty, 
 he advanced far into Gaul. A great part of the Gallic tribes joined 
 i But see Overbeck, Studien z. Gesch. d. alten Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 
 
152 Ancient History. A. d.| 
 
 him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independeni 
 Gallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Rome was seouri 
 however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken oui 
 between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end 
 the revolt, and again reduced all Gaul under the Roman supremacy! 
 70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumphal arch of 
 Titus in Rome. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Col- 
 osseum). 
 
 78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made prepara- 
 
 tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasiauus 
 was succeeded by his son, 
 
 79-81. Titus {Titus Flavins Vespasianus), 
 
 called, because of his admirable qualities, amor et delicice g>. 
 eris humani. Punishment of informers. 
 
 79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii b; 
 
 ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of th 
 Roman fleet at Misenum. 
 
 80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brother, 
 
 81-96. Domitianus {Titus Flavins Domitia7ius) , 
 
 a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign against 
 the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstand- 
 ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the construc- 
 tion of the Roman boundary wall between tlie Rlmie and the Danube 
 was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were settled 
 upon public land along its course {agri decumates). 
 81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby the^ 
 
 Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. AgricolaH 
 
 recalled by Domitian tlu'ough envy. ^ 
 
 86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bought 
 
 peace of Decehalus by a yearly tribute. 
 93. Death of Agricola (poisoned b}^ order of Domitian ?). Cruel 
 
 persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. 
 96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empress, 
 
 who was in fear of her own life, and the prsefectus praetorio, 
 
 Peironius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. 
 
 96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 
 
 96-98. Nerva {Marcus Cocceiiis Nerva), 
 
 a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mur- 
 derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, re- 
 called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted and 
 appointed as his successor 
 
 98-117. Trajan {Marcits JJlpius Traiaiius), 
 
 governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in the 
 Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of the 
 tiirone of the Csesars who was not an Italian. Excellent 
 ruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome {Forum 
 Traianum) and throughout the empire. 
 
L. D. Roman History. 153 
 
 .01-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's 
 refusal to pay the tribute promised by Doniitian. Trajan 
 crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- 
 lus and forced him to make peace and cede a portion of his 
 territory. 
 l05-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a 
 stone bridge across the Danube (at Turnu Severinu), crossed 
 the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebalus 
 killed himself. Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,000 
 gladiators are said to have appeared. 
 Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and Transyl- 
 )ania {Siehenburgen), made a Roman province. Settlement of nu- 
 Qierous colonists in Dacia, from whom the present Roumanians de- 
 rive their descent. It would be more correct to say their language 
 3nly, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- 
 laciiia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan 
 \t Rome completed in 113. 
 
 The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and 
 S. of Damascus and of Judcea to the northern end of the Red Sea, 
 as the Roman province of Arabia. ^ 
 
 114-110. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of 
 the Partliian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- 
 potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. 
 Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian 
 monarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed 
 down the river to the rersian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king 
 over the Partliians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus 
 (Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 
 
 117-138. Hadrian {Fublius jElius Hadriamis), 
 
 adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- 
 ministrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces 
 of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euplu'ates formed 
 the eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in 
 Moesia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who 
 conspired against him. 
 
 120. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- 
 pire, with a visit to Gaul. 
 Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site 
 of the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venus 
 and the goddess Roma, and the Athencemn ; in Athens, the city of 
 Hadrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent villa at Tibur 
 (Tivoli). 
 
 In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Scots. 
 Collection of the edicts of the praetors (edictum perpetuum) com- 
 menced by the jurist Salvius Julianas. 
 
 132-135. Revolt of the Je^ws on account of the foundation of thq 
 colony of ^lia Capitolina (p. 12). 
 Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. uElius Verus, an(^ 
 
 1 Tliat is, Arabia Petrma, po called from its capital, Petra. not the whole 
 peninsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. Ant, Tab. XII. 
 
154 Ancient History. A. D. 
 
 appointed him Ccesar (p. 147) ; but as Verus died before him he 
 adopted 2\ Aurelius Antoninus under the condition that the latter 
 should adopt in place of a son his nephew, the young M. Aimlus 
 Verus, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Verus, 
 the son of the deceased Csesar, ^lius Verus. 
 
 138-161. Antoninus Pius {Titus Aurelius Antom7ius 
 Fins). 
 
 Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, however, 
 vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbarians. 
 Antoninus had his adopted sou, M. Aurelius, educated by phil- 
 osophers of the Stoic school. 
 
 161-180. Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), 
 
 a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupil of Corne- 
 lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned in 
 common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Lucius 
 Verus. 
 
 162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verus, 
 who, however, ^oon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiocliia, 
 while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquered 
 Artaxata, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleucia 
 and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made a 
 Roman province. 
 
 166. Plague and famine in Italy. 
 
 166-180. War with the Marcommani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelius 
 fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who con- 
 stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bar- 
 barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, 175. 
 Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestrian 
 statue in his honor, which still adorns the Capitol. Before 
 he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empire 
 along the Danube secure, he died in Vindohona (Vienna). He 
 was succeeded by his degenerate son 
 
 180-192. Commodus, 
 
 who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute, 
 
 entrusted the government for the most part to the prtefectus prjetorio, 
 
 abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, and 
 
 was finally murdered by his intimates. 
 
 193-284. Imperators for the most part appointed by the 
 soldiers. 
 
 193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after three 
 months by the prsetorians, who placed on the throne in his 
 stead 
 
 193. Didius Julianus, who, among all competitors, promised 
 them the largest present. The Illyrian legions proclaimed 
 
 193-211. Septimius Severus, 
 
 who was recognized by the senate and mamtained himself 
 
A. D. Roman History, 155 
 
 agaiust the other pretenders (Pescennius Niger in the East, Clodius 
 Albinus m Gaul). Successful eanipaig-ns in Mesopotamia. Improve- 
 ments in the administration of justice throuij^h the jurist Papinianus. 
 In 208 expedition to Britain a«^ainst the Scots. Restoration of the 
 Roman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius 8ev- 
 erus died in Eboracum (York). His son, 
 
 211-217. Caracalla {Aiitonlnus Bassianus) 
 
 murdered his half-brother and co-reg-ent Geta along with 
 
 thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papinianus. By 
 
 the Constitutio Antoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all 
 
 inhabitants of the provinces, for the sake of the higher taxation which 
 
 could then be imposed. 
 
 Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the 
 Goths (wrongly called Getre) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- 
 ants of Alexandria. Plundermg expedition against the Parthians. 
 Murder of Caracalla. His successor, 
 
 217. Macrinus, 
 
 purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed 
 as imperator the fourteen-year-old 
 
 218-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogabalus is a corruption), priest 
 of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son 
 of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- 
 bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and 
 grancbnother. He adopted his eousm, the young Bassianus 
 Alexianus, who succeeded to the throne after the murder of 
 Elagabalus by the praetorians, under the name of 
 
 222-235. Severus Alexander. 
 
 Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and 
 Julius Paullus. His strictness with the soldiers led to several 
 mutinies, in one of which Ulpianus was murdered. 
 226. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of 
 the Arsacidae and the foundation of the ne"w Persian em- 
 pire of the Sassanidae by Artakshatr {Artaxares, corrupted into 
 Artaxerxes, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new 
 war broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- 
 cording to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success; according to 
 the Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to 
 have been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- 
 ander on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 
 
 235-238. Maximinus Thrax, 
 
 a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition 
 across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile 
 the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 
 
 237. Gordianus I., 
 
 then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- 
 dianus II., co-regent. They were both defeated by the prjefect of 
 Mauretania: the son fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 
 
156 Ancient History. A. d. 
 
 The senate at Rome, which had already taken sides against Maximi- 
 nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Bal- 
 binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, the 
 thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus I. Maximinus Thrax was 
 killed by his own soldiers at the siege of Aquileia. The praetorians 
 at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, Pt/- 
 pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 
 
 238-244. Gordianus III. 
 
 was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (241). 
 The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Misitheus 
 (^Timesitheus), whom he made prsefectus prsetorio, and whose guidance 
 he followed. After the death of his father-in-law Gordianus was 
 murdered by the new prsefectus prsetorio, 
 
 244-249. Philippus Arabs, 
 
 whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at the 
 demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned to 
 Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). 
 248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation 
 
 of Rome. 
 
 Revolt of the Mcesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed one 
 of theii' officers imperator. 
 
 249-251. Decius, 
 
 whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled by 
 the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated and 
 killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 
 
 250. General persecution of the Christians. 
 
 Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeated 
 the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle after 
 he had followed them across the Danube. The legions elected 
 
 251-253. Gallus, 
 
 who soon had his co-regent, HostUianus, son of Decius, put to 
 death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the em- 
 pire. Gallus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, 
 
 253. ^milianus, 
 
 who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He was 
 succeeded by 
 
 253-260. Valerianus, 
 
 the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ap- 
 pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war with 
 the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, espe- 
 cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Italy 
 but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danube. 
 Unsuccessful expedition of Valerianus against the Persians ; defeated 
 at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried about 
 as the slave of King Artaxerxes. His reign and that of his son, 
 
A. D. Roman History. 157 
 
 260-268. Gallienus, 
 
 was distuibecl by the appearance of a ^eat number of pretend- 
 ers to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particuhirly 
 of the Goths, who came in ships from the Bhick Sea. Confusion 
 throughout the empire ; the so-called " time of the thirty tyrants." 
 Two pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, 
 Tetricus in Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria. 
 The latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by 
 Gallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathus 
 (2(37) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege 
 to Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, 
 and was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was 
 put to death by 
 
 268-270. Claudius II., 
 
 whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Ala- 
 manni and the Goths, and was succeeded by 
 
 270-275. Aurelianus. 
 
 He concluded peace ^\dth the Goths by the sacrifice of the 
 province of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boundary of 
 the empii'e ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported 
 to Moesia, a part of which was now called Dacia (Aiireliana). Anre- 
 lian repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad 
 into Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new 
 wall around Rome, which included the enlarged imperial city (271, 
 completed in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia 
 and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- 
 tured Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued 
 the East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated 
 and captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called " Restorer 
 of the universal Empire " (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an 
 expedition against the Persians. At the request of the army the 
 senate elected the senator 
 
 275. Tacitus 
 
 imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia 
 Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, 
 who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 
 
 276-282. Probus, 
 
 who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- 
 dals, entered Germany, and streng-thened the wall between the Rliine 
 and Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as 
 mercenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- 
 ing swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was 
 nuudered by them. ' The prsefectus prsetorio, 
 
 282-283. Carus, 
 
 succeeded. He appointed Ins sons Carinus and Numerianus 
 Caesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the SarmatianSy and per- 
 
158 Ancient History. a. d. 
 
 ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persians, 
 after having captured Ctesij)hon. 
 284. Numerianus, 
 
 who had accompanied his father to the East, was murdered by 
 
 his father-in-law. 
 
 284. Carinus, 
 
 wlio had remained in the West, fought at first with success 
 against 
 
 284-305. Diocletianus, 
 
 who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carinus 
 was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, who 
 created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and thence 
 ruled the East, entrusted the administration of atiairs in the 
 
 285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co-regent or Augustus, 
 who took up his residence for the most part in Mediolanum 
 (Milan). 
 
 293. Diocletian appointed two more Ccesars : 1. Constantius 
 Chlorus, who was obliged to divorce his wife Helena and marry 
 the step-daughter of Maximianus, received the government of 
 Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and dwelt commonly in Augusta 
 Trevirorum (Trier), v/liile Maximianus was appointed to the 
 government of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who became 
 Diocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyri- 
 ciim, including Macedonia and Greece. 
 296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius sup- 
 pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against the 
 Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) he 
 gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to the Tigris 
 again. Maximianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Con- 
 stantius defeated the Alamanni. 
 303. General persecution of the Christians, 
 
 which Constantius discouraged in his province. 
 
 305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to Salonce in Dalmatia, after 
 he had obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. 
 
 Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desire 
 of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and of 
 Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over, 
 
 Severus and Maximinus were appointed Csesars, the fii-st receiv- 
 ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. 
 
 306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena), 
 Constantine, assumed the administration of his father's prov- 
 inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Cfesar. He 
 fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhile 
 the praetorians at Rome chose Maxentius imperator, where- 
 upon his father, Maximianus, reassumed the dignity he had 
 unwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, three 
 Augusti and three Cffisars. 
 
 307. The Csesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale- 
 
 rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted by 
 tis soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Licin- 
 
fL. D. Roman History. 159 
 
 LUS co-regent and Augnstns in liis stead, and Constantine therefore 
 
 ftssumed the same title, so that there were now six Augusti in the 
 
 empire. 
 
 310. In the strnggle that followed, tlie aged Maximianus was cap- 
 
 tnred in Massilia and put to death by command of Constantine. 
 
 Galerius died of disease (311). 
 War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts 
 
 in favor of the C/hristians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin 
 
 312. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Home, by Constantine 
 (Hoc signo vinces !), and perished by drowning as he attempted 
 to cross the Tiber. 
 
 Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- 
 mained up to his death a catechumen. 
 
 313. Alliance between Constantine and Lioinius, who married 
 
 Constantine's sister. Constantine took the field against the 
 
 I Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and 
 
 \ killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now 
 
 313-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the 
 empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314, 
 however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated 
 in two encounters, was obliged to cede Ulyricum, Macedonia, 
 and Achaia to Constantine. 
 
 S23. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- 
 feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, 
 and was executed (324) by Constantine's command. 
 
 323-337- Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. 
 
 Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the 
 
 expense of paganism. 
 325. First general (cjcumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, 
 
 in Bithyuia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ('Apeios), 
 formerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Christ was 
 not of the same nature, but of like nature only (oixoioixnos), with God 
 the Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Athanasius of Alexandria, 
 according to which Christ was of the saine nature (Sfxoovaios, consub- 
 stantialis) with God the Father, was declared a dogma of the Church 
 by the Symbolum Niccenum. 
 330. Constantine selected Byzantium (Nova Roma, Constantino- 
 
 polis) for the capital. The empire was redistricted. The 
 four great prefectures, Oriens, Ulyricum orientate, Italia, Gallia, were 
 divided into 13 dioceses, these into 116 provinces. ^ New hierarchy 
 of officials, 7 superior court offices. Council of state (consistorium prin- 
 cipis). New arrangement of the taxes. 
 
 Cruelty of Constantine in his family. His eldest son, Crispus, and 
 one of his nephews executed through the plots of his wife, Fausta, who 
 was herself put to death. 
 
 Constantine, before his death, divided the administration of the 
 empire among his three sons as Augusti, and two nephews as Coisars. 
 After his death, in Bithyuia, the two Cajsars were put to death by 
 Constantius. The thi'ee sons of Constantine redivided the empire at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1 Kicpcrt, Athi.^ Aiii'qiinf, Tnh. XIL 
 
160 Ancient History. a. d, 
 
 337-340. Constantinus II. received the West (the prefec-] 
 tures of Italia, Gallia, and a part of Africa). 
 
 337-361. Constantius received the East, the prefecture 
 
 Oriens. 
 337-350. Constans received the prefectures of IllyriGum\ 
 orientale and a part of Africa. 
 Constantius carried on a long and indecisive war with the Persians.; 
 Constantinus II. attacked his brother Constans, and fell at Aquileia. In 
 350 Constans also died, so that Constantius, after the conquest of the 
 usurper Magnentius (353), again united the whole empire. Julianus, 
 a cousin of the emperor, who was appointed Caesar, fought success- 
 fully with the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks, and assigned the 
 Salian Franks lands in northern Gaul. Constantius died on an expe- 
 dition against 
 
 361-363. Julianus, 
 
 who had been proclaimed Augustus by the legions. He is 
 known as the apostate (apostata), because he was an adherent of the 
 heathen philosophy and abandoned Christianity, hoping to bring about 
 a reaction in favor of the heathen cult, which he wished restored in 
 purified form. Julianus defeated the Alamanni and the Franks, rt 
 stored the fortresses which had been erected agamst them along the 
 frontier, and defeated the Persians at Ctesiphon, but died of a wound 
 on his return. The soldiers raised the Christian 
 
 363-364. Jovianus, 
 
 to the throne. He ceded the greater part of Mesopotamia to 
 the Persians. Christianity reinstated in the privileges which Con- 
 stantino had granted. After the sudden death of Jovianus the legions 
 raised 
 
 364-375. Valentinianus I. 
 
 to the throne. He appointed as co-regent first his brother, 
 
 364-378. Valens, 
 
 an Arian, who governed the East from Constantinople, and 
 afterwards, for the West, his son, 
 
 367-383. Gratianus, 
 
 who, upon liis father's death, acknowledged as co-regent forj 
 the administration of the West his four-year-old half-brother, 
 
 375-392. Valentinian II., 
 
 who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. 
 
 375- Beginning of the migrations of the TeutoniO] 
 
 tribes (p. 170). 
 378. After the death of Valens at Adrianople in battle against thej 
 West Goths, Gratianus created the heathen 
 
.D. Roman History. 161 
 
 r9-395. Theodosius 
 
 oo-rcgeiit, and oiitrustecl him with the administration of the 
 ast. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe 
 hiess, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged 
 > accept them as allies (fcederati) in their abodes in Maesia and 
 hrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed 
 y the legions in Britain, 
 83-388. Clemens Maximus, 
 
 whom Theodosius recognized as co-regent under the condition 
 iiat he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. 
 \x 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodo- 
 lus, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aqui- 
 iia, and executed him. 
 90. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius 
 
 (7000 executions). On this account bishop Ambrosius of 
 ;iilan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Clu-istian com- 
 umion, until he had done penance. 
 92. After the murder of Valentinian II. by Arhogastes^ and after 
 
 the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arbogastes set up, had 
 94. fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arbogastes 
 
 had put himself to death, the whole empire was, for the last 
 
 time, reunited under 
 
 J94-395. Theodosius. 
 
 After his death the division of administration into an eastern 
 
 nd a western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became 
 permanent division of the empire. 
 
 595-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also 
 called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial 
 vicar, Rufinus. Caj^ital Byzantium or Constantinople. 
 The 
 
 595-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna im- 
 perial residence after 402, mider 
 
 p5-423. Honorius. 
 
 Guardian and chancellor, the Vandal Stilicho, murdered in 408 
 
 I by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After 
 
 the death of Honorius the usurper 
 
 lt24. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally over- 
 
 ; thrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the six- 
 
 i year-old 
 
 |t25-455. Valentinian III. 
 
 made imperator, the government being conducted at first by 
 his mother Placida, sister of Honorius, in liis name. Valen- 
 tinian was murdered by 
 
 L65. Petronius Maximus, 
 
 who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed 
 shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173). 
 11 
 
162 Ancient History. a. d, 
 
 The throne was usurped by 
 
 455-556. Avitus 
 
 who was soon deposed by Recimir, a military leader of the 
 German mercenaries in the Roman army. Recimir placed upon 
 the throne 
 
 457^61. Majorianus, 
 
 whom he afterwards deposed in favor of 
 461-465. Libius Severus, 
 
 after whose deposition (?) 
 465-467. Recimir conducted the government without the pretence 
 
 of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed 
 
 467-472. Anthemius 
 
 upon the throne, who was succeeded by 
 
 472. Olybrius. 
 
 Recimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court 
 interposed and placed 
 
 473. Glycerius 
 
 on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 
 473-475. Julius Nepos, 
 
 also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 
 Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son 
 
 475-476. Romulus Augustulus 
 
 upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome 
 first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial 
 line in the West, being deposed by 
 
 476. Odovaker (Odoacer), 
 
 military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himsel: 
 ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern 
 emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy 
 (p. 173). 
 
 § 4. TEUTONS. Aryan. 
 
 Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in 
 Eiirope. 
 
 I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps 
 N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows : N. German 
 Ocean, Baltic ; E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Car- 
 pathian Mts. ; S. the Alps ; W. the Pihine. Tliis region falls into_ three 
 physical divisions : 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided 
 into the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose 
 deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 
 245 ). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc.. Lake 
 Geneva, Lake Constance, Lake of Lucerne ( VierivaJdstattesee), etc. 2. 
 A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the 
 sea, and embracing the present Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Sax- 
 
B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 163 
 
 onif, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching^ to the sea, 
 and including^ the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern 
 (ifiinany comprises 2 and 3. The pcninsnla of Denmark has belonged, 
 in historic times, j)olitically to Scandinavia and (Germany. 
 
 Ihrou^h the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends 
 from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in 
 Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercijnia silva, in- 
 cludes the /um, Vosges, Schwarzicald (Black Forest) 7\iunus, Thiiringer 
 Wald, Erz Gebirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose 
 convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Dan- 
 ube S. of this range, and the depression on its northern base extend- 
 ing from the Lahn to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route be- 
 tween Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which 
 give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups : 
 Bohemian Forest, forimng the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, N. of 
 the Frankfort road. Rivers : 8. the Danube, flowing into the Black 
 Sea ; N. the Rhine, with its branches Neckar, Main, etc., Ems, 
 Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean ; Oder, Vistula flowing 
 into the Baltic. 
 
 The Roman provinces Rretia, Vindelicia, Noricmn, Pannonia, occu- 
 pied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania 
 superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the 
 L pper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a 
 province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania 
 magna. 
 
 II. Scandinavia, the great peninsula jutting W. and S. from the 
 north of Europe. It falls into two divisions : 1. A rugged, moun- 
 tainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 
 2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers 
 flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden). The 
 southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans under the 
 name Scandia, and was thought to be an island. 
 
 III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. 
 
 Ethnology : I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of 
 the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded 
 that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken 
 the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the 
 plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the 
 Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it 
 was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading Ger- 
 mans. Whether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not 
 clear ; certain it is that from a very early time a radical dift'erence 
 has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby 
 they are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, 
 and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast. 
 
 Tlie Romans divided the Germans {Gennaniy either into two sec- 
 tions, the Suevi and the non-Suevi (Csesar), or into three branches 
 which were named after the sons of " Mannus, the son of the earth-born 
 god Tuisco,^^ Istcevones, Ingcevones, Herminones. The former division 
 
 1 The origin of this name is doubtful. See the disputed passage in TacituSt 
 Germania, 2. 
 
1 64 Ancient History. B. c.-A. d. 
 
 is thought to correspond to that of High (Suev'i) and Low Germans ; 
 the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later 
 formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes 
 may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Isteevones, Ubii, Usipii, Tencterii, 
 Sugambri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later 
 the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks ; Ingsevones, Batavians, Fri- 
 sians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimbri, along the coast from the Rliine to the 
 right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hessen, Cherusci on 
 the Upper Weser, Hermunduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the 
 Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marc- 
 omanni in Bohemia (see below), Quadi on the Danube, Semnones, the 
 centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization 
 of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langohardi, Rugii in the 
 northeast toward the Vistida, Burgundiones on the Oder, Guttones 
 (later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (?). 
 
 In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth 
 century A. d., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, 
 and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E. 
 
 II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (Sitones), from 
 the N., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : 
 Gautce (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden ; Northmen in Norway. 
 
 III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. 
 
 Religion : The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic 
 nature worship. I. Germans : Beyond the unsatisfactory passages 
 in Csesar {Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus {Germania 9, 10, etc.), all 
 our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the 
 introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived 
 by inference from later sources, or from the younger but nuich fuller 
 mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods (^Ases^ of the 
 Germans were: "Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; 
 Donar (Tho?'), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agri- 
 culture ; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a son of Woden, god of war ; Fro 
 (Freyr), god of love ; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice ; Nerthus 
 or Hertha (Frau Bertha), the earth ; Frauwa (Freyo), sister of 
 Fro ; Friga {Fria), wife of Woden ; Helia (Hel) goddess of the 
 lower regions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Nornes or fates, 
 the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower 
 mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, 
 cobolds, elves, Jiixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the 
 many popular fancies which the modern study of folk lore has revealed. 
 
 The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, 
 though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high 
 honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, 
 and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to 
 2he gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often 
 devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Cer- 
 tain days were set apart for the worship of certam deities, whose 
 names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. 
 Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor's- 
 dag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of 
 
B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 165 
 
 these recurring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service 
 of Clu'istianity. Such was the decoration of trees with Hower- 
 wreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites,^ and such the 
 colored eg-gs in a " hare's nest," now an Piaster custom, hut originally 
 an ottering to some heathen divinity. Divinations hy flight of birds, 
 neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. 
 
 II. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of 
 the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in 
 Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by 
 hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in 
 the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars hold, 
 in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- 
 mentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson 
 (1178-1241). 
 
 In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos (^Ginungagap) 
 he created two worlds, Nijiheim, the ice-world, in the north, and 
 Muspelhehn, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, 
 in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced 
 the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- 
 giants (Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Aud- 
 hiimbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bwe, to whom 
 a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These thi-ee 
 slew Yj7ier, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, 
 save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of 
 the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and 
 the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. After- 
 wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. 
 
 The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the 
 highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode 
 of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where 
 dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, Asgard, with its lofty 
 halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below 
 Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- 
 rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent 
 which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. 
 Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one 
 purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on which account they were 
 perpetually at war \^-ith man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- 
 low the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, 
 Nijiheim, with the fountain Hvergelmer. Bifroust, the bridge between 
 Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-bridge between Helheim, Jotun- 
 heim and the worlds above. 
 
 These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and 
 united by a miglity ash-tree, Yggdra^il, with three roots reacliing to 
 Godheim, Jotunheim, and Nijiheim. 
 
 Tlie great gods were Odin and his sons : Thor, Vali, Haimdall, 
 Vidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hodur, besides Aller, Forsete, and NJord, 
 
 1 In Germany the tree is simply decorcf^^d, the presents to be exchanged are 
 piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The ex- 
 change of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhajjs a sur- 
 Tival of a practice observed by the Komans during the Haluvnalia (p. 85). 
 
166 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. 
 
 Freyr, sea gods, and Lohe. Of the goddesses the chief were Frigga, 
 wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. 
 Above all the gods were the Nornes, or fates. Below the gods were 
 elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous 
 were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- 
 lowed a golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time 
 evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed through 
 tlie contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- 
 toe, Frigga having bound all other created things not to hurt Baldur. 
 Lake's children were the Fenris-wolf, chained until the coming of 
 Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Binding of Loke. Finally 
 comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. 
 Battle of the Asa-gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the 
 Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad 
 alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole 
 world in flames. Yidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor 
 survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. 
 
 According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who 
 died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to 
 Yalhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until 
 Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were 
 punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand} 
 
 Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed 
 the transition from a pastoral to an agricultiiral people, when they 
 arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of 
 civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- 
 like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the 
 Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled 
 for the most part each mdividual apart, each tribe separated from 
 the other by a broad strip of mark-land.'^ Orders : 1. Nobles, who 
 derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political 
 privileges because of their nobility. 2. Freemen, that is, land-owners, 
 men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their 
 bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. 
 Freedmen (liti, lassen), or half-freemen, renters bound to military 
 service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular 
 assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part 
 serfs bound to the soil (glebce adscripti), m part actual slaves. The 
 latter two classes formed the majority of the population. 
 
 Custom of comradeship {gasindi leudes), out of which the feudal 
 system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and 
 the division of land among the faithful (Jideles'), and under the in- 
 fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- 
 sen, vassals, or men ; fief (feudum or benefcium), held on tenure of 
 service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 
 
 1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, the extent to which thev have 
 been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- 
 quiry, but nothino; can as yet be said to be detinitel}^ determined. See Bugge, 
 Entstehunff der' Nordischen Gotter. 
 
 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical 
 questions, the social and political orp:anization of the ancient Germans, is re- 
 ferred to Waitz, Veifassunf/S(/i'6clnchlt, where references will be found. 
 
B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 
 
 History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons in Europe is 
 wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber eoasts 
 of the Baltic about 350 b. c, met with Gernum tribes. From that 
 time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Roman 
 annals for 225 b. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the 
 close of the second century b. c, when the tribes of the Cimhri and 
 Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven 
 from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in 
 (iaul, found their death on the fields of Aqu;e Sextije and Vercellae 
 (102, 101, B. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, 
 but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Gi'rmans 
 luitil Ciesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian 
 prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 b. c). Sub- 
 jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rliine. Csesar's two 
 expeditions across the Rliine (58, 55, p. 139). 
 
 Lnder Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. 
 Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and 
 Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the 
 fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- 
 dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to the Werra 
 and Elbe (9). Legend of the " white woman." Death of Drusus. 
 His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and 
 the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses 
 and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor. Varus, alienated the 
 Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminius, one of the nobles Jof the 
 Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' 
 battle in the Teutohurg Forest ^ (9 a. d. ?). Augustus gave up the 
 hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperoi's did not revive it. 
 Expeditions of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 
 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintain- 
 ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the 
 land south of the Main and the Danube. Line of fortifications from 
 Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- 
 graben, Teufelsmauer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on 
 land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence 
 agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rretorum (Chur) in 
 Rpetia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in 
 Pannonia ; Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- 
 gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- 
 many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman 
 army (so Arminius). Traffic in amber. 
 
 Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily 
 informed. In the first century b. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the 
 Marcomanni, had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (wh'> 
 took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by 
 the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marboi^ 
 (Maroboduus), grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedv- 
 tion of Tiberius against Marbod frustrated by the Pamionian revolt 
 (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans, 
 Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was himself mur- 
 1 The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 
 
168 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. 
 
 dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cheruscif 
 Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine 
 strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of 
 Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). 
 
 In process of time a change came over the political organization of | 
 the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we 
 find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the 
 same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and 
 urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- 
 tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and 
 political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- 
 tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- 
 man officers rose to high distmction and great influence in Rome- 
 So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger vmtil at last the im- 
 pulse of the invading Hmis in the east set all the tribes in motion. 
 
 II. Scandinavia : Northern annalists present an historical Odin, 
 probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these 
 tales (which, like some other m} thical history, may have greater his- 
 torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the 
 leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the 
 Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mitlu'idates, he was 
 driven from his kmgdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas 
 westward to Scandmavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and 
 Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjoldy 
 Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in 
 Sweden. 
 
 The history of Scandmavia as far as ascertained belongs to the 
 next period, and will be found on page 207. 
 
 III. British Isles. For the liistory of the Teutonic invasion of 
 England see p. 176. 
 
 § 5. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. 
 
 These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the 
 European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the 
 Teutons. 
 
 The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the 
 name Venedce (hence Wends) as inhabiting the region beyond the 
 Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatla, from the nomadic 
 Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom 
 they differed in language and descent. 
 
 In the fifth century A. d. the Slavs occupied the country between 
 the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. 
 They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the 
 Volga, and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and 
 the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- 
 selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent 
 occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their 
 settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 A. d. temporary formation 
 of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Saino in Bohemia, which 
 endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an 
 end with the seventh century, and tlie separate kingdoms of Poland, 
 Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. 
 
A. D. S/ai's and Li/Znunua/is. 169 
 
 Of the religion of the IShivs little is known with certainty, owing 
 to the diversity of nonienehiture among- the various divisions of this 
 wide-spread people, and to the laek of trustworthy authorities. Among 
 the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, 
 occur the names Svatovit or Scantovit, god of light or of the air, with 
 a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in 
 Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Kiigen), 
 Jarovit, all gods of war ; Zcerneboh, " the black god," an evil deity. 
 The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds 
 (St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarijlo, god of generation ; 
 Strihog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and ])assion. The 
 gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by 
 human sacrifices. 
 
 The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- 
 itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- 
 ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- 
 mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a miion of tribes 
 formed a people. 
 
 The Lithuanians play no part in history before the tliirteenth 
 centur3^ In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the 
 ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as jEstui. In the 
 narrower sense it is limited to the iidiabitauts of the region between 
 the Memel and the Finnish Esthouiaus. 
 
II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST PEKIOD. 
 
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN 
 TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN ^ (375-843). 
 
 §1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. 
 Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century a. d, 
 
 Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower 
 Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia (eastern 
 Hungary, Roumania); Vandals in FRiinoma {southwestern Hungary) ; 
 Suevi in Moravia, Boliemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar 
 and the Rhine, with Wonns as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala- 
 manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps, 
 partly along the Roman boundary wall (agri decumates) ; Ripuarian 
 Frajiks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia Agrlp- 
 pina) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, " dis- 
 trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) ^ Saxons from 
 the Elbe almost to the Rhine ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- 
 gohards on the lower Elbe. 
 
 The, peoples which appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples 
 were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a 
 leader or king chosen for his military prowess (Heerkonig). 
 
 375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonic 
 tribes. 
 
 Period of migrations and invasions. 
 
 The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. 
 
 The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon 
 
 the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermanric, of the family 
 
 of the Amali), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. 
 
 That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen 
 
 took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Christians,^ and those wlio 
 
 1 Assmann, Geschichte des Mittelalters. 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 
 
 2 According to other scholars the name was a patronymic. 
 8 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the "^council of Nica^a (325). 
 
 "Wulfila (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Bible: 
 cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, VI. 41. 
 
A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 171 
 
 were just on the point of uceepting Christianity (in tlie form 
 of Arianisni), were allotted habitations in Mcesia by the em- 
 peror Valens. Disputes with the Roman offieials .at the pas- 
 sage of the Danube {FridU/ern, leader of the West Goths) led 
 to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as they went. 
 
 378. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His 
 
 successor, Theodomis, made peace with the West Goths, who, 
 
 for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the 
 
 frontiers of the Roman Empire ix^ fuiderati. 
 Alaric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the 
 Ealthi (i. e. " bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid 
 waste Macedonia, Illyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- 
 ponnesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militke of the Western Empire 
 (p. 101), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with 
 an army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them 
 to escape. Alaric went to Illyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- 
 tium to recognize him as dux in Illyricum orientale. 
 400 (1:01 ?). Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at 
 
 Aquileia he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Rjetia to 
 
 meet him. 
 402. Drawn battle at Pollentia. Alaric made another attempt to 
 
 advance southward, but was compelled to return to lUyria by 
 
 disease, hunger, and desertion. 
 404-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but were 
 
 defeated by Stilicho at Fccsulce, and annihilated by continued 
 
 fighting and by hunger. 
 40G-409. Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions 
 
 along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in 
 
 contests with the Eranlcs, and finally (409) invaded Spain. 
 
 Foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. 
 
 The Salian Franks gradually occupied northern Gaul. The 
 Burgundians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms). 
 408. Stilicho murdered by the conmiand of the emperor Honorius 
 (p. 161). 
 Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired 
 on receipt of a ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant 
 Alaric's request that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- 
 manent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon 
 Rome, and forced the senate to appoint Attains, prefect of the city, 
 emperor. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, 
 quarrelled with Attains, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third 
 time upon Rome. 
 
 410- Capture and sack of Rome by Alaric. Alaric went 
 to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and 
 
 w thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and 
 
 *' was buried beneath the Busento. 
 
 410-415. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to 
 Gaul, though whether in fulfilment of a treaty with Honorius 
 
172 Mediceval History. a. d. 
 
 to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, or 
 of liis own accord, is nncertain. He carried with him the sister of 
 Honorius, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and mar- 
 ried her in Narbonne (414). The proposed treaty with the imperial 
 court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by tlie im- 
 perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, and 
 was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 
 
 415-419. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded a 
 treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandals, 
 Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul under 
 Roman supremacy. Walja was the founder of the 
 
 415-507. West Gothic (Visigothic) kingdom of To- 
 losa, with its capital at Tolosa (Toulouse), which soon became 
 independent.^ 
 
 429. King Genseric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portion 
 of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes,'-^ of the 
 Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at court 
 by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace with 
 Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valen- 
 tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genseric, who, 
 after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Car- 
 thage (439). 
 
 429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital, 
 Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius t4:30). 
 
 440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plundered I 
 the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 
 
 443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on the 
 Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman 
 province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and 
 also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian 
 territory. 
 
 449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the 
 coasts of the German Ocean, and having settlements on the 
 coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum^), were called in by the Brit- 
 ons, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain, 
 to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north- 
 ern mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Angles 
 crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands were 
 led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of time 
 8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, 
 Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to form ■ 
 Northumhria (north of the Humber); hence the number of! 
 states was then 7 (heptarchy). ■ 
 
 The Britons for the most part migrated to Wales, and to Ar-^ 
 
 monca in Gaul, which was hence called Breiagne (Brittany). 
 For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 
 
 1 Cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Gtrmanen, Pt. V. 
 
 2 This is denied by the more recent authorities. 
 ^ See, however, p. 38. 
 
A. 1). Miyrations oj the Northern J^eop/es. 173 
 
 451. Attila (F'.tzel, " Seonrg-e of God"), kinj^ of the Huns (in his 
 
 train anuod bands of Germanic peoples, whom iic had sub- 
 jected, East Goths, Gepidw, etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. 
 He besieged Orlemis in vain. 
 Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chdlons-sur-Marne: the 
 battle-field itself was at 7'rot/es). Attila defeated l)y Aetius. 
 the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which 
 alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the AVest 
 Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Fi-anks, Jjurgundians, 
 etc.). Theodoric /., king- of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 
 
 452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded 
 by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishoi^ Leo (i'). 
 After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the 
 Huns fell asunder. 
 
 Not only the German tribes which had been subjugated by the 
 Huns became free (the Gepidce were the first to shake olf the yoke); 
 the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following 
 centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- 
 ern parts of Germany. 
 455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian III., by Maximus, 
 
 plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in 
 
 by Eudoxia, mdow of Valentinian. 
 The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far 
 
 as Cyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 
 
 476. Odovakar (Odoacer), leader of Herulian and other 
 German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in 
 Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the 
 West (p. 162). 
 
 There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but 
 the line of Emperors in the "West came to an end in consequence 
 of domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had 
 united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, 
 however, had usually nominally recognized the supremacy of the 
 Imperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 
 
 486. Battle of Soissons. The Merowingian Chlodwig 
 (Cldodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic 
 Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the 
 successor of Aetius. 
 
 Kingdom of the Franks in northern Gaul. Clilodwif]^ 
 by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of all 
 the Franks. 
 
 496. Victory of Chlod\\4g over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum 
 or Ziilpich).^ Conversion of Chlodwig and the Franks to 
 Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig baptized by RemigiuSy 
 
 1 Assmann, I. 53. 
 
174 Mediceval History. a. d. 
 
 bishop of Rlieims (^Mitis depone colla Sigamher, adora quod 
 incendiati, incende quod adorasti). 
 
 493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- 
 feated Odovakar, with whom he had been at war since 
 489, founded the 
 
 493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in 
 Italy. 
 
 Residence Ravenna, at times Verona, hence in the hero romances : 
 Dietrich von Bern. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethins {de con 
 solatione philosophice)^ and Syuinuichus, executed (525). 
 500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked the Burgmidians, to 
 revenge himself on Gundobad, the uncle of his wife Chlotildey 
 for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dijon, and 
 made them tributary to the Franks. 
 507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille, or Voulon,i 
 on the Clain, a branch of the Vienne, m the vicinity of 
 Poitiers. 
 
 The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks 
 at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- 
 tween the Rhone and Pyrenees). 
 
 Theodoric the Great united a part. of southern Gaul to the king- 
 dom of the East Goths, and undertook the government of that part 
 which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions 
 of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- 
 laric, a minor (son of Alaric II.), and retained it till his death (52(3), 
 which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. 
 
 507 (526)-711. West Gothic (Visigothic) Kingdom in 
 Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 
 
 526. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuntha be- 
 came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Athalaric. 
 The latter died young (534), and his mother associated with 
 herself as co-regent her cousin Theodakad {Theodat), who 
 murdered her, thereby causing 
 
 535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. 
 
 533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the 
 East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. 
 
 Decay of the kingdom of the Vandals after the death of 
 Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- 
 sarius captured. 
 
 Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the 
 540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. 
 
 Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered 
 him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against 
 the Persians. 
 
 During his absence the East Goths, under their new king 
 Totila, reconquered the greater part of Italy. 
 
 1 Dahn, Die Konir/e d. Germ. V. 109. 
 
A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples* 175 
 
 544-549. Belisariiis, sent a<i^:iin to Italy, fought with varying suc- 
 cess, but with increasiiig fame, against Totihi. He recaptured 
 Konie. After Helisarius had been again recalled, Rome was a 
 second time taken by Totila. 
 
 652. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Tagince 
 
 or liusta Gallorum. Totila fell on the field. 
 
 653. The last king of the PLast Goths, Teja., fell in the battle of 
 
 Mon^ lactarius (near Vesuvius). 
 555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- 
 archate. 
 
 568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in 
 Italy. Alboin. 
 
 Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- 
 stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the 
 daughter of the king of the Gepidte. At the head of his Lango- 
 bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far 
 south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, 
 Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- 
 archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples, 
 and Calabria. Rome (ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- 
 dent. 
 
 After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamimd, because, as the 
 story goes, he attempted, during a carouse, to force her to drink 
 from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to 
 lower Italy, where mdependent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- 
 ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his 
 son Authari was recognized as king. Through the influence of his 
 wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- 
 bards to Christianity was begun. 
 
 Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : 
 Rothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards 
 appeared (G44) j Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently 
 usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; 
 Liutprand (717-744), wlio made further additions to the code of 
 the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-750), whose attempt to conquer 
 Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 
 585. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West 
 Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, 
 were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 
 590-604. Gregory I. (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of 
 the Papacy (Papa, Uainras, i. e. father, formerly the title of 
 every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- 
 •or of St. Peter). 
 
176 Mediaeval History, A. D. 
 
 § 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. 
 
 From the first invasions to the supremacy of Ecgberht 
 449 (?)-828. 
 
 Roman Britain. 
 
 Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and 
 the Severn (Cantii, llegni, Belgae, Atrebates, Durotriges, Dumnonii). 
 2. Britannia secunda, Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordovices). 3. Flavia 
 Ccesariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, 
 Caytieuchlani, leeni, Dobimi, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- 
 riensis, between the Humber and the Tyne (Parish, Brigantes). 5. 
 Valentin, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovse, 
 Novantse). 
 
 Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or Lollius Urbi- 
 cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) 
 between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New- 
 castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). 
 In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Beculver, Richborough, Lym- 
 ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) 
 
 Towns : Camulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin- 
 dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Londiniuni 
 (London). 
 
 Roads : Watling Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from 
 Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild 
 Street from Caistor to Dorchester.^ 
 
 The Teutonic Invaders. 
 
 After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- 
 ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish) on the 
 W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for 
 several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons 
 were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans 
 from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- 
 tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- 
 tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. That 
 they came at first to aid the Britons against their ©tlier foes is not 
 impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of 
 Vortigern and Rowena. 
 
 The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, 
 inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- 
 gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- 
 merous people, living south of Schlesivig along the Elbe and westward 
 on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the 
 Angles seem to have gone en masse. 
 
 Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the 
 
 1 Green. The more usual but incorrect routes assigned these roads are: 
 WatUnq, Kent to Cardigan Bay; Hermin. St. Davids to Southampton; Foss, 
 Cornwall to Lincoln; Ikenild^ St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, Human 
 Britain, p. 116. 
 
A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. \11 
 
 coiitiiuMital Germans (p. 1G4). Each man was priest in liis household, 
 and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions 
 under their control. 
 
 Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the 
 soil, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled 
 in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave 
 their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all 
 were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around 
 the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- 
 cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- 
 prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate 
 one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: 
 athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service 
 to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether 
 either of the invading tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; 
 their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose 
 power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- 
 cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took 
 the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the 
 latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- 
 lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of 
 hundreds which made up the tribe had its king and its great council 
 (witan), wliich elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- 
 ily, and was consulted by him. The ^\dtan was in theory composed of 
 all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the 
 more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps 
 every man of note, had a personal following of companions {thegns), 
 who had devoted themselves to liis service and were supported by 
 him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- 
 ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of 
 the king, and thus the number and power of the king's military house- 
 hold constantly increased. 
 
 Jutes (Kent). 
 
 449 (?).! Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet 
 (then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between 
 the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 3G). East and West 
 Kent. 
 
 South Saxons (Sussex). 
 
 477. ^lle, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing, and 
 Cissa, landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of 
 the Andredsweald. 
 
 491. Storm of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 
 
 1 The date is variously given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. 
 I have followed throuijhout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism 
 which would limit our knowledge of the 5th and Oth centuries in Britain to 
 what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th 
 centuries seems to me to be based on hypcrcriticism. 
 12 
 
178 Mediaeval History. A. d. 
 
 West Saxons (Wessex). 
 
 A more important settlement was tliat begun by the Saxons, 
 
 under the ealdormen 
 495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- 
 
 weald. The formation of the country directed their line of 
 
 extension W. and N., thus bringing them into contact with the 
 
 great body of western Cymry. 
 517. Cerdic and Cynric assumed the royal title. 
 
 At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the 
 Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before 
 it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- 
 ric traditions of Arthur,^ king of the Silures, to whom this repulset 
 of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. 
 
 'Jynric (534-556) conquered modern Berksiiire. Ceawlin (556- 
 591 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him 
 the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being jElh). The meaning 
 of this title is not clear. By the 
 577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn 
 
 and separated the Cymry of Cornwall {Devraint) from those 
 of West Wales. 
 
 East Saxons (Essex). 
 
 Durmg the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of i 
 the Thames. Sack of Camulodunum. Establishment of a small I 
 kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to ; 
 the Wash (Ercenwin, 527 ?). 
 
 Middle Saxons {Middlesex). 
 
 A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. 
 
 East Angles (East Anglia). 
 
 While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were 
 occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about 
 the Wash (Uffa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. 
 
 North Angles (Northumhria). 
 
 Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements of Angles north of 
 the Humber. Conquest of central Yorkshire. 
 
 Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith 
 of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 
 
 547. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry 
 called him, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk.^ 
 Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region 
 which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- 
 querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 
 
 1 The northern Cymr}' seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later 
 fugitives to Bretagne carried the memory of Arthur with them ; there his 
 name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven 
 into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 
 
 2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as well as in the south has beea 
 attributed to Arthur. 
 
Ac D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 179 
 
 Middle Angles (Mercia). 
 
 Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the 
 present counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and 
 Northampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded 
 (^Lindes/aras, Gainas, Alages(eta.'<, Htviccas) were at a later time 
 united in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). 
 
 Tluis Britain south of the Firtli at tlie close of the third quarter of 
 the sixth century was tlivided between Cymry and Teutons by a line 
 drawn nearly N. and 8. midway of the breadtli of the land. Teuton 
 and Celt, pagan and Ciiristian, faced one another throughout the 
 length of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough. 
 Not that the Cymry were exterminated ; man}^ remained within the 
 Saxon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- 
 frequent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-dny. Though 
 the subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in 
 all else they were soon assimilated v.ith the conquerors. Temporary 
 hiilt in the work of conquest. 
 
 Wars of the invaders among themselves. 
 
 688. Formation of the kingdom of Northumhria by the enforced union 
 
 of Bernicia and Deira under -SIthelric, king of Bernicia. 
 590-616. Supremacy of ^thelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called 
 
 the tliird Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. 
 
 His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter 
 
 of Charibert, king of the Franks. 
 697. Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. 
 
 Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and 
 Augustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of 
 the East Saxons. Laws of ^thelbert. An attempt to convert the 
 East Angles led to the revolt and 
 About 610-617. Supremacy of Raedwald, of East Anglia, over 
 
 Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- 
 walda. In the X. jEthelfrith of Northumhria defeated the Cymry of 
 Stratliclyde in the great 
 607. Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting 
 
 off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from 
 Cornwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178 j. ^Ethelfrith defeated 
 and slain in the battle of the Idle by Rcedwald, who had taken up the 
 claims of Eadicine, son of ^lla, formerly kmg of Deira. 
 617-633. Supremacy of Ead-wine of Northumbria, called the 
 
 fifth Bretwalda. Ilis overlordship was more comprehensive 
 than that of any of his predecessois, since, after tlie con([uest of 
 Wessex (526), itincludc^d all Teutonic Britain except Kent. Conver- 
 sion of Northumbria (627). Revolt of the Mercians under 
 Penda (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- 
 feated Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- 
 wine. 
 633-655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, 
 
 Essex, and East Anglia. 
 
180 Mediceval History. a. d. 
 
 635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bernicia, in the battle of 
 
 the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 
 635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwards 
 
 called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent. 
 Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had relapsed into 
 paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of Wes- 
 sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Penda, 
 and slain in the 
 642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended over 
 
 Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 
 655. Battle of the "Winwaed. Penda defeated by Osiviu, brother of 
 
 Osicald, and his successor in Bernicia, and slain. 
 655-659. Supremacy of Oswiu of Northumbria, called the sev- 
 enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wessex, 
 
 Kent, and Sussex. 
 659. Revolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings of 
 
 Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. 
 Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council con^ 
 vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsus, 
 archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of the 
 English church. 
 
 688-726. Ine, king of Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wars 
 with the Cymry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldest 
 West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). 
 Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith), 
 
 apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert, 
 
 of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscopj abbot of Wearmouth. Caed- 
 
 mon. Beeda (672-735); Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 
 
 733-752. Supremacy of -ffithelbald of Mercia over all Engiund 
 S. of the Humber. 
 
 752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of iEthelbald of 
 Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuthred. 
 Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between 
 
 the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia. 
 
 756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 
 
 755-794. Offa, king of Mercia. 
 
 Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the 
 
 Welsh kingdom of Powijs, W. of the Severn. Offa's Dyke from the 
 
 mouth of the Wije to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and 
 
 Charles the Great. Laws of Offa. 
 
 789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britam on the coast of 
 Devonshire. 
 
 802-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- 
 ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent m the kingdom 
 of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of 
 Beornioulfoi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandime (825). Sub- 
 mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex 
 Ecgberht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Subiiiis- 
 gion of Wales (828). 
 
A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians. 181 
 
 All England south of the F"orth, with the possible exception 
 of Strathdyde, united under Ecgberht. 
 SIU. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated by the 
 
 Danes (825). 
 836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh 
 and Danes. Death of Ecgberht (837). 
 
 § 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- 
 GIANS. 
 
 611. After the death of Chlodwig- the first division of the kingdom 
 of the Franks. According to this division, which was not 
 strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I. 
 (Tliierry, 511-533). Chlodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), Chil- 
 debert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511-501) ruled the 
 kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz, OrldanSj Paris 
 and Soissons. 
 530-532. The kingdom of tlie Thuringians conquered by the eldest 
 of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- 
 jugated the Burgundians. 
 The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to 
 the Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part 
 (to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- 
 nia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- 
 trict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the 8aale con- 
 tinued to be called Thuringia. 
 
 Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and 
 Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. 
 658-561. The whole Frankish kingdom agam united under Chlo- 
 tar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death 
 661. A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of 
 Cldodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-567), Sigi- 
 hert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later 
 (567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, 
 and a population chiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital 
 at Soissons ; Burgundy, wdth Orleans as capital ; in both of 
 which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- 
 Celtic or Romance.^ 
 Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde 
 (Brunichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, king of the 
 Visigoths, and Fredegunde {Fredegundis) of Neustria (f 597), slave, 
 and afterwards mfe, of Chilperic I. 
 
 613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under 
 Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Cldodwig. 
 Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a 
 wild horse. 
 
 Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of 
 
 1 Charibert received tlie territory around Paris, but after his early death this 
 was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence- 
 forth of importance. [Thans.] 
 
182 Mediaeval History. a. d. 
 
 the palace'), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, 
 after sv^arcls leaders of the feudal retainers {leudes). The race of the 
 Pipins (aftei wards called CaroUngians), of pure German hlood,^ ac- 
 quired an hereditary claim to the ottice of major domus, in Austrasia 
 lirst, and after\;ards in Neustria. 
 
 621^-678. Third division of tlie kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, 
 however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into 
 which it had meanwhile separated : 
 
 1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde 
 from 2. Neustria (Komance, northern France to the Loii'e, not reck- 
 oning Bretagne wliich was independent) and Burgundy, The duchies 
 of Aquitaiiia and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the 
 Loire and tlie Pyrenees, were almost independent. 
 
 § 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 
 622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 
 
 16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), born at Mecca, 
 571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of tlie 
 wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the 
 Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of 
 the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God conse- 
 quent on belief). One God (xlllah) and Mohammed his prophet. 
 Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (629) ; 
 preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohanuned died 632. 
 
 Caliphs (i. e. successors) : 
 632-634. Ahu-helcr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the 
 Koran (Qiiran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral ] 
 tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, 
 who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, am" 
 regarded Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only right 
 f ul successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians 
 634-644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East 
 He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (" Prince of th 
 faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs 
 Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phcenicia. D 
 struction of the empire of the Sassanidce (the New Persians) 
 by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt h 
 Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria. 
 644-656. Othmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Ca 
 
 ture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection 
 656-661. Ali, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not uni- 
 versally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph ii 
 Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, 
 the Sooneite 
 
 661-750. Ommiads obtamed the caliphate. 
 
 661-680. Muaicwiyah /., great-grandson of Omeyyah. He trans 
 ferred the residence of the caliphs from JNIedina to Damascus 
 
 1 Bonnell, Die Anfiinge des Karulingischcii Ha uses, 1866. 
 
A. D. Kingdom of tJie Franks under the Carolingians. 183 
 
 The calipliate was made hereditary. 
 About 700 the <;<)veiiu)r Musa loinpletcd the conquest of Byzantine 
 Africa as far as the Athuitic Ocean, The Berbers, who ac- 
 cepted Lshini, together with the inhabitants of Punic, (xreek, 
 and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians 
 under the name of Moors. Tarik,^ one of Alma's generals, 
 crossed from northern ^Vfrica to ISpain, and in the 
 
 711. Battle of Xeres de la Frontera (})lains of the Guadal- 
 quivir) destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. 
 
 From this time on there coexisted in Spain: 1. the province of the 
 caliphate, which became, at a later date (7'")()), the separate caliphate 
 of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by PelagiuSy 
 afterwards the kingdom of Leon. 
 
 The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques 
 and invaded Gaul. Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 
 
 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers, where they were defeated 
 by Charles Martel. 
 
 Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest 
 extent, embrachig southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and 
 the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, the entire northern 
 coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern 
 France the county of Narhona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the 
 Balearic Isles. 
 
 In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars w^ith the followers 
 of Ali. Abul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- 
 threw the last Ommiad caliph, Merwan II. 
 
 750-1258. Rvile of the Abbasides. Residence at Bagdad. 
 
 Treacherous murder of a.11 the Ommiad princes (90). 
 
 One only, 
 Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 
 75G. caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 §5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. 
 
 687. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) 
 of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from 
 St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Xeustria) sole 
 major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called 
 himself in future dux et princeps Francorum. 
 Eudes, duke of Atpiitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, 
 sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major 
 domus Pipin of Heristal. 
 
 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers. Victory of 
 
 1 From him comes the name Gihel or .Tebel-al-Tarik (Gibraltar), i.e. moun- 
 tain of Tarik, near which lie landed. It woidd appear that the story of Tarik's 
 having; been summoned bv tlie VisiL^othic count Julian, is mvthical.' Cf. Dahn, 
 Km. d. Germ. V. 227. ' 
 
184 Mediceval History. A. D. 
 
 Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the 
 Arabs. 
 
 751.' With Pipin the Short (741-768), Charles Martel's 
 son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks. 
 
 The last kmg of the Merowiiigian hue {les rois faineants), Childe- 
 ric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zaeharias and placed 
 in a monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of 
 Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., 
 who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and liis sons 
 Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin 
 styled himself " king hy the grace of God.''^ 
 
 In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistud, king of the 
 Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the 
 Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis (Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fa.no, 
 Pesaro, Rimini), the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, 
 and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius 
 of Rome, that city not behig included in the gift to the Pope.^ 
 
 Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named 
 Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 
 680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, 
 in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop 
 since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded 
 bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal 
 chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head 
 of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of 
 Mainz ; in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians. 
 
 768-814. Charles the Great {Charlemagne), J 
 
 since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Karl- \ 
 mann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Lango- 
 bards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards 
 rejected. 
 
 773-774. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards. 
 The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desi- 
 derius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came 
 to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture 
 of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited 
 Rome and renewed liis alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in 
 a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom 
 of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of 
 southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 
 
 772-804. War with the Saxons. 
 
 The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. West- 
 phalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Ems ; 
 
 1 See the proof in G. Richter, Annalen d. deutscheii Geschichte im Mittelal- 
 ter, I. p. 216. 
 
 2 See, however, Oelsner, Jahrb. d. frank. Reichs unter Konig Pippin, Chap. 
 IX. p. 129 foil. 
 
A. D. KitttjJom of the Frunks uiiJer the CaroUngians. 185 
 
 Engern, on both sides of the Wef<er as far as the Leine ; Eastphalia, 
 as far as tlie Elbe; Northalbingia, N. of the lower Elbe to the 
 Eider. 
 
 The Saxon war was resolved upon in the assembly (May-field) at 
 Worms (772). 
 
 772. Capture of the Eresburg, destruction of the Irminsul. 11^. 
 Capture of Sigiburg. Subju<;ation of the Saxons W. of the Elbe. 
 Tlie Saxons destroyed the Eresburg-, but were subjugated anew. 
 77()-777. First Mny-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderborn. 
 Nt'W insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's 
 defeat in the Pyrenees, 778; subdued by the army of the east Franks 
 and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Boeholt on the Aa. 
 780, Submission of the Saxons ; acceptance of Christianity. 
 
 After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or "Witte- 
 kind, and a defeat of the Frankish army, Charles took the field in 
 person with success. 782, Slaughter of 4500 Saxons on the Aller. 
 783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles 
 victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hase. 785, After a two years' 
 resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian. 
 
 778. Wars of Charles in Spaiii. 
 
 Conquest of Saragossa'. Return by Roncevaux, and defeat of 
 the Frankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave 
 of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose 
 deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish 
 mark ^ was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Lud- 
 wig, son of Charles (800). 
 
 788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvarise (Bavarians), after 
 the second revolt of duke Tassilo. 
 
 Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans 
 of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles de- 
 feated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789). 
 
 791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Ba- 
 varia) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. 796. 
 Storm of the King^s Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) 
 between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between 
 the Ems and the Raab was annexed to the Frankish empire 
 and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. 
 (Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.) 
 
 800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West. 
 Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor 
 in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought 
 Charles' camp at Paderborn, Restored by Charles to Rome, 
 he cro\\aied him emperor on Christmas-day, 800. 
 
 793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led 
 to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken ref- 
 uge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Frankish mark; 
 his ships harassed the coasts of the German Ocean. 
 
 1 Mark : a strip of land on the border of a country, where the militarv 
 power was especially well kept up, under a Markgraf (bordor-couat), who was 
 responsible for the safety of the border. — Tha/'s. 
 
186 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 808. The Danes, defeated by Charles, the eldest son of the emperor, 
 
 retired beyond the Eider. 
 810. The emperor was oldiged to take the field against Gottfried in 
 
 person. The Danish king- was murdered by his own servants. 
 Peace with his successors. Saxony north of the Elbe remained a part 
 of the Frankish kingdom. Boundaries of the kingdom : Ebro, Raab, 
 Eider, Garigllano. The Wends were again subjugated. 
 
 Charles resided in Aachen in Austrasia (Aix-la-Chapelle) prin- 
 cipally on account of its warm springs, or in the Coimty Palatine on 
 the Rhine, at Ingelheim, or in Nymwegen. Capitularii, imperial re- 
 scripts. Assemblies composed of all men of rank, both churchmen 
 and laymen (" in quo placito generalitas universorum maiorum, tam 
 clericorum quam laicorum conveniebat "). Levy of troops (Heer- 
 ban). Governors of counties (Gaugrafen), counts of the border dis- 
 tricts (comjtesmarc/iifE, Markgraf en), imperial messengers {missi regis, 
 Sendgrafen), who made periodical circuits in different parts of the 
 empire, heard complaints and reported the same with other observa- 
 tions and suggestions to the emperor. The Anglo-Saxon scholar 
 Alcuin, the Langobard Paid, son of Warnefrid (Paulus Diaconus), 
 called to the imperial court, where intellectual pursuits were favored 
 and shared by the emperor. Schools for the education of the clergy, at 
 Tours and Paris. Einhard (Eginhard), the favorite secretary of 
 Charles (author of the Vita Caroli Imperatoris) . Charles the Great 
 became the centre of the most important series of romances of the 
 Middle Age. 
 786-809. In the East Charles found a friend and admirer in Har- 
 
 oun-al-Rashid, Caliph of Bagdad. His reign and that of^ 
 
 his son Mamun cover the most fruitful period of science, art 
 
 and manufactures among the Arabs. 
 
 The elder sons of Charles the Great, Charles and Pipin, dyinj 
 
 before their father, he was siicceeded by liis youngest son, 
 
 814-840. Ludwig the Pious. (Louis le Debonnaire). 
 
 Ludwig's nephew, Bernhard, Pipin's son, according to Charles] 
 decree, king of Italy under the supremacy of his uncle, rcj 
 belled against the latter, was defeated, captured, and killed. 
 Ludwig had 4 sons : Lothar, Pipin, Ludwig, Charles the Bald (the! 
 latter by Judith, his second wife, of the noble Alamaimian family of I 
 the Welfs). In 829 Ludwig substituted a new division of the empire, 
 whereby his youngest son, Karl, received Alamannia and the royj 
 title for the division made in 817, under which Lothar held the largei 
 part of the empire and the impei-ial crown, Pipin had Aquitania, and 
 Ludwig, Bavaria. The three elder sons at once revolted, and civil wi 
 broke out. On the Field of Lies, near Colmar in Alsace, Ludwig, the 
 father, was deserted by his troops (833). He was taken prisonei 
 (public penance in the church at Soissons), but soon released by hii 
 repentant son Ludwig, and replaced upon the throne (834). Pipu 
 died in 838, and his share of the empire was divided between Lothai 
 and Charles, which caused a new rebellion on the part of Ludwig. Ii 
 840 Ludwig the Pious died on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. 
 Ludwig and Charles in alliance defeated Lothar at FojUanetum (Fonr- 
 tenaille or Fontenay ?) in 841. Bi-lingual oath of Strassburg (842). 
 
A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sasaanidce. 187 
 
 843. Treaty of Verdun. Division of the eminre among 
 
 Aug. the bi'olhers as follows : 
 
 1. Lothar : Centre of the Frankish lands, i. e. Australia, Fries- 
 land, the Alamannian lands on the left bank of the Rhine, the 
 greater part of Jjurc/nndf/, Provence, a part of Langaedoc; in 
 general, a region boinided by the Schelde, Meuse, Saone, Rhoney 
 in the west, by the Rhine and Alps in the east, and Frankish 
 Italy. 
 
 2. Ludwig the German : The eastern part of the Frankish lands, 
 i. e. all those parts of the empire lying on the right bank of the 
 Rhine, except Friesland ; the diocese of Mainz, Worms, and 
 Speier on the left bank (in general a region lying between the 
 Rhine and the Elbe). 
 
 3. Charles the Bald : The western part of the Frankish lands, 
 i. e. Neustria, Aquilania, the northern part of Burgundy, Septi- 
 mania, the Spayiish Mark. 
 
 Lothar retained the imperial dignity which his father had given 
 him. His kingdom, whicii lacked natnral bonndaries aiid comprised 
 various nationalities, contained within itself the germ of rapid disso- 
 lution. 
 
 The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely a /am% contract, made 
 without regard to national differences. In Ludwig's kingdom, how- 
 ever, the German element was in the majority ; in that of Charles the 
 Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in the course of 
 the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, 
 from the West Frankish the French nationality. The East Franks 
 called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated 
 clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the language of the people, and gradually 
 (since Henry I. ?) those who spoke Deutsche came to be called 
 Deutsche.^ 
 
 § 6. XKW PERSIAN EMPIRE OF THE SASSANID.E.2 Aryan. 
 226-641. 
 
 226-240. Artaxerxes I. (Artahshatr), 
 
 son, not of Susan, but of Papak, probably king of Persia 
 proper, revolted against Artahanus, the last king of Par- 
 thia (p. 30), whom he defeated and slew in the battle of 
 Hormuz. 
 Contest of Artaxerxes with the Arsacid kings of Bactria and Arme- 
 nia. The claim preferred by Artaxerxes to all Asia as far as the 
 ^gean involved him in a war with Rome. Defeat of Alexander 
 Severus, followed by peace. Subjugation of Armenia. Restoration 
 of the religion of Zoroaster. Collection of the text of the Zend Avesta. 
 Artaxerxes was succeeded by his son, 
 
 240-271. Sapor I. (Shahpuhri). 
 
 Wars -with Rome. I. (241-244.) The Romans were sue* 
 
 1 V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deutschen KniserzeU, I. 4th ed. p. 149. 
 
 2 Rawliuson, Stventh Ortat Oriental Monarchy. 
 
188 Medicevai History. A. d. 
 
 cessful under Gordianus, but his successor, Philippus, concluded peace 
 with Sapor, leaving Armenia in his hands, but retaining Mesopotamia. 
 II. (258-200.) A glorious war for Persia. Nisibis, Edessa, Antioch 
 fell into their hands, and the Roman emperor Valerianus was cap- 
 tured and remained a prisoner until his death (265 or 266). Defeat 
 of Persians by Odenathus of Palmyra (p. 157). Erection of many 
 buildings and engineering works in Persia. Mani, or Manes, a 
 teacher of a new form of religion compounded of Christianity and 
 Zoroasterianism (Manicheism), expelled from Persia. 
 
 Sapor was sncceeded by his son, Hormisdas I. {AuJirmazdi), wlio 
 reigned one year and ten days (271-272) and was followed by his 
 brother, Varahran I. (272-275). Execution of Mani. Aid sent to 
 Zenohia (p. 157). The murder oi Aurelianus (275) put an end to his 
 expedition against Varahran, who was succeeded in the same year by 
 his son Varahran II. (275-292?). His reign is marked chiefly by the 
 war with Rome (283), wliich was closed by the mysterious death of 
 Cams (283-284). Revolt of Tiridates of Armenia, aided by Rome. 
 Varahran III., son of Varahran IL, reigned four months, and was 
 followed by his brother, 
 
 292-301. Narses, 
 
 who after defeating his brother and rival, Hormisdas, drove 
 Tiridates from Armenia (296). War with Rome. Galerius, at first 
 unsuccessfvd in Mesopotamia, finally defeated Narses. Peace (297) : 
 1. Persia ceded five provinces beyond the Tigris to Rome. 2. The 
 Tigris recognized as the general boundary between Persia and Rome.^ 
 3. Cession of a large part of Media to Armenia. 4. Persia surrendered 
 to Rome her supremacy over Iberia (Georgia). 
 
 Abdication of Narses and accession of his son, Hormisdas II. 
 (301-309), whose reign covers little of importance. At his death the 
 nobles set aside his son Hormisdas, and conferred the crown upon his 
 unborn cliild. A boy was born, who received the name 
 
 309-379 (?). Sapor II. 
 
 During his minority the country suffered from invasions of the 
 Arabs, but on arriving at his seventeenth year Sapor assumed the 
 government, and inflicted a terrible punishment on Arabia. Persecu- 
 tion of Christians (about 325). First war with Rome (337-350). 
 Pefeat of Constantius at Singara (348). Nisibis in Mesopotamia thrice 
 besieged by Sapor in vain (338, 340, 350). War of Sapor with Tatar 
 tribes in the E. (351-359) and extension of Persian power in this 
 direction. Armenia went over to Rome. Second w^ar with Rome 
 (359-363). Invasion of Syria. Capture of Amida after a desperate 
 resistance. Julianus, emperor of Rome, invaded Persia, and defeated 
 the Persians before Ctesiphon (362), but immediately began a retreat, 
 in the course of which he died. His successor, Jovian, concluded 
 peace with Sapor for thirty years (363) : 1. Restoration of the five 
 provinces ceded by Narses. 2. Surrender of Nisibis and Singara to 
 Persia. 3. Rome to give up all connection with Armenia. Conquest 
 of Armenia by Sapor. Third war with Rome (371-376), carried 
 on witliout energy and concluded by an obscure peace. 
 
 1 Bawlinson, Seventh Munarchy, 128 foil., discusses the conditions. 
 
A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 189 
 
 Tho brilliant roi<Jcn of Sapor was followed by a time of quiet. 
 Artaxerxes II. (;i7i)-;W:i.) Sapor III. (;}83-;588.) Division of 
 Armenia between l*eisla and Rome, — Persia reeeiving tho larger 
 part. Varahran IV. (.'i88-,'i9i)) deposed Chosroes, king- of Persian 
 Armenia, and plaeed his own brother on the throne (391). Varahran 
 was murdered during a mutiny, and succeeded by his son Isdigerd I. 
 (Iz'/i/certi) (399—419 [4'JO]), whose peaceful reign is remarkable for 
 little, except a persecution of the Christians in Persia and Armenia. 
 He was succeeded by his son, 
 
 419 (420)-440. Varahran V., 
 
 who, having put down Chosroea, a pretender to the throne, re- 
 newed the persecution of the Christians, and began war with Rome. 
 Meeting with no success, he concluded peace (422), and agreed to stop 
 the persecution. (Charity of Acacius, bishop of Amida, who ransomed 
 7(K)0 Persian captives.) Beginning of Persia's wars with the Ephthi- 
 alites (Pers. Haithal), a people dwelling beyond the Oxus, and prob- 
 ably of " Thibetic or Turkish stock " (not Huns). Surprise, defeat, and 
 death of the invading Khan. The Persians crossed the Oxus and 
 chastised the Tatars in their own territory. 'Varahran was succeeded 
 by his son, 
 440-457. Isdigerd II., 
 
 who at once declared war upon Rome, but as hastily concluded 
 peace. Nme years' war with the Epthialites, ending with their defeat 
 ill their o-s\ai country. The attempt of Isdigerd to convert Armenia 
 to Zoroastrianism brought on a religious war, wherein the Christians 
 were defeated (455 or 45(3). Forcible conversion of Armenia. To- 
 ward the close of his reign Isdigerd was defeated by the Ephthialites. 
 After his death civil war between his sons Perozes and HormisdaSf 
 ending in the victory of 
 459-483 (?). Perozes. 
 
 Great famine in the seventh year of his reign (?). Unsuccess- 
 ful war and disgraceful peace with the Ephthialites (404-465). Re- 
 volt of Armenia under Vahan, which was still unsubdued when Pero- 
 zes again attacked the Ephthialites, at whose hands he suffered 
 a severe defeat, falling in the battle. He was succeeded by his 
 brother (?) 
 483(?)-487. Balas (Pers. Valakhesh or Volgases), 
 
 under whom Persia probably paid tribute to Khush-newaz, the 
 Ephthialite Khan. Pacification of Armenia. Edict of toleration. 
 Destruction of fire-altars. Balas was succeeded by 
 487(?)-^98. Kobad, (first reign) 
 
 son of Perozes, who had been in hiding among the Ephthi- 
 alites. Successful war with the Khazars, a people of uncertain race 
 (Turkish or Caucasian?), dwelling between the Volga and the Don. 
 Communistic and ascetic doctrines of Mazdak, a high priest of Zoro- 
 aster, to which many converts were made, the king being of the 
 number. Consequent disturbances in Persia and Armenia resulting 
 in the deposition of Kobad and the accession of his brother, 
 498-501. Zamasp. 
 
 Kobad, however, soon escaped to the Ephthialites and returned 
 
100 MedicBvol History, A. d. 
 
 at the head of an army, whereupon Zamasp voluntarily resigned the 
 
 crown. 
 
 501-531. Kobad (second reign). 
 
 Withdrawal of support from Masdak. The refusal of the 
 Eastern Empire to fulfil its agreement to contribute to the defence of 
 the pass of Derhend in the Caucasus, which was the usual route of 
 the nomadic tribes in their invasions of Persia or the Eastern Empire, 
 caused Kobad to declare war. Sack of Amida (502). An Ephtlii- 
 alite invasion induced peace in 507. Erection of the fortress of 
 Daras, twelve miles from Nisibis by Anastasius, emperor of the East. 
 Second war with the Eastern Empire (524—531), wherein the Per- 
 sians, at first successful, were defeated by Belisarius in the battle of , 
 Daras (528). Kobad was succeeded by his son, 
 
 531-579. Chosroes I. Anushirwan (" The Just ") pei 
 haps the greatest of the Sassanid kings. 
 
 Peace with Rome (533) : 1. Rome paid 11,000 lbs. of gold towai 
 the fortification of the Caucasus. 2. Daras retamed its fortifies 
 tions, but was not to be the Roman headquarters. 3. Reciprocal sur- 
 render of recent conquests. 4. Eternal friendship and alhance, whence^ 
 this peace is known as the " endless peace." It endured for seven 
 years, at the end of which time Chosroes, jealous of the great victo- 
 ries of Justinian in the West, listened to the prayers of the East 
 Goths and declared war. . 
 
 540. Capture of Antioch. I 
 
 Chosroes extorted ransom from the principal cities of west-1 
 ern Asia Minor ; returned home. A truce, concluded in 545, was 
 broken in 549 by Rome, who sent assistance to the Lazi (inhabitants 
 of ancient Colchis) in their war with Persia. 
 551. Capture of Petra by the Romans and Lazi. 
 563. Definite peace between Persia and Rome. 
 
 1. Lazica ceded to Rome. 2. Rome to make a yearly pay- 
 ment to Persia. 3. Exercise of their faith secured to the Christians 
 in Persia. 4. Commercial intercourse between the empires restricted 
 to certain roads and marts. 5. Free diplomatic intercourse. 6. 
 Daras to retain its fortifications. 7.- Disputes to be settled by arbi- 
 tration. 8. Allies of either party included m the peace. 9. Persia 
 midertook the maintenance of the Caspian Gates alone. 10. The 
 peace was concluded for fifty years. 
 
 Successful wars with the EphthiaUtes and Khazars. 
 562. Exj^edition of Chosroes to Arabia, against the Cliristian king- 
 dom founded there by Abyssinians early in the sixth century. 
 Chosroes expelled the Abyssinians and left the country under the 
 control of Salf, leader of tlie native Homerites ; after his murder 
 Arabia was made a Persian province. 
 
 The expedition to India ascribed to Chosroes is doubtful. Dezahid, 
 Khan of the Turks, who had recently subjugated the Ephthialites 
 and entered into alliance with the Eastern Empire, invaded Persia, 
 but met Avith no success. 
 
 572. Justin, Emperor of the East, declared war on Persia. Chog- 
 roes ravaged Syria. Fall of Daras (573). 
 
A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. liil 
 
 Chosroes died, 579, in Mesopotamia. 
 
 Improved administration in Persia under Chosroes. Empire di* 
 vided into tour governments : East, Khorassan, Seistan, Kirman ; 
 North, Armenia, Azerbizan, Ghilan, Koum, Isfahan; South, Fars, 
 Ahwaz ; West, Irak, or Bahijlonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia. Frequent 
 progresses of the king. Substitution of a fixed land tax for the for- 
 mer variable tax on produce. Tax collectors placed under the super- 
 vision of the priests. Reform in the army. Improved irrigation. 
 Protection of foreigners. Encouragement of learning. Laws of 
 Artaxerxes revised. Collection of the Shah-na-meh, or Book of the 
 Kings, the basis of Firdusi's epic. Introduction of the Fables of 
 Pilpay, and of the game of chess from India. Toleration extended to 
 Christians. Chosroes was succeeded by his son, 
 579-589. Hormisdas IV. (Hormazd). 
 
 At first a wise ruler, afterwards the worst of Persian kmgs. 
 579. Invasion of Persia by the Eastern Emperor Maurice. 
 681. Defeat of the Persians at Constantia. The war continued with 
 
 alternate defeat and victory until in 
 589. Persia was invaded by Arabs, Khazars, and above all by the 
 
 great Khan of the Turks. He was defeated by the Persian 
 general Bahram and fell in the battle. In the same year Hormisdas 
 provoked a war mth Rome by invadmg Lazica. Balu^am was de- 
 feated on the Araxes. An insult offered him by the king caused his 
 revolt and the deposition and murder of Hormisdas, who was suc- 
 ceeded by liis son, 
 
 589-628. Chosroes II., Eheriviz, 
 
 who was at once involved in war with Baliram, who drove him 
 from the kingdom and assumed the crown. The reign of Bahram 
 (Varahran VI.) was short (590-591). Chosroes had taken refuge 
 at Constantmople, and a Roman force restored him to liis throne. 
 Bahram, defeated, fled to the Turks. 
 
 The second reign of Chosrogs II. was marked by a wonderful in- 
 crease of Persia's power, and by its sudden fall. 
 
 603-610. AVar with Phocas, murderer of Maurice. Capture of 
 Daras. Syria, Armenia, Galatia, Phrygia, ravaged. Sack of 
 Antioch. The accession of Heraclius to the tlirone of the Eastern 
 Empire did not end the war. 
 612. Invasion of Cappadocia. 
 
 614. Capture of Damascus. 
 
 615. Sack of Jerusalem. 
 
 616. Capture of Pelusium and Alexandria by the Persian general 
 
 Shahr-Barz. Submission of Egypt. 
 
 617. Fall of Chalcedon. The Persians encamped within a mile of 
 
 Constantinople. 
 620. Capture of Ancyra and of Rhodes. Persia restored to the 
 
 limits which it attained under Darius I. 
 So nearly had Chosroes driven Heraclius to despair that he pre- 
 pared to take refuge in Carthage, but his design was prevented by 
 the citizens of Constantino])le. Thus driven to bay, the emperor 
 formed the desperate resolve of attacking his enemy in his o\m. 
 country. 
 
192 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of 
 
 Shahr-Barz. 
 
 623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes re- 
 
 treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. 
 625. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosroes al- 
 lied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies in the field: 
 one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct 
 attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed, Constantinople 
 held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other 
 barbarians from the west. 
 
 Winter campaign of Heraclius. 
 627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight 
 of Chosroes. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned 
 without assaulting the city. 
 Mutiny of the Persian troops at Ctesiphon under two of the 
 king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroes. He was succeeded 
 by his son, 
 628-629 (?). Kobad II. {Siroes), 
 
 who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of 
 conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usur- 
 pation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was mur- 
 dered by his own troops. Reigns of Purandocht and Azermi- 
 docht, daughters of Chosroes XL, followed by a period of anarchy, 
 during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 
 
 632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosroes II., last 
 Sassanid king of Persia. 
 
 His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the 
 Caliphs Ahu-Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 
 
 633. Expedition of Kaled (the " sword of God ") to Hira. Defeat 
 of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates 
 fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, suffered a temporary 
 check by the loss of the " Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages 
 were soon renewed, and extended tliroughout Mesopotamia. Great 
 exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which 
 was defeated in the four days' 
 
 636. Battle of Cadesia, 
 
 by Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas. Loss of the Durufsh-kawani, or 
 royal standard of Persia. 
 
 637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. 
 
 Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 
 639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture 
 
 of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before 
 Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until as- 
 sured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk 
 the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the 
 astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's 
 life. 
 
 The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final effort. 
 Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in 
 the 
 
A. D. Italy and Germany. 193 
 
 641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall 
 of the Sassanid power. Persia henceforward governed 
 by the caliphs. Isdlgerd III. lived for ten years a 
 fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 
 CRUSADES (843-1096). 
 
 § 1. ITALY AND GERMANY. 
 
 843-875. Carolingians in Italy. 
 
 After the death of two sons of Lothar L, Ludwig the German 
 and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance by the treaty of 
 Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland, Lotha- 
 ringia or Lothrlngen {Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.) was an- 
 nexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion 
 (Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boun- 
 dary, the Meuse. 
 
 After the death of Ludwig XL, who was the eldest son of Lothar L 
 (875), Charles the Bald became Emperor (f 877). 
 
 843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 
 843-876. Ludwig the German. 
 
 Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially 
 with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), 
 by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this 
 epoch harassed almost beyond behef. In 845 sinndtaneous attack by 
 the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Lndmg the 
 German's son, 
 
 876-887. Charles the Fat, 
 
 at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann (f 880) and 
 Ludwig (f 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the 
 Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andernach, 876) and Italy. Charles 
 the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the 
 West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Mon- 
 archy of Charles the Great, with the exception of cisjurane 
 Burgundy (Dauphine, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became 
 a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed bj 
 East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris 
 by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Tribur (887), and died 
 almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 
 
 887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the 
 German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the 
 Northmen upon the Dyle (at Loiven, 891), and in alliance with the 
 Magyars, a nomadic Fimiish tribe, which had gradually made its 
 way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of 
 13 
 
194 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the 
 founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, 
 and was crowned Eiui)eror (896). His son, 
 
 899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), 
 
 was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of 
 Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 
 they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia 
 and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), 
 was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia : 
 Adalbert of Babenherg against Rudolf, bishop of Wiirzburg, of tlie 
 family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert 
 executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. The 
 monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies : Saxony, Fran- 
 conia, Bavaria, Svrabia, Lotharingia. After Ludwig's death the 
 aged Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, refused the crown, and se- 
 cured the election of 
 
 911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, 
 
 by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars, 
 Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his 
 own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtaui recognition of his sover- 
 eignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the Illustrious and duke 
 of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, 
 became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 
 
 919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. 
 
 In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his death- 
 bed, and seconded by his brother, Eberhard, the Saxons and Franks 
 elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 
 
 919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German 
 monarchy. 
 
 Henry compelled BurJchard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), 
 and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy 
 
 924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry con-- 
 
 eluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunitj 
 for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 
 
 925. Henry regained Lotharingia. 
 
 Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merst 
 burg) and construction of new ones (Quedlinburg, Goslar), which at 
 later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding ol 
 cities by Henry himself, but hi his reign the Saxons were gradually 
 accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. 
 
 Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark wf 
 established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (aftei 
 the retirement of margrave (Markgrqf) Gero, 963) were formed the 
 Altmark or Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Lai 
 sitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenzm (929). Wars ^vit^ 
 the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and wit! 
 the Danes {Gorm tlie Old). Creation of a mark between the Eide 
 and Sley (934), afterwards called Mark Schleswig. 
 
A. D. Italy and Germany. 195 
 
 Henry refused to pay the promised tribute to the Magyars, who 
 thereupon made a new inroad. 
 
 933. Victory of Henry over the Hungarians (on the Un- 
 strut?).^ Henry died in U3C. He was succeeded by his 
 cklest son by Maik'dde^ 
 
 986-973. Otto I., the Great, 
 
 who was elected by Saxons and Franks, and crowned at 
 Aachen by the archbishop of Mainz. Homage of the princes of all 
 the German races {Stdmme). First appearance of the four court 
 offices : duke of Lotharingia, Chamberlain ; duke of Franconia, Stew- 
 ard ; duke of Swabia, Cup-hearer ; duke of Bavaria, Marshal. 
 
 Countless swarms of Hungarians crossed Franconia (937), to in- 
 vade Saxony. Defeated and pursued by Otto, they took a western 
 direction, and ravaged France as far as the Loire. 
 
 Otto defeated the rebellious duke of Bavaria, and drove him from 
 his duchy, and subdued a revolt of Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and 
 his own half-brother, Thankmar, who fell in the battle on the Eres- 
 burg (938). Henry, Otto's younger brother, rebelled, and was de- 
 feated by Otto along with his ally Giselhert, duke of Lotharingia, at 
 Birthen, on the Khine ; the rebels, with whom Eherhard made com- 
 mon cause, called in the assistance of the French. Eberhard fell at 
 Andernach, Giselbert was drowned on his flight, Henry fled to 
 France (939). A murderous assault which Henry made upon his 
 brother after he had received forgiveness failed ; Henry thrcw^ him- 
 self upon the king's mercy, received forgiveness a second time (941), 
 and became henceforward, wnth his brother Bruno, archbishop of 
 Cologne (since 953), the king's chief reliance. Otto gave Lotha- 
 rmgia in 944 to Conrad the Red, the ancestor of the Franco-Salic 
 royal house, who four years afterwards became his son-iu-law^ Otto 
 made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria (940). 
 
 Wars with the Wends, conducted by margrave Gero; with the 
 Danes, under Otto himself, who advanced to Jutland (Mark Schleswig 
 given to Hermann Billung) ; with Boleslav, duke of Bohemia (950), 
 who became a vassal of the empire ; and with the Hungarians, princi- 
 pally under the command of Henry. 
 
 948. Otto appointed his son Liudolf (by Editha) duke of Sicahia. 
 946-950. Otto interfered in the French wars. He protected King 
 Louis IV. against Hugo, count of France, both of whom were 
 his brothers-in-law. 
 951. First expedition of Otto's to Italy against Berengar II. of Ivrea. 
 Otto released and married Adelheid, the widow of King 
 Lothar (of the house of Burgundy), and then nineteen years 
 of age. Berengar submitted to Otto as his suzerain (952). 
 
 953. Liudolf, Otto's son, and Conrad, duke of Lotharingia, Otto's son- 
 
 in-law, rebelled against the king. 
 
 954. New inroad of the Hungarians, who swept through Germany, 
 
 ravao-ing as they went, to France ; the rebels were in alliance 
 
 1 Probnblv not at Merseburg. See V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. der Deutschen 
 Kaiserzeif, 1.4, 232. 
 
196 Mediaeval History. A. d. 
 
 with them. After a severe struggle and several fruitless at- 
 tempts at reconciliation, Liudolf and Conrad submitted. They 
 were forgiven, but deprived of their duchies. Ardibishop 
 Bruno received Lotharingia; duke Burkhard, Svmbia. Bavaria, 
 still in revolt, was subjugated by Otto and liis brother Henry. 
 New inroad of the Hungarians. 
 
 955. Victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld 
 
 Aug. 10. (Augsburg). Conrad fell in the battle. The Bavarian 
 Ostmark, which was afterwards transformed into the duchy of 
 Austria (Oesterreich), reestablished. Victorious expedition 
 against the Wends, whom Otto defeated on the Rekenitz. 
 
 957. Liudolf died in arms against Berengar, who was in rebellion. 
 
 981. Second expedition of Otto's to Italy, Pope John XII. having im- 
 plored his assistance against Berengar. Otto hastened to Rome, 
 where he 
 
 962. Renewed the imperial office. Holy Roman Em- 
 Feb. pire of the German Nation. 
 
 While Otto was engaged in the war with Berengar in Lom- 
 bardy, John XII. endeavored to free himself from the impe- 
 
 963. rial protection and allied himself with Otto's foes. The em- 
 Nov. peror advanced upon Rome and captured the city ; John fled. 
 
 The Romans were obliged to promise never to elect another 
 Pope without the consent of the emperor. John was deposed 
 by a synod in Rome, and Leo VIII. elected Pope. 
 
 964. A revolt of the Romans quickly suppressed. While Otto 
 Jan. was again absent in northern Italy, where Berengar had, 
 
 meantime, been ojjliged to surrender (he died as prisoner in 
 Bamberg), Leo was expelled by the Romans, and John returned, 
 but soon died in consequence of liis dissipation. The Ro- 
 mans choose Benedict Pope. Otto captured Rome the second 
 time, deposed Benedict, and reinstated Leo. 
 966-967. Third expedition to Italy. Otto's son. Otto II., already 
 crowned as German king, received the imperial crown at Rome. 
 Otto I. died at Memlehen, near Merseburg. His sepulchre is 
 in the cathedral of the bishopric of Magdeburg, which he had 
 created. 
 
 973-983. otto II., highly gifted, but passionate, husband of 
 the Grecian prince^ TheopJiano. 
 
 976. Otto's cousin, Henry the Qviarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, insti- 
 gated a conspiracy against the emperor, was conquered and 
 deposed. Bavaria given to Otto of Swabia, son of Liudolf. 
 Carinthia separated from Bavaria and made a duchy. Luit- 
 pold of Babenberg received the (Bavarian) Eastmark. 
 
 978. Otto surprised by Lothar, king of France, escaped with diffi- 
 culty, reconquered Lotharingia, invaded France, and besieged 
 Paris, but without success. 
 
 980-983. Wars in Italy. The emperor crossed the Alps, to Rome, 
 
 981. advanced into southern Italy, defeated the Greeks and Sara- 
 
A. D. Italy and Germany. 197 
 
 982. cens at Colonne, soutli of Cotrone, but was afterwards defeated 
 by them further south on the Calahrian coast ^ where his army 
 was aimiliilated. 
 
 983. Victorious advance of the Danes and Wends ; destruction of the 
 
 bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg. Otto II, died in 
 Rome. 
 
 983-1002. otto III., three years old. 
 
 Henry the Quarrelsome's claim to the guardianship, and to 
 the crown itself, was denied, but Bavaria, without Carintliia, 
 was returned to him. Otto's mother, the Grecian Theophano, 
 conducted the regency in Germany, his grandmother, Adelheid, 
 in Italy ; after the death of Theophano (991), Adelheid and 
 Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, conducted the government until 
 the young prince took the reins in 995. From his great intel- 
 lectual endowments known as the " Wonder of the World," 
 he was dreamy and unpractical. Three Roman expeditions. 
 
 996. On the first expedition Otto was crowned by Gregory V. 
 
 998-999. On the second his teacher Gerhert was elected pope as 
 Sylvester II. Attempt of Crescentms to throw off the German 
 yoke and restore the ancient republic. He was defeated and 
 executed. It was Otto's design to make " golden Rome " the 
 miperial residence and centre of a new universal empire. 
 
 1000. Journey through Germany, pilgrimage to the grave of St. 
 Adalbert, foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen. A wide- 
 spread belief that this year would bring the end of the world 
 and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven led thousands of 
 people to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome, 
 
 1001. During his third visit to Italy, revolt of the Romans, Otto 
 died in the castle of Paterno at the foot of Soracte, 
 
 .1002-1024. Henry II. (the Saint), 
 
 son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, great-grandson of 
 Henry I., was elected kiMg at Mainz, after his rival, Eckard, margrave 
 of Meissen, had been murdered. Henry II. enforced the acknowl- 
 edgment of his sovereignty, particularly from Hermann, duke of 
 Swabia. 
 1004, First expedition to Italy agamst Ardoin of Ivrea ; Henry 
 
 crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 
 1004-1018, Wars with Boleslav, king of Poland, who was compelled 
 
 to give up Bohemia, but retained Lusatia. 
 Foundation of the bishopric of Bamberg (1007). Increase in the 
 power of the church. Reform of the monasteries. Energetic en- 
 forcement of the public peace. 
 1014. Second expedition to Italy. Henry crowned emperor in 
 
 Rome. Ardoin gives up his resistance (died in a monastery, 
 
 1015), 
 1016-1018, Henry went to war to secure his mheritance in Bur- 
 
 1 The battlefield is unknown ; it was not at Basentello, See V. Qiesebecht, 
 Gesch. d. deutschen Kaiserzeit, lA 597. 
 
198 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 gundy, wliicli had been resigned in his favor by the last king 
 of Burgnndy,! Rudolf III. (1016). 
 1022. On the third expedition to Italy, Henry fought with the Gre- 
 cians in lower Italy, with the assistance of the Normans who 
 had settled there in 1015. Henry died July 15, 1024. 
 
 1024-1125. Franconian or Salian Emperors. 
 
 Election held at Oppenheim between Mainz and Worms, — 
 the first election in which princes of all the tribes had partici- 
 pated. 
 After hesitating a short time between the two Conrads, cousins, 
 the princes chose the elder, the sen of the Frankish count Henry, 
 eldest son of Otto of Carinthia, over the yoimger, the son of Conrad, 
 younger son of Otto ot' Carinthia. 
 
 1024-1039. Conrad II. (the Salian). 
 
 1025-1030. Revolt of the Babenberger, Ernst, duke of Swabia, step- 
 son of Conrad, son of his wife Gisela, resulting from the con- 
 flicting claims of the emperor and of Ernst as the personal 
 heir of Henry IL, upon Burgundy (Aries). Ernst fell in bat- 
 tle in 1030. 
 1026. Expedition to Italy. Conrad crowned king of Italy in Milan, 
 but obliged to bring Pavia and Ravenna to submission by force 
 of arms. Crowned emperor, 1027, in the presence of Cnut the Great, 
 king of England and Denmark, and Rudolf III. of Burgundy (Aries). 
 The Eider made the boundary between Germany and Denmark, 
 Schleswig, therefore, was abandoned to the Danes. 
 
 Invasion of Germany by the Poles under Mieczeslav II., where they 
 ravaged the country to the Saale, and carried 10,000 prisoners to 
 Poland. Conrad hastened from the Rhine, and provided defences 
 against a new inroad, but attacked the Hungarians, though without 
 success (1030). In 1031 Conrad attacked the Poles, forced them to 
 surrender their prisoners, and restored Lusatia to the empu-e. Miec- 
 zeslav became the Emperor's vassal (1032). 
 
 After the death of Rudolf III. (1032), Burgundy, that is, the 
 kingdom of Aries, which was formed in 933, by the union of cisjur- 
 ane and transjurane Burgundy (p. 193), was, in three campaigns, 
 wrested from the hands of Odo, Count of Champagne, who claimed it 
 as heir of Henry IL and united with the empire. At a later time, 
 however, the Romance portions of Burgundy, the lands along the 
 Rhone, Saone, here, and Durance, fell to France ; the Alamannian por- 
 tions (Franche Comte, Switzerland) remained a part of the empire. In 
 Italy the small fiefs were made legally hereditary, and this became 
 the common custom in Germany. To counterbalance this tendency 
 Conrad seems to have designed doing away with ducal offices, and 
 making the royal supremacy immediate and hereditary throughout all 
 German lands. 
 
 1036. On his return from a second expedition to Italy, Conrad 
 1039. died at Utrecht. His son had been crowned at Aachen in 
 June 4th his boyhood, and now succeeded to the throne as 
 1 Otherwise known as the kin!j::floni of Arle?. — Trans. 
 
A. D. Italy and Germany. 199 
 
 1039-1056. Henry III. (called " the Black ")• The Imperial 
 
 power at its highest point. 
 King Henry was for a time, also, duke of Bavaria, Swabia, and 
 Franconia. The dncal throne in Carinthia was long vacant. 
 1042-1014. In Hungary the kmg, Peter, whom Henry had rem- 
 
 stated at the expense of three campaigns, hecame a vassal of 
 ' the empire. Extension of the Bavarian Eastmark to the 
 
 Leilha. 
 Tedious wars with the unridy Godfrey the Bearded, didce of upper 
 Lotharingia, which was at last (1049) given to the Alsacian count 
 Gerhard, the ancestor of the house of Lorraine. ^ Godfrey went to 
 Italy (1054), where he married Beatrix of Tuscany. Henry favored 
 the attempt to introduce the Treuga Dei (p. 203). Proclamation of 
 a general king's peace in the empire. 
 1046-1047. First expedition to Rome. Henry caused a synod to 
 
 depose the three rival Popes {Sylvester III., Benedict IX., 
 Gregory VI.), each of whom was accused of simony, and appointed 
 a German, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, Pope, as Clement II., who 
 crowned him emperor (Clu*istmas, 1046). After Clement, Henry 
 appointed three German Popes in succession. He invested Drogo, son 
 of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville, with Apulia. 
 1055. Second Roman expedition. Henry died at Gozlar, Oct. 28, 
 
 1056. He was succeeded by his son, 
 
 1056-1106. Henry IV., six years old, 
 
 who had been crowned king at the age of four. Spoiled in his 
 youth, he grew to manhood passionate but weak. His mother, Agnes 
 of Poitou, the regent, gave Bavaria to the Saxon count Otto of Nord- 
 heim, Carinthia to Berthold of Zdhringen, Swabia to her son-in-law, 
 Rudolf of Rheinfeld. Abduction of the yomig king from Kaiserswert 
 to Cologne (1062) by Archbishop Anno, who was soon obliged to share 
 the administration of the empire with Adalbert, the ambitious arch- 
 bishop of Bremen (1065). Conspiracy of the princes against Adal- 
 bert of Bremen. Imperial Diet at Tribur (1066). Adalbert banished 
 from court for three years (f 1072). 
 
 Otto of Nordheim deposed from the dukedom of Bavaria, which 
 was given to his son-in-law, Welf, son of the margrave Azzo of Este. 
 (The house of Welf was extinct in the male line.) Magnus, duke of 
 Saxony, kept in confinement. Revolt of the Saxons, whom Hem-y had 
 displeased by the erection of numerous fortresses in their land. 
 Flight of Henry from the Harzburg (1073), humiliating peace, de- 
 struction of the Harzburg. Henry defeated the Saxons on the Unstrut 
 (1075). Contest with Pope 
 
 1073-1085. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) , 
 
 descended from a family having a small estate in southern 
 Tuscany. He was educated at the monastery of Cluny. He had, as 
 
 1 In possession of Lorraine down to 1737. See Modern History, Second 
 Period, § 3. 
 
200 Mediaeval History. A. d, 
 
 cardinal-subdeacon, afterwards as archdeacon and chancellor, con- 
 ducted the temporal affairs of the papacy under ^ye Popes. 
 
 Strict enforcement of the celibacy of the clergy, war against simony 
 (Acts viii. 18), and lay investitures, whereby is meant the investi- 
 ture of clergy with the secular estates and rights of their spiritual 
 benefices by the temporal power, by means of the ring and staff. 
 
 Gregory in alliance with Robert Guiscard, duke of the Normans, 
 and with the dissatisfied princes in Germany. Henry excommuni- 
 cated (1076) ; suspended from his royal office by the Diet at Trihur 
 (Oct. 1076), and the ultmiate decision referred to a Diet to be held at 
 Augsburg in February, 1077. A few days before Christmas Henry 
 left Speier in secret with his wife, son, and one attendant; crossing 
 the Alps under great hardship, 
 
 1077. Henry humbled himself before the Pope at Ca- 
 Jan. 25-28. nossa, 
 
 a castle belonging to the Pope's firm friend, the powerful 
 Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany. After three days' delay, passed 
 by Henry in the garb of a penitent in the snow-covered castle court, 
 Gregory admitted him to his presence, and gave him a conditional 
 absolution. 
 
 Fortune turned in Henry's favor. Kudolf of Swabia, whom the 
 malcontents in Germany had elected king (March, 1077) at Forch- 
 heim, was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle on the Elster 
 (1080). Swabia given to Frederic of Hohenstaufen, Henry's son-in- 
 law (1079). 
 
 Henry, a second time excommunicated (1080), went to Italy, cap- 
 tured Rome, and was crowned by Clement III., a Pope of his own 
 creation. Gregory VII., besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, was re- 
 leased by the Norman, Robert Guiscard, and died (1085) at Salerno. 
 (Dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, propterea morior in exilio). 
 
 The influence of Gregory VII. had been felt in all parts of the 
 Christian world. It was under his auspices, some have claimed at 
 his suggestion, that William of Normandy undertook the conquest of 
 England. 
 
 Henry was involved in a contest with a new king set up by the Sax- 
 ons, Hermann of Salm, son of the count of Luxemburg. Hermann, 
 however, abdicated in 1088, and died the same year. Submission of 
 the Saxons upon receiving assurance that their ancient privileges 
 should be respected. 
 
 The church was still hostile. Marriage of Matilda of Tuscany 
 with Welf v., son of duke Welf of Bavaria. 
 
 1089-1097. Third expedition to Italy. Henry captured Mantua 
 after a siege of eleven months, but was in general unsuccess- 
 ful. Revolt of his son Conrad (1092). Henry returned to 
 Germany in 1097, in which year the bands of the first cru- 
 saders, under Walter of Perejo and Peter the Hermit, crossed 
 Germany. War with Conrad (died 1101), and afterwards with 
 Henry's other son, Henry, who imprisoned his father. Flight 
 of the emperor to LUttich, where he died Aug. 7, 1106. He 
 was succeeded by liis younger son, 
 
\. D. France. 201 
 
 1106-1125. Henry V. 
 
 The king went to Rome, took Pope Paschal II. prisoner, and 
 forced him to perform the coronation and acknowledge the imperial 
 right of investiture (1111). As soon as the emperor had left Italy 
 the Lateran Council declared the concessions invalid as having been 
 extorted by force, and a second council at Viemia excomniuuicateu 
 Henry. 
 
 Wars with German princes who were in revolt, especially with 
 Lothar of Saxony, and the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne. Vic- 
 tory of the Saxons at Welfesholze, near Mansfeld (1115). The war 
 of the investiture was ended, after a long contest with Calixtus II., 
 by the 
 
 1122. Concordat of Worms. 
 
 Election of bishops and abbots in Germany to take place in 
 the presence of the emperor or his representatives ; investiture by the 
 emperor must precede consecration, but was to be conferred not with 
 the ring and staff, but with the sceptre. In Italy and Burgundy in- 
 vestiture was to follow canonical election and consecration. Ecclesi- 
 astics holding secular benefices were bound to perform the feudal 
 duties. 
 
 § 2. FRANCE. 
 
 843-987. Carolingian kings of the Franks, 
 843-877. Charles the Bald. 
 
 His rule was limited to the neighborhood of Laon; Brittany/ and 
 Septimania were independent ; his supremacy in Aquitania was but 
 nominal. Ravages of the Northmen incessant, daring, terrible. Sack 
 of Saintes, Limoges, Bordeaux, Tours, Rouen, Orleans, Toulouse, Ba- 
 yeux, Evreux, Nantes. Some quarters of Paris, even, were ravaged. 
 Lotharingia divided between France and Germany by the treaty of 
 Meersen (870). Ourihe, Aleuse, Jwa, the boundary between Germany 
 and France. Charles wasted his energy striving for the imperial 
 crown. 
 
 Fiefs proclaimed hereditary at the diet of Chiersi (877). Charles 
 died on Mont Cenis, returning from an unsuccessful expedition to 
 Italy. Rise of scholasticism. Joannes Scotus Erigena. Hincmar of 
 Rheims. Charles was succeeded by his son, 
 877-879. Ludwig the Stammerer (Louis le Begue). 
 879-882. Ludwig III. in the north of France. 
 
 879-884. Karlmann in Aquitaine, and over the whole kingdom after 
 882. The ravages of the Northmen increased in frequency and dura- 
 tion in spite of Ludwig's victory at Saucourt in 881 (Ludwig- 
 slied). Revolt of Boso, duke of cisjurane Burgundy (879). The 
 heir of Ludwiq II., Charles, being but five years old, the nobles chose 
 884-887. Charles the Fat of Germany, 
 
 king, thus uniting the whole empire once more in one hand. 
 Siege of Paris by the Northmen under Rollo (Hrolf) in 885. 
 Heroic defence by Eudes (Odo), count of Paris. Charles, consent- 
 ing to buy the retreat of the Northmen, was deposed in 887. (Died 
 in 888 in Germany.) 
 
202 Mtidioical History. A. D. 
 
 The empire of Charles reduced to six clearly distinct states : Italy, 
 Germany, Lorraine, Provence, Transjurane Burgundy (formed by 
 the union of western Switzerland and Franche Comte, under Rudolf 
 I., nephew of Eudes), France. In France the nobles passed over 
 the infant Charles, and elected 
 888-898. Eudes, count of Paris, son of Robert the Strong. The 
 
 opposition party among the nobles advocated the claims of 
 893-923. Charles III., the Simple, who was not generally acknowl- 
 
 edged until after the death of Eudes. In his reign the 
 
 911 (?)• Northmen gained a permanent foothold on the 
 
 Seine (Normandy), under R<yf (Rollo), the first duke of Nor- 
 mandy, with feudal sovereignty over Brittany. Treaty of St. Claire 
 sur Epte., near Ghisors. Baptism of Hollo under the name of Robert. 
 Revolts against Charles. Robert, duke of France, brother of Eudes, 
 proclaimed king, but slain in the battle of Soissons (823). His place 
 was filled by his son-in-law, Rudolf of Burgundy. Charles treacher- 
 ously seized by Herbert of Verinandois and imprisoned (died in 929). 
 His wife, Eadgyfu (Edwina), fled to her brother JEthelstane, king of 
 England, witli her three-year-old son Ludwig IV., hence called d' Outre 
 Mer (Beyond Seas). Rudolf dying in 936 without issue, the nobles, 
 Hugh the White, duke of France (f 956), Herbert of Verrnatidois, and 
 Willia7n Longsword of Normandy, recalled 
 
 936-954. Ludwig from Beyond Seas (Louis d'Outremer), 
 
 in whose reign the coimtry was torn with civil war between 
 the king, Hugh the White, or Great, and Otto, king of Germany (east 
 Franks). Ludwig was succeeded by his son, 
 
 954-986. Lothar, 
 
 who was under the influeiice of Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the 
 
 Great. An unsuccessful attempt to acquire Lorraine brought on an 
 
 invasion of France by Otto II. of Geriaauy. Lothar was succeeded 
 
 by his son, 
 
 986-987. Ludwig V. (le Faifieant), who, after a short and stormy 
 reign, died suddenly (987), without issue. The direct line of 
 Charles the Great was extinct. The only man who had a 
 claim to the succession was the uncle of Ludwig, Charles, duke 
 of Lorraine, a vassal of the emperor. 
 
 987-1328. Capetian dynasty, direct line. 
 987-996. Hugh Capet 
 
 was chosen king, but was powerless to resist the great feudal 
 nobles, each of whom surpassed the king in military power and ex- 
 tent of territory (dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Aquitaine ; 
 counts of Flanders, Champagne, Vermandois). The royal domain 
 reached from the Somme to the Loire, with Normandy and Anjou on 
 the west and Champagne on the east. Paris in the centre was the 
 capital of the new French monarchy, as Laon had been the capital 
 of the old German kingdom. Capture of Charles the Carolingian. 
 Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. Un- 
 der Hugh's son. 
 
JL. D. England. 203 
 
 90G-1031. Robert, the royal power was wasted to a shadow. The 
 king-, pious, weak, ami absurd, was involved in doniestie trouble 
 and in constant wars with the nobles. Rising of tlie serfs (D97). 
 Famine (1030-1032). The Vexin on the Seine given to Normandy. 
 Robert's son, 
 1031-10O0. Henry I., 
 
 retained scarcely a trace of power, beyond the nomination of 
 the bisliops. 
 
 Introiliiction of the "Truce of God" {Treuga Dei) by the clergy 
 (at first [1C41] in Guienue), whereby a cessation of all feuds was en- 
 joined by the ch'irch during church festivals and from Wednesday 
 evening to Monday morning in eoery week (only 80 days in a year avail- 
 able for warfare). The crown having now become hereditary, Henry 
 was succeeded quietlv by his son, 
 1000-1103. Philip I., 
 
 whose long reign, distinguished by no deeds of liis own, is re- 
 markable for two important events : the conquest of England by the 
 Normans (1086), and the first crusade (1096). 
 
 §3. ENGLAND. 
 
 828-1066. England under the "West Saxon kings. 
 8:^8-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex (p. 180), ruler of Sussex, Kent, 
 Essex, overlord of Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria, Wales, 
 and Strathclyde. 
 
 Ravages of the Northmen. Pouring in swarms from the northern 
 kingdom <-• of Denmark and Scandinavia, these pirates, the vikings, 
 harassed England and the continent almost beyond belief. The Eng- 
 lish called the Northmen " Danes," although not all their assailants 
 came from that kingdom. The Northmen were still heathens. The 
 epoch of their invasions falls into three divisions : I. (789-806) 
 Period of invasion and ravage without settlement. II. (866-1003) 
 Period of settlement and conquest in various parts of the country. 
 III. (1003-1066) Period of political conquest. The first recorded 
 attack was in 789 (p. 189). In 834 Sheppey was ravaged. Defeat 
 of the Danes at Hengestesdun (836). 
 
 Ecgberht was succeeded by his son ^thelwulf (837-858). In 851 
 the Danes took London and Canterbury ; in 855 they \\dntered for the 
 first time in Sheppey. ^thehvulf nis^TTied Judith, daughter of Charles 
 the Bald, king of the West Fraidis. He was succeeded by his son 
 iEJthelbald (858-860), who married liis father's widow. On his 
 death Judith returned to the continent and married Baldwin, after- 
 v.ards count of Flanders. From this union descended Matilda, wife 
 of William the Conqueror. iEthelbald was succeeded by his brother 
 -ffithelberht (860-806), who was followed by his brother, 
 
 866-871. iEthelred I. 
 
 Settlement of the Danes in Northumbria (romance of Ragnar 
 Lodbrog~). The Danes in East Anglia (866), in Mercia (868). 
 
 870. East Anglia conquered and settled by the Danes. Martyrdom 
 of St. Edmund, kin.o; of the East Ansrles. 
 
204 Mediceval History. a. d. 
 
 Sack of Peterborough and Croyland. Danes in Wessex (871). Nine 
 battles were fought with tho invaders this year. At yEscesdun the 
 Danes were defeated by JEthelred and JElfred his brother. 
 
 871-901. Alfred the Great. 
 
 In the earlier years of his reign Wessex was at peace, but the 
 other parts of England still suffered from Danish inroads. In 876 
 Danes settled in Northumbria, and Guthorm, Danish king in East 
 Anglia, entered Wessex. In 877 lands in Mercia were divided among 
 the Danes. 
 878. The Danes ravaged Wessex. 
 
 -Alfred took refuge in the forest. Erection of the fortress of 
 Athelney. Defeat of the Danes at Ethandun. Treaty of Wedmore, 
 between JElfred and Guthorm. The Danes left Wessex, but East 
 Anglia and a part of Mercia were given up to them. London, how- 
 ever, was retained by iElfred. The country of the Danes, Danelagh^ 
 as it came to be called, now embraced the larger part of England. 
 
 880-893. Peace in Wessex. 
 
 Alfred was a skilful warrior but no lover of war. His genius 
 was for civil government. Revision of the laws; separation of the 
 judicial from the executive department. Trial by jury was not intro- 
 duced by Alfred; that institution was of Norman origin, a develop- 
 ment of principles of old Frankish law. Creation of a fleet (882). 
 Submission of several Welsh provinces. Encouragement of learnuig. 
 Bseda's Ecclesiastical History, Orosius' History, and Bcethius' Consola- 
 tion of Philosophy, translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred. Voyages 
 of Othhere and Widfhere along the northern shores of Europe under- 
 taken at jElf red's request. Asser. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
 probably put mto shape in this reign. 
 
 The Danish war broke out again in 893 with an invasion of Kent. 
 Defeat of the Danes at Buttington. In 901 Mlfred died. He 
 left five children : two sons, Eadward and jEthelweard, and three 
 daughters, ^thelflaed the " Lady of the Mercians," wife of ^thelred, 
 ealdorman of West Saxon Mercia, JEthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury,. 
 jElfthryth, wife of Baldwin II., count of Flanders, son of Baldwin and 
 Judith (p. 203). From this union descended Matilda, wife of Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror. 
 
 901-925. Eadward the Elder. 
 
 Erection of fortresses along the Mercian frontier by Eadward 
 and uEthelflced. Conquest of the Five Boroughs (Derby, Lincoln, Leices- 
 ter, Stamford, Nottingham) by ^thelflsed. Amiexation of Mercia to 
 Wessex. Conquest of East Anglia and Essex. Submission of Strath- 
 clyde and all the Scots (924). Eadward lord of all Britain. Wes- 
 sex, Kent, Sussex, he ruled by inheritance ; Mercia, Essex, East Anglia, 
 by conquest ^-^om the Danes; Northumberland, V/ales, Scotland, Strath- 
 clydc, as overlord. Eadward died in 925, and was succeeded by his 
 
 925-940. -ffJthelstan. 
 
 League of Scots, Welsh, and Danes crushed in 926. Again 
 
 I 
 
A. D. England. 205 
 
 renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of the allies in 
 the 
 
 937. Battle of Brunanburh. 
 
 Ji:thelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmund (940- 
 946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs 
 and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as a fief to Malcolm, king of 
 Scots. Dunstan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Ead- 
 mund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A 
 revolt of the Danes was crushed m 954 ; final submission of the 
 Danelagh. Eadwig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with 
 Dunstan, and drove hirn from the country. He was succeeded by his 
 brother, 
 
 959-975. Eadgar, 
 
 the under king of Mereia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood 
 high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and 
 monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Mainte- 
 nance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Eadward 
 (the martyr), murdered 978. 
 978-1016 ^thelred II., the Um'eady,i son of Eadgar, 
 
 in whose reign the political conquest of England was under- 
 taken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, 
 after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of 
 Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the 
 East Saxons, fell, (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) 
 the plan of buying off the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being 
 p-aid, which were raised by a special tax {Danegeld). In 994 Anlaf 
 {Olaf Tnjggvesson) and Swegen {Svend with the Forked Beard) rav- 
 aged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Noi-thmeu 
 in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1000, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 
 1015. 
 
 1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) 
 Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers^ 
 by order of jEthelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of Eng- 
 land. Marriage of jEthelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., 
 duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, 
 were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014). Election of 
 his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recov- 
 ered all that part of England which they had ac(piired by the treaty 
 of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of jEthelred the Danish 
 party in England chose C?mt king, but the English party, which 
 centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of JEthel- 
 red. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this 
 year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Assandun peace was con- 
 cluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Lon- 
 don ; Cnut received Northumberland and Mereia. The nominal over- 
 lordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of 
 Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England. 
 
 1 Such is his conventional title; probably " Despiser of Counsel" would bet- 
 ter convey the moaning of ^^ Uedtless.'" 
 
206 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 
 1016-1035. Cnut. 
 
 Eno-land divided into four governments : "Wessex, under 
 Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jads or EarU. 
 Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (101^7). Laws 
 of Cnut (1028). Subjugation of Malcolm, king of Scots (1031). Cnut 
 was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035-1040) and Harthacnut 
 (1040-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex ; Leofric, earl of Mercia ; 
 biward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnut'' s death the son of 
 jEthelred, 
 
 1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor, 
 
 was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, 
 and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of 
 England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine, 
 Leofric, Siivard. In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was ex- 
 iled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the 
 French. Upon the death of Godwine his power passed to his son 
 Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward 
 as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was 
 made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, 
 Leo/wine, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold 
 (10G3). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of Tostig srnd 
 election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of 
 Edwin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward, 
 
 1066. Harold, 
 
 earl of Wessex, was elected king. 
 
 A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by Wil- 
 liam, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged be- 
 quest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon 
 occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy 
 about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and 
 had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession 
 after the death of Eadward. 3. The right of his wife, Matilda (p. 
 204). The claim being rejected, William at once prepared to assert 
 it by arms. 
 
 Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and 
 Tostig, brother of Harold of England. 
 
 Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge. 
 
 Defeat and death of the invaders. William had meantime 
 landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated 
 in the 
 
 Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac, 
 
 and fell on the field. Eadgar Mtheling, grandson of 
 Eadmund Iro7isides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, 
 with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of Wil-\ 
 liam. 
 
A. D. The North, 207 
 
 § 4. THE NORTH. 
 Denmark. 
 
 Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the 
 North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his 
 son. 
 
 After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the king- 
 dom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the heginning of 
 our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eightli century the 
 famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, 
 king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, and ended in 
 favor of the Swedes. 
 
 Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with 
 Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two 
 bands : one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Hobtein- 
 the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, Fiinen, etc. Both 
 divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by 
 numerous petty chiefs {.wiaa-lwigar), among the most famous of whom 
 was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head 
 of a loose confederacy of the islands. When Jutes and Angles in the 
 fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands 
 seem to have taken their place in the peninsula. 
 
 Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and 
 built a Dannevirh or line of fortresses across tlio peninsula. Under 
 liis successor. Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between 
 Denmark and the Frankish empire. 
 
 In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of 
 Rheims. In 8l6 Ansgariiis, " the Apostle of the North," labored in 
 Denmark, but without lasting results. 
 
 Gorm the Old (about 860-935), the first king of all Denmark, was 
 a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain 
 by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Danneirirke between 
 the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and 
 Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold 
 Blue-tooth (Blaatand), 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Ger- 
 many, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard (Tveskjced), 985-1014. 
 Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. L05)- 
 Knut. the Great (1014—1035), king of Denmark and of England. He 
 passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part 
 of Ulf-Jarl to make Hardeknut king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut 
 later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. 
 Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035-1012) succeeded his father in Den- 
 mark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agi-eement 
 whereby whoever should outlive the other should inherit his kingdom. 
 Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of 
 ii;M'^ (1047-1074). War for s,e\e\\ieenyQ^v^ \,\i\\ Harold Hardrad a 
 of Norway was brought to a close in 10()4. War with the Wends. 
 Soend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under 
 
208 ' Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1077-1080), St, 
 Knut (1080-1080), Olaf Hunger (1086-1095), Erik Ejegod (1095^ 
 1103), Niels (1105-1135). 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. 
 According to tradition there were two races in the country besides 
 the Finns, the GiJta or Gauta (Goths) and the Svea. The Svea traced 
 their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the 
 first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of 
 Uppsala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, which ruled the Svea 
 until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that 
 they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son 
 Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was 
 independent before its conquest by Gor?n of Denmark, succeeded Ing- 
 jald. This was in the seventh century. 
 
 In the eighth ( ?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where 
 Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Den- 
 mark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story 
 than his father. (Tale of his capture by ^Ua of Northumberland, and 
 of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the 
 slaughter of ^Ella. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be 
 noted.) 
 
 In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansga- 
 rius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preacliing met with great suc- 
 cess. Erik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made im- 
 portant conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes 
 settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation 
 of the future empire of Russia (Varlnjar, Russ.). 
 
 Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Swe- 
 den. War with St. Olaf of Norway. The last king of the Upsala 
 line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil 
 (1056-1066). 
 
 Nor-way. 
 
 According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trcetelje 
 of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his 
 father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, 
 and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, 
 as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the nmth cen- 
 tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings 
 to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-932), completed the 
 work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the 
 Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- 
 booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, 
 the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under 
 Rolf Ganger (RoUo) in Normandy. Con(|uest of Duhlin by Olauf in 
 852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 861-875, etc. Erik 
 Blodoxe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon ./«/•! 
 (988-995). Olaf Tryggvasson (996-1000). He disa])peared at the 
 
A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 209 
 
 battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olaf the Lap-king of Nor- 
 way, Svend Tveskceg of Deniiiark, and Erik and Svend, sons of Hakon 
 Jarl. The victors divided Norway between thean. 
 
 Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (983). 
 Vinland (America) seen by Bjarne^ and visited by Leif and others, 
 986-1011. See p. 281. 
 
 Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose 
 reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf 
 (1035-10-47), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, 
 or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opsb (Chris- 
 tiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 
 1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- 
 quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides ; of Dublin. Death of Magnus in. 
 Ireland. 
 
 § 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. 
 
 756-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, 
 
 founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most 
 brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth 
 centuries. Abd-er-Ralmian III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. 
 The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 
 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of 
 
 small states. The Morabethes or Almoravldes (Yussuf), sum- 
 moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), 
 but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 Christian Kingdoms. 
 
 Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the 
 Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- 
 dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. 
 
 Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- 
 nally a county of Asturia. 
 
 Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under 
 French siqjremacy, then independent. Sancho I. assumed the 
 title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated 
 
 Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 
 
 1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, 
 by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- 
 dom among his three sons. As Leo7i and Castile were soon 
 united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms 
 in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We 
 must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of 
 the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent 
 after the time of Charles the Bald. 
 Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 
 1099). 
 
 14 
 
210 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 § 6. THE EAST. 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 527-565. Justinian I., emperor of the East. Belisarius. 
 Narses (p. 175). 
 
 Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus 
 juris civilis {Trihonianus), comprising : 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectce 
 or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. NovellcB, later additions. 
 
 Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody 
 contests (" Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- 
 stantino (Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. 
 
 Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- 
 tions), A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by 
 the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 
 
 726-842. Contest over unages. Lnage-breakers (elKovoKXaa-rai, icon- 
 oclasts) and image worshippers (dKovoSovAoi) . 
 717-741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 
 780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, 
 restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the 
 imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of 
 the imperial crown from the East to the West. 
 842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 
 
 867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian line. 
 
 The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. 
 The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, 
 widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on tlie throne, partially 
 reconquered the provmces wliich the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn 
 from the empire. 
 
 Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). 
 Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun 
 (p. 186), the power of the caliphs began to decline. 
 
 935. The Emir al Omra (i. e. prince of princes) received all the 
 secular power ; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the 
 faithful. 
 
 1058. Seljuk Turks {Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, Malek Shah) at- 
 tained the dignity of Emir al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 
 
 1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small 
 sultanates {Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium ovRoum). 
 
 India. 
 
 Tlie early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- 
 tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over 
 four centuries. The Guptas, who succeeded in power tlie Sahs of 
 Surdshha (60 b. C.-235 a. d.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 
 470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Huns ?), and 
 the Valabhis, wlio dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, 
 were the principal power in India, 480-722. 
 
A. D. 
 
 The East. 211 
 
 Acttial authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Sind 
 was the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- 
 quered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled tlie victors. 
 About 1000-118G. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. 
 
 The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud 
 of Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- 
 quered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place 
 at Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- 
 dition to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) 
 Mahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of 
 wliom, Bahram, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's 
 son, Khusru, founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in 
 India proper. 
 1186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. 
 
 In 1186, Khus7'u\; son was made captive by Muhammed Ghori, 
 after w^hich the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni 
 passed into the hands of the Afghans of Gho7\ Muhammed Ghori 
 was killed in 1206. 
 
 China. 
 
 590-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was 
 partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms 
 (p. 32). 
 
 618-907. Dynasty of Tang, 
 
 founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the 
 name of Kau-tsu. The first part of this period down to 718 was a 
 brilliant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The 
 earlier rulers (Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683; Woo How, 
 683-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- 
 band's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the 
 Tatars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China 
 in Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position 
 among other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantmople 
 in China. 
 
 From 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From 
 763 to 780 their inroads were incessant. 
 
 Under Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries 
 and nuimeries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- 
 dhist) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- 
 tion of printing. " 
 
 907-960. Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, 
 Later Han, Later Cho-w) occupied the throne within this 
 period, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen, 
 and other provinces independent states arose. 
 
 960-976. Chaou-kwang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder 
 of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against 
 the Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of ]\Ianchuria, estal>- 
 lishing there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- 
 tunate, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). 
 
 I 
 
212 MedicBval History. A. D. 
 
 Japan.i 
 
 From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to tha close of the sixth 1 
 century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- 
 tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasing 
 wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actual 
 sovereigns and personal connnanders. The close of this epoch saw 
 the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). 
 
 The seventh century is of surpassing interest in the history of 
 Japan, for then it was tliat causes long working in silence and un- 
 seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and political 
 life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of the 
 Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects beliind a veil of 
 formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominance 
 of the military over the civil power, until the actual govermnent of 
 the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into the 
 hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring, 
 much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose 
 final outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known to 
 mediaeval Europe, which, with its legitimate offspring, oppression, 
 weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. 
 
 These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numerous 
 court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. II. The 
 creation of numerous offices of state which became the property of 
 the court nobility. III. The division of the male population into an ; 
 agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state offices 
 into two sections, the civil and the military, and the continuance of 
 each in the hands of one group of noble families. 
 
 I. The kuge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practice 
 of polygamy, Avhicli the necessity of providing against the extinction 
 of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise at 
 present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among them- 
 selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fuji-wara, the 
 most famous of all the huge; the Sugawara ; the Taira (Heike in 
 Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Cliinese charac- 
 ters). 
 
 II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire caused 
 the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of a 
 host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the huge, and 
 gradually became vested in certain families. 
 
 III. The demand of the grooving empire for increased military 
 efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into two 
 classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all who 
 were unfit for military service; they were relegated to a life of un- 
 broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quan- 
 tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, the 
 Samurai, which included all the bravest and most intellectual men in 
 Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax received 
 from the first class, and not overbiu'dened with military duties, these 
 
 ^ Gritfis, The Mikado's Empire. Reed, Japan. Adams, History of Japan. 
 
A. D. Crusades. 213 
 
 men were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and 
 learning-, foi-niin<;- the best element in the luition. 
 
 IV. The Fujitcara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all 
 civil offices, while the military offices were hlled from the two families 
 of Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the 
 Fiijiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the 
 Mikado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- 
 ronment of titled officials, lose all real power, and sink to a mere pup- 
 pet in tlu; hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and dei)osed at 
 will ; thus did both emperor and court constantly lose ground before 
 the growing intiuence of those energetic families to whom were given 
 the active duties of military command. The generals, or Shoguns, 
 became the " Mayors of the Palace " of Japan. So originated the 
 dual government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- 
 stitutional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- 
 ernment were vested in the ShOgtm or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and 
 the religious functions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor, but an un- 
 constitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped 
 that authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- 
 kado, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. 
 
 The natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- 
 tary feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. 
 794. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and the 
 
 kuge', permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. 
 1156. Outbreak of war between the families of Gen and Hei {Mina- 
 moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military 
 offices in peace. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). 
 
 § 1. CRUSADES. 
 
 Cause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, 
 where <S7. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, had built a vault 
 for the Sepidchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- 
 rupted after the Fatimites, and yet more after the Seljuks came to 
 power ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. 
 
 The hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. 
 (1088-1099) assistance in freeing the holy places, and preached tlie 
 Crusade in Italy (?) and France. ^ Councils of the church at Pia- 
 cenza and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- 
 versal enthusiasm. (It is the will of God !) 
 
 The un(lisci])lined bands led hy Peter, by the French knight Walter 
 of Pan/, and his nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Penniless), and others, 
 were for the most part, annihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. 
 
 1 V. Sybel Gesch. des ersten Kreuzzuas, 1841, has shown on confhi«ive 
 p-ounds that the idea of tlie Crusades originated principally with Pope Urban 
 II. It has recently been made doubtful whetlier Peter of Amiens had been iu 
 the Holy Land at all before the first Crusade. 
 
214 • MedicBval History. A. D. 
 
 1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 
 Leaders of the first Crusade : Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of 
 lower Lothariugia ; his brothers, Baldwin and Eustach ; Robert, duke 
 of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; 
 Stephen of Blois ; Raymond IV., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ver- 
 mandois, brother of Philip I., king of France ; Bohemond of Taren- 
 tum, son of Robert Guiscard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 200,- 
 000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, wlio 
 was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went vnih. the expedition 
 as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in this 
 Crusade. 
 
 The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymond 
 did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack upon 
 the territory of Kilij Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 
 
 1097. Niccea surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege of 
 June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Dory- 
 July 1. Iceum over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separated 
 
 from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conquered 
 a principality for himself in Edessa. 
 1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes for 
 nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed to 
 Bohemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firuz 
 
 1098. (Pyrrhus). Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besieged 
 the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in An- 
 tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chris- 
 tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and scat- 
 tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrels 
 among them. 
 
 1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessful 
 siege of the fortress of Areas. In May they advanced be- 
 yond Ccesarea. On the 6th of June the Crusaders, now numbering 
 but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimites 
 had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks' siege, 
 
 1099. Storm of Jerusalem. 
 
 July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of the 
 Resurrection. 
 
 Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, 
 with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripolis 
 (Assises du royaume de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, 
 Connetable, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the 
 Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His 
 brother, Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus 
 (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin 
 I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldwin II. (died 1131), Fulco of 
 Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached 
 its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1102), Amalric (died 1173), 
 Baldwin IV. (died llSo), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), Veil 
 (Guy^ of Lusignan. 
 
^. r>. Crusades, 215 
 
 1147-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. 
 
 Cause : CoiKjuest of Edessa hy Emadeddln ('Iniad-tjd-Deen) 
 Zenki, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of 
 the city hy his son Nouredd'm (Noor-ed-Deen) (1140). Bernard, ab- 
 bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. 
 
 Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for 
 Palestme ; the former from RegeJishurg (Ratisbon), the latter from 
 Mdz, somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia 
 Minor , the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, 
 where it was almost anniliilated by want and by the opposition of the 
 Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicfea. With this scanty fol- 
 lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the Fi*ench army along the 
 coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of 
 ill health. Louis and the French nobility took sliip from Pauiphylia 
 for Antiochia. The common soldiery contumed by land to Cilicia, 
 and were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad 
 went from Constantinople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and in 
 conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- 
 mascus. 
 
 1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre {St. Jean 
 d'Acre), or Ptolemais. 
 
 Cause : Capture of Veit (Gui/) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, 
 at Tiberias on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- 
 lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty 
 of the Ayouhites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- 
 mously. 
 
 The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the 
 second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- 
 burg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, 
 spent the winter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- 
 (uiered Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was dro^vned in the 
 Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of 
 the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, 
 and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) 
 durmg the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy 
 of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. 
 
 Richard the Lion-Hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, 
 but French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus 
 (French Auguste, a title of respect which was given him later), king of 
 France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- 
 seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. 
 After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached 
 Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. 
 The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). 
 
 Philip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). 
 Heroic deeds (and .cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice 
 obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. 
 The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- 
 grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, which 
 
216 Mediaeval History. a. d. 
 
 he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veil {Guy) of Lusignan (au- 
 tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " to 
 Henry of Champagne. 
 
 Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recog- 
 nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- 
 mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the emperor 
 thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine) 
 and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- 
 dering homage.^ 
 
 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261). 
 At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco of 
 Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken 
 by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldiuin, count of Flanders, and 
 Boniface, marquis of Moutferrat. The Crusaders undertook the siege 
 of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the 
 Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo), partly in payment for transport. 
 At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac 
 Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly 
 supported by Philip of Swabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople 
 with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced 
 Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was un- 
 able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek 
 Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, 
 during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. 
 (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second 
 capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many 
 works of ancient literature. 
 
 Establishment of the Latin empire (Baldtvin, emperor) ; many 
 coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mout- 
 ferrat became king of Thessalonica ; French dukes in Athens, Achaia, 
 etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. 
 
 Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, 
 and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eur- 
 xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Palceologus, of the 
 Nicfean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 
 
 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French 
 boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many 
 were sold into slavery. 
 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 
 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Brienne^ 
 " king of Jerusalem." 
 
 1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a 
 short time. 
 Frederic IL, emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 
 
 1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having betn trodden in 
 the filth at Acre by Richard's command is not a fable (cf, Tceche, Knher 
 Heinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless 
 higher political motives, and is suthcicntly explained by the alliance of Richard 
 with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. 223. 
 
I, 
 
 I 
 
 A. Do Crusiules. 217 
 
 \ 
 
 for not having fulfilled lifs promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to 
 Acre by sea, and received Jerumlem (where he crowned himself), 
 Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with 
 Sido7i, from Sultan Kameel {El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years' 
 armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 
 
 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. 
 
 Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and 
 passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in 
 its stronghold of Egypt, he went m the spring of 1249 to Damietta 
 and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in 
 November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan 
 Toorun-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with 
 the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty 
 of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- 
 ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- 
 throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along 
 Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course 
 of a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 
 1268. Antiochia lost to the Mohammedans. 
 
 1270. Seventh Crusade. Without result. 
 
 Louis IX, went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of tho 
 
 army were carried off by sickness. 
 1291. Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians 
 
 abandoned their last possessions in Palestine {Tyre, Berytus, 
 
 Sidon). 
 The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In 
 spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend 
 to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. 
 
 Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the 
 Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, 
 owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 
 3. Rise of mdependent communities, who bought their freedom from 
 their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- 
 opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their 
 power. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought 
 back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography 
 and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood 
 (chivalry) ; the three 
 
 Religious Orders of Knighthood. 
 
 1. Knights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i, e. knights of the hospital 
 of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 
 1048. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade 
 {Gerhard), and converted into an order of knightliood after the 
 manner of the Templars {Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, 
 lohite cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to 
 Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. 
 Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 152G the order received a gift of Malta 
 from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 
 Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 
 
218 Mtdicuval History. A. d. 
 
 on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- 
 inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 {Hugo de 
 Payens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was 
 transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. 
 at the Council of Vienne. 
 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the 
 German hospital founded in 1128 (?) in Jerusalem, raised to an 
 order of knighthood by Frederic of Swahia before Acre, dur- 
 ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the 
 order at Acre. Under the grand maLter Hermann of Salza 
 a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen 
 Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- 
 sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 
 1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 
 1309 to Marienhurg, 1457 to Konigsherg. The land of the order 
 was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho- 
 lic maintained possession of the German estates. Residence 
 of the grand master at Alergentheim at Franconia. The or- 
 der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights, priests, 
 brothers in service. 
 
 § 2. GERMANY AND ITALY. 
 
 1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, 
 
 supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, ! 
 of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony as 
 well, and Berthold, duke of Zahringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) 
 against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, 
 and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was 
 Frederic of Biiren and Stanfen, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV. 
 (p. 200). 
 1132-1133. On his first Roman expedition Lothar was crowned hj 
 
 Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of 
 
 Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 
 1136-1137. On liis second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the 
 
 Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the 
 two Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return 
 Lothar died at Breitenivang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). 
 
 Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in 
 the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the 
 overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends 
 were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. 
 Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- 
 sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or A Itmark, at the mouth of the 
 Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the 
 house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- 
 portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the 
 Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received 
 the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. 
 
A.. D. Genudiiij and Italy. 219 
 
 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer),^ so called 
 
 froiii the castle of Stanfeii in Swabia. 
 
 1138-1152. Conrad III., 
 
 elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- 
 ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. 
 War of the Ghibellines (Italian corruption of WaihUngen, the 
 name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs 
 (c'f. the genealogical table). 
 
 Conrad put Henr/j the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to 
 Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to LeopoZo? /F., margrave of Austria. 
 
 1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud 
 died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henrif (afterwards 
 called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the hitter's 
 mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was 
 claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- 
 vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsherg, which Conrad 
 besieged. In the 
 
 1140. Battle ^ of Weinsherg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- 
 pelled to surrender. (" The Faitliful Wives of Weinsherg," 
 poem by Burger.) 
 
 After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria 
 fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,^ who married Gertrude, Henry 
 the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. 
 Albert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- 
 denhurg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- 
 mittelhar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, 
 v/ore restored to him. 
 
 Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who 
 had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- 
 cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, 
 who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, 
 1152, at Bamberg. 
 
 1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, 
 
 one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. 
 
 Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the 
 Danish crown. Sven became kmg of Deimiark as a vassal of the 
 empire (1152). 
 
 Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, 
 and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, 
 which had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- 
 ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 
 1154-1155. Fii-st expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places 
 which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 
 
 1 V, Baumer, Gtsch. der Hohenstnufen u. ihrer Zeit ; JaSd, Gesch. desd. B. 
 unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, Geschichte Friedrichs I. 
 
 ■^ Recent investigators deny that the cry of lilt Wtlf! Hie Waiblinyen ! was 
 heard liere for the first lime. 
 
 <* So called from his favorite oath. 
 
220 
 
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 and emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for 
 aid a<;aiiist the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, schohir of the schoohnan 
 Abelard, a popidar preacher, who inveighed against the secuhir power 
 of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned 
 and burnt. 
 
 llo3. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 
 115G. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- 
 arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the 
 female as well as the male line. 
 1157. Diet at Wiirzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did 
 homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In 
 Besan(^on the Burgundian nobles submitted again to the em- 
 pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- 
 eric the 7'0}/al crown. 
 1158-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, 
 including Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- 
 calian Fields the rights of the emperor were defined as against the 
 cities. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an 
 officer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- 
 vate war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- 
 tween the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, wliich 
 surrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command 
 
 1162. Milan was destroyed by the inhabitants of the neighbormg 
 
 cities. 
 1159-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by 
 the majority of the cardinals, Victor IV. by the minority 
 (who favored the emperor), and recognized by the comicll 
 which Frederic convened at Pa via. Alliance between Alex- 
 ander III. and the Lombard cities. 
 
 1163. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor 
 III. (April, 1164), a new anti-pope. Paschal III., was elected 
 by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon 
 broke out. 
 
 1166-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by 
 Frederic. 
 
 1167. Lombard LeaR:ue between the cities of Lombardy {Cremona, 
 Bergamo, Brp^^na, Mantua, and Ferrnra) and the cities of the 
 Veronese March (^Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso), which had 
 united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They 
 rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, 
 Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. 
 The emperor, whose army was almost annihilated by a 
 plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to 
 Germany. 
 In Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between 
 
 Henry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and 
 
 Bremen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put 
 
 an end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion 
 
 undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 
 
 1174-1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy 
 over Mont Cenis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry 
 
222 MedicBval History. A. D. 
 
 the Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The em- 
 peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of Ids heroic cour- 
 age, at the 
 
 1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiations 
 and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 
 
 1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 
 
 1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was concluded 
 at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privileges 
 which he had hitlierto claimed in the towns ; acknowledged 
 the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortify 
 themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction., 
 By the popular nomination the consuls acquired the rights of i 
 imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for the 
 purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. The 
 cities agreed to maintain all just rights of the emperor, a 
 recognition of the overlordship of the emperor, which, how- 
 ever, they were allowed to redeem by an annual payment. 
 
 Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appear 
 at four diets, he was put under the ban of the empire and his fiefs 
 declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and de- 
 feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the em- 
 peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himself j 
 at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain hisi 
 allodial estates only, Braunschweig {Brunsicick) and Liinehurg. Divis- 
 ion of the old duchy of Saxony. Part of Westphalia was given to 
 the archbishopric of Cologne. Liiheck, 'Hamburg, and Bremen became ; 
 in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire only. ' 
 The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of Hcdber- 
 stadt, Hildesheim, Liibeck, etc., the coim^s- of Holstein and Oldenburg^ 
 etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. 
 
 Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of As- 
 kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach recei\ed Bavaria. 
 Henry the Lion was o))liged to leave the country for three years. , 
 He went to the court of Henry 11. of England, his father-in-law. 
 
 1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 
 
 1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The emperor 
 gave his son Henry, who was now twenty-one, but had long 
 
 1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to Constance, 
 daughter of Roger LI., aunt and heiress of William IL., the 
 last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. '215). His son, King Henry, 
 
 whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take the 
 field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, had 
 been sent out of the empire for another three years, but had since re- 
 turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in Nov- 
 einber, 1189, led Henry to come to an understanding with Henry the 
 Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 
 
 1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, but 
 stern and relentless. 
 
 1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown at 
 
A. D. Germnnij and Italy. 223 
 
 Rome, after he had abandoncMl Tusciilum, which had ever hcen 
 true to his fatlier, to the Romans. The city was d(!stroyed ; Frascati 
 grew nj) near its site, llemy went to Napk^s to rescue the inher- 
 itance of his wife, Constance, from Tancred of Lecce, whom the native 
 party in Pakn-mo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples 
 for three months. Sickness m the army compelled the emperor to 
 return to Germany. 
 
 1192-1194. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first 
 
 treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of 
 
 which was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry 
 
 the Lion, Richard Cmur-de-Lion of England (p. 21G), and by a 
 
 marriage between Agnea, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conrad, 
 
 count palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. 
 
 1194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died, War 
 
 with his widow and his son William. The emperor sidiju- 
 
 gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with 
 
 severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. 
 
 1194. Henry threatened with exconmumication for withholding the 
 
 estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 
 119G. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united 
 with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that 
 all fiefs should become hereditary, even in the female line, 
 failed in consequence of the resistance of the princes and the 
 lesser nobility. 
 1197. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- 
 spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans 
 (conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly 
 m Messhia, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double 
 election in Germany. 
 
 1198-1208. Philip of Swabia, youngest son of Frederic 
 
 Barbarossa. 
 1198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Hemy 
 
 the Lion. 
 1198-1215. A¥ar for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen 
 
 and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent III., 
 was defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of 
 Brunswick. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive 
 combat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine 
 Otto of Wittehhach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and croAvned 
 at Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates 
 of Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was 
 soon involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put 
 forward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VI., as anti-emperor (1212). 
 Otto IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near 
 Lille) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- 
 mains. Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 
 1212-1250. Frederic XL also king of the two Sicilies, 
 
 a prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian 
 than German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian 
 
224 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremacy, 
 having indeed but little liking for the church ; in his hereditary estates 
 he favored the Saracens. 
 1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king in 
 
 Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and 
 1217. gave Swabia to his young son Henry, and 
 
 1220. had him elected king of Rome (the title given to the Ger- 
 man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expe- 
 dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had for- 
 merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of the 
 papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be united 
 with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Honorius III. at Rome. 
 1222. The emperor's son Henry, solenmly crowned king at Aachen. 
 
 His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelbert, archbishop of 
 
 Cologne (murdered 1225). 
 
 1225. Frederic took as his second wife, lolanthe, daughter of John 
 of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusade 
 renewed. 
 
 1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 
 
 1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by a 
 contagious disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., the 
 octogenarian Gi^egory IX., placed the emperor under the ban. 
 
 1227. Battle of Boriihovede. The Danes, who under Waldemar 
 II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic, 
 were decisively defeated. 
 
 1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 
 
 1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops, 
 who had invaded them. 
 
 1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germano. Removal of the ban. 
 1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. 
 
 Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 
 1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lower 
 
 German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup- 
 pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and the 
 imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement, 
 then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with the 
 Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunsivick-Lilneburg, for Otio the 
 Child. Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella, 
 sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a 
 public peace (jirst publication of a law in German as well as in 
 Latin). 
 
 1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In Germany 
 Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Henry, 
 deposed and put under the ban. 
 
 1237. Frederic II. m Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial 
 city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and 
 Styria again. 
 
 1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad, the sec- 
 ond son of the emperor as German king. 
 1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- 
 Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too 
 
A. D. Get many and Italy. 225 
 
 far, prevented ihe complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference 
 
 of the Pope, who had chiinis on Sardinia, and was offended at tlie 
 
 assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption 
 
 of Heinz), the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of 
 
 the title of k-inr/ of Sardinia. 
 
 1239-1250. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and 
 Innocent IV. 
 
 1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated 
 anew. Ancona conquered by Enzio. 
 
 1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which 
 was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death 
 of Gregory. His successor, Innocent IV. (1243-1254), fled to 
 Lyons. 
 
 Germany tlireatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). 
 Innocent IV. called a council at 
 
 1245. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- 
 posed liim, summoned the German princes to a new election, 
 and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- 
 many the spiritual princes elected 
 
 1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though 
 at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, 
 at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of 
 the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the 
 eastern part of that state was joined to the margravate of 
 Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate 
 Hessen. 
 
 1247-1256. William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no 
 authority in Germany. 
 
 1248. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before 
 Padua. His son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese in the 
 
 1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two 
 years in a dungeon). 
 
 Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 
 
 1250. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred 
 (Dec. 19). He w^as succeeded by his son. 
 
 1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: William of Holland) 
 fought since 1252 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 
 
 1256. William of Holland fell in battle mth the Frisians (twenty- 
 seven years old). 
 
 1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Fans- 
 trecht. 
 
 Richard, Earl of Comioall, younger son of King John (Lack- 
 land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and cro^vned at 
 Aachen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonao 
 X. of Castile, grandson of Philip of Hoheustaufen, son of Frederi 3 
 Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. 
 
 In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of 
 Frederic IL, was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, 
 son of Conrad IV., afterwards (1258) king. Charles of Anjou, brother 
 15 
 
226 Mediceval History. a. Eh 
 
 of Loiiis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated 
 Manfred, who was betrayed by liis barons, at Beneventum (1266), and 
 made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. 
 
 Conradin went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- 
 eric of Austria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). 
 He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Logo di 
 Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 
 
 1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke 
 out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the 
 French in Sicily. John of Procida. Peter of Aragon, king of Sicily, 
 Charles of Anjou limited to the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 § 3. FRANCE.1 
 
 The royal domam of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy 
 of France {Isle de France and Orleanais). Tlie great vassals, who 
 were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced 
 to submission in this and the following period. 
 1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory VII. First Crusade. 
 
 A long reign, in which the king accomplished notlmig. 
 1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, 
 
 moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of 
 Suger, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible 
 growth of the royal power. Marriage of the kmg's son, Louis (VII.), 
 with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, heiress of Poitou, 
 Guyenne, and Gascony. 
 1137-1180. Louis VIL Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a 
 
 weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less 
 disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of 
 Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the 
 East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who 
 married Henry of Anjou, conveying to this prince, who soon became 
 king of England, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which 
 Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the 
 hundred years' war. 
 
 1180-1223. Philip II., Augustus, 
 
 one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, 
 but of great political sagacity. (Third) Crusade with Richard Coeur- 
 de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but 
 made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the 
 Chateau Gaillard by Kichard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) 
 
 After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur, 
 son of Richard's brother Geoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- 
 mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- 
 dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. m 
 relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife, 
 Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes of Meran. 
 Submission of Philip (1200). 
 
 After the death of Arthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy 
 
 1 Kitchin, History of France. 
 
A. D. France. 227 
 
 anew. Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. 
 The fall of the Chateau Gaillard was followed by the submission of 
 Normandy (li!04). John having refused to obey the summons of 
 Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip 
 declared his fiefs forfeited. 
 
 Crusade against the Alhigenses, Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist 
 sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of 
 Beziers and Carcassonne (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay 
 all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse 
 by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of 
 revolted Toulouse (1218). 
 
 War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- 
 land and Otto of Germany. Philip, assisted by the cities^ victorious in 
 the 
 
 1214. Battle of Bouvines : 
 Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of Philip's son Louis to England 
 
 (1216). 
 1223-1226. Louis VIII. New crusade against the comit of Tou- 
 louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 
 1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope 
 Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under In- 
 nocent III. 
 1226-1270. Louis IX., St. Louis. 
 
 During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who 
 repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended 
 by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louis 
 (p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- 
 turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin 
 and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- 
 nounced his claim to Normandy, A?ijou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, 
 northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of 
 feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king 
 from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- 
 uted to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward 
 Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. 
 
 During this reign the domain of the crown received the following 
 additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhone, 
 the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by 
 Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase 
 (1239) ; Perche (1257); Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262^. 
 Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). 
 
228 MedicEval History, A. D, j 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY IIL 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 Ecgberht. 
 
 802-837. 
 
 Charles the Bald. 
 Emperor. 
 
 -ffithelwulf = (1) Judith, who 
 837-858. I afterwards m. 
 
 I (2) ^thelbald. (3)— 
 
 I i \ ^ 
 
 ^thelbald. -asthelberht. -ffithelred. .Alfred. 
 
 858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. 
 
 Eadward 1 son, 2 dau. ^Ifthryth = 
 the Elder. 901-925. 
 
 I 
 
 .ffithelstan. Eadmund. Eadred. 
 
 925-940. 940-946. 946-955. 
 
 FLANDERS. 
 
 Baldwin 1 
 
 NORMANDY. 
 
 I t879. 
 Baldwin If. 
 1918. 
 
 Rollo. Arnulf I. 
 
 I t 965. 
 
 William | 
 
 Longsword. Baldwin (III.) 
 
 I t 962. 
 
 I 
 Eadwig. 955-959. 
 
 Eadgar. 959-975. 
 
 Richard 
 the Fearless. 
 
 Eadward the Martyr. 
 
 975-978. 
 
 1 
 
 ^thelred II.=2 Emma. Richard 
 978-1016. the Good. 
 
 I 2 
 
 Arnulf II. 
 
 t 988. 
 
 I 
 
 Baldwin IV. 
 
 t 1036. 
 
 Godwine 
 Earl of Mercia. 
 
 Eadmund 
 
 Ironsides. 
 1016. 
 
 Eadward 
 
 J 
 
 Eadgar iEtheling. Margaret = Malcolm 
 
 king of Scots. 
 
 I I Eadward Robert Baldwin V. 
 
 Harold. Eadgj^th = the Confessor, the Magnificent f 1067. 
 1066. 1042-1066. or the Devil. | 
 
 ■William the Conqueror = Matilda. 
 1066-1087. 
 
 Eadgar 
 king of Scots. 
 
 Robert. 'William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 
 1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stephen 
 Matilda — - • c. of Blois 
 
 Matilda = Geoffrej' of Anjou, Stephen 
 I Plantagenet. 1135-1154. 
 
 Henry II. 1154-1189. 
 
 Henr3^ Richard 
 Coeur-de-Lion. 
 1189-1199. 
 
 Geoffrey. 
 
 Arthur, 
 t 1203. 
 
 John Lackland. 
 1199-1216 
 I 
 Henry III. 1216-1272. 
 
A. D. England. 229 
 
 § 4. ENGLAND. 
 
 1066-1154. Norman kings.^ 
 lOGG-1087. William I., the Conqueror, 
 
 completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed 
 of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two 
 languages existed for a long time side by side in England, English^ or 
 Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French 
 Normans or Frenchmen. 
 
 The submission of 10G6 was partial, Mercia and Northumbria re- 
 maining aloof. 
 
 1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under 
 Swegen. Returning from Normandy William bought off the 
 Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. 
 Northumberland ravaged with lire and sword. 
 
 1071. Revolt of the English under Eadivin and Morkere, which ended 
 with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Elg 
 in the fens where Morkere had taken refuge with the outlaw Here- 
 ward. 
 
 1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easily crushed. 
 Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). 
 Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeiix, for trouble- 
 some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway 
 and Denmark averted, 1085. William met liis death by accident 
 while engaged in a struggle with Philip of France about the Vexin 
 (Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 
 
 1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became 
 the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by tlie king 
 in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental 
 form, piacmg Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, 
 v/ho gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the 
 power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of 
 fealty from all under tenants to the king direct. The same year 
 saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed 
 in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened 
 with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- 
 served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly in- 
 sisted on. 
 
 William reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by 
 Lanfranc, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- 
 pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in 
 his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod 
 held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's 
 |Consent. 
 
 1 AuRustin Thierry. Tlistoire de la conquetede V An'jleterre. Qceen, His- 
 tory of the Enylish Ptuple. 
 
230 Mediceval History. A. Do 
 
 1087-1100. ^?7illiam II., the Red, 
 
 second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while 
 Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- 
 man barons in favor of Robert was suppressed by help of the English 
 in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf Flamhard. 
 Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 
 1093. Anselm, abbot of Bee, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. 
 He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- 
 tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed 
 to Rome and left England. 
 
 1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- 
 tained the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland 
 between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in 
 the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 
 
 1100-1135. Henry I., Beauclerc, 
 
 on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England 
 and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who 
 pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the 
 Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of 
 William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- 
 fessor " restored. 
 
 Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and 
 Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 
 1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many 
 of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by 
 treaty without a battle. Punislmient of the rebel barons. Robert of 
 Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry 
 invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 
 1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death 
 (1134). Henry took poss ssion of Normandy. 
 
 Quarrel with Anselm in regard to investitures, ending, after the 
 exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction 
 of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories 
 and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son 
 William by the sinking of the " White Ship " in the Channel (1120). 
 Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, son of Fulk the 
 Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- 
 cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 
 
 1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, 
 
 son of Adela, daughter of William I., and the count of Blois, 
 seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son 
 Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- 
 ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in 
 the 
 
 1138. Battle of the Standard, 
 
 at Coioton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury 
 and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed 
 
A. D. England. 231 
 
 in England. Stephen defeated, and captured at the hattle of Lincoln 
 (1141). Matilda was elected Ladji of England by the clergy. Her 
 severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- 
 ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which 
 went on with varying success until Il47 when Robert of Gloucester died 
 and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- 
 land to make good his claim. Without a battle an understandl^ig was 
 reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty 
 of Wallingford 1153). 
 
 The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English 
 history. His w^eakiiess, and the confusion of civil war had given 
 the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- 
 bers tlu'oughout England, and each was the home of oppression and 
 cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 
 
 1154-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet)^ in the di- 
 rect line. 
 
 1154-1189. Henry II. 
 
 Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the 
 suzerainty over Brittany, as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. 
 Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Poitou, Guyenne 
 and Gascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine 
 (1152) ; in all more than half of France. 
 
 The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- 
 lish and the Normans. 
 
 The accession of Henry (at 21 years of age) was welcomed as the 
 beginning of a better time. Banishment of the mercenaries main- 
 tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- 
 toration of estates, which was attended wdth difficulty, some of the 
 new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 
 1158. First Welsh w^ar not successful. 
 
 1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. Reestablishment of the exchequer^ a bureau for assessmg 
 
 and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutagCy a commutation in 
 money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- 
 ants. 
 
 1163. Second Welsh war. 
 
 As chancellor, Becket had been the king's servant and friend ; as 
 archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even 
 in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the 
 abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's 
 reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- 
 siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- 
 tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed 
 over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the 
 king in this respect and on other points involving church and state 
 were formulated in the 
 
 1 So called from the bit of broom (^ene^ which Geoffrey of Anjou, son of king 
 Fulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in his helm. 
 
232 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 1164. Constitutions of Clarendon. 
 
 The juiisdictioii of secular courts over clerical ofPenders was 
 affirmed, appeal to Home in such cases was prohibited, the election 
 of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- 
 sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot 
 elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted 
 the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and 
 appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- 
 ters connected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 
 
 1165. Third Welsh war. 
 
 1166. Assize of Clarendon. Reestablishment of Frank-pledge, 
 or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In 
 
 each shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the 
 shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation 
 (proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for wliich the ordeal or ' 
 judgment of God was substituted. 
 
 1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, 
 who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with 
 
 the king, and was nnirdered by four knights of Henry's court, in 
 consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 
 29, 1170). 
 
 Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, ^ 
 afterwards the great and privy council. 
 
 1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 
 1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been 
 
 made of the authority until Dermod, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, 
 did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, 
 and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), 
 son-in-law of Dermod, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part \ 
 of Ireland submitted to Henry. 
 
 1172. Penitence of Henry at Becket's tomb. His absolution. 
 
 1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest son Henry, and general league of 
 French and English lords, Louis VII. and William the Lion 
 
 of Scotland against the king. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William 
 who was released only after acknowledging Heiu-y as his suzerain 
 (1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 
 1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 
 1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of 
 France. Humiliation and death of Henry 11. 
 
 1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion. 
 
 His reign was passed almost entirely away from England. 
 Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard v/as captured by Leopold 
 of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in 
 captivity, being released at last for a heavy ransom. During his 
 absence Eleanor, his mother, was regent. Persecution of the Jews. 
 The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John 
 resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the 
 return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in 
 France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Caillnrd on the 
 Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chalus-Chahrol (1199), 
 
A. D. England. 233 
 
 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and 
 after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the 
 great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 
 
 1199-1216. John LacJdand. 
 
 John was recognized in England without opposition and secured 
 JVormandt/, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim 
 of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 
 
 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power, Philip at once secured 
 the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor- 
 mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at once 
 lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to liis English king- 
 dom. Tlie death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) 
 was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted 
 in the election of Stephen Langton by command of Innocent III. 
 (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited 
 with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally 
 yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of 
 the papacy (1213). 
 
 John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the 
 barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France 
 (1213). 
 
 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's 
 return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, 
 
 and the confederated lords occupied London. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. 
 June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 
 
 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that 
 its benefits should reach the lower tenants.^ Princii)al 
 provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security 
 for personal freedom ; no freeman should " be taken, 
 imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by 
 the judgment of his peers " or " by the law of the 
 land" (Art. 39)."^ 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 
 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- 
 illum) which could be collected without the consent of the great 
 council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of 
 the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest 
 daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, 
 and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be 
 convened. 
 
 The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of 
 Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, 
 declaring the crovrn forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 
 
 1 Stubbs, Early Plantn genets, 149. 
 
 '- Nullus liber homo cai)iatiir vel imprisoiietnr aiit di^saisiatur aut utlacjhetur 
 ant cxuletur aut aliquo moclo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus. nee super eum 
 niittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum vel per legem terraj. 
 
234 MedicEval History. A. d. 
 
 of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 
 19, 1216). 
 
 1216-1272. Henry III., of Wifichester, son of John. 
 
 The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The 
 English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old 
 Henry, thoug-h small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- 
 feat of the French fleet off Thanet determined Louis to give up the 
 contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 
 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. 
 After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by 
 Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the 
 justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- 
 seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third 
 reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began 
 in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- 
 tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign 
 policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des 
 Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). 
 Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- 
 forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums 
 of money. 
 
 Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained 
 only Aquitaine and Gascony. 
 
 1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of 
 Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- 
 genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon 
 took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- 
 sumed formidable proportions. 
 
 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- 
 ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in 
 which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four 
 barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a 
 year. 
 
 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- 
 tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford 
 
 annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king 
 and his son Edivard were defeated in the 
 
 1264. Battle of Lewes. ' 
 May 14. Treaty (Mise of Leioes) between the parties. Native coun- 
 selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- 
 ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the 
 clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 
 
 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament 
 Jan» 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (yet 
 
 this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). 
 Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 
 1265. Battle of Evesham, 
 
 Aug. 4. Earl Simon Avas defeated and fell on the field. Death of 
 Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). 
 In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of 
 
A. D. The North. 235 
 
 scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opm 
 M(u/nim, "the eucyelopfedia of the thirteentli century." Mathew 
 Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth. Romances of Arthur. 
 
 § 5. THE NORTH. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 1134^1397. 
 
 Tlie extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed 
 by a period of confusion and wars over the succession (^Erik Emurif 
 11^4-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 
 1157-1182. Waldemar I., the Great, 
 
 was elected to the throne. Subjugation of the Wends, who 
 had long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of 
 Riigen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of 
 bichop Absalon. Waldemar's son 
 1182-1202. Knut VI. 
 
 was even more successful than his father, and refused to 
 acknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, as 
 Waldemar" had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, 
 who received aid from the emperor, by bishop Absalon (1184) ; 
 Hither Pommerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, 
 " King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count 
 of Holstein and other German princes. Conquest of Liibeck and Ham- 
 burg. Capture of Adolf of Holsiein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus 
 of France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226). Knut was suc- 
 ceeded by liis brother, 
 1202-1241. Waldemar II., the Conqueror, 
 
 the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- 
 liant epochs of Danish history. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- 
 tion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to 
 his nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- 
 way and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. 
 In return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- 
 peror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, 
 north of the Elbe and the Elde {Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- 
 lenburg). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national 
 standard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was 
 acquired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured 
 by Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- 
 borg, in Hanover, for three years. Waldemar obtained his release by 
 the payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- 
 quests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic comitries. Holstein 
 ceded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by 
 the Pope, and AValdemar tried to regain Holstein, btit was defeated 
 in the battle of BornhcBved (1227). The rest of his reign was 
 passed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all his con- 
 
236 Mediceval History. A. d, 
 
 quests only Riigen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- 
 nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar 
 was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess 
 (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons 
 who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the 
 political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the 
 nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig 
 was conferred on Abel. This led to disputes, so that the following 
 period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile 
 of kings. Erik (1241-1250). Abel (1250-1252). In this reign the 
 towns began to send representatives to the council {Danehof). 
 Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schlesivig, the king claiming 
 that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- 
 dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with 
 the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286). Oc- 
 cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the 
 queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. Tlie larger part 
 of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- 
 topher II. (1320-1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the 
 king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of 
 the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. 
 No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the 
 tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned 
 without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the 
 clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- 
 pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they 
 were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a 
 year, or lose the right of holding them to military service. The king 
 could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. 
 No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- 
 demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal 
 lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, 
 only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the 
 consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated 
 by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- 
 yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- 
 dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, 
 who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles 
 drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of 
 Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the 
 crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- 
 land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of 
 Geert, the youngest son of Cliristopher, 
 
 1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, 
 
 was made king, and devoted liimself to acquiring, by pur- 
 chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with 
 success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and, 
 Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his 
 daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark \ 
 restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldemar /. 
 
 
A. D. TJte North. 237 
 
 This success was followed by a general war with Sn^eden, Mecklen- 
 burg, the Hanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen- 
 hagen ended disadvantageousl}- for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, 
 however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and 
 Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- 
 tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial 
 privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 
 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of 
 Mecldenhurg, the son of Waldeinar's eldest daughter, the estates 
 elected the son of his youngest daughter Olaf, (1376-1387), then six 
 years of age. In 1380 O^o/" succeeded his father ^a^o?i as king of 
 Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, 
 the regent, who, after Olaf's death, 1387, was elected queen in both 
 countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and 
 Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkoe- 
 ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the 
 three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 1066-1397. 
 
 After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by 
 wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- 
 ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered 
 greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors 
 arose wliicli was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- 
 diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- 
 duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the 
 Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- 
 dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The 
 family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- 
 tinct with Erik Eriksson Lcespe (1223-1250). Under this family the 
 power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- 
 den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time 
 celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that 
 of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- 
 1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the 
 actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- 
 tion of Stockliolm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large 
 duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 
 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of 
 Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- 
 nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom 
 to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely 
 until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his 
 brothers jEJnT: and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris- 
 oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt 
 which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, 
 Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norwai/ fell to 
 Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 
 
238 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been 
 pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. 
 Magiuis, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 
 13G0, he surrendered Skaania, Holland, Bleking to Waldemar 
 Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed his son Hakon to Waldemar's 
 daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ihert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed 
 king, and in the battle of Enkceping (1365) captured Magnus who was 
 released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. 
 Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power bemg in the 
 hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered 
 the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- 
 cepted. At the battle of Falkceping Albert was made prisoner and, 
 after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 
 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. 
 
 Norway. 
 1103-1397. 
 
 After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three 
 sons EJsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death 
 of EJsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- 
 age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind. 
 who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harold Gille. 
 who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod 
 There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between th 
 Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in 
 which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161- 
 1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon III, (1202-1204), Guttor7n the 
 child (1204), Inge Baardsen (1204-1217). 
 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. 
 
 son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, 
 weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and 
 raised Norway once more to an influential position among European 
 nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. 
 Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots 
 in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was 
 followed by his son Magnus Lagaboeter (1262-1280) who ceded the 
 Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication 
 of a new code of laws (1261^-1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). 
 War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War 
 with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to 
 grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. 
 Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erikf 
 and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- 
 land, while on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. 
 Hakon V. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying 
 without male issue, he left the crown to his daiighter's son, Magnus. 
 king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magn 
 bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380) 
 who in 1362 became co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married 
 
 i 
 
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 The North. 
 
 
 239 
 
 
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240 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his 
 minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered 
 the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf 
 had inherited in 1376. After Olaf's death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 
 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The 
 union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar 
 and endured until 1814. At the Union of Calmar (1397) Sweden 
 was united with the two kingdoms. 
 
 § 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. 
 
 Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides 
 (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. 
 Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the 
 Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- 
 lined to the kingdom of Granada. 
 1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and MinJio, granted 
 as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son 
 liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- 
 self King of Portugal (1140). 
 
 Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). 
 Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely 
 
 united (1230). 
 
 About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took 
 
 their names from the cities guarded by them : 1. San J ago di 
 
 Compostella (Galicia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on 
 
 the Guadiana. 
 
 § 7. THE EAST. 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the 
 
 Comnenes. 
 1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 
 1204-1261. Latin empire (p. 216). 
 
 The Mongols. 
 
 1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He 
 took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather 
 than under his true name, he is known in history. The Motigols con- 
 quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, 
 which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- 
 ern Russia. 
 
 Temuchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through 
 Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 
 
 1241. Battle of "Wahlstatt, against the Germans under 
 
 Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although 
 victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian 
 army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. 
 
k. D. The East. 241 
 
 The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was 
 inder their sway till 1480. 
 
 L258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. 
 Their immense empire separated into Khanates, {China, Khan- 
 ate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran^ 
 etc.) 
 
 India. 
 
 1206-1500. 
 
 The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori 
 (p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became 
 an independent sultanate under Kutah-ud-din, sultan of Delhi (1206- 
 1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty 
 (1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the 
 Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- 
 gol invasions. Allah-ud-dm, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring 
 expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jeldl-ud-din, his 
 uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Guzerat. Capture of 
 Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. 
 After \\\e diUdilh. oi Allah-ud-din (1316) revolts occurred which were 
 suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who 
 mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who 
 transferred their residence to Tughlakabad. Tuglath was succeeded 
 by liis son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- 
 chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine 
 induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the 
 misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him 
 to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed 
 by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- 
 hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah 
 (1350-1388). 
 
 1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-din had ex- 
 tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu 
 revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula 
 was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 
 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- 
 medan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose 
 capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- 
 volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. 
 The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, when it was broken up into 
 five kingdoms. 
 
 China. 
 
 1101-1398. 
 
 The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaau- 
 tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the 
 Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- 
 pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence 
 spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou- 
 16 
 
242 MedicBval History. A. d. 
 
 tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars, or as they now called them- 
 selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. 
 
 The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, 
 who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 
 1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin provmce of Leaou-tsung ; ninety 
 cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) 
 his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 
 1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the 
 Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. 
 Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by 
 liis brother, 
 
 1259-1294. Kublai Khan, 
 
 Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left 
 Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of 
 Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- 
 trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court 
 of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243). 
 
 The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yuen- 
 ching (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) 
 endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to 
 official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, 
 mitil Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- 
 yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed 
 himself emperor under the name of 
 
 1368-1398. Hung-woo, 
 
 the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. 
 
 Japan. 
 1156-1392. 
 
 1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very 
 famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the 
 Taira, (Heishe) were victorious, under Kigomori, and obtained control 
 of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under 
 the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power 
 in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death 
 of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of 
 Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle 
 occurred in the 
 
 1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura, 
 
 near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many 
 perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout 
 the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their 
 name to the present day. 
 
 Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto 
 undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five 
 men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office 
 previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied througlv- 
 out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the pror- 
 
A. D. The East. 24;i 
 
 inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, 
 who shared the government of the province with the civil governor, 
 and were suhor(liuate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was 
 appointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward 
 known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the 
 power of the Minamoto. 
 
 1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the 
 Hojo ascendency was ToLimasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, 
 who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of 
 that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, 
 but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogiui and the Mikado as 
 Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended 
 in 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiicara, who 
 held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of 
 the sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose familv it remained until 
 1333. 
 
 Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had 
 kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- 
 bassy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, 
 was beheaded. 
 
 1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. 
 
 Destruction of the armada by a typhoon; defeat and massacre 
 
 of the survivors upon the island of Taka. 
 By tliis repulse Hojo Tokimune won great praise ; he was, indeed, a 
 man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo 
 grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado 
 until a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashige and Nitta 
 Yoshisada, which ended in the 
 
 1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- 
 mination of the Hojo familv. 
 
 For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was 
 monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly 
 found authority. 
 
 Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, 
 revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival 
 Mikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 
 
 1336-1392. War of the Chrysanthemums, 
 
 between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at 
 Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. 
 Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial 
 throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the 
 rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. 
 During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at 
 Kioto) feudalism reached its full development. The country was 
 divided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as 
 fiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the 
 agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of tliese 
 military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as liefs. 
 The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed 
 by the daimios, and the kuge' was left to abject poverty. 
 
244 Mediaeval History. A. d. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DIS- 
 COVERY OF AMERICA. 
 1270-1492. 
 
 § 1. GERMANY. 
 
 1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 
 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Kyburg, 
 
 landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was 
 elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the 
 count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, the 
 burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollern. 
 
 Strict enforcement of the public peace. War with Ottocar, king 
 of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction 
 of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hun- 
 garians, and had inherited Carintkia and Carjiiola. Ottocar was put 
 under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took 
 Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottocar 
 agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria^ 
 Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, but received Bohemia and Moravia 
 again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the 
 war. 
 
 1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near 
 Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his 
 son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development 
 of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Corinthian 
 given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carin- 
 thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law. 
 Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against 
 Eberhard of Wurtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohen- 
 staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wiirtem- 
 berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia de- 
 scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John 
 (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Haps- 
 burg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs held 
 immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the 
 archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succes- 
 sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 
 
 1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted to 
 the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of 
 Thuringia and Meissen Cin opposition vto the brothers Frederic^ 
 and Diezmanri). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by 
 the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz, 
 
 1 The title "with the bitten cheek " appears to have been a later invention ; 
 his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederic 
 II., by the surname "the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried, der Freidige, 18QB. 
 
A.. D. Germany. 245 
 
 without the approval of the archbishops of Colog^ie and Trier 
 and the count Pahitine. He fell at Gullheim in personal con- 
 flict with 
 
 1298-1308. Albert I., of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who 
 had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with 
 Philip the Fair, king of France, against the Pope. Albert tried in 
 vain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of 
 the three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the 
 king, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience 
 (siege of the castle of Bingen). Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, 
 and with Frederic and Diezmann of Meissen, who defeated the im- 
 perial armv under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from 
 Altenburg\l307). 
 
 Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the 
 Aar and Reuss, near the Hapshurg. His widow Elizabeth and his 
 daughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for this murder. Through 
 the influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king 
 his brother 
 
 1308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- 
 emburg, a lialf-Frencliman. 
 
 1309. The Swiss Cantons received from Henry VII. doc- 
 June 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- 
 lation to the empire. 
 
 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. 
 
 Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schcyz seem to 
 have been, for the most part, free peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- 
 walden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded 
 either their persons or their estates. The most extensive landowners 
 were monasteries (e. g. the Frauenmilnster in Ziirich), and nobles re- 
 siding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of 
 Hapshurg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate 
 since the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapshurg exercised, under 
 various legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and 
 presided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- 
 istration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered 
 the actual ruler of the country. 
 
 As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had 
 resisted the efforts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship 
 into an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted 
 in part to withdraw themselves from the stewardsliip of the Haps- 
 burgers. In 1331 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- 
 many (p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed 
 t4iem from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced 
 them under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- 
 ple of Schwyz a charter which promised them an immediate tenure 
 from the empire. After the niiddle of the thirteenth century, 
 the Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 
 
246 MedicBval History. A. d. 
 
 of steward or advocate (Vogt) for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to 
 have recognized the charter of Uri, but not that of Schivyz. Imme- 
 diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons Uri, Schwyz, and 
 Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden 
 under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- 
 though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- 
 tions, this league is to be regarded as the beginning of the Con- 
 federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in 
 Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle 
 of Gollheim (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- 
 premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the 
 object for which their ancestors had striven. 
 
 The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many 
 ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement 
 of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of time, 
 and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical 
 in view of the results of modern investigation. ^ It is first found in 
 chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years 
 after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents.^ Neither 
 the Oath on the Riitli (1307, Werner Siaujfacher, Walther Furst, Ar- 
 nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January 
 1308, is historically authenticated. 
 
 The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or of 
 thirty individuals, bvit was the result of many historical events which 
 united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the 
 inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su- 
 premacy. 
 
 As regards the story of Tell, it is now established that neither the 
 shooting of the apple from the head of his son, nor the murder of the 
 bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- 
 garded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the 
 Kiissnacht bailiffs of that time there w.-^s no Gessler. The legend of 
 the shooting of the apple occurs five t.iues outside of the cantons, 
 agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives 
 the tyrant : in Nonaay, in Iceland, in Denmark, in Holstein, and on 
 the middle Rhine, and, "with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- 
 land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a 
 common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the 
 Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth 
 century) of the shot of Toko, tho Dane, who is said to have lived in 
 the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss 
 chroniclers had that historian before them. 
 
 Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question 
 which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or 
 the negative.^ It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 
 
 1 A. Huber: die Waldstdtte Uri, Schwyz, Z7w<e7-«;aWera, 1861 ; and Koch- 
 holz, Tell und Gessler in Sageund Geschic'hfe, 1877. 
 
 2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- 
 prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp (rrhmdcn zur Ge- 
 srUchte der eidr/endssischen Bunde, 1835 and 1857 ; Reichsf/eschichte, 1845-1858) 
 
 3 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in 
 Uri, and Kochholz (p. 257, note), the latter is almost certainly the case. 
 
A. D. Germany. 247 
 
 it is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorical. 
 It is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in 
 the common insurrection, afier the nuirder of the baililf. It was not 
 until later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, 
 that his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popidar 
 b.'lief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy and love of freedom 
 The Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was 
 an historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- 
 lishment of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- 
 tion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public 
 meeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people arc said to liave 
 declared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. 
 1310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by 
 the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- 
 ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 
 1310-1313. Henry's Roman expedition. He was crowued king of 
 Italy in Pa via, and emperor in Rome (1312). 
 
 1314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 
 
 1314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 
 
 1315. Victory of the Swiss confederates in the pass between lake 
 Nov. 15. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- 
 tria, Frederic's brother. The liower of the Austrian chivalry 
 (loOO in number) slaughtered. 
 
 Dec. 9. Renewal of the league between Uri, Schioyz and Unterwalden 
 at Brunnen. 
 
 1316. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons 
 upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth 
 
 and fifteenth centuries the people generally bought ojff the ever 
 diminishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the 
 league of the confederates, which was joined by one after another of 
 the remaining districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control 
 of the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria 
 had been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After 
 1340 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- 
 quence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, 
 so that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the 
 Peace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a state 
 of things which had long existed in fact. 
 
 1322. Battle at Ampfing near Mtihldorf. Frederic of Austria de- 
 feated and captured (^Schceppermann -^ the story is probably 
 unhistoric). 
 
 1324. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by 
 the extinction of the Askanian line, to his son Ludwig, whom he 
 afterwards married with Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of 
 Ti/rol and Carinthia. 
 
 1325. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the throne. 
 He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent 
 by Ludwig, died 1330. 
 
 1327-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor in Rome. 
 CAnti-pope Nicholas V.) 
 
248 * Mediaeval History. a. d. 
 
 The Electoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally- 
 elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, 
 even without papal coronation. 
 
 The violent means adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic 
 power led, a year before his death, to the election of Charles, son of 
 John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 in the battle of Crecy). Charles was 
 not universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 
 
 1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe- 
 mian line. 
 
 1347-1378. Charles IV. 
 
 A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in 
 statecraft, and shrewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris 
 and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, German, Latin, French, 
 Italian). War with the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig 
 there appeared in Brandenburg t\\e false Waldemar (1348-1350), who 
 was assisted by Charles. 
 
 The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia 
 (whence he was styled by Maximilian L, "Bohemia's father, the 
 Holy Roman Empire's arch-step-father"). The emperor in 1348 
 founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, 
 the fii'st in Germany. The Bavarian party elected ui opposition 
 1349. Giinther of Schwarzburg, king of Germany, but he died in 
 Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). 
 
 Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all 
 Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 
 1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri, 
 Schwyz, Unterumlden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne, 
 the so-called eight old cantons. 
 1354-1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned 
 emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. 
 Silesia and Lower Lusatia (^Niederlausitz) united with Bohemia. 
 
 1356. Grolden BuU.^ Fundamental law of the empire. 
 
 The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the 
 seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long 
 time ; ^ three ecclesiastics : 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor 
 of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy); 
 3. Archbishop of Cologne (arch-chancellor of Italy) ; four secu- 
 lar: 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal); 5. Count Palatine of the 
 Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon-Wittenberg (arch-mar- 
 shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chamberlain). Estab- 
 lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral 
 states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- 
 tain regalia (privilegium de nan appellando, etc.). The electoral vote 
 went with the land. 
 
 1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 
 
 2 The electoral vote had hp»n di^^nnfHd hptween the two Saxon lines and 
 the two lines of Wittelsbach. It was now assigned to Saxon-Wittenberg and 
 the County Palatine, but refused to S:ixon-Laiu-nlJur;j and Bavaria. 
 
A. D. Gtnnatiy. 249 
 
 loG3. Austria acquired Tyrol. The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret 
 
 Maultasch, who outlived her husband, the Bavarian Ludwig, 
 elector of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gave 
 her county after the latter 's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 
 13G8. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope 
 
 agamst the Visconti. 
 1373. By the treaty of Furstemvalde, Otto the Finne (lazy), the last 
 
 Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to 
 
 Charles IV., in return for an annuity. 
 
 Leagues of the Cities. 
 
 The Hanseatic League. The union of several seaports and trad- 
 ing cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth 
 century (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the beginning of this league.^ 
 Separate alliance between Liibeck and Hamburg. 
 
 In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and 
 great power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was 
 commonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- 
 tending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many 
 inland cities (e. g. Magdeburg, Berlin, Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. 
 Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land 
 routes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- 
 quirement and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. 
 Capital of the league : Liibeck. Division of the league into three, 
 afterwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, 
 Dantzig ; 2. Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, Pom- 
 merania, and the Marches ; chief town, Liibeck; 3. Saxon ; chief town, 
 Brunswick ; 4. Westphalian ; chief town, Cologne. Principal trading 
 ground, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : Novgorod, 
 Stockholm, Wisby (m GotMand), Bergen, Bruges, London. Sliips of 
 war {Orlogschiffe) . 
 
 1361. War with Waldemar IV., king of Denmark, under the conduct 
 of the burghermaster of Liibeck, John Witteyiborg, who captured 
 and plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before Hel- 
 singborg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Liibeck. 
 1367-1370. Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to 
 fly. Copenhagen, Helsingbr, and other cities conquered. A 
 glorious and advantageous peace for the Hansa, concluded at Stral- 
 sund, ended the war. 
 
 The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the 
 thirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter 
 enforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more 
 than seventy cities, not a^ upon the Rhine (e. g. Bremen, Regensburg, 
 Nuremberg) ; both temporal and si)iritual princes joined the league. 
 
 The Swabian city league concluded in 1.376, particularly as a de- 
 fense against the counts of Wiirtemberg. Eberhard the Greiner (i. e. 
 Quarreler), also called Rauschebart. (Uhland's ballads.) 
 
 ^ Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this name had long 
 existed, the oldest being in London. 
 
250 ' Mediceval History. A. D. 
 
 Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle 
 nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franconia, and 
 on the Rhine, .to maintain their independence against the cities on the 
 one hand and against the higher nobility, the princes of the empire, who 
 were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. 
 The princes of the empire were either spiritual {archbishops, three of 
 whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular {dukes, counts- 
 palatine, margraves, hurggraves). The following associations of nobles 
 deserve mention : the Martinsvogel (named after the day of their 
 union), the Schlegler, the Lowenbi^nd. 
 
 1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. 
 Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victory of the Swabian league 
 
 {Ulm, the capital) over Ulrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league 
 recognized by the emperor. 
 
 1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among 
 his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia {Lux- 
 emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- 
 burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokop 
 and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had 
 already fallen upon 
 
 1378-1400. Wenzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 
 
 1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- 
 wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- 
 ' eracy. 
 1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- 
 berger Stallung {Stalhing^^^-pveserve of game, etc.), for four 
 years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Leopold of Austria, who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- 
 ceived the western lands, attacked tlio Swiss confederacy in alliance 
 with the south German nobility. In t^u 
 
 1886. Battle of Sempach {Arnold von Winkelried?),^ he 
 was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold^ 
 renewed the war and was defeated in the 
 
 1388. Battle of Ndfels, by the men of Glarus and Schivyz. The 
 
 war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner 
 defeated the Swabian cities at Dojfingen, where his son Ulrich 
 fell. Rupert, count Palatine, defeated the Rhme towns at 
 Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the 
 princes over the cities. 
 
 1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at 
 the council of the princes at Eger. % 
 
 Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, 
 and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- 
 posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 
 1419 as kiuT of Bohemia. 
 
 1 See O. Kleissner, die, Quellcn zar Stmpachtr Schlacht unci die Winkelried- 
 sarje, 1873, 
 
 J 
 
A. D. Germany. 251 
 
 1400-1410. Rupert, Count Palatine, 
 
 who was barely able to make the royal authority respected 
 within his own party. 
 
 1401. Unsuecessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- 
 feated at Brescia by Jo/m Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had 
 appohited hereditary duke of Milan {V6\)d). 
 
 1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. t:52) in Prague 
 and a change in the university statutes, ail Germans, profes- 
 sors and students alike (oOOO in number), left the university 
 of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Frederic the Warlike of 
 Meissen founded a university. 
 The council of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory 
 
 XI L, against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander V. as a third 
 
 Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 
 
 1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, 
 
 in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of 
 Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. 
 Sigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County 
 Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast tlirough his 
 plenipotentiary Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. The other princes 
 elected /o^A'i of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillfifl management of his 
 plenipotentiary, and the recognition of the successor of Alexander V., 
 John XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a 
 second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and 
 Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by 
 Kaple;3, to summon an oecumenical council in German territory. 
 
 1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). 
 
 At once a council of the empire and, in a certain way, a Euro- 
 pean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- 
 wards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- 
 bishops and bishops), and by mimerous princes with imposing trains, 
 so that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. 
 
 Tlic council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (causa 
 fidei). 2. Healing of the schism (causa unionis). 3, Reformation of 
 the church (causa reformationis).^ 
 
 The party of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting 
 by nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common 
 vote. Pope John XXIII., who appeared in person, was first induced 
 to public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaifliausen with the 
 help of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was 
 forced to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the 
 University of Paris, the council proclaimed its superiority over the 
 Pope, but proceeded to take up the causa fidei next. Condemnation 
 of the doctrine of the Englishman WicUf (1327-1384) (opposition 
 to confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- 
 sionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of 
 Czechish descent, born at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1402, rec- 
 
 1 Cf. Hiibler, dit Konstanzer liifurmut on, 18G7. 
 
252 MedicBval History. a. d. 
 
 tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- 
 lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- 
 stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 
 1410). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken | 
 up. John XXI 1 1, was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. 
 Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. 
 During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- 
 ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was 
 deposed by tlie council. 
 
 It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- 
 form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a 
 new Pope ; the Ultramontanes (i. e. the Italians), reinforced by the 
 Spaniards as ajifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate 
 election, so that the reform fell through. Marti?! V. elected Pope, 
 Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de Jienda reformatione post' 
 electioneni), dissolved the council 1418, as an agreement could not be 
 reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- 
 mans, the English, and the Romans, brought about no real abolition : 
 of abuses. 
 
 At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of l 
 Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the 
 office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the unportant services he 
 had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere- 
 mony of mvestiture took place in 1417.^ 
 
 1423, After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- 
 vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave 
 of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Saxony (Witten- 
 berg). 
 
 1419-1436. Hussite War. 
 
 Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of 
 Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because 
 they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine {suh 
 utraque specie), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to 
 spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- 
 volt in Prague. Ziska leader of the Hussites. After the death of king 
 Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He 
 was crowned in Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. 
 The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia 
 (1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) at Deutsch-Brod. 
 The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- 
 powder and clumsy cannon ; ramparts of wagons). The coun- 
 cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- 
 sites {Calixtinians), {compact of Prague 1433) ; the Tahorites, whose 
 leaders (the two Prokops) fell in battle, were defeated and aimihilated 
 at Bohmisch-Brod (1434). 
 1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of 
 
 Westphalia (Vehmgerichte). 
 
 1 The mortgacjing the mark for a sum of money was only a form. There 
 was no sa/e, only a "remunerative present." Cf. Riedel, (aesch. des Preuss 
 Koniyshausts, II. 269. 
 
A. D. Germany. 253 
 
 1438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 1438-l-43i). Albert II., sou-iu-law of Si^isniund, whom he succeded 
 ill Bohemia and Hangar// as well, died after i-etuniiiig from an 
 expedition against the Turks. 
 
 1440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.),i cousin of Albert, 
 
 the last emperor who was crowned in Rome (1452). He was 
 powerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war 
 with his brothers. 
 
 ^neas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius II.), his adviser. 
 Civil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). 
 The troops of Ziirich defeated by the confederates. Zlirich besieged. 
 At the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Dauphin 
 (afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, 
 against Basel, to raise the siege of Zurich. Heroic death of 1600 
 Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since 
 their victory at Ragaz (144G) over the German troops, the Swiss con- 
 federacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. 
 
 The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) 
 were abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope 
 Eugenius IV. (144G). 
 
 About 1450 John Gutenberg ^ practised (at Mainz) the art of 
 printing. {Joha/iti Fust, Feter S chaffer). 
 
 Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his 
 brother and his cousin, besieged by them in Viemia, and released by 
 George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (14G2). 
 
 The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, 
 daughter and heiress of Charles the Hold, duke of Burgundij (f 1477), 
 caused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), 
 with the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded in 
 keeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- 
 duke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgundy (la Bourgogne, capital 
 Dijon), fell to France. 
 
 Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of 
 Hungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only 
 after the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction 
 of a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had 
 ac(piired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession 
 of all the Austrian lands. 
 
 ^ If Frederic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of Ijudwig of Bavaria, be 
 counted, he was Frederic IV. 
 
 '^ His famil}- name was Gensfleisch ; the name Gutenberr/ was tliat of his 
 mother's patrician family. The "claim brought forward in the Netherlands that 
 Lorenz Jansstm ( Coster) in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has 
 been proved by Van der Linde to rest upon a forgery. His investigations 
 assign Fust and especially SchoJI'tr a much iess important positiou than has 
 been commonly attributed to them. 
 
254 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 § 2. FRANCE. 
 
 1270-1285. Philip III., le Hardi, the Rash. A quiet reign whose 
 troubles were mostly from outside. ISicilian Vespers (p. 22G). 
 Philip married his son, 
 1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heu'ess of 
 Navarre. 
 Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) 
 Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics 
 were removed in 1287 ; in 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French 
 parliament was a court, not a legislature). 
 
 Agreement between Philip and Edward /., of England, Edward 
 renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 
 10,000 livres and a guarantee of non- forfeiture for the rest of his 
 French fiefs. 
 
 1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of 
 La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the 
 court of his suzerain, sent instead his brotlier, earl of Lancas- 
 ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as secuiity for a satis- 
 factory arrangement. Pnilip, hereupon, declared Edward's 
 fiefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 
 1294-lli97. War between France and England, carried on in Gas- 
 cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 
 1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England 
 at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re- 
 garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister 
 of Philip IV. (see below). 
 1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated 
 in the king's need of money, owmg to the growing central- 
 ization of government, which led him to tax ecclesiastical property. 
 Bull, " Clericis laicos," forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular 
 government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by 
 an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from 
 the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme 
 positions the princes gradually retreated until a reconciliation was 
 patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between 
 Philip and Edtoard, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, 
 which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage 
 treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and 
 his son, Edward (II.) to Pliilip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- 
 nexed to France. 
 
 The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh in 
 
 1301. The bull " Ausculta Jili,'^ wherein the Pope asserted his su- 
 premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance 
 of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). 
 
 Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally 
 defeated by Flemish citizens in the 
 
 1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai (Day of the Spurs). 
 
 Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. So 
 many fiefs were vacated that Philip saw the royal power considera- 
 bly strengthened. 
 
A< D. France. 2bo 
 
 Publication of the -leorotal '' Unam Sanctam'' (N'cv. 18, 1302) 
 claiiuing the supremacy of the sj)iritual power over die teni})oral ; 
 this was followed by a threat of excoiimiunication. In France the 
 last bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On 
 Sej)t. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anaf/ni by tlui kinc^'s 
 adviser, Nogeret, and Sciarra Colonna, and treated with indignity. 
 He was shortly released by a ]>opidar ui)rising, but finding Rome on 
 his return in French hands, fell ill and died. 
 
 Philip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). 
 
 Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of 
 a Frenclmian as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the 
 king. 
 
 1309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 
 1307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights 
 on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and 
 practices. By the free use of hearsay evidence and of torture, their 
 condemnation was secured, and fifty-four were burned. Abolition of 
 the order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, 
 Jacques de Molai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexa- 
 tion of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her 
 claimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 
 1314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his 
 mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the 
 true ruler. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- 
 mitted to purchase their freedom. (Comme selon le droit de nature 
 chacun doit naistre franc) . Louis died June 5, 1316. His brother 
 
 1316-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, 
 
 was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On 
 the death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- 
 self king, and to put aside the clahns of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., 
 he decreed that on the basis of ancient Prankish law,^ no female could 
 succeed to the throne of France (the Salic law). 
 
 Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by finx'e. Attacks upon 
 the lepers and the Jeias. 
 
 Acquisition of Douay, Orchies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died 
 Jan. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 
 1322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, 
 
 Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter 
 of Louh; X., received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, 
 the 
 
 1 Lex Snlica, tit. 42, 6. De terra vero snllca in mulierem ntilla portio transit, 
 sed hoc virilis sexus acquirit. This pphes strictly to aUudioi possessions, and 
 pot to fiefs or to the crown. 
 
256 
 
 Mediceval History. 
 
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), France. 257 
 
 328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of 
 the Capets, succeeded. 
 
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 1220-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. 
 
 I 
 
 Philip III., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 
 
 1270-1285. ancestor of the Bourbons. 
 
 I 
 
 Philip IV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev- 
 128.5-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. 
 
 I Valois. I 
 
 III 
 jOuisX., Philip v., Charles IV., Isabelle | 
 ! Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VT., 
 
 314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. 
 
 I I I of England. I 
 
 I daughters. daughter. 1 I 
 
 I Edward III., John II., 
 
 I j of England. le Bon, 
 
 Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. 
 
 ueen of 1316. 
 
 Javarre. lived seven days. 
 
 328-1350. Philip VI., nephew of Phihp IV. 
 
 Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regained 
 omewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but 
 lis tyranny alienated his vassals, wliile his oppressive exactions ham- 
 lered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. 
 Quarrel with Edward III. of England, springing out of the claim of 
 he English sovereign to the French crown tlirough his mother, Isa- 
 belle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with 
 Scotland. Outbreak of the 
 
 L339-1453. Hundred years "War between France and 
 England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chi'onicler of the war.) 
 
 Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish {Jacob 
 tan Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). 
 
 Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, 
 )btained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. 
 ^Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward 
 n Normandy (1346). 
 L346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. 
 A.ugust 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of 
 
 the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.^ 
 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippa). 
 
 1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-3'ear-old Prince of Wales 
 Ihe Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise 
 "Ich dien." 
 
 17 
 
^58 Mediceval History, A. d. 
 
 1347-1349. Black Death in France. 
 
 Acquisition of Montpellier from James of Arragon, and of the< 
 Dauphine of Vienne from the last JDauphin, Humbert II. (who went 
 into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of 
 John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, 
 and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should 
 never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title^ 
 of the heir of the French crown. j 
 
 Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition 
 of the gabelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- 
 ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 
 
 1350-1364. John II., le Bon, 
 
 Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- 
 prisonment of Charles (1356). 
 
 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). 
 
 Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John 
 with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). 
 Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- 
 phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- 
 flicts. 
 
 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Etienne 5 
 Marcel, the provost of the traders (prevot des marchands), , 
 who entered into treasonable connection with Charles the Bady 
 king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates; abolition of abuses. . 
 Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshalls ; 
 of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order 
 of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- 
 mittee of thirty-six. 
 
 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the 
 Jacquerie, under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques 
 Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the 
 lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 
 
 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). 
 
 Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- 
 eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- 
 nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a 
 ransom. 
 
 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her 
 son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- 
 ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was 
 given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- 
 dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress 
 of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of 
 the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John 
 to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by liis 
 son, 
 
 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. 
 
 In the war between Pedro, the Cruel, of Castile, and his brother, 
 Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the for- 
 
A. D. France. 259 
 
 mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Rertrand 
 du GuescUn, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle 
 of Najara, 1307). In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- 
 bat with liis brother. Reform of the coina|]^e in France. 
 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), 
 constable of France (1370). Most of the Englisli possessions 
 in France were again nnited with the crown of France. Death 
 of the Black Prince (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. 
 He was followed by his son, 
 
 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. 
 
 Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of 
 Bourbon, and of Berry. 
 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in 
 Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De 
 Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382); slaughter 
 of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 
 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by 
 the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of 
 Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the 
 parties of Burgundy and Orleans \Armagnacs^). 
 1407. The duke of Orleans nuirdered by order of John, duke of Bur- 
 gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, 
 overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 
 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harlleur, captured that city 
 Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in tlie Battle of Azincoiirt (Agincourt), In 
 totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture 
 of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the 
 king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- 
 beau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre 
 of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. 
 
 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of 
 Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy Duchdtel). 
 John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, mth the consent of the queen, 
 the Treaty of Troyes mth the English (1420). Henry V. married 
 Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of 
 France. 
 
 Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good 
 (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. 
 Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter 
 of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had 
 declared her lands to be vacant liefs of the empire. Death of 
 Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles 
 VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his 
 son, 
 
 1422-1461. Charles VII., 
 
 who, for tlie ])resent, was recognized south of the Loire only ; 
 in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 
 
 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, 
 who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 
 
260 Medieval History. A. d. 
 
 lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of 
 Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 
 
 1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), born in Domremy, on 
 the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by 
 Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the 
 king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat 
 (April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans {La 
 Pucelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. 
 Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- 
 gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, 
 and, after a mock trial, condeimied for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen 
 (1431). 
 
 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition 
 of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the 
 towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death 
 of the duke of Bedford. 
 
 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- 
 troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax to 
 be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- 
 tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies, 
 the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 
 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune 
 (Talbot in Guyenne ; his death, 1453) the English lost all 
 their possessions in France except Calais. 
 
 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. 
 Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu- 
 rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was 
 succeeded by his son, 
 
 1461-1483. Louis XI., 
 
 who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of 
 the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. 
 
 Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued 
 in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the 
 Gallican church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France ; 
 appeals to Rome forbidden). 
 
 1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- 
 demption of Amiens y Abbeville and >S'/. Quentin from Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bienpublique), a conspiracy 
 of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alencon, Berry, 
 and the count of Charolois. Battle of MontVhery. Louis broke up 
 the league by the concessions of the treaty of Confians (restoration 
 of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of 
 Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- 
 gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold {le Temeraire). Con- 
 flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). 
 Storm of Liege. 
 
 \475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance 
 with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amiens^ between 
 
France. 
 
 261 
 
 
 
 
 
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262 Medimval History. A. d. 
 
 Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edward's 
 eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. 
 
 War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the 
 duke in the 
 
 1476. Battle of Granson, in the 
 March 1. 
 
 June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 
 
 1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. 
 
 Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as 
 was likewise Anjou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction 
 of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alent^on, Perche, Guyenne, 
 during this reign. The king's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan 
 VHermite. Death of Louis XI., Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded 
 by his son, 
 
 1483-1498. Charles VIII. 
 
 Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the 
 emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the 
 duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of 
 the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; 
 peace of Etaples with England. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne 
 to Spain. 
 1495. Rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples which Charles 
 
 claimed by inheritance through his father from Charles, count 
 of Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was 
 soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope, 
 the emperor^ the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. 
 
 § 3. ITALY. 
 
 Milan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) 
 under the Visconti as imperial viceroys; since 1395 as dukes. 
 After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became 
 for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- 
 band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of 
 Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). 
 Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 
 A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in poAver and influence 
 throughout the period of the crusades. Participation in the so-called 
 fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety- 
 four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which 
 lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and thc- 
 trade with the East, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
 Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Cornaro, 
 1498. The republic at the height of its power in the first half of the 
 fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- 
 ment of the Great Council, with 450-500 members, followed by that 
 of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges 
 still more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the 
 nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge 
 Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- 
 ful Council of Ten. Since 1454 the three terrible state inquisitors. 
 
A. D. England. 263 
 
 Genoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East 
 a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy 
 (Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by 
 civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- 
 jected now to Milan, now to France. 
 
 In Florence, after lon<^ civil contests, democracy and tyranny 
 having ruled the city in turn smce 1282, the family of Medici ac- 
 quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its liighest 
 point of power. Giovanni de* Medici, a rich banker, founder of the 
 power of his family. His son, Cosimo (Cosnuis), the father of his 
 country (died 1404). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1402), de- 
 velopment of the arts in Florence. Renovation of the sciences, 
 advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire 
 before the Turks. Dante Alighieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," 
 born 1205, at Florence, where he played an important part in the 
 political complications, banished 1302, died at Ptavenna, September 14, 
 1321. Francesco Petrarca, the " father of the revival of learning " 
 (1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the "De- 
 camerone." 
 
 The Papal States, founded by the presents of Pipin and Charles 
 the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest 
 of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; 
 since InnoceiU III. completely independent of the empire. Pope 
 Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France 
 (p. 254). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred 
 the papal residence to Avignon. Residence of the Popes at 
 
 1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") 
 
 At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, papal 
 senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the tliirteenth century, Avignon 
 in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. 
 
 From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian 
 cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to 
 wliich number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a thii-d, until the 
 Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). 
 (Great Schism, 1378-1417). 
 
 At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of 
 Queen Joan I.) ; the younger (Durazzo) until 1435 (death of Joan II.). 
 (See the genealogy, p. 2G1.) 
 
 Sicily, 1282-1295 united with Aragon; 1295-1409 under a branch 
 of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again united with Aragon, 
 whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. 
 After liis death (1458), Naples, but not Sicily, descended to his natural 
 son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). 
 
 § 4. ENGLAND. 
 
 1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks. 
 
 The great events of this reign were thf annexation of Wales 
 to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative 
 reforms. 
 
264 MedicBval History. A. d. 
 
 Edward was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard 
 of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached 
 England and was crowned in 1274. 
 
 jDuring the barons' wars Wales had become practically independ- 
 ent, and Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal 
 submission to Edward until 
 1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 
 
 1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to 
 cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for 
 the rest. 
 1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After 
 hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec, 1282) and the cap- 
 ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led 
 to the complete submission of the country. (No "Massacre 
 of the Bards.") 
 1284. Annexation of Wales to England. After this the title 
 " Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the 
 crown. 
 
 1289. Return of the king from a three years' absence m Gascony ; 
 punishment of the oppressive judges. 
 
 1290. Expulsion of the Jcaats from England (over 16,000). 
 
 1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of 
 Castile). Erection of crosses along the route by which the body 
 was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- 
 ton and Waltham still exist. 
 
 1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be the rightful heir to 
 the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king 
 of Scotland. 
 
 After the death of Alexander III. of Scotland the crown passed to 
 his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward 
 had betrotlied his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway 
 (1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish 
 estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, 
 Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- 
 alogy.) 
 
 1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Ports 
 (Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Ptomney) ^ and French 
 
 mariners resulted in a naval battle. Philip IV. of France summoned 
 Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the 
 negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed in 
 Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his 
 fiefs forfeited. 
 11^94. Rebellion of Madoc in Wales suppressed. 
 
 1294. War with Prance followed by war with Scotland, which 
 joined France. 
 
 1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat 
 
 1 These towns, to which PFmc^r'/sert, Rye, and Sea ford were afterwards added, 
 possessed peculiar privileges. They vvere under the care of the Warden of the 
 Cinque Paris ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The 
 towns were fortified under William I. 
 
A. D. 
 
 England. 
 
 265 
 
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206 Ahducval History. 
 
 of the Scots at Dunbar. Baliol resigned the crown and wi 
 
 imprisoned. Scotcli coronation stone carried to London. Scot 
 
 land under an English regent. 
 1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William Wallace. Defes 
 
 of the regent. 
 Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (bi 
 Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under tl 
 ban. 
 
 In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to Flande 
 The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the kin, 
 in the 
 
 1297. Re-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter {Conjir- 
 matio chartarurti) with additional articles, by which the right 
 of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renounced 
 (1301). 
 
 1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At 
 the 
 
 July 22. Battle of Falkirk, 
 
 the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal 
 to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland, — • 
 a claim which was rejected by the English lords in 1301. 
 
 1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar- 
 ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed- 
 ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. luvasiou of Scotland. 
 Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 
 
 1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the English. 
 
 1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comyn, 
 coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 
 
 1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on his way to Scotland. 
 
 Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 
 
 1275. First statute of Westminster : a codification of previous stat- 
 utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- 
 teenth of movable property. Tliese forms of taxation, the in- 
 direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were 
 intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- i 
 ually surpassed in importance, 1 
 
 Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court ■ 
 of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in- 
 volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in all 
 matters concerning the sovereign, and in criminal cases espe- 
 cially reserved for his decision ("pleas of the crown "); Court 
 of Common Pleas, for eases between private individuals. 
 Development of the jurisdiction of: 1. the royal council (later the 
 " Star Chamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief 
 could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. 
 This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereign 
 was known as equity. 
 
 1279. Statute of Mortmain {de religiosis), forbidding the aliena- 
 tion of land to religious bodies (whereby it became free from 
 feudal dues) without the permission of the king. 
 
A. D. 
 
 EiKjland. 2G7 
 
 1285. Statute of Winchester, regulatin<r tho militia and the pre- 
 servation of pnblic Older. Conservators of the Peace (later 
 called Justices of the Peace) appointed in every sliii-e to execute 
 the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westmmster, 
 amending the Statute of Mortmain. 
 
 1290. Third Statute of Westminster {Quia ernptores), providing that 
 when land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of 
 the ovei'lord, and not of the tenant. 
 
 1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, 
 barons snnmioned severally by special writ ; commons sum- 
 moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two 
 knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two 
 burghers from each borough. 
 
 1297. De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of 
 taxation without the consent of Parliament. 
 
 1307-1327. Edward II„ 
 
 fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de 
 Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite. Piers Gaveston, a 
 Gascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- 
 ward II. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred 
 of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- 
 called. 
 
 1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 
 
 1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the 
 ordainers. Reform of abuses ; i)unishment of favorites ; ap- 
 pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval 
 of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration 
 of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of 
 Gaveston (1312). 
 
 The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; 
 Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a 
 temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward 
 marched to Scotland with 100,000 men, and in the 
 
 1314. Battle of Bannockburn, 
 
 June 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert 
 Bruce. 
 
 The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were 
 as displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- 
 ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward showed unexpected 
 energy ; at the battle of Boron (/h bridge, the earl of Lancaster, the 
 leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 
 1322). Repeal of the ordmances of 1311. After an unsuccessful 
 invasion of Scotland, 
 
 1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whose 
 assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. 
 
 Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- 
 ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and 
 other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of 
 Bristol J execution of the Despensers ; imprisonnicLt of the king. 
 
268 Mediceval History. A. D. 
 
 1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, 
 Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was there 
 murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 
 
 1327-1377. Edward III. 
 
 Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but 
 fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 
 
 1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. 
 Treaty of Northampton, Bruce recognized as king, and feu- 
 dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 
 
 1330. Edward took the government into liis own hands. Execution 
 of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. 
 The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in 
 Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce's 
 infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, 
 which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles; Baliol driven over the 
 border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 
 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town 
 belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. 
 Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage 
 rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic 
 party in Scotland and France. 
 1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward 
 claimed the French crown in right of his mother (see p. 257). 
 1311. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper 
 House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House 
 (Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and 
 the knights of sliires. The process of separation had begun 
 as far back as the reign of Edward I. 
 The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament 
 (revoked by the king in the same year). 
 1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. 
 
 Scotland henceforward independent. 
 1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the 
 Scots ; capture of David II., who was retained in captivity 
 until 1357. Battle of Crecy, p. 257. 
 1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popula- 
 tion perished. As the visitations of the plague were especially 
 heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of 
 wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of 
 Laborers, regulating wages. In the next year (1350) laborers 
 were forbidden to leave their own parish. 
 1356. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting suc- 
 cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 
 
 1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French 
 crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. Cession 
 in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne 
 Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Anfioumois, Perigord, Bi^ ■ 
 gorre, Rouergue), Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. 
 
 1361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching : 
 of John Ball. IVilliam Longland, author of Piers Plow- 
 man. 
 
I A. D. England. 269 
 
 13()9. Final visitation of the Black Death. 
 
 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Bhiek Prince ; massacre of the in- 
 habitants (death of the lUack Prince, June 8, 137G). 
 
 1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the 
 daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title 
 of king of Castile. 
 
 Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, 
 Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 
 137G. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham 
 and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of 
 Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary 
 royal council {Concilium Ordinarium). After the dissolution of 
 the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to 
 William of Wykeham he opposed John Wiclif (1327-1384), 
 who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal 
 of the crown. 
 1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. 
 
 During this reign the crime of treason was defined by the 
 Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- 
 hibited (1353, future Statute of PrcEmunire) ; Parliament acquired the 
 power of impeachment; trial by jury assumed a more modern form 
 (separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- 
 tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts 
 of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited 
 intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- 
 guage and customs by English. 
 
 1377-1399. Richard II., 
 
 son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in 
 the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster 
 (John of Gaunt), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- 
 gency. The war with France and Scotland requirmg money, a poll- 
 tax was assessed in 1379, and again m 1380. 
 1381. Kevolt of the peasants under John Ball and Wat Tyler; 
 
 capture of London ; burning of the duke of Lancaster's palace, 
 
 the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Walworth, mayor of London. 
 
 Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing 
 
 serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, 
 
 however, doomed. 
 Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of 
 
 Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif 's adherents nicknamed 
 
 Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif's translation of the 
 
 Bible. 
 1388. Battle of Chevy Chase {Otterhurne'), between Lord Henry Percy 
 
 and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. {Ballad of 
 
 Chevy Chase). 
 Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, (Robert de Vere, Michael 
 de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Council under 
 the duke of Gloucester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- 
 ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (1388). 
 In 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 
 
270 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 1393. Statute of Praemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal 
 
 bulls. 
 
 1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, 
 and concluded peace for 26 years. 
 
 1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- 
 peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, 
 Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; 
 Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- 
 lingbroke, son of Jolm of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 
 
 1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade 
 their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six 
 years. 
 
 Richard made an expedition to Ireland, where the isolation 
 of the English who were settled withui the conquered district, 
 the so-called English Pale {Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- 
 ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. 
 During his absence 
 
 1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of 
 Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- 
 land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the 
 castle of Pontefract (murdered?). 
 
 Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 
 
 1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house 
 
 of Plantagenet. 
 1399-1413. Henry IV., 
 
 under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, 
 the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being 
 passed over. 
 
 1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, 
 Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under Owen 
 Glendower ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 
 
 1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Homr- 
 ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. 
 
 As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he 
 being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the 
 crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy (Hot- 
 spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely 
 indebted for his throne, who induced his father, the earl of Northum- 
 berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to join with himself, Gleti- 
 dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 
 
 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, 
 
 July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and 
 Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop 
 of York ; execution of the conspirators. 
 1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish throne, while on his way 
 to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert 
 III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to 
 death by the king's brother, duke of Albany), and detained in Eng- 
 land until 1423. 
 
A. D. England. 271 
 
 1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at 
 
 Bramham Moor; death of the former. 
 1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 
 
 1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. 
 
 While prince, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and 
 brave. 
 
 Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord 
 Cohham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and 
 a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- 
 ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and l)urned, 1417). 
 1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir 
 
 Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 
 1415-1420. War with France (p. 259). 
 1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 
 1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessful Scottish 
 
 inroad ("The Foul Raid"). 
 
 1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. 
 
 Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles YII. of France, 
 and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 
 
 1421. Third invasion of France. 
 
 Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. 
 Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whiuing- 
 ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 
 
 1422-1461. Henry VI., Windsor. 
 
 Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament 
 refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of 
 Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- 
 ford, who was regent in France. 
 1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an 
 
 agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 
 1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. {Joan 
 
 of Arc.) See p. 260. 
 1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and 
 
 Robert Grahame. 
 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, 
 
 titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- 
 store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- 
 riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made 
 a duke), whose mfluence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser. 
 Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the 
 duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- 
 peaclunent of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea 
 and put to death (1450). 
 1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). 
 
 The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Saj', one 
 of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while 
 in hiding, was killed by Alexander Iden. 
 
 The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of 
 York, grandson of the Jifn son of Edward III., son of Anna Morti'- 
 
272 Mediceval History. A. D. 
 
 mer^ heiress of the claims of the tJiird line, who rettirned to England 
 from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, 
 the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he 
 was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance. 
 
 1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas ; 
 defection of the Douglases to England. 
 
 1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl of 
 Slu-ewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the English 
 possessions in France Calais alone was left in their 
 hands. 
 
 1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity of 
 Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment of 
 Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by 
 the restoration of Somerset to power. 
 
 The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, 
 now took up arms against Henry and liis advisers. 
 
 1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and 
 the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 
 
 1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- 
 May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) 
 was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle of 
 Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The 
 victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him 
 to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist 
 leaders. York and his party attamted of treason by the ParUament 
 of Coventry. 
 
 1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed- 
 ward IV.), and Warwick, in England. In the 
 1460. Battle of Northampton, 
 
 July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry * flight 
 of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York 
 entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament 
 decided that he should succeed Henry. 
 
 1460. Battle of Wakefield. 
 
 Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prince Edward. York 
 fell on the field, the earl of Salisbury and the earl of 
 Rutland, son of York, were killed. 
 
 1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the 
 Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl 
 
 of March (now duke of York). 
 Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. 
 
 Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. 
 The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants 
 of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was 
 proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 
 1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house 
 
 of Plantagenet). ^ 
 
 1461-1483. Edward IV. 
 
 The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts 
 of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. 
 
England, 
 
 273 
 
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274 MedicBval History. A. d. 
 
 1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- 
 trians. 
 March 29. Battle of To-wton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- 
 ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lauca,.itrians were totally 
 defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). 
 Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and 
 Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester) In 1402 
 Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two' attempts toi 
 retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry 
 retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the 
 Lancastrians was crushed ^t Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham (1464). 
 1464. Secret maiy^-iage of Edward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of 
 Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir Johni 
 Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred 
 on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- 
 ivick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was 
 increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the^ 
 duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, 
 giving him his daughter in marriage and promising liim the crown. 
 Revolt of William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the 
 queen's father, Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- 
 wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford ("Loose-coati 
 Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he proclaimed War-' 
 wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation 
 of Warwick and Margaret. 
 
 1470. Warwick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- 
 claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. 
 Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was: 
 well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of 
 Henry. 
 
 1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. 
 
 The Lancastrians nnder Warwick (the king-maker) totally; 
 defeated. 
 May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. 
 
 Defeat of Margaret, who was captured ; murder of her son 
 Edward. Henry VI. died in the Tower May 22, the day 
 when Edward IV. reentered London. 
 1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the dukei 
 of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- 
 posed to be voluntary (benevolences), Avithout consent of Parlia- 
 ment, now first introduced to raise money for this invasion. The war: 
 was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475).i 
 Truce for seven years ; payment of a large amiual sum to England ; 
 ransom of Margaret; betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest! 
 daughter, Elizabeth. 
 
 1478. Trial and condeTiination of Clarence for treason. He was exe- 
 cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned 
 in a bntt of malmsey.) 
 1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Pother-] 
 ingay, wherein Berwick was snrrendered to the English. 
 As Louis XI. now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin^ 
 
A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 275 
 
 with Edward's daugliter, as arranged at the treaty of Pequigiiy, 
 Edward resolved on war, but died suddenly, ^V})ril 1), 1483. 
 
 1483. April-June. Edward V. 
 
 Richard, duke of" Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old 
 king. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the 
 Tower. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings. 
 Gloucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- 
 validity of Edward II I. 's marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The 
 claim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown 
 (June 26). 
 
 1483-1485. Richard III. 
 
 The new king began his reign by a progress in the north. 
 Murder of the t-wo princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). 
 The Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed 
 the crown), headed an insurrection in favor of Henry, earl of 
 Richmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of 
 Buckingham. Return of Richmond to France without landing. 
 
 1484. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. 
 
 The following table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- 
 ward III. : — 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 I 
 
 |4 |6 
 
 John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, 
 
 by his 3d wife. j 
 
 I Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. 
 
 John, Earl of Somerset. I 
 
 I 1 
 
 Edmund, 
 Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. 
 
 I "I 
 
 I I I 
 
 John Margaret ■ Humphrey, Lord Stafford. 
 
 Margaret | 
 
 I Henry, Duke of 
 
 I Buckingham. 
 Henry VII. 
 
 In 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford HaveUf 
 and completely defeated Richard in the 
 1485. Battle of Bosworth Field, 
 Aug. 22. where Richard was slain. 
 
 In 1471 William Caxton, printer, established a press at West- 
 minster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," 
 the first book printed in England. 
 
 §5. SPANISH PENINSULA. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The INIoors in Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of 
 Granada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished. 
 
276 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance with 
 
 Morocco, 
 
 .1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with 
 Castile. 
 
 The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were in- 
 volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with 
 the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of 
 succession and civil wars. 
 
 Of tlie kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth centuryj 
 Sancho 1 V., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastardy 
 the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, byj 
 England (victory of the Black Prince at Najara, 1367), the latteri 
 by France. Mercenarj^ bands or free companies, under Bertrand dm 
 GuescUn. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. 
 
 Peter III. (1276-liJS5) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily^ 
 which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son,) 
 Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV.,. 
 curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after 
 the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fer-' 
 dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon, His grandson, Ferdinand 
 the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made b( 
 fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid 
 the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and waa 
 succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portu-; 
 gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tarn 
 giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarbe on the northerr 
 coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patron-: 
 age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery of 
 Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Az&reSf 1447^ 
 Cape Verde Islands, 1455). 
 
 § 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. 
 Denmark, Norway, Sweden. 
 
 Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christian- 
 ity about lO.JJ, these three kingdoms were united by the Union oi 
 Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Walde- 
 mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakoi 
 succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). Th(| 
 crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that king 
 dom. The miion lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir 
 the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were ii 
 theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically wer« 
 
A. D. Tlie North and East. 277 
 
 tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- 
 sia, wliich endured '1~)0 years, there grew \\\^ a new grand principal- 
 ity, that of Moscow, which after the devastation of Kiev by the 
 Mongols (1231)), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 109), 
 became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the 
 IMongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan III., 
 the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Noo- 
 gorod subjugated (1478). 
 
 Poland. 
 
 Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in 
 war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- 
 tonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was 
 Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great 
 (1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hediuig, married the grand 
 duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, Avhereby Poland and Lithu- 
 ania were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. 
 Conversion of Lithuania. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 
 218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The 
 order attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (1351- 
 1382) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the 
 Poles at Tannenberg (1410). 
 
 The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- 
 vantageous jirst peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian 
 nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led 
 to the second peace of Thorn (1460) : West Prussia and Ermelaud 
 ceded to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by 
 the Finnish i tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- 
 ing house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke 
 Geisa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 
 1000). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division 
 of the country into ten bishoprics ; political division into seventy-two 
 counties (Gespanschaften). Formation of a powerful aristocracy 
 (Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con- 
 temporary of the emperor Frederic II.), after his return from a cru- 
 sade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of tlte Hungarian 
 nobility. 
 
 After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house 
 of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the 
 Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland 
 also. 
 
 Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be- 
 
 1 Vambery, Ursprvnf] d. Maf/ym-en, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin 
 of this people ; they were, at ail events, Turanian. — Trans. 
 
278 Mediceval History. A. d. 
 
 ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438- 
 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king ; the 
 latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon 
 Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor 
 of the kmgdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). 
 After his death and that of Ladislaus, Ilunyadi's son, Matthias Cor- 
 vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary 
 was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, 
 and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. 
 Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomads, 
 founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, 
 Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during the 
 fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence 
 of the sovereigns in 1305). 
 
 The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked 
 by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly called 
 Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and cap- 
 tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed 11.^ 
 destroyed the Eastern Empire, wliicli had been under the rule of the 
 Palceologi since 1261, by the 
 
 1453. Conquest of Constantinople. 
 
 Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in 
 the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian 
 literature. 
 
 China. 
 
 In 1403 the rebellious prince, Yen, succeeded to the throne under 
 the name Yung-lo (140^1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carry- 
 ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin 
 to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. 
 Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1450, 
 and remained a prisoner until released bv a Chinese \dctory in 1457. 
 The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (1488- 
 1506) were unmarked by important events. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), 
 whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan i 
 was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the 
 northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the 
 Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars 
 between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. 
 
 It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars 
 Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged 
 with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open 
 communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limit- 
 less as his wealth. 
 
m. MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST- 
 PHALIA (1492-1648). 
 
 §1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. 
 
 Tliree inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, bnt 
 which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern 
 period, have played a very important part in the total change iu 
 society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early 
 discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the 
 east in the thirteenth century; in the west at the beginning of the 
 fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This invention materially advanced 
 the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced 
 into Europe from Asia (Cliina, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- 
 tion whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, 
 Berthold Schicarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first 
 used in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new 
 class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree 
 imperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvemeut gradually 
 brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and 
 thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the 
 place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the 
 lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more 
 widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (14G2), had scattered the 
 assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, 
 have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made 
 at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 
 
 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon). 
 
 For details and the further course of discovery see page 
 
 282, etc. 
 1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by 
 
 Vasco da G-ama. 
 After the Canary Idands, Madeira, and the Azorefi\i!X(\. been discov- 
 ered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the 
 fourteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portu- 
 guese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be- 
 
280 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to 
 find the way to India. The death of Henry (14G0) interrupted the prog- 
 ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomaeus 
 Diaz reached Caho torynentoso, called by John II., Caho da buena 
 esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Gama landed 
 on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). (Martin BeJiaim of Nu- 
 remberg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, 
 which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dis- 
 covery of America (1492), was in the service of the kiug of Portu- 
 
 The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), 
 had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly 
 across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and 
 through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially the 
 capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of prof- 
 itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great 
 importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who 
 had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant 
 republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerful. 
 The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbus 
 found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of 
 a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reck- 
 oned) shorter and simpler. 
 
 The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros- 
 perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a 
 monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, 
 after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. 
 
 The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, 
 disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop 
 new political constitutions and new social conditions. 
 
 The Portuguese power in tlie East Indies was founded by the vice- 
 roy ^I/meiV/a (1504— 1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515; 
 see p. 353). 
 
 1519-1522- First voyage around the world under Fer- 
 dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), 
 a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the 
 Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in 1521 
 on one of the Philippine Islands. 
 
 §2. AMERICA. 
 
 It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occu- 
 pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland 
 (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the conti- 
 nent of America (Vinland).^ 
 
 1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery of 
 America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief 
 list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius 
 ' Afalo) in the sixth century. 2. Sevea Spanish bishops (714 or 734) ; Isl- 
 and of Seven Cities, also called Antillin. a name afterwards transferred to the 
 Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from China (458), followed by Hod-Shin (499), 
 
A. D. America. 281 
 
 986. Bjami Herjulfson saw the coast of Vinland, ':"u , ct.d not land. 
 
 1001. Leif Erlhson discovered Helluland, Markland, Vinland^ where 
 he built some bootlis. 
 
 1002. Thorwald Erikson coasted along Kjalarnes and died at KroS' 
 sanness. 
 
 1007-1009. Thorfinn Karhefne^ under whom a colony was established 
 which remained several years in Vinland. Birth of the cliild 
 Snorri. 
 1011. Helge and Finnhorge with Freydis, wife of Thorwald. The 
 tragical ending of this settlement seems to have discouraged 
 colonization ; yet traces of intercourse are observable for a 
 long time, (1121, Bishop Erik of Greenland ; 1266, voyage of 
 clergymen of Greenland to the Arctic regions ; 1255, Adelhard 
 and Thorwald Helgason ; 1347, voyage of seventeen men from 
 Greenland). 
 The identification of the places visited and named by the Northmen 
 is attended with great, perhaps insurmountable difhculties. The 
 detailed exposition of Rafn (Helluland = Newfoundland or Labra- 
 dor ; Markland = Nova Scotia ; Vinland = Mt. Hope Bay ; Kjal- 
 arness = Cape Cod ; Krossamiess = Boston Harbor) is hardly to be 
 accepted ; some writers place the southern limit of discovery at the 
 southern point of Newfoundland.^ 
 
 Wherever they were made, the settlements of the Northmen in 
 America were not lasting, and the remembrance of them had almost 
 passed away by the fourteenth century. Although Columbus had 
 
 discovered Fou-sang. (See Leland, Fou-sang, for arguments in favor of this 
 discovery.) 4. Basques; Jucm de I'Estraide (about 1000). 5. Northmen 
 (986). 6. Ari Marson, from Limerick in Ireland (982) discovered Huitramdiin 
 land (White Man's Land) or Irland it Mikla (Great Ireland). South Carolina ? 
 Florida? He was succeeded by Bjami Asbrundson (999), and Gudkif Gud- 
 Inifison (1029). 7. Arabians; ALinaghruins (in the eleventh century). 8. 
 Madoc ap Gwynedd, a Welsh prince (1170). 9. Vadino and Guide Vi- 
 valda (1281), Theodoro Doria and Ugolino Vivalda (1292), Venetians. 10. 
 Wicoio and Antonio Zeno (1380-90). This "discovery " involves an older 
 one made bv a tishernian of " Frislanda '' about 13G0. "^11. Cortereal, 1403. 
 12. Szkolny, a Polish pilot (1476). 13. Alonzo Sanchez de Helva (1484), 
 the pilot who as some claim died in the house of Columbus, leaving his journal 
 in the latter's hands. 14. Martin Behaim (1484). 15. Cousin and Pinzon 
 from Dieppe (1487). 
 
 This discovery of America has been assigned to still other races by disputants 
 over the origin of the American Indians, among which may be mentioned: 
 Egyptians, Tyrians, Phainicians, Canaanites, Norwegians, Chinese, Iberians, 
 Scythians, Tatars, Je^os (the Lost Tribes), Rimians, Malays ; there is also the 
 theory of settlement by the inhabitants of Atlantis, and of a new creation. It 
 is pleasant, from a patriotic standpoint, to state that it has been recently asserted 
 that Europe was originally populated from America. 
 
 1 Three "relics" of the Nortlimen have been famous in their time. 1. The 
 Writing Rock on the Taunton Kivcr near Dighton. Mass. It was claimed that 
 the inscription was in runes, and it has been interpreted by northern scholars to 
 contain an account of the voyage of Thorfinn, but it seems at present that 
 Washington's opinion of the Indian origin of the picture writing is to be ac- 
 cepted as correct. 2. The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. The northern 
 origin of this structure can hardly be maintained against the more probable 
 theory of its construction by Gov. Benedict Arnold in the latter half of the sev- 
 enteenth century. 3. The " Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part 
 of the present century at Fall River, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of 
 an Indian. 
 
282 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ; 
 it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of the 
 existence of a continent southwest of Iceland. ^ 
 
 Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, 
 after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), born 
 (1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa, of plebeian origin, a sailor from his earli- 
 est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which 
 name in his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu, 
 (Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 
 1271-1295) had described in the book Mirahilia Mundi. Starting 
 from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marinus concerning 
 tlie size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas- 
 tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth too 
 short by a sixth, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the 
 Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal 
 (after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward to 
 discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the crown 
 of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of his project by the 
 Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about to 
 offer his services at the court of France or England, when the cap- 
 ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition.^ 
 Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignity 
 of admiral and viceroy, and one tenth of the income from the newly 
 discovered lands. 
 
 1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure from 
 Pcdos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the 
 Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on GuanaJiani,^ 
 one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called by 
 Columbus Juanna) and Hayti (Espanola, St. Domingo). Ship- 
 wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony {Navidad) on 
 that island. 
 
 1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- 
 
 tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by any 
 Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian 
 line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of that 
 line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise 
 between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoveries 
 of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis- 
 coveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line 
 was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 
 1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus from 
 Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. 
 Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colum- 
 
 1 See Peschel : Gesch. d. Zeitalters d. Entdeckungen, 2d ed., p. 84. 
 
 2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 2d 
 ed. p. 120). 
 
 8 The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place of 
 Columbus are Cat Island, Turk^s Island, Watlinq's Island, Samann. The latter 
 claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G. V. Fox in his 
 " Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus in the 
 New World." Wash- 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) 
 
A. D. 
 
 America. 283 
 
 bus mismidcrstood, Canihs, whence Cannihah) and the island of Jajii- 
 aica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- 
 tance of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Ilayti (Dec. 
 1493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columhus. 
 1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from 
 Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land (Prima Vista, 
 Cape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not 
 1494). They explored the coast N. to 07.V° N. and S. for an uncer- 
 tain distance, probably not so far as Florida, as has been claimed. 
 
 1497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery 
 of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, 
 though many give it credence. 
 
 1498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot; doubtful re- 
 
 suits (68° N. to 35° N. ?). 
 
 1498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- 
 
 covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America 
 (Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the 
 (pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Colvimbus to His- 
 paniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was 
 obliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- 
 tlers on account of !ns foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from 
 which he cannot be absolved,^ — was accused at court. Bohadilla, sent 
 out as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in 
 chains to Spain (1500). Cohnnbus was at once released upon his arri- 
 val and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, 
 but as viceroy was superseded by Ovando. 
 
 1499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- 
 
 rigo Vespucci. 
 
 Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South 
 America from 3° N. (Brazil?) to Cape Vela. This is often 
 called the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, 
 which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the 
 continent of South America, is doubtful. 
 Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated 
 in two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of 
 Castile in 1505, and filled the position of Royal Pilot from 1508 until 
 his death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, 
 particularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called 
 after him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was 
 Martin Waltzemiiller (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, 
 professor at St. Die in Lorraine(1507). The name of America spread 
 at first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- 
 eral use until the close of the sixteenth century.^ 
 
 1 Peschel, 2d ed., p. 272. 
 
 2 Humboldt, ICxitmen critique de Phistoire et de la geogrnphie dii nouveau 
 conlintid; Peschel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Entdecknnfjen, cap. XIII., Aldiand- 
 luiKjen zur Enl-und Viilkerkunde, 1877. Two attem))ts have been ncently 
 made to derive America from a native word : Jules Marccu. in the Atl'intic 
 Jf untidy (1875, March), and T. H. J-.ambert. in the Bulletin of tlie American 
 Geographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. Accor(lini>- to the former, America is a cor- 
 ruption of the Indian name of a range of mountains in Nicarai^ua; the hitter 
 derives it from a native name of the empire of th- Incas in Peru. The first 
 dated map to bear the name "America" was that in the edition of Sulinus of 
 "'^^ '-' Ai-ums- 
 
284 Modem History. A. d. 
 
 1499, Dec.-1500, Sept. Voyage of Vincent Yanez Pinzon from 
 
 Palos. 
 
 Discovery of CapeS. Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- 
 sage of the equator. This voyage traced the South American 
 coast to 8° 20' S. 
 
 1500, April. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was 
 
 accidentally(?) carried westward until he reached the coast of 
 Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sanctoe 
 Crucis, and took possession of it for Portugal. 
 
 1500. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland 
 
 (Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the 
 coast of Labrador. 
 
 1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to 
 the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of 
 nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 
 
 1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 
 
 1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- 
 
 lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras , Veragua, Porto 
 Bello. Shipwreck at Jamaica. 
 Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had 
 discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveries 
 were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbus, viceroy and admi- j 
 ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the 
 hereditary title of admiral. 
 
 De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. \ 
 Manzanilla. Hojeda (1502), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la 
 Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- 
 covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and 
 conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- ■ 
 ans of the AVest Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- 
 ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- 
 icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and 
 Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The 
 exact historical value of the D^Este map, just made public by M. Har- 
 risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established 
 the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape 
 Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. ^ 
 
 1504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 
 1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and 
 
 sketched) the Gulf of St. Laivrence. 
 1506. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yanez Pinzon discovered Yuca- 
 tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 
 1508. Circumnavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- 
 rence. 
 
 Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions 
 in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 
 
 1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 
 
 1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Ponce de Leon, governor 
 (since 1510) of Porto Rico. 
 
 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- 
 boa, who crossed the isthmus from Antigua on the Gulf of Ura-i 
 
A. D. America. 285 
 
 ba (Keats' sonnet). Ralboa was put to death in 1514 ])y 
 
 Jkn-ila, governor of Darien, Cartlui^ena, and Uraba (Castila 
 
 del On.). 
 1515, Voyage of Juan Diaz de Solis in search of a passage to 
 
 -the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the 
 
 banks of which river Solis was killed by the natives. 
 1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. 
 
 It is very doubtful if this voyage was made, or if made, 
 
 what part of America was reached. 
 Bartholome de Las Casas (1474-15G6) went to the Indies in 1502 
 with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- 
 tector of the Indians. 
 
 1517. Francis Hernandez Corc?oya rediscovered Yucatan (Cape Ca- 
 toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants {Mayas), 
 who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in 
 Mexico. 
 
 1518. Juan de Grij'alva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought 
 
 back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. 
 Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- 
 plored. 
 
 1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, 
 
 coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 
 
 1519-1521- Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez 
 
 (1485-1547), 
 
 whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the 
 command of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen 
 cross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez 
 sailed against the will of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). 
 Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations Avith Monte- 
 zuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, 
 elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report 
 to king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- 
 dation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alliance with the Tlascalans. 
 Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Montecuh- 
 cuma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the 
 king in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez 
 whom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and 
 strengthening his army with the soldiers of liis opponent, returned 
 to Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the 
 temple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who 
 were indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, 
 leaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the 
 causeways through the lake and suffered terrible loss (Noche triste). 
 Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near 
 Otompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest 
 of Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels 
 which were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, 
 Cortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- 
 panied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city 
 was taken. Capture of the king Guatefinozin, who was tortured and 
 
286 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 liiially executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov- i 
 eriior of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted 
 to the chief command of the military forces. Prosecuting the search 
 for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- 
 turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 
 1520. Nov. 7-Nov. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by 
 
 Magalhaes, see p. 280. 
 1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of Lucas 
 Vasquez d'Ayllon, exploration of the east coast of North 
 America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena^ "Chicora." 
 1622. Discovery of the Bermudas. 
 
 1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service 
 of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which gives 
 the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer 
 the discovery of the east coast of North America from 34° 
 (39°) N. to 50° N. It has been thought that many places 
 mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has 
 been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its 
 acceptance (?). 
 
 1524. Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- 
 
 tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, wliich 
 should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; 
 after a stormy session the council separated without reaching 
 an agreement. 
 1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro 
 (1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- 
 dom, of wliich he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284), 
 in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego de 
 Almagro, and Hernando de Luque. Repulse of Pizarro and 
 Almagro. 
 
 1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of 
 
 North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 
 
 1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- 
 
 ploration of the Rio de la Plata, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay. 
 The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since 
 the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- 
 main to show that the New World was not entirely neglected. 
 
 1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned 
 
 by way of Neiofoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine 
 (Norumbega). 
 
 1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Florida, 
 
 under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and 
 the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- 
 vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the 
 survivors, four, one of whom was Cabeca de Vaca, made their 
 way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). 
 1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and 
 Maracapana ; presented to the family of Welser by Charles V. 
 
 1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 
 
 The undertaking was favored by a civil war wliich was raging 
 
A. D. America. 287 
 
 at the time in the empire of the lueas. Foundation of St. Michael 
 
 on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before his 
 army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was 
 put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito. 
 Occupation of Lima, the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between 
 the Si)anish leaders. Almagro defeated (1538) and executed by 
 Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The 
 Spanish crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 
 
 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French sailor, from St. 
 Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland ( May 
 10), Prince Edward's Island, Miramichi Bay, Anticosti, coast 
 to 50° N. 
 
 1535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of 
 
 the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), 
 as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about 
 the great lakes. 
 
 Foundation of the modern city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion 
 of Chili by Almagro. 
 
 1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. 
 
 1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S. by 
 
 Valdivia. 
 
 1539. May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinando de Soto, gover- 
 
 nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and 
 over 900 men. After toilsome marches m Florida, with no result but 
 disappointment, De Soto led liis men westward to the Mississippi, 
 where he died (at the juncture of this stream and the Guacoya) and 
 was buried in the stream. The remains of the expedition (311 men) 
 reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto 
 reached 30° 40' N. in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the 
 Ohio (38° N.) 
 1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan 
 
 to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South 
 
 America. 
 
 1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies 
 (Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 
 36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California, pre- 
 viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. 
 Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it 
 was an island spread anew and late into the next century the 
 best maps of America contained this error. 
 
 1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by 
 the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of 
 Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived 
 extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado 
 reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui cano?i of the 
 Colorado. Reports of a city, Quivira. Coronado wintered at 
 Zuiii among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- 
 east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). 
 
 1540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, \vith five ships. 
 Roherval {Jean Fran<,:ois de la Roche, lord of Roherval), ap- 
 pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countries 
 
 
288 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take part in this voyage. 
 Cartier founded the fortress of Charleshurg and explored the 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- 
 plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- 
 cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and 
 down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 
 1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the 
 Napo. 
 
 1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, 
 
 against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- 
 val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- 
 terprise was soon abandoned. 
 Rodriguez de Cahrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- 
 dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of 
 North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 
 
 1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 
 
 1547. Pedro de Gasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacifica- 
 tion of the country. 
 
 1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 
 
 1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 
 
 Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). 
 
 1555-1560. First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a 
 Protestant settlement m America. The chevalier Nicolaus 
 Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a 
 colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen 
 missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- 
 olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- 
 tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur- 
 dered by the Portuguese (1558), and in 1560 the colony was 
 entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Aiidre 
 Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France 
 coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos 
 (Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a 
 gossipy, untrustworthy book. 
 
 1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana ; no settlement made. 
 
 1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of 
 the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search 
 of El Dorado in South America. 
 
 1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a 
 Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Rihault. 
 Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. 
 The settlement was soon abandoned. 
 
 1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John 
 
 Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West 
 Indies. 
 
 1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony 
 
 in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's 
 colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. 
 John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1565, Aug. 
 28). 
 
A. D. America. 289 
 
 15G5, Sept. 20. Storm of Fort Carolina by the Spaniards under 
 Menendez de Aviles ; massaero of the garrison ("I do this 
 not as to Freuehiuen, but as to Lutherans "). Ribault, having 
 put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with many of his 
 company. Construction of tiiree Spanish forts (Castle of St. 
 Augustine). 
 1568. Expedition of Dominique de Gourges to avenge the mas- 
 April, sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- 
 tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison (" I do this 
 not as to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, rob- 
 bers and murderers"). 
 1572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack 
 upon Nombre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 
 
 1576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest 
 June- Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher^ s Strait and Meta In- 
 cognita on the north coast of North America (60°). Supposed 
 discovery of gold. 
 
 1577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 
 
 1578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 
 
 1577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the 
 
 world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- 
 covered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 
 42° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 
 
 1578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- 
 der a patent from queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at Neio- 
 foundland he took formal possession of the island for England 
 in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 
 
 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the 
 
 patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- 
 patched Amidas and Barlow to explore the coast of North 
 America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on 
 July 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country 
 for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the 
 explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received 
 the name of Virginia. 
 
 1585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville 
 sent to Roanoke Island ; suffering from destitution they were re- 
 moved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies inmiedi- 
 ately after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they 
 had, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new 
 colonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governor, John White. 
 Virginia Dare, first English child born in America. This colony 
 met an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could 
 not find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 
 
 1585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of 
 Davis Straits to 66° 40^ Discovery of Gilbert Sound and 
 Cumberland Straits. 
 19 
 
290 Modern History. A, d. 
 
 1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West 
 
 Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena. Rescue of the 
 colony of Virginia. 
 
 1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 
 
 1586). He reached 72° 12^ N. and discovered the Cumber- 
 land Islands, London Coast, Lumley^s Inlet (Frobisher's Strait ^ ) . 
 
 1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west 
 coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianae, a 
 Greek, who had been in the service of Spain under the nam > 
 of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel {Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) 
 regards the story as apocryphal. 
 
 1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of 
 the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up 
 the Orinoco for 400 miles. 
 
 1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death 
 of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 
 
 1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France 
 a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on 
 tlie Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- 
 turned to France. After his death his patent was granted to 
 Chauvin, who made two successful voyages to Tadoussac, and 
 left some people there (1600). 
 
 1602. Voyage of Bartholemew Gosnold from Falmouth. Taking due 
 
 westerly course he first saw land in 42° N. Discovery of a 
 cape which Gosnold named Cape Cod (May 15). Discovery 
 of Buzzard's Bay (called Gosnold^ s Hope). Erection of a fort 
 and storehouse on Cuttyhunk (called by Gosnold Elizabeth 
 Island, a name now applied to the whole chain of islands of 
 which this is the most westerly). Return of the whole party 
 to England. 
 
 1603. Voyage of Martin Pring from Bristol along the coast of Maine 
 
 from the Penobscot River to the Bay of Massachusetts. 
 
 1603. Voyage of Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, from Brouage, up 
 
 the St. Lawrence. 
 
 1604. Foundation of Port Royal (the present Annapolis) 
 in Nova Scotia by the French. 
 
 In 1603 Pierre du Gast, Sieur de Monts, obtained from Henry 
 IV. of France a grant of all lands in North America from 40° N. to 
 46° N. (from Pennsylvania to New Brunswick), under the name of 
 Acadia. (This name was afterwards restricted to the present New 
 Brunswick, and the French possessions in N. America were designated 
 generally as New France.) In 1604 De Monts associated himself 
 with M. Poutrincourt and sailed for America with two vessels. 
 Foundation of Port Royal by Poutrincourt. Discovery of the 
 St. John River by Champlain, De Monts' pilot. De Monts built a fort 
 at St. Croix, but in the following year joined Poutrincourt at Port 
 Royal. 
 
 1 See Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 299, for a discussion of the errors oi 
 the early Arctic navigators. 
 
A. T). Am-rica. 291 
 
 1605. Voya<je of Georfjp. Weymouth (who had mado a trip to Lahrarlnr in 
 
 1G0_J) to tlie coast of Maine. Santa ¥6 in New Mexico founded. 
 Over a hundi-ed years had ehipsed since the discovery of America, 
 and thus far South America and Central America had alone been the 
 scene of active and successful colonization. In North America, a 
 few scattered Spanish settlements in the south and one French 
 colony in the north were the only representatives of European civiliza- 
 tion. The next few years witnessed a mighty change. England, 
 which for all her voyages had not a foot of land in America, entered on 
 a course of settlement and conquest w^hich ultimately gave her the 
 fairest portion of the New World. 
 
 English, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies in North 
 America (1606-1638). 
 
 A. English Colonies. 
 
 1606. April 10. Tlie patent of Sir Walter Raleigh becoming void by 
 his attainder for treason, James I. issued a patent dividing 
 
 Virginia into two parts : 1. The First Colony, embracing the 
 country from 34° N. to 38° N. with the right to settle as far as 41° N. 
 if they were the first to found their colony : this southern colony was 
 granted to a number of gentlemen, residing principally in London 
 (Richard Haklwjt), and known as the London Company. 2. The 
 Second Colony, embracing the country between 41° N. and 45° N. 
 with the right of settling as far as 38° N. if they were the first to 
 establish their colony ; this northern colony was granted to gentle- 
 men residing chiefly in Bristol, Plymouth, etc., and hence known as the 
 Plymouth Company. Each company was to become owner of the 
 land for fifty miles on each side of the first settlement, and one hun- 
 dred miles inland. The nearest settlements of the two colonies 
 should be one hundred miles apart. The government of each colony- 
 was vested in a council resident in England and nominated by the 
 king ; the local government was intrusted to a council resident 
 in America also nominated by the king, and to conform to his 
 regulations. Imports from England free of duty for seven years ; 
 freedom of trade with other nations, the duties for twenty-seven 
 years to go to the colonies. Right of coinage and of self-defense. 
 Establishment of a Council of Virginia in England for the superin- 
 tendence of both colonies. 
 
 Colony of South Virginia. 
 
 1607. May 13. Foundation of Jamestown in the southern 
 colony by a band of one hundred colonists sent out under 
 Christopher Newport. It included Bartholomew Gosnold and 
 John Smith. Dissension in the council. Explorations by John 
 Smith who was captured by the Indians, and presented to the 
 cliief, Powhatan, but in the end released (story of the rescue 
 of Smith by Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan^). In 1607 
 
 1 This story has been relegated to the realm of fable, on the insnfRcient 
 ground tha( no mention of it appears in Sniitirs tirst account of his captivity. 
 
292 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Smith explored the Chesapeake. During the first years the 
 colony suifered severely from extremes of heat and cold, as 
 well as from dissensions and bad provision by the company. 
 Laborers were scarce, the colonists being either gentlemen or 
 criminals. 
 
 1609. Second charter of the company of South Virginia, increase of 
 privileges and of members. Lord Delaware (^Thomas West) 
 appointed governor for life. Smith returned to England. 
 
 1610. The distress in the colony was so great {The Starving Time) 
 that it was on the point of abandonment when Lord Dela- 
 ware arrived with supplies. 
 
 1611. Delaware returning to England, Sir Thomas Gates was sent out 
 as deputy governor. 
 
 1612. Third charter of the company of South Virginia. Inclusion 
 
 of the Bermudas within their possessions. 
 
 1613. The French having established the colony of St. Saviour at 
 
 Mount Desert on the coast of Maine, the governor of South 
 Virginia sent Samuel Argal to dispossess them. Argal de- 
 stroyed St. Saviour and razed Port Royal. On his return he 
 received the submission of the Dutch settlement at Hudson's 
 River (?). 
 
 1614. Sir Thomas Dale deputy governor of South Virginia. 
 
 1615. Land, which had hitherto been held of the company by farmers 
 as tenants-at-will, was now made private property ; fifty acres 
 being now granted to every colonist and his heirs. 
 
 1617. Samuel Argal succeeded Sir George Yeardley as deputy gover- 
 
 nor of South Virginia ; reduced state of the colony. In the 
 
 1618. following year Lord Delaware sailed with supplies and colonists 
 for Virginia, but died on the voyage. Rigorous government 
 of Argal. At this time there were 600 persons and 300 
 cattle in the colony ; the only exports were tobacco and sassa- 
 fras, and the London company was indebted £5,000. 
 
 1619. First General Assembly in South Virginia convoked 
 (June 19) by Sir George Yeardley, governor general, con- 
 sisting of the burgesses of the colony, representing eleven " bo- 
 roughs " or plantations. The burgesses sat with the council 
 and governor. 
 
 Introduction of negro slaves (20) into Virginia by a Dutch 
 vessel. 
 
 1620. The colony, numbering 1000 persons, received an accession 
 of 1200 new settlers. Introduction of women who were sold 
 as wives to the colonists for from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. 
 Free trade with the colony established. 
 
 1621. Sir Francis Wyatt, governor, brought over a new constitution for 
 the colony, whereby its government was vested in a governor, 
 a council of state, and a general assembly, to which two bur- 
 gesses were to be chosen by every town, hundred, and planta- 
 tion. The governor had the veto power, and every enact- 
 ment of the colonial legislature required the ratification of 
 the company in England to become binding. All ordinances 
 of the company were without effect unless accepted by the 
 assembly. 
 
A. D. America. 293 
 
 1022. March 22. Massacre of .'347 colonists by the Indians. 
 
 1024. Commission of inquiry into the affairs of Virginia appointed 
 by the crown. In spite of the answer of the general assembly 
 wherein the rights of the people were defined, the court of 
 king's bench in England, before which the cause was tried, de- 
 cided against the company. The charter was annulled. The 
 company had sent out more than 9000 persons to the colony, 
 of whom not more than 2000 now remained. Sir Francis 
 Wyatt was appointed governor, mth a council of eleven mem- 
 bers appointed by the king. This plan of government was 
 continued by Charles /., who announced that the colony should 
 immediately depend upon the crown, which should appoint the 
 governor and council and issue patents and legal processes. 
 Commercial restrictions. 
 
 1330. Grant of Carolana (the region south of the Virginia colony be- 
 tween 31^ N. and 3o^ N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first 
 instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement 
 seems to have been made, on which account the grant w^as 
 subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted 
 out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted 
 in much ill-feeling. 
 
 1632. Grant of Maryland (the region between the Potomac 
 and 41° N.) to Cecil Calvert, tiie second lord Baltimore, son 
 of Sir George Calvert, to whom tlie grant was originally 
 made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was 
 met by a protest from Virginia which was of no avail. In 
 
 1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred 
 persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- 
 vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- 
 tion of religious establishment appeared in the charter beyond 
 the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- 
 mon law. 
 The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the cro^vn, 
 was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- 
 uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- 
 tion, and received the taxes. The general assembly of the 
 colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- 
 ing non-approval. 
 
 1636. Grant of New Albion (including Neio Jersey) from the vice- 
 roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden. This New Albion, 
 I which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract 
 
 of like name discovered by Di-ake on the western coast of 
 America (p. 289). 
 
 The Plymouth Company. 
 
 Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- 
 patched two explorers to the region of their grant (Challons, Hanam\ 
 and in 
 
 IG07, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the 
 
 
294 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 northern colony. They built Fort Si. George on Parker^s " Isl- 
 a7id'' (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 
 Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sir 
 John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists 
 that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- 
 ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a 
 claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within 
 the territory of the Plymouth Company. 
 1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith 
 from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- 
 count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, 
 to which the name of New England was given. Tronble 
 with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, 
 who carried off twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for 
 slaves, discouraged settlement. 
 After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 
 1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself made no more 
 attempts at settlements, ard the colonies that grew up in its territories 
 were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- 
 dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- 
 deed, was made without any authority from the company. In 1620 
 the company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New 
 England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. to 
 48° N. across tue continent). 
 
 1620. Settlement of Plymouth In New England by 
 English separatists from Holland. 
 This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of 
 Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance 
 with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland 
 (1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- 
 inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London 
 company (South Virginia), and a piomise of toleration from the 
 king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the 
 latter. Procuring two ships (SpeedioeH, Mayfioiver), a part of the con- 
 gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- 
 ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson^s River. Twice 
 driven back by stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much 
 earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the 
 Mayjioiuer, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead 
 of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the 
 late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor 
 at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- 
 ment (they being beyond the limits of the London Company), and 
 elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the 
 coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first 
 European child born in New England). Toward the close of De- 
 cember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the 
 erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- 
 teen families, 102 individuals).^ 
 
 I Tiie (late is disputed ; that of the laiidiiis of the whole body can hardly ba 
 
A. D. A mcrica. 295 
 
 1G21. Interconrso of tlio colonists (Capt. Miles Sfanrlish) with the Ii^ 
 dians (Samoset, Massasoit, chief of th" Indians in that vicin- 
 ity). Upon the death of Carver, William Bradford was 
 elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymonth 
 Company, also made ont in the name of the London merchants, 
 with whom the Pilgrims had formed a pni'tuership h^fore sail- 
 ing. Over fifty of the original settlers died this year. 
 Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. 
 Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- 
 celed out among various adventurers by often conflicting grants. In 
 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained a patent for the wliole of Aca- 
 dia, under the name of Nova Scotia, from the crown of Scotland 
 (confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was 
 granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando 
 Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the 
 Merrimac and the Kennebec, which region was called at first Laamia, 
 afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of 
 the present Dover (Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puri- 
 tans from England settled at Cape Ann ; the colony afterwards re- 
 moved to Naumkeag {Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- 
 ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 
 
 1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Francis West as " Admiral of 
 New England," Robert Gorges as " Governor-General," and 
 William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing 
 came of this assertion of authority. 
 
 1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London 
 
 merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. 
 Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 
 
 1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between 
 three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north 
 of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to 
 a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists 
 wdio joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the 
 colony was changed to Salem. 
 
 The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. 
 
 Suppression of the settlement at Wollaston (" Merry Mount ") 
 by Endicott. Morton, who after WoUaston's departure had 
 ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was 
 seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 
 
 1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- 
 setts Bay (" The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bag 
 
 in Neiu England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the 
 company, enlarged by new associates, which had settled Salem. The 
 company was permitted to elect a governor, depiity governor, and 
 eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of 
 England. The first governor of the company was Matthew Cradock. 
 
 asrevtained ; the landinf:^ of the fir^t exploriiic^ partv seems to have taken place 
 t);i Deo. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (coiifusinii here also) See Gay, " When 
 i'd the Pilirrim Fathers land at Plymouth?" — Atluntic Monthly, November, 
 1881, p. 012. 
 
29 G Modern History. A. d. 
 
 A number of influential men soon becoming interested in the enter- 
 prise, the governing council or court of the company in England 
 (that is to say, " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay 
 in New England") consented that the charter and government 
 should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under wliich agree- 
 ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed 
 for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at 
 Charlestown, where an offshoot from the Salem colony was already 
 established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants 
 held. 
 
 1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was 
 made to each. Mason receiving the territory between the 
 Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called New 
 Hampshire. 1 Gorges received the region between the Pis- 
 cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of JVew Somerset- 
 shire. 
 
 1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was 
 assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- 
 raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or 
 Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- 
 dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and 
 governing their persons, and distributing the lauds within the 
 limits of the patent." 
 
 1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shaivmut by 
 the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- 
 ited by an episcopal minister, William Blackstone. On Sept, 
 7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain 
 to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at 
 Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should 
 elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- 
 ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, 
 deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by 
 the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the 
 freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a 
 fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtown 
 (afterwards Cambridge). 
 
 Colony of Connecticut. 
 
 The Dutch {Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the 
 coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a 
 fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the 
 earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset River, 
 and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick 
 transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and 
 others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on 
 the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- 
 setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from, 
 
 1 The " Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 
 1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is 
 now generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annals, I. 199, note 2. Wiii- 
 throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. Fogg, Gazeteer of N. H. 
 
A. D. America. 207 
 
 Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up 
 a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and 
 English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 
 1634:. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing 
 the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- 
 acted that whereas four courts should be held ui a year, the 
 whole body of freemen should be present at that court only in 
 which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen 
 in the towns should send deputies. 
 1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of Plymouth 
 to the crown in consequence of the hostility of the govern- 
 ment and church. 
 
 1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- 
 
 sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by Johi 
 WintJu'op, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who 
 built a fort at Saybrook, under conmiission from the proprie- 
 tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Ne\vtown 
 (Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- 
 ford. 
 
 1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals) established at 
 
 Plymouth. 
 
 1636. Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams, who had 
 been expelled from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- 
 trines subversive of church and state. 
 
 1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas- 
 
 sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequots in Connecticut. 
 Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 
 
 1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark 
 and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious 
 differences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards 
 Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. 
 
 Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under 
 Davenport and Eaton. 
 
 In this year another attempt was made by quo icarranto pro- 
 cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of 
 success. 
 
 In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- 
 vard, of Oharlestown, the public school which the colony had 
 enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown 
 received the name of Harvard College, while the name of 
 tlie town was changed to Cambridge. 
 
 1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to 
 form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) 
 placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the 
 general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in 
 the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All 
 could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- 
 stitution. 
 
 The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by 
 the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. 
 
 A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Ply- 
 mouth colony met for the first time (June 4). 
 
298 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1G41. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by 
 the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 
 
 1643. Creation of the United Colonies of New England by the 
 alliance of Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Mas- 
 sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. 
 
 B. Dutch Settlements. 
 
 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted 
 from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake, and entered Hudson^s 
 River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 
 
 1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- 
 
 hattan at the mouth of tno Hudson, or North River (so called 
 to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware^. Alleged 
 submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 
 
 1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company 
 
 in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° N. 
 to 45° N. Fort built at Manhattan, another. Fort Orange, near 
 the present Albany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through 
 Long Island sound {Block Island). 
 1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place 
 of the New Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 
 
 1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for 
 twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- 
 necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New 
 York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- 
 pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bri?ig 
 over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title 
 represented a certain relation of suzerainty between the founder and 
 the colonists. 
 
 The council for New England had o'>posed what it regarded as the 
 Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and th'> remonstrances of the English 
 grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627,1632). 
 The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was 
 opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested 
 from them. (Protest of Kieft, governor of New Netherlands against 
 the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a flourishing trade 
 with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they 
 supplied with firearms. 
 
 C. Swedish Settlements. 
 
 1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of 
 Swedes and Finns. The colony was called New Sv^reden, 
 and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered 
 this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed 
 led to no result until 1655, when New Sweden was annexed to 
 New Netherlands. 
 
A. D. America. 299 
 
 D. New Prance and the Arctic Region. 
 
 It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- 
 coveries of Verrazaiio, the whole of North America north of Spanish 
 Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in 
 Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the 
 projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. 
 It w^as with the French in the north that the English settlers had to 
 deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as 
 that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north 
 the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which 
 gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 
 1606. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 
 
 1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out 
 by De 3£onts, under Champlain. 
 
 1609. Champlain, joining a war party of the Algonquins against the 
 Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 
 
 1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry Hudson, who was 
 
 searchmg for the northwest passage, in the service of an 
 English company. On the return the crew mutinied and 
 Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of 
 again. 
 1610. English colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- 
 ception Bay). 
 
 1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Passage. 
 
 Discovery of New South Wales and New North Wales, Button's 
 Bay. 
 
 1613. Madame de Guercheville, having secured the surrender of De 
 
 Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown 
 for all New France between Florida and the St. Lawrence 
 (except Port Royal), sent Saussage with two Jesuits, who took 
 possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (St. Saviour) 
 on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by ArgaVs 
 expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements hi 
 Acadia were also destroyed. 
 
 1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Huron. 
 
 1616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- 
 
 sage. Discovery of Wolstenholme's Sound, Lancaster Sound, 
 Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 
 
 1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir 
 William Alexander hy t\\Q crown of Scotland. An attempt at 
 settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- 
 session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Cal- 
 vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 
 
 1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- 
 dred associates under Cardinal Uichelieu. 
 
 1629. Conquest of Quebec by Lonis and Thomas Kerik, mider a 
 commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. 
 An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by 
 Champlain. 
 
300 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William I 
 Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the ;| 
 colony should remain subject to Scotland. 
 
 1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. 
 
 Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30' to 
 65° 10' in vain, but discovered Fox's Channel and reached Cape 
 Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a 
 terrible winter. 
 
 1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- 
 sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 
 
 1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the 
 Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel 
 against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death 
 of Champlain. 
 
 1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he 
 brought over several families and took possession of the 
 island. 
 
 § 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE KEFORMA- 
 
 TION. 
 
 1493-1519. Maximilian I., 
 
 who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect." 
 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- 
 ber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, 
 after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment 
 of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- 
 friedenskreise): Circle of : 1. Austria ; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Sivabia; 4. Fran- 
 conia ; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower 
 Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy 
 (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. 
 Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- 
 lenburg, etc.) ; 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- 
 ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive 
 of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, 
 Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already 
 completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. 
 
 Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control 
 of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part 
 of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. 
 
 Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milan. 
 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XIL, Pope 
 Julius IL, and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi- 
 milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but 
 besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from the 
 league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League 
 (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by 
 Maximilian (p. 319). 
 
 The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house of 
 Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a, Spanish and German line. 
 
 \ 
 
A.. t>. 
 
 Germany. — Reformation. 
 
 301 
 
 Maxitnilian /., 
 
 emperor, f 1519. 
 
 Mary, 
 
 of Buri^iindv, 
 
 t 1482. ' 
 d. of Charles 
 the Bold, 
 duke of Burgundy. 
 Philip the Fair, 
 
 Ferdinand, ~ 
 king of Araguii, 
 t 151G. 
 
 Isabella, 
 
 archduke of Austria, 
 t 150G. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 Charles I. (V.), t 1558. 
 m. Isabella of Portugal. 
 
 queen of Castile, 
 + 1504. 
 
 Joanna the Insane, 
 
 queen of Aragon and Castile, 
 t 1555. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Ferdinand I., f 1564. 
 m. Anna of Hungary 
 
 Philip II., king of Spain, 
 t 1598. 
 
 Maximilian II., 
 emperor, f 1576. 
 
 Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand 
 (king of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence 
 heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- 
 self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- 
 gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the 
 Hapsburgs (Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, 
 Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest 
 son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of 
 the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of 
 the 3'ounger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, 
 sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose Avife 
 was Mary, Ferdinand's sister). ^ 
 
 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. 
 
 Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, 
 became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine 
 monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 
 sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of 
 theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court 
 church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of 
 absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 
 
 1518. Beginning of tlie reformation in Switzerland by Z-wingli at 
 Ziirich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. 
 
 Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaeta (Cajetanus), 
 Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the 
 Pope. 2 
 
 Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion 
 at Leipzig 1519 (Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter 
 secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 
 
 1 ITiese fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the 
 following couplet : 
 
 Bella f/ernnt alii, tufelix Austria, nube ! 
 Quce dat Mars aliis, dat tibi rerpia Venus. 
 2 De Papa male informato ad Pajmm melius in/ormandum. 
 
302 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon 
 he was excommunicated. In tlie mean time the German electors, in 
 spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson 
 of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles L, as emperor. 
 
 1519-1556. Charles V. 
 
 He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- 
 pose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther 
 defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The 
 ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to 
 the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. 
 The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- 
 tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to 
 Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- 
 man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse 
 (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by 
 the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany 
 and was occupied with the war with Francis I. 
 
 Franz von Slck'mgen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- 
 tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed 
 against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in 
 vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the 
 country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 
 
 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- 
 companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The 
 peasants defeated at Konigshof en on the Tauber and cruelly punished. 
 Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas Miinzer captured at Franken- 
 hausen and executed. 
 
 Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg 
 duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship. 
 
 Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- 
 chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- 
 cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- 
 ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 
 1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two 
 dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to 
 oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of 
 Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, 
 Philip of Hesse, Liineburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- 
 cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine 
 (1526). 
 1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. 
 
 Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. 
 Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under 
 Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza 
 (1522). The French Connetahle, Charles of Bourhon, transferred his 
 allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 
 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans 
 reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern 
 France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. 
 
A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 303 
 
 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 
 
 1520. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, 
 
 Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders 
 and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and 
 gave his sons as hostages 
 1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., wlio 
 
 had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were 
 extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Frmi- 
 cis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The 
 imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under tho 
 constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- 
 veniito Cellini?); the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). 
 The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa 
 (Doi'ia), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and 
 the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to 
 raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 
 1529. Peace of Canibray (Paix des Dames). So called from the 
 
 fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's 
 aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis. 
 Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, 
 Flanders and Artois ; Charles promised not to press his claims upon 
 Burgundy /or the present, and released the French princes. 
 
 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious 
 position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took 
 
 a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms 
 (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against 
 this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 
 1526-1532. War -with the Turks. Louis TL, king of Hungary, 
 having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose 
 Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other .John Zapolya. The latter 
 was assisted by the Sultan Soliman (Suleiman), who besieged Vienna 
 in vain (1529). 
 
 1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was 
 the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 
 
 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- 
 son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- 
 
 sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schwarzerd, 1497-1560), 
 the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet connnanded 
 the abolition of all innovations. 
 
 1531. Schnalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- 
 Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. 
 
 Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, 
 and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against 
 this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of 
 the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 
 
 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was 
 revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the 
 
 Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a 
 year. 
 
304 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. 
 A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman 
 retired. 
 
 1534-1535. A^iabaptists in Miinster (Johann Bockelsohn, from Ley- 
 den). 
 
 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, 
 Ulricli of Wiirtemherg, who had been driven out (1519) by 
 the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- 
 dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to 
 a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wiirtemherg, but 
 should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical 
 party. 
 
 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (CJiaireddin Barharossa, the 
 pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 
 
 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about 
 Milan • Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy 
 after the death of Francesco Sforza XL, without issue. Charles in- 
 vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into 
 Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who 
 pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. 
 The war was ended by the 
 
 1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- 
 June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. 
 
 July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 
 
 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- 
 ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with 
 special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- 
 
 1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Jgnatius Loyola (1534), 
 approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread 
 of the Reformation. 
 
 1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- 
 vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his 
 
 eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and 
 Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- 
 tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from 
 France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christiance relig- 
 ionis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- 
 wards head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the 
 Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 
 
 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 
 
 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenblittel, driven from the 
 country by the Schmalkaldic League. 
 
 1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa- 
 sioned by the investiture of Ciiarles's son, Philip, with Milan. 
 The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, 
 were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served 
 as a pretext. 
 
 i 
 
A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 305 
 
 Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Cleve. The allied 
 Turkish and French fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, 
 in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of 
 Cleve, and advanced as far as Soissons. Soliman invaded Hungary 
 and Austria. 
 
 1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, 
 Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive 
 Milan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the 
 possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, 
 as a tief. Francis gave up his claims to Naples, and the overlordship 
 of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 
 1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. 
 Reforms in the church. Establishment of a number of dog- 
 mas of the Catholic church. 
 
 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. 
 
 Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unliindered 
 by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of 
 the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the 
 church, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- 
 ance with him, and promised money and troops. 
 
 1546-1547. Schmalkaldic War. 
 
 The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic^ 
 elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the 
 ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the 
 emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- 
 many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- 
 eral Schartlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and filially re- 
 tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered 
 his electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced 
 the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- 
 berg, Ulm, duke of Wiirtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to 
 Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 
 
 1547. Battle of Mtihlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Torgau the 
 24 April, elector of Saxony, captured him, and besieged his capital, 
 
 Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- 
 burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine 
 line (duke Maurice^. The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, 
 Eisenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of 
 Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although ]\Iaurice 
 and Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his 
 liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by 
 the Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, 
 placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- 
 cution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and 
 1552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of 
 Friedevmlde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced him 
 to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude 
 tlie 
 1552. Convention of Passau. Free exercise of religion for the 
 20 
 
306 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Aug. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet. 
 Maurice defeated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach 
 at Sievershausen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 
 
 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. 
 Sept. 25. 
 
 The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, 
 acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- 
 ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories 
 {jus reformandi), and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No 
 agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation {Reser- 
 vatum ecclesiasticum) that the spiritual estates (bishops and abbots) 
 who became Protestant should lose their offices and incomes. This 
 peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 
 1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry II., who, as the 
 ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles 
 besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of 
 Guise. 
 
 The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession of 
 the cities which had been occupied. 
 
 1556- Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25, 
 
 1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). 
 
 The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche- 
 Comte, and the Netherlands, went to his son Philip; the imperial office 
 and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand I. (p. 302, 303). 
 Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, 
 but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 
 
 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., 
 
 husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia and 
 Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries 
 by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he 
 was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His sou, 
 
 1564-1576. Maximilian II., 
 
 was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to the Protes- 
 tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. 
 War with Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan 
 Soliman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the 
 heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained 
 its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumbach, who had broken the 
 public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wiirzburg, had plundered 
 the city of Wiirzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- 
 eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- 
 ture of Gotha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict 
 confinement in Austria until his death. 
 
 Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 
 
 1576-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II., 
 a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer {Kepler, f 1630, 
 
A. D. 
 
 Germany. 
 
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308 Modern History, a. d. 
 
 was appointed imperLal mathematician by hini),bnt incapable of gov- 
 erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306). The 
 imperial city of Donauworth, placed under the ban by the emperor, 
 because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite of 
 the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria, 
 who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- 
 tion of a 
 
 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV,, elector Palatine), 
 
 which was opposed by the 
 
 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria). 
 Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. 
 
 Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cession 
 of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- j 
 mians gave them the | 
 
 1609. Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), which permitted a free exer- 
 
 cise of religion to the three estates of lords, knights, and 
 
 royal cities. 
 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Jiilich-Cleve 
 
 on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector 
 
 of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the principal 
 
 claimants. 
 Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- 
 dicate the government of Bohemia. 
 
 1612-1619. Matthias, 
 
 being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his 
 brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- 
 thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by tlie Jesuits in strict 
 Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the 
 objections of the Protestant estates. 
 
 § 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 1618-1648. 
 
 The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods, 
 which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- 
 hemian and the Danish, had a predomina,nt religious character ; they 
 developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic 
 Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Swedish and 
 Swedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the 
 house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and 
 France upon Germaii soil. 
 
 1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. 
 (1618-1623.) 
 
 Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist ^ church in the territory of the 
 abbot of Braunati, and destruction of another in a city of the archj 
 bishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, whicl 
 
 1 Utraquist, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. 
 
A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 309 
 
 according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as 
 ronal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution.^ The irri- 
 tation of the Bohemian Protestants ( Utraquists) was increased by the 
 transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, 
 seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt 
 in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thurn. The governors, Mar- 
 tinitz and Slaioata, and the secretary, Fahricius, thrcjwn from a win- 
 dow in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the dit.'h, but escajjcd 
 with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the 
 rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of 
 the Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- 
 grave John George of Jagerndorf. The imperial forces were defeated 
 by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. 
 
 Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the 
 most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made 
 rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival 
 of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, 
 who arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to 
 retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia.'^ Ferdinand 
 went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six 
 electors. 
 
 1619-1637. Ferdinand II. 
 
 Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of 
 Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head 
 of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., 
 king of England. ("The Winter King"). 
 
 Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- 
 len Gahor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an 
 inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. 
 
 Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head 
 of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- 
 due the Austrian estates, with Spain (Spinola invaded the county 
 palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- 
 cured), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated 
 Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the 
 League commanded by l^ilh/, marched to Bohemia and joined the 
 imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 
 
 1620, Nov. 8. Battle on the W^hite Hill 
 
 over the troops of Frederic V., under tlie command of Chris- 
 tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- 
 cated ; he himself lied to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John 
 George of Brandenburg-Jagerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- 
 jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- 
 ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. 
 Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- 
 lence, in Silesia. 
 
 Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 
 
 1 Cf. Gindely, Gesch. d. dveissifjjahr. Kriegs, ','oI. i. (1869), chap. 2. 
 
 2 Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 
 
310 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by 
 Maximilian's general, Tilly (,/an TzerJdas, baron of Tilly, born 1559, 
 in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under 
 Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mans/eld (April, 1622), de- 
 feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and 
 Christian of Brunswick^ brother of the reigning duke and administra- 
 tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June, 1622), and agaui 
 at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). 
 
 1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic 
 V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia, for the 
 present in pledge. 
 
 2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony. 
 1625-1629. 
 
 Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head 
 of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. 
 
 Albert of "Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an 
 utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 
 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial 
 commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- 
 sioned by a system of robbery. 
 
 Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), 
 pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined 
 Bethlen Gahor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian 
 of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. 
 
 Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Bruns- 
 wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). 
 Wallenstein alone conquered Schlesioig and Jutland, drove the dukes 
 of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to 
 submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- 
 fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 
 
 1629. Peace of Ltibeck 
 
 May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- 
 ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German 
 afPairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- 
 der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 
 
 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution : 1. Agreeably to the ecdesias- 
 tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had 
 been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. 
 This affected two archbishoprics : Magdeburg and Bremen • twelve bis- 
 hoprics: Mlnden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen, 
 Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- 
 session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and 
 Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 
 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free 
 exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be* 
 ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops 
 and those of the League. 
 
A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 311 
 
 1630. Electoral Assembly at Regeiisburg (Ratisbon). 
 
 Tlie party of Bavaria and tlie League was hostile to Wallen- 
 stein and took up a position ot" deteiinined opi)osition to the too pow- 
 erful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded 
 complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over 
 the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by ^Vallenstein's army. 
 The emperor ct)nsented to decree the dismissal of the general and a 
 large part of tlie army. 
 1627-1C31. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers 
 
 and GuastaUa. The former, supported by France (^Richelieu 
 himself took the tield) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco 
 (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- 
 tured Mantua. 
 
 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 
 
 1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on 
 July, the coast of Pomerania. 
 
 Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed 
 Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; 
 the rejection of his mediation at the peace of Liibeck ; anxiety in 
 regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. 
 
 Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, 
 Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under 
 Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of 
 the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost 
 made the Baltic a Swedish sea. 
 
 Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu). 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania 
 and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The 
 king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege 
 to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. 
 Negotiations with his brother-in-law, George WiUiarn, elector of Bran- 
 denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. 
 Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to 
 the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- 
 tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empii'e, a sort of 
 armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with 
 difKc ulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. 
 Meai.while 
 
 1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted 
 May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by 
 
 the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check 
 the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed 
 from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- 
 dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's comniand).^ 
 
 Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 
 
 1 Probably the fire was set by previous a,<rreenient of the more determined 
 portion of the defenders (Falkenbcry). Cf. Wittich, Maydeburg, Gustav Adolf 
 u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874. 
 
312 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alli- 
 ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at AVittenberg. 
 Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the 
 Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 
 
 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. 
 
 Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a 
 bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. 
 
 The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and 
 Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wiirzhurg, Hanau, Frank- 
 fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. 
 Winter quarters. 
 
 Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boyt- 
 zenhurg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held 
 fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. 
 
 At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, 
 over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, 
 and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war 
 and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 
 
 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to 
 meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz 
 
 and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He 
 was seventy-three years old. 
 
 Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- 
 stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to 
 the assistance of Maximilian. 
 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. 
 
 July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for 
 eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by 
 Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- 
 trenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced 
 to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, 
 Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon 
 anil Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands 
 of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus 
 hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- 
 hard of Saxe-Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and 
 hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenlieim from Leipzig 
 to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 
 Swedes). 
 
 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus/ 
 Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle 
 with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. 
 The victory of the Swedes was completed by Beridiard of Saxe- 
 Weimar. 
 
 Bernhardt Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish 
 forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 
 
 1 The suspicion that the ]i\y\^ was nuirdered by Francis Alljert, duke of Lau- 
 ehburg, is totally unfounded. 
 
A. D. Germany. — TInrtij Years' War. 313 
 
 chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, coiu.cillor since 1G09). 
 League of Heilbronn between the circles of Swabiu, Franconia, Upper 
 and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 
 
 1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He 
 took Bamberg and Hochstiidt, drove back the Bavarians under 
 
 Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from 
 the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wurzburg and 
 Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied 
 the upper Palatinate. 
 Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many 
 
 of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places vntli new 
 recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, 
 and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- 
 tiations with Oxenstierna. 
 Oct, Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein 
 
 invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and 
 
 then plnndered Lusatia. 
 Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the 
 
 elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into mnter 
 
 quarters in Bohemia. 
 Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. 
 The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- 
 mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, 
 the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the 
 army (declaration of the generals Piccolominl, Gallant, and Aldringer , 
 at Pilsen), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with 
 the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from 
 the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to 
 make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the 
 basis of a religious peace? ). He had resolved upon open revolt if the 
 hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for 
 the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to 
 decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal 
 generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradaa, Colloredo) from 
 his cause. How, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 
 
 1634. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- 
 Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief 
 
 officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. 
 
 Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On 
 the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by 
 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the 
 
 Feb. 25. Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at 
 the mstigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate 
 friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had 
 not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; 
 but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to 
 bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was 
 done, he rev/arded the murderers v^ntli honor and riches. 
 
 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, 
 and Gallas and the Bavarians {John of Werth), over the Swedes 
 at Ndrdlingsn- 
 
314 Moderji History, A. D. 
 
 1685. Peace of Prague, 
 
 May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The 
 elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of 
 Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical 
 estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- 
 cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the 
 possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 
 1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the 
 expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were 
 on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- 
 turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made 
 against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- 
 ship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates 
 accepted the peace. 
 
 4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). 
 
 The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstierna, that of 
 France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France 
 fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with 
 whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to 
 conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of 
 Franconia, wliich he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture 
 of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his 
 army. 
 
 1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at Wittstock over the 
 imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His 
 
 son, 
 
 1637-1657. Ferdinand III,, was desirous of peace. 
 The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). 
 After the death of Baner (1641) Torstenson became commander- 
 in-chief of the Swedes. 
 
 1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of 
 Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 
 
 1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- 
 gress agreed upon. 
 
 1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenf eld). Torstemori defeated 
 the imperialists under Piccolomini. 
 
 Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These 
 Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmarko 
 Hence 
 
 1643-1645. War betw^een Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 16 i3. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- 
 Sept, ony, Brimswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Sehles- 
 wig, and invaded Jutland. 
 Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall Gu€brianL 
 had penetrated to Rottweil (Wiirtemberg). Guebriant fell in battle. 
 Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at 
 Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werthy and 
 totally defeated. 
 
 I 
 
A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' Wdr. 315 
 
 1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabrilck with the 
 Swedes ; 1044 in MUnster with the French. 
 Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, 
 
 duke of Enghlen, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed couiinanders- 
 
 in-cliief of the French troops. They forced the 
 
 1G44. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Conde captured Mann- 
 heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- 
 heim, Mainz, and Landau. 
 
 Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to 
 the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and 
 by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 
 
 1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstensoji and Konigsmark, pur- 
 Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. 
 March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- 
 
 kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union 
 with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the 
 whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna, 
 
 Ma3^ Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran- 
 conia. 
 
 Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the 
 Bavarians at Allersheim. 
 Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). 
 After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his 
 
 army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command 
 
 on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 
 
 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish 
 troops under Konigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at 
 Giessen. Swedes and FrenA invaded Bavaria and forced the 
 elector Maximilian to conclude the 
 
 1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, 
 after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish 
 
 successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the 
 truce and joined the imperialists again. 
 
 1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible 
 
 ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance 
 of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish 
 general Konigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right 
 bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite) . 
 
 Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and 
 wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- 
 tion in all ranks. 
 
 1648. Peace of Westphalia. 
 Oct. 24. 
 
 Negotiations from 1643-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count 
 Trautmannsdorf and Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count 
 Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and 
 baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, 
 secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia- 
 tions. 
 
316 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Conditions of the Peace.^ 
 A. Indemnifications. 
 
 1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither 
 Pomerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, 
 Garz, Damm, Golhiow, WoUin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, 
 formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not 
 the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. 
 Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 
 
 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship 
 of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics 
 and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been in French 
 hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgravate of 
 upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian 
 house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (prsefec- 
 tura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- 
 edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in 
 Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to 
 the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- 
 risoning Philippshurg. 
 
 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of 
 the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 
 
 4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- 
 longed to Brandenburg by the law of inlieritance, but of which it re- 
 ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of 
 Halherstadt, Minden, and Comings secular principalities, the arch- 
 bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should 
 remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, durmg 
 his life (t 1680). 
 
 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schiverin and Ratzehurg as 
 principalities. 
 
 6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- 
 briick, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. 
 
 B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 
 
 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 
 
 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in 
 the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- 
 bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Rur- 
 doljian line (Palatinate). 
 
 3. The territorial superiority (^Landeshoheii) of the whole body of 
 estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, 
 which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another 
 and \At\\ foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or 
 emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg 
 developed the German constitution more in detail.) 
 
 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland 
 were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 
 
 1 K. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staals- u. Rechtsgeschichte, iv. § 522 foil. 
 
A. D. France. 317 
 
 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs (Gravamina ecclesiastical. 
 
 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) 
 were approved and extended so as to inchide the Calvinists. 
 
 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality 
 in all affairs of the empire. 
 
 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by 
 which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of 
 religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they 
 were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) 
 was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- 
 testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but 
 those evangelical states wliich had been gained by the anti-reformation 
 during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wiirtemberg, Baden, etc.) were 
 allowed to resume the exercise of that religion wliich had been theirs 
 in 1618. The Jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- 
 ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- 
 ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. 
 The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such 
 cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and 
 its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and 
 Catholics. 
 
 France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. 
 
 \ 
 
318 
 
 Modern History, 
 
 ▲. D. 
 
 § 5. FRANCE. 
 
 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angouleme. 
 
 Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose 
 relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : 
 
 Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. 
 
 1 
 Charles VL 
 
 1380-1422. 
 
 I 
 Louis, duke of Orleans, f 1407. 
 m. Valentine Visconti. 
 
 Charles VII. 
 1422-1461. 
 
 I ouis XI. 
 1461-1483. 
 
 Charles VIII. 
 m. Anna of Brit- 
 tany. 1483-1498. 
 died without 
 male issue. 
 
 Charles, duke of Orleans, 
 t 1467. 
 
 Louis XII. 
 
 1498-1515. 
 m. (2) Anna 
 of Brittany, 
 died without 
 
 male issue. 
 
 Claudia 
 
 I 
 Francis II. 
 1559-1560 m. 
 Mary Stuart. 
 
 John, count of 
 Angouleme. 
 t 1467. 
 
 Charles, count 
 
 of Angouleme. 
 
 t 1496. 
 
 m. Louise 
 
 of Savoy- 
 
 (2) Francis L 
 1515-1547. 
 
 Henry II. 
 
 1547-1559. 
 m. Catharine of Medici. 
 I 
 
 I 
 Elizabeth 
 
 m. 
 
 Philip II, 
 
 king of 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Charles IX. 
 
 1560-1574. 
 
 I 
 Henry III, 
 
 1574-1589. 
 duke of 
 Anjou; 
 king of 
 Poland. 
 
 Francis, 
 duke of 
 Alen^on 
 and 
 Anjou, 
 t 1584. 
 
 Margaret 
 m. 
 Henry IV. 
 
 see p. 323. 
 
 1498-1515. Louis XII. 
 
 obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI,, and 
 married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep 
 this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid 
 claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when 
 he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 
 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- 
 
 agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and 
 French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general 
 Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up 
 his claims to Naples. 
 1508. Louis a party in the League of Camhray, p. 300. In 1511 the 
 
 Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy 
 League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- 
 
A. D. 
 
 France. 319 
 
 ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nepliew of 
 Louis XI r., were at first successful in tlie war, takino- hrescia (1512) 
 by stoini (Bayard, "without reproach or fear"), and defeating 
 the united S})anish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 
 5000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, 
 compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French 
 formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss 
 at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who 
 had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian 
 who had joined m 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 
 1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty 
 Aug. 17. flight of the French. 
 
 France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), 
 with the emperor, and mth Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany 
 having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry 
 VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was 
 succeeded by his cousm, the Count of Angouleme, who had married 
 Claudia, daughter of Lonis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, 
 which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. 
 As king the count of Angouleme is known as 
 
 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- 
 solute. 
 
 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano 
 Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and 
 
 alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva 
 (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- 
 ter Qa paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 
 
 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope 
 which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the 
 
 choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on 
 the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of 
 every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was 
 exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of 
 Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an oecumenical council. 
 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- 
 borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars 
 of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' 
 reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. 
 Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- 
 cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was 
 succeeded by his son 
 
 1547-1559. Henry II. 
 
 Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis^ duke of Guise, 
 and Charles f " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 
 
820 
 
 Modern History, 
 HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Eend le Bon, d. of Anjou 
 and titular king of Naples 
 and Sicily, m. Isabella, d. 
 of Lorraine. 
 I 
 
 Margaret, m. 
 
 Henry VI., k. 
 
 of England. 
 
 John II., 
 d. of Lor- 
 raine and 
 Bar. 
 
 I 
 Nicolas, 
 d. of Lorraine and Bar 
 t 1473. 
 no male issue. 
 
 Yolande, 
 d. of Lorraine, 
 m. Ferri II., c. of 
 Vaudemont, Guise, etc. 
 
 Rend II., 
 d. of Lorraine and Bar, 
 c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. 
 t 1508. 
 
 I 
 
 Antoine, d. of 
 Lorraine and 
 Bar. t 1544. 
 
 Claude I., c. of 
 Aumale, d. of 
 Guise (1527). 
 
 Francis I., 
 
 d. of Loi'raine 
 
 and Bar. 
 
 I 
 
 Francis, d. of 
 Guise, mur- 
 dered 1563. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles, 
 
 Card, of 
 
 Lorraine. 
 
 Claude, d. 
 of Aumale. 
 
 Louis, Mary, m. 
 Card, of James V. 
 Guise, of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Mary, queen 
 of Scots. 
 
 Charles II., d. of 
 Lorraine and Bar. 
 t 1608. 
 
 Henry, d. 
 
 of Guise. 
 
 t 1588. 
 
 Charles, d. of 
 Mayenne. 
 
 Louis, Cardinal 
 
 of Guise. 
 
 t 1588. 
 
 Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled 
 him ahiiost absohitely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the 
 Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 
 1547. Fmal union of Brittany with the French crown. 
 
 DESCENT OF BRITTANY. 
 
 Francis II., d. of Brittany, 
 t 1488. 
 
 Charles VIII. = (i) Anne (2) = Louis XII., k. of France. 
 k. of France. I 
 
 Claude = Francis I. 
 I 
 
 Francis the 
 
 dauphin. 
 
 t 1536, 
 
 without male 
 
 issue. 
 
 Henry II., 
 
 k. of France. 
 
A. D. France. 321 
 
 1552. War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop- 
 ries, Toul, Metz, Verdun. 
 
 1556-1559. War ^vith Philip 11. of Spain. The French defeated by 
 the Spaniards with the aid of the English at 
 
 1557. St. Quentin (on the Somme), and by count Egmont at Grave- 
 lines (1558). 
 
 1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, 
 Jan. captured by Francis, duke of Guise. 
 
 1559. Peace of Cateau-Camhresis : the French restored all their con- 
 April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz, Tout 
 
 and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound received in a 
 tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 
 
 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), 
 
 the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the 
 Guises. Persecution of the Protestants {cliamhres ardentes). Cruel 
 executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for 
 power and inlluence against the Bourbon princes, Anton (king of Na- 
 varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, 
 at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all 
 affairs of state and surpassed m influence their opponents, the Catholic 
 constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chatillon : 
 Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- 
 nal Chatillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De VHopital, 
 chancellor. Conspiracy of Amhoise {La Renaudie) against the Guises 
 defeated (15G0). Death of Francis II. 
 
 1560-1574. Charles IX., 
 
 ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha- 
 rine de' Medici. 
 
 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.^ 
 
 Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. 
 At the same time they became ii political party opposed to the Catho- 
 lic party. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply 
 religious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of 
 both parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the 
 king and get control of the government. Tlie first three wars form 
 properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces {Amboise, 1563, 
 Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. 
 The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- 
 nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of 
 the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauhan, La Charite. 
 1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 A ug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- 
 guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, 
 on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, kuig of 
 
 1 Huffuenots is said to be a nickname derived from King Hugo, a spectre 
 ■\\iiicli, in the belief of tlic people, nightly hauntetl the streets of Paris; whence 
 the Protestants, from their nocturnal sjatherinijjs, were called Huguenots. Others 
 derive the name from a corruption of Eidaenossen, confederates. 
 21 
 
322 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Navarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles 
 IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- 
 tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain 
 in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. Tliis bloody deed' 
 led to the 
 
 1572-1573. Fourth Civil "War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henrys 
 duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense.j 
 The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Polanclj 
 brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8. 
 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. 
 Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- 
 land, became king. 
 
 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. 
 
 The fifth civil -war, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- 
 sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more 
 favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace 
 of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alen^on) May 6, 
 157G. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the 
 Holy League' (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain 
 purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of 
 the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- 
 claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant 
 religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho-i 
 lies had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- 
 litique-Huguenot) . 
 
 Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob-> 
 tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers,] 
 Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become! 
 too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not onej 
 of its articles was executed. This caused the 
 Seventh Civil War (La guerre des amoureux) (1580), which was 
 ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), 
 Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former 
 treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of AlenQon 
 (smce the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou'), the younger 
 brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of 
 Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude 
 from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed 
 religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of 
 Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the 
 concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 
 1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three 
 Henrys {Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of 
 Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of 
 Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation 
 of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition 
 of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- 
 clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was 
 broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, 
 
A. D. 
 
 France, 
 
 323 
 
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324 Modern History. A. d 
 
 1588). Henry III. fled to Blois, where he summoned the estatesjl 
 of the kingdom (^tats-Generaux, States General). Finding no sup- 'I 
 port among them against the League, he caused Henry, duke of Guise, 
 and his brother, Louis the Cardinal, to be murdered (Dec. 23, 1588). 
 At this news, a revolt of the Catholic party broke out, headed by I 
 the brother of the murdered men, the duke of Mayenne. Henry lit. I 
 fled to Henry of Navarre in the Huguenot camp, where he was mur- 
 dered before Paris, at St. Cloud, by the monk Jacques Clement 
 (July 31, t Aug. 2). Death of Catharine de' Medici (Jan. 5, 1589). j 
 Michael Montaigne, 1533-1592. 
 
 1589-1792. (1830.) House of Bourbon 
 
 descended from St. Louis IX.'s younger son Robert, count of 
 Clermont, husband of Beatrice of Bourbon. 
 
 1589-1610. Henry IV. 
 
 The Catholic party refused to recognize Henry and made the 
 old cardinal of Bourbon king under the name of Charles X. (f 1590). 
 Some wished the duke of Mayenne to be his successor, while others 
 joined themselves to Philip II. of Spain, who laid claim to the throne 
 of France on behalf of his daughter by his third marriage with Eliz- 
 abeth of Valois, sister of Henry III. Victory of Henry IV. over the 
 duke of Mayenne at Arques (1589) and at the 
 
 1590. Battle of Ivry. 
 March 14. 
 
 Henry besieged Paris, which was relieved by M-ayenne and 
 the duke of Parma. Henry abjured the reformed religion at St. 
 Denis (1593) and was crowned at Chartres (1594). Bi'issac having 
 thereupon surrendered Paris to him, the power of the League was 
 broken. Not, however, until Henry, after public penance, by his 
 ambassadors at Rome, had been freed from the papal ban, was he 
 generally recognized (by Mayenne too). The civil wars of religion 
 were ended by the 
 
 1598. Edict of Nantes, 
 April 15. 
 
 which gave the Huguenots equal political rights with the 
 Catholics, but by no means secured them entire freedom of religious 
 worship. The edict granted the exercise of the reformed religion to 
 nobles having the right of criminal jurisdiction {seigneurs hauts Jus- 
 ticiers), and to the citizens of a certain number of cities and towns, 
 but prohibited it in all episcopal and archiepiscopal cities, at the 
 court of the king, and in Paris, as well as within a circle of twenty 
 miles around the capital. Public offices were opened to the Huguenots 
 and mixed chambers were established in four Parliaments (Paris, 
 Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux). The Huguenots obtained some forti- 
 fied towns, and were recognized, to a certain extent, as an armed po- 
 litical party. The Edict of Nantes was registered by the Parliament 
 only after a long delay. Treaty of Vervins (May 2, 1598) with 
 Spain ; restoration of all conquests to France. 
 
 Adoption of measures looking to the improvement of the finances 
 
A. D. France. 325 
 
 and the general prosperity, which had gone to decay, especially by 
 Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully (1500-1041). Fantastic j)lan of 
 the king's (?) to establish a universal Christian republic in Europe, 
 comprising six hereditary monarchies (France, England, Spain, Den- 
 mark, Sweden, Lombardy), five elective monarchies (the Empire, 
 Papacy, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia), and four republics (Switzer- 
 land, Italy, Venice, Belgium), which probably would have turned 
 out to be a league against the too great power of the house of Haps- 
 burg. Question of Cleves-Julich succession. Ileiu-y IV. supported 
 the claims of Brandenburg. In the midst of great preparations for 
 war, Henry was assassinated at Paris, 1010 (May 14), by the fanatic 
 (Francois) Ravaillac. He was succeeded by his minor son, 
 
 1610-1643. Louis XIIL, 
 
 nine years old. Regency of liis mother, Mary de* Medici 
 (1610-1017). Sully removed from office ; the Italian Concini 
 {Marechal d'Ancre) was placed in control of affairs. Louis XIIL, 
 declared of age in 1614, was in fact all his life under the guidance 
 of others. Summons of the States-General, 1014, being the last 
 before the Revolution of 1789. Arrest and murder of Concini ; 
 the queen mother banished to Blois (1017). The king under the in- 
 fluence of liis favorite, the duke of Luynes. By the mediation of 
 Armand-Jean du Plessis (born 1585, in Poitou, 1607 bishop of Lucon, 
 1622 cardinal), duke of Richelieu, a treaty was concluded between 
 Luynes and the queen mother (1619). New civil war. Contest of 
 the crown with the nobility and the Huguenots. After the death of 
 Luynes (1621) Mary de' Medici and her favorite, Richelieu, obtained 
 control of affairs. The influence of the latter soon became supreme, 
 and the queen-dowager quarreled with him. 
 
 1624-1642. Administration of Richelieu, whose influence 
 over the king was henceforward unbroken. Numerous con- 
 spiracies against Richelieu instigated by Gaston of Orleans, the king's 
 brother. 
 1625. Revolt of the Huguenots under the dukes of Rohan and Sou- 
 
 bise. 
 1627-1628. Siege of La Rochelle, under the personal supervision 
 of Richelieu. In spite of the dispatch of tlu-ee fleets from 
 jSngland to tlie aid of the Huguenots, the city surrendered Oct. 28, 
 1628, after a heroic resistance of fourteen months. Defeat of the 
 duke of Rohan, and complete subjugation of the Huguenots, who 
 hereafter were no longer an armed political party, but only a toler- 
 ated sect. War in Italy with Spain ; subjugation of Savoy, Riche- 
 lieu at the head of the army. Treaty of Cherasco (April 6, 1631). 
 France renoimced all conquests in Italy, but by a secret treaty with 
 Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, Pignerol was surrendered to France 
 (negotiators of these treaties, Richelieu's confidant. Father Joseph 
 and the Pope's agent, Mazarin). 
 
 A final attempt of Mary Medici to overthrow the cardinal igno- 
 miniously failed (Nov. 11, 1630, the "Day of Dupes "). Mary died 
 at Cologne, 1642. 
 
326 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Conspiracy of Gaston and the duke of Montmorency. 
 1632, Oct. 30. Defeat of the allies and execution of Montmorency. 
 
 Foundation of the French Academy (1635). 
 1631-48. Participation of France in the Thirty Years' War. See 
 
 p. 314. 
 
 1641. Conspiracy of Henri d^Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars (" Mon- 
 
 sieur le Grand "). Secret treaty with Spain. The plot was 
 exposed by Richelieu. 
 
 1642. Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu. 
 
 The effect of Richelieu's administration had been to break the 
 power of the nobles and make the crown independent of the parlia- 
 ments. He restored French influence in Italy, in the Netherlands, in 
 Germany (311), and established it in Sweden. Richelieu laid the 
 foundation of the power of Louis XIV. 
 Louis XIII. died May 14, 1643. 
 
 § 6. ITALY. 
 
 The duchy of Milan, since 1556 (p. 306) an appanage of the 
 Spanish crown, was held, nominally , as a fief of the empire. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 The discovery of the new route to the Indies struck at the root of 
 the commercial prosperity of Venice, and her power was steadily de- 
 clining during this period. The danger which threatened the repub- 
 lic from the League of Cambray (1508), between the Pope, the 
 emperor Maximilian, Louis XII., and Ferdinand the Catholic, passed 
 away as the Pope, Julius II. withdrew from the League in 1510, made 
 his peace with the Venetians and induced Ferdinand the Catholic ta 
 join the Holy League, which had for its object the expulsion of the 
 French from Italy. On the other hand the Turkish power confined 
 Venice to the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1570 the Turks at- 
 tacked Cyprus, of which Venice had acquired possession in 1489 
 (p. 262). The victory of Lepanto, gained by Don John of Austria 
 (p. 330), retarded the progress of the Turks but little. In 1573 
 Venice was forced to deliver Cyprus to them, and at the close of 
 this period retained of all her possessions in Grecian waters, Candia^ 
 Paros, and the Ionian Islands only. 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 Genoa freed herself in 1529 from French supremacy, under the 
 doge, Andrea Doria, who gave the republic a new constitution. 
 Unsuccessful conspiracy of Fiesco (Jan. 2, 1547). Gianettino Doria, 
 the nephew of the doge, was murdered, and Andrea Doria was com- 
 pelled to fly. The conspirators had got possession of nearly the whole 
 city, when Fiesco was accidentally drowned. Return of the doge, 
 restoration of the constitution. 
 
A. B. Italy, 327 
 
 Savoy. 
 
 The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont, were the most 
 powerful of the uative dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, 
 during- this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they 
 got into straits during the war between France and the empire. 
 After the peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), Emmanuel Philibert was 
 reinstated in his duchy. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), 
 Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the 
 king, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola 
 (born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic 
 party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- 
 ence. Savonarola excommunicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). 
 In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the 
 Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second 
 time expelled, and the republic for a wliile restored. In 1530, how- 
 e\er, Cliarles V. appointed Alexander r/e' Medici hereditary ruler ni 
 Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by 
 his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo {Cosimm)de^ Medidhec^rae (\\\\ie (1537). 
 He incorporated the republic of Siena with his territory, and in 1509 
 was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- 
 mo IL, Galileo Galilei (15G4-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 
 1633, was forced to abjm'e the Copernican System by the Incpusition 
 at Rome (" It does move though " i). 
 
 The Papacy. 
 
 The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched 
 and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. 
 His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia ; his second son Ccesar Borgia, 
 ruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius II. (1503-1513); the schol- 
 arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici, a patron of art ; 
 the fanatical Paul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice 
 Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIII. 
 (1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at 
 the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise 
 and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the 
 Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion 
 of the dome of St. Peter's 2). 
 
 Naples. 
 
 Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 
 1504, see p 318). Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso Anielloy 
 called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). 
 
 Most flourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da 
 Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483- 
 
 1 Tliis saying, if i<! now claimed, is unauthpnticated. — [Trans.] 
 '■^ Hanke, die rdmischen Pdpste, 6th ed., 1878. 
 
328 Modern Histortj. A. D. 
 
 1^0); Antonio Allegri, called Corregglo (1494—1534); Michael Angela ^ 
 Buonarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; J\tian (1477- 
 1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588). Poets: Ariosto (1474- 
 1533); 7V^aa^o 7 asso (1544-1595). Politician: Macchiavellill^Q9~ 
 1527). 
 
 § 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 By the marriage of 
 
 1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 
 1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the 
 
 accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the 
 
 future union of the two kingdoms. ^ 
 1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom 
 Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America 
 
 (p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of the 
 ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see 
 p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the graudinaster- 
 ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara 
 (1494), and San Jago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the 
 league of the cities (Herma7idad) against the robber-nobles ; (Spanish) 
 Inquisition. 
 
 Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joanna, wife of Philip^ 
 archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her 
 father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned the 
 union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain, obtained from 
 the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent 
 daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- 
 dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- 
 Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the 
 treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the 
 regency (f 1516). Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- 
 linement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her 
 son Charles.^ Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first as 
 co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians 
 and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the 
 Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to 
 Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The 
 decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties 
 and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders, Guelders, Holland, Zealand, 
 Hainault, and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384, and during the 
 fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the 
 dukes of Burgundy, 
 
 1 The view advanced by Eergenroth {Karl V. und Johanna, in V. Sybel's 
 Hist. Zeits., 1868), that Joanna was onlv declared insane from political reasons, 
 has been clearly shown by other scholars (Gachard, Hoesler, Maurenbrecherj 
 to rest on misunderstandings. 
 
A.. D. Sj)n/iish Pciiinsxht and tlic Xclherlunds. 329 
 
 Philip II. the Bold, 
 
 fourth sou of Johu II., k, of Fiauce. lu 13G3 made duke 
 of Burgundy (the dmhy reverted to the crown, 1301, by the 
 extinction of the first ducal line in the person of Philip I.). 
 In 1369 m. Margaret, dau. and heiress of Louis III., c. of 
 Flanders and Artois, f 1404. 
 
 John the Fearless, 
 duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. 
 
 Philip the Good, 
 duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. 
 Acqmred Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant 
 and Limburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. 
 of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, 
 brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault 
 (Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hol- 
 land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- 
 sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; he 
 also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. 
 
 Charles the Bold, 
 
 duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. 
 Acquired Gelderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest 
 from duke Arnold. I 
 
 Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- 
 I duke of Austria. 
 
 Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- 
 nand of Arragon, and 
 Isabella of Castile. 
 
 Philip the Handsome, 
 archduke of Austria, 
 duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Charles I. (V.) 
 
 k. of Spain ; archduke of Austria, d, of Burgundy, 
 k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, 
 emperor. 
 
 They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united 
 and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the 
 
 seventeen provinces (Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- 
 ders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur , Zutphen, East and 
 West Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen) to the Bur- 
 gundian circle of the empire. 
 
 1516-1556. Charles I. (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). 
 
330 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 After suppressing' a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mon- 
 archy, the Cort*s henceforth having- no importance. In America con- 
 quest of Mexico, Peru, Chill, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his 
 abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, 
 Franche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 
 
 1556-1598. Philip 11., who married four times : 1. Mary of 
 Portugal, ii'other of Don Carlos j 2. Alary the Catholic, of Eng- 
 land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. A7i7ie, daughter of 
 Maximilian II. 
 
 War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and 
 the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da fe {%. e. acts of the 
 faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- 
 ter was arrested and died in prison (1568). Don John of Austria, a 
 natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 
 
 1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 
 
 1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. 
 
 Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after 
 the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and 
 important privileges. The estates (Staaten, etats) granted taxes and 
 troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the 
 dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the 
 rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister 
 of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of 
 the nobles (the Compromis de Breda), headed by Philip Marnix of St. 
 Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles {Gueux, Beggars, 
 a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the 
 count of Barlaimont : Ce rCest qu^un tas de gueux). Insurrection of 
 the lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. 
 These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 
 1522, fought under Charles V. in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the 
 cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of 
 Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and 
 William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- 
 ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- 
 ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although 
 quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 
 
 1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, 
 and Franche Comte to the Netherlands. William of Orange 
 and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret 
 resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council 
 of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others 
 were executed (1568). The estates of those who did not appear be- 
 fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of 
 Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis of Orange, invaded the 
 Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. 
 
 The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the 
 price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), 
 produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse 
 by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, 
 particularly in the northern provinces. 
 
A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 
 
 1573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re- 
 quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 
 
 1574. At Mookerlieide, wliere two brothers of the prince of Orange 
 fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (157G). The 
 
 sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal 
 troops brought about the 
 
 157G. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, 
 whereby they united, without regard to national or religious 
 differences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. 
 
 The new governor, J)o?i John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- 
 nized by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes 
 which had broken out among them he was unable to cpiiet the country, 
 and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, duke of 
 Parma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. 
 He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- 
 gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- 
 cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, Overyssel, con- 
 cluded 
 
 1579. The Union of Utrecht, 
 
 proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) 
 and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon William of Orange 
 (the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- 
 land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, 
 converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 
 1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 
 10th July, 1584). After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- 
 year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. 
 Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. 
 The help furnished the Hollanders by the English {Leicester) induced 
 Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible 
 storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest 
 with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 
 
 1598-1621. Philip III. 
 
 1609. The tTvelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the 
 time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- 
 vorites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and 
 the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the 
 demoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- 
 duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the 
 most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the 
 expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 
 
 1621-1665. Philip IV. 
 
 The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 
 1648- recognition of their independence from Spain and the 
 empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 
 
332 
 
 Modern History. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Under Philij) III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the 
 Spanish power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. 
 Kevolt of Portugal. 
 
 Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 
 1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the 
 Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson 
 of Hugh Capet. 
 
 John, the Bastard, 
 son of Pedro the Cruel. 
 I 
 
 Edward. 
 
 1 
 Ferdinand. 
 
 f 
 Emanuel. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 Isabella m. 
 Charles V. 
 
 John III. Lewis. Henry. Edward. 
 
 Philip II. 
 k. of Spain. 
 
 I . I 
 Maria. John. 
 
 The Prior 
 of' Crato. 
 
 Don Carlos. Sebastian. 
 
 Beatrice, m. 
 Charles III. 
 d. of Savoy. 
 
 Alfonso. 
 
 I 
 Fernando. 
 
 Fernando. 
 
 James. 
 
 Emanuel 
 
 PMlibert, 
 
 d. of Savoy. 
 
 Maria m. 
 Alexander of 
 Parma. 
 
 Ranuccio 
 of Parma. 
 
 Catharine 
 
 Theodosius. 
 
 John. 
 
 Theodosius. 
 
 I 
 John IV. 
 
 Kings of Portugal in heav}' type. Claimants (except Philip II.) in italics. 
 
 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. 
 
 Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and 
 
 Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese 
 
 power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 
 
 1578. Battle of Alkassor in Morocco. After the death of his succes- 
 sor, Henry ^ 
 
 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false 
 Sebastians.'^ An almost bloodless revolution raised to the 
 throne of Portugal the duke 
 
 1540. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother 
 from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate 
 son of John the Bastard). 
 
 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown of 
 Portugal. 
 
A.. D. England and Scotland. 333 
 
 § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 
 1485-1509. Henry VII. 
 
 Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of 
 the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the 
 crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- 
 tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the 
 consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned 
 without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the 
 county where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- 
 peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before 
 a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority 
 from the king could l)e pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- 
 tablishment of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took 
 cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- 
 tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 
 1487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Sinmel) landed in England, 
 but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one 
 of the king's scullions. 
 1488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- 
 ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by 
 Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended 
 the war in wliich Henry had engaged on account of the annexation 
 of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception 
 in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. 
 Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty vnth. 
 England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where 
 his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- 
 vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke 
 out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. 
 It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and 
 the leaders executed (Flammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). 
 Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned m the Tower, where he 
 escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of 
 Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 
 1495. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning^s law). 1. No Irish parliament 
 should be held without the consent of the king of England. 
 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament 
 without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- 
 lish parliament should hold in Ireland. 
 1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James 
 IV., king of Scotland. 
 Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various 
 extortions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton^s Fork^^) he accumulated a for- 
 tune of nearly £2,000,000. 
 
 During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by 
 Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 
 
334 Modern History. A. D.| 
 
 1509-1547. Henry VIII., 
 
 of a cruel disposition aaid variable temperament. He was six! 
 times married : 1. Catharine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur,' 
 mother of Mart/ the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced Marchj 
 30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25,i 
 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20,) 
 1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537) .i 
 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5.i 
 Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542). i 
 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543,' 
 (nitlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of bothi 
 Lancaster and York. 
 
 Execution of Empson and Dudley. 
 1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from 
 
 the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." 
 Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to: 
 
 Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king 
 
 went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, 
 
 won the bloodless victory of 
 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 
 
 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death off 
 
 James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 
 
 1514, Aug. Peace with France (Tournay ceded to England, after-- 
 
 wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with i 
 Scotland. 
 
 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- 
 
 pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member 
 of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- 
 coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 
 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f 
 Nov. 28, 1530). 
 
 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near 
 
 Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold"). 
 1.521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high 
 treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 
 277). 
 
 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- 
 
 ply to Luther, and received the title of " Defender of the 
 
 Faith " from Pope Leo X. 
 After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the 
 emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- 
 peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so 
 strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed 
 on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to 
 force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion 
 was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 
 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne 
 
 Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased 
 brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and 
 the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter ol 
 
A. i>. England and Scotland. — Henry VIIL 335 
 
 the groat seal and o^ave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence 
 and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At 
 the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to tlie univer- 
 sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's 
 favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the 
 Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- 
 ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). 
 
 The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from 
 Catharine, which Cranmer, now arelibishop of Canterbury, had ])ro- 
 nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the 
 divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- 
 cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of 
 the princess. 
 
 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- 
 sors "Protector and only Supreme Head of the 
 Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to 
 take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under 
 which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded 
 (1535). 
 
 Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- 
 cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to 
 the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of 
 monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller 
 (153G), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the 
 confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess 
 Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown 
 was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that 
 fail, was left to his disposal. 
 
 1536. Publication of TyndaWs translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, 
 under authority from the king. 
 
 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by 
 Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, covmtess of Salisbury, daughter 
 of George, duke of Clarence. 
 
 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any 
 of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 
 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the 
 priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity 
 of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 
 
 1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell 
 had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the 
 king's marriage with Ajine of Cleves, with whom the king was 
 ill pleased. 
 
 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 
 
 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the 
 
 Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. 
 
 James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage 
 between liis son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 
 
336 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with France, 
 whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 
 
 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the 
 crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 
 
 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- 
 fiscated. 
 
 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. 
 
 Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown 
 was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in 
 the event of failure of issue by all of his cliildren. 
 
 1547-1553. Edward VI., 
 
 ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed 
 
 lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. 
 
 Repeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- 
 trines. 
 
 1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, 
 who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. 
 Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; 
 introduction of Edward VI. 's first prayer-book (second, 
 1553). 
 Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord 
 Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- 
 cution of Somerset (1552). 
 
 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 
 
 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter 
 of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter 
 of Henry VIL, to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, 
 daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the 
 son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , 
 July 6, 1553. 
 
 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. 
 
 The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- 
 land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and 
 others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). 
 Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, 
 author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 
 
 1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of 
 
 Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Pliilip was to have the title 
 of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of 
 Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish 
 marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir 
 Thomas Careio, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas^ Wyatt. The sup- 
 pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane 
 Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- 
 complished scholar {Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. 
 Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession 
 of the emperor. 
 
 1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 
 
 1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants {Bonner, bishop of Lou- 
 
 
A. D. 
 
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338 Modern History, a. d. 
 
 don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt 
 at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this per- 
 secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate 
 (1556). 
 
 1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of 
 
 the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 
 
 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of 
 Guise. 
 
 Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 
 
 1558-1603. Elizabeth. 
 
 Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- 
 tion of Mary ; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the 
 church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- 
 book. 
 
 1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with France. Calais to be 
 April 2. ceded to England in eight years. 
 
 On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- 
 sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity 
 exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- 
 beth and the Scottish reformers. 
 
 1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. 
 July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a 
 
 Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 
 
 1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., 
 
 where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. 
 (John Knox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 
 1572.) 
 
 1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- 
 
 two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment 
 of the Anglican Church {Church of England, Episcopal Church) ; 
 Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par- 
 tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyte- 
 rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1559). 
 
 1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- 
 
 nounced for 220,000 crowns. 
 In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- 
 vorite Rizzio to be nuirdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb, 
 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- 
 edge of the queen.i Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. 
 The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated 
 Mary at Carbury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Loch- 
 leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI,, 
 July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from 
 captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, 
 where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1568). 
 
 1 Gaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Mary and Bothwell has beea 
 recently defended by John Watts De Peyster. 
 
A. D. England and Scotland. — Elizabeth. 339 
 
 1575. Elizabeth declined the <]rovernmeiit of the Netherlaiid prov- 
 inces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. 
 
 1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 
 
 1583-84. Plots ag-ainst the qneen. (Arden, Parry) ; Spanish ])lot of 
 Throgmorton ; execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- 
 ing with Mary. Bond of Association. 
 
 1585. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of 
 
 Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir 
 Philip Sidney. 
 158G. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of 
 St. Domingo and Carthagena ; rescue of the Virginia colony 
 (p. 290). 
 
 1586. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered 
 by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the 
 conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of 
 Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 
 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she 
 alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed 
 Feb. 8, 1587. 
 
 1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. 
 The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 
 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet 
 {Howard, Drake, Hawkins), July 21-29, and destroyed by a 
 storm off the Hebrides. 
 
 1597. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone ; 
 the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led 
 to his recall, and his successor lord Monntjoy quickly subju- 
 gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the 
 earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in Loudon was followed 
 by his execution (1601). 
 
 1600. Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth, 
 March 24, 1603. 
 William Shakespeare, 1564-1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; 
 
 Edmund Spenser, 1553-1599 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536 ; Ben 
 
 Jonson, 1574-1637. 
 
 1603-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal 
 
 Union of England and Scotland. 
 
 1603-1625. James I., 
 
 as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The 
 Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned 
 but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- 
 dom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops (" no 
 bishop, no king "). In tliis century the after-efl^eets of the Reformation 
 made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in l)oth 
 places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar 
 circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- 
 tioned ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by 
 political and constitutional questions. 
 1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; he entered London 
 
840 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 on the 7tli of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of the 
 millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in London, 
 signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. 
 
 The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethrone 
 James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), con- 
 cocted by lord Cohliam, Grey and others. Sir Walter Raleigh was also 
 implicated and imprisoned until 1616 ("History of the World"). 
 The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison the 
 king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Romy (Sully). 
 1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishops 
 
 and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans failed 
 to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. The 
 king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338), 
 and one banishing Jesuits and seminary priests {Goodwin and 
 Fortescue). 
 1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. 
 
 The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotland 
 unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigate 
 the matter. 
 
 1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at first 
 established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical tax- 
 ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement of 
 church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from the 
 king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of the 
 king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Puri- 
 tans that tliree hundred clergymen left their livings rather than con- 
 form. 
 
 Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britain, 
 France and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusants 
 (under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go to 
 church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 
 
 1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, 
 
 originating in 1604 with Robert Catesby, after the edict banish- 
 ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prep- 
 arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament ^vith tliirty-six barrels 
 of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter to 
 Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-law, 
 Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Fa"wkes, in the vaults on Nov. 
 4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and execution 
 of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 
 
 1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Episco- 
 pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union anew 
 but in vain. 
 
 Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begin- 
 ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established by 
 Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditure, 
 he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary grant, 
 which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Trial 
 of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. Tk€ 
 court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. 
 
A. D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 
 
 1G07. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 
 
 1008. Establishment of new impositions. 
 
 ICIO. The Great Contract ; in return for the surrender of some 
 feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income of 
 £200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over 
 the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 
 
 1611. Plantation of Ulster, which was forfeited to the crown by the 
 rebellion of Tyrone. 
 
 Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the 
 patents. 
 
 1611. Completion of the translation of the Bible, which was 
 authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven minis- 
 ters since 1604. 
 Imprisonment of Arabella Stuart. 
 
 1613. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), 
 created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of 
 the earl of Salisbury (^Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince 
 of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 
 
 1613. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to 
 the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was 
 imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar- 
 riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. 
 
 1614. Apr. 5-June 7. Second Parliament of James I. Tliree 
 hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- 
 setshire), Thomas Wentworth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- 
 mains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling ^\dth 
 the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved 
 without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled 
 parliament. 
 
 1615. iienewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to 
 a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- 
 lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned 
 by the chief justice. Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards 
 dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of 
 Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul. 
 
 1616. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the 
 poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's 
 favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. 
 
 1617. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed to 
 sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mine. 
 Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. 
 
 1618. Proclamation allowing sports ou Sunday after church in Scot- 
 land (Articles of Perth). Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, \'is- 
 count of St. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under 
 the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. 
 
 1619. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. 
 
 1620. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, in New England 
 (p. 294). 
 
 1621. Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third Parliament of James I. The 
 
 parliament granted a supply for tiie prosecution of the war in 
 
342 ' Modern Hutory. A. D. 
 
 the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then 
 took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and 
 Mitchell^ who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- 
 facture of gold and silver thread ; they were degraded, fined, and ban- 
 ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. 
 Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, i 
 but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,- 
 000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding office 
 in the future. " Petition of the commons against popery and the 
 Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling in 
 aft'airs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew from 
 the parliament 
 
 1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- 
 
 chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient 
 and u.ndoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England, 
 and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, and 
 defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council 
 and debate in parliament." The king tore the page containing the 
 protestation from the journal of the commons. 
 
 1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. 
 
 Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pym, Selden. Earl of 
 Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 
 
 1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham, 
 went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis- 
 ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excite 
 great dissatisfaction in England ; finally, being miable to secure 
 any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles and 
 Buckingham returned in anger. 
 
 Massacre of English residents on the island of Amhoyjia by the 
 Dutch. 
 
 1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. 
 
 The Spanish marriage was bro^:(-i) off, but even the anger of 
 Buckingham could not drive the parli:;nient into a declaration of war 
 with Spain. Supplies voted for dnf uise. Mansfeld raised 1,200 
 men in England who reached Holl.-v.id but nearly all perished there 
 from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for the 
 marriage of Prince Charles vnih. Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis 
 XIII. 
 
 1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. 
 
 1625-1649. Charles I. 
 
 1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. 
 
 Ships sent to Louis XIII. secretly engaged not to fight against 
 
 the Huguenots. 
 
 1625. First Parliament of Charles I. 
 
 (Assembled June 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolved 
 
 Aug. 12.) 
 
 Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,000 
 
 for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague {'' appello 
 
 Ccesarem" 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon against 
 
 Cadiz. 
 
A. D. ErKfland and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 
 
 1G26, Feb. G-June 15. Second Parliament of Charles I. 
 
 Chillies hud hoped t'oi- a more i)li;il)le i);u'liMnieiit, ?is he liad 
 appointed several of the leaders of the tirst parliament sheriffs, 
 and so kept them out of the seeond. But this i)arliament, 
 under the lead of Sir John Eliot, was more intraetable than 
 the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order 
 of the king-, received one on the interference of the lords, but 
 was requested not to appear. He took his seat and brought 
 charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- 
 peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- 
 ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia- 
 ment to proceed to business without them. 
 War declared against France (1626-1G30). 
 
 lG27o Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Roclielle 
 {IsleofRhe). 
 Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and 
 for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- 
 tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for 
 refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, 
 having been committed by the king's order, though without 
 distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 
 
 1C28, March 17-1629, March 10. Third Parliament of Charles 
 I. 
 
 May. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of henevo- 
 lences, and all forms of taxation ivithout consent of parliaynent. 
 2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- 
 mission should be given to militar}^ officers to execute martial 
 law in time of peacj. 4. No ons should be imprisoned unless 
 upon a specified charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of 
 five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- 
 waring. 
 Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy 
 tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance 
 against that practice. 
 
 June 2G. Prorogation of parliament. 
 
 Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and 
 poundage. 
 
 Aug. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Felton. 
 
 1629, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, 
 for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once 
 took up the question of tonnage and poundage ; claim of privi- 
 lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods 
 had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. 
 Adjournment of the house of commons. 
 
 March 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of 
 commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions 
 of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- 
 ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church ; 
 whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without 
 grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such duties, 
 was an enemy of the kingdom. 
 
344 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisonment of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). 
 March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles 
 governed without a parliament, raising money by illegal 
 levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. 
 Charles' advisers : William Laud (b, 1573, president of St. John's 
 college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I.'s 
 chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 
 1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; 
 privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 
 1630 ; in Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 
 1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- 
 tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; 
 V parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- 
 ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- 
 worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscoimt Wentworth, 
 1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to 
 Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Strafford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
 1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed. May, 1641), 
 Weston, lord treasurer. 
 1630, April. Peace with France. 
 
 1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). 
 
 1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. 
 
 1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 
 
 1633. June. Charles crowned at Edinburgh with ceremonies distaste- 
 
 ful to the Scots. 
 Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of 
 conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment 
 of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an 
 attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried 
 and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- 
 ough." 
 
 1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard 
 towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and 
 extended over the whole kingdom. 
 
 1635. Second writ for ship-money. 
 
 1637. Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, pilloried. 
 
 June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in 
 compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular 
 tumult at St. Giles. 
 
 June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of 
 ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- 
 cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. 
 Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, were prevented from 
 sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 
 
 1638J Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant 
 (based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgii, 
 for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- 
 vations. 
 
 1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgoiv; abolition of episcopacy, 
 
 the new liturgy, and the canons ; the kirk declared independent 
 of the state. 
 
A.. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 345 
 
 1G39. The first bishops' war. 
 
 The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army. 
 Charles marched to meet them near Berwick, but an agreement was 
 reached without a battle. 
 
 1639, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies 
 
 were to be disbanded, and ditt'erences referred to a new 
 general assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin- 
 burgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgow, and the parlia- 
 ment proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great 
 that he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Strafford, 
 and summoned 
 
 1640, April 13 -May 5. d^he fourth Parliament of Charles I. 
 
 (" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. 
 As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, 
 the parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults; attack on Laud's 
 palace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by 
 Elizabeth, to try offenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the 
 crown). 
 1640. Second bishops' war. 
 
 Defeat of the royal troops at Newhurn on the Tyne (Aug. 28). 
 The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty 
 of Ripon (Oct. 26) . A permanent treaty was set in prospect ; 
 meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by 
 Charles. Acting upon the advice of the peers, Charles now 
 summoned 
 
 1640, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. 
 
 The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). 
 First Session. 
 
 Nov. 3, 1640-Sept. 8, 1641. 
 
 The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until 
 paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the king, 
 which they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. 
 Nov. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- 
 peachment of Laud. Both were committed to the Tower. 
 
 1641, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament 
 
 should assemble every three years even witliout being sum- 
 moned by the king. 
 
 March 22. Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of 
 the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of 
 attainder introduced, which passed both houses (commons, 
 Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). 
 Bill to prevent clergymen from holding civil ol^ce introduced 
 but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for 
 the abolition of bishops (''root and branch bill "). 
 
 May 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder 
 against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- 
 tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its 
 own consent. (" Aci for the perpetual Parliaments^ 
 
346 Modern History. a. Do 
 
 1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. 
 
 July. Abolition of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- 
 sion. 
 
 Aug. Treaty of pacifioation with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- 
 lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles 
 went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- 
 endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Kebellion and Civil Wars 
 in England)," with the king. 
 
 Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- 
 tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons' 
 committee. 
 Attempt of the king to conciliate the 'moderates" in parlia- 
 ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Gary, 
 lord Falkland). 
 
 Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the 
 seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, 
 in which the king was thought to have a share. The discovery 
 of the plot (" the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of 
 Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles 
 gave the state offices to Argyle and his party, and the latter 
 agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. 
 
 Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of the 
 Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of 
 Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England. 
 Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an 
 army. 
 
 1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the 
 
 house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de- 
 bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a 
 summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Dec. 14 the 
 remonstrance was ordered to be printed. 
 Several of the bishops having de claved their inability to attend 
 parliament on account of the coi l-.ictof the mob, and protested 
 against the action of parliam > it in their absence, they were 
 committed to the Tower fo • breach of privilege (Dec. 30). 
 The petition of the comm_;)j.> for a guard under the earl of 
 Essex rejected by the king. 
 
 1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, 
 Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- 
 mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent 
 war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles 
 resolved to take matters into his own hands. 
 
 Jan. 4, Attempt to seize the five members. 
 
 Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five 
 hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent 
 he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwhile, were 
 in London. The commons immediately followed them, and 
 formed themselves into a committee which sat at the Guild- 
 hall, under the protection of the citizens. 
 
 Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- 
 liament on the following day. Jan. 12, rising at Kingston. 
 
A. D. England and Scotland. 347 
 
 The freeholders of Buckingliaimhire sent a remonstrance to the 
 king. The commons made sure of several places and hastened 
 to lay before the kiuf^ a bill excluding thp bishops from 
 the house of Lords, which he sig'ned, and a bill securing to 
 the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- 
 fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was 
 joined m April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of 
 the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- 
 tempt on Hull. 
 Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordina^ices 
 which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed 
 in May they assumed control of the militia. 
 
 June 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the 
 king, demanding that the king should give liis assent to the 
 militia bill ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to 
 officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church 
 government should be reformed in accordance with the \\T.shes 
 of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all 
 royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's cliildren, and 
 have the power of excluding from the upper house at will all 
 peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- 
 nantly rejected. 
 
 July. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. 
 Essex appointed captain-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 
 4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. 
 
 Aug. 22, Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 
 
 1642-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. 
 
 Oct. 23. Drawn battle of EdgeMlL (Prince Rupert, son of the 
 elector palatine and Elizabeth of England.) The king marched 
 upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and 
 
 Nov. 12. the trained bands of London under Skippon, he retired 
 without fighting. " Affair of Brentford," 
 
 Dec. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, 
 Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en- 
 trusted to Oliver Cromwell (born April 2o, 1599 in Hunting- 
 don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 
 
 1643, Feb.-Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- 
 newal of the war. In Feb, the queen landed in Yorkshire, 
 bringing assistance from Holland. 
 
 Apr. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. 
 
 May. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- 
 ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and 
 at Round way Down (July), 
 
 June 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at Chal- 
 grovefeld, f June 24. 
 
 July 1, Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the 
 settlement of religious and theological matters. 
 
 July 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kuigdom) by 
 Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament. 
 
 Sept. Essex relieved Gloucester, which was gallantly defended by 
 Massey. 
 
348 Modern History, A. D. 
 
 1643, Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. 
 Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant hy 
 
 twenty-five peers and 288 members of the commons. Parlia- 
 ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, 
 and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- 
 ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the 
 best reformed churches." All civil and military officers and all 
 beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant 
 (nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). 
 Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. 
 
 Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and took 
 the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the 
 war in England. 
 
 Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 
 
 1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- 
 vened at Oxford by the king. 
 
 Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomas 
 
 Fairfax. 
 Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. 
 March. Trial of Laud. 
 
 York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford by 
 Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House {countess of Derby) 
 raised by Rupert (May). 
 July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. 
 
 Prince Ruj)ert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de- 
 feated by Cromwell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). 
 
 Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, while 
 the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the 
 north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle 
 Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de- 
 feat of Waller at the 
 
 June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the 
 
 Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es- 
 sex escaped to London by sea. 
 1644, Aug.-1645, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. 
 
 Montrose entered Scotland in disguise, Aug. 1644. Victory 
 of Tippamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of Aberdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 ; 
 capture of Perth ; Montrose retired to Athole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castle 
 (Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Badenach (Nov. 6) ; harrying of 
 Arcjyleshire (Dec-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy at 
 Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb. 1). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren- 
 der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone- 
 haven (March 21). Victory of Auldearn (May 4) ; victory of 
 Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept. 
 3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De- 
 feat of Montrose at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). 
 
 1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the king 
 
 and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. 
 Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmas 
 made a fast. 
 
 1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. 
 
A. D. England and Scotland. 349 
 
 1645, Jaii.-Fob. Truce known as the treaty of Uxbridge ; the pro- 
 
 posals of the parliament rejected by the king. 
 Dissensions within the parliament, liise of the sect of indepen- 
 dents (advocates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- 
 tion to the Presbyterians. Crom-well fast becoming the leading man 
 m England since the victory of Marstou Moor. Quarrel with Man- 
 chester. 
 
 April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the 
 commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem- 
 bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- 
 lishment of Presbyterianism, with some reservations m favor 
 of the independents. 
 Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, 
 [i lieutenant-general (suspension of the self-denying ordinance 
 
 P in liis case). 
 
 Introduction of reform in the army after the plans of Crom- 
 well ; the new model. 
 June 14. Battle of Naseby. 
 
 Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of 
 his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- 
 cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), 
 Carlisle, Winchester, Basing House (Oct.), Latham House 
 (Dec). 
 March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the-Wold ; 
 last battle of the civil war. 
 
 1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. 
 July 24. Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle. 
 
 Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years ; 
 Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian 
 establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring 
 to await the result of the impending breach between pajiia- 
 nient, representing Presbyterianism, and the army, comprising 
 the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera- 
 tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. 
 
 1647, Jan. 30. The Scots surrendered Charles to the parliament on 
 
 payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles 
 was brought to Holmhy House in Northamptonshire. 
 Contention between parliament and the army. The commons 
 voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison 
 purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- 
 chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new 
 model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears 
 were satisfied. 
 
 May 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary 
 propositions. It was too late. 
 
 June 4. Charles seized at Holmby House by col. Joyce and carried 
 to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the 
 intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled 
 
 I to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an 
 
350 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of 
 adjudicators. 
 
 1647, June 10. The army at St. Albans. " Humble representation " 
 
 addressed to parliament. 
 
 June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of 
 eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it (Holies). 
 
 July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on 
 account of a change in the commanders of the London militia 
 which the army had requested. 
 The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons 
 fled to the army. 
 
 July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and 
 worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- 
 tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of 
 state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of 
 commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- 
 don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin- 
 ster. 
 
 Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which 
 had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton 
 Court. 
 
 Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a modified form of the 
 nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- 
 pared, but before its presentation 
 
 Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained 
 by the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. 
 
 Dec. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. 
 Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All 
 declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be 
 recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to 
 Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two 
 houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only 
 playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from 
 Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had 
 already signed 
 
 Dec. 26. A secret treaty with the Scots (" The Engagement"). 
 Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- 
 rianism ; the Scots, who looked with horror on the rising tide 
 of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of 
 arms. 
 
 1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king, 
 and voted to have no more communication with him. 
 
 1648. Second Civil War. 
 
 At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between 
 
 the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the 
 
 Presbyterians and the Independents. 
 Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. 
 March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the 
 
 king must be brought to trial. 
 April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians 
 
 having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani- 
 
A. D. The North and East. 351 
 
 fested a desire to conic to an a<j^eement with the king. Vir- 
 tual repeal of the non-coniininiieation resolution. 
 1C48, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasj)lieiuies and heresies, 
 
 aimed at the independents, especially at Cromwell, Ireton, etc. 
 July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. 
 Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. 
 
 lloyalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in 
 
 London. 
 Jidy 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. 
 
 Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots 
 
 in the 
 Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, 
 
 and annihilated their army. 
 Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second 
 
 civil war. 
 Sept. 18-2^ov. " Treaty of Newport " negotiated between the king 
 
 and the parliament, without result. 
 Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. 
 Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Cattle. 
 Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). 
 Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis 
 
 on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the 
 
 last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. 
 Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council 
 
 of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) 
 
 from the parliament. 
 The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). 
 Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that 
 
 Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to 
 
 Windsor (Dec. 23). 
 1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) 
 
 to try the king ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the 
 
 commons resolved 
 Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- 
 mons. 
 Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance wdthout the concurrence of the 
 
 lords. 
 Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a fonn of government di-awn up 
 
 by the army. 
 Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members 
 
 present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the 
 
 jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. 
 Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London. 
 
 § 9. THE NORTH AND EAST. 
 
 The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened 
 
 by the action of Sweden, since the election of 
 
 1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- 
 pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian IL 
 
352 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians un- 
 der the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- 
 mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- 
 guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and 
 became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). 
 
 S-weden. 
 1523-1654. House of Vasa. 
 
 1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. 
 
 The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by 
 his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- 
 dered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., 
 whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and 
 hence displaced in Sweden by liis uncle Charles IX. the youngest 
 son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 
 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with 
 
 Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Tliirt}^ Years' 
 War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 
 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs 
 
 of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin 
 Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zioeibriicken, son of a sister of Gustavus 
 Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. 
 
 Denmark and Norway. 
 
 These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- 
 mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by 
 his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish 
 throne as 
 
 1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his 
 death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts {Jurgen 
 Wullenwever, burghermaster of Lubeck). Frederic's son 
 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- 
 mation. For the participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty 
 Years' War, see p. 310. After a 
 
 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender 
 the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Bromsehro 
 (p. 315). 
 
 Poland. 
 
 1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest extent 
 {Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de- 
 cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 
 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the 
 liberum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- 
 phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house 
 of Vasa ; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668). 
 
 Russia. 
 
 After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of 
 succession lasting ten years (the false Demetrius^ 
 
.. D. The North and East. 353 
 
 .613- The house of Romanow succeeded to the throne, 
 which it occupied until 17Gli. 
 
 Turks. 
 
 The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development 
 mder Soliniau II. (1520-1500), the Magnificent, the contemporary 
 »f the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began 
 he decline, caused especially by the mfluence of the Janizaries. 
 
 India. 
 497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 
 L498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut 
 by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various 
 lynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter 
 lalf of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the 
 Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitu- 
 ion was as follows : At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan 
 lynasty with greatly reduced dominion ; in Bengal (1340-1570), 
 \fghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- 
 aiedan dynasty had its capital at Ahmeddbdd ; in the Deccan the 
 Muhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated 
 nto live kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1080), Golconda (1512-1087), 
 ihmednagar (1490-1030), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (149-- 
 1009[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands 
 )f the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1505). 
 
 Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cabral (on the voyage acciden- 
 ■^1 discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of 
 Portugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, 
 Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy 
 5f India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso d' Albuquerque was ap- 
 pointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 
 
 1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. 
 The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of 
 Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- 
 queror of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the 
 Punjab and defeated the svdtan of Delhi in the 
 1520. Battle of Panipat.i 
 
 Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527). Under Babar's son Hn- 
 mdyun (1530-50) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shdh^ 
 the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1550 and under 
 Humayiin's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the 
 Afghans at Panipat (1550). 
 
 il556-1605. Akbar the Great 
 
 whose reign is a long series of conquests. 
 
 1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on that 
 same plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 234.) 
 
354 Modem History. A. d 
 
 15G5. Battle of Talikot. 
 
 Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union o 
 the Muhamniedan kingdoms of the Deccan. 
 Conquests of Akbar : 1501-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chit 
 lor ; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593) ; 1586-9' 
 Kashmir ; 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now bomprisec 
 all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not sue 
 cessful. Akbar o^rganized the administration, reformed the military 
 and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was sue 
 ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was mucli 
 troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without lastf 
 ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahar, several time; 
 lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finallj 
 lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. !Shah Jahan won some successes iii 
 the Deccan ; submission of Bijdpur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. Thti 
 empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock 
 throne). Shah Jahan deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisonec 
 (died 1666). 
 
 From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the 
 trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutcll 
 and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company oj 
 London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com- 
 panies were established at different times ; but all were ultimatel} 
 incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com- 
 pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 
 Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com-i 
 pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad-l 
 ing to the East Indies" ["English Company "], 1698-1709,' unitec' 
 with the original company as " The United Company of Merchants 
 of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyagee 
 were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the coin-i 
 pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat oii 
 the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 16141 
 Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty 
 with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting efl:ect. Massacre of English oi] 
 the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng- 
 lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 
 1635. Foundation of Madras {Fort St. George), 1639. 
 
 Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 
 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's). 
 
 China. 
 1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of Ning suppressed 
 
 after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established 
 
 themselves at Macao. 
 1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing. 
 
 Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 
 1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to^ 
 
 relieve tlie country of whom he resorted to bribery. 
 1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances: 
 
 tlie emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se. 
 
) A. D. China. — Japan. 355 
 
 1592. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled 
 i to sue for peace. 
 
 1597. The Jai)ane.so renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet 
 and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 
 
 1G03. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- 
 ity in China (f IGIO). 
 
 1604. Dutch in China ; also the Spanish. 
 
 1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the 
 Chinese, and returning- in 
 
 1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung. 
 
 1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, threw olf the pretense of alle- 
 giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He 
 established his capital at San-Koo. 
 
 Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed 
 
 by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 
 
 1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) 
 dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and 
 Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for 
 aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, 
 but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing 
 Pekin they raised to the throne of China a son of Teen-ning, 
 the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 
 
 1644— X, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 
 1644. Shun-che. 
 
 Capture of isTan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- 
 gering resistance of tlie Chinese was gradually crushed out, and 
 the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more 
 and more common. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contams few 
 events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties 
 in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power 
 on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate 
 between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause 
 of much fighting. 
 
 1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. 
 
 This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three 
 of the most renowned men of Japan ; Nobunaga, HideyosM, Tokugawa 
 lyet/asu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feiulalism 
 had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed 
 that of the mikado. Ota Nobunaga was a feudal lord who acquired 
 fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto 
 (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the lui- 
 happy country, while his aid was also sought by Yoshiaki, the rightful 
 shogun, who liad been dispossessed by Yoshlkage. By the battle of 
 Anagawa (1570), where Tokugawa lyeyasu fought under Nobunaga, 
 Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by No- 
 bunaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 
 
356 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1573-1582. Government of Nobunaga. 
 
 Nobunaga appointed no successor but retained the power in 
 his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- 
 powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit 
 Xavier at Kioto) under his protection, Shiughter of the Bud- 
 dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. 
 Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 
 
 1582-1598. Government of Hideyoshi. 
 
 The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after 
 considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection 
 (1592), War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- 
 shi was unfavorable to Christianity. 1588, publication of a de- 
 cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was 
 not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- 
 saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an infant 
 son, under the regency of TokugaTva lyeyasu, whose govern- 
 ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles 
 that led to war. 
 
 1600. Battle of Sekigahara. lyeyasu defeated lus enemies, and in 
 1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shogun, being the first of the 
 
 1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- 
 quently took the title of Tai-kiin (Tycoon) " high prince." 
 
 The rule of lyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning 
 and the gro\^i;h of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). lyeyasu re- 
 signed his office in 1605 to liis son but retained his power until his 
 death. 
 
 lyeyasu died 1616, leaving the " Legacy of lyeyasu," a code of 
 laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crow^n who re- 
 ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called dairnios and 
 numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (koku- 
 shiu). Next to tiie dairnios stood the samurai, to whom the daimios 
 leased their farms in return for military service. 
 
 The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by 
 the hatamoto, " house-carls," from whom he selected liis officials. 
 They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were 
 the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, 
 comprising the Tokugawa clan. lyeyasu removed the capital of the 
 shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of lyeyasu, Hide- 
 tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report 
 not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction 
 of that religion. 
 
 1630-1643. Too-Fuku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, \ 
 and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former 
 on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. 
 
 lyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- 
 lent rider, but ordered the vigorous enforcement of laws against the 
 Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese 
 and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki, 
 1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed! 
 
A. D. America. So 7 
 
 massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. 
 Extirpation of Christianity. Death of lyemltsu, 1G49. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINNING OF 
 THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 1648-1789. 
 A. The second half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 § 1. AMERICA. 
 
 British, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies. 
 
 1644. Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- 
 port, Portsmouth) imcler one charter, obtained by Roger 
 Williams. 
 
 Union of Sayhrook and Connecticut under the latter name. 
 The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New- 
 Haven numbered six. 
 
 Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into 
 two houses. 
 April 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 1645. Rebellion of Clayhorne and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized 
 the government, but were put down in 1646. 
 
 1646. In Massachusetts John Eliot commenced his missionary 
 labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the 
 Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). 
 
 Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies 
 from all duty for three years, on condition that colonial pro- 
 ductions should be exjjorted only in English vessels. 
 In New Netherlands Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesanty 
 as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the 
 region between Ca/^e Henlopen and Cape Cod. 
 I 1648. The petition of Rhode Island ^ to be admitted to the union 
 I rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- 
 
 tion of Plymouth. 
 
 1649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the 
 
 I Gospel in Xew England." 
 
 Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to 
 lord Culpepper and other royalists. 
 Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 
 
 1650. Agreement between New Netherlands and the United 
 Colonies establishing the boundary between the Dutch and 
 English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay, 
 Connecticut. 
 
 1 "Where Rhode Island is mentioned, bofore the charter of 1663, it is prob- 
 able that the Island only is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. 
 
 i 
 
358 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1651. Passage of the Navigation Act in England (p. 376). 
 
 1652. The province of Maine joined to Massachusetts. 
 
 The parliament in England assumed control of Maryland, and 
 suspended the government of Rhode Island, but the latter 
 order did not take effect. 
 
 1655. Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherlands, seized the Swed- 
 ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of New 
 Sweden. 
 
 1659. Virginia proclaimed Charles XL king of England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Sir 
 William Berkeley. 
 Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 
 
 1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 
 
 1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Haven 
 refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov- 
 ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputies 
 from every town. 
 
 1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 
 
 1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) to 
 the earl of Clarendon and associates. 
 
 Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 
 
 1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to the 
 Delaware, to the king's brother, James, duke of York and 
 Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, and 
 islands south and west of Cape Cod, 
 
 The region between the Hudson and the Delaware (^Nova Ccesarea, 
 
 or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkeley, 
 
 and Sir George Carteret. 
 Aug. 27. Surrender of New Amsterdam to the English ; name ot 
 
 the colony changed to Ne'w York. 
 Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed to 
 
 Albany. 
 
 1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges. 
 Union of Connecticut and New Haven. 
 
 The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in New 
 England, after conferring with the general court of Massachu- 
 setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not ac- 
 knowledge their commission. 
 
 1666. Depredations of the buccaneers in the West Indies. 
 
 1667. Grant of the Bahamas to the proprietors of Carolina. 
 
 1667. Treaty of Breda between England and France. Acadia sur- 
 rendered to France ; Antigua, Monserrat, and the French part 
 of St. Christopher surrendered to England. 
 
 1668. Massachusetts reassumed the government of Maine. 
 
 1669. Adoption of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina 
 
 which were drawn up by John Locke. 
 Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. (Governor 
 and company of adventurers of England trading into Hud- 
 son's Bay.) 
 
 1670. Foundation of Charlestown in Carolina. 
 
A. D. America. 359 
 
 Treaty of Madrid between Spain and England, settling the 
 bonndaries of their respective territories on the basis of pos- 
 session. 
 
 1672. The Spaniards at St. Augustine endeavored to dislodge the 
 
 settlers in Carolina, but were repulsed. 
 
 1673. War having broken out between P^ngland and Holland, the 
 Dutch captured New York and received thu submission of that 
 colony, of Albany and New Jersey. In the peace of 1674 
 these places were restored to England. 
 
 The grant to lord Culpepper was converted to a lease for thirty- 
 one years. 
 1675. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to secure 
 the land west of the Connecticut by force of arms, but was 
 foiled by the energy of the colonists. 
 
 1675-1676. King Philip's War. 
 
 This was the most extensive combination which the natives 
 had formed against the foreign invaders. King Philip was the son 
 of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoags. He lived at Mount 
 Hope, near Fall River, Mass. He formed a league comprising nearly 
 all the Indians from Maine to Connecticut. War broke out in June, 
 
 1675. and raged with peculiar violence in Massachusetts. Deerfield 
 burnt (Sept. 1). Attack on Hadley (Sept. 1) repulsed by Gojfe^ 
 one of the judges of Charles I. (?). In the fall (Sept.-Oct.) the 
 United Colonies took the war upon themselves and raised 2,000 troops. 
 Capture of the fort of the Narragansetts by Winslow (Dec. 19). 
 Assaults more or less severe on Warwick, Lancaster, Medfieldy 
 Weymouth, Groton, Reliohoth, Providence, Wrentham, Sudbury, Scituate, 
 Bridgewater, Plymouth, Hatjield, and other towns (1676, Jan.-,Tune). 
 Defeat of the Indians near Deerfield (May 19, Fall Fight). Surprise 
 of Philip by captain Church; capture of his wife and son (the latter 
 was sold into slavery), Aug. 2. Philip shot (Aug. 12). 
 
 1676. Rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon ui Virginia. eTamestoAvn burnt. 
 
 The rebellion came to an end with the sudden death of Bacon. 
 In the follo^^^ng year royal troops arrived to repress the rebel- 
 lion, but found ail quiet. 
 New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. East Jer- 
 sey was governed ))y Carteret; West Jersey was held by the 
 duke of York. (Hence, " the Jerseys.") 
 
 1677. The dispute between Massachusetts and the heirs of Sir Fer- 
 7iando Gorges over Maine being decided in favor of the latter 
 by the English courts, Massachusetts bought the province of 
 Maine, which henceforward formed a part of that colony. 
 
 1680. Ne"w Hampshire separated from Massachusetts b}' royal 
 
 charter. Tlie king appointed the president and council, and 
 
 retained the right of annulling all acts of the legislature. 
 Foimdation of a new settlement in Carolina, called, like the 
 
 first, Charlestown (the present Charleston). 
 West Jersey restored to the proprietors, the heirs of lord 
 
 Berkeley. 
 
 1681, March 4. Grant of Pennsylvania (the region betwoc 41 "^ 
 
360 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 and 43° N. lat. running 5° west from the Delaware River) to 
 William Penn. Establislnnent of a settlement. 
 
 1682. Penn brought a colony to Pennsylvania (Aug.). Publication 
 
 of a frame of government and a body of laws (April-May). 
 Treaty with the Indians. Foundation of Philadelphia. 
 
 1683. First legislative assembly in New York ; two houses. Only 
 two sessions are known to have been held before the revolu- 
 tion of 1688. 
 
 1684. The troubles between Massachusetts and the crown cul- 
 minated in the forfeiture of the charter. 
 
 These troubles were of old standing, dating from the restoration 
 of Charles II. The favorable reception of Goffe and Whalley, two 
 " regicides," in Boston, at the opening of that monarch's reign, was 
 no favorable omen ; and almost the first news received from the col- 
 ony brought complaints of ill-treatment from Quakers who had suf- 
 fered under the rigorous laws. In 1661 Charles sent a letter to Mas- 
 sachusetts prohibiting the colony from proceeding further in the 
 prosecution of imprisoned Quakers, and ordering their release ; he 
 subsequently withdrew his protection. Further controversy led to 
 the dispatch of agents to England. The confirmation of the char- 
 ter obtained by them was conditioned in a way peculiarly aggra- 
 vating to the colonists : all laws derogatory to the royal authority 
 should be repealed ; the oath of allegiance shoidd be imposed ac- 
 cording to tjie directions of the charter ; freedom and liberty of 
 conscience in the use of the Book of Common Prayer should be 
 allowed ; the sacrament should not be denied to any person of 
 good life and conversation ; all freeholders of competent estates and 
 good character, and orthodox in religion, should be admitted to vote. 
 These demands being evasively met, the king, in 1664, appointed 
 commissioners (Nicolls, Carr, Cartwright, MavericTc) to hear com- 
 plaints and appeals in New England, and settle the peace of the 
 country, who, barely touching at Boston, proceeded to the seizure of 
 New Netherlands. Returning to Boston in the spring of 1665 their 
 demand for a recognition of the commission was met by the excuse 
 that the general court would plead liis majesty's charter, whereupon 
 the commission returned to England in anger. The court, however, 
 acknowledged the conditional right of freeholders to vote, and agreed 
 to permit the toleration of Quakers and churchmen for a time. 
 A long period of controversy followed, and agents were sent back 
 and forth with very little effect. In 1671 the colony was " almost 
 on the brink of renouncing any dependence on the crown." The 
 original causes of dispute became complicated by the controversy 
 with the heirs of Gorges in regard to Maine, and by the evasion and 
 disregard of the navigation laws practiced by the colony (1663). In 
 1676 the royal governors were commanded to insist on strict compli- 
 ance with the commercial laws, both the navigation laws, and those 
 imposing duties on intercolonial trade (1672). John Leverett, gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts, refused compliance, and in 1679 the general 
 court voted " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights 
 and privileges of the subjects of his majesty in this colony, they not 
 being represented in parliament." The agents then in London to d€ 
 
A. D. 
 
 America. 361 
 
 fend the colony in the suit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home 
 with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents 
 sent to answer the comphiints against the colony. Edward Randolph 
 was sent over as collector of customs for Boston, where, however, he 
 was sturdily opposed. Tlie new agents giving no satisfaction, a writ 
 of quo loarranto was issued against the colony in 1(583 ; in 1G84 a suit 
 of acire facias was brought and the court of chancery declared the 
 charter" forfeited (1084). The khig appointed colonel Kirke governor 
 of Massachusetts, New Hamp>-hire, Maine, and Plymouth, but before 
 he received his commission Charles died, and .James II. appointed 
 Joseph Dudley president of New England. He took office in 1686. 
 
 1686. Issue of a quo warranto writ against Connecticut and Carolina. 
 
 New York deprived of an assembly and other liberties. 
 Appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as president of New 
 England. He arrived at Boston Dec. 20. Randolph was 
 now deputy postmaster in New England. Andros assumed 
 the government of Rhode Island. Establishment of an Epis- 
 copal society in Boston, for the use of which Andros forcibly 
 seized the Old South Church. 
 
 1687. Quo icarranto against Maryland. 
 
 Oct. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the government of Connecticut 
 and attempted to secure the charter, but it was carried off 
 from the hall of assembly and hidden in the famous Charter 
 Oak. 
 
 1688. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. New York and New- 
 
 Jersey placed under his government. Erection of King's 
 Chapel, as an Episcopal church, in Boston. 
 
 1689. On the receipt of news of the revolution m England, and the 
 landing of William of Orange, Sir Edmund Andros was 
 seized in Boston (April 18) and thrown into prison. Restora- 
 tion of the old government. " Council of safety of the people 
 and conservation of the peace." Assembly of representatives 
 at Boston. Provisional resumption of the charter ; proclama- 
 tion of William and Mary. Reestablishment of the former 
 governments in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New 
 York, Virginia and Maryland proclaimed William and 
 Maiy. 
 
 1689-1697. " King William's War " with the French, 
 a part of the universal war against Louis XIV. The French 
 were assisted by the Canadian Indians and those of Maine, 
 while the Iroquois took the war path against the French. 
 
 1690. Surprise and destruction of Schenectady (Feb. 8), of Salmon 
 
 Falls (March 18), and of Casco (May 17), by tliree bands of 
 French and Indians. 
 
 April, Seizure of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, who afterwards 
 made a futile attack upon Quebec, by vote of a congress of 
 Massachusetts, Plymouth, Comiecticut, and New York. The 
 failure imposed so large a debt on the colonies that Massa- 
 chusetts was obliged to issue paper money for the first time. 
 
 1692. New charter for Massachusetts. Sir William Phips ap- 
 
862 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 pointed governor. Under this charter were inchided the colony 
 of Ph/mouth, the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia and all land 
 north to the St. Lawrence ; also the Elizabeth Islands, Nantasket, 
 and Martha's Vineyard. The new charter gave the appoint- 
 ment of the governor to the crown, and vested in him the 
 right of calling, proroguing, and dissolvhig the general court, 
 of appointing military officers and oiiicers of justice (with the 
 consent of the council), of vetoing acts of the legislature and 
 appointments of civil officers made by the legislature. The 
 electoral franchise was extended to all freeholders with a 
 yearly income of forty shillings, and all inhabitants having 
 personal property to the amount of £40. Religious liberty 
 was secured to all except Papists. 
 
 1692, Feb. Commencement of the Salem witchcraft frenzy. Be- 
 
 fore October twenty persons were executed. 
 
 Construction of Fort William Henry at Pemaquid in Maine by 
 Sir William Phips. 
 
 Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed to retain their 
 charters. 
 
 Charter of the " College of William and Mary " in Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of Virginia and Mary^ 
 land. 
 
 1693. Government of Pennsylvania taken from Penn by the crown. 
 
 An English expedition against Canada was planned but failed 
 of execution. 1694. Penn reinstated. 
 
 Fletcher, governor of New York (and now of Pennsylvania), 
 having been entrusted with the command of the militia of 
 Connecticut, went to Hartford Oct. 26 to assert his authority, 
 but was repulsed by the assembly, and by Wadsworth, senior 
 captain of the militia. 
 
 French expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois. 
 
 1696. Capture of the fort at Pemaquid by the French under Iberville. 
 
 An expedition of count Frontenac against the Iroquois resulted 
 in little more than tlio destruction of their harvests. 
 
 1697. The Peace of Ryswick (p. 371) prevented the exe- 
 cution of a French attack upon Newfomidland. Restoration of 
 conquests by both combatants. 
 
 Third expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois, with little 
 effect. 
 
 1699. The French settled in Louisiana. The French claimed control 
 of the fisheries on the north coast, and of the territory from 
 the Kennebec eastward. 
 
 Foundation of a Scotch settlement at Darien in the hope of 
 acqumng great wealth by the command of commercial transit 
 (Paterson). The first expedition (1,200 men, besides women 
 and cliildren) perished from starvation, or returned to Scot- 
 land ; the second was broken up by the Spaniards who con. 
 sidered the settlement a breach of the treaty of Ryswick. 
 
 1700. Iberville took possession of the Mississippi for France. 
 
 1701. William Penn gave a new charter to Pennsylvania. 
 
A. D. America, 303 
 
 1701. Foniiclatioii of Yale College at New Harm in Connecticut. 
 
 1702. Joseph Dudleij, ^ovonior of Massachusetts. Quarrel with 
 the general c»*irt over ths proposed salaries to be paid the 
 governor, lieutenant-governor, etc. 
 
 An expedition projected by governor Moore of Carolina 
 against 8t. Augustine resulted in failure. The debt thus in- 
 curred was discharged by an issue of paper money. 
 
 1702-1713. " Queen Anne's War " with the French. 
 
 1703. Pennsylvania province separated from the territories, or lower 
 counties {Delaware) ; separate assemblies. 
 
 1704. Deerjield in Massachusetts destroyed by French and In- 
 
 dians. This was avenged by an expedition under colonel 
 Church which ravaged the French settlements on the east 
 coast of New England. 
 Establishment of the Church of England in Carolina. The 
 complaints of dissenters against some details of ecclesiastical 
 administration led to the issue of a quo warranto against 
 the colon}' , l)ut nothing came of the matter. 
 
 1706. Invasion of Carolina by the French and Spanish in assertion 
 of the Spanish claims to that country as a part of Florida. 
 They were repulsed and defeated on land and sea with great 
 loss by William Rhett. 
 
 1707. New England sent an expedition against Port Royal, which 
 
 returned without effecting its capture, 
 
 1708. Surprise of Haverhill by French and Indians. 
 
 1709. An expedition was planned against Canada and Acadia to 
 
 which the colonies were to contribute 2,700 men. The project 
 w^as abandoned by the English government after the men had 
 been raised, and Comiecticut, New York, and New Jersey 
 were obliged to issue paper money to cancel their debts, 
 
 1710. Capture of Port Royal by a fleet from England. Change of 
 
 the name of the city to Annapolis. 
 
 1711. An exi^edition against Canada numbering 68 sail and 6,463 sol- 
 
 diers, largely raised by the colonies, met with disaster and was 
 abandoned. 
 
 1712. A massacre of colonists in Carolina by the Tusearoras and other 
 
 tribes was followed by the dispatch of Barnwell against the 
 IndiaiLS. After a difficult march he succeeded in almost anni- 
 hilating the Tusearoras, many of whom fled to the Iroquois. 
 
 1713- Treaty of Utrecht, between Great Britain and 
 France (j). 393). Cession of Hudson Bay and Straits, 
 of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and St. Christopher (in 
 the West Indies) to England. 
 
 French settlements and discoveries. 
 
 In the earlier part of the century the French had established a 
 claim to Canada and Acadia, extendmg to the Kennebec in Maine, 
 although the English claimed as far as the Penobscot. From this 
 
1G4 Modern Histt 
 
 D. 
 
 vantage ground they extended their discoveries south and west. Jes- 
 uit missionaries labored among the Hurons in the country between 
 lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron, planted the missions of St. Mary 
 (1G68) and Michillimachinac, died with their flocks when the undying 
 enmity of the Iroquois annihilated the Hurons (Brebceuf, Lallemont), 
 or sought torture and death at the hands of the Five Nations {Isaac 
 Jogues, 1640-1654). 
 1656. Acadia and Nova Scotia granted to St. Etienne and others by 
 
 Cromwell.^ 
 1656-1658. French colony in western New York, soon broken up. 
 1659. Francois de Laval, bishop of New France. 
 1662. The hundred associates of Quebec reconsigned their rights to 
 
 the king, who soon after granted New France to the French 
 
 West India Company. 
 
 1665. Courcelles, governor of New France. The colony was more 
 than doubled by the transportation of many emigrants from 
 France. 
 
 1666. Expedition of Tracy and Courcelles against the Mohawks. 
 1666. Allouez founded the mission of St. Esprit on the southern shore 
 
 of lake Superior. 
 1668. The peace of Breda ended the war between England and 
 France which had broken out in 1666. England restored Aca- 
 dia to France, and obtained from France Antigua, Montser- 
 rat, and St. Christopher. This was followed by a peace between 
 tlie French and the Five Nations. In this year 
 Foundation of Sault Ste. Marie, at the entrance of lake Superior 
 by Dahlon and Marquette. 
 
 1672. Tour of Allouez and Dahlon in Wisconsin and Illinois. 
 
 1673. Discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette and Joliet (June 
 17) who descended the stream for an uncertain distance. 
 
 Count Frontenac, governor of Canada, completed a fort at On- 
 tario called after himself. Construction of a fort at Michilli- 
 machinac. 
 
 1678. Robert Cavalier de La Salle began his career of discovery in 
 the great west. Launching in the Niagara, the Griffin, a ves- 
 sel of forty-five tons, the first ever seen on the great lakes, he 
 sailed Aug. 7, 1679. He passed through lakes Erie, Huron, 
 and Michigan, and landed at the extreme southern end of the 
 latter lake in October. He built a fort on the St. Joseph and 
 crossed the portage to the Illinois. Not heaving from the 
 Griffin he returned on foot to Canada. Obtaining fresh sup- 
 plies he retraced his route to the Illinois only to find the fort 
 which he had there erected deserted. Again he returned to 
 Canada ; again he obtained aid, and again undertook his enter- 
 prise. 
 
 1680. Discovery of the Mississippi by Hennepin, a priest in the com- 
 pany of La Salle. He ascended the river to 46° N., but the 
 claim wliich he later advanced that he had explored the Mis- 
 sissippi to the sea is probably false. 
 
 1 The southern boundary of Acadia in the grant of Henry IV., 1630, was 
 
 40° N. ; the southwestern limit of Nora Scotia in the grant of James I.^ 1621, 
 was tlie river St. Croix. Holmes, Annals, I. 307, note 4. 
 
A.. D, America. oGo 
 
 1682. La Salle, reaehinp^ the Mississippi by way of the St. Joaeph 
 and the Illinois, (U^sceiukMl the ««i-eat river to the sea and took 
 possession of its valley for Louis XIV., April 9, under the 
 name of Louisiana. 
 
 1684. Expedition of De la Barre against the Iroquois, which failed of 
 success. 
 La Salle having announced his discovery in France was sent out 
 at the head of foiu" vessels and a number of settlers to estab- 
 lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Contention be- 
 tween La Salle and the commander of the vessels, who was 
 jealous of the discoverer, resulted in disaster. The sfjuadron 
 missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed at Matagora 
 Bay (St. Louis), four hundred miles to the west. Here La 
 Salle built a fort, but privation and disease soon greatly re- 
 ducing the numbers of the colony he undertook to go on 
 foot to Canada for relief. On this expedition 
 
 1687, La Salle was shot by one of his own men. The settlement of 
 
 Mar. 19. St. Louis soon perished. 
 
 1687. Expedition of De Denonville against the Senecas. At this time 
 there were about 11,000 persons in New France. 
 
 1689-1697. War of William and Mary, see p. 361. 
 
 Expeditions of Fronteuac against the Iroquois (1693, 1696, 
 1697). 
 
 1695. Foundation of Kaskaskia in Illinois. 
 
 1699. The French and the English both attempted to found a col- 
 ony in Louisiana. The French colony was sent out by Louis 
 XIV. under Lemoine d'' Iberville, who entered the Mississippi 
 March 2, and also founded a colony at Biloxi. The English 
 attempt was made by Coxe, a claimant of the old grant of 
 Carolana, who entered the Mississippi, but, finding himself an- 
 ticipated, retired {Detour aux Anglais). 
 
 1700. An expedition from Biloxi ascended to the falls o£ St. An- 
 thony, in search of gold. 
 
 Iberville returning from France took possession of Louisiana 
 
 anew for the crown. Erection of a fort. 
 Foundation of Cahokia in lUmois. Fort at Detroit (1701). 
 
 3.702-13. Queen Anne's war, see p. 363. 
 
 Iberville brought new settlers from France and transferred the 
 colony of Biloxi to Mobile in Alabama. Iberville f 1706. 
 
 1705, Foundation of Vincennes in Indiana. 
 
 1712. Grant to Sieur Antoine Crozat of the whole commerce of fif- 
 teen years of all the " king's lands in North America lying be- 
 tween New France on the north, Carolina on the east, and New 
 Mexico on the west, down to the gulf of Florida ; by the name 
 of Louisiana." 
 
 §2. FRANCE. 
 
 X643-1715. Louis XIV. (five years old), 
 
 under the guardianship of his mother, Anne, daughter of 
 Philip III., king of Spain, called by the French Anne of Austria, i. e. 
 
366 Modern History. A. D> 
 
 of Hapsburg. The government, even after Louis' arrival at ma- 
 jority, was conducted by cardinal Mazarin. 
 
 1648-1653. Disturbances of the Fronde (cardinal Retz, prince of 
 Conde ; resistance of the parliament of Paris), the last at- 
 tempt of the French nobility to oppose the court by armed resist- 
 ance. Conde, at first loyal, afterwards engaged against the court, 
 fought a battle with the royal troope under {Henri de la Tour d'Au- 
 vsrgrie, vicomte de) Turenne, in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, and took 
 refuge in Spain. The first conspiracy, the old Fronde, ended in 1649, 
 with the second treaty of Ruel ; the second conspiracy, the neio 
 Fronde, which involved treasonable correspondence with S])ain, failed 
 in 1650. A union of the two was crushed in 1653. {Gasion of Orleans j 
 and his daughter, "Mademoiselle.") 
 1648. Acquisitions of France in the Peace of Westphalia, p. 316. 
 
 The war with Spain, which sprang up during the Thirty Years' 
 War (victory of Conde at Rocroy, May 18, 1643 ; alliance v*^ith Eng- 
 land, 1657 ; Cromwell sent 8,000 men of his army to the assistance of 
 Turenne) was continued till the 
 
 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees: 
 
 1. France received a part of Roussillon, Conflans, Verdagne^ 
 and several towns in Artois and Flanders, Hainault and Luxembourg. 
 2. The duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain, was partially reinstated 
 (France received Bar, Clermont, etc., and right of passage for troops) ; 
 the prince of Conde entirely r^nstated. 3. Marriage between Louis 
 XIV. and the infant Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. of 
 Spain, who, however, renounced her claims upon her inheritance for 
 herself and her issue by Louis forever, both for herself before mar- 
 riage and for herself and her husband after marriage, in considera- 
 tion of the payment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns by Spain. 
 
 1661. Death of Mazarin, Personal government of 
 Louis XIV. (1661-1715), absolute, arbitrary, without etats 
 generaux, without regard to the remonstrances of the parliament of 
 Paris {IJetat, c'est moi). Colbert, controller general of the finances, 
 from 1662-1683. Reform of the finances ; mercantile system. Con- 
 struction of a fleet of war. Louvois, minister of v^av, 1666-1691. 
 Quarrel for precedence in rank with Spain. Negotiations with the 
 Pope concerning the privileges of French ambassadors at Rome. 
 The ambition of Louis for fame, and his desire for increase of terri- 
 tory were the causes of the following wars, in which these generals 
 took part : Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, Catinat, Villars, Vendomc, 
 Vauban (inventor of the modern system of military defense). 
 
 1667-1668. First war of conquest (war of devolution) on 
 
 account of the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Cause : After the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, 
 
 Louis laid claim to the Spanish possessions in the Belgian provinces 
 
 {Brabant, Flanders, etc.), on the ground that, being the personal estates 
 
A. D. France, 3G7 
 
 of the royal family of Spain, their descent ought to be regulated by 
 the local " droit de devolution,^' a principle in private law, whereby in 
 the event of a dissolution of a marriage by deatli, the survivor enjoyed 
 the usufruct onl}' of the property, the ownership being vested in the 
 children, whence it followed that daughters of a first marriage inher- 
 ited before sons of a second marriage.^ The renunciation of her 
 heritage which his wife had made was, Louis claimed, invalid, since 
 the stipulated dowry had never been paid. 
 1GG7. Turenne conquered a part of Flanders and Hainault. 
 
 By the exertions of Jan de Witt, pensioner of Holland, and Sir 
 1CG8. William Temple, England, Holland, and S/veden, concluded the 
 Jan. 23. Triple Alliance, which induced Louis, after Conde had, 
 
 with great rapidity, occupied the defenseless free county of 
 
 Burgundy {Franche Comte) to sign the 
 
 1668. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 May 2. Louis restored Franche-Comte (the fortresses having been 
 dismantled) to Spain, in return for which he received twelve 
 fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands, among 
 others, Lille, Tournay, and Oudenarde. The question of the succession 
 was not settled, but deferred. 
 
 1672-1678. Second war of conquest (against Holland). 
 The course of Holland in these transactions had inflamed the hatred 
 of Louis against her, a hatred made still stronger by the refuge given 
 by the provinces to political writers who annoyed him with their abus- 
 ive publications. To gain his purpose, the destruction or the humilia- 
 tion of Holland, Loms secured the disruption of the Triple Alliance 
 by a 
 
 1670. Private treaty with Charles II. of England (p. 380), and be- 
 1G72. tween France and Sweden. Subsidy treaties with Cologne and 
 
 Munster ; 20,000 Germans fought for Louis in the following 
 
 war. 
 1G72. Passage of the Rhine. Rapid and easy conquest of southern 
 
 Holland by Turenne, Conde, and the king, at the head of 100,000 
 men. The brothers De Witt, tlie leaders of the aristocratic republican 
 party in Holland, were killed during a popular outbreak (Aug. 27), 
 and William III. of Orange was placed at the head of the state. The 
 opening of the sluices saved the province of Holland, and the city of 
 Amsterdam. Alliance of Holland with Frederic William, elector of 
 Brandenburg (IGIO-IGBS), afterwards joined by the emperor and by 
 Spain. 
 1G73. Frederic William concluded the separate peace of Vossem (not 
 
 far from Louvaine), in wliich he retained his possessions in 
 
 Cleves, except Wesel and Rees. 
 1G71. Declaration of war by the empire. 
 
 1 "Secundam antiqnas Meklin. constitutiones et fere per universain Braban- 
 tiam superstes altero coiijiigo niortuo usufructuarius reclditur suorum bonarum, 
 eorum proprietate statini ad liberos proximos vel qui luTredes futuri sunt devo- 
 'lUta." Comra. to the customs of Mechhu. Hanke, Franz. Gesck. 111., 226. 
 
368 Modern History, a. d. 
 
 Peace between England and Holland. 
 Louis XIV. conquered Franche-Comte in person ; Conde fought 
 against Orange (drawn battle at Senef) in the Netherlands. Brilliant 
 campaign of Turenne on the upper Rhine (first ravaging of the palat- 
 inate) against Montecuculi, the imperial general, and the elector of 
 Brandeiiburg. The latter, recalled by the inroad of the Swedish allies 
 of Louis XIV. into his lands, defeated the Swedes in the 
 
 1675. Battle of Fehrbellin. In the same year Turenne fell at j 
 June 18. Sasbach, in Baden (July 27). The French retreated across 
 
 the llliine. 
 
 1676. Naval successes in the Mediterranean against the Dutch and 
 Spanish. Death of De Ruyter. 
 
 1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of 
 the duke of York. 
 
 1678. Surprise and capture of Ghent and Ypres by the French. 
 Negotiations with each combatant, which had been for some 
 time in progress, resulted in the 
 
 1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen. 
 
 Holland and France (Aug. 10, 1678) ; Spain and France 
 (Sept. 17, 1678) ; the Emperor, with France and Sweden (Feb. 6, 
 1679) ; Holland with Sweden (Oct. 12, 1679). At FontaineUeau, 
 France and Denmark (Sept. 2, 1679). At Lund, Denmark and 
 Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 
 
 1. Holland received its whole territory back, upon condition of 
 preserving neutrality. 2. Spain ceded to France, Franche-Comte, 
 and on the northeast frontier, Valenciennes, Camhray, and the Cam- 
 bresis, Aire, Poperingen, St. Omer, Ypres, Conde, Bouchain, Maubeuge, 
 and other towns ; France ceded to Spain, Charleroi, Binche, Oude- 
 narde, Ath, Courtray, Limburg, Ghent, Waes, etc. ; and in Cata- 
 lonia, Puycerda. 3. The Emperor ceded to France Freiburg in the 
 Breisgau ; France gave up the right of garrison in Philippsburg ; the 
 duke of Lorraine was to be restored to his duchy, but on such con- 
 ditions that he refused to accept them. 
 
 Louis XIV. forced the elector of Brandenburg to conclude the 
 
 1679. Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, whereby he surrendered to 
 
 Sweden nearly all of his conquests in Pommerania, in return 
 for which he received only the reversion of the principality of East 
 Friesland, which became Prussian in 1744, and a small indemnifica- 
 tion (exclamation of the elector : Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus 
 ultor, Virg. ^n. IV. 625). 
 
 Louis " the Great " at the height of his power. His boundless am- 
 bition stimulated by the weakness of the empire led him to establish 
 the 
 
 1680-1683. Chambers of Reunion at Metz, Breisach, Be- 
 san(;oii, and Tournay. 
 These were French courts of claims with power to investigate and 
 decide what dependencies had at any time belonged to the territories 
 and towns which had been ceded to France by the last four treaties 
 of peace. The king executed with his troops the decisions of his tri- 
 
.. D. France, 3G9 
 
 tunals, thus adding to violence in time of peace, the scoff of a legal 
 
 orniality. Saarhriick, Luxembourg, Denxponts {Zweibrucke7i), and 
 
 uauy other towns were thus annexed to France. 
 
 681, Oct. Capture of Strasburg by treachery. 
 
 l683. Invasion of the Spmiish Netherlands, occupation of Luxembourg, 
 
 and seizure of Trier (1G84). Lorraine permanently occupied 
 )y France. To the weakness of the empire, the wars with the Turks, 
 md the general confusion of European relations since the peace of 
 N^imwegen, it is to be attributed that these outrageous aggressions 
 nrere met by nothing more than empty protests, and that 
 1084. A truce for twenty years was concluded at Regensburg between 
 
 Louis and the emperor and the empire, whereby he retained 
 Bverything he had obtained by reunion up to Aug. 1, 1681, including 
 Strasburg. 
 
 Louis' mistresses : Louise de la Valliere ; Madame de Montespan ; 
 Madame de Main tenon (Francoise d'Aubigne),SinsiTTow bigot whose 
 inliuence over the king was boundless. Maria Theresa died 1683. 
 Louis privately married to Madame de Maintenon. War upon 
 heresy. The dragonnades in Languedoc. Wholesale conversions. 
 
 1685, Oct. 18. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
 
 The exercise of the reformed religion in France was forbid- 
 den, children were to be educated in the Catholic faith, emigration 
 was prohibited. In spite of this more than 50,000 families, including 
 military leaders (Schomberg), men of letters, and the best part of 
 the artificers of France, made their way to foreign countries. Their 
 loss was a blow to the industry of the country, which hastened the 
 approach of the revolution. The exiles found welcome in Holland, 
 England (Spitaljields), Brandenburg. The Protestants of Alsace re- 
 tained the freedom of worship which had been secured to them. 
 
 1689-1697. Third War. (War concerning the succession 
 of the palatinate.) 
 Cause : After the extinction of the male line of the electors 
 palatine in the person of the elector Charles (f 1685), whose sister 
 was tlie wife of Louis XIV. 's brother, the duke of Orleans, the king 
 laid claim to the allodial lands of the family, a claim which he soon 
 extended to the greater portion of the country. Another ground for 
 
 Frederic V. (king of Bohemia), 
 t 1632. 
 
 i i ' ^1 
 
 ^ Sophia m. Charles Louis, 
 
 Ernest Augustus, t 1680. 
 
 of Hanover. 
 
 George I. Charles, Charlotte' Elizabeth, 
 
 •f England. f 1685. m. Philip, duke of 
 
 without Orleans, brother of 
 
 male issue. Louis XIV. 
 24 
 
370 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 war was found in the quarrel over the election of the archbishop of 
 Cologne, which Louis was resolved to secure for Von Fiirstenburg, 
 bishop of Strasburg, in place of prince Clement of Bavaria (1688). 
 Meantime the unfavorable impression produced throughout Protes- 
 tant Europe by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had contributed 
 to the success of the plans of William of Orange, and 
 
 1686. The League of Augsburg, directed against France, was signed 
 July 9. by the Emperor, the kings of Sweden and Spain, the electors 
 of Bavaria, of Saxony, and the palatinate. In 1688 occurred 
 the revolution in England which placed William of Orange on the 
 throne of that country, and added a powerful kingdom to the new 
 foes of Louis. The exiled James IL took refuge with the French 
 monarch (court at St. Germain, p. 385). 
 
 1688. Invasion and frightful devastation of the Palatinate, by 
 Oct. order of Louvois, executed by Melac {Heidelberg, Mannheim, 
 
 Speier, Worms, and the whole country as far as the borders of i 
 Alsace ravaged and burnt). The military successes of the French on \ 
 the Rhine were unimportant, especially after 1693, when prince Louis 
 of Bavaria assumed the chief command against them. 
 
 1689. The Grand Alliance, between the powers who had joined the 
 
 League of Augsburg and England and Holland (Savoy had I 
 joined the league in 1687). The principal scene of war was in the ■ 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1690. June 30. Battle of Fleurus, defeat of the prince of Waldeck by 
 
 Louis' general. Marshal Luxembourg. 
 The French expedition to Ireland in aid of James had but a 
 temporary success. 
 
 1690, July 1. Victory of William III. over the adherents of James ; 
 IL at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (p. 387). 
 French successes in Piedmont ; Catinat reduced Savoy ; de- 
 feat of Victor Amadeus at Staffarda. 
 
 1692, May. Defeat of the French fleet under Tourville by the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch at Cape La Hogue. The mastery of the sea 
 passed from the French to the English. Death of Louvois. 
 
 1692, July 24. Battle of Steenkirke (Steenkerken) in Hainault. 
 
 Victory of Luxembourg over William III. Fall of Namur 
 (June) . 
 
 1693, July 29. Battle of Neerwinden. Victory of Luxembourg 
 
 over William III., who in spite of his many defeats still kept 
 
 the field. 
 In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the duke of Savoy at Mar- 
 saglia. Rise of prince Eugene (" Eugenio von Savoye,^' " the little 
 abbe," son of Maurice of Savoy-Carignan, count of Soissons and 
 Olympia Mancini, niece of Mazarin, b. 1663 at Paris ; refused a 
 commission by Louis XIV., he entered the Austrian service in 1683 ; 
 died April 21, 1736). On June 30, the English fleet was defeated at 
 Lagos Bay by Tourville. Failure of the English attack upon Brest 
 (1694), not by the treachery of Marlborough. Death of Luxem- 
 bourg (Jan. 1696) ; he was succeeded by the incapable Villeroy. 
 
A. D. 
 
 Franco. 371 
 
 1695, Sept. Recapture of Namur by William III. 
 
 lODO, May 30. Separate Peace with Savoy at Turin. All con- 
 quests were restored to the duke {Fignerol and Camle), and 
 his daughter married Louis' grandson, the duke of Burgundy. 
 Savoy promised to remain neutral. 
 
 1697, Peace of Ryswick, a village near the Hague. Treaty 
 Sept. 30. beiween France, England, Spain, and Holland. 
 
 1. Confirmation of the sejjarate peace with Savoy. 2. Restoration 
 of eon(piests between France and England and Holland ; 'William 
 III. acknowledged as king of England, and Anne, as his successor, 
 Louis promising not to help his enemies. 3. It was agreed that the 
 chief fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands should be garrisoned 
 witli Dutch troops as a barrier between France and Holland. 4. 
 France restored to Spain all places whicli had been " reunited " since 
 the peace of Nimwegen, with the exception of eighty-two places, and 
 all conquests. 5. Holland restored Pondicherii in India to the 
 French East India Company and received commercial privileges in 
 return. 
 
 1G97, Oct. 30. Treaty between France and the emperor (and em- 
 pire.) 
 
 1. France ceded all the "reunions " except Alsace, which hencefor- 
 ward was lost to the empire. 2. Strasburg was ceded to France. 
 3. France ceded Freiburg and Breisach to the emperor, and Phillips- 
 burg to the empire. 4. The duchy of Zweihriicken was restored to the 
 king of Sweden, as count palatine of the Rhine. 5. Lorraine was re- 
 stored to duke Leopold (excepting Saarlouis) . 6. The claims of car- 
 dmal FUrstenourg to the archbishopric of Cologne were disavowed. 
 7. The Rhine was made free. 
 
 Brilliant period of French literature in the age of Louis XIV. 
 Corneille (1606-1684); Racine (1639-1699); Moiiere (Jean Bantiste 
 Poquelin, 1622-1673) ; La Fontaine (1621-1695) ; Boilean (1G36- 
 1711); Bosmet (1627-1704); Flechier (f 1710); Fenelon {Fran(,:ois de 
 Salignac de Lamothe, 1651-1715). 
 
 Louis' court at Versailles (after 1680) was the pattern for all the 
 other courts of Europe. Buildings, luxury, mistresses (La Valliere, 
 Montespan, Fontanqe). After the death of his wife. Mar 'a Theresa of 
 Spain (1683), Louis made a secret marriage with Franroise d'' Auhigne^ 
 widow of the poet Scarron (1610-1660), whom he made Marquise de 
 Maintenon. 
 
 § 3. GEE MANY. 
 
 1658-1705. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand ITT. 
 
 After 1663 permanent diet at Regensburg, consisting of the 
 representatives of the eight electors, the sixty-nine ecclesiastical, the 
 ninety-six secular princes, and the imperial cities. [A miracle of te- 
 dious legislation, often degenerating into a squabble for precedence. 
 " A bladeless knife without a handle."] Corpus Catholicorum and Cor- 
 pus Evangelicorum; [the corporate organizations of the Catholic and 
 the evangelical estates, the latter being the most important. This or- 
 
372 
 
 3Toclern History. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 ganization of the Protestant estates had existed, in fact, since the latter 
 half of the sixteenth century, but it was legally recognized in the 
 Peace of Westphalia, where it was decreed that in the diet matters 
 relating to religion and the church should not be decided by a majority, 
 but should be settled by conference and agreement between the Cath- 
 olic and Protestant estates, as organized corporations.] 
 1661-16G4. First war with the Turks ; caused by a dispute con- 
 cerning the election of a prince in Transylvania. 
 The Turkish successes at last enabled the emperor to obtain help 
 from the empire and from the French. Victory of the imperial gen- 
 eral Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard on the Raah (1C04). 
 A truce for twenty years, favorable to the Turks, was, nevertheless 
 concluded. 
 
 War of the empire against Louis XIV. (see p. 367). 
 1666. Settlement of the contested succession of Cleve-Jiilich : 
 Cleve, Mark, Ravenstein, and half of Ravensherg given to Bi an- 
 denburg j afterwards, the whole of Ravensherg instead of Ra- 
 venstein. 
 1682-1699. Second war with the Turks. Conspiracy of Hun- 
 garian magnates detected and punished. Count Tdkoly ap- 
 pealed to the Turks for aid. Invasion of Hungary by the 
 Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha and 
 
 1683. Siege of Vienna. 
 
 Heroic defense conducted by Riidiger von StaJiremberg. Suc- 
 cessful relief by a united German and Polish army under Charles of 
 Lorraine and John Sobieski, king of Poland. Henceforward active 
 participation of the German princes in the war, assisted by Venice. 
 After the victory of Charles of Lorraine over the Turks at Mohacs 
 (pron. Mohatch) Aug. 12, 1687, the diet at Pressburg conferred the 
 hereditary succession to the throne of Hungary upon the male line 
 of Austria. The war continued with varying fortune until Prince 
 Eugene, by the 
 
 1697. Victory of Zenta, brought about the 
 1699, Jan. 26. Peace of Carlowitz : 
 
 1. The Porte received the Banat Temesvar ; Austria, the rest of 
 
 Hungary and Transylvania. 
 
 2. Venice received Morea (the Peloponnesus, p. 416). 
 Toward the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth 
 
 century, several German princes obtained an elevation in rank. 
 
 1692. 1. Hmover became the ninth electorate. 
 
 1697. 2. The elector of Saxony (Augustus II.), after the death of 
 John Sobieski, became king of Poland, and adopted the Cath- 
 olic faith. 
 
 3. Frederic III., elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), son of the 
 Great Elector, assumed, with the consent of the emperor, the 
 
 1701. title of king in Prussia (Frederic I.) and crowned himself at 
 
 Jan. 18. Konigsberg. 
 
L. D. The North and East. 373 
 
 § 4. THE NORTH AND EAST. 
 S^veden. 
 
 Sweden, whose possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, 
 vas the first power of the North after the Thirty-Years' War. 
 L654-1718 (1751). Dynasty of the counts palatine of 
 Zweibrucken (p. 352). 
 
 1651^1660. Charles X., Gustavus, undertook a war with Poland, 
 because John Cadmir (of the house of Vasa) refused to ae- 
 inowledge liiua. He invaded Livonia and Poland, captured Warsaw 
 ind drove John Casiniir into Silesia. Frederic William, elector of Bran- 
 ienburg, who had come with an army to the defense of East Prussia, 
 w^as obliged, by the treaty of Konigsberg (1656) to receive liis duchy 
 in fee from Sweden, as he had heretofore held it from Poland. He 
 received also the bishopric of Ermeland. Uprising in Poland against 
 the Swedes. Charles Gustavus and the elector Frederic William, who 
 bad become a still closer ally by the treaty of Marienhurg, gained the 
 1656. Tlu'ee days' battle of Warsa^v over the Poles. In order to 
 further secure for himself the aid of the elector of Brandenburg, 
 Charles Gustavus granted him, in the treaty of Labiau (1656) the sov- 
 ereignty/ over East Prussia and Ermeland. Nevertheless, Russia, Den- 
 mark and the emperor, declared war upon Sweden, and they were soon 
 jomed by the elector of Brandenburg, who receiv-ed from Poland in 
 the treaty of Wehlau (1657) recognition of his sovereignty over East 
 Prussia, but not over Ermeland, for which he received compensation 
 elsewhere. The Swedes were soon driven out of Poland, retaining a 
 hold on Polish Prussia only. Charles Gustavus attacked Denmark 
 which he soon conquered (crossing of the frozen Belt, Jan. 1658), 
 and compelled to make important cessions in the peace of Roeskild 
 (1658). In the same year Charles Gustavus invaded Denmark a sec- 
 ond time, purposing the annihilation of the monarchy. Courageous 
 defense of Copenhagen. The Danes received assistance from all 
 sides. Raise of the siege. Sudden death of Charles Gustavus (1660). 
 Under his mhior son 
 1660-1697. Charles XI., the 
 
 1660. Peace of Oliva (monastery near Danzig) was con- 
 cluded with Poland. 
 
 John Casimir abandoned his claims upon the throne of Sweden, as 
 well as upon Livonia and Esthonia. Restoration of the duke of Cur- 
 land. The sovereignty of Prussia ratified by Sweden and Poland. 
 
 This was followed immediately by the 
 Peace of Copenhagen wdth Denmark, wliicli surrendered forever 
 the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, wliich had been 
 ceded already by the peace of Roeskild, but retained Drontheim and 
 Bornhobn. 
 
 Peace between Sweden and Russia at Kardis (1661) ; reciprocal 
 surrender of conquests. 
 
374 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Wai- between Siveden, as the ally of France, and Brandenburg ; 
 battle of Fehrbellin, p. 308; peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, p. 368. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Immediately after the peace (1660) the third estate (burghers), im- 
 patient of the rule of the nobility, and the clergy, conferred upon the 
 king, Frederic III. (1648-1670), an absolutely uncontrolled authority. 
 Lex Regia. 
 
 In the same way the Swedish estates, weary of the over-great power 
 of the royal council, conferred almost unlimited power upon king 
 Charles XI., who was now of age. 
 
 Poland. 
 
 In Poland, on the contrary, the royal power had become a mere 
 shadow at this period, and the state was, in fact, a republic of nobles. 
 The diet, composed of the senate (bishops, woiwods, castellanes), and 
 the elected representatives from the country (representatives of the 
 nobility) exercised every function of government. The liberum veto, 
 that is, the right of each individual member of the diet to defeat a 
 resolution by his protest, and thus to break up the diet, led to bribery, 
 violence, and, in the end, to absolute anarch^^ After the abdication 
 of John Casimir (1668), there followed a bloody contest for the throne ; 
 then John Sobieski (1674-1696), the liberator of Vienna (p. 372), and 
 finally Augustus II. of Saxony (1697-1733), under whom the war with 
 the Turks was ended by the Peace of Carlo witz (p. 372). 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Under the house of Romanow Russia developed in strength and 
 influence. The son of the founder of the dynasty, Alexis, reconquered 
 Little (White) Russia from Poland, and began to introduce European 
 civilization into Russia. After the death of his eldest son, Feodor 
 (1682), his brothers, Ivan and Peter (son of the Czar's second wife, 
 Natalia Narischkin), proclaimed Czars under the guardianship of their 
 elder sister, Sophia, by the Strelitzes, the noble body-guard of the 
 emperor. Peter in Preobaschensk, under the guidance of Lefort, a 
 Swiss. Playing soldiers : origin of the later guard. His half-sister, 
 Sophia, endeavored to exclude him from the throne, but was sent to 
 a cloister by Peter (1689). 
 
 1689-1725. Peter I., the Great, 
 
 reigned as sole monarch, his weak minded brother, Ivan, con- 
 tinuing until his death (1696) without the least authority. 
 Peter began his reforms with the assistance of Gordon, a Scot, and 
 Lefort. Conquest of Azojf (1696). After cruelly punishing a revolt 
 of the Strelitzes, Peter undertook his first journey (1697-1698), for his 
 instruction, through Germany to Holland, where he worked as a ship's 
 carpenter in Saardam (Zaandam), and afterwards to England (en- 
 gagement of foreign artisans, artists, and military officers). Peter 
 intended to visit Italy, but was recalled by a new revolt of the 
 
A. D. England. 375 
 
 Strelitzes (1698). Bloody punisliment ; dissolution of the Strelitzes, 
 who were replaced by an army after the European pattern (1099). 
 1099. Peace with the Turks at Carlowitz. Acquisition of Azojf. 
 
 § 5. ENGLAND. 
 
 1649-1660. England a republic; the Commonwealth. 
 The government was actuully in the hands of the army of inde- 
 pendents under Oliver Cromwell (b. at Huntingdon, April 
 25, 1599; where he met prince Charles, 1603 ; admitted to 
 Sidney- Sussex College, 1010 ; death of his father, 1017 ; mar- 
 ried Elizabeth Bourchier, 1020 ; M. P. for Huntingdon, 1028 ; 
 his first speech, Feb. 1029 ; removed to St. Ives, 1031 ; re- 
 moved to Ely, 1030 ; affair of Bedford-Level, 1038 ; M, P. for 
 Cambridge, 1040 ; removed to London ; resided at the Cock- 
 pit [Westminster], 1050 ; at Whitehall, 1054 ; died Sept. 3, 
 1058. Children : Oliver, Richard, b. 1020 ; abdicated May 25, 
 1059 ; died, 1712 ; Henry, b. 1028 ; Bridget, married Ireton, 
 1040 [Fleetwood, 1051] ; Elizabeth, married Mr. Claypole ; 
 died, 1058 ; Frances, married Richard Rich, grandson of War- 
 wick, 1057; il/ar?/, married lord iviwconfter^'), but theoretically 
 the legislative department was in the hands of the Rump par- 
 liament, consisting of some fifty members of the commons (in- 
 dependents), while the executive was entrusted to a council of 
 state numbering forty-one meinbers (three judges, three mili- 
 tary commanders, five peers, thirty members of the commons^. 
 Abolition of the title and office of king, and of the house of lords. 
 
 Charles II. proclaimed in Edmburgh (Feb. 5). New great seal. 
 
 Rising in Ireland in favor of Charles II., under the marquis of 
 
 Ormond. Expedition of Cromwell to Ireland (Aug. 15). 
 
 1049, Sept. 12. Storm of Drogheda ; massacre of the garrison, 
 followed by the storm and massacre of Wexford. Cromwell 
 returned to London, May, 1050, leaving Ireton in Ireland. The 
 " rebellion " was not thoroughly put do^vn until 1652, when 
 three out of four provinces were confiscated. 
 
 1650. Montrose landed in Scotland, was defeated at Corbiesdale 
 (April 27), betrayed, captured, and executed at Edinburgh 
 May 21. 
 
 June 24. Charles II. landed in Scotland, and after takuig the cov- 
 enant, was proclaimed king. 
 
 Cromwell appointed captain-general in place of Fairfax. He 
 led 16,000 men to Scotland, and totally defeated the Scots 
 under Leslie at the 
 
 Sept. 3. Battle of Dunbar. 
 
 Surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 
 
 1651, Jan. 1. Charles II. was crOwned at Scone and marched into 
 
 England (July) at the head of the Scotch army while Crom- 
 well took Perth (Aug. 2). The latter followed the king, and 
 at the 
 Sept. 3. Battle of Worcester 
 
 totally defeated the royalists. Charles in disguise escaped to 
 France. 
 
376 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1651, Oct. 9, First navigation act, forbidding the importation of 
 goods into England except in English vessels (but goods 
 might be conveyed to England in vessels belonging to the 
 country producing the goods). This measure was aimed at 
 the Dutch, and resulted in the 
 
 1652, July 8-1654, April 5. Dutch War. 
 
 Naval actions in the Chamiel ; English commanders, Blake, 
 Monk ; Dutch, Van Tromp, De Ruyter. English victory in the 
 Downs before the declaration of war. May. Defeat of Van 
 Tromp and De Ruyter, Sept. 28 ; defeat of Blake, Nov. ; de- 
 feat of Van Tromp off Portland, Feb. 18, 1653 ; off the North 
 Foreland, June 2, 3„ Death of Ireton (Nov. 1651). 
 Between the army and the Rump there had been growing contention 
 since the death of Charles I. A new parliament was desirable, but 
 the members of the Rump wished to retam their seats in any new 
 parliament. The negotiations for ransom of confiscated royalist 
 estates led to bribery of members. 
 
 1652, Feb. Act of indemnity and oblivion. 
 Aug. First act of settlement for Ireland. 
 
 1653, April 20. Cromwell turned out the Rump and dissolved the 
 
 council of state. Establishment of a new council and nom- 
 ination of 
 
 July 4. A ne\Ar parliament (" Barebone's parliament," also called 
 the " Little parliament "), consisting of about 140 members. 
 
 July 31. Victory of Monk off the Texel ; death of Van Tromp. 
 
 Sept. Second act of settlement for Ireland. 
 
 Dec. 12. The Cromwellians in parliament resigned their powers to 
 Cromwell ; an act subsequently approved by the majority. 
 
 1653, Dec.-1659, May. Protectorate. 
 
 1653, Dec. 16-1658, Sept. 3. Cromwell Lord Protector of the 
 
 commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 " The instrument of government," a written constitution. 
 
 The executive power was vested in the lord protector, who was pro- 
 vided with a council of twenty-one, which filled its own vacancies. 
 A standing army of 30,000 men established ; parliament was to be 
 triennial, and to consist of 460 members, and when once summoned 
 could not be dissolved inside of five months. Between sessions the 
 protector and council could issue ordinances with the force of laws, 
 but parliament alone could grant supplies and levy taxes. 
 
 1654, April 5. Peace with the Dutch. 
 
 Sept. 3. New parliament. As the course of the assembly did not 
 suit the protector, he ordered an exclusion of members (Sept. 
 12). After votmg that the office of protector should be elec- 
 tive instead of hereditary the 
 
 1655, Jan. 22. Parliament was dissolved. 
 
 April. Blake chastised the deys of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli. 
 March-May. Rising of Penruddock at Salisbury suppressed. Execu- 
 tion of Penruddock. 
 England divided into twelve military districts, each under a 
 
A. D. England. 377 
 
 major-general, with a force supported by a tax of ten per 
 cent, on royalist estates. 
 May. Perm and Venables, sent to make reprisals in the Spanish West 
 Indies, captured Jamaica. 
 
 1655, Oct. Pacification of Pinerolo concluded with France. The 
 
 duke of Savoy to stop the persecution of the Vaudois. Charles 
 
 to be expelled from France. 
 Nov. Anglican clergymen forbidden to teach or preach. Priests 
 
 ordered out of the kingdom. Censorship of the press. 
 1656-1G59. War with Spain. 
 Sept. 9. Capture of Spanish treasure ships off Cadiz. 
 
 1656, Sept. 17-1658, Feb. 4. Cromwell's third parliament. 
 Another exclusion of members. 
 
 Oct. Reduction of the power of the major-generals. 
 
 1657, Jan. Plot against the protector (" Killing no Murder "). Pun- 
 
 ishment of Naijler. 
 
 March-May. Humble petition and advice altering the constitu- 
 tion, adopted by parliament. Establishment of a second 
 house ; the council of state reduced in power ; the protector 
 deprived of the right of excluding members ; fixed supply 
 for the army and navy ; toleration of all Christians except 
 Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. The title of king was 
 offered to Cromwell but rejected by him (May 8). 
 
 April 20. Victory of Blake off Santa Cruz. Death of Blake, Aug. 17. 
 
 June 26. Second inauguration of Cromwell. 
 
 1658, Jan. 20. New session of parliament, mcludiug " the other 
 
 house." 
 Feb. 4. Dissolution of Cromwell's last parliament. 
 May. Siege of Dunkirk by the English and French. A Spanish 
 
 force advancing to the relief of the town was defeated in the 
 June 4. Battle of the Dunes, which was followed by the surrender 
 
 of Dunkirk (June 17). In the peace of the Pyrenees (1659, 
 
 p. 366), England received this town. 
 
 Sept. 3. Death of Oliver Cromwell. 
 
 1658, Sept. 3-1659, May 25. Richard Cromwell lord pro- 
 tector. 
 
 1659, Jan. 27. A new parliament met, and was soon involved in a 
 
 dispute with the army, which induced Richard to 
 
 April 22. Dissolve the parliament (*' Humble representation and 
 advice of the officers"). 
 
 May 7. The Rump parliament reassembled under Lenthall as 
 speaker. 
 
 May 25. Richard Cromwell resigned the protectorate. 
 
 Aug. Insurrection of Booth crushed at Winnington Bridge {Lam- 
 bert). 
 
 Oct. 13. Expulsion of the Rump by the army {Lambert). Appoint- 
 ment of a military committee of safety. This assertion of 
 authority did not meet with approval even within the army. 
 
 Dec. 26. Restoration of the Rump. Monk, who was in Scotland, 
 led his army to London and assumed control of affairs (Feb. 
 3, 1660). Monk captain-general. 
 
378 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1660, Feb. 21. Restoration of meiiibers excluded iii 1648. Re-estab- 
 lishment of the Long Parliament. 
 March 16. Final dissolution of the Long Parliament. ^ 
 1660, Apr. 14. Declaration of Breda. Charles proclaimed am- 
 nesty to all not especially excepted by parliament, promised 
 liberty of religious belief, and the settlement of confiscated 
 estates in the hands of the possessors. 
 
 1660, Apr. 25-Dec. 29. Convention Parliament ; chosen without 
 
 restrictions and numbering- 556 men^bers. The parliament re- 
 ceived the declaration of Breda favorably and returned a loyal 
 answer to the king (May 1). 
 May 8. Charles proclaimed king ; on May 29 he entered London. 
 
 1660-1685. Charles II., 
 
 extravagant, dissipated, careless of the duties of his position. 
 Charles's restoration was hailed by an outburst of loyalty which en- 
 abled him to neglect many of the promises of the declaration of Breda. 
 The king's brother, James, duke of York, appointed lord high admiral 
 and warden of the Cinque ports ; Monk captain-general ; Sir Edward 
 Hyde (earl of Clarendon) chancellor and prime minister. 
 
 Abolition of the feudal rights of knight service, loorship, and purvey' 
 ance in consideration of a yearly income for the king of £1,200,000. 
 Restoration of the bishops to their sees and to parliament. Act of in- 
 demnity for all political offenses conniiitted between Jan. 1, 1637, and 
 June 24, 1660 ; the regicides were excepted from this act. All acts 
 of the long parliament to which Charles I. had assented were declared 
 in force. The army was disbanded (Oct.), excepting some 5,000 
 men. Declaration for the settlenient of Ireland. 
 
 1680, Dec. 29. Dissolution of the Convention parliament. 
 
 1661, Jan. Rising of the fifth monarchy men in London (Vernier). 
 Bodies of Cromioell, Ireton, Bradshaw, disinterred and treated 
 
 with indignity. 
 Royalist parliament in Scotland. Abolition of the Covenant. 
 
 Repeal of all enactments of preceding parliaments for the last 
 
 twenty-eight years. 
 Apr.-July. Savoy Conference of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. 
 Apr. 23. Coronation of Charles 11. 
 
 1661, May 8-1679, Jan. 24. New parliament. " Cavalier " or " pen- 
 sion " parliament. 
 Solemn league and covenant burnt. 
 1661, May 27. Execution of Argyle in Scotland. 
 
 1 Recapitulation of the historj' of the Long Parliament : — 
 1640, Nov. 3. First assembled. 
 1648, Dec. 6, 7. Pride's Pm-ge. The Rump. 
 1653, April 20. The Kump turned out by Cromwell. 
 1659, May 7. The Rump restored. 
 1659, Oct*^ 13. The Rump exiielled by the army. 
 
 1659, Dec. 26. The Rump restored. 
 
 1660, Feb. 21. Members excluded by Pride's Purge, restored. 
 1660, March 16. The parliament dissolved. 
 
k. D. England. 379 
 
 !^ov. 20. Corporation act : all magistrates and municipal officers 
 obliged to take the sacrament according to the Church of" Eng- 
 land, to abjure the covenant, and to take an oath declaring it 
 illegal to bear arms against the king. 
 James Sharpe, created archbishop of 8t. Andrews, attempted to 
 introduce episcopacy in Scotland. 
 
 LC62, May 20. Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, 
 daughter of John IV. of Portugal. 
 
 A.ug. 24. The act of uniformity (adopted May 19), went into oper- 
 ation. All clergymen, fellows, and schoolmasters were required 
 to assent to everything in the book of common praj'^er. Nearly 
 2,000 (?) non-conformists lost their livings (dissenters). 
 Declaration of indul;r^nce promised. 
 
 1G02, June II. Execution of Sir Henry Vane. 
 
 Nov. Sale of Dunkirk to France for £400,000. Act of settlement 
 for Ireland. 
 
 1GG3. An insurrection of fifth monarchy men in the north was fol- 
 lowed by the passage of the 
 
 1604, May. Conventicle act, forbidding the meeting of more than 
 five persons for religious worship, except in the household, or 
 in accordance with the established church. 
 Repeal of the triemiial act (1641). 
 
 Aug. Capture of New Amsterdam in America. 
 
 1665, Feb. 22-1667, July 21. War with Holland. 
 
 1666, April. The plague in London. 
 
 June 3. Naval victory of Lowestoft over the Dutch. 
 
 Oct. The five mile act : all who had not subscribed to the act of 
 uniformity were ordered to take the oath of non-resistance, to 
 swear never to undertake any alteration in church or state ; 
 and those who refused were prohibited from coming within 
 five miles of any incorporated town, or of any place where they 
 had been settled as ministers. 
 
 1666, Jan. 16-1667, July 21. War with France. 
 
 June 1-4. Naval victory of Alhermarle (Monk) over the Dutch {De 
 Ruyter, DeWitt) off the North Foreland. 
 
 Sept. 2. Great Fire of London ; lasting over a week and burning 
 a region of 450 acres. The Monument. St. PauVs rebuilt by 
 Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 Nov. 28. Battle of Peyitlayid Hills in Scotland. Defeat of the Cov- 
 enanters, who had revolted under their persecutions, by Dalziel. 
 
 1667, June. The Dutch fleet burnt Sheerness, entered the Medway, 
 and sailed to within twenty miles of London. 
 
 July 21. Treaties of Breda between England, Holland, France, 
 Denmark. England received from France, Antigua, Alont- 
 serrat, English St. Christopher^s ; France received Acadia. 
 England and Holland adopted t\\e status quooi May 20, 1667; 
 England retaining New Amsterdam, and Holland, Surinam. It 
 was agreed that goods brought down the Rhine might be trans- 
 ported to England in Dutch vessels. 
 
 Aug. Fall of Clarendon, on whom the most unpopular acts of tue 
 
 # 
 
380 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 government were fathered ; he was deprived of the great seal, 
 impeached, and banished for life (died at Rouen, 1674). 
 The chief officers of state, whose councils determined the course of 
 government, began in this reign to be looked upon as a distmct (uncon- 
 stitutional) council, although they did not, for some time to come, 
 stand and fall together. 
 
 Accession of a new ministry called the " Cabal " ^ (Clifford, Arling- 
 ton, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale). 
 
 1668, Jan. 13. The triple alliance between England, Holland, 
 and Sweden negotiated by Sir William Temple and Johi Be 
 Witt as a check upon the aggressions of Louis XIV. (p. 367). 
 1670, May 22. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and 
 Louis XIV. negotiated by Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess 
 of Orleans. 
 Charles agreed that he and the duke of York would openly join the 
 Church of Rome as soon as expedient, that he would support Louis in 
 his wars with Spain and Holland. Louis promised Charles £200,000 
 a year while the war lasted, and the assistance of 6,000 men in case of 
 an insurrection. Louise la Querouaille, Charles's mistress, created 
 duchess of Portsmouth. The duke of York at once professed his be- 
 lief in Rome. 
 
 1670. Second Conventicle act, more stringent than the first. 
 1672. Charles being in want of money closed the exchequer, thus seiz- 
 ing £1,200,000 which had been advanced to the govermnent by 
 bankers. A general panic followed. 
 1672, March. Declaration of indulgence ; under the pretense of 
 lightening the burden on non-conformists, the proclamation 
 really aimed at securing toleration for papists. Parliament 
 compelled the king to withdraw the indulgence in 1673. 
 
 1672, March 17-1674, Feb. 9. War with Holland. 
 
 Invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. Revolution in the Nether- 
 lands. Murder of John and Cornelius De Witt. William of 
 Orange stadtholder. 
 
 May 28. English naval victory at Southwold Bay. 
 
 Nov. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), lord chancellor. 
 
 1673, March. Test act. 
 
 All persons holding office under government were compelled 
 to take the oaths of allegiance and of supremacy, to abjure tfan- 
 substantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the estab- 
 lished church. 
 The duke of York, Shaftesbury, lord Clifford, resigned office, being 
 superseded by prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Osborne (earl of 
 Danby, viscount Latimer, marquis of Carmarthen, duke of 
 Leeds), and Sir Heneage Finch (earl of Nottingham). Buck- 
 ingham out of office. 
 Nov. 21. Marriage of the duke of York with Mary d'Este, princess 
 of Modena. 
 
 1674, Feb. 9. Treaty of Westminster. End of the Dutch-Eng- 
 lish war. 
 
 1 This word did not originate from the initials of the ministers, although the 
 coincidence of their happening to spell the word gave a zest to its application. 
 
A. D. England. 381 
 
 1677, Nov. 4. Marriao:e of Mary, dang^hter of the duke of York, 
 
 with William of Oranp;e (afterwards William III.). 
 Ti'eaty with Holland ; secret treaty with France. Abolition 
 of the writ fJe hrrrrtiro comburendo. 
 Aug. 10. Peace of Nimeguen. 
 
 1678, Sept. The Popish Plot. This famous scare began with the 
 
 information given by Titus Oates, concerning an alleged plot 
 for the nnirder of Charles and the establishment of Roman 
 Catholicism in England, devised by Don John of Austria, and 
 the father confessor of Louis XIV., Pere la Chaise. Death of 
 Sir Edmonshury Godfrey. Upon the meeting of parliament 
 five Catholic lords (Powj^s, Bellasis, Stafford, Petre, Arundel) 
 were sent to the Tower. Conviction and execution of Coleman^ 
 confessor of the duchess of York. Bedloe swore to the plot, 
 moved by the favors showered on Oates. Passage of the 
 papists disabling act (repealed 1828) excluding Roman 
 Catholics from parliament. 
 Dec. Impeachment of Danby, on a charge of criminal correspond- 
 ence with France. 
 
 1679, Jan. 24. Dissolution of the " Pensioned " Parliament. 
 
 Danby dismissed from the office of lord high treasurer. The 
 duke of York left the kingdom after procuring from Charles 
 a statement that he had never had any other than his present 
 wife (this to dispose of the claims of the duke of Momuouth, 
 natural son of Charles and Lucij Walters). 
 1679, March 6-1679, May 27. Third Parliament of Charles II. 
 
 The impeachment of Danby was resumed ; and he was com- 
 mitted to the Tower, where he lay until 1685. 
 Adoption of the council of thirty, in accordance with the scheme of 
 government sketched by Sir William Temple. Being found cumber- 
 some in practice it was soon superseded by a new cabinet council, com- 
 posed of Sir William Temple ; Savile, viscount Halifax ; Capel, earl 
 of Essex ; Spencer, earl of Sunderland ; Shaftesbury, president, 
 afterwards in opposition. Introduction of a bill to prevent the duke 
 of York from succeeding to the crown, he being a Roman Catholic. 
 (" Exclusion bill " passed to a second reading in the commons, 207 to 
 128.) 
 
 1679, May. The habeas corpus act signed by the king : judges 
 were obliged, on application, to issue to any prisoner a writ of 
 • habeas corpus, directing the jailer to produce the body of the 
 prisoner, and show cause for his imprisonment ; prisoners should 
 be indicted in the first term of their commitment, and tried 
 not later than the second ; no person once set free by order of 
 the court could be again imprisoned for the sam.e offense. 
 May 27. Prorogation of parliament (dissolved in July). 
 May-June. Covenanters in Scotland cruelly persecuted by Lauder- 
 dale. Murder of archbishop Sharpe, May 3, 1679. Defeat of 
 Claverhouse by the Covenanters, under Balfour, at Drumclogy 
 June 1. 
 June 22. Battle of Bothwell-Brigg ; defeat of the Covenanters by 
 the duke of Monmouth. Cruelties of the duke of York in 
 Scotland. 
 
382 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Oct. 7. The fourth parliament of Charles II., prorogued immediately 
 upon its meeting without the advice of the council : Sir W. 
 Temple, Essex, and Halifax resigned, and were succeeded by 
 Sidney Godolphin, earl of Godolphin, and Laurence Hyde, 
 earl of Rochester (son of Clarendon). 
 
 " Meal tub plot," an alleged papist conspiracy against the king, 
 disclosed by Dangerjield. (Papers in a tub of meal.) 
 
 Meeting of parliament demanded by the opposition (^Shaftesbury^ . 
 
 Petitions sent up, asking that parliament be called. The court 
 party retorted by sending addresses expressive of their abhor- 
 rence at this interference with the king. Hence Petitioners 
 (the opposition) and Ahhorrers (the government), afterwards 
 Whigs and Tories. ( Whig, name of a Scotch, Tory, of an 
 Irish faction.) 
 
 1680, Oct. 21-1681, Jan. 18. Fourth parliament of Charles II. 
 
 The exclusion bill, passed by the commons, was thrown out in 
 the lords by the influence of Halifax. 
 
 1681, March 21-28. Fifth parliament of Charles II., at Oxford. 
 
 A new exclusion bill being introduced, parliament was dis- 
 solved, March 28. 
 July-Aug. Execution of Plunkett, archbishop of Armagh, for high 
 
 treason (July 1); of College (Aug. 31). 
 Nov. Shaftesbury, accused of high treason, committed to the Tower. 
 The bill being ignored by the grand jury he escaped to Hoi-, 
 land (died 1683). 
 Continued persecution of the Covenanters, Conventiclers, and Came- 
 ronians (so called after a popular preacher, f July 20, 1680), in Scot- 
 land. Passage of a test act against the Presbyterians, which, however, 
 also caused the resignation of some eighty Episcopal clergymen. 
 Trial and condemnation of the earl of Argyle (Dec); his flight. 
 
 1682, William of Orange in England. The duke of York, accom- 
 panied by John Churchill (b. 1650, served under Turenne in 
 France ; general under James II. ; married Sarah Jennings * 
 baron Churchill, 1685 ; earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; duke of 
 Marlborough, 1702 ; died, June 16, 1722^, shipwrecked on the' 
 voyage to Scotland. Monmouth made a progress in the north- 
 west counties, and was arrested and held to bail. 
 
 Dec. Death of the earl of Nottingham (Finch) ; Sir Francis North 
 made lord keeper. Sunderland, secretary of state (Jan. 1683). 
 
 1683, June. Judgment given against the city of London on a quo 
 
 warranto; forfeiture of the charter, which was ransomed. 
 
 This process was successfully repeated with other corporations. 
 
 Confederacy of Monmouth, Essex, Russell, Gray, Howard, Sidney f 
 Hampden, for securing a change in the proceedings of the gov- 
 ernment. This was supplemented by a plot of a different set 
 of persons for the assassination of the king, known as the 
 Rye House plot, from the place where the king was to be 
 shot. Both plots were revealed. Suicide of Essex, execution 
 of Russell and Sidney ; Monmouth was pardoned, and retired to 
 Holland, 
 Sept. Jeffries, lord chief justice of the king's bench. Tlie duke of 
 
A. D. • England. 383 
 
 York was reinstated in office. Danhy liberated ; Oates fined 
 (1G84). 
 1685, Feb. 6. Death of Charles II., who accepted Roman Catholi- 
 cism on his death-bed. 
 
 1G85-1688. James II., 
 
 a cruel, revengeful, deceitful despot. He was twice married : 
 1. Anne Hyde, daughter of lord Clarendon (daughters, Mary, mar- 
 ried William of Orange ; Anne, married George of Denmark). 2. 
 Mary (VEste (son, James Edivard). Halifax, president of the council ; 
 Sunderland, secretary of state ; Godolphin, chamberlain of the queen, 
 Clarendon, lord privy seal, Rochester, treasurer. 
 1685, May 19-1687, July 2. Parliament of James II. Trial and 
 
 condemnation of Richard Baxter. Danhy and the popish lords 
 
 discharged. 
 May. Trial of Oates and Dangerfield, who were sentenced to be 
 
 whipped. {Dangerfield died from the punishment.) 
 
 1685. Expedition of Monmouth and Argyle. 
 
 May. Argyle lauded in Scotland, where he was coldly received ; 
 
 June 17 he was captured, and executed June 30. 
 June 11. Landing of Monmouth in Dorsetshire. He proclaimed 
 
 himself king, as James II. Gathering a force of some 
 
 60,000 men he was defeated in the 
 July 6. Battle of Sedgemoor (the last battle in England). 
 July 15. Execution of Monmouth on Tower Hill. " Kirke's 
 
 Lambs" quartered on the people in the western counties. 
 
 Jeffries sent on a circuit in the west to try the rebels and 
 
 those who had aided them. " The Bloody Assize " (Lady Alice 
 
 Lisle). Jeffries made lord chancellor. 
 Halifax dismissed from the presidency of the council and super- 
 seded by the earl of Sunderland (who became a Roman Catholic). 
 Parliament met N'ov. 9, but as they would not repeal the last act 
 they were prorogued Nov. 27. 
 
 Arrival of many refugees from France after the revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes. 
 
 1686, June. Sir Edward Hales, a papist, appointed to office by 
 
 James under a dispensation. In a suit brought to test the 
 legality of the act judgment was procured in the king's favor, 
 by the appointment of judges favorable to the court. Catholic 
 worship allowed. Protestant clergymen forbidden to preach 
 doctrinal sermons. Compton, bishop of London, refused to 
 remove the rector of St. Giles who had disobeyed this order. 
 He was therefore tried before a 
 
 1686, eJidy. New court of ecclesiastical commission and sus- 
 
 pended. 
 Camp of 13,000 men at Hounslow Heath. Rochester dis- 
 missed from office. 
 
 1687. Clarendon superseded by Tyrconnel (Richard Talbot) as lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland. Tlie fellows of Magdalen College having 
 refused to accept Farmer, a papist, whom the king had ap- 
 
384 Modern History. § A. d. 
 
 pointed president, were expelled from their college. This was 
 only a part of the attempt made by the king to secure the 
 universities. 
 
 April. First declaration of liberty of conscience published by 
 the king in England and Scotland, granting liberty of con- 
 science to all denominations. 
 
 July. Parliament dissolved. Father Petre, the king's confessor and 
 chief adviser, admitted to the privy council. 
 
 1688, April 25. Second declaration for liberty of conscience 
 ordered to be read in all churches. 
 Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Ken, Lake, 
 Lloyd, Turner, Trelmvney, White, were committed to the 
 Tower for having petitioned the king not to insist on their 
 reading an illegal order. 
 
 June 10. Birth of a prince. 
 
 June 29, 30. Trial of the bishops for having published a false, 
 malicious, and seditious libel. The bishops were acquitted, a 
 verdict which was received with wild enthusiasm throughout 
 the country. On the same day an invitation was dispatched 
 to William of Orange to save England from a Catholic 
 tyranny ; it was signed by the 
 
 " Seveti eminent persons " or " seven patriots,''^ the earl of Dev- 
 onshire, earl of SJirev:shury, earl of Danhy, Compton (bishop of 
 London), Henry Sidney, lord Lumley, admiral Russell. 
 James declared his intention to call a parliament. Last meet- 
 ing of the ecclesiastical commission. 
 
 Sept. 30. Declaration of William to the people of England, ac- 
 cepting the invitation for the purpose of securing the religious 
 
 and civil rights of Englishmen. Doubts thrown on the birth of the 
 
 prince. 
 
 William's army was under Schomherg, his fleet was under admiral 
 
 Herbert. James's land force was led by Feversham, while Dartmouth 
 
 commanded the fleet. 
 
 The declaration frightened James ; he endeavored to retrace his 
 
 steps and dismissed Sunderland from the council. William sailed 
 
 from Helvoetsluys Oct. 19, with 14,000 men, but was driven back by 
 
 a gale. Starting again Nov. 1, 
 
 1688, Nov. 5. William landed at Torbay. Risings occurred in 
 various parts of the kingdom, and W^illiam was joined by the 
 duke of Grafton and lord Churchill (Nov. 22). Princess Anne 
 fled from London in company with lady Churchill. James is- 
 sued writs for a new parliament and sent commissioners to 
 treat with William. 
 
 Dec. 10. Queen and prince sent to France. 
 
 Dec. 11. Flight of James, who tore up the unissued writs for par- 
 liament and took with him the great seal, wliich he threw into 
 the Thames. 
 
 1688, Dec. 11-1689, Feb. 13. Interregnum. 
 
 Riots in London. Flight of Sunderland and Father Petre j cap- 
 ture of Jefries (f in the Tower April 18, 1089). 
 
I). England. 385 
 
 ec. 12. Provisional government under the presidency of Halifax^ 
 establislied by the peers in London. 
 . 17. James, who had been stopped at Sheerness, was brought 
 back to London, 
 ec. 18 James retired to Rochester, 
 ec. 19. William entered London, 
 ec. 22. James escaped to France, where he received a pension from 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 689, Jan. 22-1690, Jan. 27. Convention parliament, summoned 
 
 by the advice of the peers. 
 On Jan. 28 the commons declared : " That king James II. having 
 ideavored to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking 
 le original contract between king and people, and by the advice of 
 Bsuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental 
 ws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdi- 
 ited the government, and that the throne is vacant." Also : " That 
 hath been found by experience to be mconsistent with the safety 
 ad welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a popish 
 rince." The lords objected to the use of the word " abdicated," 
 nd to the declaration of the " vacancy " of the throne, but an 
 greement being reached in a conference of the two houses, the 
 rown was offered to Mary and the regency to William ; this being 
 efused, 
 
 689, Feb. 13. Parliament offered the crown to "William and Mary 
 jointly, accompanying the offer by the presentation of the 
 Declaration of rights, asserting the " true, ancient, and indubitable 
 ights of the people of this realm." 1. That the making or suspend- 
 Qg law without consent of parliament is illegal. 2. That the exercise 
 f the dispensing power is illegal. 3. That the ecclesiastical commis- 
 ion court and other such like courts are illegal. 4. That levying 
 aoney without consent of parliament is illegal. 5. That it is lawful 
 o petition the sovereign. 6. That the maintenance of a standing 
 .rmy without the consent of parliament is illegal. 7. That it is law- 
 ul to keep arms. 8. That elections of members of parliament must 
 )e free. 9. That there must be freedom of debate in parliament. 
 .0. That excessive bail should never be demanded. 11. That juries 
 hould be impaneled and returned in every trial. 12. That grants of 
 jstates as forfeited before conviction of the offender are illegal. 13. 
 Chat parliament should be held frequently. " William and Mary 
 «rere declared king and queen of England for life, the chief adminis- 
 ;ration resting with William ; the crown was next settled on William's 
 jhildren by Mary ; in default of such issue, on the princess Amie of 
 Denmark and her children ; and in default of these, on the children 
 )f William by any other wife." The crown was accepted by William 
 ind Mary, who were on the same day proclaimed king and queen of 
 jrreat Britain, Ireland, and France. 
 
 1689-1702. William III. and Mary (until 1694). 
 
 Privy councillors : earl of T^nhij (marquis of Carmarthen), presi- 
 ient ; Nottingham, Shreioshury, secretaries of state ; marquis of 
 Halifax, privy seal ; Schomberg (duke of Schomberg) master-general 
 
 I 
 
386 Modern History. i 
 
 of ordnance ; Bentinck (earl of Portland), privy purse and grooi 
 of the stole. Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, author of " History of m;j 
 own Times." 
 Feb. 22, Convention parliament transformed by act into a regulaFJ 
 
 parliament. Settlement of the coronation oath. J 
 
 March 1. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy taken by the* 
 
 houses, the clergy, etc. A few peers, some members of the' 
 
 lower house refused them. Six bishops and about 400 clergy- j 
 
 men were finally (1691) deprived of their holdings for refus- ! 
 
 ing to take the oaths, and became known as non-jarors. 
 March 14. Landing of James at Kinsale in Ireland ; joined by Tyr- \ 
 
 connel ; entered Dublin March 24. Irish parliament, May 7. ' 
 Meeting of the estates of Scotland. 
 Reversal of RusseWs attainders (later of Sidney^ s). 
 First mutiny act to punish defection in the army ; this act,t 
 
 which was necessitated by the declaration of rights, was made 
 
 for a year only, and was henceforward passed annually. 
 April 11. Coronation of William and Mary. William and Maryi 
 
 were offered and accepted the crown of Scotland. 
 April 20-July 30. Siege of Londonderry by James ( Walker) ; '. 
 
 raised by Kirke. i 
 
 1689, May 7-1697, Sept. 20. War with France (p. 361). 
 May 24. Toleration act exempting dissenters (who had taken the i 
 oaths of allegiance and supremacy) from penalties for non-at- 
 tendance on the services of the established church. 
 Titus Oates pardoned and pensioned. ; 
 
 July. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. \ 
 
 Graham of Claverhouse, now viscount Dundee, enlisted High-ij 
 landers and raised the standard for James. At the i 
 
 July 17. Battle of Killiecrankie | 
 
 he defeated general Mackay, but fell on the field. 
 July 30. Battle of Newtown Butler in Ireland ; defeat of the Catho-); 
 lies. Schomherg in Ireland. i 
 
 In voting supplies parliament assumed as a right the practice ' 
 which had grown up during the reign of Charles II. of requiring j 
 estimates and accounts of supplies needed and used, and intro- j 
 duced the system of passing appropriations for specified objects 
 from which they could not be diverted. ■ 
 
 1689. Dec. 16. Bill of Rights, 
 
 a parliamentary enactment of the declaration of rights, repeat- 
 ing the provisions of that paper, settling the succession as de- 
 tailed (p. 385), and enacting that no papist could wear the 
 crow^n. 
 
 1690, Feb. 6. Dissolution of parliament. 
 
 1690, March 20-1695, May 3. Second parliament of William 
 III. Tories in the majority. 
 Act of recognition, affirming the legality of the acts of the convention 
 parliament. Settlement of the civil list. William was offended at 
 not receiving so large an income as had been granted either to Charles ; 
 II. or James II. 
 
I A. D. England. 387 
 
 • i690, May 20. Act of Grace, .cfiving: indemnity to all snpi)ortcrs 
 
 of James II., exeoi)t those who were in treasonable eorres- 
 
 pondence with him. Kesi<]cnation of Shrewsbury and Halifax. 
 I May 23. Prorogation of parliament. Appointment of a conncil of 
 
 nine to advise Mary dnring- the king's absence (four Whigs, 
 
 five Tories). 
 1 June 14. William went to Ireland. With 30,000 men he met James 
 
 at the head of 27,000, and at the 
 July 1. Battle of the Boyne 
 
 totally defeated him. Death of Schomberg. James fled to 
 
 France. Capture of Dublin, Waterford, etc. 
 June 30. Battle of Beachy Head ; defeat of the English fleet 
 
 under lord Torrington by the French. Torrington was tried 
 
 by court martial and acquitted, but dismissed the service. 
 Aug. First siege of Limerick by William repulsed (Sarsjield). 
 
 Marlborough in Ireland. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. 
 
 1691. William went to Holland. Congress at the Hague. 
 Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 July 12. Battle of Aughrim, in Ireland. 
 
 Defeat of the French general St. Ruth and the Irish Sarsjieldj 
 by Ginkell (death of St. Ruth). Death of Tyrconnel. 
 
 Aug.-Oct. Second siege of Limerick ; the town surrendered Oct. 3, 
 under the conditions known as the 
 
 Oct. 3. Treaty, or pacification, of Limerick. Free transportation 
 of all Irish officers and soldiers desiring it to France. {The 
 Irish Brigade.) All Irish Catholics to have that religious lib- 
 ' erty which they had under Charles II. ; to carry arms, exer- 
 cise their professions, and receive full amnesty. 
 The English parliament confirmed the treaty, but the Irish par- 
 liament w^hich met 1695 (consisting entirely of Protestants) 
 refused to ratify it. Enactment of severe laws agamst the 
 Catholics. 
 
 1692, Jan. 10. Marlborough detected in correspondence with 
 James, and disgraced. 
 
 1692, Feb. 13. Massacre of Glencoe. 
 
 Indemnity and pardon having been offered to all Highland 
 clans who took the oath of allegiance before Dec. 31, 1091, 
 that condition was fulfilled by all except the MacDonalds of 
 Glencoe. The chief, Mac /an, however, took the oath on Jan. 
 6. This fact was suppressed by the foe of the MacDonalds, 
 Dalrymple, secretary of Scotland, and William III. signed an 
 order for the extirpation of the clan. It was faithfully exe- 
 cuted by captain Campbell ; Mac Ian, and some forty others 
 were slain. 
 
 May 19. English victory of La Hogue ; Russell and Tourville. 
 
 Aug. 3. Defeat of AVilliam at Steinkirk. 
 
 The "Junto" ministry of Whigs ; Somers, lord keeper; Russell, 
 
 Shrewsbury, Thomas Wharton, secretaries of state ; Montague, cliaii- 
 
 cellor of the exche(pier. Sunderland returned to })arliament. 
 
 X693, Jan. Beginning of the national debt. £1,000,000 borrowed 
 on annuities at 10 per cent. 
 
\ 
 
 388 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1693, July 19. Defeat of William at Neerwinden (Landen). 
 
 1694, July 27. Charter of the Governor and company of the 
 
 Bank of England, a company of merchants who in return for 
 certain privileges loaned the government £1,200,000. Bill for 
 preventing officers of the crown from sitting in the commons 
 (Place Bill). Unsuccessful attack on Brest. (Treachery of 
 Marlborough f) 
 
 Dec. 22. The triennial bill signed by the king. 
 
 Dec. 28. Death of queen Mary. 
 
 Bribery in the parliament ; expulsion of the speaker of the | 
 
 commons. Sir John Trevor. j 
 
 Expiration of the licensing act, which was not renewed ; \ 
 
 hence abolition of the censorship of the press. ! 
 
 1695, Miserable end of the Darien settlement. J 
 July 2-Sept. 2. William recaptured Namur. m 
 Oct. 11. Dissolution of parliament. b 
 
 1695, Nov. 22-1698, July 5. Third parliament of William III. \ 
 
 (first triennial parliament). 
 Whigs in majority. Recoinage act. Isaac Neioton master of 
 the mint. 
 
 1696, Trials for treason act ; two witnesses required to prove an overt 
 act of treason. 
 
 Plot for the assassination of William, execution of conspirators. . 
 One of these, Fenwick, was condemned by bill of attainder, 
 being the last person so condemned. Formation of a loyal 
 association. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. 
 
 Sunderland, lord chamberlain ; Somers, lord chancellor. 
 
 1697, Sept. 20. Peace of Ryswick (p. 371). 
 Dec. Sunderland retired. 
 
 William acknowledged by Louis XIV. 
 
 1698, Jan. Peter the Great of Russia in England. 
 1698. Spanish succession, see p. 390. 
 
 1698, Dec. 6-1700, Apr. 11. Fourth parliament of William III. 
 1699^ Feb. Disbanding act, reducing the army to 7,000 men, exclusion 
 
 of the foreign (Dutch) troops ; annoyance of William. 
 
 Act for the resumption of forfeited Irish estates, aimed at Wil- 
 liam's Dutch favorites ; the bill was fastened to a bill of supply. 
 
 Act for preventing the growth of papacy ; all persons refusing to 
 take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy forfeited their 
 estates for life. Catholic school-teachers and priests were 
 liable to imprisonment for life (repealed 1778). 
 
 1700, April. Somers dismissed from office. Bombardment of Copen- 
 
 hagen by Rooke. 
 July. Death of the duke of Gloucester, the last of Anne's children. 
 
 1701, Feb. 6-June 24. Fifth parliament of William III. Tories in 
 
 the majority. Robert Harley, speaker. Portland, Somers, Ox- 
 ford (Russell), Halifax, impeached (April-June). 
 Earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of the English forces. 
 June 12, 1701. Act of settlement. 
 
 The crown was settled on Sophia, princess of Hanover, grand- 
 daup-hter of James I., and her issue. 
 
 I 
 
A.. D. 
 
 India. 389 
 
 The sovereigns of Great Britain should be Protestant and not leave 
 the kingdom without consent of parliament ; the country should 
 not be involved in war for the defence of the foreign possessions of 
 the sovereigns ; no foreigner should receive a grant from the crown, 
 or hold ofhce, civil or military ; ministers sliould be responsible for 
 the acts of their sovereigns ; judges should hold ofhce for life unless 
 guilty of misconduct. 
 
 17U1, Sept. 7. The grand alliance, p. 391. 
 
 Sept. 16. Death of James 11. James Edward proclaimed king of 
 Great Britain and Ireland bv Louis XIV. 
 
 1701, Dec. 30-1702, July 2. Sixth parliament of ^A^illiam III. 
 
 Attainder of the pretended prince of Wales. Oath of abjura/- 
 tion. 
 
 1702, March 8. Death of William III. 
 
 Chief authors of this period : Sir Thomas Broione (1605-1682) ; 
 John Bum/an (1628-1688); Daniel Defoe (1661-1731); John Dri/den 
 (1631-1700) ; Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-1674) ; John 
 Locke (1632-1704); John Milton (1608-1674); Isaac Newton (1643- 
 1727). 
 
 § 6. INDIA. 
 1658-1707. Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. 
 
 The first yeai*s of Aurangzeb's reign were occupied in subdu- 
 ing and putting to death his brothers. When freed from their ri- 
 valry he took up the conquest of the Deccan. Bidar, Ahmednagar, 
 Ellichpur, he had (y)nquered while his father reigned. For twenty- 
 five Years his generals warred unsuccessfully against Bijiipur and Gol- 
 conda, but when Aurangzeb placed himself at the head of his troops 
 those kingdoms quickly fell. Bijdpur and Golconda were annexed to 
 the Mughal empire m 1688. It was not with the Muhammedan 
 powers alone that Aui-angzeb had to contend ; a new power, the Hin- 
 du kingdom of the Mahrattas, had arisen in the Deccan. It was 
 founded by a union of Hindu tribes of the Deccan under Sivaji 
 (1627-1680), son of a Mahratta soldier of fortune who had fought 
 under the Deccan kingdoms against the Mughals. Sivaji, by alter- 
 nately levymg tribute on the Deccan kingdoms and assisting them 
 against the Mughals, raised the Mahratta confederacy to be the 
 ruling power in the Deccan. In 1664 he assumed the title of Raja. 
 He carried on a war with Aurangzeb, who captured and killed liis 
 son Samhhajt (1680-1689), and inqjrisoned his grandson Sahu, until 
 his own death, 1707. Aurangzeb, however, was far from subdumg 
 the confederacy, which had driven him almost to despair at the time of 
 his death ; the emperor was not more successful in Assam (1662), nor 
 against the revolted Rajput states in the west (1677-1681) where he 
 ravaged Jaipur, Jodhfmr, and Uddipur without subduing them. 
 
 Aurangzeb's total revenue amounted to eighty million pounds. 
 1661. Bombay ceded to England as i)art of the dowry of Catherine 
 
 of Braganza, but it was not delivered until 1665. In 1668 it 
 
 was granted to the East India Conipany. 
 1670. Foundation of the Danish East India Company. 
 1681. Bengal separated from Madras. 
 
390 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1686. Foundation of Calcutta. 
 
 1687. Seat of western presidency transferred to Bombay. 
 
 § 7. CHINA. 1 
 
 1661-1721. Kang-he I 
 
 conquered Thibet and Formosa and carried on war with Russia 
 (1684-1689). His reign was renowned for wise administration and 
 for the cultivation of science and literature. French and English set- 
 tled at Canton. 
 
 B. The eighteenth century to the French Revolution. 
 
 § 1. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.i 
 
 1701-1714. 
 
 The family relations which led to the war will be made clear 
 by the following genealogical table. 
 
 Philip III., king of Spain, f 1621. 
 
 Anna, m. Philip IV. Maria Anna. 
 
 Louis XIII. I m. Ferdinand III. 
 
 IiOuis XIV. = Maria Theresa. Charles II. Margaret Theresa ^ Leopold I. 
 
 I t 1700. I 
 
 Louis the dauphin. Maria Antoinette, m. 
 
 I Max. Emmanuel of 
 
 I Bavaria. 
 
 Philip of Anjou, I 
 
 as king of Spain, Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand. 
 
 electoral prince of Bavaria. 
 
 Leopold I. had, besides his dauohter Maria Antoinette, two sons: by 
 his second marriage, Joseph I., emperor from 1705-1711; by his third 
 marriage, Charles VI., emperor from 1711-1740. 
 
 Charles II., king of Spain, was childless ; the extinction of the 
 Spanish house of Hapsburg in the near future was certain ; hence the 
 question of the Spanish succession formed the chief occupation of all 
 the European cabinets since the Peace of Ryswick. The question had 
 two aspects: a. The legal, according to which there were three claim- 
 ants: 1. Louis XIV., at once as son of the elder daughter of Philip III. 
 and husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV. The solemn renun- 
 ciations of both princesses were declared null and void by the parlia- 
 ment of Paris. 2. Leopold I., the representative of the German line 
 of Hapsburg, as son of the younger daughter of Philip III., and husband 
 of the younger daughter of Philip IV. Both princesses had expressly 
 reserved their right of inheritance. 3. The electoral prince of Ba- 
 
 1 Sehlosaer: Geschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts ; V. Noorden: Europdische 
 Gisch. im 18 Jahrhundert, vols. I. and II. 
 
A. D. War of the Spanish Succession. 391 
 
 varia, as great-grandson of Philip IV., and grandson of the younger 
 si.-itt^r of tlie present possessor, Charles II. b. The political usi^imt with. 
 regard to the balance of power in Europe ; in consideration of which 
 the naval powers, England and Holland, would not permit the crown 
 of the great Spanish monarchy to be united with the French, or to 
 be worn by the ruler of the Austrian lands. On this account Leopold 
 I. claimed the Spanish inheritance for his second son Charles only, 
 while Louis XIV. 's claim was urged in the name of his second grand- 
 son, Philip ofAnJou. 
 1698. First treaty of partition. 
 
 Oct. 11. Spain, Indies, and the Netherlands to the electoral prince of 
 Bavaria; Naples and Sicily, seaports in Tuscan}-, and the prov- 
 ince of Guipuzcoa, to the dauphin ; the duchy of Milan, to arch- 
 duke Charles. 
 The negotiations of the powers in regard to the succession, and the 
 conclusion of a treaty of partition without the participation of Charles 
 11., provoked that monarch. 
 
 In order to preserve the unity of the monarchy he made the prmce 
 elector of Bavaria, then seven years old, sole heir of the whole inheri- 
 tance ; a settlement to which the naval powers agreed. 
 1699 (Feb. 6). Sudden death of the prince elector. New intrigues 
 of France (Harcourt ambassador. Cardinal Portocarrero) and 
 Austria at Madrid, while both parties were negotiating a new treaty 
 of partition with the naval powers. 
 1700. Second treaty of partition. 
 
 Mar. 13. Spaiti and the Indies to archduke Charles ; Naples and Sicily 
 and the duchy of Lorraine to the dauphin ; Milan to the duke 
 of Lorraine in exchange. 
 Finally Charles II., although originally more inclined to the Aus- 
 trian succession, signed a new will, making Louis' grandson, Philip of 
 Anjou, heir. Immediately afterwards 
 
 1700. Charles 11. died. 
 
 Nov. 1. Louis XIV. soon decided to follow the will rather than 
 the treaty with England. The duke of Anjou was proclaimed 
 as Philip v., and started for his new kingdom. (" II n^y a plus de 
 Pyrenees.^') Death of James II., 1701 ; Louis recognized his son as 
 king of England. 
 
 1701. Grand Alliance of the naval powers with the emperor 
 Sept. 7. Leopold I., for the purpose, at first, of securing the Spanish 
 
 possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy for the Austrian 
 house, while France allied herself vnth the dukes of Savoy and Man- 
 tua, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne. The other estates of the 
 empire, especially Prussia, joined the emperor. Portugal afterwards 
 joined the gi-ancl alliance, and in 1703 Savoy did likewise, deserting 
 France. 
 
 Three men were at the head of the grand alliance aganist France : 
 Eugene, prince of Savoy, imperial general ; Marlborough, English 
 general, formerly John Churchill; A. Heinsius, after the death of 
 William III., 1702, pensionary of Holland. 
 
 Spain, the real object of the war, had but little importance in the 
 
392 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 campaigns, the chief seat of war being Italy, the Netherlands, and 
 Germany. 
 
 Pliilip of Anjou was recognized in Spain as king Philip V. His 
 strongest support was in Castile. 
 
 1701. Commencement of the war by Eugene's invasion of Italy. 
 Victory over Catinat at Carpi, over Villeroi at Chiari ; the lat- 
 ter was captured at Cremona (1702). 
 
 Eugene and Vendome fought a drawn battle at Luzzara (1702), 
 after which the French had the advantage in Italy until 1706. 
 
 1702. March 8. Death of William III. Anne, queen of England. 
 
 1703. The Bavarians invaded Tyrol, but were repulsed. Eugene 
 went to Germany, along the Rhine. Marlborough invaded the 
 
 Spanish Netherlands. The archduke Charles landed in Portugal, and 
 invaded Catalonia. The English captured Gibraltar (1704). 
 
 1703. Victory of the French under Villars at Hochstddt over the Ba- 
 varians. 
 
 1704. Battle of Hochstadt and Blindheim (Blenheim), 
 Aug. 13. (between Ulm and Donau worth), Bavarians and French 
 
 (Tallard) defeated by Eugene and Marlborough. 
 
 1705. Leopold I. died. His son, Joseph I., emperor. 
 
 1706. Charles conquered Madrid but held it for a short time only. 
 
 1706, May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ramillies over 
 Villeroi. Submission of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, etc. 
 
 Sept. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin, 
 
 over Marsin and the duke of Orleans with help of the Prus- 
 sians under Leopold of Dessau. Submission of all Lombardy. 
 Charles III. proclaimed at Milan. The French permanently 
 excluded from Italy. 
 
 1708, July 11. Victory of Marlborough and Eugene at 
 Oudenarde over Ve7id67)ie and the duke of Burgundy. 
 Siege and surrender of Lille. Severe winter in France. 
 
 Negotiations for peace. Demands of the allies : surrender of the 
 Spanish monarchy to Charles of Austria, and of the border fortresses 
 of the Netherlands to the Hollanders ; restoration of all matters re- 
 lating to the empire and the emperor to the state prescribed in the 
 peace of Westphalia, i. e. the cession of Strasburg, Brisach, etc. Eng- 
 land insisted on the recognition of Anne and the Protestant succes- 
 sion (p, 388) and the banishment of the Pretender. These terms Louis 
 was willing to accept, but when the demand was added that he should 
 drive his grandson from Spain with French weapons, it was too much. 
 The negotiations were broken off, Louis made a successful appeal to 
 the people of France, and the war was continued. 
 
 1709. The French were again humbled by the victory of 
 Sept, 11. Eugene and Marlborough at Malplaquet over 
 
 Villars. The bloodiest battle of the war. The allies lost 20,000 
 men. New approaches on the part of Louis. Capture of Douai, 
 Mons, etc. (1710), In Spain Philip, by the aid of Vendome, 
 had the advantage of Charles. The Spanish people favored 
 
A. D, War of the Spanish Sacccssiun. 393 
 
 Philip. Renewal of the negotiations at Gertruydenhurg. Louis 
 oft'ei-ed to pay subsidized troops against his grandson. The al- 
 lies demanded that he should send his armies against Philip. 
 Renewal of the war. Vietories of Vendome over the English 
 (Briliuega, 1710) and the imperialists (Valla-vieiosa, in Spain). 
 
 1710. Aug. Fall of the Whig ministry in England, and accession 
 
 of the enemies of INlarlhorough. 
 
 1711. Death of the Emperor Joseph, whereby Charles became 
 heir of all the Austrian possessions, so that the monarchy of 
 
 Charles V. would have been restored had the Spanish inheritance 
 also devolved upon him. These events completely altered all the 
 political relations, in favor of Louis XIV. 
 
 Marlborough removed from command, the Grand Alliance dis- 
 solved, preliminaries of peace between England and France. Death 
 of the dauphm, of Adelaide of Savoy, her husband and their son, 
 the duke of Brittany. 
 
 1712. Victory of the French commander ViUars at Denain over lord 
 Albermarle. Recapture of Do^ai, Le Qaesnoif, and Bouchain. 
 
 Openmg of the congress at Utrecht. Each of the allies pre- 
 sented his demands separately. Dissensions between the allies 
 caused the conclusion of separate treaties of peace, which are compre- 
 hended under the name of the 
 
 1713. Peace of Utrecht. 
 April 11. 
 
 1. England: Recognition of the Protestant succession in England ; 
 confirmation of the permanent separation of the crowns of France 
 and Spain. France ceded to England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia 
 (Acadia), and Hudson Bay territory ; Spain ceded to England 
 Gibraltar, the island of Minorca, and the Asiento, or contract for sup- 
 plying the Spanish colonies with African slaves. 
 
 2. Holland : Surrender of the Spanish Netherlands to the republic 
 of Holland, in order that they should be delivered to the Austrians, 
 after the conclusion of a Barrier Treaty, in regard to the fortresses 
 along the French border from Fumes to Namur, which were to be 
 garrisoned by the Dutch. Lille restored to France. Demolition of 
 the fortifications of Dunkirk. 
 
 3. Savoy received the island of Sicily as a kingdom, and an ad- 
 vantageous change of boundary in Upper Italy, renounced its claims 
 upon Spain, reserving, however, its right of inheritance in case the 
 house of Bourbon should become extinct (p. 397). 
 
 4. Prussia received recognition of the royal title, and possession of 
 Neuchatel and the upper quarter of Gueldres. Prussia's claim upon the 
 principality of Orange on the Rhone, was transferred to France. 
 
 5. Portugal obtained a correction of boundaries in South America. 
 Philip V. (founder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons) was 
 
 recognized as king of Spain and the colonies. 
 
 Reservations in the peace: 1. for the emperor, the possession of the 
 appanages of the Sjjanish monarchy, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, 
 Sardinia, but not Sicily ; 2. for the empire the status quo of the peac^ 
 of Ryswick, only. 
 
394 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 The emperor and the empire continued the war. Unsuccessful 
 campaign of Eugene, who was wretchedly supported (1713). Lan- 
 dau and Freiburg taken by V'dlars. After these losses the emperor 
 concluded peace with France, in his own name at Rastadt^ in that of 
 the empire at Baden (in Switzerland). 
 
 1714. Peace of Rastadt and Baden. 
 March -Sept. 
 
 Austria took possession of the Spanish Netherlands, after the 
 Barriere for Holland had been agreed upon, and retained Naples^ 
 Sardinia, and Milan, which she had already occupied. For the empire : 
 ratification of the peace of Ryswick ; the electors of Bavaria and 
 Cologne who had been placed under the ban of the empire, were rein- 
 stated in their lands and dignities. Landau was left in the hands of 
 France. 
 
 No peace between Spain and the emperor, who did not recognize 
 the Bourbons in Spain. 
 
 § 2. THE NORTHERN WAR. 
 
 1700-1721. 
 
 1689-1725. Peter I. the Great, Czar of Russia (p. 374). 
 
 1697-1718. Charles XII., king of Sweden. 
 
 In character the two monarchs formed a strong contrast : both were 
 of unusual ability and power, but Peter, though passionate and of 
 irregular life, was, in his political actions, governed by reason and calm 
 reflection. Charles, in liis private life passionless and of rigid mor- 
 ality, was under the control of passion and senseless obstinacy in all 
 public relations. The steady purpose of Peter, who civilized his sub- 
 jects by force, made Russia one of the great powers of Europe, 
 Charles' blind obstinacy caused the decline of Sweden's power. 
 
 The causes of the northern war w u-e : 1, the firm determination 
 of Peter to make Russia a naval pow r, and to get possession of the 
 harbors of the Baltic ; 2, the attempt of Augus^lus II., elector of Sax- 
 ony and king of Poland, to unite Livonia with Poland {Patkul) ; 3, the 
 quarrel between Frederic IV., kino- of Denmark, and the duke of Hol- 
 %tein-Gottorp,t\\e. early friend and brother-in-law of Charles XII. 
 
 The youthfulness of Charles, who had assumed the care of gov- 
 ernment at the age of fifteen, led all three monarchs to think it an 
 easy task to regain possession of those lands which Sweden had 
 taken from them. Secret alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony 
 against Sweden. 
 
 The war opened with an invasion of Schleswig by the Danes, while 
 the Saxons attacked Livonia. Unexpected landing of Charles XII. 
 in Zealand ; he threatened Copenhagen and extorted from the Danes 
 the 
 
 1700 (Aug.). Peace of Travendal. 
 
 1. Indemnification of the duke of Holstein. 2. Denmark promised 
 to abstain from hostilities against Sweden for the fiiture. 
 
 Meantime the Saxons vtrere besieging Riga (in Livonia) in vain, 
 
A. D. Tlte Northern War. 395 
 
 while Peter was besieging Narva (in Ingermannland) with like result. 
 Landing- of Charles Xll. with 8,000 luen and brilliant 
 
 1700. Victory of Narva, 
 Nov. 30. % 
 
 over the Russians. Charles's hatred of Augustus led him to 
 neglect his more dangerous opponent, the Czar, and to seek revenge 
 upon the king of Poland. Meeting and closer alliance of Augustus 
 and Peter. Charles crossed the Diina and 
 
 1701. defeated the Saxons at Riga. Charles invaded Lithuania. 
 The rep'ihlic of Poland was drawn into the war ; alliance of 
 
 the party of the Sapiehas with the Swedes. The city of Warsaw sur- 
 rendered at the first summons. 
 
 Victory of Charles XII. over the Poles and Saxons at Klissow 
 (1702) and at Pultusk (1703). Charles rejected all overtures of 
 peace, caused Augustus to be deposed by that party among the Poles 
 which had joined him and his adherent, the Woiwod 
 1704-1709. Stanislaus Lesczinski to be elected king. 
 
 Meanwhile Peter had founded his capital, St. Petersburg, in the 
 marshes of the Neva (1703), and captured Narva (1704). 
 
 Continuance of the war in Poland and Lithuania. Victory of 
 Charles at Putiitz (1704 Schulenburg's masterly retreat) and of his 
 general Rhenskjold at Fraustadt (1706). Charles invaded Saxony 
 and compelled Augustus to sign the 
 1706. Peace of Altranstadt (near Leipzig). 
 
 1. Augustus II. abdicated the Polish crown, recognized Stanislaits 
 Lesczinski as king of Poland, and sent him a written expression of 
 good will. 2. Augustus abjured his alliance with the Czar, and 
 delivered the plenipotentiary of the latter, Patkul, to Charles who 
 had him executed \vitli cruelty. 3. Saxony furnished provisions and 
 pay for the Swedish army during the winter. 
 
 In Sept., 1707, Charles took the field against Peter, who had well 
 employed the interval in making conquests and establishing his power 
 on the Baltic, and in forming a trained and veteran army. The ap- 
 proach to Moscow cut off by devastation of the coiuitry. Charles 
 allowed himself to be mislecl by the Cossack hetnian Mazeppa, who 
 had deserted Peter, crossed the Dnieper (1708) into the Ukraine. 
 Futile siege of Pultowa. Peter hastened to raise the siege and 
 by force of numbers completely defeated the Swedes, who were 
 exhausted by long marches and lack of food, in the 
 1709, July 8. Battle of Pultowa, 
 
 which established Peter's new creations on a firm basis, and 
 destroyed at one blow the ascendency of Sweden. The Swedish 
 army was completely broken up, and a large part of it captured. 
 Charles took refuge with the Turks. 
 
 1709-1714. Charles XII. in Turkey, endeavoring to induce the Porte 
 to declare war against Peter, He was successful in 1711. 
 Peter, allied with the prifices of the Moldau, crossed the Dniester, was 
 surrounded on the Pruth, and was obliged to buy the 
 1711. Peace of the Pruth from the Turks by bribery, upon tho 
 advi^'j of hi.^ \vi.:e Catherine. 
 
396 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1. Azoj^ given back to the Porte. 2. The king of Sweden allowed 
 to return to his realm unmolested. 
 
 Charles XII., indignant at this peace, refused to depart, and for 
 three years more misused the patience and hospitality of the Turks 
 at Bender, Bessarabia, now belonging to Russia, and in Demotika. 
 Senseless defense of his camp against a whole army, when the at- 
 tempt was made to force his departure (1713). Meantime his enemies 
 were making good use of the time. Augustus II. drove king Stanis- 
 laus from Poland ; the Danes tried to reconquer the southern prov- 
 inces of Sweden, but were repulsed. Peter the Great occupied all of 
 Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, Carelia, Finland. The Convention 
 of the Hague (1710), in order to keep the war away from the German 
 boundaries, had established the neutrality of all the German provinces 
 of Sweden, as well as of Schleswig and Jutland. Charles XII., how- 
 ever, having from his retreat in Turkey protested against this treaty, 
 the Danes took Schleswig away from the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 
 and conquered the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden (1712), 
 which they afterwards (1715) sold to Hanover upon condition that 
 that state shoidd take part in the war against Sweden. The Swedish 
 general Stenhock defeated the Danes and burnt Altona, but was cap- 
 tured by the Russians at Tonningen (1713). The Danes and Poles 
 invaded Pommerania, the Prussians occupied Stettin. 
 1714. Charles XII. at last returned to his kingdom. Adventurous 
 journey through Hungary and Germany. The king reached 
 Stralsund. Alliance between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, Hanover, 
 Russia, against Sweden. Stralsund and with it all Pomerania lost 
 (1715), Wismar soon captured also (1716). 
 1716. Peter I. made a journey to Denmark, Holland, France. 
 
 Charles XII. negotiated with Peter I. through Baron von 
 Gorz, who, in spite of the hatred borne him by the Swedish nobles, 
 was placed in control of the internal administration of Sweden. 
 Three expeditions of the Swedes to Norway ; on the third, 
 
 1718. Charles XII. was shot in front of Friedrichshall, prob- 
 Dec. 11. ably by an assassin. 
 
 After limits had been set on the royal power in the interests of the 
 royal council, Charles's nephew was passed over, and his youngest 
 sister, 
 
 1719. Ulrica Eleanora, raised to the throne. She soon 
 placed the control of the government in the hands of her 
 
 husband, 
 
 1720-1751. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 Execution of the Baron von Gorz, Charles's intimate. The north- 
 ern war was ended by a series of treaties concluded at Stockholm and 
 Friedrichshurg. 
 
 1. With Hanover (1719), which retained Bremen and Verden, and 
 paid Sweden one million thalers. 2. With Prussia (1720), which 
 received Stettin, western Pomerania as far as the Peene, the islands 
 of Wollin and tlsedom, and paid two million thalers. 3. With Den- 
 
A. D. Germany, 397 
 
 mark, which restored all its conquests. In return Sweden i)aid 
 000,(X)0 I'ix dollars, <;:ive up its freedom from custom duties in tlie 
 Sound and abandoned the duke of Holstein-Gottorf), whom Denmark 
 deprived of his share of Schleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of 
 1719 was continued. 
 
 1721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and 
 Russia. 
 
 1. Sweden ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part 
 of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, Dago. 2. 
 Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars. 
 
 § 3. GERMANY. 
 
 1705-1711. Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded 
 
 by his brother 
 
 1711-1740. Charles VI., 
 
 AVar of the Spanish Succession, p. 390. 
 1713-1740. Frederic William I., son of Frederic I., king of Prus- 
 sia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establish- 
 ment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of 
 Prussia. Maintenance of a standing army of 83,000 men, with a 
 population of two and a half million inhabitants. Prince Leopold of 
 Anhalt-Dessau (" the old Dessauan"). 
 
 1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the 
 emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Turks ; the Vene- 
 tians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly con- 
 ducted by prince Eugene. Victory of Peterwardeiu (171G). 
 Victory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717). 
 1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Posharewatz). 
 
 1. Austria received the Banat of Temesvar, a part of Servia, 
 with Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her con- 
 quests in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte. 
 
 The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where 
 Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite 
 the minister and cardinal Alberoni, were planning to regain the 
 Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the 
 1718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of 
 Aug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, tlie emperor, and (since 
 1719) the Republic of Holland. 
 
 After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to Rome 
 (t 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 
 1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renuncia- 
 tion of the appanages forever, in return for wliich the em- 
 peror recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to 
 exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of 
 Savoy called themselves kings of Sardinia. 
 
 The emperor Charles VI. was without male offspring. His prin- 
 cipal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various 
 
398 Modern History. A. D..| 
 
 lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division 
 
 after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under 
 
 the name of the i 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction, ' 
 
 which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire: 
 shoidd be indivisible ; 2. That in case male heirs should fail, they 
 should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was 
 Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeni- 
 ture ; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph 
 
 1. and their descendants were to inherit. 
 
 To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanc- 
 tion was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special j 
 alliance between AustriasjiOi Spain (1725), in regard to this measure, 
 produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between 
 England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew 
 from the alliance and joined Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. 
 The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 
 
 1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the 
 death of Augustus II. 
 
 Cause : The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of 
 France, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the father- 
 in-law of Louis XV., king, a second time, Russia and Austria in- 
 duced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of 
 Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops 
 in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. 
 
 The seat of war was at first in Italy, where Milan, Naples, and 
 Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan, 
 and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene 
 fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the 
 future husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the 
 imperial arms. Lorraine occupied by the French. Kehl captured- 
 Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations, 
 
 1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna. 
 
 1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, 
 receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which 
 at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1760. 
 
 2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnifica- 
 tion in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the ex- 
 tinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 416). 3. Austria ceded 
 Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to 
 Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could 
 never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange 
 Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon 
 the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. 
 
 1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia 
 (p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade, 
 Servia, and Little Wallachia were restored to the Turks. 
 May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia (IViO). 
 
A. D. 
 
 Germany. 
 
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400 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1740-1786. Frederic II. the Great (twenty-eight years 
 old). 
 
 Born in 1712, received a French education under Madame de 
 RocouUes and Duhati de Jandun ; musical (Quanz). After the frus- 
 tration of the projected marriage with a daughter of George II. 
 of England, estrangement between the king and the crown prince. 
 Frederic attempted flight, was captured, and sentenced to Kustrin as 
 a deserter (execution of Katte) where he found employment in the 
 Chamber of War and of Domain. Marriage with a princess of Bruns- 
 wick-Bevern (1733). Correspondence with Voltaire. Residence at 
 Rheinsherg and Ruppin until 1740. From his accession to his death 
 he was himself the ruler. 
 
 1740, Oct. With the death of Charles VI. the male line 
 of the Hapsburgs was extinct.^ 
 
 1740-1780. Maria Theresa, 
 
 queen of Bohemia and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, 
 etc., married Francis Stephen of the house of Lorraine, grand 
 duke of Tuscany (co-regent). 
 
 1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. 
 
 Cause : The following claimants for the Austrian inheritance 
 appeared: 1. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, who had never rec- 
 ognized the Pragmatic Sanction, a descendant of Anna, the eldest 
 daughter of Ferdinand I. He based his claim upon the marriage con- 
 tract of Anna, and will of Ferdinand I., whereby the Austrian inheri- 
 tance was (he claimed) secured to the descendants of Anna, in case 
 the male descendants of her brother should become extinct. (The 
 original will, however, read, in case the legitimate descendants of her 
 brother became extinct.) 2. Philip V., king of Spain, relying on a 
 treaty between Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand on occasion of 
 the cession of the German lands, and upon a reservation made by 
 Philip III. in his renunciation of the German lands. 3. Augustus III. 
 of Saxony, the husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I. 
 
 The claims advf.nced by Frederic II. to a part of Silesia, and his de- 
 sire to annex the ivhole of Silesia to his kingdom, the rejection of the 
 offer which he made at Vienna to take the field in favor of Austria if 
 his claims were recognized, brought about, before the commencement 
 of hostilities by the other claimants, the 
 
 1740-1742. First Silesian ^War.^ 
 
 Legal claims of Prussia to a portion q/" Silesia : ^ 1. The princi- 
 pality of Jagerndorf was purchased in 1524 by a younger branch of the 
 electoral line of HohenzoUern, and the future acquisition of Ratihor and 
 
 1 See the genealogical table, p. 399. 
 
 2 A supplement to the Prussian view of the relations of Frederic and the courts 
 of Vienna and Paris will be found in the papers by the Due de Broglie la 
 the Revue des Deux Mondes, published separately as Frederic II. and Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 3 Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte, iv. § 583. 
 
A. D. Germany, 401 
 
 Oppeln secured at the same time, by an hereditary alliance. In 1623 
 duke John George was placed under the ban by the emperor Ferdi- 
 nand II. (p. 300), as an adherent of Frederic V., the elector palatine, 
 and in spite of the Peace of Westphalia (p. 31G, B.) neither lie nor 
 his heirs had been reuistated. 2. The elector Joachim II. had made 
 an hereditary alliance in 1537 with the duke of Lier/nitz, Brieg and 
 Wohlau, which Ferdinand I. had forbidden as kinj;()f Bohemia and feu- 
 dal superior of the duke. After the extinction of the ducal house (1675) 
 Austria took possession of the inheritance. In 1686 Frederic WilUamf 
 the Great Elector, renounced the ISilesian duchies, in return for the 
 cession of the circle of Schwiehus. Tlie latter, however, was secured 
 to Austria by a secret agreement with the prince elector^ and was restored 
 by him, as elector Frederic III., in 1696. 
 1710. Occupation of Silesia by Frederic's troops. Capture of Glo^ 
 
 gau. 
 1741, April 10. Victory of Mollwitz (Schwerin). 
 
 1741. Secret alliance of Nymplienburg ^ against Austria concluded 
 May. by France, Bavaria, and Spain, afterwards joined by Saxony, 
 
 and lastly by Prussia. 
 The allied French (Belle-Isle) and Bavarian army invaded Austria 
 and Bohemia. Prague taken in alliance with the Saxons. Charles 
 Albert caused himself to be proclaimed archduke in Linz, while 
 Frederic II. received homage in Silesia. Charles Albert was elected 
 emperor in Frankfort as 
 
 1742-1745. Charles VII. 
 
 Meantime Maria Theresa had gone to Hungary. Diet at 
 Presburg ; enthusiasm of the Hungarian nobility ; ^ two armies raised; 
 alliance concluded with England. An Austrian army conquered Ba- 
 varia where Maria Theresa received the homage of Munich; a second 
 besieged the French in Prague. 
 
 1742. The victory of Frederic at Czaslau and Chotusitz, and Maria 
 May 17. Theresa's desire to rid herself of a dangerous enemy led to 
 
 the separate 
 1742, June and July. Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Aus- 
 tria and Prussia : 1. Frederic withdrew from the alliance 
 against Maria Theresa. 2. Austria ceded to Prussia upper and lower 
 Silesia and the count// of Glatz, retaining only the principality of Teschen 
 and the southwestern part of the principalities of Neisse, Troppau, 
 and Jdgerndorf, the Oppa forming the boundary. 3. Prussia assumed 
 the debt upon Silesia held by English and Dutch creditors, to the 
 amount of 1,700,000 rix dollars. 
 
 Austria prosecuted the war against the allies with success, driving 
 
 1 J. G. Droysen, Abhnndhingen (zur neueren Geschiclite) 1876, claimed that 
 the document which was published as the Traite de Nymplienbourg was a 
 fort^erv; Schlosser and L. v. Kanke consider it j:^enuine. lie that as it may 
 it is certain that new engaccements (accordinji,'- to Flassan, Tlist. de la dipt., a 
 formal Traitc dhdlidncedfi'ensire) were entered into at Nymphenburt; by Bti- 
 vnria and France, and also that a treaty was concluded between France and 
 Sixdn. 
 
 2 The truth of the well-known tale of the exclamation Moriamur prorege nos- 
 tra Maria Theresa is, however, disputed, on j,^ood grounds, 
 
 26 
 
402 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 them entirely out of Bohemia, in 1742, and Bavaria (1743) ; the prag- 
 matic army (English, Hanoverians, Hessians), under king George II., 
 defeated the French in the 
 
 1743. Battle of Dettingen. The emperor Charles VII. was a ref- 
 June 27. ugee in Frankfort. 
 
 These Austrian successes and the treaties with Sardinia and] 
 Saxony in 1743 made the king of Prussia anxious about his new ac 
 quisitions. He concluded a second alliance with Charles VII. andl 
 France, and began the 
 
 1744-1745. Second Silesian War, 
 
 by forcing his way through Saxony with 80,000 men (" impe- 
 rial reinforcements "), and invading Bohemia. He took Prague, but, 
 deserted by the French, was soon driven back into Saxony, 1744. 
 
 1744. East Friesland, upon the extinction of the reigning house, fell! 
 to Prussia (p. 368). 
 
 1745. Alliance between Austria, Saxony, England, and Holland i 
 Jan. against Prussia, The French and Bavarians took Munich. . 
 
 Charles VII. died (1745, Jan.). 
 
 His son Maximilian Joseph concluded the 
 1745, April. Separate Peace of Fiissen, with Austria. 1. Aus- 
 tria restored all conquests to Bavaria. 2. The elector of 
 Bavaria surrendered his pretensions to Austria and promised Francis 
 Stephen, the husband of Maria Theresa, his vote at the imperial elec- 
 tion. 
 
 The French under marshal Maurice of Saxony, son of Augustus II. 
 and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark, defeated the pragmatic 
 army in the 
 
 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (Irish Brigade), 
 and began the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. 
 Frederic the Great defeated the Austrians and Saxons under 
 Charles of Lorraine in the 
 1745, June 4. Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in Silesia, and the 
 
 Austrians alone in the 
 Sept. 30. Battle of Soor, in northeastern Bohemia. 
 
 By the election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, the 
 
 1745-1806- House of Lorraine-Tuscany (p. 399) ac- 
 ceded to the imperial throne in the person of the emperor, 
 1745-1765. Francis I. 
 
 After a victory of the Prussian general, Leopold of Dessau, over 
 the Saxons at Kesseldorf, Dec. 15, the 
 
 1745. Dec. 25. Peace of Dresden was concluded between 
 Prussia and Austria (Saxony). 
 
 1. Ratification of the Peace of Breslau and Berlin in regard to the 
 possession of Silesia. 2. Frederic II. recognized Francis I. as em- 
 peror. 3. Saxony paid Prussia one million rix dollars. 
 
 After the flower of the English army liad been recalled to England, 
 where thov were needed in the contest with the pretenders (p. *^38), 
 Marshal Saxe obtained at Kaucoax (1746) a second victory 
 
A. D. Geimany, 403 
 
 over the allies of Austria and completed the conquest of the Austrian 
 Netherlands. 
 
 At tlie same time, the naval war between France and England, and 
 the war in Italy between Spain, France, and Austria, were carried on 
 with varying fortune. Sardinia had concluded pe;:''*> ■" i^h >ushia 
 as early as 174:3. At last the empress of Russia, Elizabeth (p. 411), 
 ioined the combatants as the ally of Austria and sent an aimy to the 
 lllune. Congress, and hnally, 
 
 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 1. Reciprocal restoration of all conquests. 2. Cession of Parma, 
 Piacenza, and Gtiaatalla to the Spanish Infant, Don Philip, making 
 the second secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. 
 
 The following guaranties were given : that Silesia should belong 
 to Prussia ; that the pragmatic sanction should be sustained in Austiia; 
 that the house of Hanover should retain the succession in its German 
 states and in Great Britain. 
 
 Change in the relations of European states induced by the rise of 
 Prussia to the rank of a great power. Envy between Prussia and 
 Austria ; the latter seeing a disgrace in the loss of Silesia to a smaller 
 power, and intriguing for the recovery of the lost province. Tims 
 began the 
 
 1756-1763. Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War. 
 
 Cause : Before the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Mai'ia Theresa had 
 concluded a defensive alliance with Frederic's personal enemy, 
 Elizabeth, empress of Russia (May, 1746). Secret articles of this 
 treaty provided for the reunion of Silesia with Austria under certain 
 specified conditions. In Sept. 1750, George II. of England, moved 
 by anxiety for his principality of Hanover, signed the main treaty, 
 the secret articles being excepted. Saxony (minister, count Briihl) 
 signed the treaty unconditionally. Prince Kaunitz (until 1753 Aus- 
 trian ambassador in France, then chancellor of the empire in Vienna) 
 succeeded in promoting a reconciliation between the cabinets of Ver- 
 sailles and Vienna, and securing the Marquise de Pompadour in favor 
 of an Austrian alliance. Formation of a party inimical to the Prus- 
 sian alliance at the French court. 
 
 Maria Theresa and Kaunitz induced England to conclude a new 
 subsidy treaty with Russia in 1755. In June of the same year, how- 
 ever, hostilities broke out between England and France in North 
 America without any declaration of war. Conflict at Newfoundland. 
 Dreading a French attack upon Hanover, George II. concluded, in 
 January, 1756, a treaty of neutrality with Frederic at Westminster, 
 which caused a rupture between England and Russia. Kaunitz made 
 skillful use of the indignation at Versailles over the treaty of West- 
 minster. In May, 1756, conclusion of a defensive alliance between 
 France and Austria. In June, 1756, war broke out between France 
 and England, in Europe. 
 
 Frederic, well informed concerning the alliances of the powers, and 
 knowins: that Russia and France were not in condition to take the of- 
 
404 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 fensive against him in 1756, decided to take his enemies by surprise.^ 
 
 1756. Frederic invaded Saxony with 67,000 men. Capture of 
 Dresden (Aug.). 
 
 Oct. 1. Victory over the Austrians at Lohositz. 
 
 Surrender of 18,000 Saxons, who were compelled to serve m 
 the Prussian army (Oct. 16). 
 
 1757. War declared upon Frederic in the name of the empire. He 
 was threatened with the ban. Hanover^ Hesse, Brunswick, and 
 
 Gotlia, however, continued in alliance with Prussia. Treaty between 
 Austria and Russia (Jan.) concerning the partition of the Prussian 
 monarchy. Offensive treaty between Austria and France (May), 
 also looking to the division of Prussia. Sweden joined the alliance 
 against Frederic upon receiving the province of Pommerania, but her 
 part in the war was unimportant. Alliance between Prussia and 
 England (Jan. 1757) extended into a subsidy treaty (April, 1758). 
 
 1757. The Prussians invaded Bohemia in four columns. 
 
 May 6. Victory of Frederic at Prague over the Austrians. 
 Death of Schwerin. Frederic besieged Prague and attacked 
 Daun, who was coming to the relief. 
 June 18. Defeat of Frederic at Kollin. Evacuation of Bohemia. 
 
 The French reached the Weser. 
 June 26. Victory of the French at Hastenbeck over Frederic's 
 
 allies (duke of Cumberland, second son of George II.). 
 Aug. 30. Victory of the Russians (Apraxin) over the Prussians 
 (Lehwald), whom they outnumbered, in the battle of Gross- 
 jagerndorf. The Russians withdrew from Prussia and did not 
 utilize their victory. 
 Sept. 8. Treaty of the Monastery of Zeven (duke of Cumberland 
 and Richelieu), according to which the French occupied Han-|, 
 over. The treaty was, however, rejected by the English gov- 
 ernment. 
 Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, brother of the ruling duke, re- 
 ceived the command against the French. A second French army 
 under Soubise joined the imperial army with the purpose of liberatingi 
 Saxony. 
 
 Nov. 5. Victory of Frederic at Rossbach over the French and 
 
 the imperial army (Seydlitz). 
 Frederic led his victorious army to Silesia, where the Austrians 
 
 had defeated and captured the duke of Brunswick-Bevern in 
 
 the 
 Nov. 22. Battle of Breslau. 
 Dec. 5. Victory of Frederic at Leuthen over the Austrians 
 
 (Charles of Lorraine and Dawi)„ 
 
 1758. Frederic in Moravia ; unsuccessful siege of Olmiitz. Advance 
 of the Russians under Fermor, to join the Austrians. In the 
 west, Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French back across the 
 Rliine, and defeated them in the 
 
 1 Cf. A. Schafer, Gesch. des Siebenjahngen Krieges, 2 vols. 1867-1874 
 Dunckerj in v. Sybels, Bist.-ZeUs. 18U8, ai'id X«. v. Banke, Der Ursprun^ 
 des siebenjdhrigen Krieges, 1871. 
 
 
A. D. Germany. 405 
 
 1758. June 23. Battle of Crefeld. After the conquest of Prus- 
 sia as far as the Mark the Russians advanced. Bloody 
 
 Aug. 25. Victory of Frederic (Seydlitz) at Zorndorf (not far 
 from Kiistrin) over the Russians. 
 Austrians advanced upon Lusatia. The king hastened to the aid 
 of his brother Henry and was defeated in the 
 
 Oct. 14. Battle of Hochkirch (near Bautzen) by Daun. Never- 
 theless he maintained himself m Saxony and Silesia. 
 
 1759. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated by the French (duke of 
 Broglie) 
 
 April 13. In the skirmish of Bergen near Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 
 Broglie was joined by a second French army under ContadeSj 
 
 but they were both defeated by Ferdinand in the 
 Aug. 1. Battle of Minden. 
 
 The Russians advanced anew and defeated general Wedell 
 July 23. (appointed dictator by the king) at Kay. The king was 
 
 unable to prevent their union with the Austrians under Laudon. 
 
 Severe 
 Aug. 12. Defeat of Frederic at Kunersdorf (Frankfort- 
 
 ou-the-Oder) by the Austrians and Russians, who were at first 
 
 defeated. Dresden captured by the imperial army. 
 jSTov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrounded by Daun at Maxen 
 
 and captured with 13,000 men. 
 
 1760. Fouque defeated and captured in the 
 
 June 23. Battle of Landshut, by the Austrians. Futile siege of 
 Dresden. 
 
 Aug. 15. Victory of Frederic at Pfaffendorf (Liegnitz) over the 
 Austrians under Laudon. 
 The king prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians. 
 
 Oct. Berlin surprised and burnt by the RussiaiLs ( Tottleben), who 
 retreated upon the approach of the king. Bloody 
 
 Nov. 3. Victory of Frederic at Torgau {Ziethen) over the Aus- 
 trians under Daun. 
 
 1761. Frederic encamped at Bunzelwitz (near Schweidnitz), op- 
 posite the united Austrians (Laudon) and Russiafis (Buturlin), 
 who did not venture on a decisive battle. 
 
 Separation of the united armies. Schweidnitz captured by the Aus- 
 trians, Kolherg by the Russians. Frederic, who was deprived of the 
 English subsidies by the accession of George III. (1760), was in great 
 distress. The 
 
 1762. Jan. 5. Death of Elizabeth of Russia was the salvation of 
 Prussia. Her successor Peter III., an admirer of Frederic, 
 concluded 
 
 March 16. The truce of Stargard with Prussia, and soon after the 
 May 5. Peace of St. Petersburg : Russia restored her conquests ; 
 
 both parties renounced all hostile alliances. This peace caused 
 
 the 
 May 22. Peace of Hamburg with Sweden : status quo ante helium. 
 
 The alliance between Russia and Prussia was soon broken off 
 
406 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 by the deposition of Peter III. (July 9). His successor, Catharine II,, 
 recalled her troops from Frederic's army ; nevertheless their inactiv- 
 ity upon the field contributed to the 
 
 1762. Victory of Frederic at Burkersdorf (Reichenbach) over 
 July 21. the Austrians (Daun). After Prince Henry in the 
 
 Oct. 29. Battle of Freiberg had defeated the Austrians and the 
 imperial forces, and the preliminaries of the peace at Fontame- 
 bleau (p. 439) between England and France had made it certain that 
 the French armies would be withdrawn from Germany, Austria and 
 Prussia concluded the 
 
 1763. Peace of Hubert (u)sburg. 
 
 Feb. 15. 1. Ratification of the peace of Breslau and Berlin, and that 
 of Dresden, i. e. Prussia retained Silesia. 2. Prussia promised 
 her vote for the archduke Joseph at the election of the king of Rome. 
 Saxony (restoration to the status quo) and the empire were included 
 in the peace. 
 
 Frederic's endeavors to heal the wounds inflicted by the war upon 
 his kingdom. Distribution of the magazine stores. Remission of 
 taxes for several provinces. Establishment of district banks, of the 
 Bank (1765) and the Maritime ComjMny (1772) at Berlin. Afterwards, 
 however, introduction of an oppressive financial administration ; tobacco 
 and coffee were made government monopolies. 
 
 Drainage of the marshes along the Oder, Werthe, and Netze. 
 Canal of Plaueu, Finow, and Broinberg. 
 
 Reform of the jurisdiction. Codification of the common law by 
 grand chancellor von Carmer, a part of which was published in 1784. 
 
 1765-1790. Joseph II., emperor, 
 
 for the Austrian lands co-regent only, with his mother Maria 
 Theresa, until 1780, and without much mfluence. 
 
 1778-1779- "War of the Bavarian Succession.^ 
 
 Cause: Extinction of the electoral house of Bavaria with 
 Maximilian Joseph (1777). Charles Theodore, elector palatine, the 
 legal heir of the Bavarian lands, as head of the house of Wittelshach, 
 and in consequence of various treaties, was persuaded by Joseph II. 
 to recognize certain old claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and a part 
 of the upper Palatinate. Treaty of Vienna (1778, Jan.). Occupation 
 of lower Bavaria by Austrian troops. Charles Theodore was childless ; 
 his heir presumptive was Charles Augustus Christian, duke of the pala- 
 tinate of Zweibrucken (Deux-ponts). Frederic II. opened secret ne- 
 gotiations with this wavering and irresolute prince through count 
 Eustachius von Gorz and encouraged him, under promise of assistance, 
 to make a formal declaration of his rights against the Austrian claims. 
 Saxony and Mecklenburg, also incited by Frederic, protested as heirs 
 presumptive of a part of the Bavarian inheritance. As direct nego- 
 tiations between Austria and Prussia were without result, Joseph and 
 Frederic joined their armies, which were already drawn up face to 
 face on the boundary of Bohemia and Silesia. 
 
 Saxony allied with Prussia. No battle in this short war. Frederic 
 1 Cf. Manso, Gesch. d. preuss. Siaais seii dem Hubertsb. Fricden. 
 
A. D. Germany. 407 
 
 and prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of 
 forcing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Kibe, or of 
 getting around it. The armies maintained their positions of obser- 
 vation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn 
 prince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant 
 skirmishes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between 
 Maria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led in the 
 following sprmg, with the help of Russian and French mediation, to a 
 truce and a congress, and soon after to the 
 
 1779, May. Peace of Teschen. 
 
 1. The treaty of Vienna with Charles Theodore was abro- 
 gated. Austria retained only the district of the Inn, m Bavaria, i. e. 
 the part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. 
 Austria agreed to the future union of the margravates of A nsbach 
 and Baireuth, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony obtained some 
 liitherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars; 
 Mecklenburg the privilegium de non appellando. 
 
 1780-1790. Joseph II. Period of his reign alone 
 and of his attempts at reform.^ 
 
 The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa (f 1780), 
 with its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the 
 essentially revolutionary reign of Joseph II., whereby the ancient 
 forms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant 
 and stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in 
 sympathy with the eulighteimient of the century. Joseph II. is the best 
 representative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its 
 philantliropy and its devotion to right, and again of its severity and 
 lack of consideration, where there was question of executing some 
 favorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, 
 and entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph 
 pursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the 
 privileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial inde- 
 pendence, and of establishing unity in the administration (central- 
 ization). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, with 
 the exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance^ 
 not one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the 
 Austrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality. 
 
 Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries 
 were closed and 3G,000 members of orders released. There still re- 
 mained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns. 
 For those which remained a new organization was prescribed. The 
 connection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, 
 schools were established with the property of the churches, innova- 
 tions in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior 
 organization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope 
 Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes. 
 Reform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to 
 fixed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal 
 servitude among the peasants. 
 
 1 Hausser , Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedvichs d. Grossen. 
 
4:08 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch ; the emperor arbitrarily 
 annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that 
 the Schelde, which had been closed by the Treaty of Westphalia to 
 the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. 
 Finally, after four years of quarrelingj French mediation brought 
 about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew liis demands 
 in consideration of ten million florins. 
 
 Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. His 
 encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the 
 bishop of Passau (1783). 
 
 The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of German 
 j)rinces (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, 
 and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a " combination 
 within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own min- 
 isters and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into 
 favor until news was received of 
 
 1785- Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory, 
 
 according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of 
 Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands 
 (Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom of 
 Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Russia 
 supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and tlireats to 
 induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Ziveibriicken (Deux- 
 ponts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Fred- 
 eric the Great, who, a year before his death (f 1786, Aug. 17), suc- 
 ceeded in forming the 
 1785, July. League of the German Princes 
 
 between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which 
 was afterward joined by Brunswick, Mainz, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Meck- 
 lenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands. 
 
 Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in 
 Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna pro- 
 duced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted 
 its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a 
 revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789). War with the Turks (p. 414). 
 Death of Joseph II. (1790). 
 
 1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor. 
 
 Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insur- 
 rection, but restored the old constitution and the old privileges. A 
 conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 
 31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure 
 more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Russia 
 (p. 414). 
 
I 
 
 A-. D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 409 
 
 § 4. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND. 
 
 Denmark (and Nor-way). 
 
 Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete posses- 
 sion of Schleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., 
 Frederic V., Christian VII. {count Bernstorff, minister), a long interval 
 of peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revo- 
 lutionary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II. by the 
 German Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling 
 companion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the 
 queen, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown 
 in 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliana Maria) and be- 
 headed along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of 
 Holstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of 
 Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, 
 which was in consequence entirely incorporated with the Danish 
 monarchy. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel 
 (p. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions 
 of two parties of. the nobility, Hiite, " hats ; " (French) and Mutzen 
 " caps ; " (Russian), Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), 
 ended by the disgraceful 
 1743. Peace of Abo. 
 
 1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, 
 whereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure, i*. 
 The succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to AdolJ 
 Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp. 
 
 1751-1818- The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden. 
 
 Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent 
 such reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was 
 rather an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in 
 the Seven Years' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus III. (1771- 
 1792), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a blood- 
 less revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a 
 co-regent to a simple cou7icil ; the estates, however, retained the right 
 of veto against an offensive war. 
 
 1788-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of 
 Hogland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where 
 the officers of his army refused him further obedience. He found 
 support among the people (Stockholm and Dalecai-lia). The estates 
 granted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even 
 an offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus con- 
 cluded the war by a peace (at Werelce) which was without advantage 
 to Sweden. 
 1792, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarstrom. 
 
410 Modem History. A. D, . 
 
 RUSSIA AND POLAND. 
 
 Alexis, t 1676. 
 
 , I 
 
 1 \~~ I I 
 
 Feodor III. Ivan till 1689. Sophia. Peter the Great. 
 
 t 1682. I t 1725, m. 
 
 Catharine I, 
 
 I I t 1727. 
 
 Catharine, Anna, I 
 
 duchess of f 1740. 1 
 Mecklenburg- 
 
 Schwerin. Alexis, Anna, Elizabeth, 
 
 t 1718. duchess of f 1762. 
 
 Holstein- 
 
 \ 
 
 Anna, | Gottorp. 
 
 duchess of Peter II., 
 
 Brunswick. t 1730. 
 
 I Peter III., 
 
 Ivan IV. t 1762. 
 
 till 1741, ni. Catharine II., 
 t 1764. t 1796. 
 
 The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored 
 the Russian reaction, was condennied to execution by his father, and 
 died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a 
 law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) 
 which allowed the reigning sovereign to appoint his own successor, 
 by his wife 
 
 1725-1727. Catharine I., who was governed by prince 
 Menschikoff, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from 
 the lowest rank to be the first minister of state. After the sudden 
 death of the empress there followed, under her will, 
 
 1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter I. 
 He was for four months under the influence of Menschikoff, 
 who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of Dol- 
 goruky and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon 
 Peter II. 's early death, 
 
 1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder 
 brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was 
 ruled by Mllnnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biro7i (properly 
 Biihren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and took un- 
 bridled vengeance on his enemies, particvilarly the Dolgoruky. In 
 1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the em- 
 press, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's in- 
 fluence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession 
 (p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in 
 combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Miinnich (173C- 
 1739), ^so^was the only acquisition. The empress Anna was suc- 
 ceeded by her grand-nephew, the minor 
 
A. D. Denmarh, Siveden, Russia, Poland. 411 
 
 1740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Brims- 
 tvick; conducted the <<ovei'ninent for a slioi-t time after Miin- 
 nich had accoiuphshed the fall of Biron, who was sent to 
 Siberia. A nulitary revolution placed upon the throne 
 
 1741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the 
 Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding 
 government, includuig Munnich^ were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. 
 Capricious rule of women and favorites ; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, 
 to whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was over- 
 thrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War 
 with Sweden, see p. 410. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years' 
 War, p. 404, According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded 
 by the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp. 
 
 1762 — X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. 
 
 1762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he began 
 with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed 
 (July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the 
 energetic and immoral 
 
 1762-1796. Catharine 11. 
 
 The two brothers Orloff a^w^edi the emperor to be strangled, 
 whether with the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated. 
 The fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells 
 against the empress. 
 
 Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, 
 the restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy 
 under Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son. 
 
 After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance 
 with Frederic II., procured the election of her protege 
 1764-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski (f 1797), as king of Poland. 
 At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents 
 of the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catho- 
 lics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of 
 Bar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king. 
 In the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by 
 a Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the 
 confederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war 
 aroused the envy of Prussia ?a\({ Austria, which led to an attempt to 
 secure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the 
 
 1772. First division of Poland. 
 
 1. Russia received the region between the Duna, Dnieper, and 
 Drutsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria : East 
 Gallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia : Polish Prussia ( West Prussia, 
 with the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Ermeland), which the Teu- 
 tonic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Tlie assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was 
 extorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the 
 
412 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 division to preserve the Polish constitution, which was another name 
 for anarchy. 
 
 1768-1774- Catharine's first war against the Turks 
 was successfully conducted. The Turkish fleet was defeated 
 and burned by the Russians off the island of Chios (Tschesme, 1770). 
 During the war revolt of the Cossack Pugacheff, who gave himself out 
 as Peter III. The success of Ronianzoff, who surrounded the Grand 
 Vizier at Shumla, brought abovit the 
 
 1774. July 12. Peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. 
 
 1. Russia received Kinburn ; Yenikale, and Kertch in the Crimea, i 
 and their districts; and obtained the right of free navigation in all 
 Turkish waters for trading vessels. 2. The Tatars in the Crimea, 
 and along the Kuban, became " independent." 3. Restoration of con- 
 quests in Moldavia and Wallaclna to their princes, whose interests, as 
 opposed to the Porte, toere henceforward represented at Constantinople 
 by Russia. 
 
 [" Permanently important provisions of the treaty of Kutschouc 
 Kainardji : I. The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey 
 and brought under Russian influence. II. Russia obtained a firm 
 footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea ; pushing back the 
 Turkish frontier to the river Boug. III. The frontier line between 
 the two powers in Asia was left much as it was before the war. IV. 
 Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople and for certain 
 privileges for Christians in Turkey. V. Russia exacted promises for 
 the better government of the principalities, reserving a right of re- 
 monstrance if these were not kept. VI. Russia obtained a declara- 
 tion of her right of free commercial navigation in Turkish waters. 
 All subsequent controversies between the Porte and Russia may be 
 referred to one of these six heads." — T. E. Holland : Treaty rela- 
 tions of Russia and Turkey from 1774—1853.] 
 
 Prince Potemkin, Catharine's favorite, soon became all-powerful 
 and conducted all state affairs according to his humor and his arbi- 
 trary will. 
 
 1780. Armed neutrality at sea, 
 
 at first introduced for the protection of commerce during the 
 North American war (p. 428). The subject was broached by Rus- 
 sia, and the idea gradually found support from Denmark, Sweden 
 (1780), Prussia, Austria (1782), Portugal (1783); Spain, and France 
 recognized the principle. England prevented the addition of Holland 
 to the league by a declaration of war. 
 
 Demands of the Armed Neutrality. 1. Free passage of neutral 
 ships from port to port and along the coasts of combatants. 2. Free- 
 dom of an enemy's goods in neutral ships (le pavilion couvre la 
 marchandise), with the exception of such goods as were contraband of 
 war. 3. Exact definition of a blockaded port ; a merely nominal 
 (" paper ") blockade, that is, one not enforced by a sufficient number 
 of ships of war in the vicinity of the specified harbor, was declared 
 to be inadmissible. 
 
 Plan of Catharine and Potemkin to drive the Turks out of Europe, 
 
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 413 
 
 and to restore the Greek empire, as a secondogeniture of the 
 3. imperial house of Russia, under grand-duke Consiantiiie. The 
 7. Crimea (Tauria) incorporated with Russia. Catharine's jour- 
 ney through southern Russia to Kherson. Shameless represen- 
 tation of a flourishing condition of the country by Potemkin 
 the Taurian ! Meeting with Joseph II. 
 
 87-1792. Catharine's second war with the Turks 
 
 (Fotemkin and Suvaroff), 
 dliance ^^^th Austria {Laudon and the prince of Coburg). Potem- 
 stormed Otchakojf (11 8S), victory, in union with the Austrians at 
 kchany and on the Rimnik, Potemkin conquered Bender (1789), Su- 
 •off stormed Ismail (1790). Victory at Matchin. Peace between 
 stria and Turkey at Sistova (1791). Austria received Old- 
 sova only. PotemJkin died 1791. Between Russia and the Porte 
 
 '92. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy. 
 
 Russia received Otchakoff and the land between the lower 
 lieper, Bug, and Dniester, the latter river becoming the boundary. 
 
 793- Second division of Poland. 
 
 The Poles had attempted to improve the war of Russia and 
 
 astria with the Turks, and the seemingly friendly aspect of Prussia, 
 
 ' putting an end to their dependence upon the neighboring states, 
 
 d to the anarchical condition of affairs at home. Alliance with 
 
 mssia (1790), which promised to help the Poles if foreign nations 
 
 ould attempt to interfere in their internal affairs. The new con- 
 
 :itution of 1791, drawn up by Ignaz Potocki and his friends, 1. 
 
 )nverted the elective monarchy into an hereditary monarchy, appoint- 
 
 g the elector of Saxony successor of the king Stanislaus Poniatowski 
 
 id making the throne hereditary in the house of Saxony ; 2. con- 
 
 irred the executive power upon the king and a council of state, the 
 
 •gislative power upon a diet of the kingdom in two houses, with 
 
 bolition of the liberum veto, and 3. made some concessions to the mid- 
 
 le classes and the peasants, permitting, for example, admission to 
 
 lie rank of the nobility, all of whose privileges, however, were con- 
 
 jmed. 
 
 In opposition to this constitution there was formed the Confederacy 
 f Targowitz {Felix Potocki), under the protection of Russia, which 
 lad guaranteed the old constitution. A Russian army invaded Poland. 
 3rave, but futile resistance under prince Poniasto/vshi and Kosciuszko, 
 vho were defeated at Duhienka. The kmg joined the confederacy of 
 Targowitz ; the new constitution was repealed. Under pretense of 
 iuppressing Jacobinism, Prussian troops entered Poland. Annexa- 
 ion of Danzig (1793). Russia and Prussia issued a common procla- 
 aiation which announced to the Poles that Russia and her former 
 illies had already come to an understanding. At the diet of Grodno, 
 the consent of the nation to the new cessions, was extorted. 
 
 Russia took the larger part of Lithuania, being all that remained, 
 and Volhynia and Podolia ; Prussia took Danzig and Thorn, and the 
 whole of Great Poland (now called South Prussia). Besides all this, 
 
414 Modern History, A 
 
 Russia enforced a treaty of union, whereby she received : 1 
 entrance for her troops into Poland ; 2. the conduct of all fui 
 wars ; 3. the right of confirming all treaties made by Poland \ 
 foreign powers. 
 1794. Revolution in Poland, under the lead of Kosciuszko 
 
 Russians in Warsaw, under Igelsirom, were in part massaci 
 in part driven from the city. The Prussians entered Poland, def ea 
 Kosciuszko at Szczekoziny (pr. Shtchekoziny), took Cracow, but 
 sieged Warsaw in vain. The Russians were victorious at Brzesc .%^i 
 at Maciejowice (pr. Matchevitz). Kosciuszko captured.^ Storm ,,1 
 Prague by Suvaroff ; massacre in the city. . , 
 
 \ liwe 
 Biag 
 loal 
 
 1795. Third and last partition of Poland. 
 
 At this partition, the three pov»rers took possession of the 
 lowing parts of Poland : 
 
 Prussia : Masovia with Warsaiv, the region between the Visti 
 Bug, and Niemen (New East Prussia), part of Cracow {New Silesv 
 2. Austria: West Galicia as far as the Bug. 3. Russia : all t 
 remained towards the east. The powers obtained, by the three pa:J A 
 tions, about the following increase of territory : ^ 
 
 Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 inhabitants. 
 Austria, 45,000 " " " 3,700,000 « 
 
 Prussia, 57,000 " " " 2,500,000 " 
 
 1 
 
 1795. The annihilation of the kingdom of Poland led to the inci 
 poration of Curland with Russia. Curland, legally under 1 
 overlordship of Poland, had been practically under Russian suprema_j 
 since 1737, when the empress Anna (411) had obtained the due 
 for Biron against the claims of the Marshal Saxe. 
 
 § 5. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 1701-1808 (1814-x). The House of Bourbon in Spai 
 Philip V. (1701-1746). Bloody punishment of the adherents 
 
 the archduke Charles of Austria ; particularly in Aragon and Cat 
 Ionia. Suppression of all old constitutions and rights \Fueros) whir 
 remained. The quadruple alliance against Spain, see p. 397, the pa 
 ticipation of Spain in the war of the Polish Succession and the esta' 
 lishment of a secundogeniture in Naples, see p. 398. 
 
 Under Philip and his successor Ferdinand VI., 1746-1759, pa 
 ticipation in the war of the Austrian succession, see p. 401. Ferd 
 nand was succeeded by his half-brother 
 
 Charles III., 1759-1788, previously king of the Two Sicilies, p. 41 
 Participation of Spain in the Seven Years' War between En^ 
 land and France (Peace of Paris), see p. 441, and in the war ( 
 American Independence (Peace of Versailles), see p. 433. A popi 
 kir revolt against Italian favorites of the king, was made the prete> 
 
 1 Kosciuszko never made use of the well-known expression " Finis Pi 
 canice,'' as he himself openly and with indignation declared. 
 
Portugal. — Italy. 415 
 
 the banishment of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was exe- 
 ;d by the minister Aranda. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 ince 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again 
 3hod a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house 
 feraganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable administra- 
 , and brought into complete dependence upon England by a com- 
 cial treaty with that power. In the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel 
 50-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, endeav- 
 i to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, 
 he same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). 
 er the terrible 
 
 55. Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon, 
 
 in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pombal caused the 
 led portion of the capital to be splendidly rebuilt. An unsuccess- 
 attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for han- 
 ng the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the 
 lister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was 
 owed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The 
 er of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sen- 
 ced to death, but pardoned. 
 
 § 6. ITALY. 
 
 Savoy. 
 
 Che dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of 
 reclit, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to 
 rease their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, 
 skillful use of political relations. During the tvar of the Austrian 
 cession they acquired a considerable extent of land from Milan 
 400). ♦ 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her free- 
 31 and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her 
 ritory (Savoy, France, Austria}. In 1730 the inhabitants of the 
 md of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, 
 '^olted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a Ger- 
 i,n adventurer, Baron Neuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time 
 King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the 
 (istance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody bat- 
 s (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugating the island, 
 lich the Genoese ceded to them in 1768. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persis=- 
 ice in the old aristocratic forms, politically iinmired, sank into an 
 '•emediable decliue. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth 
 
416 Modern History. '^' I'll 
 
 century in the glorions wars against the Turks. The latter surprise* ' \ 
 Candia and conquered a part of the island (1645-1G47). The Vene , 
 tian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the mucl \ 
 stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral AIocenigiK 
 1G51, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello annihilated the Turkish flecy 
 by the Dardanelles (1G56), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at CAiosii 
 but was liiniself defeated in a second combat. New naval victorie-'l 
 over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid fror i 
 Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, t ^ 
 leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alliii 
 ance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John Sohiesk\l 
 of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Vene 
 tians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began thi 
 conquest of the Peloponnesus {Morea) in 1685. Count Konigsmar 
 landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the penin 
 sula. Morosini captured Athens; a Venetian bomb blew up the Pai 
 theuon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected dog* 
 landed in Negroponte (Euboea), but the plague in the army (KonigSj 
 mark f ) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowitz, 169 
 (see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulatet 
 the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred ( 
 their new subjects by the rigor of their administration. 
 
 \ 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as th 
 influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of thf 
 Medici became extinct ; the later members of this house, sunken i 
 dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 173'I 
 the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398) ; Leopold 
 II., upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his secoi* 
 son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was sm, Austrian secundogeniture frd^ 
 1765-1859. 
 
 Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for Hi 
 Spanish Bourhons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859. 
 
 Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of th; 
 house of Este. 
 
 Papal States. 
 
 In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life ste; 
 ily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occi) 
 pied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of th 
 great families of the nobility. Among the Popes of the eighteent 
 century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 177' 
 yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the orde 
 of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea o 
 reform {sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redempto 
 noster. 
 
 The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Boui 
 bons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when th 
 
 ao 
 
! 
 
 A. D. America: British Colonies. 417 
 
 latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicily were 
 governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest 
 of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual 
 and material welfare little or nothing was done. 
 
 § 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES. 
 
 1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification 
 of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut 
 by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the former to 
 the latter. 
 
 1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and 
 allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the 
 Spanish border by governor Craven. 
 
 1718. Captain Woods Rogers, appointed governor of New Providence, 
 suppressed the buccaneers m the West Indies ; extirpation 
 of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of 
 that colony. 
 
 1719-1729. Overthrow of proprietary government in Carolina. 
 In 1719 the people of Carolina, havmg for some time chafed under 
 the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for 
 the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly prov- 
 ing unruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey 
 the proclamation ; they elected a new governor and council, and op- 
 posed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed 
 defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show 
 more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish 
 expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Provi- 
 dence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported 
 by the agent for the colony in England, the royal council declared the 
 charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a pro- 
 visional royal government ; governor Nicholsoyi (1721). In 1729 an 
 agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of 
 parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest m 
 the colony ; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary 
 power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and 
 councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 
 1720. WilUam Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade 
 
 between the Indians and the French. 
 1722. In New York, governor Burnet contmued his efforts to ob- 
 struct the French in their policy of hemming in the English 
 sea-coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at 
 Oswego ; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The 
 Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy as 
 a sixth nation). 
 1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War ^vith the Abinakis, 
 who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settle- 
 ments, and further provoked by the advice of Rasles, a French 
 Jesuit at Norridgewoek. Futile attempt of the English to seize 
 Rasles was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon 
 war was declared, Norridgewoek burnt and Rasles killed. 
 
418 Modern History. A. dJ 
 
 1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Span- 
 iards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony] 
 in Carolina. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upoi 
 which he chastised the Indians. 
 
 1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involvec 
 in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained froi 
 the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power 
 suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of 
 representatives might adjourn, to two days. 
 
 Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern In- 
 dians, which was long kept. 
 
 In New York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onor 
 dagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and Oneidas^ 
 which were already under English protection. 
 
 1728. Burnet governor of Massachusetts. He was at once involved 
 in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed 
 salary for the governor, which the court refused to grant, " be- 
 cause it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna 
 Charter, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, 
 of their own free accord, without compulsion." 
 
 The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was sur- 
 veyed and settled, running through the Dismal Swamp. 
 
 1729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina 
 (p. 417). 
 
 1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New York and 
 Connecticut. 
 
 1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thir- 
 teen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
 nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
 Carolina, Georgia). 
 It being thought desirable that the government should secure for 
 England the western part of Carolina m order to prevent the French 
 or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a 
 charter for the lands between the Savannah and Alatamaha rivers ex- 
 tending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to 
 James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees 
 (twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the 
 expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, which 
 should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Lib- 
 erty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhab- 
 itants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving 
 spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a 
 chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor 
 and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the 
 first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savannah ; conciliation of the 
 Indians by just purchase of lands and b}^ kindness. Oglethorpe re- 
 fused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. 
 Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came 
 to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees de- 
 clared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony. 
 
A. D. America: British Colonies. 419 
 
 1734. In New York arrest of Zeiiger, printer of the Weekly Jour- 
 nal, for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 
 1735. 
 
 1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey. 
 
 1739-1748. Great Britain at war with Spain. 
 
 1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head 
 of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia. 8iege of 
 St. Augustine. 
 
 Settlement of the boundary dispute between Massachusetts 
 and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony. 
 I Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Carthagena, 
 
 broken up by disease. 
 
 1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba. 
 
 1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Georgia repulsed by Ogle- 
 thorpe by stratagem. In this year Oglethorpe went to England 
 and never returned to America. 
 
 1744-1748. War between Great Britain and Prance, 
 
 known in the American colonies as King George's War, 
 
 in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession 
 
 (p. 400). 
 
 The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec 
 
 .was Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, 
 
 of Acadia ; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with 
 
 that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under 
 
 that name. 
 
 1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 
 4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few 
 English vessels. 
 
 1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the 
 colonies prevented by the arrival of a large French fleet at 
 Nova Scotia under DAnville, which spread consternation 
 throughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of 
 DAnville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and 
 the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accomplisliing 
 anything. 
 
 1747. Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to 
 
 press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the 
 people; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the dis- 
 turbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men 
 seized. 
 
 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between England, France, and 
 Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests. Cape Breton 
 was restored to the French (p. 404). 
 
 Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the 
 English crown, which gave great offense to the French. 
 1750. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to Eng- 
 land by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, hostilities sprang up be- 
 tween the French and English there, owing to disputes over 
 the boundaries. 
 
420 Modern History. A. D. | 
 
 ■ji 
 
 1751. Governor Clinton, of New York, in association with South i 
 Carolina, Massachusetts and Connecticut, concluded a peace i 
 with the Six Nations. \ 
 
 1752. The trustees of Georgia finding that the colony did not flourish J 
 under their care, gave up their charter, and the crown assumed J 
 control, and placed Georgia on the same footing with other ] 
 royal colonies. \ 
 
 The English parliament adopted the reformed or Gregorian ; 
 calendar for England and the colonies (p. 438). 
 
 1753. The growth of the British colonies extending more and more 
 westward caused the disputes between England and France to 
 
 grow to a head. The French claimed the Mississippi and the St. 
 Lawrence, and all the region between from the Appalachians to the 
 Spanish settlements in the west, and were intent on securing this re- 
 gion by a line of forts directly back of the English colonies. Accord- 
 ing to the English all French settlements within the territory of the 
 colony of Plymouth (p. 293) were illegal ; they also claimed the 
 whole region occupied by the Iroquois. The settlement of G-eorgia 1 
 and the foundation of the Ohio Company were attempts to counter- j 
 act the progress of the French, and these moves in their turn were a 
 cause of uneasiness to the French, who seized traders within the limits 
 of the Ohio Company. As the lands of the company were within the 
 territory of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of that colony, dis- 
 patched George Washington to the forts on the Alleghany and the 
 Ohio to remonstrate with the French (Oct. 31-Dec. 12). The com- ', 
 mander of the Ohio forts promised to lay the remonstrance before 
 the governor of Canada. 
 
 1754. Virginia immediately sent a force to the Ohio, two companies ■ 
 of which were under Washington. In the advance upon Fort j 
 
 Du Quesne, at the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela, he i 
 captured a small French party, buc was besieged in Fort Necessityj \ 
 which he had erected, and forced to capitulate under condition of free I 
 withdrawal (July 4). | 
 
 June 19. Conference of colonial delegates at Albany with the Six j 
 Nations. By the advice of Benjamin Franklin the conference ) 
 also drew up a plan of a union of all the colonies under a president 
 appointed by the crown, with a grand council of delegates elected by 
 the colonial assemblies, with a right of legislation subject to the veto 
 of the president and the approval of the crown. Connecticut, object- 
 ing to the veto power, refused to sign the proposal, which was after- 
 wards rejected both by the colonies and the crown. 
 
 1755-1763. War between England and France, called 
 in the American colonies *' The Old French and In- 
 dian War ; " being a part of the Seven Years' War, 
 in Europe, which was fought in Asia and Africa as well 
 War was not declared until the following year, but it is 
 reckoned from 1755 (p. 404 and 438). 
 
 1755. While a conference of the colonial governors with generaj 
 Braddock, who was sent from Errland to take chief command, 
 
A. D. America: British Colonies. 421 
 
 decided on three expeditions: 1. against Fort Du Quesne; 2. against 
 the foit at Niagara ; 3. against the French fort at Crown Point in 
 New York; a band of li,OUO Massachusetts troops under Winsloiv and 
 Monckton cii^tunid forts Beausejourund ( taspereaax in the disputed dis- 
 trict ill Nova JScotia (June 1(>-17), and dispersed among the British 
 colonies about 7,000 of the inhabitants who refused to take the oath of 
 alk'giance to Enghind (" Evangeline "). 
 
 Meantime general Braddock took the offensive at the head of the 
 British regulars against Fort du Quesne, and fell into an ambuscade, 
 in conse(pience of neglecting the advice of the provincial officers 
 (Washington), and suffered a complete defeat and great loss in the 
 
 1755, Jidy 9. Battle of Fort du Quesne or "Braddock's defeat." 
 
 Death of Braddock-. 
 Attack on Crown Point : Construction of Fort Edward on the 
 
 east of the lliidson (Aug.). 
 
 Sept. 8. Battle of Lake George; defeat of the French under Dies- 
 kau (f ), by the provincial troops under Johnson. Construction 
 of Fort Wdliam Henry at the south end of Lake George by the 
 English, Fortification of T'iconderoga, between Lake George 
 and Lake Champlain, by the French. 
 The expedition to Niagara was subjected to so many delays that 
 
 it was for the time abandoned. 
 
 1756, Great Britain declared war on France. Earl of Loudoun com- 
 mander-in-chief of forces in America. 
 
 Aug. Forts Oswego and George captured by the marquis of Mont- 
 calm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada^ 
 and destroyed. 
 This disaster occasioned the abandonment of the projected enter- 
 prises against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne and Eastern 
 Canada. Fortifications of Georgia and Carolina (Fort Loudoun on the 
 Tennessee river). The French constructed a system of forts in the 
 region of the Illinois. 
 
 1757, August 9. Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, 
 
 massacre of the garrison, whose retreat to Fort Edward was 
 guaranteed, by the Indians in Montcalm's army. 
 In Massachusetts, controversy between the governor. Lord Lou- 
 doun and the general court over the quartering of troops. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, controversy between the governor and the as- 
 semljly over a scheme of taxation ; the governor refusing his assent to 
 the bill, the assembly demanded the assent as their right. 
 
 1758, July 8. Repulse of Abercrombie before Ticonderoga. 
 
 Expedition against Louisburg (May 28-July 26). Cap- 
 ture of the fortress (Amherst and Wolfe, July 26). 
 
 Aug. 27. Capture of Fort Frontenac by Bradstreet. 
 
 Nov. 25. Capture of Fort du Quesne by General Forbes. The 
 fort was named Ft. Pitt (Pittsburg). 
 
 1759, July 25. Capture of Fort Niagara by Sir William Johnson. 
 July 26. Capture of Ticonderoga by Major-General Amherst. 
 
 Expedition of Major-Cieneral Wolfe from Louisburg against Que- 
 bec. Repulsed at tiic Montnwrencij ; Wolfe conducted his force by 
 
422 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 night to the elevated plateau behind Quebec called the Plains of 
 
 A/jrnham, where in the 
 
 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of the Plains of Abraham the French 
 under Montcalm were completely defeated. Death of Wolfe 
 and Montcalm. Surrender of Quebec (Sept. 18). 
 
 17G0, Sept. 8. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1761. The writs of assistance in Massachusetts. The English 
 government (Board of Trade reestablished 1695) having for 
 
 some time adhered to a course of commercial restrictions and duties 
 upon the colonies (all molasses charged with duty except that imported 
 from the British West Indies, 1733 ; erection of rolling mills prohib- 
 •ited, 1750 ; the slave trade favored in spite of the opposition of the 
 colonial legislatures of Virginia and Carolina, etc.) had roused a spirit 
 of resistance throughout the colonies based on the perception that 
 such duties were a form of taxation without representation. Hence 
 so much evasion was practised that finally the custom house officials 
 in Boston applied to the superior covirt of judicature {Thomas Hutch- 
 inson, chief justice) for the issue of writs of assistance such as were 
 granted by the exchequer in England. The case was argued for the 
 colonists by Thacher^ and especially by James Otis, (1725-1783), 
 who urged the dangerous character of the writ as being servable by 
 any officer against any person for any length of time, and accused the 
 acts of trade as infringements of the charter. The court deferred its 
 decision ; it would seem that the writs were ultimately granted, but 
 that the officers did not venture to use them. 
 
 1762. Expedition against Martinique, by the royal and provincial 
 troops ; surrender of this island, of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. 
 Vincent, and of all the other French West Indies. 
 
 War between England and Spain (p. 439). 
 July. Storm of Havana, which was surrendered to the English. 
 
 1763. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, 
 France, Spain, Portugal. (Preliminary articles 1762, 
 Nov. 3, at FontainehleoAi, p. 439). 
 
 1. France ceded to England, Nova Scotia, or Acadia, Canada, 
 Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river of St. Law- 
 rence, reserving the right to fish and dry fish on a part of Newfound- 
 land, and of fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence three leagues from 
 the shore, and at a distance of fifteen leagues from Cape Breton ; also 
 the river and harbor of Mobile and everything on the left of the mid- 
 dle of the Mississippi, the Iberville, and lakes Mawenas and Ponchar- 
 train, except New Orleans, the navigation of the Mississippi to be 
 free for both England and France ; also Grenada, St. Vincent, Do- 
 minique, Tobago. In all ceded districts certain civil and religious 
 riglits were secured to the French inhabitants. England ceded to 
 France the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence for fishing stations, not to be fortified, and Guadaloupe, 
 Marigalante, Desirade, Martinique, Belleisle, St. Lucia, in the West 
 Indies. 
 
 ' 
 
I A. D. America : British Cohmies. 423 
 
 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, and all otlier possessions east 
 of the Mississii»i)i ; Spain also n^ave up lier claims to the Netcfoaud- 
 land fisheries ; England restored Havana to Spain and destroyed all 
 English fortresses in Spanish America ; right to cut and transport 
 dye wood reserved. 
 
 3. France ceded to Spain the whole of Louisiana and New Or- 
 leans hij a previous treat if of Nov. 3, 1702. 
 
 The English acipiisitions were divided into the four governments 
 of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. 
 
 The number of inhabitants m the old thirteen colonies at this time 
 was about two millions. 
 1763. The conspiracy of Pontiac. 
 
 Pontiac was the chief of the Ottawas, a firm friend of the 
 French ; relying on the vain hope of assistance from whom, he resolved 
 to wrest from the English the border fortresses. To this end he 
 formed an alliance of almost all the tribes of the Algonquin race, 
 with the Wijandots and Senecas. The other nations of the Iroquois 
 were with great difficulty kept quiet by the influence of Sir William 
 Johnson. Pontiac had planned to open the attack by the treacher- 
 ous seizure of the fort at Detroit on May 7. Foiled in this by the 
 coolness of Gladwyn, the English commander, who had been previ- 
 ously informed of the plot, the enraged chief opened the siege of 
 the fort (May 9) and war broke out along the whole line from the 
 Mississippi to Canada. In a short time Fort Pitt, Niagara, and De- 
 troit, of all the border fortresses, alone remained in the hands of the 
 English. In July Boquet forced his way, under severe fighting, to 
 Fort Pitt, which he relieved. Pontiac maintained before Detroit the 
 longest siege which the Indians ever executed, but on September 3, 
 the garrison was relieved by a schooner from Niagara, and with the 
 approach of winter the Indians withdrew. The western tribes were 
 not subdued before 17G5, but the danger was over. Pontiac did not 
 long outlive his failure. 
 
 1763, Paxton boys in Pennsylvania ; massacre of converted Indians. 
 The peace gave to Great Britain time to enforce more vigorously 
 
 that system of repression and taxation which the ministers thought 
 the fitting method of dealing with the too independent colonists, while 
 it gave the colonists time to reflect upon and to resent such a pro- 
 cedure. 
 1763-1 7G5. George Grenviile, prime minister. 
 
 1764, March. Parliament voted that they had a right to tax the 
 
 American colonies, though the colonies were not represented. 
 Passage of the sugar act ("it is just and necessary that a reve- 
 nue be raised in America ") and of an act for increasing the effi- 
 ciency of the revenue service. 
 Publication at Boston of " The Rights of the British Colonies as- 
 serted and proved," by James Otis. Adoption of a resolution 
 not to use British manufactures. 
 
 1765, March. Passage of the Stamp Act; prescribing the use 
 of stamped paper for legal documents, pamphlets, and news- 
 papers throughout the colonies. (Speech of Colonel Barre.) 
 
424 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 The news was received in America with the greatest indigna- 
 tion. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia de- 
 
 1765. May .30. nying the right of taxation, introduced by Patrick 
 
 Henry (1736-1797). 
 Oct. 7. Meeting of a congress of twenty eight delegates from Mas- 
 sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina (Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Georgia were not represented, but were in sympathy with the 
 colonies) at New York in accordance with the proposition of Massa- 
 chusetts. The assembly drew up petitions and memorials to the 
 king and parliament, and adopted a " Declaration of rights and 
 liberties " (Oct. 19). 
 
 The arrival of stamp officers led to riots in various cities, as in Bos- 
 ton, where the officer (Andrew Oliver) was burnt in effigy, his house 
 and that of lieutenant-governor Hutchinson sacked, in New York, 
 etc. Non-importation and non-consumption agreements. 
 1765-1766. Rockingham prime minister. 
 
 1766. March. Repeal of the Stamp Act, which had brought in no 
 
 revenue (^Pitt, Burke) ; examination of Benjamin Franklin 
 (b. Jan. 17, 1706 ; d. Apr. 17, 1790) ; agent of Pennsylvania, 
 before the commons. The repeal was accompanied by a de- 
 claratory act, asserting that ^^ parliament has power to hind the 
 colonies in all cases ivhatsoever " (March, 1766). 
 1766-1770. Duke of Grafton prime minister {Earl of Chatham 
 privy seal). 
 
 1767. Duty imposed on glass, paper, painters^ colors, and tea introduced 
 into the colonies (this measure followed the defeat of the mm- 
 istry on the land tax in England, which cost the revenue a 
 large sum). Out of the revenue thus collected Jixed salaries 
 were to be paid royal officials. 
 
 New York having refused to make provision for troops quar- 
 tered upon the colony, the legislative power of the assembly 
 was suspended by parliament until compliance. ^ 
 
 Creation of a custom house and board of commissioners for 
 America. 
 
 1768. Petition of Massachusetts to the king ; circular letter to the 
 other colonies. The British ministry demanded that the court 
 rescind the circular letter ; the court refused to do so (92 to 17), 
 whereupon governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Similar 
 proceedings occurred in other colonies. 
 
 June. The seizure of John Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a false en- 
 try by the custom house officials in Boston, caused a riot, and 
 the officials fled to Castle William. 
 
 Oct. Arrival of British troops at Boston. The selectmen refused 
 to provide quarters for the men. 
 First settlement made in Tennessee. 
 
 1769. Parliament adopted a resolution looking to the trial of acts of 
 treason committed in the colonies in England. Resolutions of 
 the house of burgesses in Virginia denouncing this position. 
 The governor dissolved the assembly. Similar resolutions 
 were adopted in other colonies. 
 
A. D. America : British Colonics. 425 
 
 Tlio gfonoral court of Massachusetts, rcfusin<]^ to do ])usiness 
 while a guard was statioued at the state-house, was adjourued 
 to Cambrid<Te. Refusal to provide for the troops. Submissiou 
 of the asseuihly iu New York. 
 1770-1782. Lord North prime luiuister. 
 
 1770. The Boston massacre. In a broil between the populace 
 March 5. and the British soldiers in Kin<^ (State) street, three men 
 
 were killed and eight wounded. The officer in command 
 (Preston) was brought to trial, but acquitted (defended by 
 John Adams and Josiah Qumcjj). 
 March. Act repealing the duty on paper, glass, and painters' colors, 
 but retaining that on tea. 
 
 1771. Insurrection of the "regulators" in North Carolina suji- 
 pressed by governor Tryon. 
 
 Thomas Hutchinson (formerly lieutenant-governor) governor 
 of Massachusetts (went to England, 1774). 
 
 1772. Destruction of the British revenue schooner Gaspee, which 
 June 10. had made itself very obnoxious to the people of Rhode Island, 
 
 and now ran aground in pursuit of a packet. In spite of a 
 large rew^ard offered, no information concerning the offenders* 
 was ever given. 
 
 Settlement of the boundary between North and South Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 1773. The Virginia assembly appointed a committee of correspond- 
 ence for intercourse with the other colonies. 
 
 The resolution of the colonies having caused a diminution both 
 in the revenue and in the sale of tea, the British government 
 agreed to relieve the East India Company of exportation duty 
 if the company woiild transport its teas to the American col- 
 onies. Cargoes were therefore sent to New York, Philadel- 
 phia, Charleston, Boston. New York and Philadelphia sent 
 back the ships ; at Charleston the tea was stored in damp cel- 
 lars, where, as there was no demand for it, it soon spoiled. At 
 Boston, as the return of the ships co'dd not be obtained, 
 
 1773, Dec. IC. They were boarded by citizens disguised as Indians, 
 
 and 342 chests of tea were emptied in the water (Boston Tea 
 Party). 
 Daniel Boon settled in Kentucky. English settlement near the 
 Natchez. 
 
 1774, Mar. Passage of the Boston Port Bill, closing Boston to the 
 
 importation and exportation of all goods except food or fuel ; 
 and of " an act for the better regulatinr/ the govermnent of Mas- 
 sachusetts,^' which was a virtual revocation of the charter, 
 giving the governor great increase of power. Another act de- 
 creed that persons accused of murder or any capital crime 
 in aiding government should be tried in England, or in 
 some other colony than that wherein the crime was committed. 
 General Gage, connnander-in-chief of the royal forces in North 
 America, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. 
 June 1. The port act went into operation in l)oston. 
 
 t County conventions throughout Massachusetts protested 
 
426 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Sept. The SufPolk convention resolved : "That no obedience is due 
 from the province to either or any part of the said acts, but 
 that they should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked ad- 
 ministration to enslave America." 
 The project of a congress of the colonies, moved in 1773 by 
 Franklin, was taken up by Rhode Island, Virginia, Mas- 
 sachusetts, and the other colonies (except Georgia). 
 
 1774, Sept. 5. Continental Congress 
 
 at Philadelpkia. Peyton Randolph, president. Among the 
 members were : Samuel and John Adams (Massachusetts), John 
 Jay (New York), George "Washington, Patrick Henry (Virginia). 
 An address was prepared to the king, memorials to the people of 
 British America, and to the people of Great Britain, to Canada, 
 Florida, Georgia, etc. A declaration of rights was drawn up. The 
 congress also concluded 
 Oct. 20. The American Association ; an agreement to prevent 
 
 all importation and exportation from and to Great Britain until 
 the acts were repealed. On Oct. 26, the congress separated with a 
 resolve to meet the next year if justice had not by that time been 
 done. 
 
 In the meantime more British troops had been concentrated at 
 Boston, and the town had been fortified. The town was the recipient 
 of much sympathy and many generous gifts from the other colonies. 
 Oct. The house of representatives in Massachusetts having been 
 
 dissolved by the governor Sept. 28, met, and voting them- 
 Oct. 26. selves a provincial congress, proceeded to organize the 
 
 militia (minute-men) and collect stores and ammunition. 
 
 1775. Fruitless attempt of the opposition in parliament vmder lord 
 Chatham to procure the repeal of harsh measures toward the 
 colonies. 
 
 Acts for restraining the trade of New England and the southern 
 colonies. A " conciliatory " measure introduced by lord North 
 exempting from taxation any colony which would undertake 
 to raise the quota assessed upon it. The act met with no re- 
 sponse. 
 Feb. 26. A British expedition to Salem, to seize some cannon stored 
 there, was opposed by a few militia under colonel Pickering, 
 but finally withdrew without bloodshed. 
 
 1775-1783. War of Independence. 
 
 April 19. Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. 
 
 A body of 800 British soldiers, detailed to destroy stores at 
 Concord, fired upon a number of provincials assembled on the green 
 at Lexington, killing eight men ; an ineffectual fire was returned. 
 Proceeding to Concord, the British destroyed the stores, but were 
 obliged to retreat {fight at the bridge) ; the retreat became a rout 
 before they reached Lexington, where lord Percy with fresh troops 
 met them. " The further retreat to Boston was much embarrassed by 
 the constantly increasing number of provincials. The British lost 
 273 men ; the Americans 103. 
 
A. D. America : British Colonies. 427 
 
 In Massachusetts a large army was raised and encamped near 
 
 Boston. 
 
 May 10. Capture of Ticondero(}a by the provincials under Ethan 
 Allen. 
 
 May 12. Capture of Crown Point by Seth Warner. 
 
 May 10. Meeting of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia. 
 
 May 31. The county convention of Meckienhury Co., North Carolina, 
 declared the colonial charter suspended, and the government 
 vested in the provincial and continental congresses. 
 The troops before Boston were adopted as the American continental 
 
 arni}^ ; and George "Washington (born Feb. 22, 1732 ; died Dec. 
 
 ]4, 1799) was appointed commander-in-chief of the provincial forces 
 
 (June 15). 
 
 June 17. Battle of Bunker's (more properly Breed's) Hill, opposite 
 Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments. 
 The provincials were finally driven from their intrenchment, 
 after their ammunition gave out, but not before they had in- 
 flicted a loss of 1054 men on the British, themselves losing 
 about 450 men (^Warren f). 
 
 July 3. Washington took command of the American army at Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 1775, July-March 17, 1776. Siege of Boston. 
 
 1775, Aug. Georgia joined the other colonies. An expedition 
 against Canada being resolved upon, general Montgomery took 
 Montreal (Nov. 12), but was defeated and killed ))efore Quebec 
 (Dec. 31), where Benedict Arnold had joined him after an ar- 
 duous march. Fruitless siege of Quebec by Arnold. 
 
 1776, March 4. Occupation of Dorchester Heights by Washington. 
 M vrch 17. Evacuation of Boston. 
 
 1776, April 23. North Carolina authorized its delegates to join 
 
 in a declaration of independence. 
 May 15. Congress voted " that the exercise of every kind of authority 
 under the crown should be totally suppressed," and extended 
 to all the colonies its advice that they should set up govern- 
 ments for themselves. 
 Virginia directed its delegates to introduce a resolution an- 
 nouncing the independence of the colonies. 
 June 7. In congress it was moved by Richard Henry Lee of Vir- 
 ginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, " That 
 these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- 
 dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of 
 Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution 
 was referred and a committee appointed to draft a declaration, which 
 accepted one prepared by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. Reported 
 June 28. Debate July 1. The resolution -was adopted by all 
 the colonies except New York, whose delegates were not instructed 
 on so grave a matter, July 2. 
 
 • June 18. Evacuation of Canada by the Americans. 
 June 28. Repulse of the British before fort Sullivan (Moultrie) 
 off Charleston, S. C. 
 
428 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1776, July 4. Adoption of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. (Signed Aug. 2 and later.) 
 
 To have taken up a position of independence was a moral 
 gain for the colonies, but the act was followed by a period of 
 military disaster. 
 After the surrender of Boston, Washington went to New York, 
 
 which was soon attacked by the two Howes with some 30,000 men. 
 
 The British commanders brought offers of peace, but they were not 
 
 acceptable. 
 
 Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island ; defeat of general Putnam. Re- 
 treat of the Americans to New York. 
 
 Sept. 15. Occupation of New York by the British. Washington 
 retreated to the Harlem heights. 
 
 Sept. 22. Captain Nathan Hale, sent to reconnoitre the British 
 force on Long Island, was captured and immediately executed 
 by order of Sir William Howe ; the attendance of a clergy- 
 man was denied him, and his last letters to his mother and 
 friends were destroyed. 
 Disaster also overtook the colonists in the North. 
 
 Oct. 11-13. Defeat of Arnold in two naval engagements on Lake 
 Champlain. Occupation of Crown Point by the British. 
 
 Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains, near New York. Defeat of 
 Washington. 
 
 Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington by the British. 
 
 Nov. 20. Evacuation of Fort Lee by the Americans. 
 
 Nov. 28. Washington retreated across New Jersey, and passed 
 into Pennsylvania. 
 
 Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton ; Washington having crossed the Dela- 
 ware by night, surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians at 
 Trenton ; two days afterward he occupied the town in force, 
 and defeated the British in 
 
 1777, Jan. 3. The Battle of Princeton. The Americans overran 
 
 New Jersey, and several skirmishes occurred with the enemy 
 during the spring. The army was in a very bad condition, owing 
 largely to lack of money, which congress could supply only by the 
 issue of paper money which soon depreciated largely. Even the ar- 
 rival of the marquis of Lafayette, who was appointed major-general 
 (July 31, 1777) brought only temporary encouragement. 
 Burgoyne's and St. Leger's campaign from Canada. 
 
 The summer of 1777 saw a change of fortune. The British had 
 planned to cut the colonies in two by an expedition under general 
 Burgoyne from Canada, which should be met by a northward move- 
 ment of the army in New York. (Capture of forts Clinton and 
 Montgomery, Oct. 6.) Burgoyne took Ticonderoga July 6, and de- 
 feated the Americans at Huhhardton July 7. 
 
 As Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, Schuyler, who had but half his 
 force, retired to Saratoga. Meantime St. Leger, who was to cooper- 
 ate with Burgoyne from Lake Ontario, besieged Fo7't Schuyler and de-. 
 feated Herkimer (Aug. 6), but returned to Montreal on the approach 
 of Arnold with reinforcements. 
 
A. D. America: Brit is// Colonies. 429 
 
 Hearing of provisions and stores at Bennington in Vermont (then 
 called New Hampshire Grants) iiiirooyne sent colonel Baum to seize 
 them, who was defeated by general Stark in the 
 
 1777, Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington. 
 Schuyler succeeded by Gates. 
 
 Sept. 19. Burgoyne fought the battle of Stillwater (first battle 
 
 of Bemis^s Heights, or battle of Freeman'' s Farm), retaining the 
 field, although he suifered a heavier loss than the Americans. On 
 Oct. 7, a second battle was fought at Stillwater (second battle of 
 Bemis^s Heights or Saratoga), in which the British were defeated. 
 Being now surronnded and finding retreat impracticable, 
 "xlll, Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered his entire force (about G,000 
 
 men) to Gates. 
 Howe's Campaign. 
 
 In the south events were less fortunate. On Aug. 25 general 
 Howe disclosed his purpose of attacking Philadelphia. Washington 
 immediately offered battle, but in tlie 
 Sept. 11. Battle of the Brandy wine 
 
 the Americans were defeated, although they retired in good 
 
 order (general Greene). 
 Sept. 27. Howe occupied Philadelphia. 
 
 Washington attempted to surprise the camp at Germantown, 
 
 but was defeated in the 
 Oct. 4. Battle of Germantown. 
 
 Capture of Fort Mijfiin (Nov. 16) ; evacuation of Fort Mercer 
 
 (Nov. 20) ; loss of the Delaware. 
 Winter. Washington at Valley Forge. Sufferings of the army. 
 Nov. 15. Articles of confederation and perpetual union agreed 
 
 upon in congress between the states of New Hampshire, Mas- 
 sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, 
 New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, INIaryland, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. The confederacy was to be 
 called "The United States of America." These articles were 
 laid before the legislature of the separate states for ratification. This 
 process proved a long one. 
 June 14. Congress voted " that the flag of the thirteen United 
 
 States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; that the 
 
 union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a 
 
 new constellation. 
 The people of New Hampshire Grants declared themselves an 
 
 independent state under the name of Vermont (Jan.) 
 
 1778. Treaties with France ; recognition of the independence of 
 Jan. 30-Feb. G. the United States. Tliese treaties were negotiated by 
 
 John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. 
 
 Feb. Parliament renounced the right of taxing the colonies except 
 for the regulation of trade, and appointed a commission to ne- 
 gotiate for the submission of the colonies. The proposals of 
 the commissioners were rejected by congress (June 17) and by 
 the separate states. 
 
 June 18. Evacuation of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clinton. 
 Washington intercepted Clinton's march, and in the 
 
430 Modern History. A. D. i j 
 
 1778, June 28. Battle of Monmouth turned a retreat begun by 
 general (^Charles) Lee into a victory. The British decamped 
 by night. 
 
 Arrival of Count d'Estaing with eighteen vessels and 4,000 troops 
 off Virginia. An attack on Newport having been resolved on, 
 the French fleet sailed to that port. Instead of cooperating 
 in the attack D'Estaing sailed to Boston Aug. 22, to refit (in 
 accordance with his strict orders), and in spite of a victory at 
 Quaker Hill on Rhode Island (Aug. 29) the Americans under 
 Sullivan were obliged to give up the siege and retire from the 
 island before Sir Henry Clinton who brought reinforcements. 
 
 July 4. Massacre at Wyoming in Pennsylvania by colonel Butler, 
 a Tory, and Brandt. 
 
 Sept. 14. Benjamin Franklin minister plenipotentiary to France. 
 
 Nov. 11. Massacre of Cherry Valley. 
 
 Dec. 29. Savannah captured by the British under colonel Camp- 
 hell. 
 
 1779, March 3. Defeat of general AsJie at Briar Creek by the British. 
 Loss of Georgia, where the provincial government was re- 
 stored. 
 
 General Lincoln, being placed in command of the southern army, 
 marched upon Augusta, while the British leader, Provost, threatened 
 Charleston but retired before determined resistance. D^Estaing 
 reaching Savannah with the French fleet, an assault was made on the 
 town (Oct. 9), but repulsed; after which D'Estaing left the dangerous 
 coast (death of Pulaski). 
 
 May. Coasts of Virginia plundered by an expedition from New York. 
 July 5. Plunder of New Haven in Connecticut by Tryon ; followed 
 
 by the sack of other towns. 
 July IG. Storm of Stony Point on the Hudson by the Americans 
 
 under Anthony Wayne ; destruction of tlie fortifications. 
 July 19. The Americans fortified "West Point. 
 
 John Paul Jones, who had in 1778 surprised White Haven, sailed 
 
 this year from a Frencli port, and after a successful cruise in 
 
 the English seas, fought a most desperate 
 Sept. 23. Naval battle -with the Serapis and the Countess of 
 
 Scarborough (Bonhomme Richard, Jones's vessel), in which 
 
 he was victorious. 
 
 1780, May 12. Capture of Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. Sub- 
 jugation of South Carolina by Clinton and lord Cornwallis. 
 The brave resistance of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion 
 was seconded by the approach of the American army under 
 De Kalb and Gates. Bvit in the 
 
 Aug. 16. Battle of Camden, 
 
 Gates, though superior in numbers, was totally defeated by 
 Cornwallis (DeKalb f). 
 
 Aug. 18. Sumter's force dispersed by colonel Tarleton. Marion re- 
 treated to North Carolina. 
 
 July. Arrival of Rochambeau at Newport with 6,000 men. 
 
 Benedict Arnold having been placed in command of West Point, 
 
 negotiated with Sir Henry Clinton for its surrender ; his treachery 
 
A. D. America: Bntish Colonies. 431 
 
 was exposed by the capture (Sei)t. 23) of the api-ent, major Andre, 
 by three privates of the New York militia, John Paulding, David 
 Williams, Isaac Wirt, who, refusinn- his bribes, detained him and 
 Beized his papers. Arnold escaped to the Hritisli lines. Andre was 
 declared a spy by a board of 14 otticcrs, on his confession, and by 
 order of Washinoton 
 
 1780, Oct. 2. Andre was hung as a spy. 
 
 Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Defeat of 
 
 the British under major Fergusson. 
 General Greene appointed commander of the southern army. 
 Adoption of a constitution by Massachusetts, with a bill of 
 
 rights, which was held by the supreme court to have abolished 
 
 slavery. 
 Abolition of slavery in Pennsylvania. 
 
 1781, Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens; defeat of the British cav- 
 alry under Tarleton by Morgan. 
 
 Cornwallis in pursuit of Greene, was twice prevented from over- 
 taking him by the unexpected rising of the rivers {Catawba, 
 Yadkin). 
 March 15. Battle of Guilford ; bloody victory of the British. 
 April 25. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill near Camden ; Greene defeated 
 
 by lord Rawdon. 
 June 5. Capture of Augusta by the Americans. 
 June 19. Greene forced to raise the siege of fort Ninety-six in 
 
 North Carolina. 
 Sept. 8. Battle of Eutaw ; defeat of Greene followed by the re- 
 treat of the British to Charleston. 
 Meantime British forces under lord Cornwallis, were concentrated 
 in Virginia, where they fortified themselves at Yorktovrn and 
 Gloucester (Aug.). In Sept. Lafayette, Washington, and Rochambeau 
 met at Williamsburg, while a French fleet under couJit de Grasse en- 
 tered the Chesapeake. 
 Sept. 30-Oct. 19. Siege of Yorktown. 
 
 Expedition of Arnold against Connecticut ; burning of New 
 London. 
 Oct. 19. Surrender of lord Cornwallis with 7,000 men 
 at Yorktovrn in Virginia. 
 
 1782, Feb. 27. The cominons resolved, on motion of general Com^ay, 
 . that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and 
 
 ^^^i^^^c-A^ the country all those who should advise or attempt the further 
 V- prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North 
 
 America." 
 
 1782, March 20. Resignation of lord North. Ministry of the mar- 
 
 quis of Rockingham (f July 1 ; succeeded by lord Shel- 
 
 burne, 1782-1783). 
 July 11. Evacuation of Savannah. 
 Nov. 30. Preliminary articles signed at Paris between Great Britain 
 
 and the United States. 
 Dec. 14. Evacuation of Charleston. 
 
 1783, Jan. 20. Cessation of hostilities between Great Britain and 
 
132 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 the United States, Signature of preliminaries of peace be- 
 tween Great Bntnin, France, and Spam at Versailles ; between 
 Great Britain and the United States at Paris. 
 
 April 11. Cessation of arms proclaimed by con<i^ress. Independence 
 of the United States recognized by Holland, April 19, 178'J 
 Sweden, Feb. 5, 1783 ; Denmark, Feb. 25 ; Spain, March 24 
 Russia, in July. 
 
 April 19. Peace proclaimed by the commander of the army. 
 
 1783, Sept. 3. Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great 
 Britain and the United States signed at Paris ; be- 
 tween Great Britain, France, and Spain signed at 
 Versailles, (p. 441.) 
 
 1. 1. Recognition of the indepe^idence of the United States, and 
 establishment of boundaries. (From the intersection of a line due 
 N. from the head of the St. Croix river in Nova Scotia, with the 
 highlands S. of the St. Lawrence ; along the highlands to the head of 
 the Connecticut ; along that river to 45° N., thence W. to the river 
 Iroquois, thence through lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Long 
 Lake, and Lake of the Woods ; thence W. to the Mississippi and along 
 that river to 31° N. ; from this point E. to the Apalachicola or 
 Catouche, along this river to the Flint ; thence direct to the head of 
 St. Man/s river, and so to the Atlantic : east, from the mouth of the 
 St. Croix river to its source, and due north to the highlands, includ- 
 ing all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, except such as be- i 
 longed to Nova Scotia.) 1 
 
 2. Right of fishery secured to the United States on the Grand Bank 
 and all other Newfoundland banks, and in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 as well as on the coast of Newfoundland ; right to cure fish on all 
 unsettled parts of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and Magdalen islands as 
 long as they should remain unsettled. 
 
 3. All good debts heretofore contracted should be considered 
 binding. 
 
 4. Restitution of confiscated estates to be recommended by con- 
 gress to the states. 
 
 5. Navigation of the Mississippi to be open to both Great Britain 
 and the United States. 
 
 II. Great Britain ceded Tohago to France. 
 
 III. Great Britain ceded Florida to Spain. 
 Establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati by officers of the 
 
 army. 
 
 Nov. 2. Washington's farewell address to the army. 
 
 Nov. 25. Evacuation of New York. I 
 
 Dec. 23. Washington resigned liis commission. ' 
 
 1784. Partial abolition of slavery in Connecticut. Erection of a j 
 temporary government for the western territory (April). Or- ' 
 ganization of the state of Franklin or Frankland by the west- ; 
 ern counties of North Carolina (Dec.) ; it was given up m | 
 1788. 
 
 1786. Insurrection in Massachusetts and in New Hampshire, ! 
 springing from financial complications. 
 
 1787, Jan.-Eeb. Tho insurgents in Massachusetts, numbering j 
 
A. D. America. — Great Britain. 433 
 
 about 1,100, under Daniel Shays, met tlio troops of the state 
 under g^eueral Shepherd, but wciv dispersed by tlie mere sight 
 of artillery. Three men were killed (Sha//s' Rebellion). 
 The restricted powers of the congress aiiproving themselves totally 
 insufficient for the proper government of the country (failure to estab- 
 lisli a revenue by an impost tax ; infraction of treaties by the states), 
 Virginia proposed a convention for forming a better Constitution 
 (178G). The recommendation meeting with favor, after much delay 
 1787, May 25. Delegates from seven states met in convention at Phil- 
 adelphia, and elected Washington president. Delegates from 
 other states came in, until all were represented except Rhode 
 Island. The debates were long and warm, and more than one 
 compromise (tacit recognition of slavery ; e(pial representation 
 of all states in the senate ; in the house representation accord- 
 ing to population) was necessary before the delegates 
 
 Sept. 1 7. Signed the Constitution of the United States, 
 wliicli was forthwith laid before the separate states. 
 
 1787. Ordinance for the government of the territory north- 
 July 13. west of the Ohio, which was ceded, or to be ceded, to the 
 
 United States by the states, and bought of the Indians. 
 Slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment 
 for crime, were forbidden within this region. 
 
 1788, Sept. 13. All the states except Rhode Island and North 
 
 Carolina having accepted the Constitution, congress appointed 
 days for elections under the same. 
 
 §8. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1702-1714. Anne. 
 
 second daughter of James II., wdfe of Prince George of Den- 
 mark. In the first part of her reign the queen was under the influ- 
 ence of the Whigs (John Churchill, duke of Marlborough and his wife). 
 1702, May 4. War declared upon France by the grand alliance, in- 
 cluding England. For the war (of the Spanish Succession) 
 see p. 390. Marlborough was captain-general of all the land 
 forces ; Godolphin, lord high treasurer ; Nottingham, secre- 
 tary of state. Halifax and Somers not in the privy council. 
 July 2. Sixth Parliament of William III. dissolved. 
 
 The campaign of this year residted in the capture of Venloo and 
 Liege and the loss of the lower Rhine to France. Sir George Rooke 
 failed to take Cadiz, but seized a number of treasure ships at Vigo 
 Bay (Oct.). 
 
 1702, Oct. 20-1705, March 14. First parliament of Anne.i 
 
 Harley speaker of the house of commons. ]\Iarlborough made 
 a duke. 
 Dec. Bill to prevent occasional conformity passed by the com- 
 mons but rejected by the lords (High church and Loiv church). 
 
 1703. Severe laws in Ireland against Irish Catholics. 
 
 1 The dates are those of the actual meeting and separation of the parliaments, 
 not of the oroclaniations summoning and dissolving them. 
 
 28 
 
 
434 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1703, Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. England 
 agreed to admit the heavy wmes of Portugal at one third 
 lower rate than the light French wines, while Portugal prom- 
 ised to import all her woolens from England. 
 
 Sept. Archduke Charles assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. 
 
 Nov. Establishment of Queen Anne's Bounty ; a grant of the 
 
 first fruits and tithes which Henry VIII. had confiscated for( 
 
 the crown, in trust for increasing the income of small benefices. I 
 
 In this campaign (1703) Marlborough took Bonn and Huy, 
 
 Limburg and Guelders. 
 
 1704, Mar. Case of Ashhij and White (right of electors to vote). 
 July 24. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley \ 
 
 Shovel. 
 Aug. 13. Victory of Blenheim or Hochstddt (p. 392). Naval vic- 
 tory off Malaga ovei the French. 
 Attempt to pass the occasional conformity hill by tacking it to a 
 money bill (lackers). The scheme was defeated in the com- 
 mons. 
 
 1705, Oct. 4. Capture of Barcelona by Charles Mordaunt, lord Pe- 
 
 terborough. 
 
 1705, Oct. 25-1708, Apr. 1. Second Parliament of Anne. Whigs i 
 
 in majority. 
 
 1706, May 23. Ramillies ; conquest of Brabant (p. 392) ; Turin, j 
 Sept. 7; conquest of Italy (p. 392). The allies in Madrid. 
 
 1707, Apr. 25. Battle of Almanza; defeat of the allies by the duke 
 
 of Berwick. Spain lost to the allies. 
 
 1707, May 1. Union of England and Scotland under i 
 the name of Great Britain went into effect. 
 This measure, which was made necessary by the omission off 
 Scotland from the act of settlement, provided : 1. that Sophia^ 
 princess of Hanover and her Protestant heirs should succeed 
 to the crown of the united kingdom. 2. There should be one 
 parliament, to which Scotland should send sixteen elective peers ^ 
 and forty-five members of the commons. No more peers oft 
 Scotland to be created. Scotch law and legal administration to 
 be unchanged ; the Episcopal church in England and Presbyte- 
 rian in Scotland to be unchanged. Adoption of the Union 
 Jack (Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) as the national 
 flag of Great Britain. 
 1707, Oct. 23. First Parliament of Great Britain.^ The influence 
 of Marlborough and his wife had been gradually weakened 
 by Harley and by the influence of the queen's new favorite, Abigail 
 Hill, now Mrs. Masham. Marlborough, however, was still so strong 
 that a hint at resignation secured the dismissal of Harley and St. John 
 from the cabinet, and the substitution of Boyle and Robert Walpole 
 (secretary-at-war). Last Royal veto. 
 
 1 Not a new parliament, but the second parliament of Anne revived by pro- 
 clamation. Henceforward parliaments are numbered without regard to reigns, 
 but here the distinction is retained. The number as a parliament of Great 
 Britain is indicated by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 435 
 
 1708, Marcli. James Edward {Chevalier de St. George, the Old 
 Pretender) liUMk'd in Scotland. A French lieet sent to assist 
 him was repnlseil by Admiral Byny, and the Pretender soon 
 returned to France. 
 
 July 11. Battle of Oudenarde (p. 302). 
 
 1708, Nov. 1(5-1710, Apr. T,. Third Parliament of Anne (II.). 
 
 AVhig majority. Somers president of the council. Leaders 
 of the wliigs (Junto) : Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford^ 
 Sunderland. 
 
 1709, Sept. 11. Battle of Malplaquet (p. 393). 
 Oet. Townshend's barrier treaty. Copyright act. 
 
 1710, Feb.-Mar. Trial of Dr. Sacheverell for preaching sermons 
 
 of an ultra Tory cast. He was convicted and thereby secured 
 great popularity in the kingdom. 
 Harley chancellor of exchequer. St. Jolui, secretary of state. 
 Sept. Charles III. in Madrid driven out by Vendome. 
 
 1710. Nov. 25-1713, July 16. Fourth Parliament of Anne (III.). 
 
 Tory majority. Dismissal of Godolphin ; resignation of all 
 the Whig ministers. 
 South Sea Company established. 
 
 1711. Mrs. Mashaju superseded the duchess of Marlborough as 
 keeper of the i)rivy purse. The duke retained his office. At- 
 tempted assassination of Harley by the marquis of Guiscard. 
 Harley created earl of Oxford and Mortimer and lord high 
 treasurer. 
 
 Sept. 13. Marlborough captured the fortress of Bouchain. 
 Oct. Charles III. left Spam ; elected emperor Charles VT. 
 Nov. Philip V. entered Madrid. 
 
 Passage of the occasional conformity bill. 
 Marlborough, who had returned to England, was accused of 
 peculation (Nov.) and dismissed from all his offices. Duke of 
 Ormond, commander-in-chief. 
 Dec. 30. Qualification act (repealed 1866). 
 
 1712. Creation of twelve Tory peers to secure a majority in the 
 lords. 
 
 July. HeJiry St. John created viscount Bolinghroke. 
 
 1713. Apr. 11. Peace of Utrecht (j). 393). 
 
 Articles affecting Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain and France : Renunciation of the Pretender ; 
 recognition of the Protestant succession in Great Britain ; c^o^vns of 
 France and Spain not to be united under one head ; fortifications of 
 Dunkirk to be leveled and its harbor filled up ; cession of Hudson's 
 Bay and strait, Nova Scotia (Acadia), Newfoundland, St. Christopher 
 to England; Great Britain and Spain, cession of Gibraltar and Mi- 
 norca to England; grant of the Assiento {el pacto de el asiento de 
 nigros), or contract for supplying slaves to Spanish America, to the 
 subjects of Great Britian for thirty years (Royal African Company), 
 nil, Feb. 16-1714, Aug. 25. Fifth Parliament of Anne (IV.). 
 
 1714. May 28. Death of princess Sophia of Hanover. Schism act, 
 July 27. Earl of Oxford, dismissed, and succeeded as lord high 
 
 treasurer by the earl of Shrew.gbury (Talbot). 
 
436 
 
 Modern History. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Aug. ]. Death of Anne. 
 
 Alexander Pope, 1688-1744 ; Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745 ; 
 Daniel Defoe, 1661?-1731; Joseph Addison, 1672-1719; Sir 
 Richard Steele, 1671-1729. Periodical literature ; Tatler, 1709, 
 Apr. 12-1711, Jan. 2; Spectator, 1711, Mar. 1-1714, Dec. 20. 
 
 1714 — X. House of Hanover or Brunswick. 
 
 None of Anne's seventeen children having survived her, the 
 crown, according to the act of succession, descended to the 
 
 protestant house of Hanover, the catholic line of the Stuarts 
 being excluded. 
 
 James I, 
 
 (Stuart) t 1625. 
 I 
 
 3. Elizabeth 
 m. Frederic V. 
 
 elector 
 
 12. 
 
 palatine. 
 
 5. Charles I. f 1649, 
 m. Henrietta Maria, 
 d. of Henrv IV. of France. 
 ^1 
 
 Sophia, 
 m. Ernest 
 Augustus el. 
 of Hanover. 
 
 Charles II. 
 t 1685. m 
 
 Mary 
 William II. 
 of Orange. 
 
 James II. 
 
 deposed 1688, 
 d. 1701. 
 
 by Anne Hyde | by Mary of Este. 
 
 George I. 
 
 f 1727. 
 m. Sophia Dorothea, 
 d. of duke of Brunswick 
 and Zell. 
 
 _J 
 
 I 
 
 William III. 
 
 t 1702. 
 
 Mary 
 t 1694. 
 
 I 
 Anne 
 t 1714. 
 
 James 
 
 Francis 
 
 Edward, 
 
 the Old 
 
 Pretender, 
 
 t 1766. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles Edward Henry, 
 
 the young Pretender, cardinal 
 
 without issue. York, 
 
 t 1788. without issue. 
 
 t 1807. 
 
 George II. Sophia Dorothea, 
 
 t 1760, m. Frederic 
 
 m. Caroline William, elector 
 
 of Anspach. of Brandenburg. 
 
 I I 
 
 Frederic Louis, Frederic II., 
 
 t 1751, king of Prussia, 
 
 m. Augusta, d. 
 of duke of Saxe Coburg. 
 
 and Gotha. 
 
 I 
 George III. 
 
 t 1820, 
 m. Charlotte of 
 Mecklenburg 
 Strelitz. 
 
 1714-1727. George I. 
 
 1714, Sept. 18. The king landed in England. George I. favored 
 the Whigs in the formation of the first government ; Lord 
 Townshend sec. of state ; Shrewsbury resigned, and Halifax was made 
 first lord of the treasury (Shrewsbury was the last lord high treasurer) ; 
 Sunderland lord lieutenant of Ireland ; lord Cowper chancellor : 
 earl of Nottingham president of the council ; Marlborough comman- 
 der-in-chief. 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 437 
 
 1715, Mar. 17-1722, Mar. 7. First Parliament of George I. (V.). 
 Iinpeachinent of BoJinghroke, Ormond, Oxford. Fli<i^ht of Bol- 
 in<ibroke and Ormond ; Oxford committed to the Tower. Jac- 
 obite riots. Riot act. 
 
 1715-1716, Sept. Jacobite rising in Scotland under the earl of Mar. 
 Battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston. Arrival of the Pretender 
 in Scotland (Dec.) As his friends dispersed upon the approach 
 of the duke of Argyle, the Pretender abandoned Scotland 
 (Feb. 5, 1716) and returned to France. 
 Barrier treaty (in 1781 Joseph II. dismantled the fortresses). 
 Impeachment of the Jacobite leaders. Execution of Derwent- 
 water and Kenmurf (Feb. 24). 
 Act creating septennial instead of triennial parliaments. 
 
 1717, Jan. 4. Triple alliance between England, France, and Holland 
 
 in consequence of the intrigues of the Pretender, Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, and Spain (Alberoni). 
 Feb. 20, 1722-Mar. 7. First Septennial Parliament. 
 
 Convocation ceased to meet for business (revived under the 
 present reign). 
 
 1718, Aug. 2. Quadruple alliance between England, France, the 
 emperor, Holland (p. 397). 
 
 1718, Dec. 17-1720. War between England and Spain. 
 
 1718, Jan. Repeal of the occasional conformity act and the 
 
 schism act. 
 
 1719, Abortive Spanish expedition to Scotland in favor of the Pre- 
 tender. 
 
 Nov. 20. Treaty of Stockholm ; Sweden ceded Bremen and Ver- 
 den (p. 397) to George I. for 1,000,000 rix dollars. 
 
 1720, Jan. Spain joined the quadruple alliance. Bursting of the 
 
 south sea bubble, from a panic originating in the failure of 
 Law's scheme in France. 
 
 1721-1742. Administration of Walpole (1726-1742, administra- 
 tion of Fleury in France). 
 
 1722, Oct. 9-1727, July 17. Second parliament of George I. 
 
 (VI.). 
 1725, Sept. 3. Treaty of Hanover between England, France and 
 Prussia (alliance of Herrenhausen). ^ 
 
 1727, June 11, Death of George I. 
 
 1727-1760. George II. 
 
 Walpole continued in office. The king governed by his wiie, 
 Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline, of Auspach. 
 
 1728, Jan. 23-1734, Apr. 16. First Parliament of George 11, 
 
 (VII.). 
 
 1729, Nov. 9. Treaty of Seville with Spain; restoration of con- 
 
 quest ; confirmation of the assiento. Gibraltar ceded to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1731, Mar. 16. Treaty of Vienna : dissolution of the Ostend East 
 India Co. whicli had been formed as a rival to the English East 
 India Co. by the emperor. 
 
 1735, Jan. 14-1741, Apr. 25. Second Parliament of George IL 
 CVIIL). 
 
438 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1736. Porteous riots in Edinburgh. 
 1739-1748. War with Spain. 
 
 1739, Nov. 22. Capture of Porto Bello in Darien by admiral Vernon. 
 
 1740. Futile attack upon Carthagena by Vernon and Wentwortk. 
 Disease in the army. 
 
 1740, Sept.-1744, June. Voyage of commodore Anson to the coast 
 
 of Chili and Peru and around the world. 
 
 1741, Dec. 1-1747, June 17. Third Parliament of George II. 
 (IX.). Fall of Walpole (succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, 
 
 Feb. 1742). 
 1743-1754. Administration of Henry Pelham, who succeeded the 
 earl of Wilmington (f), July 1743, as first lord of the treasury. 
 
 1740-1748. War of the Austrian Successiorio 
 
 England took part with Austria (pragmatic army); for her 
 
 share in the war see p. 400. 
 Nov. Ministry of Pelham, Pitt, Newcastle, Harrington (Stanhope), 
 
 Bedford. (" Broad Bottom Ministry.") 
 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (p. 402); Saxe defeated Cu7n- 
 
 berland. Louisburg taken from the French (p. 421). 
 
 1745, Second Jacobite rebellion. 
 
 The young Pretender, Charles Edward, landed in Scotland 
 (July 25), and proclaimed his father (f 1766) as James VIII. 
 of Scotland and III. of England. 
 
 Sept. 11. The Pretender entered Edinburgh with some 2,000 men. 
 
 Sept. 21. Jacobite victory at Prestonpans. 
 
 Dec. 4. Pretender at Derby (about 6,000 men). 
 
 Dec. 18. Jacobite victory at Penrith. 
 
 1746, Jan. 17. Jacobite victory at Falkirk Moor, over general 
 Hawley. 
 
 April 16. Battle of CuUoden ; victory of the duke of Cumberland 
 over lord George Murray and the Pretender. 
 Execution of Jacobite lords. Escape of the Pretender to France 
 (Sept. 20). 
 
 1747, Nov. 10-1754, Apr. 6. Fourth Parliament of George II. 
 
 (X.). 
 
 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 403). 
 
 1752. Adoption of the reformed (Gregorian) calendar in Eng- 
 land and the colonies. 
 The year was to begin Jan. 1 instead of March 25 ; eleven days 
 were omitted between Sept. 3 and 14. 
 
 1754. The duke of Newcastle succeeded his brother, Mr. Pelham (f 
 March), as prime minister. Fox secretary of state. 
 
 1754, Mav 31-1761, Mar. 19. Fifth Parliament of George II. 
 (XL). 
 
 1755-1763. Land and naval war between England and 
 France (Seven Years' War), originating in boundary disputes 
 in North America, carried on by land in America (and Ger- 
 many), by sea in all parts of the world. The English had the 
 advantage of the French almost everywhere. (War in Amer- 
 ica, p. ^23 ; in Europe, p. 403 ; in India, p. 443.) 
 
A. D. Gre<(t Thilain. 439 
 
 175;i. Foundation of tlio British Museinn. 
 
 17r>(). Black Hole at Calcutta, (p. 44.*^) 
 
 1757-1761, Oct. T). Coalition ministry of the duke of Newcastle, 
 tirst lord of the treasury, and tiu' elder Pitt (William Pitt, h. 
 1708; member of the connnons 1735; vice-treasurer for Ireland 
 1740; privy councillor and paymaster-general, secretary of state 
 17r)(); retired 17()1; in opposition 17()l-17t)0 ; privy seal 17t)t)- 
 17(38; earl of Chatham July 29, 17GG ; died May 11, 1778), 
 secretary of state. 
 
 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of Quebec, death of Wolfe. 
 
 1759, Nov. 20. Naval battle of Quiberon Bay ; defeat of the 
 French by Sir Edivard Hawke. 
 
 17G0, Oct. 25. Death of George II. 
 
 1760-1820. George III., first part of his reign, to 1783. 
 
 17G1, Aug. 15. Bourbon family compact, 
 
 between France and Spain with the assumption of the accession 
 of Naples and Parma, for reciprocal guarantee of all posses- 
 sions and an offensive and defensive alliance. Pitt, insisting 
 that war ought to be declared upon Spain, resigned (Oct. 5). 
 Lord Bute, the true adviser of the king; " the king's friends; " 
 the " power behind the throne." 
 
 1761, Oct. 5-1762, May 29. Ministry of the duke of Newcas- 
 tle. Egremont and Bute, secretaries of state ; Georye Grenville 
 leader in the commons. 
 
 1761, Nov. 3-1768, Mar. 10. First Parliament of George UL 
 
 (XII.). 
 
 1762, Jan. War declared against Spain. 
 
 1762, I\Iay 29-1763, Apr. 1. Ministry of lord Bute ; Grenville^ 
 secretary of state. 
 
 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris 
 
 between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 
 1. France ceded to England: in North America, Canada, and Cape 
 
 Breton Island ; the Mississippi was recognized as the boundary 
 between Louisiana and the British colonies; in the West Indies Granada; 
 in Africa the French possessions on the Senegal. England restored to 
 France Goree in Africa, and all coiupiests in India. 2. Spain ceded 
 to England Florida, as indemnitication for which France had already 
 ceded Louisiana to Spain ; Spain received from England all con- 
 quests in Cid)a including Havana. 
 
 In conse(pience of this peace and her acquisitions in India (p. 448) 
 Great Britain reached the summit of her extent ;uid power; the North 
 American colonies had gradually developed into states under gover- 
 nors, with liberal constitutions, modeled after that of (treat Britain. 
 1763, April 1-1765, July. Ministry of George Grenvilie; Hali/a.v 
 
 and Egremont, secretaries of states; /w created lord Holland. 
 No. 45 of the North. Briton containing insulting remarks concerning 
 the king by John Wilkes, general warrants for the a]>prehension of 
 the authors, printers, and publishers, were issued. Wilkes was ar- 
 rested and expelled from the connnons. General warrants declared 
 illegal by the chief justice. Wilkes outlawed. 
 
440 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1765, Feb. Stamp act (p. 425). 
 
 1765, July-1766, July. Ministry of the marquis of Rockingham ; 
 
 general Conway secretary of state and leader of the commons. 
 
 1766, March. Repeal of stamp act (p. 423). 
 
 1766, April 22. General warrants declared illegal by resolution 
 
 of the commons (a declaratory bill to this effect was thrown out 
 by the lords). 
 Aug. 1767, Dec. Ministry of Chatham; Grafton. 
 
 1767, Dec-1770, Jan. Ministry of the duke of Grafton ; Toims- 
 
 hend chancellor of the exchequer ; general Conway, lord Shel- 
 burne, secretaries of state. Pitt (earl of Chatham) lord privy 
 seal. Lord Hillsborough first colonial secretary. 
 
 1768, May 10-1774, June 22. Second Parliament of George 
 
 III. (XIII.). Wilkes member for Middlesex. 
 
 1769, Feb. Wilkes expelled the house for an alleged libel on lord 
 
 Weymouth. He was thrice elected and thrice rejected ; at the 
 last election his opponent, colonel Luttrell, who received a 
 small minority, was declared elected. 
 1769-1772. Letters of Junius, containing bitter attacks upon the 
 duke of Grafton, lord Mansfield (^Murraij), and other mem- 
 bers of the government, appeared in the " Daily Advertiser." 
 The author is still unknown, though the letters are attributed 
 by many with great confidence to Sir Philip Francis. 
 
 1770, Jan.-1782, March 20. Ministry of lord North (first lord of 
 
 the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer). 
 
 1770, May. Remonstrance of the lord mayor and aldermen of 
 
 London with the king. 
 
 1771. Abortive attempt of the commons to prevent the publication 
 of speeches. Complaint of colonel Onslow; arrest of the 
 printers ; commitment of Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, alder- 
 man of London, for granting bail. 
 
 1774. Boston Port Bill (p. 425). 
 
 1774, Nov. 29-1780, July 8. Third Parliament of George III. 
 (XIV.). 
 Wilkes, lord mayor, and member for Middlesex ; motion to 
 expunge the resolution rejecting him. (On the sixth motion. 
 May 3, 1782, he was successful, and the resolutions were ex- 
 punged " as subversive of the rights of electors.") 
 
 1775-1783- 'War of independence of the British col- 
 onies in North America, see p. 426. 
 
 1778-1783. War between Great Britain and France. 
 
 1778. Repeal of penal laws against papists in England. 
 
 1779-1783. War between Great Britain and Spain. 
 
 1779-1782. Gibraltar besieged by the French and Spanish in vain ; 
 bravely defended by Elliott. 
 
 1780. No popery riots, caused by the intended relief of papists in 
 Scotland. Protestant associations ; lord George Gordon, 
 president. 
 
 June 2. Presentation of a no popery petition ; riot in London 
 lasting five days. Executions. 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 441 
 
 The armed neutrality (p. 412) ionnecl to resist England's 
 assunii)ti<^)ii oi tlit- li^ht ot" search. 
 1780, Oct. :U-17S4, Mar.' 24. Fourth Parliament of George 
 III. (XV.). 
 
 1780, Dec. 30-1783. War botwocMi Great Britain and Holland. 
 
 1781, Oct. 11). Surrender of Cornwallis (p. 4IU). In this year 
 
 the English lost Pensacola, Tohuf/o, St. Eustachim, iJemerara, 
 Essequibo, St. Christopher, Nevis, MonsemU, Minorca (1782). 
 
 1782, Feb. Motion of general Conwa/j " that the honse will consider 
 
 as enemies to the king and conntry all who shall advise, or by 
 any means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, 
 for the purpose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience 
 by force." 
 
 March 15. Motion of Sir J. Rous " that the house could no longer 
 repose confidence in the present ministers," lost by nine votes. 
 On a threat of renewal of the nu)tion lord North resigned. 
 
 1782, March 20-July 1. Ministry of the marquis of Rocking- 
 ham (t July 1, 1782) ; lord Shelburne, and Charles James Fox 
 (h 1749, son of Henry Fox, lord Holland; entered the commons 
 1708 ; lord of the admiralty 1770, of the treasury 1773; 1774 
 in opposition ; 1782 in the cabinet ; 1784 in opposition to Pitt; 
 died Sept. 13, 180C), secretaries of state ; lord Thurloic, lord 
 chancellor; Edmund Burke (b 1729? in Dublin, entered par- 
 liament 1765, paymaster of the forces 1782, in opposition 
 with Fox 1784, until the French revolution; died July 9, 1797), 
 paymaster of the forces ; Richard Brinsley Sheridan (b. 
 1751 at Dublin, entered parliament 1780, died July 7, 1816), 
 under-secretary of state. 
 
 April 12. Battle of Martinique, naval victory of Rodney and 
 Hood over De Grasse. 
 Reduction of the pension list ; establishment of the legislative 
 independence of Ireland ; exclusion of contractors and rev- 
 enue officers from parliament. 
 
 1782, July 1-1783, Feb. 24. Ministry of lord Shelburne following 
 
 the death of Rockingham. William Pitt (b. 1759, entered 
 parliament 1781 ; chancellor of exchequer 1782 ; prime min- 
 ister 1783 ; retired 1801 : returned to office 1804 ; died Jan. 
 23, 1806), twenty-three years old, chancellor of the exchequer ; 
 Fox, Burke, Sheridayi, resigned. 
 Nov. 30. Secret treaty of Paris with America (p. 431). 
 
 1783, Jan. 20-Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris 
 (p. 432). 
 
 1. Recognition of the independence of the thirteen United States 
 (the Americans retained the Western territory ; the navigation of the 
 Mississippi was in common). 2. England surrendered to France in 
 the West Indies Tobago ; in Africa tlie region of Senegal. 3. Spain 
 retained Minorca in Europe, and Florida in America. 
 1783, April 2-Dec. 13. Coalition ministry of the duke of Port- 
 land ; Cavendish, chancellor of exchequer ; lord North and 
 Fox, secretaries of state ; Burke, paymaster. 
 
442 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1757-1784. "War of the English in India, see p. 443. 
 
 In the epoch of the Seven Years' War, the English East India 
 Company (at once sovereigns and merchants) began the foundation 
 of an extensive empire in place of the existing factories. The vic- 
 tories of lord Clive gave the English the upper hand of the French, 
 and secured for them Bengal. 
 
 War with the Mahrattds, who were allied with the sultan of My- 
 sore, Hyder Ali (f 1782, his son, Tippu Saih), with the Nizam of 
 Golkonda and the French. From the war this company came out vic- 
 torious and with greatly increased strength. Under the ministry of 
 the younger Pitt (1783-1801) the company was subordinated by 
 the East India Bill (1784) in political and military affairs to a royal 
 commission {board of control). 
 
 1768-1779. Voyages of James Cook (b. 1728; under Wolfe at 
 Quebec, 1759; d. 1779). 
 
 1. Aug. 26, 1768, to June 11, 1771 : discovery of CooFs strait and 
 of the strait between Australia and New Guinea. 2. July 13, 1772, 
 to July 30, 1775: touching at New Zealand, Cook discovered many 
 islands in the Pacific, penetrated to 71° S. latitude and rounded Cape 
 Horn. 3. July 12, 1776, investigation of Behring's strait ; on the re- 
 turn Cook was killed by the natives on Hawaii, one of the Sandwich 
 islands, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 
 § 9. THE EAST. 
 
 India. 
 
 Decline of the Mughal empire of Delhi. 
 
 Bahadur Shah (1707-1712), Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), son 
 and grandson of Aurangzeh, both under the control of the general 
 Zul-fikar Khan. Successful revolt of Farruklisiyyar (1713-1719) ; 
 oppression, revolt, and punishment of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 
 1715. Rajputana practically independent of the empire. 
 
 The Sayyid chiefs, Husdin AH and Ahdidld, placed two boy em- 
 perors on the throne, who were followed, after four months, 
 
 bv 
 1719-1748. Muhammad Shah. 
 1720-1748. Independence of the Deccan established under the 
 
 Nizam ul Mulk, or governor. 
 1732-1743. Practical independence of Oudh. 
 
 1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia ; sack of Delhi. 
 1748. Death of Muhammad Shah; from this time the emperors were 
 
 but puppets, with a shadow only of power. 
 1748-1754. Ahmad Shah. 
 1748-1761. Five invasions of India by Ahmad Shah Durani, 
 
 Afghan ruler of Kandahar: 1748 ; 1751-1752 ; 1761 (sack of 
 
 Delhi) ; 1759 ; 1761. 
 1754-1759. Alamgir II. ; capture of Delhi by the Mahrattds 
 
 (1759). 
 1759-1808. Shah Alam II. 
 1761. Battle of Panipat ; defeat of the Mahrattds by the Afghans 
 
A. D. The E((st: India. 443 
 
 under Ahmad Shah Durani. The Mahratta power was following 
 fast in the footsteps of the Mn<j;hal emperors. Under Sahu, grand- 
 son of Sicaji (p. 389), the real power fell into the hands of his ehief 
 minister, a Brahman with the title of Peshwa ; this man and his 
 suceessors (Bcilaji, 1718-17*20 ; IJciJi lido, 1721-1740; IJulaJi Buji 
 Rao, 1740-1701 ; Mudku lido, 1701-1772) built up a eonfederacy at 
 Poona while the true sovereigns sank into the petty princes of Sd- 
 tdra and Kolhapiir (the latter still exists). Under the first three 
 Peshwas their armies prospered, they concpiered the Deccan and ex- 
 torted tribute from Bengal (1751). After the defeat of Panipat 
 (1701), the power of the Peshwa of Poona rapidly declined, and 
 the confederacy split up into five divisions : the Peskwds (Poona), 
 Bhondds (Nagpur), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (ludore), Gdekwdrs 
 (Baroda). 
 
 The British in India. 
 
 When the eighteenth century opened, the British were established 
 at Bombay, Madras, and in Bengal (Calcutta). The French had a 
 factory at Pondicherri, south of Madras. This eastern coast land, 
 the Karnatic, was under the Nawdh (Nabob) of Arcot, a subordinate 
 of the Nizam of Haidardhdd (Deccan). 
 
 1744-1748. "War between France and England in Europe ; fol- 
 lowed by war between these powers in India. Diipleix, gov- 
 ernor of Pondicherri. 
 1746. Capture of Madras by the French ; it was restored in the 
 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 1751-1754. War between French and British in India. De- 
 fense of Arcot by Clive (Robert Clive, b. 1725, clerk in 
 Madras 1743, ensign 1744, paymaster 1748 ; in England 1753- 
 1755 ; governor of Bengal 1758 ; Irish peer, baron Clive of 
 Plassey, 1760 ; governor of Bengal 1705-1767 ; committed 
 suicide Nov. 22, 1774). 
 1756-1763. Seven Years' War in Europe (p. 403) and Amer- 
 ica (p. 420). War between the British and French in India. 
 
 1756, June 29. " Black Hole of Calcutta." The young Nawdh 
 
 (Nabob) of Bengal, Sirdj-ud-Daidd (Surajah Doiclah), hav- 
 ing quarreled with the English, seized Calcutta and imprisoned 
 146 persons in the military prison of Fort William, a room 
 some eighteen feet square. In the morning but 23 of the 146 
 were alive. Clive recaptured Calcutta, took the French fac- 
 tory at Chandarnagar and defeated a much more numerous 
 force under Surajah Dowlah in the 
 
 1757, June 23. Battle of Plassey. 
 
 Mir Jafar was placed on the (viceregal) throne of Bengal ; SurO' 
 jah Dowlah was soon put to death. 
 
 1758, Clive governor of Bengal ; defeat of the Dutch (Nov. 1759). 
 Establishment of British influence as superior to that of the 
 French in the south. 
 
 I 
 
444 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1760, Jan. 22. Battle of Wandewash; defeat of the French under 
 
 Lally by colonel (afterwards sir Eyre) Coote. Destruction of 
 
 the French power in India. 
 
 The British having deposed Mir Jafar and set up Mir Kosim as 
 
 Nawab in 1761 were soon involved in a war with the latter (massacre 
 
 of Patnd, 1763). Sepoy mutiny, 1764. 
 
 1764. Battle of Baxar won by major Munro over Shah Alam, the 
 emperor. Conquest of Oudh. 
 
 1765. Settlement of Indian relations by Clive, again governor of 
 Bengal (1765-1767). Oudh restored to the Nawiib ; Alla- 
 habad and Kora given to the emperor, Shah Alam, the British re- 
 ceived the financial administration of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and the 
 sovereignty over the Northern Circars. 
 
 1771. Shah Alam submitted to the Mahrattds. 
 
 Famine in Bengal ; bad condition of the company's affairs ; its 
 servants grew rich on extortions and perquisites, but the com- 
 pany was near bankruptcy. Failure of Clive's system of man- 
 agement. 
 1772-1774. Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal (b. 1732; clerk 
 m Bengal 1749 ; member of government 1761 ; in England; 
 member of council in Madras 1765; governor of Bengal 1772, 
 of India 1774; recalled 1785, impeached 1788, acquitted 1795, 
 privy counselor 1814, died 1818). 
 1774-1785. Warren Hastings, governor-general of India. Coun- 
 cil of five instead of twelve, Hastings having the casting vote. 
 Introduction of reforms in administration ; acquirement by 
 the British of complete control of the finances of the empire. 
 Opposition of Philip Francis (Junius?). 
 Holding that the emperor had broken the agreement with Clive by 
 joining the Mahrattas, Hastings sold Allahabad and Kora to the gov- 
 ernor of Oudh. The resistance of Chait Sink, the Raja of Benares, 
 to the demands of Hastings was fanned into a rebellion ; Hastings 
 charged the mother of the governor of Oudh (Begam of Oudh) with 
 abetting the rebel, and extorted over £1,000,000 from her. For 
 these acts Hastings was impeached in parliament on his return to 
 England (1788-1795 ; speech of Burke), but acquitted. 
 
 War with the Mahrattds (1778-1781), and with Haidar All of 
 Mysore and his son Tipu (^Tippu Saib). 
 
 China. 
 1721-1735. Yung-ching. 
 1735-1795. Kien-lung. 
 
 Annexation of Hi. Conquest of East Turkestan. Unsuccess- 
 ful invasion of Cochin China and Burmah. Suppression of a Moham- 
 medan revolt in Kan-sah. Severe persecution of the Christians. Liter- 
 ary labors of the emperor, who was himself a poet ; foundation of four 
 libraries. 
 
 1792. Conquest of the Gorkhas and the Nepaulese. Unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to suppress a rebellion in Formosa. 
 
A. D. Japan. — France. 445 
 
 1793. Embassy of earl Macartney. 
 
 171)5. Abdication of the emperor, who died in 1798. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 From 1654 to 1853 the history of this country is marked by few 
 events of interest. Under the Tokugawa IShoguns, many of wliom 
 were famous for their active interest in science and literature, the 
 people progressed in civilization and the diffusion of education. To- 
 ward the close of the second century the country began to feel the 
 evil effects of the long peace : wealth, luxury, enervation. lyetsuna 
 1050-1081 ; construction of a cooperative liistory of Japan, the Dai 
 Nihon Shi, under the care of the prince of Mito ; department of 
 astronomy; growth of Yedo. Tsunayoski, 1081-1708, the friend of 
 learning. Kaempfer in Japan. Yoshiniune, 1717-1744, one of the 
 ablest of the Tokugawas ; revision of the criminal code ; mtroduction 
 of sugar-cane ; foundation of a free hospital at Yedo ; hygienic in- 
 formation distributed throughout the country (population of Japan in 
 1744, 20,080,000).! From 1703-1770 an empress sat on the Mikado's 
 throne. 
 
 1780-1816. The Mikado Kokaku ; the Shoguns ; lyeharu 1703- 
 1780 ; lyenori 1787-1837. Reformation of the administra- 
 tion. During this reign the influence of the Dutch mcreased 
 rapidh^, while several attempts of the Russians to open inter- 
 course with Japan were brusquely repulsed. 
 
 § 10. FRANCE. 
 
 1715-1774. Louis XV., five years old, 
 
 the great-grandson of Louis XIV., whose son (the dauphin 
 Louis), and grandson (the duke of Burgundy) died before him. 
 1715-1723. Philip, duke of Orleans, regent during the minority 
 
 of Louis XV. He set the country (and the king) an example 
 of the most shameless debauchery. His favorite was cardinal Du- 
 bois (f 1723), a man of low birth and character, but of considerable 
 ability. Abandonment of the policy of Louis XIV. ; alliance ^vith 
 England (1717, p. 349) ; religious tolerance. The quadruple alli- 
 ance, p. 397. War with Spain ; marshal Berwick in Spain ; peace, 
 Feb. 17, 1720 (treaty of London ; the emperor received Sicily, Savoy 
 ol)tained Sard in io ) . 
 1718-1720. Law's Mississippi scheme. 
 
 In his financial distress the regent grasped at the dazzling 
 plans of the Scotchman, Johi Law. Royal bank ; company of the 
 west ; grant of Louisiana. Popular infatuation. Enormous infla- 
 tion of the currency ; issue of notes to the amount of 3,000,000,000 
 francs, based on the land of the kingdom. Sudden collapse of the 
 bank and tlie company, bringing widespread disaster (1720). See 
 the South Sea Bubble (p. 437). 
 1723-1720. Adnnnistration of the duke of Bourbon. The young 
 
 king married the daughter of the deposed kuig of Poland, 
 
 1 Reed. i. p. 236. 
 
446 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Stanislaus Lesczinski, having broken off the projected marriage with 
 the Infanta of Spain and sent back the princess to the great indigna- 
 tion of Phihp V. Louis was under the influence of his tutor, cardinal 
 Fleury, wlio overthrew the duke of Bourbon and his favorite the mar- 
 quise de Prie, and banished them from court. 
 1726-1743. Administration of Fleury. 
 
 Participation of France in the war of the Polish succes- 
 sion, p. 398; in the -war of the Austrian succession, p. 400; in 
 the Seven Years' War, p. 403; war with England and the peace 
 of Paris, pp. 422, 441. 
 
 Persecution of the Jansenists. Miracles at the cemetery of St. 
 Medard. Convulsionnaires. Closure of the cemetery, 1732. 
 
 " De par le Roi, defense k Dieu, i 
 
 De faire miracles en ce lieu." \ 
 
 After the death of Fleury (1743), government of mistresses and of 
 ministers whom they placed in office. Senseless expenditure and re- 
 volting arbitrary rule. Marquise de Chateauroux. 
 1745-1764. Marquise de Pompadour {Lenormant d'Etioles). 
 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy ; victory of Marshal Saxe 
 over the allies (p. 402 and 438). 
 Struggle between the church, parliament, and crown. 
 The due de Choiseul, a friend of Pompadour, minister. 
 
 1756. Hostilities with England in North America led to war (p. 
 438). 
 
 1757, Jan. 5. Attempted assassmation of Louis XV. by DamienSf 
 
 who was barbarously tortured and torn by four horses. 
 
 1768. Death of the queen. 
 
 1769. Annexation of Corsica. 
 
 The immorality and extravagance of the court reached its height . 
 when Louis XV., toward the close of his reign, came under the influ- 
 ence of the shameless prostitute Jeanne Vaubernier, by marriage with i 
 a superannuated courtier, 
 1769-1774. Countess DuBarry. 
 
 Contest with the parliament of Paris, which was abolished I 
 in 1771 by the chancellor, Maupeou, and superseded by a Conseil du 
 Roi, without political privileges. The parliament was, however, re- 
 stored under the next reign. Pacte de famine ; a company in which 
 the king was shareholder, which had a monopoly of the corn supply. 
 1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV. He was succeeded by his grand- 
 son, 
 
 1774-1792. Louis XVI., 
 
 whose moral purity and sincere good-will, neutralized by a 
 total lack of energy, were unable to quiet the approaching storm off 
 the revolution by feeble attempts at reform. Restoration of the 
 parliament. Louis, while dauphin (1770) had married Marie An- 
 toinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. The queen, at first 
 extremely popular, soon incurred the dislike of the people, and became 
 an object of the grossest slanders, particularly in connection withl 
 the scandalous affair of the diamond necklace (1785 ; given to thai 
 
A. D. 
 
 France. 447 
 
 queen by cardinal Rohan; conntess Lamothe). Tier influence was an 
 evil one, beinji^ exertod for tbe niaiutenauce of the system of favorit- 
 ism, and for the icsistaui-e of reforms. 
 1774-17S1. Maurepas, the kinj;'s favorite minister. 
 1774-177(5, May. Turgot minister of marine and tinanee. 
 1777-1781. Necker, minister of finance ; aboUtion of six hundred 
 
 su})ertiuous offices. 
 1778. Alliance between France and the United States of America 
 
 (p. 429). 
 For the participation of France in the war of American independ- 
 ence, see p. 421), etc. 
 1781. Publication of the compte rendu by Necker. On the death of 
 
 Maurepas the Comte de Vergennes succeeded to the favor of the 
 
 king. 
 1783-1787. Calonne, a favorite of the queen, minister of finance. 
 
 Great extravagance of the court ; contraction of an enormous 
 
 debt. 
 
 1787, Feb. 22. Assembly of notables summoned at Versailles. 
 
 Fall of Calonne. 
 De Brienne, minister of finance. Dissolution of the assembly 
 (May 25). Opposition of the parliament of Paris, which re- 
 fused to register the reform. 
 Edicts, alleging that such changes needed the approval of the 
 states-general. Banishment of the parliament to Troyes. An agree- 
 ment was patched up, but on the recall of the parliament, a still more 
 aggravated quarrel broke out concerning new loans. 
 
 1788, Jan. Presentation of grievances. Arrest of the leaders of the 
 
 parliament. Abolition of that body, the place of which was 
 to be taken by a cour pleniere, nominated by the kmg. Revolts 
 in the provinces. 
 Summons of a states-general for May 5, 1789. 
 1788, Aug. De Brienne resigned office. Necker recalled. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1789-1815). 
 
 The revolution ran through three stages to the extreme of a demo- 
 cratic republic, three other periods brought it gnulually through a reac- 
 tion back to absolute monarchy, after which came a time of constitutional 
 monarchy, then a republic, then the second empire, then a republic 
 again. 
 
 1. States General and Constituent Assembly {Consiituante) ; 
 from Mayo (June 17), 1789, to Sept. 30,1791 (2^ years). A limited 
 (constitutional) monarchy. Influence of the higher middle classes. 
 
 2. The Legislative Assembly (Legislatif) ; from Oct. 1. 1791, to 
 Sept. 21, 1792 (almost a year). Monarchy still further limited, then 
 suspended. Increase of the power of the lou'^er classes. 
 
 3. The National Convention (Convention Nationale); from Sept. 
 21, 1792, to Oct. 25, 1795 (more than three years); called to frame a 
 
448 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 new constitution, it first abolished the monarchy and condemned the 
 king to death ; it supported the Reign of Terror, and then overthrew 
 it. It led the resistance to foreign foes. 
 
 N. B. The left of the constituent was the right of the legisla- 
 tive, and the left of the legislative was (at first) the right of the 
 convention. 
 
 4. The Directory (Directoire) : from Oct. 26, 1795, to Nov. 9, 1799 
 (18 Brumaire, An. VIII.) more than four years. The middle classes 
 recovered their influence. Party divisions. The army. General 
 Bonaparte's coup d'etat. 
 
 5. The Consulate (consulat), at first provisional then definitive, 
 from Dec. 25, 1799, to May 20, 1804 (4^ years) ; civil and military 
 rule, virtually of one man ; progress of French arms. 
 
 6. The (first) Empire; from May 20, 1804 to (April, 1814) June 
 22, 1815 (about eleven years). Napoleon I. made France the con- 
 trolling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown.^ 
 
 General Causes of the Revolution. \ 
 
 1. The spirit of the eighteenth century — a spirit devoted to the 
 destruction or reformation of all existing institutions. Attacks of 
 French writers upon church and state. Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; 
 Voltaire (1694-1778) ; Rousseau (1670-1741) ; the Encyclopedia 
 (1751-1780), the work of the Encyclopedists : Holbach (1723- 
 1789) ; Helvetius (1715-1771) ; Diderot (1713-1784) ; D'Alem- 
 bert (1717-1783) ; Condillac (1715-1789). 
 
 2. The unequal division and miserable cultivation of the land (nearly 
 two thirds of which was in the hands of the clergy and the nobles), 
 and the strict control exercised by the guilds, which checked the de- 
 velopment of trade and industry. 
 
 3. The arbitrary government, the abuses in the administration, the un- 
 equal apportionment of the burdens of taxation. Since' 1614, the consti- 
 tutional assembly of the kingdom, the e'tats-generaux had not been 
 summoned (p. 325). Control of the liberty of the subject by arbitrary 
 warrants of imprisonment (lettres de cachet. Bastille) of their property 
 by arbitrary taxation. 
 
 In opposition to the right assumed by the parliament of Paris, to 
 refuse the registration of edicts of taxation, the court had recourse 
 to beds of justice (Jits de justice, a despotic enforcement of registra- 
 tion), and the banishment of members of parliament. Commissions 
 in the army, places in parliament, and most of the higher offices, 
 were purchasable, but as a rule, onl}^ by the nobles. Tlie privileged 
 classes (nobility and clergy) were allowed many privileges in regard 
 to the direct taxes, although by no means exempt by them.^ Continu- 
 ation in the country of the oppressive feudal burdens (corvees, enforced 
 labor on the estate of the lord and on public roads without pay), ex- 
 actions of the feudal lords, who wasted their revenues in the capital 
 and gave the peasants neither protection nor assistance in return. 
 Taille, land ancl property tax ; gabelle, tax on salt. 
 
 1 Assmann. 
 
 2 Vou aybel, Geschichte der Rtvolut'wnszeh. 
 
A.. D. First French Revolution. 449 
 
 Special Cause. 
 
 The immense public debt and the deficit. The yearly deficit owed 
 its origin to the wars of Louis XIV., to his costly, often senseless 
 buildings ( Versailles with its basins and fountains lying in a district 
 totally without water), and to his extravagant court ; it grew under 
 the profligate expenditure of Louis XV. and the cost of the North 
 American war under Louis XVI. till it amounted to nearly half of 
 the yearly income. As Turgot's (1774-177G) attempts at reforms 
 (removal of internal duties on commerce ; abolition of the corvee, abo- 
 lition of many guihls), Necker^s (1776-1781) economical administra- 
 tion, and the assembly of notables summoned upon the advice of 
 Calonne (1787), brought no relief, the king took the advice of 
 Necker, who had reassumed office (1788), and resolved upon the 
 
 1789, May 5. Summons of the Btats-Generaux to Ver- 
 sailles, with a double representation of the middle classes, 
 the third estate (tiers etat), nobles 300, clergy 300, commons 600. Dis- 
 pute about the manner of debating and of voting (whether votes should 
 be east by the orders as such, or by each member individually) 
 which broke out during the verification of the powers of the members. 
 The nobles and the clergy demanded a separate verification, the com- 
 mons wished that it should take place in common. The true question 
 was whether the legislative body should consist of a lower house of 
 commons, and an upper house of nobles and clergy which would check 
 the lower, or of one house in which the commons equaled in number 
 the nobles and clergy together. Upon the motion of the abbe Sieyes 
 (author of the remarkable pamphlet asking. What is the third estate ?) 
 the representatives of the third estate assumed the title of the 
 
 1789, June 17-1791. National Assembly {constituante) 
 and invited the other orders to join them. 
 
 1789. Suspension of the meetings for three days ; the hall 
 June 20. closed to the members, who at last resorted to a neighbor- 
 ing tennis court (jeu de paume) and took an oath not to 
 separate until they had given the realm a constitution. Pres- 
 ident Bailli/. Many of the clergy and some nobles joined the 
 assembly. 
 June 23. Fruitless royal sitting ; the king ordered the assembly to 
 meet in three houses. 
 Principal orator of the assembly : Mirabeau (Riquetti, count 
 of Mirabeau, born 1749, of remarkable talent, but dissolute, 
 in debt, at variance with his family, elected in Provence as 
 representative of the third estate). The representatives of 
 the clergy and the nobility join the third estate by re- 
 quest of the king. Concentration of troops near Paris. 
 Rumors of a purpose to dissolve the national assembly, and the dis- 
 missal of Necker (July 11) caused the 
 
 1789. Storm and destruction of the Bastille in Paris 
 July 14. (murder of De Launay), Camille Desmoulins. Paris in the 
 2;) 
 
450 Modern xxisiory. A, d. 
 
 hands of the mob scarcely controlled by the electors who had' 
 chosen the deputies from Paris for the assembly and now sat 
 at the Hotel de Ville as a provisional government. Necker 
 recalled. Lafayette commander of the newly established 
 National Guard. Bailly mayor of Paris. Adoption of the 
 tricolor : blue, red (colors of Paris), white (color of France). 
 Beginning of the emigration of the nobles, headed by the count of 
 Artois, second brother of the king, prince Conde, Polignac. 
 
 Rising of the peasants against the feudal lords in Dauphine, Pro- 
 vence^ and Burgundy. Riots, provisional governments, guards in the 
 provincial cities. 
 
 Aug. 4. Voluntary surrender by the representatives of the nobles 
 (vicojnte de Noailles) of all feudal rights and privileges ; abo- 
 lition of the titles, prohibition of the sale of offices, dissolution 
 of the guilds, etc. 
 Aug. 27. Declaration of the rights of man. Discussion of the veto 
 
 power. 
 Oct. 5, 6. Outbreak of the mob of Paris, caused by hunger, the bribes 
 of the duke of Orleans, and rumors of an intended reaction. 
 March of a band, consisting principally of women, to Versailles. The 
 royal family, rescued by Lafayette, were obliged to go to Paris, 
 whither the national assembly followed them. 200 members re- 
 signed. 
 
 Democratic monarchical constitution : one chamber with legisla- 
 tive power and the sole right of initiation. The royal veto was sus- 
 pensive only, delaying the adoption of a measure for two legislative 
 terms. The king could not declare war and conclude peace without 
 the consent of the chamber, ratification by which was necessary for 
 the validity of all foreign treaties. 
 
 In order to relieve the financial distress the ecclesiastical estates 
 were declared public property. Assignats, notes of the govern- 
 ment, having for security the public lands, the value of which was 
 not to be exceeded by the issue of notes (a check which was inopera- 
 tive). The state assumed the support of the clergy. 
 
 1790, July 14. National federation in Paris ; the Constitu- 
 tion accepted by the king. 
 Abolition of the old provinces and governments ; France divided 
 into eighty-three departments, named after rivers and mountains ; 
 these departments being subdivided into 374 districts and cantons. 
 The communes were left unchanged (44,000) ; tax qualijicatioyi for the 
 exercise of active suffrage in the primary assemblies, which chose 
 electors {dlecteurs) who then elected the representatives (745) for a legis- 
 lature with a term of two years. The administrative officers of the 
 departments and districts were selected from the electors; the muni- 
 cipal officers and the judges were taken from the great body of voters, 
 the active citizens. Each department and each district had a local 
 assembly. Abolition of the parliaments and the old judicial constitu- 
 tion. Juries. Abolition of hereditary noUlity, titles, and coats-of-arms. 
 Dissolution of all ecclesiastical orders, excepting those having educa- 
 tion and the care of the sick for their objects. Civil organization of 
 
A. D. First French Revolution. 451 
 
 the clerci^y; the pastors to be chosen by the voters of the districts, the 
 bishoj)s by the voters of the depaitinents. Only one third of the 
 ecclesiastics submitted to the new constitution by taking the required 
 oath, so that henceforward there was a distinction between priests 
 who had taken the oath {pretres assermentes) and priests who had not 
 (rcf'ractaires). 
 
 Clubs liad existed since 1789 ; the Jacobins, named after their 
 place of asseml)ly, which was formerly occupied by Dominican monks 
 from the liuc 8t. Jacques (Robespierre), soon the greatest power in 
 the state ; the Cordeliers, who held their meetmgs in a monastery 
 of Franciscans {Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, Htbert); the 
 Feuillants, moderate monarcliists who had separated from the Jaco- 
 bins {Lafai/ette, Bailly). Reorganization of the municipality (com- 
 mune) of Paris, in forty-eight sectiom ; 84,0(X) voters (pop. 800,000); 
 general council, executive board (44). Each section had its primary 
 assembly. 
 
 1790, Sept. Fall of Necker. 
 
 Alliance between the court and Miraheau, who endeavored to stem 
 the revolution and prevent the destruction of the throne. 
 
 1791, April 2. Death of Miraheau. 
 
 June 20. Flight of the king. Stopped at Varennes, brought back to 
 Paris (June 25). Unprovoked assault on a meeting in the 
 Champs de Mars (July 17, " massacre of the Champs de Mars.") 
 Suspended, reinstated by the moderate party (Sept.), Louis 
 XVI. accepted the constitution as revised and com- 
 pleted. Dissolution of the assembly (Sept. 30) after it had 
 voted that none of its members should be eligible for reelec- 
 tion to the next legislature. 
 
 1791, Oct. 1-1792, Sept. Legislative Assembly. 
 
 745 representatives, mostly from the middle class. Parties : 
 the right, composed of constitutionalists, royalists, Feuillants, became 
 weaker with every day. The left side, comprising the majority, was 
 divided into : 1. Moderate rejiublicans (the plain, la plaine), contain- 
 ing the group of the Girondists (so called after its leading members 
 from Bordeaux, the department of the Gironde), Guadet, Vergniaud, 
 Brissot, etc., advocates of a federal republic. 2. The Mountain (la 
 montagne, les mnntagnards), so called from their seats, which were the 
 highest on the left side of the hall, radicals, adherents of a united, 
 indivisible republic {une et indivisible). They were composed of the 
 leaders of the clubs of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. Pc'tion, mayor 
 of Paris. 
 
 1791, Aug. Meeting at Pillnitz between 
 
 1786-1797. Frederic William II., king of Prussia 
 ( Wollner, Bischofswerder), and 
 
 1790-1792. Leopold II., the emperor. 
 
 Preliminary understanding in regard to Eastern matters, the 
 political relations, and the French disturbances. 
 
452 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1791, Sept. Annexation of Avignon (massacres) and the Venaissin to 
 
 France. 
 
 1792, Feb. Alliance between Austria and Prussia. Leopold was suc- 
 
 ceeded by 
 
 1792-1806. . Francis II. (As emperor of Austria, Fran« 
 cis I. until 1835). 
 
 1792-3797. War between France and the First Coali- 
 tion. 
 A Girondist ministry {Rolajid, Dumouriez) took the place of the 
 
 constitutionalist ministry, whose fall was caused by the declaration of 
 
 Pilhiitz. 
 
 April 20. Declaration of war ag-ainst Austria. Three armies in the 
 field. Rochamheau (48,000), between Dunkirk and Philippe-, 
 ville; Lafayette (52,000), between Philippe ville and Lauter- 
 bourg- ; Luckner (42,000), between Lauterbourg and Basle. 
 The fortune of war was against the French, which increased 
 the revolutionary excitement at Paris. Dismissal of the min- 
 istry of Roland (June 13). 
 
 June 20. Invasion of the Tuileries by the mob. Calm behavior of 
 the king ; the bonnet rouge. 
 
 July 11. The Legislative Assembly pronounced the country in dan- 
 ger. Formation of a volunteer army of revolutionists through- 
 out the country. Threatening manifesto of the duke of Bruns- 
 wick. 
 The mvmicipal council of Paris broken up and its place usurped by 
 
 commissioners from the sections ; the neiu commune (288 members). 
 
 Aug. 10. {Tenth of August). Storm of the Tuileries by the mob, in 
 consequence of an order given by tlie king to the Swiss guards, 
 who were advancing victoriously, to cease firing. Massacre of 
 the Swiss guards. The king took refuge in the hall of the 
 
 Aug. 13. Assembly, was suspended, and placed in the tower of the 
 temple (the old house of the Knights Templars). Numerous 
 arrests of suspected persons. The Jacobins in power. Call of 
 a national convention, elected hf manhood suffrage, to draw 
 up a constitution for the state. 
 
 Aug. 20. Lafagette, impeached and proscribed, fled, was captured by 
 . the Austrians and imprisoned in Olmiltz (till 1796). Verdun 
 taken by the Prussians ; battles at Grandpre and Valmy. 
 
 Sept. 2-7. Jail delivery at Paris : terrible massacre, lasting five 
 days, of royalists and constitutionalists detained in the prisons, 
 instigated by the city council and by Dantoii, the minister of justice. 
 Like scenes took place at Versailles, Lyons, Rheims, Meaux and Or- 
 leans. 
 
 20 Sept. French {Dumouriez, Kellermami) success at Valmy against 
 the allies {duke of Brunsioick). 
 
 1792, Sept. 21-1795, Oct. National Convention com- ) 
 posed entirely of republicans (749 members, 486 new j 
 men). Parties, Girondists (right, Vergniaud, Brissot) 1 
 
I 
 
 A. D. First French Revolution. 453 
 
 and the Mountain (left ; members for Paris, Rohesplei^e, 
 duke of Orleans (Fhillp Egallte), Danton, Collot (V 
 Herhois). 
 
 1792. Abolition of the monarchy. France declared a 
 Sept. '11. Republic. 
 
 Sept. 22 was the first day of the year one of the French repub- 
 lic. Cifof/en et citoijenne • decree of perpetual banishment against 
 emigrants; tu et toi. Inglorious retreat of the Prussians through 
 Champagne to Luxembourg and across the Rhine. The French general, 
 Custine, took Speier, Mainz, and Frankfort on the Main. Occupation 
 of Nice and Savog (Sept.). 
 
 1792. Victory of tlie French general Dumouriez at Jemmapes. He 
 Nov. 6. took Brussels and* concpiered the Austrian Netherlands. The 
 
 Prussians retook Frankfort. 
 Nov. 19. Proclamation of the convention offering French assistance 
 to all peoples who wished to thi'ow off their present govern- 
 ment. 
 Savov and Nice annexed ; the Schelde opened to commerce (p. 
 408).'^ 
 
 1792, Dec. -1793, Jan. Trial of Louis XVI. before the convention. 
 
 Barrere prosecutor ; Malesherbes, Deseze, Tronchet, for the de- 
 fense. 
 Proposed appeal to the nation rejected. January 15, 683 votes out 
 of 721 declared the king guilty. Jan. 16, 361 votes, exactly a major- 
 ity (among them that of the duke of Orleans (Egalite), were cast 
 unconditionalljj for death, 360 being cast for imprisouiuent, banish- 
 ment, or death with respite. 
 
 1793, Jan. 21. Execution of Louis XVI. 
 
 Feb. 1. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain. 
 
 England, Holland, Spain and the Empire, joined the alliance 
 against France, Sardinia having been at war with the latter power 
 since July, 1792. Annexation of Belgium. The emigrants, under the 
 prince of Conde, proclaimed Louis XVII., who was a prisoner in the 
 temple. 
 
 Royalistic revolt in the Vendee, upon occasion of a levy of recruits. 
 (Charette, Stojflet, Cathelineau, La Rochejaquelein). 
 
 The Austrians under the duke of Cohurg defeated Dumouriez at 
 Neerwinden (March 18), and recaptured Brussels. Dumouriez went 
 over to the Austrians with the duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe, son 
 of Egalife. 
 March 9. Establishment of the revolutionary tribunal. 
 
 At Paris, in the convention, struggle for life and death, between 
 the Girondists and the Mountain. After the failure of the plan of the 
 Orle'anists, belonging to the Mountain, to make the duke of Orleans 
 (Egalite), protector, all power centred in the Committee of General 
 Security and the 
 
 1793. Committee of Public Safety (Com He die Saint 
 April 6. Public). Composed of nine (afterwards twelve) members, 
 
454 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 who exercised dictatorial power. Leaders : Danton (from the 
 first); Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon (these three iu July) ; 
 afterwards, Carnot, who managed the military department 
 only, and Collot d^Herhois (Sept.). The third, and in reality 
 the greatest power in the state, was the commune of Paris, 
 now reorganized on the basis of manhood suffrage, and actino- 
 through its committee, now numbering only twenty, at the 
 Hotel de Ville, under the guidance of Chaumette, and especially 
 of Hebert (editor of Le Plre Duchesne). 
 Financial difficulties. New issues of assignats based on the 
 lands of the emigrants, the sale of which was ordered. At- 
 tempts to check the depreciation of assignats by severe penal- 
 ties. 
 June 2. An uprising of the mob, organized by the commune of 
 Paris, commanded by Henriot, compelled the convention to ar- 
 rest thirty-one Girondists (Brissot, Vergniaud, PetioJi). 
 
 The second, fully democratic constitution, as passed by the conven- 
 tion, was sent to the primary assemblies of voters for ratification, but 
 never came to execution. 
 
 1793, July 13. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (executed 
 July 15). 
 
 1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. 
 
 Hobespierre at the head of the state. Revolutionary commit- 
 tees throughout the country. Commissaries of the committee of 
 public safety committed unheard-of atrocities in the large cities of the 
 provinces. Tallien at Bordeaux, Lebon in Arras, Carrier ni Nantes, 
 Challier, Couthon, Fouche, Collot d^Herbois in Lyons. 
 
 Mainz captured by the Prussians after a siege of three months 
 (July). The allies took the fortresses of Conde and Valenciennes. 
 For this reason Custine was executed at Paris. The English laid siege 
 to Toulon. The troops of the Republic were driven back at almost 
 all points. Revolts in the interior, partially conducted by Girondists 
 who had escaped from Paris. Energetic measures of the committee 
 of public safety (Carnot). 
 
 1793, Aug. 23. Levy of the whole male population capable of bear- 
 ing arms. Fourteen armies were soon placed in the field. Caen, 
 Bordeaux, Marseilles, conquered by the republicans. Lyons 
 Oct. captured after a two months' siege and partially destroyed ; 
 Massacre of the inhabitants {^Collot, Fouche ; la commune affran- 
 chie.) 
 Sept. 17. Establishment of a maximum price for a vast number of 
 commodities ; also for wages. The state exacted all its labor 
 and goods at the maximum price and paid in assignats at the 
 face value, the market value being one third of the face. 
 Law authorizing the imprisonment of all persons suspected (loi 
 
 des suspects) of being unfriendly to the republic. 
 Defeat of the Vendeans at Chollet (Oct. 20) and at Le Mans 
 (Dec. 12). Revolutionary tribunal at Nantes (15,000 persons 
 put to death in the three months of October, November, Decem- 
 ber by Carrier ; noyades, fusillades, marriages republicains). 
 
A. D. First French Revolution. 455 
 
 Oct. 16. Execution of tlie qiuMMi, Marie Antoinette. 
 Oct. 31. Execution of" the Girondists (-1). Kci<j^n of the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal and the guillotine {Place de la Revolution, now 
 Place de la Concorde) ; Fouquier-Tmville, public prosecutor. 
 Sixty executions a month ; neglect of legal forms. 
 Execution of Bailli/, Egalit^ (Nov.), Madame Poland. Abolition 
 of the worship of (xod. Cult of reason (Hc'hert, Chaiimette, Cloots). 
 Profanation of the royal sepulchre at St. Denis. 
 
 Revolutionary calendar. Beginning of the year one, Sept^22j^ 
 
 1792. The months : Vendviniaire, Brumaire, Frivmire; Nivose, Plu- 
 'vtose, Vent(,se ; (jerniinal, Florcal, Prairial ; Messldor, Thermldorf 
 Fnictidor J each month had tliirty days, five intercalary days (sans cu- 
 lottides), every tenth day a holiday. Transportation of priests. 
 Nov. 10. Festival of reason in Notre Dame. Abolition of the old 
 army. Creation of a new army. Capture of Condi', Valen- 
 ciennes, Le Quesnoi by the allies (Coburg). Jourdan commander of 
 the French forces. 
 
 Oct. 11-13. Storm of the French lines at Weissenburg on the Rhine 
 by Austrians and Prussians {Pichegni, commander of the French 
 on the Rhine, Hocke, of the army on the Moselle.) 
 Nov. Defeat of Hoche by the duke of Brunswick at Kaiser slautem. 
 Dec. Pichegru defeated the Austrians under Wurmser. Retreat of 
 the allies across the Rhine. Worms and Speier recaptured. 
 Toulon rescued from the English. 
 First appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, at 
 Ajaccio m Corsica ; 1779 at the military school in Brienne ; 1785 
 lieutenant in Valence, 1793 captain ; at Toulon, colonel • after the cap- 
 ture, brigadier-general ; adherent of the revolutionary movement, in 
 close connection with the Jacobins, particularly with the two Robes- 
 pierres, although he afterward denied it ^). 
 
 1794. Robespierre (representing the committee of public safety) 
 crushed both parties which were opposed to him, the ultra-rev- 
 olutionary commune (Hc'bertists) and the moderate Dantonists (the 
 Mountain), using one against the other. After an unsuccessful at- 
 tempt at an insurrection 
 
 March 24. Condemnation and execution of the Hebertists (Chaumette, 
 He'bert, Cloots, etc.). March 29, condemnation of the Dan- 
 tonists. 
 April 6. Execution of Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Herault de 
 
 Sechelles, etc. 
 April 18. Defeat of the allies by Pichegru at Turcoing. 
 April 19. Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia ; sub- 
 sidies for 60,000 men. 
 Unhampered rule of the Committee of Public Safety. 
 Robespierre abolished the worship of reason and caused the 
 convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of 
 a supreme bemg. 
 June 8. Fetes de VEtre supreme ; Robespierre high priest. 
 June 10. Portentous increase of power bestowed on the revolution- 
 ary tribunal. Juries to convict without hearing evidence or 
 » P. Lanfrey, Ilistoire de Napoleon I. 
 
456 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 argument. Enormous increase of executions, running up to 
 354 a month. 
 June 25. Capture of Charleroi by the French. 
 
 June 26. Battle of Fleurus, repulse of the allies under Coburg. 
 Evacuation of Belgium. 
 An attempt to exterminate the Vendeans {Turreau) caused a fresh 
 outbreak of the war. 
 
 Conspiracy of the Mountain and the moderates against Robespierre 
 (Tallien, Freron, Fouche, Vadier, Collet d^Herbois, Billaud-Varennes). 
 
 1794, July 27 (9th Thermidor). Fall of Robespierre, 
 
 arrest of the two Robespierres, of Couthon and St. Just ; 
 being released they were outlawed, surprised at the Hotel 
 de Ville, and executed, with eighteen others. On the 
 following days over eighty of his party were executed. 
 The commune was nearly extinct. 
 1794-1795. The National Convention controlled by the mod- 
 erates. 
 Meanwhile the armies of the republic had been fortunate on the bor- 
 ders. The Prussians, victors at Kaiserslautern in May, 1794, after 
 a second battle at the same place in Sept., retired across the Rhine. 
 The duke of Coburg, defeated June 26, 1794, by Jourdan at Fleurus, 
 resigned his command. The Austrians retired across the Rhine (see 
 above). 
 
 In Paris the power of the commune, of the Jacobins, and of the 
 mob was gradually broken by the Thermidorians, or the supporters of 
 the moderate revolution, and by the violence of the young men of the 
 upper classes (called later the jeunesse doree). The Jacobin club 
 closed (Nov. 12). Those Girondists who had escaped with their lives 
 were readmitted to their seats in the convention (Dec. 8, 1794, March 
 8, 1795). Execution of Carrier and Fouquier-Tinville. 
 
 Public misery. Repeal of the maximum (Dec. 24, 1794). New 
 issues, increased depreciation of assignats ; in May, 1795, they were 
 worth 7 per cent. 
 
 1795, April 1 (Germinal 12). Bread riots m Paris ; attack on the 
 
 convent suppressed ; transportation of Billaud, Collot, Barrere, 
 Vadier. Growing reaction in the capital and the provinces. 
 Return of emigrants. Reactionary terror (The White Terror). 
 
 May 20 (Prairial 1). Insurrection, or bread riot. Fierce attack 
 upon the convention. Firmness of the president, Boissy 
 d'Anglas. Suppression of the outbreak, May 20. Extermina- 
 tion of the Mountain. 
 Meantime the armies of France were everywhere successful. 
 
 Pichegru had invaded Holland in the winter of 1794-1795. The 
 
 hereditary stadthalter fled to England. 
 
 1795-1806. Batavian Republic founded, which surrendered Dutch 
 Flanders to France. Tuscany withdrew from the coalition and 
 concluded peace with France. Prussia, whose finances were exhatisted 
 and which had quarreled with Austria, concluded with the convention 
 the 
 
A. D. First French Rcrolution. 457 
 
 1795, April 5. Peace of Basle {Hardenherg), 
 
 whieh Saxony, Ilanovt'r, and llcsse-Cassel joined. Open condi- 
 tions : 1. France contijnied in })ossession of the Prussian territory on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, until peace should be concluded with the 
 empire. 2. A line of demarkation fixed the neutrality of northern 
 Germany. Secret articles : Prussia consented to the absolute cession 
 of the left bank of the Rhine to France and received the assurance of 
 a recompense through secularization. 
 
 After other notable successes of the French, Spain concluded the 
 1795, July. Peace of Basle. Spanish St. Dominj^o was ceded to 
 France ; all other conquests were restored (Godoy, the 
 Spanish minister, prince of the peace) . 
 
 In the naval war the English were for the most part in the ascend- 
 ency. 
 1795, June 8. Death of the ten-year-old dauphin (Louis XVII.) in 
 
 the temple, where he had been most shamefully abused. ^ 
 June 27. English and emigrants land at Quiheron (Brittany) to assist 
 the royalists of that region (Choua^is}, but were defeated by 
 Hoche (June 15-20) and over 700 emigrants executed. 
 
 Retaliatory massacre of 1,000 republican prisoners by Charette. 
 Conclusion of the war of the Vende'e, defeat of the insurgents 
 by Hoche. Execution of Stofflet and Charette (latter March 29, 
 1796). 
 
 At Paris adoption of a new (third) constitution. Constitution 
 of the year III., or 1795. The executive power was given to a 
 directory of five persons ; the legislative to the council of elders (250), 
 and the council of five hundred, but it was decreed that for the 
 first term, two thirds of the members of both councils should be 
 taken from among the members of the National Convention. 
 
 Opposition to this limitation of choice at Paris and in the provinces. 
 The royalists in the capital instigated an outbreak of the sections 
 (city districts or wards). On the motion of Barras, general Bona- 
 parte wf.s placed in command of the troops of the convention. Bona- 
 parte crushed the revolt by the l)loody victory of the 
 1795, Oct. 5. 13th Vendemiaire, called the Day of the Sections. 
 Cannonade from the church of .S";. Roch. The convention dis- 
 solved (Oct. 26) after having voted (Oct. 25, Brumaire 3) that 
 relatives of emigrants could hold no oftice. 
 
 1795-1799. Government of the Directory in France. 
 
 Substitution of mandats convertible into a specified amount of land 
 for the assignats, of which 145 billion francs had been issued. 
 
 In the Vendee, after a short truce, a new and bloody war, which 
 spread to Brittam/ (Chouans). Hoche suppressed the revolt in the 
 Vendee (ended March 5, 1796). 
 
 By the advice of Carnot the directory undertook a triple attack 
 upon Austria. 1. The army of the Sambre and Meuse under Jourdan 
 
 1 The death of the dauphin, officially established and evidenced by many 
 witnesses, is beyond doubt. The pretenders who assumed his name later were, 
 one and all, impostors. 
 
458 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 II 
 
 advanced from the lower Rhine to Franconia ; 2. the army of the 
 Rhine and Moselle under Moreau penetrated from the upper Rhine to 
 Swabia and Bavaria ; 3. the army of Italy under Napoleon Bona- 
 parte was to attack Austria in Italy, and unite with the two former 
 by way of Tyrol. 
 
 The German campaign opened successfully for the French. Jour- \ 
 dan and Moreau invaded south Germany. Baden, Wiirtemherg, and 
 Bavaria were compelled to conclude truces. Suddenly fortune 
 changed. 
 
 1796. Archduke Charles of Austria (brother of the emperor 
 Francis) took the offensive against Jourdan, defeated him at 
 Amberg (Aug. J, and at Wiirzburg (Sept. 3). Jourdan retreated 
 to the Sieg, and resigned his command. The archduke then turned 
 upon Moreau, who retired to the upper Rhine (retreat through the 
 Black Forest). 
 1796, Mar. 9. Marriage of Bonaparte with Josephine de Beauharnais. 
 
 1796. Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. Starting from 
 Nice he followed the coast, defeated the Austrians in the 
 
 April. Battles at Millesimo, the Piedmontese at Mondovi, and 
 compelled the king of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus, to conclude 
 
 May. A separate peace. 1. Cession of Savoy and Nice to the 
 French republic. 2. The French garrisoned the Piedmontese 
 fortresses. 
 Offensive and defensive alliance between France and Spain, the 
 latter declaring war on England. 
 
 May 10. Pursuit of the Austrians. Storming of the bridge over the 
 Adda at Lodi ; Napoleon entered Milan (May 15), conquered 
 the whole of Lomhardy as far as Mantua. The dukes of 
 Parma and Modena, the Pope and Naples, purchased a truce 
 with money and art treasures. Definite peace with the Pope 
 at Tolentino in Feb. 1797 ; the Pope ceded the Romagna, 
 Bologna, and Ferrara. 
 
 1796-1797. Siege of Mantua. Four attempts on the part of 
 
 July. Feb. the Austrians to relieve the fortress. The Austrians 
 defeated at Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, at 
 
 Nov. 15-19. Arcole, and at 
 
 1797, Jan. Rivoli. Mantua surrendered (Feb. 2). 
 
 1797) March- April. Bonaparte crossed the Alps 
 
 to meet archduke Charles who was advancing from Germany. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Venetian territory rose against the French ; 
 in Tyrol and Bohemia the people were called to arms. Bonaparte, in 
 danger of being cut off, opened negotiations, which led to the conclu- 
 sion of the 
 
 1797. Preliminary peace of Leoben, under the following condi- 
 April 18. tions, which, however, were materially changed in the 
 definite peace of Campo Formio (see below). 
 
 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress 
 should mediate for peace with the empire on the basis of the integ- 
 rity of the empire. 3. Austria ceded the region beyond the Ogiio, 
 
A. D. First French Revolution. 459 
 
 receiving in retnrn tlie Venetian territory between the OrjUo, Po, 
 and Adriatic (which she was to conqner for herself), Venetian iJul- 
 matia and Istria, and the fortresses of Mantua, Peschiera, and Palina 
 Nova. 4. Venice was to be indemnified with the Romagna, Bologna, 
 and Ferrara. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic which 
 was to be formed in northern Italy. 
 
 1797, May. The French declared war upon Venice, under pretext 
 of an outbreak at Verona. Abolition of the aristocracy and 
 establishment of popular government. Occupation of the republic 
 by French troops ; also of the Venetian islands of Greece (Ionian). 
 
 Proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic {Milan, Modena, 
 Ferrara, Bologna, Romagna). Transformation of the republic of 
 Gjnoa into the Ligurian Republic under French control. 
 
 1797i Sept. 4. 18th Fructidor. Coup d'Etat at Paris. 
 Victory of the republican party over the party of reaction, 
 which was represented in the council of five hundred, in the council 
 of ancients, and in the directory. The three republican directors, 
 Barras, Rewhel, and La Revelliere defeated their colleagues, Bar- 
 tJielemy and Camot. The latter escaped by flight ; Barthtlemy 
 and many of his adherents, including Pichegru, were transported to 
 Cayenne. 
 
 After lengthy negotiations, France and Austria concluded the 
 
 Oct. 17. Peace of Campo Formio. 
 
 Open articles : 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 
 2. A congress was convened at Rastadt to discuss peace with the 
 empire. 3. Austria received the territory of Venice as far as 
 the Adige, with the city of Venice, Istria, and Dahnatia. 4. France 
 retained the Ionian islands. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine 
 Republic and indemnified the duke of Modena with the Breisgau. 
 Secret articles : 1. Austria agreed to the cession of the left bank of 
 the Rhine from Basle to Andernach, including Mainz, to France ; the 
 navigation of the Rhine was left open to France and Germany in 
 common ; those princes who lost by the cession were to receive in- 
 demnification in Germany. 2. France was to use her influence 
 to secure to Austria, Salzburg, and that portion of Bavaria which 
 lay between Salzburg, the Tyrol, the Inn, and the Salza. 3. Re- 
 ciprocal guarantee that Prussia should not receive any new acquisi- 
 tion of territory in return for her cessions on the left bank of the 
 Rhine. 
 
 1796-1801. Paul L, Emperor of Russia, succeeded his 
 mother Catharine II. (p. 411). 
 
 1797-1840. Frederic TAT'illiam III., King of Prussia. 
 Wollner dismissed. Edict of religion revoked. 
 
 1797, Dec.-1799, April. Congress of Rastadt. No agreement. 
 
 1798. The French occupied Rome. Proclamation of the 
 Feb. Roman Republic. Captivity of the Pope, Pius VI. 
 
 Disturbances in Switzerland. The French entered the country 
 The confederacy transformed into one 
 
460 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1798, April. Helvetian Republic. Geneva annexed to France. i 
 1798-1799. Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, 
 
 prepared under the mask of an invasion of England, against 
 whose East Indian Empire this expedition was in truth directed. 
 Army of England at Boulogne. The opposition of the directory being 
 overcome the fleet sailed from Toulon (May 19, 1798), with 35,000 
 men, accompanied by a large number of scientists. Bonaparte, Ber- 
 thier, Kleber, later, Desaix. Capitulation and occupation of Malta (June 
 12), disembarkation in Egypt (July 1). Capture of Alexandria (July 
 2). Battle of the Pyramids won against the Mamelukes (July 21). 
 Capture of Cairo (July 22). Desaix advances toward upper Egypt. 
 The English fleet annihilated the French in the 
 
 1798. Battle of the Nile at Aboukir (Nelson), thuscut- 
 Aug. 1. ting off the French army from France. 
 
 A popular uprising in Cairo suppressed. The Porte having de- 
 clared war upon France, Bonaparte attacked the pasha of Syria, 
 stormed Jafa (massacre of 1200 prisoners) but was unable to capture 
 St. Jean d^Acre (Akico), the defense of which was supported by the 
 English. Bonaparte victorious over the Turks at Alt. Tabor (April 
 16). Pestilence in the French army. Retreat to Egypt. Arrival of 
 the Turks at Aboukir, where they were completely defeated by 
 Bonaparte (Murat), 1799, July 25. 
 
 1799-1801. War of the second coalition, 
 
 composed of Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, the 
 Ottoman Porte, and owing its origin chiefly to Paul I., emperor of 
 Russia, whom the Knights of Malta had elected grand master. 
 
 Plan of the allies : 1. An English- Russian army (duke of York) was 
 to drive the French from the Netherlands. 2. An Austrian army (arch- 
 duke Charles) should drive them out of Germany and Switzerland, 
 while 3. a Russian-Austrian army expelled them from Italy (Suvaro^ 
 and Melas). 
 
 The war began in the latter part of 1798 by a Neapolitan invasion 
 of the Roman Republic, under the Austrian general Mark. The in- 
 vasion was repulsed, the king of Naples fled to Palermo, the kingdom 
 of Naples was occupied by the French and transformed into the 
 
 1799. Parthenopaean Republic. The grand duke of Tuscany was 
 Jan. driven from his domains. The king of Sardinia escaped from 
 
 Turin and took up his residence in Cagliari in Sardinia; his for- 
 tresses upon the mainland were placed under French control. After 
 1802 they were annexed to France. 
 
 The directory opposed to the coalition six armies under as many com- 
 manders. 1. Brune in Holland ; 2. Bernadotte on the miJdle Rhine; 
 3. Jourdan on the upper Rhine ; 4. Massena in Switzerland ; 5. 
 Scherer, afterwards Moreau, in upper Italy; 6. Macdonald in Naples. 
 1799. Jourdan, defeated by archduke Charles at Ostrach and Stock- 
 March. ach, retreated across the Rhine and laid down his command. 
 
 His army and that of Bernadotte were placed under Massena. 
 April. Scherer defeated hy the Austria7is at Magna7io. His successor, 
 
 Moreau, defeated by the Austrians {Melas) and Russians {Su- 
 
 varoff) at Cassano. Abolition of the Cisalpine Republic. 
 
A. D. First French Reiohition. 4G1 
 
 1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Rastadt. Mysterious 
 murder of the Fiencli ambassadors, Roherjot and Bonnier {De- 
 hrif escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from 
 Transylvania (Apr. 28). 
 June 4-7. Masseua defeated by archduke Charles at Zurich. Mac- 
 donald being- called to upper Italy, the king- of Naples returned 
 and the Parthenoi^'ean Republic was abolished. Terrible ven- 
 geance, accompanied by massacres. N2lson, Lady Hamilton. 
 Abolition of the Roman Rei)ublic. 
 June 17-10. Macdonald defeated by Siwarojf on the Trehhia. Man- 
 tua taken by the allies. The directory sent .Joubert to Italy 
 with a new army. He was defeated in the bloody 
 Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvarojf and Melas. Joubert. f Su- 
 varoff crossed the Alps by the pass of 8t. Gothard in order 
 to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had 
 taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the mid- 
 dle Rliine, in Switzerland. 
 
 His army however had already been defeated at Zurich by Mas- 
 sena. Suvarojf left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and 
 marches, and returned to Russia. 
 
 A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French 
 control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Isl- 
 ands under Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which 
 occupied the same until 1807. 
 
 June 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory 
 under Sieyes ; a revolution which resulted in the return of 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 1799, Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated 
 
 at Alkmar. 
 
 Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egj^pt, landed at 
 Frejus, and in alliance with the directors, 
 
 June. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, 
 president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the direc- 
 tory by the 
 
 Nov. 9, Coup d'Etat of the 18th Brumaire, 
 
 and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following 
 day. 
 
 1799-1804. The Government of the Consulate 
 
 with Napoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of first 
 consul for ten years, and two consuls appointed by him, Cambaccres and 
 Lebrun, who had consultative voices only. 
 
 The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VIII.), ori- 
 ginally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and 
 accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (.3,000,000 to 1,567), pre- 
 served the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military 
 monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but 
 little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the depart- 
 ments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials 
 and the judges. Legislative power without the initiative: 1. tribunate 
 
462 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 (100) discussed the proposals of the government without voting, 
 2. The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these 
 proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of 
 the first consul, who was aided by a council of state. 
 
 The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a 
 tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were 
 elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list 
 the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies. 
 
 Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments) and 
 sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent 
 creation of that centralization wliich still prevails in France. New 
 system of tax-collection ; receveur-gene'ral for each department (abol» 
 ished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arron- 
 dissement. Code Napoleon commenced. 
 
 The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. 
 Paul, emperor of Russia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flat- 
 tery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive alliance between 
 Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and 
 Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Re- 
 newal of the previous (1780) armed neutrality at sea (p. 536). North- 
 ern convention (1800). 
 
 1800. Double campaign of the French in Italy under Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, in Uf)2)er Germany under Moreau. 
 
 April. A. In Italy. 
 
 Massena defeated at Voltri ; Melas advanced to Nice. Obsti- 
 nate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult) ; after a terri- 
 
 June 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to 
 
 May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by 
 Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). 
 
 June 2. Capture of Milan. Restoration of the Cisalpine Republic. 
 General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had 
 once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 
 
 1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon. 
 
 Desaix f . According to the truce concluded with Melas, all 
 fortresses west of the Mincio and south of the Po were sur- 
 rendered by the Austrians to the French. 
 B. In Germany : Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in 
 April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stock- 
 ach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce 
 until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau 
 defeated the archduke John in the 
 
 1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden, 
 
 captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. 
 After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mincio (Dec.) 
 and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was conclu- 
 ded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the 
 
 1801, Feb. 9. Peace of Luneville, 
 
 from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Bmpixe 
 practically dates. 
 
K. Do First French Revolution. 463 
 
 Chief conditions : 1. Ratification of the cessions made by Austria 
 and to her in the peace of Campo Formio (p. 45i)). 2. Cession of 
 the grand dnchy of Tuscany (Austrian secundoj^eniture) to Par- 
 ma, to be indemnijied in Germanif. 3. The Emperor and Empire 
 consented to tlie cession of the left bank of the Kliine to France, the 
 valley of the Rhine (/. e. the middle of the river), the b<mndai*y. Tlie 
 princes who lost by tliis operation received indemnification in 
 Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, 
 and Ligurian Republics. Germany lost by this peace, taking; 
 the Belgic territory into account, 25,180 square miles with' almost 
 3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received an increase of 
 territory. The shameful negotiations over the indenmifications lasted 
 more than t-wo years (p. 465), during which time the ambassadors 
 of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to 
 beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and 
 their mistresses. 
 
 Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the 
 satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Pamia, a Spanish secundogeni- 
 ture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it 
 to the United States (1803). The peace of Luneville was succeeded, 
 after conclusion of a truce, by the 
 1801, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 
 
 1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. 
 Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of 
 Elba. 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns. 
 
 Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupar- 
 tion of Hanover. 
 1801, IMarch 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was 
 
 succeeded by his son, 
 1801-1825. Alexander I. 
 
 Reconciliation between Russia, and England (in 1801 England 
 
 had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to 
 
 withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern 
 
 Convention was now dissolved. 
 
 1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal ma- 
 chines. 130 " Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although 
 the attempts liad originated with the royalists. 
 
 In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte 
 had devolved upon Kle'ber, who defeated the Turks in the battle 
 of Hieropolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kleber at Cairo 
 (June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty 
 with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be 
 abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army 
 transported to France by the Englisli fleet. 
 
 1801. Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. 
 In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long 
 negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a 
 
 1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French 
 archbish()])s and (50) bishops were to be appointed and sup- 
 ported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VII., 
 elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognised in the possession of the 
 
464 Modern History. A. D, 
 
 Papal States, without Ferrara, Bologna, and the Romagna. The lib- 
 erties of the Gallican church were strongly asserted. By the new 
 organization of the " Universite," an incorporated body of teachers 
 who had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher 
 education was made dependent upon the government. The institut 
 national was reorganized and divided into four (later ^zye) academies : 
 1. acadcmie francaise (1635) ; 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettres 
 (1663, 1701) ; 3. a. des sciences (1666) ; 4. a. des beaux arts (1648) ; 
 5. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832). 
 
 After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabi- 
 net, and after long negotiations, the 
 1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens 
 
 was concluded between England and France. 
 
 1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and her 
 allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon 
 which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized 
 the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. Malta must be restored to 
 the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, 
 peace was concluded between France and the Porte. 
 
 Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). As- 
 sumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused 
 himself to be elected by a popular vote {plebiscite, 3| millions), 
 
 1802, August 2. Consul for life, with the right of appointing his 
 
 successor. 
 New (fifth) constitution. The powers of the senate, which was 
 ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legis- 
 lative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced. 
 
 Napoleon had already become president of the Italian Republic, as 
 the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Pied- 
 wont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French 
 in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of 
 mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the 
 country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by 
 a landamman and a diet. 
 
 As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lune- 
 ville was executed according to a plan of indemnification established 
 by France and Russia by the 
 
 1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. {Reichs- 
 
 deputationshauptschluss) . ^ 
 Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only : 1. the former 
 elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed 
 out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of 
 the Rhine, the bishopric of Regensburg, and the cities of Regensburg 
 and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the Teu- 
 tonic order, 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 
 6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities : Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremberg. All other ecclesiastical estates a.nd 
 imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bish- 
 oprics of Trier and Cologne were abolished„ Four new electorates ? 
 Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Wilrtemberg, Salzburg. 
 
 1 Eichhorn, Deutsche Stalls u. Rechtsgeschichte, IV. § 606. 
 
A. n. First French Revolution. 465 
 
 Principal Indemnifications '. 1. The grand diuliy of Tuscany : Salz- 
 hurg, aiul Berchtesijailen. 2. Duke of Modena : lU-tisyaa (in ex- 
 change for which Austria received tlie ecclesiastical foundations of 
 Trient and IJrixen). 3. Bavaria : bishoprics <jf Wdrzhnrg, Bamberg, 
 Freising, Aiqshurg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities 
 in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 1. Baden 
 received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right b;uik of the 
 Rhine {Heiilelberg, Mannheim). Baden also received : the j)ortit)n of 
 the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasbarg, Speger, on the right 
 bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial 
 cities. 5. WUrtemberg : many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial 
 cities, especially HeutHngen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prussia : the 
 bishoprics of Paderborn, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had 
 belonged to Mainz (Eic/i/eld and Erfurt), a part of Munster, many 
 abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Muhlhau- 
 sen, Nordhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg : bishopric of Lilbeck. 8. 
 Hanover : bishopric of Osnabruck. 9. Hesse ( Darmstadt and Cas- 
 sel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, 
 Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine. 
 10. Nassau-Orange : bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As 
 a rule tlie indemnihed princes gained considerably in territory and 
 subjects. • 
 
 1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the 
 refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. 
 
 The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the 
 resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened 
 England with an invasion. 
 
 Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, 
 Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadou- 
 dal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, 
 a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Conde, was taken by violence 
 from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in 
 accordance with the wishes and under the order of Napoleon,^ with- 
 out the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes 
 on the night of March 20-21. On the 18th of May the tribunate and 
 senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte, 
 
 1804-1814 (I'")) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of 
 the French. 
 m The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the 
 
 privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which 
 and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bona- 
 parte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of 
 lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). 
 The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Pius VII. (Dec. 2), placing 
 the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of 
 
 1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted bv Thiers and others, 
 throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon f. afterwards endeav- 
 ored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditnted 
 murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Lanfrey, Histoire de 
 Napoleon I. iii. 128, foil. 
 30 
 
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 Modern History. 
 
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 A. i>. Napoleonic Wars. 4G7 
 
 Cliarl'='s the Great, who, as Charlemag^ne, was transformed into a 
 Frenchman ami prototype of Napoleon), Kstablislnnent of a bril- 
 liant conrt. Grand dignitaries of the empire ; eighteen marshals. 
 New nobility. An absolute monarchy of the purest type. (Aboli- 
 tion of the tribunate, 1807.) 
 1805. Napoleon king of Italy. His stepson Eugene Beauhamais, 
 
 son of Josephine, viceroy of Naples. The Ligurian Republic 
 
 incorporated with France. 
 
 1805- Third coalition against France, 
 
 between England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden (Gustavus 
 IV.), for the purpose of restoring the balance of power in Europe. 
 Spain allied with France. 
 
 The camp at Boulogne broken up. The French armies under Da- 
 vout, Soult, Lannes, Ney, advanced toward the Rhine. The main 
 force of the Austrians in Italy under archduke Charles opposed to 
 Massena ; in Germany, under archduke Ferdinand and Mack. Napo- 
 leon commanded in person in Germany ; relying on the support of 
 most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians 
 who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated 
 his forces (200,000 men), reinforced by Bernadotte, who on his way 
 from Hanover had inarched through the neutral territory of Ansbach 
 in Prussia, and by troops from Bavaria, \Arurtemberg, Baden, 
 Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians (80,000 men) had been de- 
 feated in several engagements, and the main army was surrounded 
 by the French, 
 
 1805. Mack surrendered in Ulm with the whole Austrian army 
 Oct. 17. (30,000 men), prisoners of war. 
 
 On the sea England opened the war brilliantly with the 
 
 1805- Victory of Nelson at Trafalgar 
 
 Oct. 21. over the French and Spanish fleet. Death of Nelson 
 ("England expects every man to do his duty"). This vic- 
 tory broke the naval power of France. 
 
 The French marched npon Vienna, which was taken by Murat 
 without resistance. Archduke Charles, who had driven back Massena, 
 returned to Germany ; a Russian army under Kutusoff, a second un- 
 der the emperor Alexander, came to the assistance of Austria. In 
 the 
 
 1805. Battle of Austerlitz (the battle of the three em- 
 Dec. 2. perors), Napoleon defeated the united forces of Austria 
 
 and Russia. Truce with Austria. Retreat of the Russians. 
 Dec. 15. Treaty concluded by Prussia, which was on the point of 
 joining the coalition, with Napoleon at Schonhrunn (Haug- 
 witz). Prussia ceded to France the remaining part of Cleve 
 (Wesel) on the left bank of the Rhine, Ansbach, imCi Neuchdtel, 
 and was promised Hanover in exchange. 
 
 Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg, between France and Austria. 
 
 1. France received Piedmont, Parma, and Piacenza. 2. Austria 
 
 ceded to the kingdom of Italy all that she had received of Venetian 
 
468 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 territory at the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459) ; also Venetian 
 Istria and Dalmatia, and recognized Napoleon as king of Italy. 3. 
 Austria ceded to Bavaria : Tyrol, Vorarlberg, the bishoprics Brixen 
 and Trient, Burgau, Eichstadt, Passau, Lindau, besides which Bavaria 
 received the free city of Augsburg. 4. Austria ceded to Wurtem- 
 berg and Baden what remained of the western Austrian lands. 5. 
 Bavaria and "Wtirtemberg were recognized as kingdoms. 6. 
 Austria received as indemnification : Salsburg, Berchfesgaden, and 
 the estates of the Teutonic order which were secularized. The elec- 
 tor of Salzburg received Wurzburg from Bavaria as indemnification. 
 Russia remained hostile. 
 j^^cU^-o^^SOo. The Bourbons in Naples were dethroned by a proclamation 
 Dec. issued by Napoleon from Schonbrunn (La dynastie de Naples 
 
 a cesse de i^egner). 
 1806. Joseph, Napoleon's elder brother, king of Naples. The 
 court of Naples withdrew to Palermo. 
 
 Sicily was beyond Napoleon's reach, as the English controlled the 
 sea. 
 
 Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, created grand duke 
 of Berg ; Marshal Berthier, prince of Neuchdtel ; Louis Bonaparte, 
 Napoleon's third brother, king of Holland (the former Batavian Re- 
 public). 
 
 1806. Establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. 
 July 12. 
 
 Napoleon, protector. Prince Primate, formerly electoral arch- 
 chancellor ; the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg ; the grand dukes 
 of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Berg, duke of Nassau, etc. After- 
 wr.rds all the German princes joined the confederation except Aus- 
 tria, Prussia, Brunswick, and the electorate of Hesse. 
 
 Many princes holding immediately of the empire mediatized. The 
 free city of Nuremberg assigned to Bavaria, Frankfort to the prince 
 primas (grand duke of Frankfort). 
 
 Emperor Francis, who had already assumed the title of emperor 
 of his hereditary Austrian estates (1804), 
 
 1806> Aug. 6. Abdicated the crown of the Holy Roman 
 empire. End of the old German empire. 
 
 1806-1835. Francis I., emperor of Austria. 
 
 1806-1807- (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia. 
 
 Grounds of the Prussian declaration of war : Erection of the con- 
 federacy of the Rhine, annexation of Wesel, seizure of Essen and 
 Verden, garrisoning of half of Germany with French troops ; Napo- 
 leon's otter to England to take away from Prussia the territory of ' 
 Hanover which hacl just been forced upon her ; the Prussians were, 
 moreover, embittered against the French by the high-handed execu- 
 tion of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had published some ; 
 strictures upon Napoleon. 
 
 Dangerous situation of Prussia at the outbreak of war. The com- | 
 plete separation of the military and civil orders had brought it about 
 
^. D. Napoleonic Wars. 469 
 
 that the safety of the state rested on a half-trained army composed 
 in part of foreip^ners, on a snperannuated •ii'cncral, and on snbordinate 
 commanders who, full of arrogant pride in the ancient military fame 
 of Prussia, reg^arded the French with contempt. No allies except 
 Saxony ami distant Ixussia. Dissension between Prussia an«l England. 
 AVant of decision in the cabinet and in the conduct of the war. 
 1806. Concentration of the Prussian army in Thuringia under the 
 old dulce of Brunswick. Defeat of the Prussian advance at 
 Saalfeld (Oct. 10), prince Louia Ferdinand f . In the 
 
 1806. Oct. 14. Double battle of Jena and Auersfadt 
 the main army was completely defeated. Dissolution of the 
 army. The reserve undtu- the prince of Wiirtemberg was de- 
 feated and scattered at Halle (Oct. 17). 
 
 Napoleon in Berlin (Oct. 27). The prince of Hohenlohe with 
 12,000 men was forced to surrender at Prenzlau (Oct. 28). Bliicher 
 after a brave defence in Liibeck was obliged to surrender his whole 
 corps at Ratkau as prisoners of war (Nov. 7). Incredibly hasty 
 surrender of the fortresses : Erfurt, Spandau, Stettin, Kiistrin, Magde- 
 burg, Hameln ; only Kolberg {Gneisenau, Sc/iill, Nettelheck) and Grau- 
 denz ( Courbiere) defended themselves resolutely. The duke of Bruns- 
 wick (t Nov. 10, at Ottemen) and the neutral elector of Hesse were 
 driven out of the country. Coarse behavior of Napoleon toward the 
 royal family (queen Louisa). Robbery of thenmseums and picture 
 galleries. From his headquarters in Berlin Napoleon proclaimed (Nov. 
 21) the senseless (paper) blockade of Great Britain and the closure 
 of the continent to British trade, a policy summed up in the title, 
 " Continental System " (" Berlin decree "). The troops of France, 
 Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg invaded Silesia. The Poles summoned to 
 revolt. Separate peace and alliance of Napoleon ^vith the elector of 
 Saxony (Dec. 11), who joined the confederacy of the Rhine as king 
 of Saxony. Occupation of Hanover and the Hanseatic cities. 
 
 1807. Fall of Breslau, followed by that of the most of the Silesian 
 fortresses. After several bloody engagements in the neigli- 
 borhood of Pultusk, Prussians and Russians fought agamst the 
 French, without decisive result, in the murderous 
 
 1807, Feb. 7, 8. Battle of Eylau, 
 
 where the Prussians repulsed the right wing of the French 
 
 under Davout. Winter quarters. Frederic William III. went 
 
 to Memel. 
 May 24. Danzig captured after a brave defense (Kalckreuth). After 
 
 several engagements Napoleon was victorious in the 
 
 June 14. Battle of Friedland, 
 
 over the Russians. Konigsberg and the country as far as the 
 Niemen occupied by Napoleon. Truce with Russia (June 21), with 
 Prussia (June 25). Meeting of Napoleon, Alexander, and Frederit 
 William on the Niemen. 
 1807. Peace of Tilsit. 
 July 7. A. Between France and Russia, 
 July 9. B. Between France and Prussia, 
 
470 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 A. 1. Russia recognized the duchy of Warsaw, which was 
 formed out of South Prussia, parts of West Prussia, and New East 
 Prussia, under the king of Saxony. 2. Danzig restored to the con- 
 dition of a free city. 3. A part of New East Prussia (^Bialystock) 
 ceded to Russia. 4. Russia recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
 Naples, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, Jerome Bonaparte as 
 king of Westphalia, a new kingdom yet to be created ; Russia, more- 
 over, recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and accepted the 
 mediation of Napoleon in concluding peace with the Turks, while 
 Napoleon accepted the like good offices from Alexander in regard to 
 England. In a secret article, Alexander agreed to an alliance with 
 I'rance against England, in case the latter refused to accept the prof- 
 fered peace. 
 
 B. 1. Prussia ceded ; (a) to Napoleon for free disposal, all lands 
 between the Rhine and Elbe • (b) to Saxony, the circle of Cottbus ; (c) 
 all lands taken from Poland since 1772 for the creation of a duchy of 
 IVarsaio, also the city and territory of Danzig. 2. Prussia recognized 
 the sovereignty of the three brothers of Napoleon. 3. All Prussian 
 haibors and lands were closed to British ships and British trade until 
 the conclusion of a peace with England. 4. Prussia was to maintain 
 a standing army of not more than 42,000 men. In regard to the res- 
 toration and evacuation of the Prussian provinces and fortresses, it 
 was settled by the treaty of Konigsberg (July 12), that Prussia should 
 first pay all arrears of war indemnities. 
 
 These indemnifications, fixed at nineteen million francs by the Prus- 
 sian calculations, were set at 120 millions by the French, which sum 
 was raised to 140 millions in 1808. After 120 millions had been 
 paid the fortresses were evacuated, excepting Stettin, Kiistrin, and | 
 Glogau. Until this occurred the Prussian state, reduced as it was 
 from 89,120 to 46,032 square miles, was obliged to support 150,000 
 French troops. 
 
 1807, Aug. Foundation of the kingdom of Westphalia (capital, 
 Cassel) by a decree of Napoleon, who reserved for himself 
 half of the domains. 
 
 High-handed proceeding of the English against Denmark, which i 
 had been summoned to join the continental system. An English fleet 
 bombarded (1807, Sept.) Copenhagen, and carried off the Danish i 
 fleet. Alliance of Denmark with France. Russia declared war upon i 
 England. Stralsund and Riigen occupied by the French. 
 
 Portugal, which refused to join the continental system, occupied I 
 by a French army under Junot (duke of Abrantes) Nov. 1807. 
 The royal family fled to Brazil. Milan decree, Dec. 17, 1807. 
 
 Spain invaded by 100,000 Frenchmen under the pretext of guard- 
 ing the coasts against the English. Charles IV. (1788-1808) abdi-- 
 cated in favor of his son Ferdinand (March, 1808), in consequence 
 of an outbreak which had occurred against his favorite, the prince of 
 the peace, Godoy. Father and son, with Godoy, were enticed by Na- 
 poleon to Bayonne and compelled to renounce the throne (May). 
 Napoleon's brother Joseph became king of Spain, Murat taking the ' 
 throne of Naples instead of Joseph. General uprising of the 
 Spaniards. 
 
A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 471 
 
 1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Brit- 
 ain in Spain and Portugal. (•• Peninsular War.") 
 
 The English landed in Poitugal and forced Juiiot to surrender 
 Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country (Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. 
 Napoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the em- 
 peror Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where 
 four kings, thirty-four princes, and other (iernian rulers who had done 
 him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced 
 to Madrid, and with Soult drove the English from 8paiu (battle of 
 Corunna Jan. 16, 1809. Death of !Sir John Moore). After the de- 
 parture of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla war- 
 fare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Sara(/ossa (Palafox), 
 which surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general. Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley (b. 1769; officer in East India 1797-1805 ; M. P. 1806; vis- 
 count Wellington, 1809 ; duke of Wellington, 1814 ; prime minister, 
 1827-1830 ; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Tala- 
 vera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made 
 commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. 
 Souit, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and 
 Portiiguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again. 
 
 In Prussia, meanwhile, the state was reorganized after the dis- 
 missal of Bet/mes and Zastroiv, by Charles, baron of and in Stein 
 (b. 1757 at Nassau ; since 1780, in Prussian civil service ; 1796 over- 
 president of the chamber of Westphalia ; 1804 minister of finance, 
 d. 1831), and Hardenberg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of 
 industry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the admmis- 
 tration of the public finances. Reorcjanization of the army on the basis 
 of universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grolman, Boyen, 
 Clauseivitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1756, in Hanover, son of a peasant, offi- 
 cer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken 
 prisoner at Ratkau with Bliicher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). 
 
 Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, Al- 
 tenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German 
 nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, Jahn. E. M. Arndt. Preparations 
 for the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. 
 Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by mak- 
 ing use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war. 
 
 1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walchere}i (p. 537). 
 
 1809. (Fifth) War with Austria. 
 
 Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of Ba- 
 varia, and archduke John, coiinnander of the Austrian forces which 
 were sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the 
 struggle against the French supremacy. Tyrol alone heeded the 
 summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Speckbacher). 
 
 Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in liavaria, with German 
 Apr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after 
 five days' fighting at Abensherf/, Landshut, Eckmiihl and /le- 
 May 11. gensburg, and captured Vienna for the second time. Na- 
 poleon crossed the island of Lobau, to the left bank of the Dan- 
 ube, where in the bloody 
 
472 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling 
 
 (on the Marchfeld), he was, for the first time, defeated by 
 archduke Charles, and (Lannes f) forced to recross the Dan- 
 ube {Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who 
 had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary 
 and defeated him at Raah. With 180,000 men Napoleon 
 crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in the 
 murderous 
 1809, July b-6. Battle of Wagram, 
 
 and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim. 
 Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna 
 
 between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schon- 
 brunn. 
 1. Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 3^ 
 million inhabitants, viz. : a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Inn- 
 viertel, and half of the Hausriickviertel to Bavaria ; b. West Galicia 
 to the duchy of Warsa^w ; c. one district in East Galicia (Tarnopol) 
 to Russia ; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, 
 Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who 
 created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had 
 surrendered to him in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces un- 
 der Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the 
 continental system, and broke oif all connection with England. 
 
 The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic cour- 
 age, but were in the end subdued. Hofer captured and shot by the 
 French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol amiexed to the king- 
 dom of Italy. 
 
 Bold attempt of Schill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war of ! 
 liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, , 
 and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The news I 
 of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill i 
 fell fighting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers \ 
 were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were 
 condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and I 
 after a half year's imprisonment in the bagno, or prison for galley- 
 slaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 
 
 1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunswick across northern Ger- i: 
 many. He succeeded in transporting himself and the " Black Ij 
 Legion " to England. ' 
 
 Gustavus IV., of S-weden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution ii 
 and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had ! i 
 been since 1808 mvolved in war with Russia, which had conquered 
 Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victun of his 
 obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage 
 of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Both- 
 nia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mu- 
 tiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on MarcH 
 13, 1809, by generals Klingspor and A dl€7^kreuz, obliged to abdicate, and I 
 dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The crown was given 
 to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his 
 
A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 473 
 
 son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Bmmi, Sept. 17, 1809, 
 Sweden surrendcri'd to Russia the primipjility of Finland as far as 
 the river Tornch, toj^clhcr with tht- ishuuls of Ahmd. Hy the media- 
 tion of Russia Sweden foiuliuU'd the peace of Paris with France, 
 Jan. G, 1810, whtieby Sweden joined the continental system and 
 obtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden 
 death of prinee Christiati August of Holstein-Augustenhurg, whom 
 Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the 
 French marshal Bernadotte (prince of Pontecorvo) was elected crown 
 prince of Sweden. 
 
 Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius VII. 
 steadfastly refusing to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance 
 with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, 
 after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from 
 Schcmbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were 
 incorporated wdth France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in 
 June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble 
 and thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's de- 
 mands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for 
 three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontaineldeau.) 
 
 In Turkey, after the deposition of Selim HI., war broke out again 
 with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuck, the 
 Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which 
 pursued them was captured (1811). 
 
 1812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest : the Pruth was made the 
 boundary between Russia and Turkey.. 
 
 1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria 
 
 Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria. Abdication and 
 flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who had refused 
 to ruin his country by joining the continental system. Annexation of 
 Holland, as the " alluvial deposit of French rivers,^' to the French 
 empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallvi, and soon after of 
 Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the grand 
 duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French 
 empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east 
 as far as the Trave. 
 
 In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon ; French, Italian, 
 and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, 
 overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. 
 Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from 
 Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the 
 sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812). 
 
 In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and 
 capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). Retreat 
 of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). Winter 
 quarters. 1811, March ; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of 
 Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena 
 " from Portugal. Soult, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was de- 
 feated in the bloody 
 
 1811, May IG. Battle of Albuera. The English returned to 
 Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and 
 Badajoz (April G). 
 
474 Modtrn History. a. d. 
 
 1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca ; victory of Wellington. Cap- 
 ture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 
 
 1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pomp- 
 ous title of king- of Rome. 
 
 Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare 
 and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losseSo 
 Cayenne, Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Gua- 
 deloupe, Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batavia) 
 1811. 
 
 1812-1814. War between England and the United States of 
 North America in consequence of commercial dissensions 
 concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551). 
 
 1812. (Sixth) War with Russia. 
 
 Cause : Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The 
 refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd continental system, 
 which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had 
 ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The ad- 
 dition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of 
 Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland 
 should be contemplated ; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, 
 his near relative, ott'ended him deeply. 
 
 Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men 
 for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 
 20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in main- 
 taining neutrality during the war with Russia. Sweden (Berna- 
 dotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon 
 concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon 
 England (1810), seized the opportunity of Mie Russian war, to shake 
 off her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect 
 of obtaining Norivay, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of 
 Swedish Pomerania and Riigen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty 
 of St. Petersburg between Sweden and Russia, April : Russia 
 promised Sweden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification 
 for Denmark ; Sweden promised Russia to make a diversion in 
 northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force. 
 
 England concluded peace with Russia and Sweden at Orebro 
 (June). 
 
 The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, 
 Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the con- 
 federacy of the Rhine , in fact, the smaller part only of the army was. 
 French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, 
 but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 553,000. The Aus- 
 trians, under Schwarzenberg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under 
 'York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being 
 under the command of Macdonald. 
 
 1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army ; occupation of 
 Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians under Barclay 
 de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a 
 battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, winle 
 the Prussians besieged Riga, and the Austrians penetrated VoUuj- 
 
4. D. Napoleonic Wars. 475 
 
 nia. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Au»j^. 17, 18). The Russian 
 general Kittnsojf, obtaining tlie eouiuiand in eiiief, fought the bloody 
 
 1812. Sept. 7. Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk 
 
 on the Moskvird, in which both parties suMcred (.'uornious losses 
 (French, 32,000 ; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were 
 forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through 
 Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants 
 had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already 
 shrunk to 1)5,000 nien.^ Napoleon in the Kremlin. 
 
 Sept. 16-19. Burning of Moscow {Rostopschin). 
 
 Sack of the city in the midst of ashes and ruins. Napoleon 
 protiered a truce, which the Russians rejected by an answer 
 whose delivery was purposely delayed. vVfter remaining five 
 weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his 
 
 Oct. 19. Retreat from Moscow, 
 
 at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards Smo- 
 lensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army 
 under Kutusojf, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Des- 
 perate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, 
 Oct. 24, and VJazma, Nov. 3. 
 
 Nov. C. Commencement of the cold -weather. Terrible suffer- 
 ing from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, espe- 
 cially at Krasnoy (Ney, " the bravest of the brave "), and 
 Borissoff. 
 
 Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina. 
 
 Ney and Oudinot, with 8,500 men, forced a passage against 
 25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remain- 
 ing fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat be- 
 came a wild flight. Dee. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. 
 Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived 
 Dec. 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Rus- 
 sians until Dec. 13, w^hen the remaining troops (100,000), 
 crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners 
 according to their reports. 
 In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 
 able-bodied young men on the side of the French and their 
 allies. 
 
 Dee. 30. York concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian 
 general Diebitch, in the mill of Poscherun near Tauroggen. 
 
 1813 and 1814. The Great War of Liberation 
 of the allies against Napoleon. 
 
 1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William XII. issued 
 from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps, 
 whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. 
 
 Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish 
 between Russia and Prussia : 
 1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the auxil* 
 
 ^ Uf V ToU, DenkwurdifjkeiUn. 
 
476 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 iary armies to be famished by either side. 2. Restoration of 
 the Prussian monarchy according to old political relations. 3. 
 Invitation extended to Austria and England to join the alli- 
 ance. 
 
 1813, March 3. Treaty between England and Sweden : England 
 paid one million rix dollars in subsidies and promised not to op- 
 pose the union of Norway with Sweden. Sweden furnished 
 the allies an army of 30,000 men under command of the crown 
 prince Bernadotte (the inactive and suspicious conduct of this 
 general afterwards entirely disabled the northern army). 
 
 March 17. Appeal of Frederic "William III. " To my people," 
 and " to my army." Establishment of the Landwehr and 
 the Landsturm. Iron Cross. 
 
 March. Outbreak in Hamburg. Tettenhorn occupied the city. The 
 dukes of Mecklenburg withdrew from the confederacy of the 
 Rhine. 
 Great preparations on both sides. The Elbe was the boundary be- 
 tween the combatants ; Danzig, Stettin, Kustrin, Glogau, Modlin, and 
 
 Zamosc, being, however, in the hands of the French. 
 
 March 27. Occupation of Dresden by Russians and Prussians under 
 Wittgenstein and Blucher, after the withdrawal of marshal Da- 
 vout. Flight of the king of Saxony. 
 The French army and the contingents of the confederacy of the 
 
 Rhine concentrated in Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. 
 
 Napoleon, after the end of April, was at the heaa of 180,000 men 
 
 in Germany. He was unexpectedly attacked by the armies of the 
 
 allies, numbering 85,000 men, and forced to fight the 
 
 May 2. Battle of Gross-Gorschen or Liitzen. 
 
 Victory remained with the French, in spite of their losses. 
 The allies withdrew through Dresden to Lusatia. Scharnhorst, 
 severely wounded, died in Prague. 
 Napoleon in Dresden, in close alliance with the king of Saxony, 
 who had returned from Prague. 
 
 1813, May 18. Landing of the crown prince Bernadotte with Swedish 
 troops, in Pommerania. 
 
 May 20 and 21. Battles of Bautzen and Wurschen. 
 
 Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced them to retreat 
 across the Spree, and completed the victory at Wurschen, with 
 great loss to himself. Duroc f . The allies retreated to Si- 
 lesia. 
 
 May 30. Hamburg occupied by Davout, after the withdrawal of the 
 Russians, and terribly maltreated. 
 The combatants, exhausted, waited for reinforcements and strove 
 to secure the alliance of Austria. 
 
 June 4-July 26. Armistice of Poischwitz, afterwards prolonged 
 until Aug. 10 (16). 
 
 June lo. England concluded a subsidy treaty with Prussia and 
 Russia at Reichenbach. 
 
 July 5 (28)- Aug. 11. Congress at Prague. Austria played the 
 part of mediator. After futile negotiations (Metternich, CaVf 
 
 ! 
 
I 
 
 A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 477 
 
 laincourty William von Humboldt), the confess was dissolved 
 and 
 
 1813i Aug. 12. Austria declared war upon France. 
 
 The allies, su})})()rte(l by English subsidies, placed three 
 main armies in the fiehl : 
 
 1. The great Bohemian army under Schwarzenberg 
 {Kleisf, Wittf/eNsteiii), with which were the three mon- 
 arclis, Alexander, Francis, Frederic William. 
 
 2. The Silesian army under Bliicher (York, Sacken, 
 Laugeroti). 
 
 3. The Northern army under the crown prince of Swe- 
 den, Bernadotte {BUlow, Tauenzlen^ Winzingerode). 
 
 Napoleon opened hostilities with an attack upon Bliicher who re- 
 tired behind the Katzbach. Meanwhile Schwarzenherg advanced 
 against Dresden from Bohemia. Napoleon hastened thither, leaving 
 Macdonald to oppose Bliicher. Before an action occurred at either of 
 these points, Oudlnot and Reynier, whose attack upon Berlin was to be 
 supported by Davout from Hamburg, were defeated by Billow in the 
 Aug. 23, Battle of Grosbeeren, 
 
 while the crown prince of Saxony looked on inactive. 
 This victory saved Berlin from capture and sack. Directly 
 
 afterwards Macdonald^s army was defeated in the 
 Aug. 26 Battle of the Katzbach near Wahlstatt 
 
 by Bliicher, a part being captured. Bliicher created Prince of 
 
 Wahlstatt. 
 Meanwhile the attack of the Bohemian army upon Dresden 
 
 failed. Napoleon won his last great victory on German soil 
 
 in the 
 
 Aug. 26 and 27, Battle of Dresden. 
 
 Moreau, on the side of the allies, was severely wounded by a 
 
 camion-ball. f Sept. 2, 
 Aug. 27. Victorious engagement at Hagelberg. (Landwehr of the 
 
 electoral mark.) Vandamme, in the attempt to intercept the 
 
 retreat of the Bohemian army, was defeated in the 
 Aug. 30. Battle at Kulm and Nollendorf 
 
 near Teplitz, by Ostermann and Kleist, and captured with 
 
 10,000 men. 
 Ney, who was to occupy Berlin, was defeated in the 
 
 Sept. 6. Battle of Dennewitz 
 
 by Billow and Tauenzeln. Austria having already arranged 
 the preliminaries of an alliance with Russia and Prussia, dur- 
 ing the armistice, a formal 
 
 Sept. 9. Alliance was concluded at Teplitz : 
 
 1. Finn union and nuitual guarantee for tlieir respective terri- 
 tories. 2. Eacli party to assist the others with at least 60,000 
 men. 3. No separate peace or armistice to be concluded. Secret 
 
478 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 articles provided for the restoration of the Austrian and Prus- 
 sian monarchies to the condition of 1805. 
 
 1813, Sept. 17. Napoleon repulsed by Schwarzenherg at Nollendorf. 
 York forced a passage across the Elbe for the army of Silesia 
 by the j 
 
 Oct. 3. Battle of Wartenburg, 
 
 against Bertrand. The northern army also crossed the Elbe. 
 
 Oct. 8. Treaty of Ried between Austria and Bavaria, which with- 
 drew from the confederacy of the Rhine and joined the alli- 
 ance against Napoleon, In return the king of Bavaria was 
 secured in all the possessions which he held at the date of the 
 treaty. 
 As the three main armies of the allies were attempting to unite in 
 
 Napoleon's rear, the latter left Dresden in order to escape being cut 
 
 off from France, and concentrated his troops at Leipzig. 
 
 1813, Oct. 16, 18, 19. Battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of 
 
 the Nations"). 
 Oct. 16. On the first day : 
 
 1. Indecisive battle between Napoleon and the army of Bo- 
 hemia under Sch-warzenberg at "Wachau (south of Leipzig). 
 
 2. Victory of Bliicher at Mockeru, north of Leipzig, over 
 Marmont. 
 
 Oct. 17. On the next day the main armies desisted from fighting. 
 Napoleon sent offers of peace to Francis I. which were rejected 
 on account of the extravagance of his demands. Toward even- 
 ing union of the four armies of the allies : the grand army, 
 the northern army, with which the army of Silesia had already 
 united by an extraordinary march of Bliicher, and finally the 
 Russian reserve (100,000) under Bemiigsen. The armies of 
 the allies, forming a large half circle, largely outnumbered 
 the French. (300,000 men against 130,000). 
 Oct. 18. On the third day general attack of the allies, ending, 
 after nine hours' fighting, in a complete victory. (Struggle 
 for Probstheide). In the evening the French army was driven 
 back to the gates of Leipzig. The corps of Saxony and Wiir- 
 temherg went over to the allies. 
 Oct. 19. Storm of Leipzig and capture of the king of Saxony. After I 
 
 suffering a loss of more than 30,000 men, the defeated army 
 of Napoleon commenced the retreat. The destruction of the bridge 
 over the Elster before the whole army had crossed caused the drown- 
 ing of many troops in the Elster, among them prince Poniaiowski, 
 nephew of the last king of Poland. 
 
 On the retreat engagement on the Unstrut between Napoleon and I 
 York's advanced guard, and at Hanau (Oct. 30, 31) with an Aus- 
 tro-Bavarian army under Wrede. The French were victorious. 
 
 Immediate consequences of the battle of Leipzig : flight of king 
 Jerome from Cassel ; end of the kingdom of Westphalia, and of the 
 grand duchies of Frankfort and Berg. Restoration of the old rulers 
 in Cassel, Brunswick, Hanouer, Oldenburg. The central administra- 
 
 \ 
 
i A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 479 
 
 tive bureau for Germany under baron von Stein, which had been 
 created at the beoinnino- of the war for the government of those dis- 
 tricts whicli shoiUd be occupied by the trooj)s of the allies, found its 
 sphere of action limited almost entirely to ISaxouy. 
 
 1813, Nov. Napoleon crossed the 7i///;i6 at 3/«///z. Wiirtemberg, 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and the reniainhig members of the 
 
 confederacy of the Kiiine joined the allies. The cities occupied by 
 the French fell into the hands of the allies one after another. Dres- 
 den (Nov. 11), Stettin (Nov. 21), Liiheck (Dec. 5), Zamosc, Modlin, 
 Torgau (Dec. 20), Danzif/ (Dee. 30), Wittenberg (Jan. 12, 1814, by 
 Tauenzien), Kustrin (March 7). 4jtiogau, Magdeburg, Hamburg {Da- 
 vout), Erfurt, Wiirzburg, Wesel, Mainz, maintained themselves until 
 the peace. 
 
 Uprising in Holland (Nov. 15), expulsion of the French officials. 
 A part of the northern armg vnider Biilow entered Holland, while the 
 crown prince of Sweden, with the main body of the northern army 
 separated completely from the allies, invaded Holstein, in a short 
 winter campaign forced Denmark to conclude the 
 
 1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel : 1. Denmark renounced the posses- 
 
 sion of Norway in favor of Sweden, which guaranteed to the 
 Norwegians the possession of their liberties and rights. 2. Sweden 
 ceded to Denmark western Pomerania and Ruge7i. At the same 
 time peace between Denmark and England, the latter restoring all 
 conquests except Heligoland ; afterwards peace with Russia and Prus- 
 sia. 
 
 Meantime the French, after they had already (in 1812) lost the 
 southern part of the country, and Madrid itself for a time, were 
 driven almost entirely out of Spain in 1813. 
 
 After the French power had been weakened by the departure of 
 Soult with a large number of troops for Germany (Feb. 1813), Well- 
 ington repulsed Soult's successor, Jourdan, and king Joseph, and 
 defeated them in the 
 1813, June 21. Battle of Vittoria. 
 
 Joseph fled to France. ISiege of Pampeluna by the Spaniards. 
 Soult returning ^\ath reinforcements to the relief of Pampeluna was 
 defeated in the Pyrenees (July 28, 29), and withdrew behind the 
 Bidassoa. At the same time marshal Suchet was driven out of Val- 
 encia into Barcelona. After the conquest of Pampeluna (Oct. 31) by 
 the Spaniards, Wellington crossed the Bidassoa, defeated Soult on 
 French soil, and compelled him to retreat to Bayonne. Napoleon en- 
 deavored to secure peace with Spain by a treaty with the imprisoned 
 king, Ferdinand (whom he liberated from his confinement at Valen- 
 fay), and thus to protect France against invasion from the side of the 
 Pyrenees, but the attempt was a failure. The Cortes did not ratify 
 the treaty, on the ground that the king had not been a free agent, 
 and that they were unwilling to conclude a peace which did not in- 
 clude the English. 
 
 1813. The allies on Nov. 8 laid before Napoleon a proposal which 
 
 secured to France the Alps and Rhine for boundaries, but as 
 
 Dec. 1. Napoleon did not earnestly entertain it. they adopted the 
 
 resolution to prosecute the war vigorous! v and to pass the 
 
480 Modern History, A. d. 
 
 Rhine. Napoleon obtained from the senate a new levy of 300,000 
 men ; the corps legislatif, in which words of blame were at last heard, 
 was prorogued si7ie die. 
 
 Passage of the allies across the Rhine. 
 
 1813, Dec. 21-25. The main army under Schwarzenherg, Wrede, etc., 
 
 crossed the upper Rhine and traversed Switzerland (Basle), 
 whose treaty of neutrality with Napoleon was disregarded. 
 
 1814, Jan. 1. Blucher with the army of Silesia crossed the middle 
 
 Rhine, at Alannkeim, Caub, and Cohlentz. 
 The total strength of the allies oh their entrance into French terri- 
 tory was not quite 200,000 men. The main army advanced through 
 Burgundy; Blucher through Lorraine toward Champagne. To pre- 
 vent their juncture, Napoleon attacked Blucher at Brienne, and drove 
 Jan. 29. him back ; Blucher, however, united with a part of the 
 main army (crown prince of Wurtemberg) and defeated the em- 
 peror in the 
 Feb. 1. Battle of La Rothifere, 
 
 and drove him across the Aube. The impossibility of pro- 
 visioning the united armies, led to their separation. The grand army 
 was to advance upon Paris by way of the Seine, while the army of 
 Silesia followed the Marne toward the same goal. 
 
 No sooner did Napoleon hear of this separation than, with aston- 
 ishing boldness, leaving a very small body of troops behind to engage 
 the army under Schioarzenberg, he hurled himself suddenly upon the 
 separate divisions of the army of Silesia, defeated them mfour battles 
 Feb. 10-15. at Champauhert (Sacken), Montmirail (York driven 
 across the Marne), Chateau - Thierry, and Vauchamps, and 
 forced Blucher back to Etoges. Then, turning like a flash upon the 
 main army, he defeated it in the 
 Feb. 17. Engagement at Nangis ("Wittgenstein and Wrede), 
 
 and in the 
 Feb. 18. Engagement at Montereau (crown prince of Wurtem- 
 berg). 
 Napoleon thus obliged the main army to retreat to Troyes, after 
 which the two armies were for a short time again united on the 
 Aube. 
 
 Meanwliile ambassadors of the allies had met the envoy of Na- 
 poleon, Caulaincourt, in a 
 
 Feb. 5-March 19. Congress at Ch^tillon (on the Seine), where 
 Napoleon was offered the possession of France with the bound- 
 aries of 1792, but the negotiations came to naught by reason 
 of his haughty and dubious conduct. 
 March 1. Closer union between the allied powers at Chaumont. 
 The deposition of Napoleon resolved upon. 
 The two armies separated again. The main army under 
 Schwarzenberg defeated Oudinot and Macdonald in the 
 Feb. 25. Battle of Bar-sur-Aube, 
 
 Blucher reached Meaux, was forced to retire across the Marne 
 and Oise, and joined the army of the north under Billow and 
 Wirizing erode. The united armies defeated Napoleon in the 
 
A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 481 
 
 1814, March 9, 10. Battle of Laon. 
 
 Napoleon now turned against the main army", which defeated 
 
 him in the 
 March 20, 21. Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. 
 
 Meanwhile, Wellington had been driving back Soult with equal 
 success. Occupation of Bordeaux (March 12), where the royal ban- 
 ner of the Bourbons was tirst raised. 
 
 Napoleon formed the desperate plan of throwing himself in the 
 rear of the allies in Lorraine, summoning the garrisons of the for- 
 tresses to his aid, and calling the entire population to arms. The 
 allies, however, with equal boldness, advanced upon Paris, and de- 
 feated the marshals Marmont and Mortier in the 
 March 25. Battle of La Pfere-Champenoise. 
 
 Marmont and Mortier threw themselves into the capital. The 
 
 regent, Maria Louisa, fled to Blois. After a brave defense and 
 
 after the 
 March 30. Storm of Montmartre 
 
 they capitulated under condition of free departure, and left 
 
 Paris to its fate. 
 
 March 31. Entrance of the allies into Paris, 
 
 where the senate, through the influence of Talleyrand, de-. 
 clared that Napoleon and his family had forfeited the throne. 
 
 Napoleon, hastening to the relief of his capital, came a few hours 
 too late. His marshals having refused to follow him in a foolhardy 
 assault upon Paris, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son 
 (April 6) at Fontainehleau, and, when this reservation was rejected, 
 unconditionally (April 11). Napoleon made a futile attempt to poi- 
 son himself. 1 
 
 He received from the allies the island of Elba as a sovereign prin- 
 cipality, and an annual income of two million francs to be paid by 
 France. His wife received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- 
 tella \vith sovereign power ; both retained the imperial title. 
 1814. Wellington defeated Soult in the 
 April 10. Battle of Toulouse. 
 May 4. Arrival of Napoleon at Elba. 
 
 Return of the Bourbons. Louis XVI. 's brother, the count oj 
 Provence, first appointed his younger brother, the count of Artois as 
 viceregent (lieutenant du royaume), and then returned to France, as 
 
 1814-1824. Louis XVIII. 
 
 where he promulgated a constitution which was an imitation of 
 the English constitution, but with many limitations. (Charte octro- 
 yce : chamber of peers and chamber of deputies without the initiative.) 
 He concluded with the allies the 
 May 30. (First) Peace of Paris. 
 
 1. France retained, in the main, the boundaries of 1792, which 
 embraced 3,280 square miles more than those of 1790 : Avignon, the 
 
 1 According to Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de V Empire, vol. xviii., the 
 truth of this attemi)ted suicide is very doubtful. Of. V. Helfert, Nap. L 
 Fahrt von Fontaintoleau nach Elba, 1874. 
 31 
 
482 Modern History. A. D, 
 
 \ 
 
 Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. 
 France recoguif ed the independence of the Stales of the Netherlands, 
 according to their future enhirgement, as well as of all German and 
 Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French 
 colonies excepting I'obago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England 
 retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might 
 have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised Eng- 
 land to abolish the slave trade. 
 
 After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of ! 
 Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand 
 VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra-liberal constitu- 
 tion proposed by the cortes of 1812, w^as followed by the immediate out- 
 break of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. 
 
 Visit of Alexander mwd Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 
 1814), accompanied by their victorious generals (Blucher) ; enthusiastic 
 reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and 
 regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, 
 after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the Frerich empire, 
 the 
 1814, Sept.-1815, June. Congress of Vienna 
 
 was assembled. The emperors of A ustria and Russia, the kings 
 •of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wiirtembery, and a great number 
 of German princes were present in person. 
 
 Chief negotiators : Austria, Metternich ; Prussia, Hardenherg and 
 W. V. Humboldt ; Russia, NesselrodeawdRasoumoffsky ; Great Brit- 
 ain, Wellington and Castlereagh ; France, Talleyrand and Dalberg. 
 (Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.) 
 
 The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and w^hich,! 
 to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the orden 
 of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande- Bretagne, Prusse, 
 Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence after- ■ 
 wards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special ■ 
 eases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eightm 
 powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the SaxowK 
 and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to warii* 
 (Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after I ^ 
 Napoleon's return from Elba (p. 483), signed the m 
 
 Act of the Congress of Vienna. 1 1 
 
 Principal articles : I"' 
 
 1. Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies : a | 
 Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice mi 
 which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Canipcji 
 Formio (these were new called the Lombardo- Venetian king^ 
 dom), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and i>aZ!H 
 matia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Galicia. b. Frusj^ 
 sia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw (Posen 
 with Danzig ; Swedish hither PomeraJiia with Riigen in re. 
 turn for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark ; its oLI 
 possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as New 
 
 III 
 
A. D. Ndpoleonic Wars. 483 
 
 chCilel and the grand durJui of Ike. In/rrr Rhine, and the p^-oatcr 
 part of Sa.coni/ as an iudeumiticatioii tor the loss of some 
 former possessions, as Anshach and lUilrtinth ceded to Bavaria, 
 Ea^t Friesland to Hanover, the J^olis/i possessions to Russia. 
 
 2. Formation of a kin«:c(hnn of the Netherlands, comprising the 
 
 former republic of Holland and Austrian Heltji-ium, under the 
 former hereditary statthalter as King Willitim I. 
 
 3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old 
 
 empire, comprisin«j;' ;i!) (at its dissolution in 18()<) only 34) sover- 
 eifj^n states, including- the four free cities ; all other princes 
 who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. 
 Act of confederation signed June 8, 1815, supplemented by 
 the final act of Vienna, Alay lo, 1820. 
 
 4. Russia received the greater part of tlu^ grand duchy of Warsaiv as 
 
 the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state un- 
 der the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 6. England retained Malta, Helignland, a portion of the French and 
 Hutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the 
 Seven loniati Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, 
 wliicli was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See 
 p. 482. These islands were given to Greece by the treaties 
 of Nov. 14, 18G3-Nov. 29, 18G4. See p. 505). 
 
 6. Sweden retained Nor way, which had been ceded to her at the 
 peace of Kiel (p. 479), witli a constitution of its own ; Den- 
 mark was indemnified with Lauenhurg. 
 
 7. The nineteen cantons of Switzerland were increased to twenty- 
 
 two by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchdtel (at once 
 canton and ?i principality). 
 
 8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which re- 
 
 ceived Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The 
 Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Murat 
 had secured possession of that state for the present by his de- 
 sertion of Napoleon. 
 News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bour- 
 bons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, as 
 well as the invitations of his adherent*, encouraged the deposed em- 
 peror to return to France. 
 
 1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes 
 March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops 
 sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. 
 
 March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon 
 by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, RussiOj 
 France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. 
 King Louis X VIII. fled to Ghent. 
 
 March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred 
 \ Days, March 20 to Jime 29, 1815. 
 
 I Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new 
 
 March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each 
 r)ower engaged to furnish an army of 180,000 men. All Eu- 
 
484 Modern History, A. d. 
 
 ropean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all 
 the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing 
 with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. 
 The sum of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to 
 over a million men. 
 May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent con 
 
 cessions to the liberal party in France. Champ de Mai 
 Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under 
 Bliicher and an English-German under Wellington, against Napo 
 leon. 
 
 Murat, who had declared for Naj^oleon, defeated by the Austrians 
 at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to 
 France. Reinstallation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. 
 June 14. Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement 
 
 at Charleroi ; the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen 
 forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Bliicher in the 
 June 16. Battle of Ligny, 
 
 after a brave resistance {Bliicher in personal danger), and drove 
 him back. Bliicher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the 
 prince of Orange in the 
 June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. 
 
 The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the 
 army of "Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and 
 troops from Brunswick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled 
 himself with superior numbers. 
 
 1815> June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, 
 
 called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jeari. 
 Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the jimcture of 
 the Prussians under Bliicher with the English under Wellington, by 
 directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's 
 army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was 
 only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Bliicher. Complete 
 defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely 
 scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, 
 was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some 
 unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army.^ 
 June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of his son. 
 July 1. Arrival of the allies before Paris. 
 July 7. Second capture of Paris. 
 
 Entrance of Bliicher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. 
 
 Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. 
 Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts 
 to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral 
 Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to Eng- 
 land. Tlience, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported 
 as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October (f May 
 5, 1821). 
 
 1 Thiers, Histoire flu Constdat et de V Empire, xx.; Ropes, Who Lost Wa^ 
 Urloof — Atlantic Monthly, June, 1881. 
 
 if 
 
A. D. Napoleonic ITars. — Modem Inventions. 485 
 
 Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the su<>t5estion of 
 Alexander, conipi-isino- ;it lirst Rusmi, Austria, Prussia, theo- 
 retically an intimate union on a basis of morality and reli^rion, but 
 practically soon degenerating- into an alliance for the protection of 
 absolute monarchy. 
 
 Net/ made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed 
 on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne 
 bv landing in Calabria ; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot 
 Oct. 13, 1815. 
 
 Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 
 
 1. France surrendered the four fortresses PhlUppevillef Ma- 
 rienhurg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis 
 (and Saarhrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the 
 German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lau- 
 ter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which 
 she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore 
 brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead 
 of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 
 
 2. Demolition of Hllningens, a fortress below Basle. 
 
 3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were 
 to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies 
 at the expense of France. 
 
 4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides 
 this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various 
 cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the 
 first peace, were now reclaimed. 
 
 The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient 
 appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strashurg, should 
 be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of at- 
 tack against Germany, was not gratified. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY- 
 1815-x. 
 
 § 1. INVENTIONS. 
 
 The universal adoption and application of four in- 
 ventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in 
 comparison with whose influence upon tlie transformation of the 
 world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, 
 almost disappears, lends the modern world its peculiar character. 
 [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the 
 people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovern- 
 ment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth 
 century, p. 279.) ] 
 
 1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion 
 were made in the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer- 
 
486 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, 
 or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention 
 to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of 
 Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the 
 hrst steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set 
 up in p]ngland, and to have been used in mining. This was done by 
 Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to 
 improve the steam engine, and wliose inventions first made it possi- 
 ble to use these machines in the most various industries, was James 
 Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 
 
 2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is 
 disputed between the French, English, and Aymricans. Tiu French 
 ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count 
 of Auxiron, and in 1775 Pcrier, are said to have sailed txie first little 
 steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the 
 marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Douhs, and in 1780 on the Saone 
 at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the inven- 
 tion is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester ; it would seem, however, 
 that the first steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Sym- 
 ington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with 
 small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, 
 belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. 
 This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an 
 experiment with a steamsliip on the Seine in the presence of the first 
 consul. Napoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French 
 ships of war (1803). 
 
 3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the 
 second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used 
 in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of 
 a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were 
 covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast 
 iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an 
 easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to rail- 
 roads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithick. Gradual im- 
 provement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George 
 Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an im- 
 proved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad 
 for passenger trai^c between Liverpool and Manchester. The 
 first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and 
 Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fiirth to Nuremberg (1835), 
 at first a horse railroad ; the first larger line worked by locomotives 
 was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad 
 in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass. ; cars drawn by horses. 
 First roads to use locomotives : South Carolina, Baltimore Sf. Ohio, 
 1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an 
 iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construc- 
 tion of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused 
 (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other in- 
 dustries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock specula- 
 tion.] 
 
 4. The first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sommering, 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 487 
 
 a German, in Munich. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., 
 who dismissed it as a "German notion." Alter the Dane, Orsted, 
 had discovered electro-magnetism in 181*J, the Frenchmen Ampere and 
 llitschie conceived tiie idea of applyinji^ the new discovery to the tele- 
 graph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually con- 
 structed and used was set up in (jiitlinyen by Gauss and Wefjer in 
 1833. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented 
 in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schillinffs invention was carried 
 to England by Cooke, an Englisliman. There it was improved by 
 Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practicrdly 
 worked in London, between Euston Square and Camden Tow7i. Alter 
 the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Ger- 
 many and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of 
 Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The 
 first submarine telegraph was laid in 1850 between England and 
 France {Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid 
 from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and in many 
 other locations. The gigantic undertaking of connecting Europe and 
 America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was 
 crowned with success, but only for a time. In 18(30 the undertaking 
 was again renewed and brought to a successful close. ( Valencia in 
 Ireland to Newfoundland, 1,650 English miles.) Since that time, 
 laying of a second, third, fourth, and fifth cable. 
 
 § 2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.i 
 
 1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. 
 Festival of the "Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolut- 
 ist writings (AficiUon, Schmalz, Holler, etc.). 
 
 1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, 
 at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu, 
 to w^ithdraw the army of occupation from France. 
 
 1819. " Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer 
 and Russian counselor, Kotzehue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic 
 Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German stu- 
 dents (^ur.scAensc^a/?). Reaction in Prussia. W.v. Humboldt, 
 Beyme, Boyen, withdrew from the service of the state. 
 
 Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternich. 
 Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re- 
 solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna, 
 where the 
 
 1820. May. Final Act of Vienna was signed. 
 
 In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended 
 constitution of 1812, which was restored. 
 Oct. Congress at Troppau, ) 
 
 1821. Congress at Laybach, \ 
 
 assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in 
 Naples and Piedmont. 
 1821. Victorious campaign of the Austrians against the Liberals iu 
 
 1 For France see p. 526. 
 
488 Modern Hidory. a. d. 
 
 Naples {Pepe, Caracosd) and Sardinia {Santa Rosa, battle of 
 Nocara). In both countries absolutism in its severest form 
 was restored. 
 
 1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian 
 disturbances. 
 
 1823. French intervention in Spain under the lead of the duke of 
 Angouleme. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to 
 capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand VII., who had been 
 detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous execu- 
 tions (Riego). 
 
 1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies 
 
 in Central America and South America into independent 
 
 states. 
 
 Colt^mbia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, 
 
 in 1830, into three republics : New Granada (now Colombia in the 
 
 narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; 
 
 La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name 
 
 of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. 
 
 {Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long 
 
 governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 
 
 1821 by Iturbide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to 
 
 abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823 ; Iturbide 
 
 returned, but was executed 1824. 
 
 Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 
 1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel, 
 the younger son of king John VI. (f 1826), after a long civil 
 war and unheard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder 
 brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don 
 Pedro (f 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in 
 1826 to his daughter. Donna Maria ; in 1831 he delegated 
 the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II. 
 
 1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. 
 
 Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at 
 the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (March- 
 June, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was de- 
 tained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea 
 (Alainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Con- 
 stantinople, Adi'ianople, etc.; terrible barbarities in Chios, v;hich had 
 revolted ; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of 
 the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Bi/ron 
 (f Apr. 24, 1824), Ei/nard from Geneva. William Milller the Ger- 
 man poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and 
 America {Dr. Hoive)']. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 
 1824-1830- Charles X., king of France (p. 627). 
 
 1825-1855- Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder 
 brother Constantine having renounced the crown. 
 
 1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea, 
 England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, 
 who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves. 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 489 
 
 1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mah- 
 mud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely aholislied. 
 
 1827. Battle of Navarino. Tlii' 'J'urkish lleet was destroyed by 
 Oet. 20. the En<;lish, Freneh, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), 
 
 and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 
 1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War. 
 
 The Russian <;eneral, Diebitch, crossed the Balkans (whence 
 his surname, SahalLans/ci), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and 
 Erzeroum were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 
 1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Eri'ianski. 
 
 1829. Peace of Adrianople. 
 
 Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter 
 power recoo^nizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Confzrence 
 which announced in 1830 the independence of Greece. 
 
 Provisional administration of the count Lkipo d''htria as president, 
 who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Naujdia), the seat 
 of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised 
 to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince, 
 1832-18G2. Otto I., f 1867. 
 
 1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527). 
 
 1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris. 
 
 Abdication of Charles X. ; accession of 
 1830-1848. Louis Philippe I. 
 
 For the details see p. 529. This revolution was followed by 
 liberal uprisings throughout Europe. 
 
 1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king 
 of England. Whig ministry. 
 
 1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause : 
 
 The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of 
 Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly differ- 
 ent elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was 
 of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing 
 country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and 
 Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by Freneh culture. The suc- 
 cess of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering 
 dissatisfaction in Brussels. 
 1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the 
 
 " MasanielloJ'^ The mediation of prince William of Orange^ 
 the eldest son of king William I., failed of success. Prince Frederic, 
 the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a 
 division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of 
 Sept. 20-27. On 
 Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. 
 
 Provisional government. 
 The London Conference between the great powers procured a cessa- 
 tion of hostilities between Holland and Belgium and recognized the 
 new state (Jan., 1831), which in February adopted a liberal monarch- 
 
490 Modern History, A. D. 
 
 ical constitution. After Louis Philippe had declined the honor for his 
 second son, the duke of Nemours, upon whom the first choice fell, 
 1831-1865. Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king of the 
 Belgians. [A man of ability and excellent disposition, he ap- 
 proved himself an admirable constitutional monarch.] The war with 
 Holland lasted until 1833. Peace was established in 1839. 
 
 Results of the July Revolution : Revolutionary movements in 
 Germany (in Saxony An(\. Hesse-Cassel, alteration of the constitutions). 
 In Brunswick duke Charles (f 1873) was expelled ; duke William 
 taking his place, in accordance with a decree of the diet of the con- 
 federacy. Democratic transforunition in many of the Swis.j cantons. 
 
 1830-1832. Revolution in Poland. 
 
 1830, Nov. 29. Revolt in Warsaw. The attempted assassination of 
 
 the grand duke Constantine foiled. Provisional government : 
 Luhecki (pron. Lubetski), Czartoryski (pron. Tshar — ), Chlopicki 
 (Klopitzki), regarded with suspicion by the democrats (Leleivel). 
 General Chlopicki dictator until Jan., 1831, then prince Radzioil com- 
 mander-in-chief. The emperor Nicholas deposed by the diet Jan., 
 
 1831. Prince Czartoryski president. The Russians advanced under 
 Diebitch. Bloody engagement at Grochow (Feb. 19-25, 1831), 
 where the Poles with 45,000 men offered long and victorious resis- 
 tance to the superior force of the Russians (70,000 men with more 
 than twice as many cannon as the Poles possessed), but were at last 
 forced back upon Prague. Skrzynecki commander-in-chief ; defeat of 
 the Russians at Wawar and Dembe Wielski ; the insurrection spread 
 through Lithuania and Podolia. Diebitch defeated the Poles in the 
 bloody 
 
 1831, May 2G. Battle of Ostrolenka. Diebitch f June 10. Want 
 
 of harmony among the Poles. Massacres by the Polish demo- 
 crats in Warsaw. Czartoryski escaped and was replaced by the in- 
 efficient Krukowiecki. The new Russian general Paskevitch 
 crossed the Vistula, captured Warsa/v (Sept. 6 and 7, 1831). The 
 Polish insurrection suppressed. The Organic Statute of Feb. 26, 
 
 1832, deprived Poland of its constitution and reduced it to a province 
 of the Russian empire, although with a separate administration. 
 1831. Uprisings in Modena, Parma, and Romagna, quickly sup- 
 pressed with the assistance of the Austrians. 
 
 1833-1840. After the death of Ferdinand VII., civil war in Spain. 
 Led by Espartero, the constitutional party, which supported the 
 claims of Isabella II., the minor daughter of the king, and her mother 
 Maria Christina, after a bloody contest, defeated the absolutist 
 party (Don Carlos, brother of the king, f 1855 in exile ; leaders of 
 the Carlists : Zumalacarregui, f 1835, Cabrera, Gomez). Espartero 
 overthrown in 1843. Banishment of the queen dowager, Christina, 
 
 1833, The Frankfort uprising, wherein two watches were over- 
 powered for a few hours, caused a vigorous reactionary 
 
 movement throughout Germany. Frankfort received an Austro- 
 Prussian garrison. Establishment of commissions for political inves- 
 tigations, arrests and condenuiations. Meeting of the sovereigns of 
 
 J 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 491 
 
 Austria, Prussia, ;uul Russia at MUnchengrutz ; ministerial conference 
 ill Tefditz (1833) aiul Vienna (18IM), by whose resolutions the rights 
 of the estates in (Ternuiny were still further curtailed. 
 1833. Foundation oi the German Customs Union (Zollverein) 
 [Maassen, Prussian minister of ihuinee), whieh had been zeal- 
 ously advoeated by Prussia sinee 1818. In 1830 the union already 
 ineluded a population of *Jo,000,000 and a territory of 80,G00 square 
 miles. After 1854 it embraced 1)8,000 square miles and 35,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 1835-1848. Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria. 
 
 The chancellor of state, Metternich, was still the actual head 
 of the government and the soul of the conservative reactionary policy 
 throughout P^urope. Censorship of the press. Strict system of pass- 
 ports. Police surveillance. 
 1837. Upon the death of William IV. of England, Hanover, where 
 
 the salir la/v ^ regulated the descent of the throne, became 
 
 separated hoin P^ngland. 
 Partial repeal of the fundamental statute of 1833 by the king of 
 Hanover, Ernst A ugust, under the pretext that the constitution had 
 been adopted without his consent, he being at the time heii- to the 
 throne. The true reason was probably that the constitution liad 
 made the domains public property and had established a civil list. 
 Dismissal of seven professors at Gottiiigen {Jacob and William Grimm, 
 Dahlmann, Gervinus, Eicald, Albrecht and Weber), for refusal to take 
 the oath of homage. 
 
 1837 — X. Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 1837. Arrest of the archbishop of Cologne (Droste von Vischering'), 
 in consequence of a quarrel wdth the Prussian government 
 about marriages between persons of different religious beliefs. 
 
 1840. Death of Frederic William III. of Prussia. His sou and suc- 
 
 June 7. cessor 
 
 1840-1861. Frederic WiUiam IV. (see p. 515). 
 
 Mehemed All, viceroy of Egypt, in a previous victorious war 
 (1831-1833) with his over-lord the sultan, threatened Constantinople. 
 He was, however, compelled by the European powers to make peace, 
 and obliged to be content with the investiture of Sgria as a fief from 
 the sultan. The attempt of the Porte (1839) to deprive him of Syria, 
 failed. Ibrahim, son of Mehemed Ali, defeated the Turks at A7,s//> on 
 the Euphrates. Through treachery the Turkish Heet fell into tlio 
 hands of the viceroy of Egypt. Relying on the supjjort of Fianee^ 
 Mehemed Ali demanded from the young sultan Abdul-Medjid (1839- 
 18G1) the hereditary investiture of all lands under his government. 
 To oppose these demands, England (lord Palmerston), Austritty 
 Prussia, and Jiussia, concluded in 1840 a treaty of alliance, to the ex- 
 clusion of France, which for a moment threatened the peace of Eu- 
 rope. After the fall of the ministry of Thiers, however, aud after 
 
 1 Cf. p. 255, note. 
 
492 Modern History. A. d« 
 
 Guizot became president of the ministry in October, Prance sub- 
 mitted and deserted the viceroy of Egypt. The armed intervention 
 of England and Austria in Syria forced the viceroy to take a lower 
 tone, and he retained only the hereditary rule over Egypt under the 
 over-lordship of the Porte. 
 
 1846. Death of Pope Gregory X VI. Attempted reforms of his suc- 
 cessor Pius IX. (Mastai-Ferretti). 
 
 1847. Convention of the united legislature (Landtag) in Prussia. 
 War of the Sonderbund (separate confederacy) in Switzerland, 
 
 against seven Catholic cantons (Jesuits). General Dufour quickly 
 overpowered Freiburg and Luzerne. Dissolution of the Sonderbund. 
 
 Transformation of the Swiss confederacy from a close alliance 
 [Staatenbund] of sovereign cantons into ^federal nation [Bundesstaat]. 
 The former diet, in which Zurich, Berne, and Luzerne had in turn been 
 the chief town, was now succeeded by a confederate council which 
 sat ii? Berne and consisted of 1. a council of estates (representation 
 of the governments of the separate cantons), 2. a national council 
 (representation of the whole Swiss people according to the density 
 of the population). A common system of coinage ; centralized postal 
 service and military organization. 
 
 1848. Feb. 24. February Revolution in Paris (p. 530). 
 
 1848-1851 (1852). France, for the second time, a republic. 
 
 In S^witzerland, complete victory of the radicals. The can- 
 ton of Neuchatel threw olf allegiance to its prince, the king of 
 Prussia. 
 
 1848. Revolutionary movements in Germany, in consequence 
 of the French revolution. 
 
 Feb. 27. Popular assembly at Mannheim, under the lead of Itzlein, 
 which demanded a German parliament, jury trials, free press, 
 right of forming organizations, societies, etc. 
 
 March 11. The elector of Hesse obliged to agree to these demands. 
 
 March 13-15. Outbreak in Vienna. Metternich driven from the 
 city, which fell into the hands of the burgher-guard and the 
 students. 
 
 March 18. Conflicts in the streets of Berlin. The troops, tired but 
 not conquered, left the city by order of the king (March 19- 
 20). Formation of a poorly disciplined burgher- guard. Lib- 
 eral ministers frequently changed. Anarchy in the capital. 
 Call of a constituent assembly at Berlin. 
 
 March 20. After disturbances had occurred in Munich as early as 
 March 6, Louis I. (f 1868) abdicated in favor of his son 
 Maximilian II. Disturbances in Saxony, Hanover, Nassau, 
 Mecklenburg, etc. 
 
 March 31. Preliminary parliament in Frankfort opened under the 
 presidency of Mittermaier. Four sessions. Resolve adopted 
 to call a national German constituent assembly, for the purpose 
 of making a constitution for the German empire. 
 
 April. A republican rising in Baden {Hecker, Struve), supported by 
 the arrival of refugees (Herwegh) and foreign republicans 
 quickly suppressed by the troops of the German confederation. 
 
'A. D. Continental Europe. 493 
 
 General Frederic von Gagern treacherously shot by the volun- 
 teers (April 20). 
 
 May 15. Second insurrection in Vienna, which compelled the con- 
 vocation of a constituent diet. The emperor left Vienna and 
 went to Innsbruck. The intended dissolution of the legion of 
 students caused a 
 
 May 26. Third insurrection in Vienna, after wliich the troops left 
 the city and a committee of public safety {citizens and students) 
 controlled the city. 
 
 1848-1849. G-erman National Assembly (Parliament) 
 
 May 18. in Frankfort (Church of St. Paul) for the purpose of " har- 
 monizing " a constitution for the German empire with the 
 governments of the various states. 
 
 The national assembly elected archduke John of Austria {GOt years 
 old) administrator of the empire. He entered Frankfort June 11. The 
 confederate council (Bundestag) dissolved itself. First imperial 
 ministry (afterwards made more complete): Schmerling (Austria), 
 foreign affairs, and mtevior ; Peucker (Prussia), war; Heckscher (Ham- 
 burg), justice. It was soon evident, however, that the newly cre- 
 ated central power had no real authority either as regarded foreign 
 countries or the separate states. 
 
 President of the national assembly, Heinrich von Gagern. Par- 
 ties: right (Radowitz, Vincke, \)rmce Lichnowsky), holding to the idea 
 of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate governments; 
 left (Vogt, Ruge, Robert Blum), proclaiming the principle of the sov- 
 ereignty of the people, and endeavoring to establish a republican 
 confederation (Bundestaat) by revolutionary means; right centre 
 (Gagern, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Arndt, Beseler, Bassermann, J. G)'imm), 
 which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the estab- 
 lishment of a constitutional monarchy for Germany ; left centra 
 (Rlimer, Fallmerayer, Raveaux, etc.), which insisted upon the micou- 
 ditional subordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to 
 be created on the basis of the sovereignty of the people ; it recom- 
 mended, however, that the views of the separate governments and 
 such particular requirements of the states as were well founded 
 should be respected. 
 
 1848. In Naples grant of a liberal constitution, followed by a reac- 
 Feb. tion after the victory of the Swiss troops in the conflicts in the 
 streets (May). War with Sicily, which was in revolt, but was 
 subdued by Filangieri with great severity. After the murder of his 
 minister, Rossi, Pius IX. fled to Gneta (Nov.). Rule of the anarchists 
 and republicans (Mazzini) in Rome. After a two months' siege Rome 
 was captured by the French (July, 1849), and the papal authority 
 was restored. The Pope did not return to Rome, however, until 
 1850. (French garrison in Rome, 1849-186G.) 
 1848. Slavonic congress in Prague, 
 
 June 2. called by the Czechs (Palacki), in order to unite the oppo- 
 sition of the Slavonic people of Austria against the growth of 
 German culture and influence. In order that the representatives 
 of the different Slavonic nationalities might understand one another, 
 
494 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 the proceedings of this anti-German congress were held in German. 
 June 12-17. Uprising of the Czechs in Prague suppressed by Win-' . 
 
 dischgrdtz. 
 Oct. 31. Capture of Vienna by imperial troops ( Windischgrdtz, Jella- 
 
 chich). Robert Blum (member of the parliament of Frankfort), 
 
 Messenhauser (commander of the city), and many others wered 
 
 shot. 
 Nov. 1. Commencement of the reaction in Prussia. Ministry^ 
 
 Brandenburg - Manteujfel. General Wrangel entered Berlin: 
 
 without resistance (Nov. 10). Proclamation of a state of siege. 
 
 The burgher-guard disarmed. 
 
 Nov. 27. Transference of the national assembly to Brandenburg.; 
 
 As a quorum failed to meet there, 
 Dec. 5. Dissolution of the national assembly and imposition of d 
 
 constitution with two chambers, the second elected by uni-i 
 
 versal (manhood) and equal suffrage. 
 Dec. 10. Prince Louis Napoleon elected president of the Frenchlj 
 
 Republic (p. 531). 
 
 1848-1849. War between Austria and Sardinia. 
 
 The Austrians, driven from Milan by a revolt (March, 1848),) 
 retired to Verona. An Italian attack at St. Lucia repulsed. Ran 
 detzki, reinforced by Nugent (engagements at Udine and Belluno) 
 advanced again. The troops of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 
 victorious at Goito (May), were completely defeated by Radetzki at 
 July 25. Custozza. Milan recaptured by the Austrians. Truce 
 
 from Aug. 9, 1848, to March 20, 1849. Radetzki, by the vie-; 
 tory of Mortara (March 21) and Novara (March 23), compelled the 
 conclusion of peace. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son.: 
 Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Portugal (f July, 1849). 
 
 Capture of Brescia after terrible fighting in the streets. Cruelties 
 exercised upon prisoners (Haynau). In Venice, after the withdrawal 
 of the Austrian garrison (March, 1848), a provisional government ' 
 the name of the king of Sardinia was succeeded, after the defeat oi 
 the Italian army, by a republic (president Manin). Siege and cap-j 
 ture of Venice by the Austrians (Aug. 1849). The whole of the 
 Lombardo-Veuetian kingdom subjected anew to Austria. 
 
 1848-1849. Uprising of the Hungarians (Magyars). 
 The Hungarians demanded and received a separate ministry 
 (April, 1848). Count J5a«%an?/«, president of the ministry; Kossutt 
 (pr. Kdshut), minister of finance. Diet in Pesth under the presidency 
 of the archduke Stephen as palatine. The opposition of the Slavoni 
 population and the appanages of the crown of Hungary (^Croatia 
 Transylvania^ to the supremacy of the Magyars, and their demano 
 for political equality, were supported by the court of Vienna. Jellw. 
 chich appointed Ban of Croatia. Kossuth procured from the diet j 
 levy of national troops (Honveds), and the issue of Hungarian pape 
 money. Jellachich invaded Hungary, but was defeated at Velencze 
 The archduke palatine Stephen resigned his office. Count Lamber^^ 
 created imperial governor of Hungary, murdered at Pesth (Sept. 
 The emperor dissolved the diet. 
 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 495 
 
 After the abdication of Ferdinand I. (f 1875) his nephew mounted 
 the throne as 
 
 1848 — X. Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria. 
 
 The Ilunoaiiiiu diet refused to recognize the abdication of 
 Ferdinand I. and the accession of Francis Joseph I. Prince Wirv- 
 dischgrdtz led an Austrian army into Hungary. Kossuth and the 
 Magyar officials retired to Dehreczin. Windischgratz occupied Pesth 
 (Jan., 1849). The Polish general Bern, to whom Kossuth had given 
 a command, defeated the Austrians in a series of engagements. 
 Other troops, under the Pole Dembinski and the Magyar princes 
 Gorgey and Klapka, were successful against the Austrians. Demhinski 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the Magyar forces, but was de- 
 feated at Kapolna (Feb. 20, 1849) and resigned his command. 
 Meanwhile a bloody struggle was in progress in Transylvania: Bem^ 
 defeated by ths Austrian general Puchner at Hermanstadt (Feb., 
 1849), after having received reinforcements, took the offensive against 
 the Austrians and Russians, whom the former had called to their aid, 
 wath success; driving the Russians out of Transylvania. In the west, 
 too, fortune smiled upon the Hungarian arms. Gorgey relieved Ko- 
 morn. Windischgratz was driven back to Pesth, which his successor, 
 Welden, was compelled to evacuate; an Austrian garrison remained 
 in Of en. In consequence of the 
 
 1849. Publication of the general constitution for Austria, 
 March 4. which abolished the ancient Hungarian constitution, the 
 
 diet, upon Kossuth's motion, pronounced the deposition of the 
 house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Kossuth placed at the head of the Mag- 
 yar government with the title of govertior. Divisions and lack of de- 
 cision among the Hungarians. Instead of marching upon Vienna 
 they laid siege to Ofen, which Gorgey captured May 21. Kossuth and 
 the diet made a pompous entrance into Pesth. Meanwhile at a meet- 
 ing of the emperors of Austria and Russia, Russian intervention 
 was agreed upon, and a common plan of operations adopted for the 
 subjugation of Hungary. 
 
 Last decisive struggle of the Hungarians. Bern defeated at Her- 
 mannstadt in Transylvania by the Russians (Luders), who outnum- 
 bered him three to one. Dembinski forced to retire before the su- 
 perior Russian force under Paskevitch. Gorgey tried in vain to break 
 through, the main Austrian army under Haynau, was defeated at 
 Zsigard and Komorn, went to the aid of Dembinski, defeated the Rus- 
 sians under Rudiger at Waitzen, but was obliged to retii-e to the 
 mountains upon the approach of Paskevitch, escaping the Russians 
 only by a masterly retreat. Kossuth fled witli the diet to Szegedin, 
 whither Haynau marched. Dembinski, attacking him, was defeated at 
 Szorek (Aug. 5), and at Temesvar (Aug. 9), where his army was 
 almost entirely scattered. Confusion and discord among the Hun- 
 garians. Kossuth laid down the chief power ; the dictatorship was 
 conferred upon Gorgey. Two days later Gorgey concluded the 
 1849, Aug. 13. Capitulation of Vilagos, 
 
 in which about 25,000 men laid down their arms (120 cannon 
 surrendered) before the Russian general Riidiger. Most of the other 
 
 I 
 
496 Modern Hhtory. A. D. 
 
 corps surrendered unconditionally ; Klapka alone, who defended Ko- 
 morn, made an honorable capitulation. Kossuth, Bern, DemhinsJci, 
 found refuge in Turkish territory. Haynau administered terrible 
 punishment to the captured leaders of the insurrection. Numerous 
 executions (count Batthyamji hanged), imprisonments and confisca- 
 tions. Abolition of the Hungarian constitution. Transylvania and 
 Croatia separated from Hungary. Abolition of the general constitution 
 of Austria, Dec. 31, 1851. 
 
 1848-1851. Three wars of Schleswig-Holstein against 
 Denmark. 
 Cause: " Open letter " of the king. Christian VIII. (July 8, 1846), 
 which arbitrarily decreed the continuance of the union of the duchies 
 with Denmark, in spite of the different laws of inheritance in the two 
 states. A revolutionary movement in Copenhagen (Casino party) 
 compelled king Frederic VII. to pronounce the annexation of 
 Schleswig to Denmark (1848). Hence insurrection in the duchies 
 (March, 1848), and formation of 3i, provisional government of the coun- 
 try (Beseler). 
 
 1848, First War. Prussian troops and those of the German con- 
 April-Aug. federacy came to the assistance of the duchies, which 
 
 were obliged to form a new army. General Wrangel defeated 
 the Danes at Schleswig (April 23) and advanced to Jutland. The 
 losses to commerce in the Baltic by the Danish blockade and the in- 
 fluence of England and Russia produced the not very honorable truce 
 of Malmo (26 Aug. 1848-26 March, 1849). Establishment of " com- 
 mon government " for the duchies. 
 
 Dissatisfaction with the truce throughout Germany. Angry de- 
 bates in the national assembly at Frankfort ; contest in the streets 
 with the populace, who were excited by the democrats. Murder of 
 prince Lichnowsky and general von Auersivald (Sept.). 
 
 1849, March-July. Second "War. Creation of a governorship {Bese- 
 
 ler, Reventlow-Preetz) by the central government of Germany. 
 At Eckernforde the ship of the line Christian VIII. was fired by can- 
 nonade and the frigate Gefion captured (April 5). Storm of the re- 
 doubts of Ddppel by Bavarian and Saxon troops (April 13). The 
 Prussian general Bonin, at tlie head of the Schleswig-Holstein army, 
 defeated the Danes* at /ioMm^ (April 20). In consequence of the 
 threatening attitude of England, France, and Russia, indifferent con- 
 duct of Prussia and other German troops in the war (general Pritt- 
 witz). Siege of Fredericia by the Schleswig-Holstein army, wliicn, 
 however, suffered a considerable loss through a successful sortie of 
 the Danes. Truce of Berlin, between Prussia and Denmark (1849, 
 July 10), whereby Schleswig was to be occupied by Swedish troops in 
 the north, in the south by Prussian troops, and received a neiv adminis- 
 tration. The truce was converted into a peace (in the name of the Ger- 
 man confederation as well). Bonin and all Prussian officers were 
 recalled from the Schleswig-Holstein army. 
 
 1850, Jan.-1851, July. Third War, conducted by Schleswig-Holstein- 
 
 ers alone without the aid of Germany. General Willise7i, for- 
 merly in the Prussian service, assumed command of the army. He 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 497 
 
 was defeated at Idstedt (July 24, 25). Selileswiof occupied by tlie 
 Danes. In the enoi-ai^fnient at Mlssunde (Se])t. 12) thf Sclileswig- 
 Ilolstein troops were a<;ain defeated. In the storm of FriedrirhsUidt 
 (C)et. 4) they were repulsed with p^reat h)ss. The chief coniinand 
 was transferred from Willisen to jjceneral Horst. The (xerinan con- 
 federacy having been restored meanwhile (p. 408) enforced under 
 Austrian inliuence the cessation of hostilities ; Holstein was occupied 
 by Austrian troojjs with the consent of Prussia, and delivered to the 
 Danes upon the vague promise of " respecting the rights of the 
 duchies" (1852). 
 
 1849. Completion of the constitution of the G-erman 
 Empire. 
 
 Diet, composed of a chamber of state, appointed half by the govern- 
 ments, half by the popular representatives of the separate states, and 
 a popular chamber. Monarchical power with only a suspensive veto. 
 Formation of two parties, the great German (Grossdeutsche) party, 
 which wished to retain the German territory of Austria in Germany, 
 and the small German {Kleindeutsche), which wished to exclude Aus- 
 tria and form a narrower confederacy under the hegemony of Prussia. 
 1849. The offer of the crown of emperor of the Germans, by a 
 April 3. deputation of the national assembly at Frankfort, was de- 
 clined by the king. Frederic William declared that he could 
 assume the imperial dignity only with the consent of all German gov- 
 ernments. 
 
 May. Uprising in Dresden (Tzschirner, Heubner, Todt, Bakunin) 
 suppressed by Prussian assistance. 
 Recall and withdrawal of a great number of representatives 
 
 1849. from the national assembly at Frankfort. The Rump-Par- 
 June, liament (president Lowe-Kalbe) in Stuttgart dissolved. 
 
 The administrator superseded by a central power to be executed 
 hj Austria and Prussia alternately, "for the German confederacy" 
 (The interim). Death of the administrator, Oct. 20, 1849. 
 May. Republican uprising m the county palatine and in the grand 
 duchy of Baden (Struve, Mieroslawski) ; defection of the army. 
 Prussian troops under the prince of Prussia entered Baden, de- 
 feated the insurgents at Waghdusel, besieged and captured 
 Rastadt. 
 The commander Tiedemann and others were shot ; many, among 
 i;hem the poet Kinkel, condemned to imprisonment for life with hard 
 labor {Kinkel, 1850, in Spandau, was rescued by Karl Schurz). 
 
 1850, Feb. 6. In Prussia the king and legislature took the oath of 
 
 allegiance to the revised constitution. 
 Exertions of Prussia to create a (J'rman federal state (Bundesstaat), 
 with exclusion of Austria (Radowitz), actively supported by the old 
 party of the hereditary empire in the Frankfort parliament, the 
 Gothas (so called from a meeting in Gotha). The "alliance of the 
 three kings" (Prussia, Hanover, Saxon//), concluded May 26, 1849, 
 which was immediately joined by nu)st of the smaller German states, 
 was soon broken up by the withdi'awal of Hanover and Saxony, 
 Nevertheless the 
 
 32 
 
498 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1850, March 20. Parliament of Erfurt was opened, which on the 
 
 27th April concluded the discussion of a new German Union. 
 May 9-16. Congress of princes in Berlin, wherein the dislike of 
 
 electoral Hesse {Hassenpjiug) for the union came to light. 
 
 Creation of a college of princes. Austria opposed the eiforts 
 
 of Prussia by the 
 Sept. 2. Reopening of the Frankfort parliament. 
 
 Contest over the constitution in the electorate of Hesse. Re- 
 peated dissolution of the assembly of the estates by Hassenpjiug. The 
 whole country was pronounced in a state of war (Sept. 7). Resist- 
 ance of the officials and the courts. The prince elector left the coun- 
 try and invited the intervention of the diet, which had been restored 
 by Austria, but was not recognized by Prussia and her confederates; 
 Hassenpjiug ambassador to the diet. The diet granted aid to the 
 prince elector, Prussia protesting. General Haynau appointed mili- 
 tary dictator in electoral Hesse (Oct. 2). Almost the entire corps of 
 officers in electoral Hesse received their dismissal. 
 
 Rupture between Prussia and Austria ; Nicholas of Russia took 
 sides with the latter (two meetings in Warsaw). Meeting of the 
 emperor of Austria and the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemherg at 
 Bregenz, directed against Prussia. Execution of the decree of the 
 confederacy by Bavarian and Austrian troops. The Prussian ' gov- 
 ernment sent their troops (general Grohen) into electoral Hesse, and 
 seemed for a moment about to opposfi the execution of the decree of 
 the confederacy (encounter of the pickets at Bromizell, Nov. 8), but 
 were finally satisfied with occupying the military roads of Prussia. 
 Dismissal of the minister Radowitz, and thereby complete abandon- 
 ment of the Prussian exertions for union. In the 
 
 1850. Conference at Olmiitz (3fa7iteuffel and Schwar- 
 Nov. 29. zenberg) Prussia yielded to all the demands of Austria ; 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, the unlimited 
 authority of the elector was restored in electoral Hesse. The ques- 
 tion of the German constitution was settled at the 
 1850-1851. Conference at Dresden 
 
 Dec. 23-May 15. after a lengthy discussion, wherein the influence 
 of the emperor of Russia had great weight, by a simple re- 
 turn to the diet of the confederacy. Prussia herself invited the 
 former members of the union to send representatives to that 
 body, so that the 
 
 1851. German confederation of 1815 was reestablished in its 
 old form. 
 
 1851- First universal industrial exhibition in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 1851. In Paris, coujj d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who be- 
 Dec. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 
 
 1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five 
 great po"wer» and S^weden. In order to guarantee the in- 
 tegrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the 
 crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstem, with- 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 499 
 
 out eoiisulting the estates of the ducliies. The female line next 
 in succession having' renounced its rights, Christian of Sonderhnrg- 
 Gliickshurg was proclaimed heir of tlic childless king Frederic V'll. 
 for the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by Hanover^ 
 Saxony, and Wdrtcmhenj, but not by the German am federation. 
 
 1852, Dec. 1. Napoleon III., emperor of the French (1852— 
 
 1870). 
 1853-1856. War of Russia against Turkey and 
 
 1854-185G. War of the western powers against 
 Russia. Crimean War. 
 
 Cause : Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catha/- 
 rine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas L Thinking an 
 alliance between England and France impossible, and believing that 
 he had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward with- 
 out hesitation. He developed his views, concealing but little, to the 
 English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour : Servia, Bosnia, Bul- 
 garia, and the principalities of the Danube Should become independent 
 states under Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied 
 provisionally, by Russian troops ; the prospect of the ac(iuisition of 
 Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavor- 
 able attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand 
 for a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the 
 Turkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian am- 
 bassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the prop- 
 osition. Mentchikoif left Constantinople with tlireats (May 21, 1853). 
 
 1853, A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance 
 to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes 
 
 of observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the 
 principalities of the Danube (July). INleeting between Nicholas and the 
 emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmiltz (Sept.), where 
 however, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assur- 
 ance of neutrality under certain conditions. The Porte declared war 
 upon Russia (Oct.). Om£r Pacha crossed the Danube and held his 
 ground against the Russians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian 
 fleet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. 
 Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the 
 Danube, 
 
 1854, March 12. Alliance of the western nowers with Turkey, and 
 March 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Rus- 
 sia. Paskevitch ap]iointed to the chief command of the Russian 
 
 army which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). 
 England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen- 
 trated in GalUpoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these 
 states declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act of 
 war, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The 
 emperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation " for strategic reasons " 
 (July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were pro- 
 visionally occupied by the Austrians. 
 
500 Modern History. A. d 
 
 A second French and English fleet {Napier) appeared in the Baltic, , 
 but could make no impression upon the fortress of Kronstadt and cap- 
 tured only the small fortress of Bomarsund, upon one of the Aland 
 Islands. 
 
 At the southern seat of war, the allies landed at Varna, on the 
 Black Sea (June). Marshal St. Arnaud and lord Raglan command- 
 ers-in-chief. The French invasion of the Dohrudsha was followed by 
 great losses through sickness. At Varna the expedition to the 
 Crimea was resolved upon, in order to destroy Sebastopol and an- 
 nihilate the Russian naval power in the Black Sea. The French and 
 English (50,000 men together) and 6,000 Turks landed at Eupatoria, 
 on the west coast of the Crimea, Sept. 14, and defeated the Russians 
 in the 
 1854, Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma. 
 
 Marslial St. Arnaud died of the cholera. The command of 
 the Frencli given to Canrobert. After the English had established 
 themselves on the bay of Balaklava, and the French on the bay of 
 Kamiesch, the 
 
 1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol 
 
 Oct. Nov. began. The city was surrounded by new fortresses by 
 Mentchikoff] under the superintendence of Totlehen, and the 
 harbor closed by sunken ships of war. An attack of the allies upon 
 Sebastopol failed (Oct. 17). The Russian general Liprandi attacked 
 the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25) and inflicted a severe loss upon 
 them (charge of the Light Brigade). Aiter Mentchikoff hud received 
 reinforcements, he attacked the allies anew, but was defeated in the 
 bloody 
 
 1854, Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. 
 
 Slow progress of the siege works during the winter. After 
 the emperor of Russia had rejected the conditions of peace which 
 were supported by Prussia and Austria, the latter power joined the 
 alliance of the western powers (Dec. 1854), and placed a consider- 
 able force upon the Russian boundary v/ithout, however, commencing 
 actual operations of war. Prussia persisted in her neuti^al attitude. 
 Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia concluded an alliance with the western 
 powers and sent 15,000 men under La Marmora to the Crimea. A 
 Russian attack upon Eupatoria was repulsed by the Turks. 
 
 1855, March 2. Death of Nicholas I. His son 
 
 1855-1881. Alexander II. (abolition of serfdom 1858- 
 
 1863). 
 Prince Gortchakoff' received the chief command in Sebastopol. After 
 fruitless negotiations in Vienna, Austria again assumed an attitude 
 of waiting and withdrew a portion of the troops on the Russian border. 
 Enormous losses among the besiegers, from sickness (Florence Night- 
 ingale). Privations and daily skirmishes. At the request of Canro- 
 bert the command of the French forces was transferred to general 
 Pelissier (May 16). A general storm was repulsed, with great loss 
 to the allies (June 18), Lord Raglan died June 28, and Simpson be* 
 came commander-in-chief of the English army. 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 501 
 
 After a continuous bombardment and many bloody en^aj^ements 
 
 1855, Storm of the Malakoff tower by the Freiieh, and of the 
 Sept. 8. Redan by the Knolish, who were, however, soon driven out 
 
 again by the Russians. 
 
 Sept. 11. The Russians, by means of a pontoon bridge, withdrew into 
 the northern part of the fortress. Oecupation of the city of 
 Sehastopol by the allies. 
 
 Nov. 28. In Asia, eapture of the fortress of Kars by the Russians. 
 At the congress of Paris {France, England, Russia, Turkey, Sar- 
 dinia, Austria, and at the last Prussia), the 
 
 1856, Marcb 30. Peace of Paris was agreed upon. 
 
 1. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of 
 Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower Danube. 2, Russia re- 
 nounced the one-sided protectorate over the Christians in Turkey 
 (whose elevation to equality with the Mohammedan population was 
 promised by the Porte), and over the principalities of the Danube, 
 whose relations were to be settled later. 3. Russia restored Kars, 
 and promised not to establish any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to 
 maintain there more shi})s than the Porte. 4. The western powers 
 restored Sehastopol to Russia, after having destroyed the docks, the 
 constructions in the harbor, and the fortifications. [5. Adoption of 
 the four rules : 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 2. The 
 neutral tlag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. 
 Neutral goods, except contraband of war, not liable to capture under 
 an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, to be binding, must be effective.] 
 185G-1857. Dispute between the king of Prussia and Switzerland, in 
 
 consequence of a hasty suppression of a royalistic outbreak in 
 Neuchdtel (Neuenburg), settled by the release of the royalistic pris- 
 oners by the Swiss, and the renunciation of Neuchdtel by the king of 
 Prussia. 
 1857-1860. French and English expedition against China. 
 
 Cause : infractions of the treaty with the English (of 1842) 
 by the Chinese led to hostilities in Oct., 1856, between the English 
 and the Chinese officials of Canton. The French government, which 
 purposed an alteration of the commercial treaty with China, joined in 
 supporting the English demands. 
 
 1857, Dec. Occujjation of Canton by the allies. 
 
 1858, Treaty of Tien-Tsin, which opened to European trade and the 
 June, missionaries entrance to the interior of China, and allowed 
 
 standing embassies to be established in the capital, Pekin. 
 
 1859, June. Infraction of the treaty of Tien-Tsin. The English, 
 
 French, and American ambassadors, who w^ere on their way to 
 Pekin, were tiu'ned back at the mouth of the Pei-ho. 
 The attempt of the English and French to force their passage 
 failed ; an attack upon the forts, undertaken with b it few troops, was 
 repulsed with great loss. 
 
 1800. Landing of a French (general Montauban) and English (gen- 
 May, eral Grant) corps at Shang-hai ; storm of the fortihed camp, 
 while the flotilla of the allies proceeded up the Pei-ho. 
 Negotiations commenced by the Chinese. In consequence of their 
 
502 Modern History, A. D. 
 
 dubious and faithless conduct the allies made a new advance, defeated 
 a Tatar army of 1:5,000 men in the 
 
 1860. Battle of Palikao, and marched upon Pekin. Destruction of 
 Sept. 21. the summer palace of the emperor as punishment for the 
 cruel mutilation and execution of several persons whom the 
 Chinese had treacherously captured. In affright prince Kong, 
 the emperor's brother, concluded the 
 1860. Peace of Pekin, which ratified the treaty of Tien-Tsin and 
 Oct. 24, 25. imposed upon the Chinese the payment of a large in- 
 demnity. 
 1857. Illness of Frederic William IV. The prince of Prussia as= 
 Oct. sumed the vice-regency, and later (Oct. 7, 1858) the regency 
 as provided by the constitution of Prussia. The prince re- 
 gent replaced the ministr}'^ of Manteuffel by an old liberal ministry 
 (prince of Hohenzollern, Auerswald, Schleinitz, Benin, Bethmann-Holl- 
 weg, and afterwards count Schwerin). 
 
 1859. War of France and Sardinia with Austria. 
 
 April-July. An Austrian ultimatum having been rejected, field- 
 marshal Gyulay crossed the Ticino, but his inactivity gave 
 the French time to come to the assistance of the Piedmontese. 
 Napoleon III. assumed the chief command. 
 An extensive reconnoitring expedition of Gyulay's led to the 
 
 May 20. Engagement of Montebello ; the Austrians, after obsti- 
 nate resistance, driven back. Garibaldi and his volunteers in- 
 vaded Lombardy. The allies assuming the offensive, Gyulay retired 
 
 across the Ticino and was defeated in the 
 
 June 4. Battle of Magenta 
 
 (Napoleon III., Canrobert, MacMahon). 
 
 Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. The em- 
 peror Francis Joseph took the chief command in person. The 
 Austrian army was defeated by the allies in the 
 
 June 24. Battle of Solferino. 
 
 The emperor Francis Joseph in a meeting with Napoleon III. 
 
 July 11, in Villafranca was induced to accept preliminaries of peace 
 (exchanged July 8) which were ratified and ccmpleted in the 
 
 1859, Nov. 10. Peace of Ziirich. 
 
 1. The emperor Francis Joseph ceded Lombardy (with the ex- 
 ception of Mantua and Peschiera) to Napoleon III., who surrendered 
 it to Sardinia. 2. Italy was to form a confederation (Staatetibund) 
 under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 3. The sovereigns of 
 Tuscany and Modena, who had been expelled in April and July, were 
 to be reinstated; the revolted legations {Bologna, etc.), were to be 
 given back to the Pope, but "without foreign intervention." 
 Despite these enactments of the peace of Ziirich 
 
 1860. Tuscany, Parma (whose sovereigns had likewise been expelled), 
 Spring. Modena, and the papal legations were united with the mon- 
 archy of Victor Emmanuel, who, in return, was obliged to sur- 
 render Savoy and Nice to France. 
 
 Descent of Garibaldi with 1,000 volunteers (soon 4,000, May 11) 
 
A. D. Continental Europe. 503 
 
 upon Sicily. He marched upon Palermo. Bombardment of the city 
 by the Neapolitan g^eneral Lanza, whereupon the city capitulated on 
 condition of the free withdrawal of 25,0()0 Nea])olitan troops (June 
 6). Messina evacuated by the Neapolitans, with the exception of 
 the citadel (June 28). Garibaldi landed on the mainland (Aug-. 
 20). Surrender of Reggio, triumphal progress through the southern 
 half of the peninsida. King Francis II. left his capital, Naples, and 
 retired behind the Volturno with 40,000 men, retreating to the for- 
 tresses of Gaeta and Capua (Sept.). Meanwhile the Piedmontese 
 troops under Fanti and Cialdini had entered Umbria and the Marches, 
 W' here the desire for annexation had long since made itself manifest. 
 The French general Lamo7'iciere, who had entered the papal service, 
 was defeated in the 
 
 18G0. Engagement at Castelfidardo by Cialdini. The Papal 
 Sept. 18. States (excepting the Patrimonium Petri) were aimexed by 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, who thereupon invaded the Neapolitan terri- 
 tory (Oct.) and jomed Garibaldi. The Neapolitan army retreated 
 behind the Garigliano, Capua was taken. Francis II. and liis troops 
 retired to Gaeta. 
 
 1860-1861. Siege of Gaeta. Francis II. capitulated after a brave 
 Nov. 12-Feb. 13. defence and went to Rome. 
 1861> Marcb 17. Victor Emraanuel king of Italy. 
 
 With the exception of Venice and the Patrimonium Petri the 
 whole peninsula was united under one sceptre. Death of Cavoury 
 June 6, 1861. New expedition of Garibaldi, with volunteer bands, to 
 liberate Rome, against the wishes of the government. He was 
 wounded and captured at Aspromonte, the southern point of Italy, 
 Aug. 29, 1802. Treaty between France and Italy (Sept. 15, 1861), 
 whereby the duration of the French occupation of Rome was limited 
 to two years, and the Italian government nndei-took to protect the 
 Patrimonium Petri against any foreign invasion. Florence mr.de th-» 
 capital of Italy. 
 1861, Jan 2. Death of Frederic WilUam IV. The prince regent 
 
 mounted the throne as 
 1861 — X. William I., king of Prussia. 
 1861-1867. Mexican Expedition, undertaken, at first, by France, 
 
 England, and Spain in common. 
 1861. Treaty of London between these three powers. The purpose 
 Oct. 31. of the expedition was to force the repid)lic of Mexico to 
 
 fulfill certain treaty obligations towards these nations. 
 
 1861, Dec.-1862, Jan. Occupation of La Vera Cruz and the fort of 
 
 San Juan d'Ulloa by the allies. 
 
 1862. Treaty of La Soledad w ith Juarez, president of Mexico, who 
 Feb. 19. promised to pay the indemnity and the arrears of debt, as 
 
 required. Juarez did not fulfill the obligations incurred, and 
 demanded the delivery of his opponent, Almonte, who had come to the 
 French camp from Paris. 
 
 England and Spain Avithdrew from the expedition. Napoleon III., 
 acting on the expectation that the republic of the United States of 
 America would be broken up by the war between the North and the 
 
 1 
 
504 Modern History. A. Do 
 
 South, resolved to create a monarchy m Mexico. Magnificent plan to 
 check the spread of the Anglo-Germanic race by this expedition, and 
 induce a regeneration of the Latin race. 
 
 1862. An attack upon Puehla by 5,000 French repulsed. Retreat to 
 May. Orizaba. The emperor sent 25,000 men as reinforcements, fol- 
 lowed by more considerable numbers, to Mexico. After a long 
 and bloody contest 
 
 1863. Puebla, bravely defended by Ortega, was captured by the 
 May. French general Forey, who entered Mexico. The French 
 
 called an assembly of notables, composed of opponents of 
 Juarez, caused the monarchy to be proclaimed by this body, and the 
 imperial crown of Mexico to be offered to the archduke Maximilian, 
 brother of the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This young and 
 ambitious prince, gifted with excellent abilities, suffered himself to be 
 inveigled by Napoleon III. into accepting the crown. 
 
 1864. June. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Prolonged contest 
 
 with the republican armies. The new monarchy constantly in 
 financial difficulties. Impossibility of establishing a settled state of 
 affairs in a land so torn with party feuds. 
 
 Meanwhile the end of the civil war in the United States had com- 
 pletely altered the political relations. The decisive demand of the 
 United States government that the French troops should be with- 
 drawn from Mexico, put a sudden end to the magnificent plans of the 
 French emperor. He submitted at once to the request of the United 
 States. 
 
 1867. Withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico. The emperor 
 Spring. Maximilian, who refused to leave with the French, continued 
 
 the war alone. After a brave resistance he was surrounded in 
 Queretaro, captured by treachery (Lopez ?), brought to trial before a 
 court-martial at Juarez^ command, and shot (June 19, 1867). 
 
 In Austria, m spite of the vehement opposition of the nobility and 
 the clergy, 
 
 1861. Publication of a new, liberal constitution for the united 
 Feb. 26. monarchy with a close diet for the Germano-Slavonic 
 
 lands, and a wider diet (only projected, however) which by the 
 participation of Hungarian members was to represent the united mon- 
 archy, with the exception of Venice, for which the introduction of a 
 special constitution was promised. Resistance to the February consti- 
 tution, not only by the Hungarians, who demanded the restoration of 
 their separate constitution with a special ministry, but also by the 
 national parties of the other non-Germanic peoples of the empire. 
 1861. Coronation of the king of Prussia, William I. in Konigsberg; 
 Oct. 18. soon after there broke out a constitutional conflict in conse- 
 quence of a reorganization of the army which the government had carried 
 out. Dissolution of the house of representatives (March, 1862). Res- 
 ignation of the Schwerin ministry. Heydt ministry. The opposi- 
 tion majority returned from the new elections (May) with increased 
 strength (party of progress (Fortschritt), and the left centre). 
 
 Von Bismarck (Otto Edward Leopold, prince of Bismarcl'-Schon- 
 kausen, born 1815, 1848 member of the united Prussian legislature, 
 
A. D. Continental Europe, 505 
 
 1851 member of the diet of the confederation at Frankfort, after- 
 wards ambassador at St. Petersbur<^- and at Paris) became president 
 of tlie ministry. The ministry j;overned without the passage of a 
 moneji bill. [Especial care bestowed upon the army, in which, accord- 
 ing to Bismarck, the hope of Prussia and Germany rested (" Blood 
 and Iron ")]. 
 
 1862. Revolution in Greece. King Otto (f 1807) compelled to 
 leave the country by an insurrection. Provisional government. 
 
 After a long search the Greeks found in George of Denmark a prince 
 who accepted their throne (1863). England ceded to Greece the 
 Ionian Islands (p. 483). 
 
 1863, Jan. Uprising in Poland and Lithuania suppressed in the 
 
 spring of 1864. 
 1863. Congress of German princes at Frankfort o. M., under 
 Aug. the presidency of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to con- 
 sider a reorganization of Germany. The meeting was without 
 result, Prussia refusing to take any part in the deliberations. 
 The " Eider-Danes " in Copenhagen having brought about the 
 1863. Incorporation of Schleswig with Denmark, the patience of 
 March 30. the diet of the German confederation, so well preserved 
 in face of the encroachments of the Danes since 1852, was ex- 
 hausted, and an immediate execution of the decree of the 
 confederation was decreed (Oct. 1). 
 
 1863, Nov. 15. Death of Frederic VII., king of Denmark. 
 According to the London Protocol (p. 498), Christian IX. suc- 
 ceeded for the entire monarchy. In spite of this and regardless of 
 his father's renunciation, the hereditary prince of Augustenburg pro- 
 claimed liimself duke of Schleswig-Holstein as Frederic VIII. 
 
 Yielding to the pressure of the influential party of the Eider-Danes 
 in Copenhagen, Christian IX. accepted the new Danish constitution 
 which incorporated Schleswag with Denmark. Great excitement in 
 Germany. Public opinion decidedly favored the complete separation 
 of Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark, and demanded of the German 
 confederation at least a preliminary occupation of the duchies. On 
 the motion of Austria and Prussia, however, who were bound by the 
 London Protocol, the confederation undertook nothing but the execu- 
 tion of its decree, and caused Hanoverians and Saxons (general Hake) 
 to enter the duchies of Holstein and Lauenhurg, which belonged to the 
 confederation. Frederic VIII. proclaimed duke throughout Holstein. 
 
 1864, Feb.-Oct. "War of Austria and Prussia with 
 Denmark. 
 
 Cause: Austria and Prussia demanded the repeal of the No- 
 vember constitution as being inconsistent with former agreements. 
 (Denmark in 1852, when the two powers handed over Schlesioig-Hol- 
 stein to her, had promised " to respect the rights of the duchies,'' 
 which clearly excluded an incorporation of Schleswig.) Refusal of 
 Denmark, Advance of the Austro- Prussian army (Feb. 1, field-mar- 
 shal V. Wrangel, pruice Frederic Charles ; Austinan general v. Gab- 
 lenz) into Schleswig. (Holstein continued in possession of the troops of 
 the confederation.) The Austrians advanced upon the Danewerk, 
 
506 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 under heavy fig-hting'; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at i 
 3/mMnt/e, crossed the Srhlei at Amis. The Danish commander i>e' 1 
 Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by gen- 
 eral Gerlach. The Austrians under G^aJZens undertook to clear North 
 Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian ad- 
 vance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederic 
 Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments 
 of Dilppel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 
 1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the 
 Feb. 22-March 12. siege artillery. 
 
 March 15- April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Diippel. 
 April 18. Brilliant storming of Diippel by the Prussians. Cap- 
 ture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated to Alsen^ 
 evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jutland occu- 
 pied by the allies, as a ransom. 
 May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at 
 London. 
 Prussia and Austria seceded from the London Protocol. As no 
 agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the 
 duchies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representa- 
 tive of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schleswig 
 according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians 
 vmder prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief com- 
 mand) accomplished the 
 
 June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes 
 at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jilt- 
 land occupied by the allies. 
 
 At sea a Prussian squadron under Jaclimarn had fought success- 
 fully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet under 
 Tegethoff had won a victory at Heligoland, and after the truce had 
 captured the islands off Friesland. These misfortunes induced Chris- 
 tian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 
 
 1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna. 
 
 1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the 
 duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenhurg in favor of the emperor 
 of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize what- 
 ever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states. 
 
 Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against 
 Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed ; the 
 troops of the confederation {Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the 
 country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the 
 city of Schleswig. 
 
 While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the 
 diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, 
 and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, 
 the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a 
 wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision 
 in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and 
 the 
 
 1865. Treaty of Gastein was concluded between Prussia and Aus- 
 Aug. 14. tria. 
 
A. D. Austro-Prussiftn War. 507 
 
 1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of both duchies, in com- 
 mon ; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, 
 Prussia that of Schleswig. 
 
 2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of 
 the confederation ; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but 
 Prussia received the chief connnand there; a military road, a tele- 
 graph and postal line through Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia. 
 
 3. The emperor of Austria surrendered all his rights to the duchy 
 of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dol- 
 lars. 
 
 In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig 
 (governor, v. Manteuffel) and Austria i\\e duchy of Holstein (governor, 
 V. Gablenz). The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates 
 had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prus- 
 sia. 
 
 Deep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Germany. Be- 
 tween the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, 
 being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real in- 
 crease of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confed- 
 eration upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle 
 states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German 
 question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 
 
 1866. The Austro-Prussian War.^ 
 
 June IG-July 22. The war proper lasted one month : June 22 to 
 
 (Aug. 23). July 22. 
 
 Allies of Prussia : the smaller North German states and 
 Italy. 
 
 Allies of Austria : Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Hano- 
 ver, Baden, the two Hesses. 
 
 Cause of the war : the desire of the German people for greater 
 unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany 
 with a strong central government as long as two great powers con- 
 fronted one another in the German confederation, one having a pop- 
 ulation largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. 
 
 Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Al- 
 bingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augusten- 
 burg should be recognized as duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the 
 confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 
 22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was cre- 
 ated : 1. its lohole military force should become an integral part of 
 the Prussian army and tleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be 
 united with those of Prussia ; 2. that several important military posts 
 (^Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable 
 her to undertake the necessary protection of the new state against 
 Denmark. 
 
 Reason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable op- 
 portunity of acquiring Venice. 
 
 1 Ber Feldzug von 1866 in Deutschland (by the Prvssinn General Staff) 
 and Oesterreic/is Kumpf im Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff). 
 
508 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to that, 
 step by tlie preparations of its opponent. 
 
 The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Mo- 
 ravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men), 
 who made his headquarters at Olmiitz. The command of the army 
 in Venice {southern army) given to archduke Albert. 
 
 Prussia placed five armies in the field : — 
 
 1. First a.rmy in Lusatia (93,000) under prince Frederic Charles. 
 
 2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince, 
 Frederic William. 
 
 3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under general 
 Herwarth von Bittenfeld. 
 
 4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. Mulhe (24,000). 
 
 5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first divided 
 into three corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Schles- 
 wig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-cliief of 
 all forces, king William I. ; chief of the great general staff, gen- 
 eral V. Moltke. 
 
 The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frank- 
 fort, May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that at 
 any peace conference which might be held there should be no refer- 
 ence to an alteration of boundaries. 
 
 The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (June 2) by 
 the Austrian governor, v. Gahlenz, led to an open rupture. Prussia 
 declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Man- 
 teuffel entered Holstein (June 7) ; v. Gahlenz, under protest, retreated 
 to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian terri- 
 tory. 
 
 On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confed- 
 eration broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein, 
 1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army of 
 June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussian 
 corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the German 
 confederation. 
 June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disre- 
 gard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troops 
 upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead of 
 Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians in- 
 vaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King George retreated to 
 the south ; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a pris- 
 oner. The Prussians invaded Saxony (Herwarth) ; the Saxon army, 
 king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupied 
 (June 18) ; all Saxony, excepting Konigstein, in the hands of the 
 Prussians (June 20). 
 
 Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxony 
 opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and the 
 Jirst army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration of 
 the Austrian power about Ohniitz threatened the province of Silesia, 
 but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians de- 
 termined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia. 
 
A. D. A list ro- Prussian War. 509 
 
 A. Principal Scene of War in Bohemia. 
 Jime 22-25. Piussian invasion of Bohemia. 
 
 June 26, 27. Prussuin victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the 
 C7-oiLm prince) at Hii/inrrtrasser, Nachod (June 27) ; victory of 
 the Amtrians at Trautenau (,hme 27). 
 June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Munchengratz forced back the 
 Austrians and Saxons. 
 
 Meantime the Sile.sian army defeated v. Gablentz at Soor (June 
 28), and the crown prince occupied 7'rautenau. Prussian victories of 
 Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of 
 Kimiginhof. 
 
 The engagement at Schweinschddel completed the purjiosed ap- 
 proach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were pur- 
 posely not united, but kept asunder in a manner " which, being 
 without danger strategically considered, secured great tactical ad- 
 vantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been 
 directed by telegraph from Berlin. 
 
 June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the 
 general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war. 
 
 On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole 
 force on the next day, they being stationed behind the Bistritz brook, 
 with the fortress of Kvniggriitz and the Elbe in their rear. 
 1866. July 3. Battle of Konigratz or Sadowa. 
 
 The Jirst Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe (king William 
 I., prince Frederic Charles, v. Herwarth), had a severe contest with the 
 northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, \\ni[QT Benedek ; 
 in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, 
 gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, 
 and in combination with the first army secured the complete vic- 
 tory of the Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the 
 exhaustion of the troops. Retreat of the Austrians toward Olmiitz. 
 
 Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded 
 Venetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was re- 
 jected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern 
 army was transferred to the northern seat of war. 
 
 Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (Jvdy 10), of Briinn (July 
 12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna. 
 
 Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off 
 from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, 
 and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpa- 
 thians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary. 
 
 July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the an- 
 nouncement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which 
 was converted into 
 July 20. The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of 
 peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510). 
 
 B. Western Seat of War. 
 
 The entire army of the confederation was under the command of 
 prince Charles of Bavaria. 
 
510 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and 
 
 June 27. troops of Cohurg-Gotha, at Langensalza ; the junction of 
 the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, 
 prevented. 
 
 June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. 
 
 July 4-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in 
 live battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German 
 troops (Hammelburg, Kissingen, Friedrickshall, Hansen, Wal- 
 dasc'hach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. 
 
 July 14. Engagement at Aschaffenburg ; victory over the united 
 Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frank- 
 fort (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Wurz- 
 burg and Nuremberg. 
 
 Aug. 2. Truce. 
 
 C. Seat of "War in Italy. 
 
 1866. Battle of Custozza ; victory of the Austrians (archduke 
 June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The 
 Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Aus- 
 trian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the 
 north, the Italians again advanced. 
 July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians {Tegethoff) at Lissa over 
 
 the Italians (^Persano). 
 1866. Peace of Prague 
 Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria. 
 
 1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the 
 German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany 
 without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. J 
 A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north 
 German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Aus- 
 tria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the • 
 reservation that the northern districts of Schleswig should be reunited I 
 with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such re- • 
 union by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid I 
 twenty million rix dollars ('$15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 
 4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and 
 the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, 
 so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was in- 
 creased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) 
 to 140,000 square miles (twenty-three and a half million inhabitants). 
 
 Peace between Prussia and Wiirtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 
 17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21). 
 
 The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in 
 the main given up, inasmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a 
 rectification of bovmdaries as regarded Germany ; conclusion of an 
 offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern 
 states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern 
 states placed their entire military force under the command of the 
 king of Prussia in the event of war. Tiie demand of Napoleon IIX 
 rejected. 
 
A. D. AiLStro-Prussian War, 611 
 
 1866. Peace of Vienna 
 
 Oct. 3. between Austria iiiid Italy. Austria roco<]^iuzed the king- 
 dom of Italy, with wliicli Venice wus unitetl. Prnssia hav- 
 ing conchuled an alliance witii the Norlh (jerman states in August, 
 18(30, elections for a North Geiman diet were prescribed on a ba^is of 
 manhood and direct suifrage. 
 
 18G7. First diet of the North German Confederation. 
 Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreetl with the govern- 
 ments upon a constitution for the North German Confed- 
 eration : presidency of the league united with the crown of 
 Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international re- 
 lations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited 
 ambassadors in its name. Tlie governments were represented in the 
 council of the confederation {Bundesrath) , in which Prussia had 
 seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes 
 altogether. Imperial diet {Reichstag) originating from direct man- 
 hood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the 
 king of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. United 
 customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancellor 
 of the confederation. 
 
 1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense 
 was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The 
 
 former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, after- 
 wards (until 1871) chancellor of the empire. Reconciliation with 
 Hungary. Restoration of the Hungarian constitution. Solenm corona- 
 tion of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. 
 Reunion of the dependent lands {Croatia, Transylvania) with Hun- 
 gary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the 
 monarchy this side of the Leith (Cisleithafiia). (The constitution of 
 1861, p. 504, was suspended in 1805.) Germano-Slavouic Reichstag. 
 
 1867. Luxemburg question. 
 
 Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation 
 for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His nego- 
 tiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the 
 grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the 
 objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the 
 Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Un- 
 der the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, 
 the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 
 1807, London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great 
 Vlay 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree- 
 ments : 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed 
 by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison 
 evacuated Luxemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 
 1807. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian govern- 
 Sept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Na})o- 
 leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 503) broken, and sent 
 assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentana 
 Rome received a new French garrison. 
 
512 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 
 
 1868. Outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in Cadiz. The royal- 
 Sept, ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent 
 
 troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; 
 the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional 
 government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of 
 a constitutional cortes. The majority* of the cortes established, in 
 spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new 
 constitutional rnonarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many 
 negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 
 1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) ac- 
 cepted the Spanish crown. After his withdrawal, during the Franco- 
 Prussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, 
 king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 
 1870-1873. Amadeus I., king of Spain. 
 
 1869. In France general election for the corps le'gislatif • for the first 
 time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party 
 
 spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, espe- 
 cially the country population, gave the government a good majority, 
 tliough weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the 
 ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the govern- 
 ment and the dynasty, 
 
 1869) Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which 
 was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projec- 
 tor, the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 
 
 1869, Dec. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of 
 
 the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 
 547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. 
 Vacillating and indecisive conduct of the emperor Kapoleon III. 
 in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the 
 arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by 
 any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the " vice emperor '* 
 Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar re- 
 actionary elements ; then, as the different factions of the opposition 
 (Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, forma- 
 tion of the 
 
 1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate 
 
 liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of tlie Seine, Hausmann. 
 The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, at, 
 cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder ?), produced an ex- 
 traordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprison- 
 ment of Rochefort, in consequence of his incendiary newspaper arti- 
 cles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte 
 declared not guilty by the court in Tours. 
 April. A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, 
 
 was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of 
 confidence was demanded from the people by a ^^ plebiscite " (May), 
 which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a 
 majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million 
 nays, the latter being cast in Paris and the larger cities. In the 
 
A. D. Franco-German War. 513 
 
 army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted " no." In view of this 
 grave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant aj;itation of the 
 parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions which 
 had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in 
 foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to 
 be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the 
 emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more 
 anil more strongly urged by his ultimate councillors (the empress^ 
 marshal Lebaeuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs). 
 
 1870, July 19-1871, March 3. Franco-Prussian War.^ 
 
 General Causes : 1. The idea entertained by a great part of the 
 French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily 
 press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontieres 
 naturelles-). 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle 
 of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consumnuition 
 of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the 
 victory of the latter state over Austria an unpermissible encroach- 
 ment upon their own military fame. 
 
 Special causes : 1. The internal troubles of the government of 
 Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the " compensation " de- 
 manded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of 
 Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching in- 
 troduction of an unproved weapon for the north German infantry, 
 which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French 
 chassepot. 
 
 Immediate cause : The election of the prince of Hohenzollem to 
 the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prus- 
 sian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made 
 by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king AVilliam I. in 
 person, that he should forbid the prince of Ilohenzollern to accept the 
 ISpanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the 
 prince, the French government looked to the king of Prussia for a 
 distinct announcement " that he would never again permit the candi- 
 dacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to 
 discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regidar method of 
 communication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the tele- 
 graphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke 
 of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, 
 artificially fermented (cries of "a Berlin ! "). In the corps h'gislatif 
 (July 15), opposition of a small minority {Thiers: "because France 
 is not prepared for war ") to the declaration of war, which the imperial 
 government declared was forced upon them by Prussia (" La France 
 accepte la guerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 
 
 1 Der deufsch-frnnz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prus- 
 sian General Staff on military history. Niemann, Derfrnnz. Feldztig ran 
 1870-71, 2 vols. An En,i,^lish renderintc of the French view of the war will be 
 found ill Jerrold'a Life of Napoleon III., vol. iv. 
 
 " The tirst use of tliis idea, which can be established, was bv king Charlet 
 VII., 1444. 
 
514 Modern History. A. D„ 
 
 In Germany quiet but decided attitude of the government and the 
 people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received 
 (July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German 
 army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. 
 July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. 
 
 Opening of the north German Reichstag, which unanimously 
 voted a war credit (July 23). 
 
 South Germany understood that the French attack, although ap- 
 parently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon 
 the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of 
 German territory and the establishment of a new confederation of 
 the Rhine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on 
 July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the con- 
 federation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Ba- 
 varian army, had a decisive influence upon Wiirtemberg. Patriotic 
 attitude of Baden. 
 
 The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south 
 Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The 
 grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former 
 (250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, 
 and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria ?ind Italy. This should 
 be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expedi- 
 tions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising 
 in Hanover and secure the assistance of Demnark. In reality the 
 strategic advance of the French army took place as follows : — 
 
 1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 
 
 2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 
 
 3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 
 
 4. Corps under general Ladmirault at Thionville (Diedenhofe^i). 
 The corps of marshal Canrobert at Chalons, of general F. Douay 
 
 at Bel/ort, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed 
 the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III. ; chief 
 of the general staff, marshal Leboeuf. 
 
 It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war 
 the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. 
 
 The German forces moved in three great armies. 
 
 I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). 
 
 II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (131,000, 
 with the reserve 194,000). 
 
 III. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mann- 
 heim (130,000). 
 
 The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 
 198,000 were Landwehr) ; of the south German 100,000. Commander- 
 in-chief, king William I. ; chief of the general staff, general Von 
 Moltke. 
 
 The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned 
 for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an 
 attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from 
 Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Ger- 
 mans could take the offensive the French made an 
 
A. D. 
 
 Franco- German 1 1 ar. 
 
 515 
 
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516 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1870. Attack upon Saarbriicken. The repulse of a single bat- 
 Aug. 2. talion by three divisions was represented in the French re- 
 ports as an important victory. 
 Aug. 4. Engagement at Weissenburg. MacMahon after a most 
 
 courageous defense defeated in the 
 Aug. 6. Battle of Worth (Reichshofen) by the army of the crown 
 
 prince, which was numerically greatly his superior. 
 Aug. 6. German victory at Spicheren {Suarhrilcken^. 
 
 In consequence of these defeats the French army commenced 
 its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to 
 besiege Strashurg and other Alsatian fortresses, and advanced upon 
 Nancy ; the I. army marched upon Aletz ; the 11. army upon Pont a 
 Mousson, with the intention of surrounding the main force of the 
 French about Metz and cutting them off from Paris. 
 
 To prevent this Bazaine, upon whom the emperor had conferred 
 the chief command, resolved, after some indecision, to retreat upon 
 Chdlons-sur-Marne and join there the remnants of MacMahon's com- 
 mand and a newly formed army. To prevent such juncture the ad- 
 vance guard of the I. army attacked Bazaine and in the 
 Aug. 14. Battle of Colombey-Nouilly and the 
 Aug. 16. Battle of Vionville (drawn battle), with great losses, 
 prevented the retreat of the French to Verdun. 
 Upon the arrival of the delayed corps of the I. and 11. army on the 
 next day, the French were again attacked in their excellently chosen 
 and partially strongly fortified positions. In the 
 
 Aug. 18. Battle of Gravelotte and St. Privat {Rezon- 
 ville) the Germans under command of king William I. gained 
 
 an advantageous position after eight hours' hot figTiting, in spite of the 
 
 desperate resistance of the French. 
 
 Aug. 19. Retreat of the French under the guns of Metz. 
 
 The result of these three bloody battles near Metz was to 
 
 separate the French force into two parts, and to surround their main 
 
 army in and about a fortress which was not provisioned for so large 
 
 a body of troops. 
 
 1870, Aug. 19-Oct. 27. Siege of Metz. 
 
 Aug. 14-Sept. 27. Siege of Strasburg by general 
 Von Werder. 
 
 After the battles near Metz, advance upon Chalons. MacMahon 
 evacuated Chalons, but instead of retreating to Paris, as was expected 
 at the German headquarters, he attempted to reach Metz and liberate 
 Bazaine by a circuitous flank march to the northeast. Napoleon III. 
 accompanied the army. On learning of this manoeuvre the Germans 
 made a detour toward the right (north). 
 
 Bazaine 's attempt to break through the German lines and join Mac-= 
 Mahon frustrated by the z' 
 
 Aug. 31 and Sept. 1. Engagements at Noisseville. 
 
 MacMahon saw the impossibility of reaching Metz, and con- 
 centrated his forces at Sedan. The Germans (250,000) far outnum- 
 bering the French (about 140,000) decided to send a part of their 
 
A. D. Franco- German War. 517 
 
 troops over the Mouse and surround the French army. Tliis was 
 accomplished by the 
 
 Sept. 1. Battle of Sedan. 
 
 MacMahon, wounded in tlie morning, gave up the command to 
 Ducrot, who afterwards transferred it to the ohler general Wimpffen. 
 The victorious advance of the Germans on all sides was not checked 
 by the brilliant charges of the French cavalry. At three o'clock the 
 French army was surrounded. Napoleon III. delivered his sword 
 to William I. and acknowledged himself a prisoner. Negotiations 
 between Von Moltke and Wimptf'en, and between Napoleon III. and 
 Bismarck. The following forenoon the 
 
 1870, Sept. 2. Capitulation of Sedan 
 
 was signed. 
 
 The entire French army prisoners of war : 39 generals, 2,300 offi- 
 cers, 84,000 men, 25,000 having been captured during the battle 
 (10,000 escaped to Belgium). Napoleon III. conducted to Wilhelms- 
 hohe. 
 
 In Paris the news of the first defeats, which had been long con- 
 cealed, produced great excitement and the fall of the mmistry of 
 Ollivier (Aug. 10). Montauban-Palikao, the minister of war, formed 
 a new ministry composed of ultra- Bonapartists. Falsification of war 
 news. Paris in a state of siege. The receipt of the news of the ca- 
 pitulation of Sedan caused the 
 
 1870. Fall of the Empire and Proclamation of the 
 8ei)t. 4. (third) Republic. 
 
 Flight of the empress Eugenie to England. Provisional gov- 
 ernment of the " National defense." Trochu (president and gover- 
 nor of Paris), Favre (foreign affairs), Gamhetta (interior), Cremieux 
 (justice), Simon (religion and education), Le/io (war), Fourichon 
 (navy). 
 Sept. 4-16. March of the German armies upon Paris. 
 
 Defenses of Paris : continuous line of bastions and trenches, sur- 
 rounding the suburbs ; around this on the inside a belt railroad ; six- 
 teen detached forts, two of which, Mont Valerien in the west and St. 
 Denis in the north, were actual fortresses, all connected by continu- 
 ous entrenchments and liberally provided with heavy artillery and 
 military stores. Including the sailors and garrison, about 85,000 
 veterans ; with the mobilized guards from the ]>rovinces, the guard 
 mobile and national guard of Paris, over 300,000 men. Extensive 
 accumulation of provisions. 
 
 The negotiations between Bismarck and Favre leading to no result 
 (refusal of ant/ cession of territory), the great city was invested by 
 the IV.i army on the north and east, by the III. army on the S. and 
 W. Headquarters at Versailles. 
 
 1870, Sept. 19-1871, Jan. 28. Siege of Paris. 
 
 After the capitulation of Sedan the whole war was a struggle 
 for Paris. Excepting the conquest of Alsace and German Lorraiike, 
 
 1 The IV. army was formed, after Gravelotte, from corps of the I. and II. 
 
518 Modern History, A. d. 
 
 which Germany had regarded as the prize of victory, from the com- 
 mencement of the war, all the military operations of the Germans had 
 the object of preserving the positions and the lines of connection of 
 the armies abont Paris, and of preventing any attempt to raise the 
 siege ; the raising of the siege was, on the contrary, the object of all 
 the French operations. 
 
 1870. In conseqnence of the withdrawal of the FrenQh garrison 
 Sept. 20. from Rome, capture of that city by the Italian army 
 
 and abolition of the secular power of the Pope. 
 Sept. 23. Capture of Toul. 
 Sept. 27. Capitulation of Strasburg. 
 
 The delegation of the French government in Tours, since Oct. 
 9, under the dictatorship of Gambetta, who had left Paris in a bal- 
 loon, formed two armies for the relief of Paris : a. army of the Loire 
 (not 30,000) ; h. northern army. The former defeated by the Ba- 
 varian general Von der Tann in the 
 1870, Oct. 10. Engagement at Artenay, Occupation of Orleans. 
 
 While Gambetta with the greatest energy was strengthening and 
 arming forces for relief, Bazaine, who, as leader of the largest regu- 
 lar army in France, had thought to play a political role, by means 
 of negotiations, was forced, after several unsuccessful sorties, to the 
 
 1870, Oct. 27. Capitulation of Metz. 
 
 (3 marshals, 3,000 officers, 173,000 men, 500 field artillery, 
 800 fortress cannon.) A part of the besieging arm}^ was sent 
 to reiriorce the armies before Paris ; a part was dispatched 
 under Manteuffel against the French army of the north ; the 
 largest part, under prince Frederic Charles, was sent against 
 the army of the Loire. 
 
 Nov. 28. Defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune la Rolande 
 (by prince Frederic Charles), whereby the purpose of the 
 French commander to force his passage to Paris was frus- 
 trated. 
 
 Nov. 27. Defeat of the army of the north at Amiens by Man^ 
 teuffel. 
 
 Nov. 30. At Paris, sortie under Trochu and Ducrot, in coopera- 
 tion with the intended advance of the Loire army. Storm and 
 capture of Champigny and Brie. Successful defense of Vil- 
 liers and Cceuily by Wiirtemberg troops. Further French ad- 
 vance was checked, but they kept Brie. After great losses in 
 the fight and through cold the French troops returned to 
 Paris (Dec. 3). 
 
 Dec. 2-4. Battle of Orleans, 
 
 the name given to a number of engagements in which the 
 Germans defeated the army of the Loire, with the following 
 results : 1. Capture of the strong French entrenchments on the | 
 right bank of the Loire, and re-occupation of Orleans. 2. Sep- 1 
 aration of the army of the Loire into two parts. Flight of the 
 delegation of the government to Boi'deaux (Dec. 9). 
 The larger part of the Loire army driven behind Vendome ; 
 Frederic Charles, at Orleans, covered the besieging armies be- 
 fore Paris from the south. 
 

A. D. Franco- German War. 519 
 
 Dec. 27. Oppninp^ of the bombardment of the forts of Paris, after 
 the trauspoitation of licavv aitillcrv and innnitioiis had been 
 accomplished with the greatest diitieulty. Bombardment of 
 the city, Jan. 8, 1871. 
 
 1571, Jan. 12^ Battle of Le Mans. 
 
 Defeat of Chanzi/ by Frederic Charles. The French army al- 
 most annihihited. 
 
 Jan. 10.-13. Sortie from Paris ag^ainst Meudon and Clamarty and one 
 against Le Bonrciet re])ulsed. 
 In the south, Bourbaki with 140,000 men forced von Werder, who 
 
 was besieging Belfort, without giving up the siege, to take up a favor- 
 able position along the Lisaine by a masterly retreat. In the three 
 
 days 
 
 Jan. 15-17. Battle of Belfort, 
 
 Von Werder successfully defended his position, and forced 
 
 Bourbaki to retreat. 
 
 Jan. 18. Renewal of the title and office of German 
 Emperor in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, all the 
 sovereign princes and the three free cities having offered the 
 crown to king William I. 
 
 Jan. 19. Last great sortie from Paris, with 100,000 men, under 
 Trochu, repulsed after severe fighting. On the same day, 
 
 Jan. 19. Battle of St. Quentin, 
 
 in which general Von Gbben completely defeated and scattered 
 the French army of the north. In the south Manteujfel forced 
 the French to take refuge in the neutral territory of Switzer- 
 land, where they were disarmed. 
 
 1871, Jan. 28. Capitulation of Paris by the 
 
 convention of Versailles : 1. surrender of all the forts 
 with munitions of war, disarmament of the city wall ; 2. all French 
 soldiers in Paris considered as prisoners of war, with exception of 
 12,000 men, which, with the national guard, preserved order ; the 
 French officials to provision the city ; 3. the city of Paris paid 200 
 million francs ; 4. truce (excepting the departments of Doubs, JurOy 
 and Cote d'or) for three weeks, for the purpose of allowing a free elec- 
 tion for a national assembly, which was to meet in Bordeaux, and de- 
 cide between peace and war. 
 
 Gambetta's resistance to this agreement was soon broken ; his 
 resignation (Feb. 6). Elections throughout France (Feb. 8). The 
 national assembly formed in Bordeaux (Feb. 12). Truce prolonged 
 to 24th Feb., and afterwards to March 3. Thiers, elected head of 
 the executive department, conducted the negotiations with Bismarck 
 which resulted in the 
 Feb. 26. Preliminaries of peace at Versailles. 
 
 1. France ceded to the German Empire : Alsace (except 
 Belfort and territory) and German Lorraine, with Metz and Die- 
 denhofen (Thionville), in all 4,700 square miles, Avith one and a half 
 million inhabitants ; 2. France agreed to pay live milliards of francs 
 for indemnification in three years, wliich were secured by an occupa- 
 tion of French territory. 
 
 
520 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 March 1. Entrance of 30,000 German troops into Paris (addi- 
 tional article), and temporary occupation of a small part of the city ; 
 evacuated again on March 3d. The preliminaries of peace were rati- 
 fied, and the details settled in the definitive 
 
 1871, May 10. Peace of Frankfort on Main. 
 
 The results of the war were : 1. destruction of the military 
 power of France ; 2. acquisition of a secure military boundary for 
 Germany on the west ; 3. the realization of the political unit}' of the 
 German nation. 
 
 March 21-June 15. First imperial Parliament 
 
 of the new German federal state (Bundestaat), which on April 
 14 almost unanimously adopted the following constitution for the em- 
 pire : presidency hereditarily connected with the crown of Prussia, 
 whose king bore the title of German emperor, and represented the 
 empire in international relations, declared war and peace (with the 
 consent of the Bundesratli), concluded alliances, and had the chief 
 command of the army and navy. The representatives of the 25 gov- 
 ernments formed the federal council (Bundesrath) under the pres- 
 idency of the chancellor of the empire (the fiist : prince Bis- 
 marck). (In all, 58 votes : Prussia 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony and Wur- 
 temberg each 4, Baden and Hesse each 3, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
 Brunswick each 2, the rest each 1.) The representatives of the people 
 formed the imperial parliament (Reichstag), consisting of 382 mem- 
 bers, chosen by direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military sys- 
 tem ; universal compulsory service (3 years in standing army, 4 years 
 in reserve, 5 years in the Landwehr), uniform postal and telegraph 
 service, uniform system of coinage, weights and measures. 
 
 The new German empire comprised 216,770 sq. miles, and more 
 than 41,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1871, July 1. Rome became seat of the government and capital of 
 
 Italy, now completely united under the sceptre of Victor Em- 
 manuel (guarantee for the Pope). 
 Sept. Opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel across the Alps (begun 
 1859 ; 7.6 miles long). 
 
 1872, June 29. New agreement between Germany and France, 
 which fixed the payment of the fourth milliard for March 1, 
 
 1874 ; the fifth, March 1, 1875 ; and permitted the substitution of a 
 financial security for this last milliard, for the occupation of French 
 territory. 
 
 3873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. in Chiselhurst (England). 
 Feb. Amadeus I. resigned the Spanish crown. Spain a republic. 
 Anarchy. Civil war against the Federalists in Cartagena (cap- 
 tured 1874), and agamst Don Carlos in the north. 
 July-Sept. The German troops, after an anticipation of the indem- 
 nity, leave the French territory. 
 In Italg, in Switzerland, and in Prussia, struggle between the state 
 and the Roman catholic hierarchy. In Italy, dissolution of all mon- 
 asteries in Home and the former papal states (Ma}^, 1873). In Swit- 
 zerland, complete rupture with the Roman chair and establishment 
 
A. D. 
 
 Franco- German War. i>^l 
 
 of a catholic clcrji^y elected by tlu; people. In Prussia, in conse- 
 quence of the May laws (;iftei\v:ii(ls extended), which the catholic 
 clergy openly resisted, nnnicrous arrests and removals of ecclesias- 
 tics. This contest led to the 
 
 1874. Introduction of compulsory civil marriage and the civil 
 Oct. 1. registration of births and deaths, which afterwards became 
 
 an imperial law (.Ian. 1, 1870). 
 Oct. International Postal Congress in Bern. 
 
 Tlie regulations agreed upon went into force July 1, 1875 
 
 (for France, Jan. 1, 1870). 
 Dec. 29-31. Military '' pronunciamientosi " for Alfonso, prince of As- 
 
 turia, son of queen Isabella, led to the 
 
 1875, Jan. Restoration of monarchy in Spain. 
 
 1875 — X. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. In the north, in spite of 
 some successes of the royal troops, the civil war continued 
 against Don Carlos, whom the new king declared to be an 
 usurper. 
 
 1875. Revolt against Turkish government in Herzegovina, sup- 
 July, ported by Montenegro and Servia. 
 
 March. End of the civil war in Spain. Don Carlos was obliged to 
 leave the country, and went to England. 
 
 May. The Turks proved unable to suppress the revolt in Herzego- 
 vina. Murder of the German and French consuls in Salonica. 
 The three northern great powers invited the other three to 
 join in making a common representation to the Porte (memo- 
 randum of Berlin). Great Britain refused to join. Before the 
 memorandum could be presented a 
 
 May 29. Palace Revolution occurred in Constantinople. Deposi- 
 tion of the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, who died shortly afterwards. 
 Murad V. succeeded. 
 
 1876, July. Servia (prince Milan) and Montenegro (prince 
 Nikita) declared war upon the Porte. 
 
 A revolt which had broken out in Bulgaria bloodily suppressed by 
 the Turks. The Turkish troops and the Turkish militia exercised 
 shameful cruelties, wliich produced the greatest indignation through- 
 out Europe, particularly in Russia, thereby giving the Russian gov- 
 ernment a welcome excuse to proclahn itself the protector of the 
 oppressed Christians, and especially of the Slavonic population in 
 Turkey. Military preparations in Russia. 
 
 Meanwhile the war was waged unsuccessfully by Servia, in spite ol 
 the open Russian assistance, and the presence of Russian volunteers 
 in the Servian army, which obtained a Russian commander in Tsher- 
 najeff, while the Montenegrins were several times victorious. 
 1876. New, bloodless palace revolution in Constantinople. Murad 
 Aug. v., who suffered from an incurable mental disorder, deposed. 
 He was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The 
 Turkish army crossed the Servian frontier, and was prevented from 
 marching further only by an ultimatum of the Russian government. 
 The Porte agreed to a truce for two months at first, and afterward 
 for six months. 
 
 Russia being unable to induce any other power to join her in an 
 
522 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 armed interference with Tiir!:ey, and being herself unprepared for 
 war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were 
 prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great 
 powers was arranged to meet in Constaiitinoj)le. 
 
 Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitu- 
 tion for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians 
 equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would 
 make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Christian sub- 
 jects, to be guaranteed by the powers. 
 
 1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference 
 in spite of the Turkish constitution, but which had been grad- 
 ually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consulta- 
 tion with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The am- 
 bassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople. 
 
 Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the 
 status quo ante helium. Montenegro continued in arms. 
 
 After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no 
 result, and after completion of its preparations, the Russian govern- 
 ment concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a 
 formal declaration that it had no conquests in view. 
 
 1877, April-1878, March. Turco-Russian War. 
 
 A. Seat of war in Europe : A Russian army under the 
 grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Roume- 
 lia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, 
 which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmer7nann, which 
 occupied the Dohrudsha ; the main army, which Alexander II. had 
 meanwhile joined, forced the 
 1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova. 
 
 June 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an un- 
 guarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the impor- 
 tant Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while 
 one division of the main army, under tiie crown prince, fronted east 
 and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra 
 and Lorn, held in check the Turkish army wndev Ahdul Kerim (after- 
 wards under Mehemed Ali, and finally under Suleiman). 
 
 The other division of the Russian army captured Nicopolis (July 
 15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna 
 (S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha had collected Turkish 
 troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was 
 forced to wait for reinforcements. 
 
 Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka 
 Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He 
 was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on 
 the Lom, where his troops had been sadly missed. 
 
 Arrival of Roumanian troops and Russian reinforcements before 
 Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a reg- 
 ular siege was undertaken (gen. Totlehen), and 
 
 Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged 
 to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the Rus- 
 sian lines. Return of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander 
 
A. D. Turco-Russian War. 523 
 
 //. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Dee. 14) declared war upon the Porte 
 anew. 
 
 Dec.-Jan. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Bal- 
 kans and occupied Sophia ; a second un(k'r Radetzki and Sko- 
 helef innived through the Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction 
 with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the 
 Balkans, advanced by way of Philij)popolis (victory of Gurko over 
 remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 10 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople 
 (occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople. 
 
 B. Seat of war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand 
 duke Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against 
 Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish Heet to the Caucas- 
 ian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army 
 (Loris-Melikqf) forced its way to Kars, which it invested (May, 
 1877). Two" other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The 
 reverses suif ered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of 
 Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across 
 the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests. 
 
 In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 
 
 1877. Storm of Kars 
 
 Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum. 
 
 The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions 
 in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkei/ appealed for 
 mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Mean- 
 while the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which 
 in the 
 
 1878. Agreement of Adrianople 
 
 Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a 
 
 future peace. 
 1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessaly, but was induced 
 
 to withdraw them after a few days. 
 After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about 
 Constantinople aiid had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of 
 the English deet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered 
 the Sea of Marmora, the 
 
 March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople) 
 was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro 
 and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, 
 and were recognized as independent ; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bul- 
 garia, i. e. the larger part of ancient Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia 
 (boundaries : Danube, the Black Sea and vEgean Sea, Albania and 
 Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian 
 prince, separate administration and militia ; a Russian commissary 
 with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The 
 Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his 
 European possessions which remained to liim. 4. Turkey paid Rus- 
 sia 300 million rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia 
 and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to 
 Roumania in return for the part of Bessarabia (p. 501) which she 
 had ceded in 1856. 
 
 ► 
 
524 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in Eng-j 
 land, which showed herself ready to go to war with Russia in case thef 
 latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also) 
 began to arm. 
 
 June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), 
 wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against] 
 Russian conquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms! 
 in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus] 
 occupied July 11). 
 
 Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to preventl 
 war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding', | 
 the 
 
 1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin 
 met under the presidency of prince Bismarck. 
 Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became 
 independent, but the cessions to be made to the two former states 
 were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to 
 receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The 
 principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the 
 Danube and the Balkans, including, however, Sophia and its territory, 
 (An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg 
 (Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The 
 southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably nar- 
 rowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule 
 of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received 
 a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-gen- 
 eral ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish 
 troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and 
 Bidgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 5. The 
 Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration 
 of. Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the 
 Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of 
 Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum 
 (as a. free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 
 8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, 
 there should be political equality of all confessions. 
 1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (p. 503). 
 Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umberto (Humbert^ I. 
 Feb. 7. Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIII. 
 
 (Pecci). 
 May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German em- 
 peror William I., who at the second attempt was somewhat 
 dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the ex- 
 cesses of the social democrats. 
 
 1878. Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and Herzego- 
 July 29. vina, where part of the inhabitants offered armed resist- 
 ance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 
 
 1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated 
 by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new 
 tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The 
 
A. D. Turco-Rassidu War. 525 
 
 Prussian minister of relio-ioii (Falk since 1872) retired ; his 
 successor, Von Puttkainer (July 14). 
 Russia assuniintj^ a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an al- 
 liance with France against Gerniany, 
 Sept. 21-24:. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was 
 
 concluded between Prussia and Austria. 
 Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German em- 
 pire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig). 
 
 1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing- to increase 
 Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three des- 
 perate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten 
 
 months), general LoiHs-MelikoJf was clothed with a sort of dictatorial 
 power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by conces- 
 sions. 
 
 Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new 
 laws relating to education in Finance, and still more sharply in Bel- 
 gium (liberal ministry of Frere Orban since 1878). 
 
 In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain 
 limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 520) were 
 introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political leg- 
 islation. 
 
 The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been com- 
 pletely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the 
 Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made 
 to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a sur- 
 render of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the 
 June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin 
 
 was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propo- 
 sitions in regard to these questions (Tkessali/ and Epirus with Janina 
 to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed 
 interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all 
 the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration 
 produced the 
 Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro. 
 
 1881. March 13. Alexander II. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was 
 
 succeeded by his son, 
 
 1881— X. Alexander III. 
 
 Roumania made a kingdom. 
 March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The 
 
 Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, 
 
 though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the 
 
 Berlin conference. 
 Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of 
 
 Russia at Danzig. 
 
 1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. 
 Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points. 
 
 Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the jiublication of a royal 
 rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and an- 
 nouncing that all persons m government service were expected 
 to support the goverimieut at elections. 
 
526 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. 
 Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years 
 of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property 
 or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin 
 de liste ; minority representation in districts returning five or 
 more deputies. 
 
 Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established 
 in the university of Prague. 
 
 Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder 
 of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the 
 peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive meas- 
 ures, undaunted activity of the nihilists. 
 
 March 6. Servia made a kingdom ; prince Milan king as Milan I. 
 
 March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and south- 
 ern Dalmatia by the Austrians. 
 Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag 
 to come to terms witli Rome and the clerical party (autumn). 
 Approaching end of the Kultarkampf. 
 
 April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in 
 Russia ; he was succeeded by De Giers ; this change, regarded 
 as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehen- 
 sions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives 
 of Skobelejfin Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, f July 7). 
 
 May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. 
 (Begun 1872, tunnel 9| miles long.) 
 
 June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice ; conspira- 
 tor in 1833 ; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835 ; defense 
 of Rome, 1849 ; in North America, 1854 ; service against Aus- 
 tria, 1859, 1860 ; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 
 1867 ; participation in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870, 1871 ; 
 member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875). 
 Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in 
 the German Reichstag. 
 
 1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal 
 
 speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over 
 the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. 
 
 Sept. Anti- Jewish riots, especially at Presshurg (Sept. 27-30). 
 
 Sept.-Nov. New elections in Nor-way. Return of an increased 
 radical majority. 
 
 § 3. FRANCE. 
 
 1815 — X. 
 
 1814 (1815)1824. Louis XVIII. 
 
 First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal 
 constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814 : hereditary mon- 
 archy ; two chambers {peers nominated by the king, loiver house 
 elected by the people) ; freedom of the press ; religious liberty ; re- 
 sponsible ministers ; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. 
 The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of 
 -Napoleon. 
 
A D. France. 527 
 
 1815, July 8. Second restoration. 
 
 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. iVlinistry of the duke of Richelieu. 
 Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485). 
 An ultra-royalist chamber {ckanibre introuvahle ; compare the " Cav- 
 alier " parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur 
 Uanche. Parties : court (Richelieu), advocating return to the old 
 monarchy ; legitimists {Decazes); doctrinaires {Guizot), advocates of 
 constitutional monarchy with strong administration ; liberals (inde- 
 pendents, Ptrier, Lafayette) ; Bonapartists ; republicans. Gravitation 
 towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (J)ourgeoisie). 
 
 Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.) ; of 
 • Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.). 
 
 1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duhe of Berry, the second nephew of 
 
 Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws re- 
 stricting freedom of the press and of elections. 
 Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the 
 duke of Berry ; " Henry V. ; " " Europe's child." Presenta- 
 tion of the castle of Chamhord by national subscription. 
 
 1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena. 
 
 1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of Villdle (ultra-royalist). 
 
 1823, French mtervention in Spain ; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; 
 liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of Angouleme. 
 Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial 
 election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ul- 
 tra-royalists (chambre retrouvee, 1824). 
 
 1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII. 
 
 1824-1830. Charles X. 
 
 1825, March. Grant of a milliard (8200,000,000) to returned refugees 
 
 as compensation for their confiscated estates. ^ 
 Gro^vth of the liberal party : Collaud, Constant, Pe'rier^ Broglie, 
 Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits. 
 
 1827, April 30. National guard disbanded. 
 
 1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return 
 
 of a liberal majority at the election. 
 
 1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry (" too liberal foi 
 
 the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals"). 
 
 1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry ; reactionary, ultra-roy- 
 
 alist. " No more concessions ! " 
 
 1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech ; 
 
 vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May IG. 
 July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French. 
 
 Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French 
 ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the Frencli gov- 
 ernment to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in 
 France, by some outside success. 
 
 Algeria {Afrique Frangaise) subjugated by a tedious war with the 
 Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader 
 (1827, captured by Lamoriciere and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of 
 
 1 The ruined cavaliers m England got $3,000,000 in 1661. 
 
528 
 
 Modern History. 
 
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I[. D. France. 529 
 
 iouis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Na- 
 oleoii). 
 
 New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority ; 202 of 
 16 221 reelected (" aide toi"). 
 
 .830, July 27-29. The July Revolution. The Three 
 Days of July. TJie Great Week. 
 
 Cause : publication of the three (five) ordmances on July 26, 
 irofessedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared 
 lleoal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily chang-ed so as to restrict 
 he suffrage to rich lanil-owners. 3. Prohibition of tlie publication of 
 lewspapers and pamphlets without a royal permit. This violation of 
 ;he charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests {Thiers^ 
 Mignei). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie ; imper- 
 fect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who 
 ji part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of 
 the Hotel de Ville. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of tbe 
 troops. Provisional government : Lajitte, Pt'rier, Barrot. Lafayette 
 3ommander of the national guard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. 
 Duke of Orleans lieutenant general of France (" the charter hence- 
 forward to be a reality"). 
 
 Charles X. (f in Gorz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke oj 
 Angoideme, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke 
 of Bordeaux (who subsequently called himself count of Chambord, p. 
 527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line 
 of Bourbon (Orleans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the 
 throne in the person of 
 
 1830-1848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French {le 
 roi bourgeoise ; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in 
 a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. 
 The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Bro- 
 glie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.) ; of Lafitte (1830, 
 Kov. 2-1831, March 13) ; of Casimir P^rier (1831, Mar. 13-1832, 
 May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. 
 
 Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832). 
 1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. 
 
 Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April). 
 
 1835, July 28. Fiescki's infernal machme. 
 By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons 
 
 were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of 
 laws limiting the freedom of the press (la"ws of September). Re- 
 tirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires) ; ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 
 (Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 (Mole, Guizot; Thiers 
 out). 
 
 1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon L, see the 
 
 genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to 
 get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured 
 without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to 
 America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity 
 of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse). ^ 
 
 1 Guizot, Mcmoires, vol. iv. chap. 24. 
 34 
 
530 Modern Histwy, a. d. 
 
 Ministry of April 15 (1837), Mol6 without Guizot. Union of 
 Guizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris 
 (May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12-1840, Mar. 1), 
 without Guizot, Thiers, Odilon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, 
 Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt 
 of Mehemet AH (p. 491). 
 1840. Second adventurous attempt of Louis Napoleon. 
 
 He sailed from Margate with only hfty adherents to BolognCy 
 where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of 
 peers, and condenmed to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham 
 \mder the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846). 
 
 The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the 
 prince of Joinville, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly 
 entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). 
 Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15); 
 anger of France. Fall of Thiers. 
 1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot. 
 
 Death of the duke of Orleans (1842, July 13). Trouble with 
 England : Tahiti (Pritchard) ; Spanish marriages (1843-44). De- 
 mand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the 
 chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensee immuable). 
 During this reign development of the parties : Legitimists (count 
 of Chambord) ; Orleanists ; Bonapartists ; Republicans. 
 1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February. 
 
 Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by 
 members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of 
 the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy 
 of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned 
 (Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the 
 Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orleans (f 1842) and the 
 princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orleans in the chamber 
 of deputies. {Uemeute etait devenue une revolution.) Provisional 
 government at the Hotel de Ville (Dupont de I Eure, Lamartine, 
 Ledru Rollin, Marie, Cre'mieux, Arago, Gamier-Pages, the elder). 
 Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the 
 bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a 
 commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress) with 
 a view to the " organization of labor," but accomplished nothing prac- 
 tical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution 
 for the nev/^ democratic republic. Establishment of costly public 
 workshops (ateliers nationaux) and recognition of the " right to work." ^ 
 Establishment of the garde inohile. 
 
 1848-1851 (1852). Prance (for the second time) a repub- 
 lic. 
 June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of June) in Paris in con- 
 sequence of the closing of the ateliers. Bloody fights in the 
 1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished 
 his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, 
 were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their pro- 
 jector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times, p. 113. where 
 authorities are quoted. 
 
A. D. France. 531 
 
 streets. Mui-dor of archbishop Affre and of general Bre'a. General 
 Cavaignac clotlied with clitaatoiial jtowcr. Ihe continued efforts of 
 the troops and the national ^uard subdued tlie insurrection of the 
 laborers. Nov. 4, constitution of 184B. 
 Dec. 20. Proehimation oi Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as president 
 
 of the republic (5,.'V27,:Uo to 1,879,298 votes). 
 1849, Apr.-Aug-. Expedition to lionif . 
 
 Le«»ishitive assembl}' (one house) with a monarchical majority. 
 Death of Louis Philippe at Claremont (1850, Aug. 2G). 
 
 1851, Dec. 2. Coup d']6tat of Louis Napoleon, who. in 
 complicity with St. Arnaud, Maupas, Morny, etc., caused the 
 
 leaders of the republicans and Orleanists {Cavaignac, Charras, Chan- 
 gamier, Lamoriciere, Bedeau, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and others) to ])e 
 surprised in their dwellings at night and imprisoned, dissolved the 
 (second) national assembly (1840-1851), annulled the constitution 
 which he had sworn to defend, crushed (with some shedding of blood) 
 the revolt which broke out in the streets of Paris on Dec. 3 and 4 
 in consequence of these measures, and summoned the whole people to 
 a general election (plebiscite) . This resulted in the election of 
 Dec. 20, 21. Louis Napoleon as president for ten years 
 
 by a majority, it was asserted, of more than six million votes. 
 The president was clothed with monarchical power, and permitted to 
 issue a constitution. By a decree of Jan. 9, 1852, the president arbi- 
 trarily banished his most important opponents ; by a decree of Jan. 
 14 he established a constitution like that of the first empire (senat, 
 corps Ugislatif, see p. 464). A third decree confiscated the appanages 
 of the house of Orleans, and compelled the members of this house to 
 sell their whole private property in land in France within a year. 
 Freedom of the press restricted. 
 
 1852, Dec. 2-1870. Napoleon III., emperor of the 
 French. Proclaimed by a senatus consultum, Nov. 7, and rati- 
 fied hj a plebiscite (Nov. 21, 22), with 7,824,189 votes against 253,145. 
 Napoleon recognized by aU European powers. Assertions of peace- 
 ful intentions wdth regard to Europe, particularly in an address at 
 Bordeaux ('^L' Empire c'est la paix"). Napoleon III. married (Jan. 
 29, 1853) the Spaniard Eugenie Montijo, countess of Ttha. Birth of 
 the prince imperial, 1856, Mar. 16. 
 
 1854-1856. Crimean war (p. 499) ended by the 
 
 1856, May 30. Peace of Paris (p. 501). The empire at its height 
 
 of power and respect. 
 
 1857, French expedition to China (p. 501). 
 
 1858, Jan. 14. OrsinVs attempt upon the life of Napoleon III. 
 
 Bombs. Orsini, under sentence of death, urged Napoleon to 
 undertake the liberation of Italy (Orsini's " Testament," published in 
 the Moniteur). Loi de surete' gem 'rale, allowing the government to ar- 
 T'^st and banish, in certain cases, without trial (Feb. 19). Meeting of 
 Novoleon III. and the Sardinian minister Cavour. Marriage of the 
 prince Napoleon Bonaparte (geueri. table, p. 466) with Clotilde, 
 daughter of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 I 
 
582 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1859. Austro-Sardinian war. 
 
 1860. Nov. 24. Decree allowing the address to the throne, and cre- 
 
 ating ministers without portfolios. 
 
 1861. Debates permitted to be inserted in full in the Journal Officiel 
 1861-1867. Mexican expedition (p. 503). 
 
 1867. Great Exposition at Paris. 
 
 1867. Luxembourg question (p. 511). 
 
 1867. Expedition to Rome (p. 511). 
 
 1869, May. New elections ; for the first time during the second em- 
 
 pire active participation of the parties and a large vote. The 
 government received a good majority. In Paris and Lyons, victory 
 of the ultra-radical party. 
 
 1870, Jan. 2. Ministry OUivier. Repeal of the loi de surete. Al- 
 
 teration of the constitution by senatus consultum and plebiscite, 
 Apr. 20, May 8. (5,679,000 majority for the government, 
 large vote of no in the army.) 
 1870-1871. Franco-German war, p. 513 fol. 
 
 1871 — X. France (for the third time) a Republic. 
 
 During the siege of Paris the numerous socialist party had 
 made several attempts to seize the supreme power, which had been 
 frustrated by the troops and the national guard. After the capitula- 
 tion the workingmen had, under various pretexts, got possession of 
 several hundred cannon, and converted the northeastern part of the 
 city (^Montmartre and Belleville) almost into fortresses. The attempt 
 of general Vinoy, commander of the city, to repossess himself of these 
 arms led to a general 
 
 1871, March 18. Uprising of the Commune (murder of generals 
 Lecomte and Thomas), and, after the defection of several regi- 
 ments, to the 
 
 March 28-May 22. Rule of the Socialistic Commune 
 
 {Blanqui, Pyat, Fiourens, Delescluze, Cluseret, Rossel, etc.). 
 Seat of the regular government, Versailles. The comite des interna- 
 tionalistes held a reign of terror in Paris. Spoliation of the churches. 
 Several million " advances " exacted from the Bank for the payment 
 of the armed mob called the National Guard, whose ranks were 
 swollen by socialists of all nations. The march upon Versailles ended 
 in a shameful retreat, the insurgents being fired upon from Mont 
 Valerien. Arrest of archbishop Darhoy and other " hostages,^^ after- 
 wards murdered. Proclamation resolving France into a number of 
 municipal republics. 
 
 April 6-May 22. Second siege of Paris 
 
 by marshal MacMahon, commander of the troops of the na- 
 tional assembly, on the south and west sides, the German troops pre- 
 serving a strict neutrality in the forts which they occupied on the 
 northeast. 
 
 Bombardment of the southern forts, and the city itself, by the Ver- 
 sailles troops from the parallels which the Germans had constructed. 
 Meantime socialistic violence in Paris. Destruction of the hoiise of 
 Thiers, and overthrow of the Colonne Vendome, May 16, 1871 (re- 
 erected 1874). 
 
 I 
 
A. D. France. 533 
 
 May 21. The Versailles trooi)s entered the city throu<j^h the Porte 
 St. Cloud, of whose unguarded condition they were apprised by a 
 Parisian. Bloody contest against barricades (May 21-28) in the 
 heart of Paris. The commune caused the })rincipal buildings of Paris 
 to be set on fire. (The 2\uleries, a part of the Palais Roi/al, the li- 
 brary of the Louvre, the whole of the Hotel de Ville, the palace of the 
 Legion of Honor, the building of the ministry of finance, etc., actu- 
 ally destroyed.) 
 
 1871, May 28. Bloody suppression of the insurrection ; executions 
 eti masse ; 40,000 or 50,000 socialists captured, or afterwards 
 arrested. The leaders court-martialed, many shot, many trans- 
 ported to New Caledonia. 
 1871, Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the republic for the 
 
 session of the national assembly. 
 May 10. Definitive treaty of Frankfort (p. 520). 
 1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, in England. 
 May 24. Thiers forced to resign by a parliamentary coalition of the 
 monarchical parties (Ze^iV^m/i^te, Orlcanists, Bojiapartists) . Mar- 
 shal MacMahon elected president by the national assembly. 
 Nov. 19. After the attempt at a restoration of the monarchy under 
 Henry V. (count of Chambord) had failed, marshal Mac- 
 Mahon was entrusted with the regency for seven years (sep- 
 tennat) under the title ^'President of the Republic." 
 1873, Oct.-Dec. Trial of Bazaine in the Trianon at Versailles before 
 a court-martial, the duke of Auniale (fourth son of Louis Phi- 
 lippe^ presiding. Bazaine was condemned to degradation and death, 
 but the sentence was remitted to twenty years' imprisonment. Ba- 
 zaine conveyed to the island of Ste. Marguerite, near Cannes, whence 
 he escaped in the summer of 1874. 
 
 1875. Feb. After a long struggle between the parties in the 
 national assembly a republican constitution was finally agreed 
 upon. 
 The legislative power was exercised by two chambers : the 
 chamber of deputies, which was elected by direct elections and 
 manhood suffrage for four years, and the senate (300 senators : 75 
 for life, elected by the national assembly, and afterwards by the sen- 
 ate itself ; and 225 elected for nine years by electoral colleges, com- 
 posed of deputies, councils of the departments and districts, and dele- 
 gates of the communes). The executive poTver was entrusted to a 
 president, who, after the expiration of the septennat (above), was 
 to be elected by the senate and chamber of deputies united in a na- 
 tional assembly for this purpose, for seven years, and at the expira- 
 tion of his term of office should be again eligible. The president, 
 who governed by a responsible ministry, exercised almost all the 
 rights of a constitutional monarchy, but could be impeached by the 
 chamber of deputies before the senate for high treason. 
 1875, Dec. After the adoption of a new electoral law (scrutin ^ d'ar- 
 
 1 By the scrutin d' nrronflissement, the voters in each district voted for one 
 delejxate only; by the scrutin de llste (favored by (iamheffa), the voters of each 
 department voted for the whole list of dolej^ates from that department. — MiJL- 
 i.EK, Political FJisiory of Recent Times. 
 
534 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 rondissement), the national assembly, which had been in ses- 
 sion since 1871, separated. 
 
 1876, Jan., Feb. The new elections resulted in a senate composed 
 half of republicans and half of the three monarchical parties, 
 while in the chamber of deputies the republicans had a de- 
 cisive majority. Dufaure ministry (March), Simon ministry 
 (Dec). 
 
 1877, May 16. Simon mhiistry displaced by the arbitrary act of 
 MacMahon ("coup d'etat"). Broglie ministry. Protest of 
 363 members of the lower house against the action of the pres- 
 ident. 
 
 Sept. 4. Death of Thiers (1797-1877). 
 
 1877, Oct. New elections. Maintenance of the republic. In spite 
 
 of the return of a republican majority, MacMahon formed a 
 royalist ministry (Rochebouet) . As the house refused to deal 
 with such a ministry, formation of the ministry Dufaure (re- 
 publican). 
 
 1878, International Exhibition. 
 
 1879, Jan. 16. Pardon of over 2,000 communists. 
 
 1879, Jan. 30. MacMahon, involved in inextricable conflict with the 
 chamber of deputies, resigned his office, and was succeeded by 
 Gr^vy. 
 1879, Jan. 30-x. Jules Grevy president of the republic. Gam- 
 betta succeeded him as speaker of the house. Ministry of 
 Waddington. Amnesty for communists. Removal of the legislature 
 from Versailles to Paris. Secularization of education ; debate and 
 agitation over the bill introduced by Jules Ferry, minister of public 
 instruction, limiting the influence of religious orders in education 
 (§ 7 : total exclusion of unauthorized religious orders from giving in- 
 struction). Ministry of Freycinet (1879, Dec). 
 
 1879, June 1. Death of prince Louis Napoleon in South Africa. In 
 
 spite of the nomination in his will of prince Victor, son of 
 Jerome (son of the king of Westphalia), the latter (" Plon- 
 Plon ") was generally recognized by the Bonapartists. 
 
 1880, Mar. 30. Proclamation disbanding the order of Jesuits. 
 June. General amnesty for convicted communists. (Rochefort.) 
 Sept. 19. Ministry of Jules Ferry. 
 
 Nov. Expulsion of unauthorized orders from their religious houses. 
 
 1881, Expedition to Tunis, ostensibly to punish marauding border 
 tribes, and to uphold the claims of the Societe Marseillaise to 
 certain lands in Tunis, resulting in an attempt to establish a 
 protectorate over Tunis. Complications with Great Britain, 
 Italy, Spain. 
 
 Nov. 13. Ministry of Gambetta (Foreign Affairs) ; M. Paul Bert, 
 minister of public worship. 
 
 1882, Jan. 30. Ministry of M. Freycinet (Foreign Affairs) ; Leon 
 
 Say (Finance) ; Jules Ferry (Public Instruction). Gambetta, 
 having been defeated on a motion to adopt the scrutin de liste, 
 had resigned Jan 27. 
 Jan. Failure of the Union Gemrale (founded 1881). 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 535 
 
 July 29. Resignation of the ministry Freycinet after defeat upon 
 a question of supplies for protecting the Suez canal. Min- 
 istry Duclerc (Gambettist). 
 
 French claims upon Madagascar, especially to a protectorate over 
 the northwest coast, opposed by the native Novas, and dissussed be- 
 tween France and England. 
 
 The French protectorate over Annam (1874) being threatened by 
 the presence of Taiping refugees (" Black Flags," p. 4G2) in Tori^ 
 quin, the government resolved upon energetic measures for the as- 
 sertion of the rights of France. 
 Dec. '61. Death of Leon Gambetta (b. 1838, Oct. 30). 
 
 § 4. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 1783 — X. 
 
 1783, Nov. Fox brought forward a bill to reform the government of 
 India, which was thrown out in the lords. The king, thereupon, 
 dismissed the coalition ministry, and William Pitt became 
 1783, Dec. 26-1801, March 17. First lord of the treasury and 
 chancellor of the exchequer. He mtroduced an India bill, 
 which was rejected, and 
 1781, March 25. Parliament was dissolved. 
 
 May 18. The Fifth parliament of George III. (XVI.) 
 Aug. 13. Pitt's India hill became law (p. 442). 
 
 1787, The, first convicts sent to Australia (Botany Bay). 
 
 1788, Oct. 12. The king became insane. Fox proposed that the 
 
 Prince of Wales should assume the regency as of right. 
 Pitt, though admitting the prince's claims, insisted that the 
 legislature had the right to make the appointment. Pending 
 
 1789, Feb. the discussion the king recovered. 
 
 1791, Representative institutions granted Canada. 
 
 1792, June. Fox's libel bill, which gave the Jury power to render 
 
 a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon the whole matter 
 in issue, received the royal assent. 
 
 1793, Jan. Alien bill. Traitorous correspondence bill. 
 
 1793, Feb. 1. The French republic declared war against Great 
 
 Britain, etc. (p. 453). 
 
 1794. Spread of revolutionary principles. Suspension of the habeas 
 corpus act. 
 
 May. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thelwall, all of whom, 
 Oct.-Dec. tlirough the efforts of Erskine, were acquitted. 
 
 1794, Nov. Treaty with the United States {Jay's treaty, p. 548). 
 
 1795, July-Nov. Holland having joined the French against Eng- 
 
 land, the latter seized the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and 
 other possessions of the Dutch in the East. 
 
 1796, Sept. 17. Sixth parliament of George HI. (XVII.) 
 Oct. 11. Spain declared war against England (p. 458). 
 
 1797, Feb. 27. Bank of England stopped specie payments. 
 1797, April 15. A mutiny brok*; out in the tiect at Spithead (off 
 
 Portsmouth). The demands of the sailors, which were rea- 
 
536 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 May IV. sonable, were granted and the fleet put to sea. Another 
 
 and more violent mutiny broke out at the 
 May 22. Nore (mouth of the Thames), which was finally put down 
 June 30. by force and the ringleader hanged. 
 
 1797, Oct. 11. Victory of Camperdown (Duncan) puts an end to 
 
 the danger of immediate invasion. 
 
 1798, Apr. 20. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 
 Aug. 1. Battle of the Nile (p. 460). 
 
 1799, Failure of the expedition to the Netherlands (p. 461). 
 
 1800, Dec. 16. Armed neutrality of 1780 revived (p. 412). 
 
 The United Irishmen, an association of malcontents, mainly 
 Protestants, was formed in 1791 to secure the entire separation 
 of Irela?id from England. The French sent more than one 
 expedition to their aid ; of these the most formidable, under 
 
 1796, Dec. Hoche, was scattered by a storm, while a smaller one 
 
 1798, Sept. 8. was defeated at Ballinamuck. 
 
 1798, June 21. The United Irishmen were beaten at Vinegar Hill, 
 
 1799. and the insurrection put down with cruel severities. These 
 events led to the 
 
 1801) Jan. 1. Legislative Union of Great Britain with 
 Ireland mider the name of the United Kingdom. The act 
 of union provided, among other things, that there should be 
 one imperial parliament, to which Ireland should send /owr 
 spiritual lords, sitting by rotation of sessions ; twenty-eight tem- 
 poral peers, elected for life by the Irish peerage ; and one hun- 
 dred meynhers of the commons ; and that the churches of the 
 two countries should be united into one protestant episcopal 
 church. 
 Mr. Pitt proposed to bring in a bill making certain concessions 
 to the Roman catholics. The king being persuaded that such 
 concessions would be a breach of the coronation oath refused 
 
 1801, Feb. 3. his consent, and Mr. Pitt resigned. 
 
 Mar. 17-1804, May 15. Addington administration. Lord Eldon, 
 
 lord chancellor. 
 Apr. 2. Battle of Copenhagen (Nelson). Convention between E7ig- 
 June 17. land and Russia. End of the second armed neutrality (p. 
 
 463). 
 Apr. 19. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 
 
 1802, Nov. 16. Seventh parliament of George III. (2nd impe- 
 
 rial). 
 
 1802, Mar. 27. Peace of Amiens (p. 464). 
 
 1803. The English ambassador (lord Whit worth), publicly insulted 
 Mar. 13. by Napoleon. 
 
 May. War rene-wed between England and France (p. 465). 
 
 180i3, Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, easily suppressed, but showed 
 
 the deep-seated hostility of the Irish, and led to the suspension 
 
 of the habeas corpus act in Ireland. 
 
 1804, May 10-1806, Jan. 23. Pitt's second ministry. 
 
 1805. Third coalition against France (p. 467). 
 Oct. 21. Trafalgar (Nelson, p. 467). 
 
 I 
 
A. D. Great Brilaut. 637 
 
 1806, Jan. 23. Death of Pitt. 
 
 1800, Feb. 10.-1807, March 31. All the Talents : Lord Grenville, 
 prime iiiiuister ; Charles James Fox, foreign secretary, f Sept. 
 13 ; lord Erskine, lord chancellor ; lord Howick (afterwards 
 earl Grey), first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Nov. 21. Berlin Decree (p. 409). 
 
 Dec. 15. Eighth (3d imperial) parliament of George III. 
 
 1807, March 23. Abolition of the slave trade in the British 
 ' dominions. 
 
 The ministri/ went out on the catholic question, and were suc- 
 ceeded by the 
 
 1807, Mar. 31.-1809, Oct. 29. duke of Portland, first lord of the 
 treasury ; Canning and Castlereagh, home and foreign secre- 
 taries ; Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 (George Canning, b. 1770, entered parliament 1793, under sec- 
 retary 1790, t 1827). (Castlereagh, afterwards marquis of 
 Londonderry, b. 1769, f 1822.) 
 
 June 22. Ninth (4th imperial) parliament of George III. 
 
 July 7-9. Treaty of Tilsit (p. 469). 
 
 Sept. 7. Second bombardment of Coperhagen (p. 470). 
 
 Jau.-Nov. Orders in Council which declared France, and all 
 countries under her control, to be in a state of blockade. 
 
 1807, Nov. 8. Russia declared war against England. 
 
 Dec. 17. Milan decree, a supplement to the Berlin decree (p. 469). 
 
 1808, Aug. Convention of Cintra (p. 471). 
 
 1808. The failure of the Walcheren expedition sent to destroy 
 July-Nov. the docks and shipping at Antwerp, caused a rupture be- 
 tween Castlereagh. and Canning, both of whom resigned. 
 
 1809. Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1709, entered the army 1787 ; As- 
 May. saye 1803 ; entered pc^rliament 1806 ; commanded in the 
 
 Peninsular War. Commander-in-chief 1842, f 1852), after- 
 wards duke of Wellington, enters Spain, and the 
 
 1808-1814. Peninsular -war was fairly begun (p. 471). 
 
 1809, Oct. 29. Death of the duke of Portland. 
 
 1809, Dec. 6-1812, May 11. Mr. Perceval /i?-.sf lord of the treasury. 
 
 1810, Oct. and Nov. Lines of Torres Vedras (p. 473). 
 Nov. The king became hopelessly insane, and 
 
 1811, Fel^. T). The Prince of Wales was appointed re- 
 
 gent. 
 Nov. The breaking of machinery by the Luddites became so fre- 
 quent that frame breaking was made a capital offense. 
 
 1812, May 11. Assassination of Perceval by Bellingham. 
 
 1812, June 8-1827, Apr. 24. Liverpool ministry : Castlereagh^ 
 foreign secretary. 
 
 1812, June 18. War' ivith the United States ended bv the treaty of 
 
 Ghent, 1814, Dec. 24 (p. 551). 
 Nov. 24. Tenth (5tli imperial) parliament of George III. 
 
 1813, June 21. Vittoria (p. 479). 
 
 1814, May 30. Peace of Paris foHowod by 
 
 1815, March 25. Treaty of Vienna. ^ England gained Cape oj 
 
538 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Good Hope, Demerara, Esseqidbo, Malta, Tobago, St. Lucia, 
 and Mauritius. Hanover became a separate kingdom, with 
 George III. first king, and descent to heirs male (p. 491). 
 
 1815, June 15. Waterloo (p. 484). 
 
 The English national debt had grown from less than 250 mill- 
 ion ponnds in 1793 to over 850 millions ; the laboring classes found 
 it difficult to obtain the bare necessaries of life. Consequently riots 
 took place in the agricultural districts, while the Luddites broke out 
 with fresh vehemence. This discontent soon assumed the form of a 
 political movement, and, largely owing to the "^T^eekly Political Reg- 
 ister, edited by William Cobbett (17ti-,-183o), the cvy oi parliamentary 
 reform became popular, and Hampden clubs were formed throughout 
 the country. 
 
 1816, Mar. 3. The habeas corpus act was suspended. 
 
 Mar. 10. The Blanket meeting at Manchester broken up by the 
 military ; lord feidmouth's (Addington) circular letter. 
 
 Dec. Acquittal of Hone. 
 
 1816, July. The dey of Algiers compelled to abolish christian slav- 
 ery. 
 
 1819, Jan. 14. Eleventh (6th imperial) parliament of George 
 III. 
 
 1819, Aug. 16. A meeting of the Radicals at St. Peter's Fields, Man- 
 
 chester, dispersed by the military with bloodshed ; hence called 
 the Manchester Massacre, or Peterloo. In consequence of 
 these disturbances, the Six Acts, strengthening the hands of 
 government, were passed. 
 
 1820, Jan. 29. Death of George III. The following are some of his 
 
 descendants : — 
 
 George III. = Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
 
 I ~\ j \ n I 
 
 George IV. Winiam V^. Frederic, Edward, Ernest, Adolphus, 
 
 ]820-18;30. 1&30-18.S7. d. of York. d. of Kent. d. of Cum- d. of Cam bridge. | 
 
 t without issue, t without issue. 1 1827, f 1820. berland ; k. t 1850. 
 
 without issue. 
 
 of Hanover. 
 1837-1851. I 
 
 George, George, d. of 
 
 k. of Hanover. Canibridj 
 
 t 1878. 
 Albert of = Victoria. 
 Saxe-Coburg- I 
 Gotha. t 1861. 1 
 
 Victoria, Albert Edward, Alice, Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, Leopold, Beatrice, 
 m. crown prince of Wales, t d. of Edin- m. pr. of m. mar- d. of d. of Al- 
 pn'nce of m. Alexandra, 1878. burgh, m. Augusten- quis of Con- bany. 
 Prussia, d. of k. of Den- grand duch- burg. Lome, naught, 
 
 mark. ess of Rus- 
 
 sia. 
 
 1820-1830. George IV. (prince regent since 1811). 
 
 1820, Apr. 21. First (7th imperial) parliament of George IV. 
 
 1820. Cato street conspiracy for assassinatmg the king's minis- 
 ters discovered. 
 
 May 1. The leader, Thistleivood, and four accomplices executed. 
 
 1820, Aug.-Nov. The king, while prince of Wales, had been, in a 
 manner, forced to marry his cousin. The marriage was an 
 
 unhappy one, and not long after his accession ministers brought for- 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 539 
 
 ward a bill of pains and penalties to deqrnde and divorce the queen 
 on charges of ini.sc()n(lu(.'t. In tlie trial of queen Caroline which 
 followed, Mr. (afterwards lord) JJrouf/ham and Mr. (afterwards lord) 
 JJctnnan so shook the evidence against her, on the cross-examination 
 (I81JI, Jnly 18), that the bill was abandoned. She was, however, ex- 
 cluded from the coronation, and not lon^- after died. 
 
 1821. May. Bank of England resumed specie payments (p. /i3H). 
 
 1822. Castlereagh (lord Londonderry) connnitted suicide, and was 
 succeeded at the foreign oftice by George Canning. Mr. 
 Peel home secretary. 
 
 1823. The next year Huslisson became president of the board of 
 trade, and Mr. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich) chancellor 
 of the exchequer. 
 
 1825. Commercial panic ; modification of the monopoly of the Bank 
 
 of England. 
 182G, Nov. 14. Second (8th imperial) parliament of Greorge IV. 
 1827, Aug. 8-1828, Jan. 25. Lord Goderich premier. 
 
 1827, Oct. 20. Navarino ; "untoward event" (p. 489). 
 
 1828, Jan. 26-1830, Nov. 22. Duke of Wellington prime min- 
 
 ister. Robert Peel, home secretary (b 1788 ; M. P. 1809 ; colo- 
 nial secretary 1810 ; f 1850). 
 1828, Feb. 26. Lord John Russell (b. 1792 ; M. P. 1813 ; earl Rus- 
 sell 1861 ; t 1878) moved the repeal of the corporation 
 and test acts (p. 380), which was carried (May). 
 A declaration containing the w ords " on the true faith of a 
 christian " w\as substituted for the sacramental test, thus ad- 
 mitting protestant dissenters to office. 
 
 1828, July 15. The restrictions on the importation of breadstufPs 
 
 were modified by the adoption of the sliding scale. 
 The duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel became convinced of 
 the necessity of catholic emancipation. 
 
 1829, April 13. The catholic relief act sid)stituted a new form of 
 
 oath for the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjuration, and 
 there were now no offices from which catholics v^-^ere excluded, ex- 
 cept those of regent, lord chancellor of England and Ireland, and vice- 
 roy of Ireland. The francliise in Ireland was raised from 40.s. to 10/., 
 and certain regulations were made respecting the exercise of the 
 Roman catholic religion. 
 
 1830, June 26. Death of George IV. 
 
 1830-1837. WiUiam IV. 
 
 1830, Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool rail« 
 
 way (Rocket locomotive), f of Huskisson. 
 1830, Oct. 26. First (9th imperial) parliament of William IV. 
 
 When parliament opened earl Grey declared that, in his opin- 
 ion, the only way to avert political convidsions was by a reform in 
 parliament. The duke of Wellington expressed himself as opposed to 
 reform, and being defeated on a minor ({uestion resigned Nov. 16. 
 1830, Nov. 24-1834, July 18. Earl Grey, prime minister. Lord 
 Althorp, chancellor of exche(picr ; lord Brougham, lord chan- 
 cellor; lord John Russell, paymaster-general of the forces ; and 
 lord Melbourne, home secretary. 
 
540 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1831, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced his reform bill. It 
 
 soon became apparent that there was no prospect of passing 
 
 Apr. 22. the bill, and parliament was dissolved. 
 
 June 14. Second (10th imperial) parliament of William IV. 
 The reform bill again introduced; passed the commons Sept. 
 21, but was thrown out by the lords, and riots ensued through- 
 out the country. 
 
 1832, Mar. 19. The reform bill, with some alterations, was again 
 
 passed by the commons. In the lords an amendment was car- 
 ried against ministers, who resigned May 7, but resumed office May 
 18, the king having consented to create a sufficient number of new 
 peers to secure the passage of the bill ; but this proved unnecessary, 
 as many tory peers refrained from voting, and the bill received the 
 royal assent June 7. 
 
 1832. By this, the First Reform Act, 143 boroughs lost one 
 or both members, and the seats thus obtained were given to 
 
 several large towns {Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), to the larger coun- 
 ties, and to neiu boroughs. At the same time the franchise was ex- 
 tended. The Scotch reform act, July 17; the Irish reform act, Aug. 7. 
 
 1833, Jan. 29. Third (11th imperial) parliament of William IV. 
 Apr. 2. The Irish coercion act. 
 
 In August the bill for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
 British empire was passed. The sum of 20,000,000^. was 
 voted to the slave-owners. 
 
 1833. Reneioal of the charter of the Bank of England ; and of the East 
 India Company for twenty years, but the trade with China 
 was thrown open (p. 561). 
 
 1834. The question of an extension of the Irish coercion act led to 
 the resignation of earl Grey. 
 
 1834, July IG-Nov. 14. Lord Melbourne became premier. Lord 
 Althorp, lord John Russell, and lord Brougham retained their 
 places. 
 
 1834. Poor law amendment act. Local hoards abolished in favor 
 
 Aug. of a central hoard of commissioners. Poor law unions took the 
 place of work-houses, and the system of out-door relief was in a 
 great measure reformed. 
 
 Nov. The king dismissed the ministry, and the duke of Welling- 
 ton took control of affairs until sir Robert Peel could be 
 summoned from Rome. 
 
 1834, Dec. 8-1835, Apr. 18. Peel's first administration. {Wel- 
 lington, foreign secretary.) The majority in the commons 
 
 1834, Dec. 30. was against ministers, parliament was dissolved, and 
 
 Peel issued the Tamworth manifesto. 
 
 1835, Feb. 19. Fourth (12th imperial) parliament of William 
 
 IV. The conservatives, as the supporters of Peel termed them- 
 
 Apr. selves, being in a minority in the commons, ministers resigned. 
 
 1835, Apr. 18-1841, Sept. 3. Second Melbourne ministry. i 
 
 Palmerston, foreign secretary (b. 1784 ; M. P. 1807 ; f Oct. 
 
 18, 1865); lord John Russell, home secretary; viscount Howick, 
 
 secretary of war, — succeeded in 1839 by T. B. Macaulai) 
 
 (b. 1800 ; M. P. 1830 ; raised to the peerage 1857 ; + 1859). 
 
A. D. Great Britain. 541 
 
 1835, Sept. Reform of municipal corporations act, London not 
 
 included. 
 
 1836, Commutation of tithes act. 
 
 1837, June 20. Death of William IV. 
 
 The British in India. 
 
 1786-1793. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general. 
 
 1792. War mth Tipu Sultan, ended by the cession of one half of 
 Mysore to the English and allies. 
 
 1793. Capture of Pondicherii, sir John Shore (afterwards lord 
 Teignmoutb), governor-general, succeeded by 
 
 1798-1805. lord Mornington (afterwards marquis of Wellesley). 
 
 1799. Tipu Sultan, trusting in the promises of Bonaparte, again 
 took up arms, was killed, and his dominions were divided be- 
 tween the English and the Nizam. 
 
 1802. Holkar, one of the Mahrattd chiefs, drove the Peshwa from 
 Poona. By the treaty of Bassein the English agreed to assist 
 the Peshwa provided he would surrender his independence, 
 and maintain a body of European troops (the sahddiary policy). 
 Sindhia and the Raja of Nagpur imited with Holkar against 
 the English. The latter under sir Arthur Wellesley (after- 
 wards duke of Wellington), brother of the governor-general, 
 
 1803. gamed the battles of Assaye, Sept. 3, and Argaum, Nov. 
 29, while another army under general (afterwards lord) Lake 
 won the battle of Laswari, Nov. 1, and captured Delhi. The 
 Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, by treaties, surrendered much 
 
 1804. territory to the English. In the next year Holkar was de- 
 feated by Lake at Furrukahad, and again near Bhartpur 1805, 
 and made peace with the English 180G, Jan. 7. 
 
 1805. July-Oct. Lord Cornwallis again governor-general ; f Oct. ; 
 
 and was succeeded by 
 1805-1807. sir G. Barlow. 
 
 1806. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Vellore. 
 1807-1813. Lord Minto, governor-general. 
 
 1809. Mutiny of the European officers at Seringapatam. 
 
 1813-1823. Lord Moira (afterwards marquis of Hastings), gov- 
 ernor-general. 
 
 1814-1815. War ivith the Gurkhas of Nepal 
 
 1817. Pindari war. 
 
 1817-1818. Last Mahratta war. The dominions of the Peshicd 
 were annexed and the Rdjd of Nagpur was put under British 
 guardianship, while the states of Rajputana placed themselves 
 under British protection. 
 
 1823-1828. Lord Amherst, governor-general. 
 
 1824-1826. First Burmese umr, English acquire Assam, etc. 
 
 1828-1835. Lord William Bentinck, governor-general. Financial 
 reforms ; abolition of sati (suttee) or widow-burning ; sup- 
 pression of the thagi (thugs) or hereditary assassins. 
 
 1833. Company^s charter renewed for twenty years, but the trade 
 was thrown open, and Europeans allowed to settle in the coun- 
 
542 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 try. A legal member added to the governor's council, and a 
 commission appointed to revise and codify the laws. Macau- 
 lay, first legal member, and president of the commission. The 
 only annexation of this time was that of Coorg. 
 1835-183(). Short administration of sir Charles (afterwards 
 lord) Metcalfe, memorable for giving entire freedom to the 
 press. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1837 — X' Victoria (only child of the late duke of Kent). 
 Separation of Hanover from Great Britain ; duke of Cumber- 
 land, the eldest surviving son of George III., became king. 
 
 1837, Nov. 15. First (13th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
 1837. Rebellion in Canada. Burning of the American steamer Car- 
 oliyie. The rebels finally reduced to obedience in 1839. The 
 two provinces, upper and lower Canada, were united in 
 1840, and in 1847 responsible government was introduced into 
 the colony. 
 
 1838, Aug. Meetmg of working people near Birmingham. A na- 
 
 tional petition or peoples' charter was drawn iip. The 
 petitioners or chartists demanded, 1. annual parliaments ; 2. 
 universal (manhood) suffrage ; 3. vote by ballot ; 4. abolition 
 of the property qualification of members of parliament : and 5. 
 payment for their services. To these " five points " a sixth, that 
 of equal electoral districts, was afterwards added. The petition 
 was presented to the commons, 1839, June 14, and its rejection was 
 followed by riots which were easily suppressed. 
 
 1838, Sept. The anti-corn law league formed at Manchester under 
 
 the leadership of John Bright (b. 1811 ; M. P. 1843) and 
 Pdchard Cobden (h. 1804 ; M. P. 1847 ; f 1865). ; 
 
 1839, Opium war with China ended by treaty of Nankin, 1842, • 
 Aug. '29 (p. 561). 
 
 1840, Jan. Penny postage introduced (sir Roivland Hill). 
 
 Feb. 10. The queen married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Cobwg and 
 Gotha. 
 
 1841, Aug. 19. Second (14th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
 1841, Sept. 6-1846, June 29. Peel's second administration. 
 Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office ; earl Ripon, 
 board "of trade, succeeded in 1843 by "W. E. Gladstone (1). 
 1809 ; M. P. 1832). 
 
 1842. Second sliding scale adopted ; and the duties on over 70D 
 articles either removed or reduced, the deficiency so created be- 
 ing made up by an income tax (June 22). 
 
 1844. Charter of the Bank of England renewed (Peel act).^ The 
 issue department established, iveekli/ returns to be published ; 
 and circulation limited to 14,000,OOOZ. 
 1846. Total repeal of the corn laws. 
 
 The sliding scale abolished ; the duty on wheat imported at or 
 above 53s. per quarter to be 4s. per quarter until 1849, Feb. 1, after 
 that time to be an uniform Is. per quarter on all kinds of grain im- 
 ported into the United Kingdom ; this Is. duty was repealed in 1869. 
 
A.. D. Gredt Britain. 543 
 
 1840, June. Settlement of the Oregon lioiindary dispute with the United 
 States (p. 5"'>4). 
 
 1840, July ()-185'2, Feb. 23. Ministry of lord John Russell ; lord 
 Palmerstou, foreign set ivtary ; Macaulay, p:iyin;ister gen- 
 eral. 
 
 1840. Failure of the potato crop in Ireland caused a famine 1840 
 and 1847. Population of Ireland 1841, 8,222,004. 1851, 
 0,033,982. 
 
 1847. Commercial panic in England. 
 
 1847, Nov. 18. Third (loth iuipeaial) parliament of Victoria. 
 This distress coupled with the excitement produced by the rev- 
 
 1848. olut^ons or 1848 (p. 492) roused rebellion in Ireland, which 
 was easily suppressed, and its leaders Smith O^Brien and Mit~ 
 
 1848, April 10. chell transported ; while in England the chartists 
 held a monster meeting on Kcnnington common, and presented 
 a petition to parliament. 
 
 1849, June. Repeal of the navigation laws. Encumbered estates 
 July, act (Ireland). 
 
 1850, Sept. 30. Papal bull establishing a Roman catholic hie- 
 rarchy in England. 
 
 1851, July. Ecclesiastical titles bill, imposing a fine of lOOZ. on all 
 who should endeavor to carry this papal bull into effect, passed 
 (never executed). 
 
 1851. Telegraphic communication between France and Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1851. Great exliibition of the industries of all nations in Hyde Park, 
 London. 
 
 1852, Feb. 27-Dec. 18. Earl Derby's first ministry, Disraeli, 
 chancellor of exchequer (b. 1805 ; " Vivian Grey " 1825 ; 
 M. P. 1837 ; earl of Beaconsfield, 1870 ; f 1881). 
 
 Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. 
 
 1852, Nov. 4. Fourth (10th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 1852, Dec. 28-1855, Feb. 5. Aberdeen administration. W. E. 
 Gladstone, chancellor of exchecjuer; lord Palmerstou, home 
 secretary ; lord John Russell, foreign secretary. 
 End of Caffir war in South Africa. 
 Oct. 30. The British fleet entered the Bosphorus. 
 1853-1856. Crimean war (p. 499). 
 
 1854, June 5. Reciprocity treaty with the United States concluded 
 
 (p. 555) ; abrogated 1800. 
 
 1855. Tlie mismanagement wath regard to the supply of food and 
 clothing for the anuy in the Crimea and the feeble i)rosecu- 
 tion of the war rendered the administration unpopular, and 
 
 1855, Jan. 30. lord Aberdeen resigned. 
 
 1855, Feb. 5-1858, Feb. 22. Palmerstou premier. Gladstone, 
 
 chancellor of the exchequer, res. Feb. 22. 
 Feb. 19. Bread riots at Liveq^ool. 
 
 18,50. Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean war (p. 501). War 
 Mar. 30. with China. Treaty of Ticn-tsin, Jiuie 20, 1859. Peace 
 
 ofPekin Aug. 24, 1800 (p. 56:i). 
 1857, Apr. 30. Fifth (17th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
544 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Nov. 12. Great commercial panic. Suspension of the hank charter 
 
 act of 1844. 
 In consequence of the attempted assassination of Napoleon III. 
 
 by Orsini, lord Palmerston introduced the conspiracy to murder 
 
 bill. On its rejection in the commons the ministry resigned, 
 
 and the 
 1858, Feb. 22-1859, June 11. Second Derby ministry took office ; 
 
 Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 1858, June. Property qualification of members of parliament 
 
 abolished. 
 July. Jews admitted to parliament. 
 
 Act for the better government of India. 
 Aug. 5. The successful laying of the frst Atlantic cable (ceased 
 
 working Sept. 4). 
 Aug. 26. Treaty with the tycoon (shogun) of Japan (p. 563). 
 
 1858. The queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India. 
 The government of the East India company ceased. 
 
 The ministry, defeated on a reform bill introduced by Disraeli^ 
 Apr. 13. dissolved parliament, but being in a minority in the 
 
 1859, May 31. Sixth (18th imperial) parliament of Victoria, 
 resigned, and the 
 
 1859, June 13-1865, Nov. 6. Second Palmerston ministry came 
 
 in. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Russell 
 (formerly lord John), foreign secretary ; lord Campbell, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 1860, Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and France. 
 July-Oct. The prince of Wales visits the United States and Ca 
 
 ada. 
 
 1861, July 27. Rupture of diplomatic relations with Mexico. 
 Nov. 8. Mason and Slidell taken from the British mail steamer 
 
 Trent (p. 557). 
 Dec. 23. Death of the prince consort. 
 
 1862, Second Exhibition of the industry of all nations opened i 
 May 1. London. 
 
 1863, The Maori (native) war in New Zealand, ended in 1869. 
 
 1864, The Schleswig-Holstein question (p. 505). 
 
 June. Final cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece (p. 483). 
 Jidy. The Thames embankment begun. 
 
 1865, June. Commencement of the Cattle Plague. 
 Oct. Insurrection in Jamaica. 
 
 Oct. 18. Death of lord Palmerston. 
 
 1865, Nov. 6-1866, June 26. Earl Russell premier. 
 
 1866, Feb. 1. Seventh (19th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 Feb. Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland. 
 
 May. Failure of Overend, Gurney and Co. (liabilities over 19,000,- 
 
 OOOL). Panic in London. 
 July Telegraphic communication with America finally established. 
 
 1866, July 6-1868, Feb. 27. Third Derby ministry. Disraeli, 
 
 chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 1867, Aug. 15. The second reform act, — "a leap in the dark," — 
 
 which greatly extended the franchise, received the royal as- 
 sent. 
 
 
,A. D. Great Britain. 545 
 
 18G7. Tbo Fenians attoiiii)t(Ml tho seizure of the arsenal at Cheater 
 (Feb.). Rising in Ireland, easily suppressed. Attempt to 
 release Fenians confined in Clerkenwell prison, by exploding 
 gunpowder under the walls. 
 
 1867. Canada, Nova Seotia, and New Bnniswick were combined 
 into one Dominion of Canada, with power to take in new 
 provinces. Each province retained its own legislature for 
 local affairs. All British A.merica, with the exception of 
 Newfoundland, now belongs to this confederation. 
 
 1867. Abyssinia expedition, Magdala. 
 
 1868, Feb. 27-Dec. 3. Lord Derhji resigned, and Mr. Disraeli be- 
 came premier. The general elections to the new parliament 
 were so decidedly in favor of the liberals that the ministry re- 
 signed, and 
 
 1868, Dec. 9-1874, Feb. 21. Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 
 
 1868, Dec. 10. Eighth ('_Oth imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
 July 26. Disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish 
 church. A portion of the money so obtained given to the 
 Roman catholic college of Mai/nooth, and another portion ap- 
 plied to educational }> ir/>o.-tes. The royal assent was at the same 
 time given to the bankruptcy bill, and to a bill abolishing 
 imprisonment for debt. (Debtors' prisons : Fleet, Marshal' 
 sea, etc.) 
 
 1868, Oct. 16. Opening of the Suez canal. 
 
 1870. Irish land act provided, among other things, for compen- 
 sation to out-going tenants ; for loans to landlords for im- 
 provements, and to tenants desirous of purchasing their hold- 
 ings (Bright clauses). 
 At the same session a system of 
 
 1870. national education was established by law. 
 
 1871. Purchase in the army abolished. 
 
 Treaty of Washington with the United States, by which the 
 Alabama claims were settled by 
 
 1872. Arbitration at Geneva and the so-called northwestern boun- 
 dary dispute, decided by the emperor of Germany as arbiter 
 (p. 560). 
 
 1872. Vote by ballot introduced. 
 
 1873. Ashantee war. Coomassie taken by 
 
 1874. the British, commanded bv <;-eneral Wolseley. 
 
 1874, Feb. 21.-1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Disraeli (1876, Aug., earl of 
 Beaconsfield), premier ; sir Stafford Northcote, chancellor of 
 the exchequer. 
 
 1874, March 5. Ninth (21st imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
 1875. Purchase of Suez canal shares from the khedive of Egypt. 
 1875, 1876. Visit of the Prince of Wales to India. The queen pro- 
 claimed empress of India. Commercial panic. 
 
 1878, July 13. Treaty of Berlin. British take possession of Cyprus 
 
 July 14 (p. 524). 
 
 1879. Irish land league, supported by Pamell, Dillon, etc. 187^ 
 1880, famine in Ireland. * 
 
 1879. War with the Zulus (" Jingoism "). 
 35 
 
546 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1880, Feb. 23. Parliament dissolved. Elections in favor of liberals ; 
 resignation of ministers, Apr. 22. 
 
 1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Gladstone, prime minister ; marquis of Har- 
 tington, secretary for India; W. E. Forster, chief secretary for 
 Ireland, succeeded by lord F. Cavendish, and he by G. 0. Tre- 
 vellyan. John Bright, chancellor of the duchy. 
 
 1880, Apr. 29. Tenth (22d imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
 
 1881, March 3. Irish coercion act. 
 
 Aug. 22. Irish land act provided for a court of commission to try 
 differences between landlords and tenants ; and in a measure 
 granted the " three F"s : " 1. free sale ; 2. fair rents ; 3. fx- 
 ity of tenure. 
 
 1882, May 6. Murder of lord Frederick Cavendish and an 
 
 under-secretary in Dublin. 
 July 11. Bombardment of Alexandria (Egypt). Resignation of 
 
 John Bright. 
 July 14. A new Irish coercion act went into force. 
 Sept. Total defeat of Egyptian rebels by the British, commanded by 
 
 sir Garnet Wolseley. Capture of Tel-el-Kehir. 
 
 The British in India. 
 
 1836-1842. Lord Auckland, governor-general. 
 
 1839. First Afghan ^var, occasioned by an attempt to place a ruler 
 in Afghanistan who sliould be subservient to tlie British, 
 Kabul was easily occupied. Dost Muhammad taken prisoner, 
 and Shah Shuj'd installed. In November, 1841, the Afghans 
 rose, and, led by Alchar Khan, drove the British from Kabul. 
 Terrible winter retreat to Jcddldbdd. 
 
 1842-1844. Earl of Ellenborough, governor-general. Two ar- 
 mies sent to Afghanistan. Relief of Kandahar and Jalalabad, 
 Capture of Kabul. The bazar blown up. Dost Muhammad re« 
 placed, and the British withdrawn. 
 
 1844-1848. Sir Henry (afterwards lord) Hardinge, governor- 
 general. 
 
 1845. First Sikh war. 
 
 1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie, governor-general. 
 
 1848, 1849. Second Sikh war ended in the annexation of the 
 Punjab. 
 
 1852- Second Burmese war. British Burma annexed, 
 
 1856. Annexation of Oudh on th " ground of misrule. 
 1856-1862. Earl Canning, governor-general. 
 
 1857. May 10. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Mirath (Meerut). Rising 
 
 of the Muhammadans at Delhi. Massacre at Cawnpore 
 (Nana Sahib), June 27. First relief of Lucknow by Have- 
 lock, Sept. 25 ; final deliverance of the garrison by sir Colin 
 Campbell, Nov. 16. Siege and capture of Delhi, June-Sept.j 
 The mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, captured, deposed, anc' 
 banished to Rangoon ; f 1862. End of the mughal empire. 
 
 1858. The government of India transferred to the crown; gov- 
 ernor-general to be viceroy. 
 
A. D. United Slates. • 547 
 
 18C2-1803. Lord Elgin, viceroy ; 18G4-18G0, lord Lawrence, 
 
 viceroy. Fiuniiu' in Orissa, 18GG ; in Bundelkhand and Upper 
 
 Hindustiin, 1S(;S, 1S(;«). 
 1869-1872. Lord Mayo, viceroy. Internal inij)r()vements. 
 1872-187G. Lord Northbrook, viceroy. Dethronement of the 
 
 Mahrattd (Jdckicdr of Baroda. Visit of the prinee of Wales to 
 
 India. 
 1876-1880. Lord Lytton, viceroy. 
 
 1877' Jan. 1. The queen proclaimed empress of India. 
 1877, 1878. Famine in southern India. 
 
 1878-1881. Second Afghan war. Refusal of Sher All to admit a 
 British embassy. The Khxubar (Kyber), the Kuram,^iin(\. thj 
 Boldn passes occupied by the British troops, f Sher All. Abdication 
 of his son, Ydkub Khan. Defeat of a brigade of British troops by 
 Ayub Khan. Brilliant march of sir F. Roberts from Kabul to Kanda- 
 har, and rout of Ayu') Khan, 1880, Sept. 1. Abdurrahman Khdn, 
 the eldest male representative of Dost Muhammad, recognized by the 
 British as Amir, and their troops withdrawn from Kabul and Kanda- 
 har. 
 
 1880. Marquis of Ripon, viceroy. 
 
 1881. Population of all India 252,541,210, an increase in ten years 
 of over twelve millions. 
 
 § 5. UNITED STATES. 
 1789. First congress met at New York, March 4. 
 178'J. George Washington (Virginia), president. John 
 Apr. 30. Adams, vice-president. 
 Nov. 1. North Carolina accepted the constitution. 
 
 1789. Three executive departments created. Thomas Jefferson 
 (b. 1743, t 1825), secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton 
 (b. 1757, \ 1804), secretary of the treasury ; Hennj Knox, sec- 
 retary of war. These with thj attorney general formed the 
 cabinet. A national judiciary was also established. John 
 Jay, chhf justice of the siprenvi court. 
 
 178J. First ten amendments (in the nature of a bill of rights) to 
 the constitution proposed by congress to the state legislatures, and 
 ratified, in the course of two years, by three fourths of the 
 states. 
 
 1790, May 29. Rhode Island accepted the constitution. 
 
 1790. The financial affairs of the country were put on a firm basis. 
 The seat of government to be at Philadelphia for ten years, and 
 after that permanently located on the Potomac, where land 
 was ceded by the states of JMaryland and Virginia {Distnct of 
 Columbia), and the city of Washington laid out. 
 
 1790-1795. Indian war. Defeat of Harmar 1790 ; St. Clair 1791 ; 
 and victory of Wayne 1794. 
 
 1790. Death of Franklin. 
 
 Population 3,921,320 (1st census). National debt Jan. 1, 1791, 
 Jii^75,4(33,47G.52. 
 
 1791, Aug. George Hammond, minister from Great Britain, received. 
 
 Vermont a.lmitted (14th state). 
 
548 • Modern History. A. d. 
 
 A national bank (United States bank) chartered for twenty 
 1792, Apr. 2. years, and a mint, were established at Philadelphia. 
 1792. Two parties now came into prominence : the republican, 
 
 afterwards democratic, led by Jefferson ; and the federalist, 
 
 whose leaders were Hamilton and Adams. 
 
 1792. Kentucky admitted (15th state). 
 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. 
 "Washington and Adams reelected. 
 
 1793. France declared war against Great Britain, and sent Genet as 
 minister to the United States. He arrived at Charleston in 
 April, and proceeded to fit out privateers, etc. 
 
 Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, Apr. 22 ; 
 and the next year (1794) the neutrality act was passed. 
 Genet appealed from the executive to the people, and, upon the 
 demand of the government, was recalled. 
 
 1793. Fugitive slave act, substantially a dead letter until revived 
 in 1850. 
 
 1794. Whiskey insurrection in v^estern Pennsylvania. It 
 was caused by an internal revenue law of 1791, wliich laid an 
 excise on domestic spirits, and was put down by an army com- 
 posed of the militia of Pennsylvania and adjoining states. 
 
 1794. Eleventh amendment, securing the non-suability of states, 
 
 proposed by congress, and declared ratified Jan. 1798. 
 1794. Peace purchased from Algiers, and from Tripoli and Tunis 
 
 in the following years. 
 1794. The treaty of peace (p. 432) had been fully carried out by 
 neither party. Great Britain had not delivered the posts held 
 by her on the northern frontier. And she was accused of inciting the 
 Indians to hostility, of impressing American seamen, and of capturing 
 American trading vessels ; and besides, many slaves had been carried 
 away by the British when they evacuated New York. On the other 
 side, it was alleged that the provisions of the treaty with regard to 
 the collection of debts due to British subjects had not been observed. 
 To settle these differences John Jay was sent to England, and a 
 
 1794, Nov. 19. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation 
 
 (Jay's treaty) was concluded. It provided for the delivery 
 of the pi>sts before June, 1796 ; for a commission to decide 
 what river was the " St. Croix " (p. 432) ; for compensation in 
 certain cases to British subjects and American citizens, to be as- 
 certained by commissioners ; for the regulation of trade between 
 the two countries ; for the extradition of criminals, etc. The 
 treaty met with great opposition; the ratifications were not ex- 
 changed till Oct. 1795 ; and the money necessary to carry it 
 out was not voted till 1796 {speech of Fisher Ames). 
 
 1795. Treaty with Spain established the southern boundary of the 
 United States, and secured the free navigation of the Missis ■■ 
 sippi, with right of deposit at New Orleans. 
 
 1796. Tennessee admitted (16tli state). 
 Sept. 18. Washington's farewell address. 
 
 1797, Mar. 4. John Adams (Massachusetts), federalist, 2d 
 president. 
 
A. D. United States. 549 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, republican, vice-])rosi(lont. 
 1797. Special mission to FrancH'. Attempt on tiic part of the French 
 
 to extort money (X. Y. Z. affair). Pinckney, one of the envoys, 
 replied : " Millions for defense, not one cent for tril)nte." Hostilities 
 actually began. Provisional army raised ; Washington, lieutenant- 
 general ; navy department organized 1798 ; Constellation captured 
 Ulnsurgente 1799 ; but when Bonaparte came into power more pacilic 
 intentions prevailed, and a convention was concluded 1800, Sept. 30. 
 1797. The language of the French sympathizers became so violent 
 
 that the alien and sedition laws were passed. They were 
 followed by the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, 
 in which it was asserted tliat a state had a right to decide for itself 
 how far the national authority should be considered binding. 
 
 1799, Dec. 14. Death of Wash'uKjton. 
 
 1800, Nov. 22. Congress met in Washington for the first time. 
 
 Population, o,l>19,762 (2d census). 
 
 1801, John Marshall, chi(^f justice of the supreme court. In the 
 elections of 1800 the republican candidates received a major- 
 ity of the votes, but as they had equal numbers the election 
 went to the house of representatives, which chose 
 
 1801. Thomas Jefferson (Virginia) 3d president ; and 
 Aaron Burr, viee-president. James Madison, secretary of 
 state ; Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. 
 
 1801-1802. Repeal of the internal revenue taxes, and of many un- 
 popular laws. 1802. Ohio admitted (17th state). 
 
 1803, April 30. The Louisiana Purchase, by which the 
 United States actpiired : all of its present area between the 
 Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, north of the then northern 
 boundary of Mexico • the island on which Neic Orleans stands ; 
 and a claim to Texas, to icest Florida, as that portion of the 
 present states of Mississippi and Alabama south of 31° iiorth 
 latitude was then called, and perhaps even to territory west of 
 the Rocky Mountains (p. 554). The price was fifteen mil- 
 lions of dollars, and the original area of the United States 
 was more than doubled. 
 
 X803, Dec. 12. Twelfth amendment, altering the mode of elect- 
 ing president and vice-president, proposed by congress, and de- 
 clared ratified 1804, Sept. 25. 
 
 1804—1805. Failure of the impeachment of Chase, a justice of the 
 supreme court. 
 
 1801, July. Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 
 
 1801-1805. Tripolitan war. Burning of the frigate Philadelphia 
 (Decatur), which had been captured while aground, 1804. 
 Capture of Deme. Bombardment of Tripoli. Treaty 1805. 
 No inore tribute to be paid by the United States. 
 
 1805. Thomas Jefferson reelected president ; George 
 Clinton vice-president. 
 
 1806, April. The British ship Leander fired on an American trad- 
 
 ing sloop, killing John Pierce, the owner. The Leander ordered 
 out of the waters of the United States. 
 
550 Modern History. a. d. 
 
 1806, May 16. The British government issued orders in council, 
 
 declaring- tlie coast of Europe from the Elbe to Brest to be in 
 a partial state of blockade ; Napoleon replied (Nov. 21) by the Ber- 
 lin decree (p. 469). Great Britain issued other orders in council 
 (Jan. 7 and Nov. 11, 1807), followed (Dec.) by the Milan decree 
 (p. 537), which orders and decrees practically put an end to the most 
 profitable portion of the commerce of the United States. 
 
 1807, June 22. The frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British 
 
 ship Leopard, and four men claimed as deserters were taken out 
 of her by the British. The president by proclamation ordered all 
 British ships of war to leave the coast ; reparation was demanded of 
 Great Britain, and congress laid an embargo (Jefferson's embargo) 
 on all shipping in the ports of the Unit(;d States (Dec. 22). 
 
 1806. Failure of Miranda's scheme for revolutionizing the Span- 
 ish American colonies. 
 
 1807. Trial and acquittal of Aaron Burr, late vice-president, 
 for treason. It is said that he had designed seizing New 
 Orleans, detaching several states from the union, and invading 
 Mexico. 
 
 1807. Robert Fulton made the first successful application of steam 
 to navigation, in the steamboat Clermont (engine imported). 
 
 1808. The importation of slaves into the United States prohib- 
 ited after Jan. 1, 1808. 
 
 The embargo policy was designed to compel Great Britain and 
 France to withdraw their orders and decrees. The further history is 
 as follows : — 
 
 1808. Supplementary acts : 1. Jan. 8, coasting and fishing ves- 
 sels to give bonds to re-land cargoes in United States. 2. Mar. 
 
 12, boats and vessels of all kinds and land-carriages made subject to 
 the embargo [April 17, Bayonne decree directing the seizure of all 
 American vessels then in the ports of France]. 3. Apr. 25, coasting 
 trade forbidden to foreign vessels, and to be exercised by others only 
 under the most stringent rules ; enforcing act of 1809 (Jan. 9), by 
 which every attempt to avoid the embargo worked iheforfeitureoi ship, 
 boat, or vehicle, and involved ?ifine oi four times the value of the mer- 
 chandise, one half to the informer, and the president was authorized to 
 use the army and navy to enforce the emhargo. Embargo repealed 
 except as to France and England, to take effect 1809, Mar. 15. No 
 goods to be imported from those countries after May 20. 
 
 1809. March 4. James Madison (Virginia), democrat, 4th 
 president. James Monroe, secretary of state. 
 
 1810. Population 7,239,881 (3d census). 
 
 1810, March 23. Rambouillet decree, ordering the sale of all 
 
 American vessels which had been seized for violating the 
 
 French decrees. 
 
 1810, May 1. Act known as Macon's No. 2 provided that in case 
 
 either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts the 
 
 United States would proliibit trade with the other. Napoleon revoked 
 
 the Berlin and Milan decrees, but not the Rambouillet decree, Aug. 
 
 5, to take effect Nov. 1, as to American vessels. This was considered 
 
 by the president as a sufficient compliance with the condition of 
 
A. D. United States. 5ol 
 
 Macon's No. 2, and a proclamation declared the non-importation act 
 revived as to Great Britaiti after Feb. 2, 1811. 
 
 1811, May 10. En<;a<i;'enient between the American frigate Presi- 
 
 dent and the liritish ship Little Belt. 
 
 1812. Louisiana admitted (18th state), 
 
 1812, Apr. 4. Knibaro-o for ninety days. "War declared against 
 Great Britain. The orders in conncil of Jan. and Apr. 18U7, 
 revoked (Jnne 23). 
 
 1812-1814. War with Great Britain. P>ents of 1812. 
 L nsiiecessful invasion of Canada, surrender of Detroit (Anjj^. 
 10), defeat at Queenstown (Oct. 13). On the water, however, the 
 American ship Essex (Porter) captured the Alert; the Constitution 
 (Hull), the Guerriere ; the Wasp, the Frolic (both taken by the Poic- 
 tiers, a British 74) ; the United States (Decatur), the Macedonian ; 
 and the Constitution (Bainbridge), the Java. In 1813 the Amer- 
 icans were defeated at Frenchtown (Jan.); gained the battle of Lake 
 Erie (Perry); but were driven from their posts on the Niagara. The 
 English blockaded the Atlantic seaboard, and June 1 the British 
 frigate Shannon captured the Chesapeake ; the Pelican, the Argus ; 
 but on the other hand the American ship Hornet took the Peacock ; 
 the Enterprise, the Boxer. In 1814 there was another attempt to 
 invade Canada ; the Americans captured Fort Erie and won the 
 battles of Chippewa (Jidy 5) and Lundy's Lane (Jnly 15), but 
 these victories led to nothing. Battle of Lake Cliamplain won by 
 McDonough (Sept. 11). Aug. 24, the British under Ross defeated 
 the Americans at Bladenshurgh ; entered Washington the next day 
 and burnt all the public iauildings ; but were repulsed in an at- 
 tempt on Baltimore (Sept. 13) ; and \vith great loss at New Or- 
 leans (Dec, Jackson). At sea the American ship Essex (Porter), 
 after a successful cruise in the Pacific, was captured by the Phoebe 
 and Cherub ; the Peacock captured the Epen'ier ; the Wasp, the 
 Reindeer and Avon. In 1815 the Constitution captured the Cyane 
 and Levant ; and the Hornet, the Penrpiin ; while the President sur- 
 rendered to a British stpiadron. Peace, however, had been made at 
 Ghent, December 24, 1814, by a treaty by which none of the ques- 
 tions which led to the war were settled, but which provided for com- 
 missions to run the boundaries, as determined in previous treaties. 
 
 The eastern states had resisted the embargo, and later had taken 
 a very lukewarm interest in the war, and had consequently been left 
 to shift for themselves. This dissatisfaction led to the summoninn; of 
 the Hartford convention, 1814, Dec. 15, which adjourned in three 
 weeks without accomplishing anything. 
 1815. Squadron, luider Decatur, sent to the Mediterranean, and a 
 
 treat'/ negotiated mith Algiers. 
 1810. The second United States bank chartered for twenty 
 years (charter of 1st ex])ired in 1811). Protective tariff. In- 
 diana admitted (19th state). 
 
 1817-1825. James Monroe (Virginia), democrat, 5th i)res- 
 ident. Era of good feeling. J. Q. Adams, secretary of 
 state ; W. H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; and John 
 C. Calhoun, secretary of war (rG5. 1817). 
 
552 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 1817. Mississippi admitted (20th state). 
 
 1817-1818, Seminole war (Jackson). Invasion of Florida, then a ' 
 colony of Spain. Execution of two British subjects. 
 
 1818. Illinois admitted (21st state). 
 
 Pensions granted to the survivors of the revolutionary war, in 
 needy circumstances. 
 
 Convention with Great Britain as to the fisheries ; the coun- 
 try west of the " Stony [Rocky] Mountains " to be occu- 
 pied by the two powers in common for ten years, etc. 
 
 1819. Treaty with Spain. She gave up all claim to west Florida, 
 (p. 432) which had been occupied by the United States since 
 1810, and ceded east Florida, The United States gave up all 
 claim to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five mill- 
 ions to its own citizens for claims which they had agamst Spain. 
 
 1819, Alabama (22d state). Financial crisis. 
 
 1820. Maine (23d state). Population of the United States 9,638,453, 
 
 1820. Missouri compromise, by which it was agreed that 
 slavery should he prohibited in the United States west of the 
 Mississippi, north of 30° 30' north latitude, this being the 
 
 1821. southern border of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave 
 state (24th state), 
 
 1823, Dec. 2, The president in his annual message enunciated the 
 Monroe doctrine : " That the American continents, by 
 the free and independent position which they have assumed 
 and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects 
 tor future colonization, by any European power; " and that the 
 extension of the system of the Holy alliance (p. 485) to 
 America would not be viewed " in any other light than as the 
 manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United 
 States." 
 Neither of the candidates for president receiving a majority of 
 the electoral vote, the house of representatives chose 
 
 1825-1829. John Quincy Adams (b. 1767, f 1848) 
 (Massachusetts), democrat, president, although Andrew Jack- 
 son had received a plurality in the electoral college ; John C. 
 Calhoun (b. 1782, f 1850), vice-president ; Henry Clay (b. 
 1777, t 1852), secretary of state. 
 
 1825. The Erie canal was finished ; the first railroad in America (at 
 Quincy, Mass.) was completed in 1827, although steam was 
 not used on such a road in this country until 1829. 
 
 1826. Failure of the Panama congress, and 1827 of another ap- 
 pointed to meet near the city of Mexico. These were at- 
 tempts to put the Monroe doctrine into practice. 
 
 1828, Tariff of abominations, 
 
 1829-1837. Andrew Jackson (b. 1767, t 1845), (Tennes- 
 see), democrat, 7th president; John C, Calhoun, vice-president 
 (res, 1831) ; Martin Van Buren (b. 1782, f 1862), secretary of 
 state. 
 Inauguration of the spoils system ; about 690 office holders 
 removed by the president during the first year of his adniiut 
 
A. D. United States. 553 
 
 istration, in contrast with only seventy-four removals hij 
 all former presidents. Tiie govt'i-unioiit was now in the hands 
 of tliose wlio, accoi(lin<;' to senator Marcy of New York, saw 
 " nothing wrong in tlie rnle that to the victor belong the 
 spoils of the enemy." 
 
 1829. The merchants of Jioston protested against the tariff acts, and 
 were followed by the legislatures of South Carolina^ Virginia^ 
 Alabama, and North Carolina. 
 
 1830. Population 12,8()(),()20 (5th census). 
 
 1830, Jan. 27. Speech of Daniel Webster (b. 1782, f 18.52), in the 
 
 senate of the United States in reply to colonel Hayne of South 
 Carolina, who upheld extreme states-rights views. 
 
 1831. William Lloyd Garrison established in Boston a paper 
 called the Liberator, advocating the immediate and uncondi- 
 tional emancipation of the negroes. This led to the organization 
 of the abolitionists. 
 
 1831. Convention with France, nnitual settlement of claims. France 
 to pay the United States 25,000,000 francs, and to be paid 
 1,300,000 francs, such sums to be distributed to claimants in 
 either country. 
 
 The tariff act of 1832, while containing a reduction of duties, 
 retained the protective principle. A convention held in South 
 Carolina reported 
 
 1832. A nullification ordinance (Nov. 1832), which de- 
 clared that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitu- 
 tional " and are null and void, and no law, tior binding upon this stale,^^ 
 etc. Colonel Hayne was elected governor of South Carolina, and Cal- 
 houn took the seat thus vacated in the senate. Dec. 10 president 
 Jackson issued the nullification proclamation, in which the doc- 
 trine of stales-rights was refuted and the national theory set forth ; 
 and he declared his intention of executing the laws of the United States. 
 This was followed by the nullification message, 1833, Jan. 16. This 
 trouble was finally ended by the compromise tariff act, introduced 
 into the senate by Henry Clay, 1833, Feb. 12. Both sides claimed 
 the victory. 
 
 1835-1842. War with the Seminole Indians. 
 
 1836. Arkansas (25th state). 
 
 1837. Michigan (26th state). 
 
 1837-1841. Martin Van Buren (New York), democrat, 
 8tli president. 
 
 1837. Financial crisis : causes, removal (1833) of deposits from 
 the United States bank to the local banks ; great extension of 
 credit, and over-issue of paper money ; contraction of the vol- 
 ume of the currency by the (1836, July 11) specie circular, 
 which produced a great scarcity of monev. 
 
 1837. Rebellion in Canada, burning of the xVmerican steamer Car- 
 oline by the royalists. McLeod's case. 
 
 1838-1839. The gag resolutions, by which congress declared that 
 petitions praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of 
 
 Cohimbia or against the inter-state slave trade should be tabled without 
 
 being deliated, referred, or printed. 
 
554 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 1840. Independent treasury established ; the national funds to be 
 kept in the treasury at Washington and in the sub-treasuries 
 
 established in certain cities, subject to the order of the treasurer. 
 
 1840. Population 17,069,453 (Oth census). 
 After an exciting contest was elected 
 
 1841-1845. William Henry Harrison (Ohio), whig, 9th 
 president, f 1841, Apr., succeeded by John Tyler (b. 1790, 
 f 1862) of Virginia, vice-president. Daniel Webster, secretary 
 of state (res. 1843). 
 
 1842. The northeastern boundary dispute with Great Britain set- 
 tled by the Ashburton treaty. 
 
 1842. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 
 
 1844. Experimental telegraph line between Washington and Balti- 
 more built by professor S. F. B. Morse with money appro- 
 priated by congress. 
 
 1845. Florida (27th state). 
 
 In 1821 Mexico had separated from Spain, and in 1836 Texas 
 declared itself independent of Mexico. Houston with eight hundred 
 Texans defeated Santa Anna at the San Jacinto (1836, Apr. 21), and 
 drove the Mexicans across the Rio Grande ; and 
 1845» March. Texas was annexed to the United States. 
 1845-1849. James K. Polk ( Tennessee), democrat, 11th 
 
 president ; James Buchanan (b. 1781, f 1868), secretary of 
 
 state. 
 
 1845. Texas (28th state) ; 1846, Iowa (29th state). 
 
 The United States and Great Britain claimed the territory 
 west of the Rocky Mountains from the northern boundary of Mexico, 
 42° north latitude, to the southern boundary of Alaska, 54° 40' north 
 latitude. By the 
 
 1846. Oregon treaty this tract was divided between them, the 49th 
 parallel forming the boundary, and the southern portion, which 
 fell to the United States, retained the name of Oregon. 
 
 The annexation of Texas led to a 
 
 1846-1848. War with Mexico, 
 
 which was invaded by an army from the north commanded by 
 Zachary Taylor (b. 1786, f 1850) ; battles of Palo Alto (May 8), 
 Resaca (Mav 9). Surrender of Monterey (Sept. 24), Buena 
 Vista (1847, Feb. 22 and 23). In March, 1847, another army 
 under general Scott landed near Vera Cruz, which surrendered 
 March 29th. He then set out for the city of Mexico, and won 
 the battles of Cerro Gordo (April 18), Churubusco (Ar.g. 20), 
 captured the fortress of Chapultepec (Sept. 12 and 13), and en- 
 tered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14). On the Pacific the Amer- 
 icans had been equally successful, and the war was ended by 
 the 
 
 1848, Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 Mexico gave up all claim to Texas, the Rio Grande to he the 
 boundary, and ceded to the United States the provinces of New 
 Mexico and Upper California, in all about 522,955 square 
 miles, in consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. 
 
A. D. United States. 5b6 
 
 1848. Wisconsin (30th st:lt^). 
 
 In ISK) the Wilmot proviso, which provided tliat shiren/ 
 shouUl not ho perniitteil in whatever territory should he aaj u ired h-oni 
 Mexico, was defeated ; hut the agitation it occasioned led to tlie organ- 
 ization ot" 
 1848. The Free soil party, the precursor of the present repuhlican 
 
 party. 
 1849-1853. Zachary Taylor (Louisiana), whig, 12th presi- 
 dent, f July 9, 1850 ; succeeded by Millard Fillmore of New 
 York, vice-president. John M. Clayton, secretary of state ; fol- 
 lowed by Danid Webster 1850, July 20, f 1852 ; who was suc- 
 ceeded by Edward Everett (b. 1794, f 1805). 
 1850. Population 23,191,870 (7th census). The discovery of gold 
 in California (1847) had led to the rapid population of that 
 territory, and in 1850 it became tlie 31st state. 
 1850, Sept. Clay's compromises provided for the admission of Cal- 
 ifornia as a free state ; for the payment to Texas of ten millions 
 for her claim to New Mexico ; for the organization of Utah and 
 New Mexico as territories without any mention of slavery ; for 
 the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; 
 and for the rendition of slaves who had escaped to free states, 
 this last known as the 
 
 1850. Fugitive Slave Law. 
 
 1850, April 19. Clayton-Bulwer treaty with Great Britain settled 
 certain cpiestions with regard to communication between the 
 Atlantic and Pacijic ; which, owing to the acquisition of Cali- 
 fornia, had become of importance to the L^nited States. 
 
 1853-1857. Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), demo- 
 crat, 14th president ; William L. Marcy, secretary of state ; 
 Jefferson Davis (b. 1808), secretary of war. 
 
 1853, Dec. 30. Boundary dispute with Mexico settled by the 
 
 Gadsden purchase ; by which the boimdary was to be the 
 Rio Grande from its mouth to 31° 20' north latitude ; thence due 
 west to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich ; thence 
 in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river twenty miles below 
 the junction of the Gila ; thence up the middle of the Colorado river 
 until it intersects the boundary of California as determined by the 
 treaty of 1848. The price was ten millions, and the area thus acquired 
 was 45,000 square miles. 
 
 1854. Treaty -with Japan, which opened that country to commer- 
 cial intercourse with the United States, negotiated by commo- 
 dore Perry (p. 5G3). 
 
 1854. Reciprocity treaty with Great Britain secured to the 
 Ajuericans the riyht to the ^^ fisheries ; " and certain articles were 
 to be admitted free of duty into the United States and the British 
 provinces. This treaty was terminated in 18GG by the United States. 
 1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. It provided for the organ- 
 ization of two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the 
 question of slavery to tliose who sliould there settle {squatter sov- 
 ereignty)^ thus repealing in part the Missouri compromise. A 
 
556 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 struggle immediately ensued between the slave-holders and the aboli- 
 tionists as to which party should colonize these territories first. Sack 
 of Lawrence by " harder rujfians " (185(3, May 21) ; battle of Ossawat- 
 toniie {John Broivn). At last the anti-slavery party proved successful. 
 1850. Rise of " Know-Nothingis?n,'' or secret opposition to foreign 
 influence in national legislation. 
 
 1857-1861. James Buchanan (Pennsylvania), democrat, 
 
 15th president. 
 1857. In the Dred Scott case the supreme court decided that un- 
 der the constitution neither negro slaves nor their descen- 
 dants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States ; 
 and added, as a dictum, that the Missouri compromise was unconstitu- 
 tional, and that therefore a slave did not become free by being carried 
 to a territory where slavery had been prohibited under that compro- 
 mise. 
 
 1857. Great commercial distress throughout the country. 
 
 1858. Minnesota (32d state) ; 1859, Oregon (33d state). 
 
 1859. John Brown with a handful of men seized the United 
 Oct. 19. States arsenal at Harper's Ferry ; but, after half his men 
 
 were killed, was captured, and hanged December 2d of the 
 same year. 
 
 1860. Population of the United States 31,443,332 (8th census). 
 1860, Nov. Abraham Lincoln (b. 1809, f 1805) of Illinois, re- 
 
 puhlican, received the electoral votes of all the free states, — 
 Neio Jersey excepted, — but none from the slave states, and was de- 
 clared president-elect. (New Jersey gave Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 votes.) 
 
 1860, Dec. 20. South Carolina seceded from the union, and was 
 
 followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Lou- 
 isiana, and North Carolina in January, ISGl ; by Texas in Febru- 
 ary ; Virginia in April ; and by Tennessee and Arkansas in May. 
 Missouri and Kentucky declared themselves neutral. Delegates from 
 the seceded states met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 1861, 
 Feb. 4 ; and formed a provisional government nnder the style of the 
 Confederate States of America, Feb. 8. Jefferson Davis was 
 elected president ; Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president. The se- 
 ceding states endeavored to seize all the national property within 
 their borders, and were successful except at Pensacola (Florida) and 
 Charleston (South Carolina). At the latter place the commander 
 of the United States forces withdrew to an unfinislied fort, Sumter, 
 on an island in the harbor, Dec. 26, 1860 ; and on the 9th of January, 
 1801, a steamer, the Star of the West, bringing him supplies, -was 
 fired on by the state forces, and forced to return. 
 
 1861, Jan. 29. Kansas admitted to the union as a, free (34th) slate. 
 
 1861. Lincoln reached Washington in safety Feb. 23 ; and 
 was inaugurated (16th) president of the United States on 
 March 4 without disturbance. "William H. Se-ward, secretary of 
 state ; Simon Cameron, succeeded Jan. 1862, by Edwin M. Stan- 
 ton, secretary of war ; Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. 
 
 The government of the so-called confederate states attempted to open 
 negotiations, with the federal authorities, for a peaceful separation, 
 
A. D. United States. 557 
 
 but the president declined to entertain any such propositions. On the 
 contrary, it was determined to succour the f/arrison in Charleston 
 harbor. The insury 'ais fired on fort Sumter 1801, Apr. 12, wliieh 
 surrendered Apr. 14. 
 
 1861-1865. The Civil War. 
 
 Apr. 1."), the president issued a proclamation calling for 
 7o,000 rolu/iteers to serve for thi'ee months • and summoned coui^ress 
 to meet July 4. April 18 <a few companies of Pennsylvania mili- 
 tia reached Washington ; and on April 11), the anniversary of the hat- 
 tie of Lexington, the sixth Massachusetts re<»iment was attacked 
 by a mob while passing- through Baltimore. The same day the pres- 
 ident declared the pt)rts of the seceded states to be in a state of 
 blockade. On May 3d he issued a call for 4-!,()()0 men to serve for 
 three years or the war. May ]3, Great Britain recognized the 
 so-called confederate states as belligerents. June 10 the union 
 troops were repulsed at Big Bethel, and July 21 were routed at Bull 
 Run or Manassas. 
 
 Nov. 1. George B. McClellan succeeded general Scott in command 
 of the union forces. Nov. 8, Mason and Slidell, commissioners 
 from the confederate states to Great Britain and France, were 
 taken from the British mail cteamer Trent by the American 
 steamer San Jacinto. War with Great Britain averted through 
 the prudence and skill of Mr, Seward. The connnissioners 
 were given up, and thus was established a principle of inter- 
 national law for which the United States had invariably con- 
 tended. 
 
 Events of 1862. Feb. 6, capture of Fort Henry (in Ten- 
 nessee) by the union forces. Feb. 16, " unconditional sur- 
 render " of Fort Donelson to general U. S. Grant (h. 1822). 
 Mar. 9, Monitor and Merrimac. Mar. 14, capture of New- 
 bern. Apr. and 7, battle of Shiloh or Pittsburgh landing 
 (Grant) ; retreat of the confederates. Apr. 16, slavery al)ol- 
 ished in the District of Columbia. April 24, a fleet under flag- 
 officer (afterwards admiral) David G. Farragut ran the forts 
 below New Orleans, and received the surrender of that city 
 the next day. 
 
 March to July, Peninsular campaign (McClellan). Battle of Fair 
 Oaks May 31 and June 1 ; seven days battles before Rich- 
 mond (Alechanicsville, Gaines's Mill, White Oak swamp, and 
 Malvern Hill July 1) ; withdrawal from the peninsula. The 
 confederate army, now under the connnand of general Rob- 
 ert E. Lee (b. 1807, f 1870), pressed forward toward Wash- 
 ington. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Aug. 5) ; defeat of the 
 union army under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, 
 Aug. 30, Lee crossed the Potomac into Marf/lnnd, ])ut was de- 
 feated at South Mountain, and after the battle of the Antie- 
 tam (Sept. 17) recrossed the Potomac. McClellan superseded 
 by Burnside, who was repulsed with great loss at Fredericks- 
 burg (Dec. 13), and was succeeded (Jan. 26) by general 
 Hooker. 
 
558 Modern History, a. d. 
 
 Events of 1863. After the battle of the Antietam the presi- 
 dent had issued a proclamation declaring that all slaves in 
 states or parts of states in rebellion Jan. 1, 1863, should then 
 be free ; and on that day he issued the formal emancipation 
 proclamation. 
 The army of the Potomac, under general Hooker, defeated at 
 Chancellorsville (May 3). f Stonewall Jackson (b. 1826). 
 Lee again attempted an invasion of the north, but was de- 
 feated by the army of the Potomac, now commanded by gen- 
 eral George G. Meade (b. 1816, f 1872), at Gettysburg 
 (July 1-3). July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. These 
 two events were the turning points of the war. Grant assumed 
 command of the military division of the Mississippi, and with 
 force composed of the army of the Cumberland commanded by 
 Thomas (b. 1816, f 1870), and reinforcements from Vicksburg 
 under William T. Sherman (b. 1820), and from the Potomac 
 under Hooker, fought and won the battles of Lookout 
 Mountain and Missionary Ridge at Chattanooga, Ten- 
 nessee, Nov. 24 and 25. 
 
 West Virginia (loyal portion of Virginia) (35th state). 
 
 Events of 1864. Grant made a lieutenant-general (March 9), 
 and connnander-in-cliief (Mar. 12) of all the armies of the 
 United States which henceforth operated on a settled plan. May 
 3, Grant with the army of the Potomac under general Meade 
 crossed the Hapidan, fought the battles of the Wilderness 
 (May 5 to 12), Spottsylvania (May 12-21), North Anna 
 (May 21-31), Cold Harbor (June 1-3), and sat down before 
 Petersburg, June 19. A confederate force under Early was 
 sent to threaten Washington, and thus to secure the with- 
 drawal of Grant. Early penetrated into Maryland and Penn- 
 sylvania, but was defeated by Sheridan (b. 1831) at Opequan 
 (Sept. 19), Fisher's Hill (Sept. 21), and at Cedar Creek 
 (Oct. 19). The Shenandoah valley was then devastated, 
 and Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg. The western 
 armies under Sherman began a campaign against the confed- 
 erates led by general Joe Johnston (b. 1807) May 6, and 
 after a series of engagements reached Atlanta, which was 
 evacuated by the confederates Sept. 2. A portion of his army 
 was then sent north under Thomas to watch Hood (the suc- 
 cessor of Johnston), who was finally defeated before Nash- 
 ville, Dec. 15 and 16. Meanwhile Sherman, after burning At- 
 lanta, started on the march through Georgia. He reached 
 the sea Dec. 12, and took Savannah Dec. 22. On the water 
 the Kearsarge ( Winslow) sank the confederate steamer Ala- 
 bama off Cherbourg (Alabama claims, p. 560) ; and a fleet 
 under vice-admiral Farragut ran the forts at Mobile, Aug. 5, 
 
 1864, Nov. Nevada (36th state). 
 
 Nov. 8. Reelection of Abraham Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice- 
 president. 
 
 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slav- 
 
i A. D. United States. 559 
 
 ery within the United States, was proposed by congress 
 Feb. 1, and was doolaivd ratiticd Dee. 18th. 
 
 Events of 1865- Surrender of Fort Fisher to p^eneral 
 Terry, eJan. 15. Grant had gradually drawn his lines around 
 Lee's right Hank, and on April 1st Sheridan won the battle of 
 Five Forks, whieh eonipelled the ovaeuation of Petersburg 
 April 2, and the surrendc- of Kiclunond A])ril \\. Grant, w ith 
 his whole army, under Meade and Sheridan, })ursued Lee, 
 who, being surrounded, eapitulated at Appomattox Court 
 House, April 9. Meantime Sherman had set out from Sa- 
 vannah for the north, Feb. 1. On Feb. 17, he compelled the 
 evacuation of Charleston, and on April 2() received the surren- 
 der of the last confederate army, under Johnston. 
 
 1865, April 15. Assassination of Lincoln. 
 Andreic Johnson, vice-president, succeeds. 
 
 Cost of the war. National debt in 18G0, $64,842,287 ; in 1866, 
 $2,773,236,173, which great increase was in addition to the 
 debts incurred by the states and municipalities. 
 
 1865, May 22. The southern ports declared open. 
 
 May 29. Amnesty to all persons engaged in the rebellion, with the 
 exception of fourteen specified classes. 
 
 1866, Apr. 9. Civil rights bill passed over the president's veto. 
 June 16. Fourteenth amendment, securing to the freedmen 
 
 the right of citizenship, declaring the validity of the national 
 debt, and regulating the basis of representation and disqualifi- 
 cation from office, proposed by congress, and declared ratified 
 1868, July 28. 
 1866, July 16. Act to continue the freedmen's bureau, which had 
 charge of the loyal and suffering classes, black and white, in 
 the southern states, passed over the president's veto. 
 
 1866, Jidy 27. Telegraphic communication finally established 
 ■with Great Britain. 
 
 1867, March 1. Nebraska (37th state). 
 
 Mar. 2. Reconstruction act passed over the president's 
 veto. It divided the ten southern states into five military 
 districts, each commanded by an army officer, who should see 
 to the protection of life and property. The seceded states 
 to be restored to their place in the union, whenever a con- 
 vention of delegates, "elected by the male citizens, ... of 
 whatever race, color, or previous condition," except those dis- 
 franchised for participation in rebellion, etc., should frame a con- 
 stitution, which, being ratifed by the people and approved by con- 
 gress, should go into operation, and the legislature thereupon 
 elected should adopt the fourteenth amendment. 
 
 1867, Mar. 4. Tenure of office bill passed over the president's veto. 
 
 1867, Mar. 30. Alaska purchase. Area 577,340 square miles ; 
 
 price a little over seven million dollars. 
 
 1868, Feb. 24-May 2G. Impeachment of president An- 
 drew Johnson by the house of representatives, lie had op- 
 
560 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 posed the reconstruction measures of congress ; but the imme- 
 diate cause of the impeachment was an alleged violation of the 
 tenure of office act of 1867, Mar, 4. The senate acquitted him 
 by one vote (35 to 19, the constitution requiring a two thirds 
 majority). 
 
 1868, Dec. 25. Amnesty extended. 
 
 1869, Feb. 26. Fifteenth amendment, that the right to 
 vote shall not he denied or abridged on account of " race, color, 
 or previous condition of servitudCf^ proposed by congress, and 
 decLared ratified, 1870, Mar. 30. 
 
 1869, Mar. 4-1877. Mar. 5. Ulysses S. Grant (Illinois), 
 republican, 18th president. 
 
 1870, Population 38,555,983 (9th census). 
 
 1871, Mar. 3. A clause in the appropriation bill authorized the 
 president to appoint a civil service conmiission to prescribe 
 
 rules, etc. 
 
 1871, May 8. Treaty of V^ashington with Great Britain 
 provided : 1. For the reference to the emperor of Germany of 
 the dispute as to the Oregon boundary (decided in favor of the 
 United States, 1872, Oct. 21). 2. For a partial settlement of the 
 fishery dispute (Halifax award, 1877, gave Great Britain five and 
 one half million dollars) ; this part of the treaty abrogated by act of 
 the United States, 1883. 3. For the settlement of the Alabama 
 claims (^Geneva tribunal of arbitration awarded to the United States 
 over fifteen million dollars). 
 
 1873. Commercial crisis. 1875. Colorado (38th state). 
 1876. Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. 
 
 1876. The national elections of this year were very close, and con- 
 gress appointed an electoral commission (five senators, five 
 representatives, and five justices of the supreme court), which 
 declared the republican candidate elected. 
 
 1877, Mar. 5-1881, Mar. 4. Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), 
 republican, 19th president. 
 
 1879, Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments. 
 
 1880, Population 50,155,783 (10th census). 
 
 1881, Mar. 4. James A. Garfield (Ohio), republican, 20th 
 president. July 2, shot and mortally wounded, f Sept. 19. 
 Succeeded by the vice-president, Chester A. Arthur, of New 
 York, republican. 
 
 1882, May 6. Immigration of Chinese laborers suspended 
 for ten years, in accordance with a treaty with China, con- 
 cluded 1880, Nov. 7. 
 
 1883, Jan. 9. Civil service act (Pendleton bill) introduced 
 the principle of compulsory competitive examination into the 
 civil service of the United States. 
 
 § 6. CHINA. 
 1796-1820. Kiaking. 
 
 Frequent insurrections, rampant piracy. Embassy of lord Am* 
 herst (1816). 
 
A.. D. China. 561 
 
 1820-1850. Taukwang. 
 
 The exclusive privilege of the East India company ceasing in 
 18.'i4, li)i"d Nnjiler was :ii)})ointed superintendent of British trade 
 (t 1S;U). Imperial prohibition of the opium trade. Commissioner 
 Lin sent to Cautou with extraordinary powers (1838). Surrender of 
 opium by Capt. Elliot, British connuissioner to the Chinese, bv wliom 
 it was destroyed (over 20,000 chests), 1839, Mar .-June. The con- 
 tinuance of the trade, and the English demands that the loss be made 
 good to their traders, caused the 
 
 1810-1842. First war with Great Britain (Opium war). A 
 treaty concluded by Keshin, successor of Lin (lloug-kong 
 ceded to England), was rejected by the emperor. The English cap- 
 tured A mo>/ (1842, Aug. 27), Ni7}g-po (Oct. 13), Shang-hai (1842, 
 June 19), and stormed Ching-keang (July 21). 
 1842, Aug. 29. Treaty of Nanking. 
 
 1. Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Ning-po, Shanghai, opened to British 
 trade. 2. Hong-kong ceded to England. 3. The Chinese paid 
 !?21, 000,000. 4. Establishment of a regular tarifp. 5. Otticial inter- 
 course to be on a basis of equality. 
 
 1844, Jidy 3. Treaty with the United States {Caleb Cushing, am- 
 bassador). Treaty with France (Oct. 23). 
 1850-1860. Hienfung. 
 
 1850, Aug. Outbreak of the Tai-ping rebellion (1850-1804). The 
 leader was Hung Sui-tsuen, who called himself Tien-teh (" ce- 
 lestial virtue ''), and claimed to have been commissioned by heaven 
 to conduct a political and religious reform of the empire. Promulga- 
 tion of a religious system based on some knowledge of Christianity. 
 1853. Capture of Nanking (Mar. 19), Shanghai (Sept. 7). Sui- 
 tsuen proclaimed emperor. 
 
 1855. Failure of the attack made by the rebels on Peking. 
 
 1856, Oct. 8. The lorcha ^ Ai-row, owned by a Chinese, but com- 
 
 manded by an Irishman and flying the British flag, was 
 boarded at Canton by Chinese officers in search of suspected pirates ; 
 twelve natives were carried off and the flag pulled down. 
 1856, Nov. Three Chinese forts destroyed by the American fleet 
 
 under commodore Armstrong, the Chuiese having fired upon 
 American boats. 
 
 The attempt of the English government {Palmerston, p. 543) to ob- 
 tain a disavowal of the attack upon the Arrow, or an apology there- 
 for, resulted in the 
 1857-1860. (Second) war with Great Britain allied with France. 
 
 Lord Elgin, English envoy. Destruction of the Chinese fleet 
 (1857, May 26, 27). Capture of Canton (Dec. 28, 29). Treaties of 
 Tientsin (June, 1858) with Great Britain, France, the United 
 States. 
 
 Infraction of the treaty (1859, June), renewal of the war. Repulse 
 of the English attempt to force the passage of the Pei-ho forts (June 
 
 -i Lorcha: a lij^ht Chinese sailinp: vessfl, carryini; c^uns, hiiilt after tlie Euro* 
 pean model, but rigged Uke a Chinese junk. — Impkklax. Dictionauy. 
 
562 Modern History. A. D. 
 
 25). Chinese defeat at Palikao (1860, Sept. 21). Destruction of the 
 summer palace (Oct, 6), surrender of Peking (Oct. 12). 
 1860, Oct. 24. Treaty of Peking. 
 
 Ratification of the treaty of Tientsin ; toleration of Chris- 
 tianity ; revised tariff ; payment of an indemnity ; resident ambassa- 
 dors at Peking. 
 1860-1875. Tungchi, six years old. 
 
 Palace revolution. Administration of prince Kung. Reor- 
 ganization of the imperial army under general Ward, an American 
 (f 1861), and colonel Gordon, an Englishman. The " ever victorious 
 force." 
 1862-1864. Suppression of the rebellion. Capture of Nanking 
 
 (1864, July 19). Suicide of Hung Sui-tmen. 
 1866. Successful rebellion of Yakub Beg (f 1877) in Kashgar. 
 1868. Embassy of Atison Barlingaiiie (and two Chinese envoys) to 
 
 the treaty powers. (Burliugame f 1870.) 
 
 1870, May. Mohammedan rebellion in the northwest (^Yun-7ian, 
 Kan-suk). 
 
 1871. Russia annexed Kuldja, until the Chinese power should be 
 reestablished in that region. 
 
 1873. Settlement of the audience question ; foreign ambassadors re- 
 ceived by the emperor without the ceremony of prostration 
 (kotow). Suppression of the Mohammedan rebellion. 
 
 1875 — X. Kwangsii, three years old {Tsai-tien). 
 
 1876, June 30. Opening of the first railroad in China (Shanghai to 
 
 Woosung, eleven miles). 
 1877-1878. Terrible famine in the north of China. 
 
 1877, Dec. Defeat and assassination of Yakub Beg. Capture of 
 
 Kashgar. 
 1879, June. Treaty with Russia negotiated by Chung-how : China 
 obtained only a portion of Kuldja and paid an indemnity. Re- 
 jection of the treaty. 
 
 1881, Aug. Peace with Russia negotiated by the marquis Tseng. 
 
 Cession of nearly all of the Kuldja district ; China paid the 
 expenses of Russian occupation. 
 
 1882. A threatened war with Japan avoided by Chinese diplomacy. 
 Dispute with the French over Tonquin (p. 535). 
 
 § 7. JAPAN. 
 
 Mlkados. Shoguns (Tokugawa family). 
 
 1817-1846, Ninko 1787-1838 lyenori. 
 
 ( 1838-1853 lyeyoshi. 
 1846-1866, Komei ^ 1853-1859 lyesada. 
 
 ( 1859-1866 lyemochi. 
 1867 — X. Mutsuhito 1866-1868 Reiki (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- 
 
 nobu ; Noriyoshi). 
 Growing dissatisfaction with the usurped power of the shoguns 
 among the samurai ; jealousy of the long possession of the shogunate 
 by the Tokugawa family (1603-1868) among the great daimios. 
 1853, July 7. Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, en- 
 tered the harbor of Yedo with four vessels, but soon departed ; 
 in Feb. 1854, he returned, and concluded a 
 
A. D. Japan. 5G.'] 
 
 1854, Mar. 21. Treaty between Japan and tlu; United States, 
 which was si<;iu'(l by tht' shogun, wlioni Perry took to b(! the 
 "secular eni})eror " of flapan, inuU'r the newly assumed title of tai- 
 hun (tycoon, ''<;reat prince," properly a title of the mikado). Trea- 
 ties with Great Britain (1854, Oct. 14), and Russia (1855, Jan. *J(j). 
 In 1858 trt'aties (peace, amity, unrestricted commcrc-i') concluded 
 with tlie United States {Townshend Harris), Great Britain (Elgin), 
 France, Russia, — all signed by the shogun. 
 1859. Yokoltaina, Ncujasaki, Hakodate, opened to trade. 
 
 These unwarranted assumptions of power on the part of the 
 &,hogun angered the mikado and the Kioto coui-t, where the foreigners 
 were regarded with deep distrust. 
 1800. First Japanese embassy to the United States sent out by //, 
 
 prime minister of the shogun (assassinated Mar. 23). 
 1861-18G5. Civil dissensions. Outrages upon foreign representa- 
 tives. Death of an Englishman (Richardson) in a broil with 
 the train of the brother of the prince of Satsuma, avenged by the 
 bombardment of Kagoshima (iu Satsujna), and the exaction of 
 SG25,0U0 (18o2). 
 
 18G2. The daimios, released from compulsory residence at YedOy 
 Hocked to Kioto. 
 
 1863, Some American, Dutch, and French vessels, having anchored 
 in the forbidden roadstead of Shimonoseki after due warning, 
 
 were fired upon. In reprisal these powers bombarded the batteries, 
 inflicting considerable loss. In spite of this 
 
 1864, Sept. 4. Bombardment and destruction of the Shimonoseki 
 
 batteries by English, French, Dutch, and American vessels. 
 Exaction of an indemnity of 63,000,000, of which the United States 
 received 6785,000.1 
 
 1865, Nov. 25. Ratification of treaties extorted by the foreign pow- 
 
 ers. 
 
 1867. Nov. 19. Resignation of Keiki, the last shogun. 
 
 1868. Restoration of the mikado. End of the dual gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The proclamation setting forth the resumption of government 
 by the mikado (1868, Jan. 3) was followed by the revolt of Keiki and 
 by open war, which, after severe fighting (battles of Fushimi, 1868, 
 Jan. 27-30 ; Wakamatsu, Hakodate), ended in favor of the imperial- 
 ists (June, 1860). 
 
 1869. Nov. Residence of the mikado transferred from Kioto to Yedo 
 
 (Jeddo), the name of the latter place having been previously 
 changed to Tokio (" the eastern capital "). 
 
 1870. The mikado, by advice of the leading samurai {Okuho), 
 changed front, and welcomed the foreigners. 
 
 1871. Embassy to the United States and Europe. 
 
 1871. Abolition of feudalism ; relegation of the daimios 
 to private life ; abolition of the title ; exchange of their rev- 
 enues for pensions. 
 
 1 In Feb. 18S3, the houfse of represpntatives accopfed a favoral)le report upon 
 the Japanese indemnity bill. Repayment of the $785,000 without interest. 
 
564 Modern History. A. d. 
 
 Assimilation to western civilization. Issue of a code of criminal 
 law (revised 1881) ; establishment of a government post ; introduc- 
 tion of the telegraph ; railroad from Yokohama to Sliinogana (1872) ; 
 bureau of education ; adoption of the Gregorian calendar (1874, Jan. 
 1) ; female normal school (1875) ; university of Tokio (1873); rees- 
 tablishment of the Shinto faith (p. 32) ; new military system. 
 1874. Expedition to Formosa, avenging the murder of Japanese sail- 
 ors on that island. 
 
 1876. Enforcement of a treaty with Corea. 
 
 1877. Rebellion in Satsuma (Saigo, Kirimo) suppressed after heavy 
 fighting (Saigo,f Sept. 24). Large issue of inconvertible paper 
 money to defray the expenses. 
 
 1878. Estal3lishment of local elective assemblies for regulating local 
 taxation, and with right of petitioning the central government ; 
 
 franchise secured to all males twenty-one years of age who pay a 
 land tax of $5.00. 
 
 1881. Negotiations with the foreign powers relative to the adoption 
 of a higher tariff, and to the abolition of the privilege enjoyed 
 
 by foreigners of living under the jurisdiction of their native country. 
 Dispute with China over the Loo-Choo islands. 
 
 1882, Oct. Imperial decree establishing a new constitution ; promise 
 
 of a national assembly in 1890. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbrkviatiows : a. »= abbot ; adm. = admiral ; b. = bishop ; burpr- = burpprravc : c. = count ; 
 d. = (liike; o. =earl; el. = elector; jr. d. = ^rand duke; II. R. K. = Holy Roinun Einiiire; k. = 
 kin^; landar. = lniult;riive; niargr. = margrave; pr. = pruicei q. = queen; U. S. = United States 
 of America; vise. = viscount. 
 
 AiCHEN, 180, 195. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Aahme.^, king.<; of Egypt : I., 4; 11., 7. 
 
 Abb:i.siilei^, rule of the, 183. 
 
 Abdel-Kader captured by the French, 527. 
 
 Abd-er-Rahmau : I., founded caliphate of 
 Cordova, 183,209; III., 209. 
 
 Abdul-Aziz, deposition of, 521. 
 
 Abdul Hamid, II., 521 ; Kerim,522. 
 
 Abel, k. of Denmark, 236. 
 
 Aberdeen administration, 543. 
 
 Abo, Peace of, 409. 
 
 Abolitionists, organization of the, 553. 
 
 Aboukir, battle of, 460. 
 
 Abraham, 7. 
 
 Absalon, bishop, 235. 
 
 Abu-Bekr, 192. 
 
 Abul Abbas, overthrows Ommiads, 183. 
 
 Abydos, battles of, 68. 
 
 Abyssinia, Christian kingdom of, 190. 
 
 Abyssinian expedition, 545. 
 
 Academic Framjaise founded, 326. 
 
 Acadia, explorations in, 290 ; French claims 
 to, 363 ; limits of, 364, n. ; granted to 
 St. Etienne, 364 ; ceded to England, 363, 
 419 ; dispersion of the French inhabit- 
 ants, 421. 
 
 Achaean League, 43, 48 ; under Aratos, 79 ; 
 under Philopcemen, 80 ; fall, 80 ; first 
 Macedonian war, 118. 
 
 Achfean War, 80, 122. 
 
 Achaemenidie, 25-27. 
 
 Acliaia, 39, 48 ; Roman province, 80, 146 ; 
 duchy of, 216. 
 
 Achilles, 47. 
 
 Acilius Glabrio, 119, 135. 
 
 A^oka, emp. of Magadha, 23. 
 
 Acre, conquest of, in 3d crusade, 215 ; 
 taken by Mamelukes, 217 ; repulse of 
 Napoleon, 460. 
 
 Aft for the better government of IndJa, 
 544 ; of confederation, 483 ; of grace, 
 387 ; of mediiition, 464 ; for perpetual par- 
 liament, 345 : of settlement, 388 ; of su- 
 premacy under Henry VIII., 335, under 
 Elizabeth, 3:58; of uniformity, 338, en- 
 forced by James I., 340, under Charles 
 II., 379, of Vientia, 482; final act, 483, 
 487. 
 
 Aotium, Corcyraeans victorious at, 65 ; de- 
 feat of Antoniua, 146. 
 
 Adalbert, archb. of Bremen, 199. 
 
 Ad.ims, John, defends Preston, 425 ; mem- 
 ber of Continental Congress, 426, 427 ; 
 negotiates treaty with France, 429 ; vice- 
 pres., 547, 548 ; pres., 548. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, sec. of state, 551 ; 
 pres., 552. 
 
 Adams, Samuel, 426. 
 
 Addington administration, 536. 
 
 Addison, Joseph, 436. 
 
 " Addled " parliament, 341. 
 
 Adelheid, empress, married Otto 1,, 196*, 
 regent in Italy, 197. 
 
 Adhemar of Puy, 214. 
 
 Adherbal, 126. 
 
 Adierkreuz, Gen., 472, 
 
 Adolf of Nassau, elected k. of Germany, 244. 
 
 Adolf Frederic, k. of Sweden, 409. 
 
 Adrianople, battle of, 159, 171 ; peace ol, 
 489 ; agreement of, 523. 
 
 .Sdiles, plebeian, 96 ; curule, 101 ; pay for 
 the great games, 120. 
 
 Jilgatian Islands, victory of Catulus, 111. 
 
 JEgina, Doric community, 63 ; war with 
 Athens, 57 : tributary to Athens, 63 ; as- 
 signed to Athenian citizens, 65. 
 
 ^gospotami, battle of, 69. 
 
 Alfred the Great, k. of England, 204. 
 
 MliB. Capitolina, 12, 153. 
 
 Mile, leader of the South Saxons, 177. 
 
 iEmilianus, 156. 
 
 iEneas, 87. 
 
 iEneas Sylvius, 253. 5ee Pius 11. 
 
 jEolian tribes, 43 ; colonies, 49. 
 
 ^qui, wars with Rome, 97, 98, 100 ; receive 
 Roman citizenship, 105. 
 
 ^rarii, 92. 
 
 iEscendun, Danes defeated at, 204. 
 
 ^schines, 72 
 
 -^schylus, 64. 
 
 ^thelflajd, ladv of the Mercians, 204. 
 
 ^thelred, kings of England, 1., 203, 204 ; 
 II., the Unready, 205. 
 
 Jithelstan, k. of England, 204. 
 
 ^thelwulf. k. of England, 203. 
 
 Aetius, 172 ; defeats Attila. 173. 
 
 .Stolian League founded, 79 ; assists Rome, 
 116. 
 
 Afghan war, first, 546 ; second, 547. 
 
 Afghans of Ghor, supremacy in India, 211. 
 
 Africa, circumnavigated by Egyptians (.'), 
 6 ; by Portuguese, 279, 280 ; Roman 
 province, 121 ; Caesar's war, 142 ; Octavi- 
 anus administers, 146; Vandal king- 
 dom, 172; fall of the Vandal power, 174. 
 
 Agamemnon, 47. 
 
 Agathocles, k. of Syracuse, 20. 
 
 Age of Augustus, 147 ; of Louis XIV., 
 371 : of Pericles, 64. 
 
 Agesilaus. h. d Snurta, 70, 71. 
 
566 
 
 Index. 
 
 Agincourt, battle of, 259, 271. 
 Agnes of Meran, 226 ; of Poitou, 199. 
 Agrarian laws, 95, 97; Liciuian, 101; re- 
 forms of the Gracchi, 124, 125 ; of Dru- 
 
 pus, 128 ; of Sulla, 132 ; of Poinpeius, 
 
 137. 
 Agricola, in Britain, 37, 152 ; his death, 
 
 152 ; his wall in Britain, 176. 
 Agrigentum, 84 ; captured by Carthaginians, 
 
 20 ; by Romans, 110. 
 Agrippa, M. Vipsauius, 146. 
 Agrippiua, the elder, 148 ; the younger, 148, 
 
 150. 
 Aguirre, Lope de, 288 
 Ahmad Shah, emp. of India, 442 ; Durani, 
 
 invades India, 442, 443. 
 Ahmednagar, kingdom, 353, 389. 
 Ahuramazda, 24, 25. 
 Ainos, 33. 
 
 Aistulf , k. of Langobards, 175, 184. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1668, 367 ; of 
 
 1748, 403, 419, 438 ; congress, 487. See, 
 
 also, Aachen. 
 Ajax, 47. 
 
 Akbar the Great, 353, 354. 
 Akkad, 13. 
 
 Alabama, admitted to the Union, 552. 
 Alabama claims settled, 545, 560. 
 Alamanni, on the Rhine, 170; occupy 
 
 Germania superior, 172 ; defeated by 
 
 Chlodwig, 173. 
 Alamgir II., emp. of India, 442. 
 Alani, 170, 171. 
 
 Alarijon, explores the Coloi-ado, 287. 
 Alaric, k. of West Goths, 171. 
 Alaska purchase, 559. 
 Ala-ud-dan, sultan of Delhi, 241. 
 Alba Longa, 87 ; destruction, 89. 
 Albanian league, 525. 
 Albemarle, d. of, 379. See, also. Monk. 
 Alberoni, card., 397. 
 Albert, the Bear, margr. of Brandenburg, 
 
 218, 219. 
 Albert I., emp. of II. R. E., of Austria, 
 
 245, II., 253. 
 Albert, c. of Ilolstein, 235. 
 Albert, d. of Mecklenburg, 237, 238. 
 Albert, of Saxe-Coburg, marries Victoria, 
 
 542 ; dies, 544. 
 Albertine line, in Saxony, 305. 
 Albigenses, 227. 
 Albinus, Clodius, 155. 
 Albion, 36. 
 
 Alboin, k. of Langobards, 175. 
 Albuera, battle of, 473. 
 Albuquerque, 280, 355. 
 Alcantara, order of, 240, 328. 
 Alcibiades, 66 ; trial and flight, 68 ; death, 
 
 69. 
 Alcolea, battle of, 512. 
 Alcuin, 186. 
 Alembert, 448. 
 Aleppo, sultanate of, 210. 
 Alesia, siege of, 139. 
 Alessandria built, 221. 
 Alexander, prince of Bulgaria, 524. 
 Alexander, the Great, k. of Macedonia, 73 ; 
 
 expedition to Persia, 20, 29, 73 ; invades 
 
 India, 23, 75 ; plans to Hellenize the East, 
 
 75; his death, 76. 
 Alexander, Popes : III., 221 ; V., 251 ; VI. 
 
 327. 
 
 Alexander, tsar of Russia: I., accedes, 
 
 403 ; defeated at Austerlitz, 467 ; in the 
 war of 1813, 477 ; in London, 482, 500 ; 
 II., 500 ; murder, 525 ; III., 525. 
 
 Alexandria, founded, 74 ; capital of Egypt, 
 77 ; Vespasian, 151 ; captured by Per- 
 sians, 191 ; captured by Arabs, 182 ; by 
 the French, 460 ; bombarded by the Eng- 
 lish, 546. 
 
 Alexandrine library founded, 77. 
 
 Alexandrine war, 142. 
 
 Alexis, tsar of Russia, 374. 
 
 Alexius Comnenus, Greek emp., 214. 
 
 Alfonso III., k. of Aragon, 276 
 
 Alfonso X., k. of Castile, 223, 240- 
 
 Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, 621. 
 
 Alford, battle of, 348. 
 
 Algarbe, kingdom of, 276. 
 
 Algeria, §xp. of Charles V., 304 ; French 
 expedition, 489, 527. 
 
 Ali, 182. 
 
 Alien bill, 535. 
 
 Alien and sedition laws in U. S., 549, 
 
 Alkassor, battle of, 332. 
 
 Alkmar, battle of, 461. 
 
 " Alleluia victory,"' 38. 
 
 Allen, Ethan, 427. 
 
 Allersheim, battle of, 315. 
 
 Allia, battle of the, lOO. 
 
 " Alliance of the three kings," 497. 
 
 Allouez, in New France, 364. 
 
 " All the talents' " ministry, 537. 
 
 Alma, battle of the, 500. 
 
 Almagro, Diego de, 286, 287. 
 
 Almanza, battle of, 434. 
 
 Almanzor 209. 
 
 Almeida, 280 ; siege of, 473. 
 
 Almofidan. See Toorau-shah. 
 
 Alniohades, conquer Spain, 240, 
 
 Almoravides, conquer Spain, 209, 240. 
 
 Alp Arslan, 210. 
 
 Alsace, formerly Germania superior, 172; 
 ceded to France, 316 ; protestants in, 
 369 ; ceded to tlie German empire, 519. 
 
 Alsen, island of, 506. 
 
 Altranstadt, peace of, 395, 
 
 Alva, duke of, in the Netherlands, 330. 
 
 Alvarado, 287. 
 
 Alyattes, k. of Lydia, 21, 25. 
 
 Amadeus I., k. of Spain, 512, 520. 
 
 Amagro, 287. 
 
 Amalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. 
 
 Amalasuntha, 174. 
 
 Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, 214. 
 
 Amasis. See Aahmes. 
 
 Amazon, discovery of, 284, 288. 
 
 Amazons, 45. 
 
 Amberg, battle of, 458. 
 
 Ambiorix, 139. 
 
 Amboise, conspiracy of, 321 ; peace of, 321. 
 
 Amboyna, massacre of, 342, 354. 
 
 Ambrosius, b. of Milan, 161. 
 
 Amendments to U. S. Constitution, first 
 ten, 547; 11th, 548; 12th, 549; 14th, 
 559 ; 15th, 560. 
 
 Amcnemhat, kgs. of Egypt: I., conquers 
 Nubia ; II., III., built lake Meri, 4 
 
 Amenhotep, III., k. of Egypt, war with 
 Syrians, etc., 4; his statue (Meninon), 5. 
 
 America, alleged discovery, 280 n. ; dis- 
 covei-y by Northmen, 'i80 ; by Columbus, 
 279 ; named, 283 ; conquest of Mexicft 
 
Index. 
 
 567 
 
 285; conquest of Pern, 2*^6; Colifrny'a 
 colonies, 2S8 ; \inriiii;i explon-tl, 2^9 ; 
 foun<l;ition of Port Uo.val h\ Frciuh, 2'JO ; 
 English coloiiii's, 2'Jl ; Dutch and .Swed- 
 ish settlements, union of tlie colonies, 
 298 ; New France and the Arctic re- 
 gion, 299; British, Dutch, and Swedish 
 colonies, 357 ; King Philip's war, 359 ; 
 iCing William's war, 3(.il ; Queen Anne's 
 war, 3G3 ; French settlements and dis- 
 coveries, 363 ; iving George's war, 419. 
 French and Indijin war, 42u ; Stamp act, 
 423 ; Continental Conixress, war of inde- 
 pendence, 42G ; signing the Constitution, 
 433. See Canada, United States, Spanish 
 colonies. 
 
 American Association, 426. 
 
 Amherst, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 
 
 Amherst, gen., 421. 
 
 Amida, sack of, 188, 190. 
 
 Amiens, peace of, 18o2, 4G4, 536 ; battle of, 
 618. 
 
 Amnion, 2, 5. 
 
 Amnias, battle of, 129. 
 
 Ampfing, battle of, 247. 
 
 Amphictyonic council, 42 ; first holj' war, 
 51, 52 ;" 2d holy war, 72 ; Philip a mem- 
 ber, 72. 
 
 Amphipolis, battle of, 66. 
 
 Amroo, conquers Egypt, 182. 
 
 Amulius, k. of Alba Lcnga, 87. 
 
 Amyrta?us, 29. 
 
 Anabaptists, 304. 
 
 Anagawa, battle of, 355. 
 
 Anastasius, Greek emp., 190. 
 
 Anaxagoras, 64. 
 
 Ancus Marcius, k. of Rome, 89. 
 
 Andelot, Francois d', 321. 
 
 Andernach, 139 ; battle of 193, 194. 
 
 Andre, major, 431. 
 
 Andrew II., k. of Hungary, crusade, 216. 
 
 Andriscus (Pseudo-Philippus), 122. 
 
 Andros, Sir Edmund, 361. 
 
 Angelus, dynasty of, 240. 
 
 Anglas, Bois-tiyd', 456. 
 
 Augles, settle in Britain, 172, 176 ; east, 
 north, 178 : middle, 179. 
 
 Anglican Church, 338. 
 
 Augli')-Saxou chronicle. 204. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons. See Augles, Saxons, Jutes, 
 England. 
 
 Angora, battle of, 27S. 
 
 AngoulOme, c. See Francis 1., k. of 
 France. 
 
 Angouleme, house of, 317. 
 
 Angromainyu, 24. 
 
 Anjou, houi^e of, England, 231 ; France, 
 231 ; Hungary, 277 ; Naples, 225, 263. 
 
 Ankarstrom, 409. 
 
 Anna, of Brittany, 262, 318. 
 
 Anna Ivanovna, of Ru.ssia, 410. 
 
 Anna-Dido, 17. 
 
 Annam, French in, 535. 
 
 Anne of Austri;i, 365. 
 
 Anne Boleyn, 334, 3.35 ; of Cleves, 334. 
 
 Anne, q. of England, as princess deserts 
 James 11., 384; acknowledged successo- 
 of William III., 371 ; her reign, 433 
 death, 436. 
 
 Anno, archb. of Cologne, 199. 
 
 Annus normalis, 317. 
 
 Anselm, archb. of Canterbury, 230. 
 
 AnsgariuB, 207, 208. 
 
 Anson, voyage of, 438. 
 
 Antalcidas, peace of, 70. 
 
 Anthemius, Roman enip., 162. 
 
 Anti-corn law leagu(!,542. 
 
 Anticosti, discovery of, 287. 
 
 Antietam, battle of, 657. 
 
 Antigonus, 76, 77 ; (ionatas, 77. 
 
 Antiochia, 77 ; capture of, 190. 
 
 Antiochus, III., the Great, k. of Gyria, 29, 
 119. 
 
 Antipatcr, 76, 79. 
 
 Anti-reformation, 306. 
 
 Antium, 104. 
 
 Anton, k. of Navarre, 321. 
 
 Antoninus, emp. of Rome, rebuilds Agrico- 
 la's wall, 38 ; reign, 154. 
 
 Antonius, C., consul, 136, 137. 
 
 Antonius, M., war with Ponipeius, 141 ; as- 
 sumes control upon Caesar's death, 144 ; 
 follows Cleopatra, 145 ; second triumvi- 
 rate, 145 ; governor of the East, 145 ; 
 Parthian war, 30, 146 ; defeat and death, 
 146. 
 
 Antwerp, capture of, 331. 
 
 Anville, d', in America, 419. 
 
 Apepi, k. of Egypt, 8. 
 
 Aphrodite, 3, 17. 
 
 Apis, sacred bull, 2, 27. 
 
 Apollo, saves Croesus, 26 ; oracle of, 51. 
 
 Appius Claudius, decemvir, 98 ; the censor. 
 102, 106 ; caecus, 1U8 ; caudex, 110. 
 
 Apries. See Ilophra. 
 
 Apulia, 83, 141. 
 
 Aquae Sextiae, battle of, 127 ; colony of, 
 125. 
 
 Aquillius, 129. 
 
 Aquilonia, battle of, 106. 
 
 Aquitania, 34, 182. 
 
 Arabia, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; invaded 
 by Seti I., 5; by Romans, 148; Roman 
 province, 153 ; invaded by Chosroes, 190. 
 
 Arabian dynasty in Chaldea, 13. 
 
 Arabs, conquest of Africa, 182 ; of Spain, 
 183; war with the Greek empire, 210 ; 
 cru.sades against, 213 ; conquest of Per- 
 sia, 193 ; invasions of India, 211 ; dy- 
 nasties in India, 241 ; capture of Con- 
 stantinople, 260, 278. See .Moors. 
 
 Aragon, united w ith Catalonia, 240 ; wars 
 with the Moors and with Castile, 276 ; 
 united with Castile, 328. See Spain. 
 
 Aranda , 415. 
 
 Aratus, 79. 
 
 Arausio, battle of, 127. 
 
 Arbela, battle of, 74. 
 
 Arc, Joan of. See Dare. 
 
 Arcadius, Greek emp., 161. 
 
 Archelaus, 130. 
 
 Archidamus, 65. 
 
 Archons, development, 51 ; elected by all 
 citizens, 53 ; reduction of their power, 
 55. 
 
 Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of, 481. 
 
 Arcole, battle of, 458. 
 
 Arcot, Nawab of, 443. 
 Ard.tghan, 523, 524. 
 Ardoin of Ivrea, 197. 
 Areopagus, 53, 62. 
 
 Argal, deputy gov. of S. Virginia, 292 ; al- 
 leged submission of Dutch to, 298 ; expe- 
 dition to Mt. Desert, 299. 
 
568 
 
 Index. 
 
 Argaum, battle of, 541. 
 
 Arginusae, battle of, 69. 
 
 Argonauts, expedition of, 46. 
 
 Argos, chief town in Peloponnesus, 48 ; 
 decline of power, 56 ; allied with Athene, 
 62. 
 
 Argvle, d. of, 346, 437. 
 
 Argyle, e. of, trial, 382, 383. 
 
 Arianism, 159. 
 
 Ariosto, 328. 
 
 Ariovistus, 138, 167. 
 
 Aristagoras, 28. 
 
 Aristion, 130. 
 
 Aristobulus, k. of the Jews, 11. 
 
 Aristodemus, 51. 
 
 Aristogiton, 54. 
 
 Aristonienes, 51. 
 
 Aristophanes, 64. 
 
 Aristotle, 73. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant, 8. 
 
 Arkansas admitted to the Union, 553. 
 
 Aries, kingdom of, 198. 
 
 Arlington, 380. 
 
 Armada, Great, 331, 339. 
 
 Armagnacs, attack Basle, 253 ; massacred, 
 259. 
 
 Armed neutrality, 412 ; renewed, 536. 
 
 Armenia, 12, 78 ; invaded by Asshur-natzir 
 pal I., 14; subject to Assyria, 14, to Me- 
 dia, 25, to Cyrus the Persian, 26 ; attacked 
 by the Parthians, 30; Roman province, 
 153 ; conquered by Sapor, 188 ; reduced 
 by M. Aurelius, 193 ; ceded to Russia, 
 523. 
 
 Arniinius defeats Varus, 149 ; after-history, 
 167. 
 
 Armorica, Venetii in, 138; Britons emi- 
 grate to, 172. 
 
 Arnim, 312. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, 221. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, siege of Quebec, 427 ; 
 defeat on Champlain, 428 ; his treason, 
 430. 
 
 Arnulf of Carinthia, 193. 
 
 Arpads in Hungary, 277. 
 
 Arques, battle of, 324. 
 
 Arsaces, founder of the Parthian mon- 
 archy, 29 ; dynastic name of all the Par- 
 thian monarchs (I.-XXX.), 29, 30. 
 
 Arsacidae, 155. 
 
 Arses, emp. of Persia, 29. 
 
 Art in Greece, 64 ; in Italy, 327. 
 
 Artabanus I., k. of Parthia (Arsaces VIII., 
 30; III. (Arsaces XXX.), last k. of 
 Farthia, defeated by Artaxerxes. 30, 187. 
 
 Artaphernes, 57. 
 
 Artavasdes, !i. of Armenia, 146. 
 
 Artaxata, 135 ; captured, 150, 154. 
 
 Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 28 ; II., defeats 
 the younger Cyrus, 29; III., 29; Artax- 
 erxes I. founds the new Persian empire, 
 30, 187 ; II., 189. 
 
 Artemis, 21. 
 
 Artemisium, battle of, 59. 
 
 Artenay, battle of, 518. 
 
 Artevelde, Jacob van, 257. 
 
 Arthur, k. of the Silures, 37; traditions 
 concerning him in the N. and S., 178; 
 cycle of romances, 235. 
 
 Arthur, d. of Brittany, 226; death, 233. 
 
 Arthur, Chester A., pres. of the United 
 States, 560. 
 
 Articles of confederation, 429 : of Perth, 
 341. 
 
 Artois, c. of, 450. 
 
 Arundel, e. of, impeached, 270 ; executed, 
 339. 
 
 Aryans, uncertainty concerning, Introd 
 iv. ; in Asia Minor, 21 ; primitive home, 
 24 ; Celts, 34. 
 
 Aschaffenburg, battle of, 510. 
 
 Asculum, battle of, 108. 
 
 Ashantee war, 545. 
 
 Ashburton treaty, 554. 
 
 Ashby and White, case of, 484. 
 
 Ashera, Phoenician goddess, 17. 
 
 Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355. 
 
 Ashley, 380. 
 
 Asia, Roman province, 124. 
 
 Aske, Robert, rebellion of, 335 
 
 Aspasia, 64. 
 
 Aspern, battle of, 472. 
 
 Assam, 389, 541. 
 
 Assandun, battle of, 205. 
 
 Assaye, battle of, 541. 
 
 Asshur, 12, 13. 
 
 Asshurbanipal, emp. of Assyria, 6, 15. 
 
 Asshur-ebil-ili, k. of Nineveh, 15. 
 
 Asshur-natzir-pal I., emp. of Assyria, 14. 
 
 Assignats, issued, 450 ; decline two thirds, 
 454 ; total amount issued, 457. See 
 Mandats. 
 
 Assizes of Clarendon, 232. 
 
 Associations of nobles, 250. 
 
 Assyria, geography, religion, 12 ; civiliza- 
 tion, chronology, 13; art, 15; no Assyr- 
 ian conquest of Egypt under Shashang 
 I., 5 n. 2 ; conquest of Egypt by Esar- 
 haddon, 6 ; independent empire, 13 ; 
 heiglit of power, 15 ; fall of the empire, 
 15, 25 ; attacks Iran, 25 ; northern A. sub- 
 ject to Rome, 30, 153. 
 
 Astarte, 16, 17. 
 
 Asturia, kingdom of, 183, 209. 
 
 Astyages, k. of Media, 21, 25, 26. 
 
 Atahuallpa, inca of Peru, 287. 
 
 Athalaric, k. of West Gotks, 174. 
 
 Athanasius, 159. 
 
 Athaulf, 171, 172. 
 
 Athena, identified with Ne'ith, 2. 
 
 Athenion, 128. 
 
 Athens, ally of the Ionian cities, 28,40; 
 founded, 44 ; old constitution, 51 : re- 
 forms of Solon, 52 ; Pisistratus, reforms 
 of Clisthenes, 54 ; burned by Xerxes, 
 59 ; hegemony of, 61 ; war with Sparta, 
 64 ; under Pericles, 64 ; surrender of, 
 69 ; thirty tyrants, 69 ; Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes in, 79 ; captured by Sulla, 
 130 ; adorned by Hadrian, 153 ; duchy of, 
 216 ; captured by Venetians, 416. Sec 
 Greece. 
 
 Athos, Mt., 56, 58. 
 
 Atlanta evacuated, 558. 
 
 Atlantic cable laid, 487, 544. 
 
 Atreus, 44. 
 
 Attalus, kings of Pergamus, 78 ; I. joins 
 jEtolian league, 116 ; implores aid of 
 Rome, 118 ; III. bequeaths Pergamus t« 
 Rome, 124. 
 
 Attalus, appointed emp. of Rome by Ala. 
 ric, 171. 
 
 Attila in Gaul and Italy, 173. 
 
 Attyadae, first Lydian dynasty, 21. 
 
Index. 
 
 569 
 
 Auckland, lord, gov. gen. in India, 546 
 
 AiuTstiiat, biittk; of, 4ti'J. 
 
 Aughriui, battle of, ysT. 
 
 Augsburg, founded, lilT ; diet at, 303 ; 
 confession of, 303; religious peace of. 
 30t5 : peace of, 317 ; league of, 370. 
 
 Augures, college of, 85. 
 
 Augustine in Hritain, 179. 
 
 Augustus, Ca>sar Uctavianu.«, emp. of Rome, 
 his reign, 147 ; family, 148 ; death, 149. 
 
 Augustus II., elector of Saxony, elected k. 
 of Poland, 374: part in northern war, 
 394, 395 ; III., elected k. of Poland, 398 ; 
 claimant for the Au.strian succession, 
 400 ; death, 411. 
 
 Auraiig/.eb, euip. of India, depo.<'es his 
 father, 354 ; his reign, 389. 
 
 Aureliauus, emp. of Rome, 157 ; Persian 
 war, and death, 188. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus, Rom. emp., war with 
 Parthia, 30 ; reign, 154. 
 
 Aurunci, 86, 103. 
 
 Austorlitz, battle of, 467. 
 
 Australia, first convicts sent to, 535. 
 
 Au.strasia, 181-183, 187. 
 
 Austria, Ostmark reestablished, 193 ; made 
 a duclay, 221 ; house of llapsburg, 244 ; 
 Hungarian succession secured to, 278 ; 
 circle of, 300 ; anti-reformation in, 309 ; 
 peace of Carlowitz, 372 ; war of the Span- 
 ish succession, 391 ; peace of Rastadt, 
 394 ; peace of Passarowitz, 397 : alliance 
 with Spain, 398; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; 
 war of Austrian succession, 400; seven 
 years' war, 403; reforms of Joseph II., 
 406 ; alliance with Prussia, 452 ; first co- 
 alition against France, 452 ; peace of 
 Campo Formio, 459 ; second coalition, 
 460 ; peace of Luneville, 462 ; indemnifi- 
 cations, 455 ; third coalition, 467 ; peace 
 of Pressburg, 467 ; Francis I., resigns the 
 crown of the II. R. E., becomes emperor 
 of Austria, 468 ; war with France, 471 ; 
 peace of Vienna, 472 ; alliance with Na- 
 poleon, 474 ; war of liberation, 477 ; con- 
 gre.ss of Vienna, 482; influence in Ger- 
 many and Italy, 487 ; Ferdinand I., 491 ; 
 revolutionary movements, 491, 493 ; war 
 with Sardinia, 494 ; Hungarian revolt, 494 ; 
 Francis Joseph I., 495 ; general constitu- 
 tion, 495 ; abolished, 495 ; (iernian em- 
 pire, 497 ; w;ir with Fninee and Sardinia, 
 loss of Lombardy, 502 ; February consti- 
 tution, 504; war with Denmark, 505; 
 with Prussia, 507 ; with Italy, 510 ; with- 
 draws from German confederation, 510 ; 
 union of crowns of Austria and Hun- 
 gary, 511 ; occupies Bosnia and Herzego- 
 vina, 524 ; alliance with Prussia, 525 ; 
 disturbances in Bosnia, 525. 
 
 Austrian succession, war of, 400, 438, 446. 
 
 Austro-Prussian war, 507. 
 
 Austro-Sardinian war, 532. 
 
 Authari, 175. 
 
 Avars, assist Alboin, 175; subjugated by 
 Charles the Great, 185. 
 
 Avesta, 24. 
 
 Avignon, Popes at, 263 ; annexed to France, 
 4.02. 
 
 Avitus, Roman emp., 162. 
 
 Ayllon, Lucus Vasquez d", 286. 
 
 ^ymer de Valence, 267. 
 
 Ayoubites, dynasty of, 215. 217. 
 
 Ayul) Khan, ,547. 
 
 Azerinidocht, reign of, 192. 
 
 Aziitt', gained by Turkey, 376; conquered 
 
 by Peter the Great, 374 ; finally gained 
 
 by Russia, 410. 
 Azores, discovery of, 276, 279. 
 
 Baal, 9, 10, 16, 18. 
 
 Babar, founds Mughal empire, 353. 
 
 Babenberg, house of, feud with house of 
 Conrad, 194 ; receives the Kastmark, 196 ; 
 becomes extinct, 244. 
 
 Babington, conspiracy of, 330. 
 
 Babylon, capital of Babylonia, 12 ; centre 
 of the Chaldean empire, 13 ; founded by 
 Ninus(?), 14 ; adorned by Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, 16 ; captured by Cyrus, 26 ; revolt 
 and recapture, 27. 
 
 Babylonia, geography, 12 ; religion, 12 ; civ- 
 ilization, chronology, 13; dependent on 
 Elam, independent (old or Chaldean em- 
 pire), 13 ; subordinate to Assyria, 13, 14 ; 
 revolt under Nabopolassar, 15, 25 ; new 
 empire, the leading Eastern power, 16 ; 
 becomes a Persian province, 16, 26 ; re- 
 volt against Darius, 27 ; subject to Mith- 
 ridates I. of Parthia, 30. 
 
 Babylonish captivity of the Jews, 11 ; of 
 the papacy, 263. 
 
 Bacallaos (Newfoundland), 288. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, lord chau., 341 ; im- 
 peachment of, 342. 
 
 Bacon's rebellion, 359. 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 235. 
 
 Bactria, geography, 24 ; religion, 24 ; em- 
 pire of, 25 ; subject to Parthia, 30. 
 
 Badajos, geographical congress, 286; siege, 
 473. 
 
 Baden, peace of, 394; becomes an electo- 
 rate, 464 ; joined allies, 479. 
 
 Ba?cula, battle of, 117. 
 
 Ba>da, 180. 
 
 Baffin, voyage of, 299. 
 
 Bagdad, caliphate of, 183 ; under the Ab- 
 basides, 210: destroyed by Mongols, 241. 
 
 Bagleme. 238.' 
 
 Bagradas, 141. 
 
 Bahadur Shah, emp. of India, 442, 546. 
 
 Bahamas. 358 
 
 Bahram (Varahran VI.), 191. 
 
 Baillv, mayor of Paris, 450, 451, 455. 
 
 P.aiasid, ,523 
 
 Ba'jazet I., 278. 
 
 Biiji Rao, 443. 
 
 Balaclava, battle of, 600. 
 
 Bilaji Biiji Kao, 443. 
 
 Balas, emp. of Persia, 189. 
 
 Balbiuus, Cjrlius, 156. 
 
 Bjilboa, Vasco Nuiiez de, 284. 
 
 Baldur, 164, 166. 
 
 Baldwin, k. of Jerusalem, I., 214, 234 ; II 
 to v., 214. 
 
 Baldwin, of Flanders, 216. 
 
 Balfour, defeats Claverhouse, 381. 
 
 Baliol, Edward, k. of Scotland, 264, 268. 
 
 Ball, John, 268, 269. 
 
 Ballard, conspiracy of, 339. 
 
 Baltimore, Lord, 293. 
 
 Bamberg, diet of, 221. 
 
 Baner, Swedish general. 312, 314. 
 
 Bank cif England, chartered, 388 ; stopped 
 
570 
 
 Index. 
 
 specie payment, 535 ; rcsunied, 539 ; 
 charter renewed, 544. 
 
 Bankruptcy bill in England, 54j. 
 
 Bauuockburn, battle of, 267 
 
 Bar, confederacy of, 411. 
 
 Bar, duchy of, 398. 
 
 Barcelona, county of, 209; united with 
 Aragou, 240. 
 
 Bardija, 27. 
 
 Barebone's parliament, 376. 
 
 Barlow, sir G., gov. gen. in India, 541. 
 
 Barnet, battle of, 274. 
 
 Baronets, creation of, 341. 
 
 Barras, 459. 
 
 Barre, colonel, 423. 
 
 Barrier treaties, 373. 
 
 Barry, countess du, 446. 
 
 Bar-.sur-Aube, battle of, 480. 
 
 Barthelmy, 459. 
 
 Basentello, battle (?), 197 n. 
 
 Basle, council of, 319 ; peace of, 457. 
 
 Bassein, ti-eaty of, 541. 
 
 Bastidas, de, voyage of, 284. 
 
 Bastile, destruction of, 449. 
 
 Batavian republic, founded, 456; trans- 
 formed to kingdom of Holland, 468. 
 
 Batavians, revolt of, 151. 
 
 Bates, trial of, 340. 
 
 Batoum, Russians attack, 523 ; ceded to 
 Russia, 524. 
 
 Batthyanyi, count, 494, 496. 
 
 Batu, 240. 
 
 Baum, colonel, 429. 
 
 Bautzen, battle of, 476. 
 
 Bavaria, Bavarians, duchy established, 185 ; 
 growth of power, 194 ; granted to Otto of 
 Nordheim, then to Welf, 199 ; Henry the 
 Proud dispossessed, 219 ; Henry the Lion 
 reinstated, 221; given to Otto of Wit- 
 telsbach, 222; duke Maximilian, 309 ; 
 war of Spanish succession, 390; extinc- 
 tion of electoral house, war of Bavarian 
 succession, 406 ; to be exchanged for 
 Netherlands, 408 ; allied with Napoleon, 
 467 ; with Austria, 478 ; allied with Aus- 
 tria in Austro-Prussian war, 507 ; joins 
 Prussia in the Franco-German war, 514 ; 
 vote in Bundestag, 520.' 
 
 Baxar, battle of, 444. 
 
 Bayard, chev., 302, 318. 
 
 Bayonne decree, 550. 
 
 Bazaine, marshal, at Metz, 514, 516 ; sur- 
 renders Metz, 518 : trial, 533. 
 
 Beachy Head, battle of, 387. 
 
 Beaconsfield, lord (Disraeli), sketch of life, 
 543; chan. of exch.,543; premier, 545; 
 raised to peerage, 545. 
 
 Beaufort, cardinal, 271. 
 
 Beauue la Rolande, battle of, 518. 
 
 Beausejour, 421. 
 
 Becket, Thomas, archb. of Canterbury, 
 231 ; murdered, 232. 
 
 Bedford, d. of, 260. 
 
 Bedford, ministry of, 438. 
 
 Bedloe, 381. 
 
 Beheim, Martin, 280. 
 
 Bel, 12, 13. 
 
 Belfort, battle of, 519. 
 
 Belgii, 37 ; subjugation of, 138. 
 
 Belgium, Biilgians, 34 ; annexed to France, 
 453 ; revolution of 1830, 489 ; conflict 
 with papacy, 525. 
 
 Belgrade, battle of, 278, 397 ; peace of, 
 397, 398. 
 
 BelLsarius, 174, 190. 
 
 Bellona, 84. 
 
 Belshazzar, 16. 
 
 Bem, Polish aeneral, 495, 496. 
 
 Benedetti, at .Ems, 513. 
 
 Benedict, popes, V., 1V6 ; IX., 199; XI., 
 264 ; XIII., 251 ; deposed, 252. 
 
 Benedek, general, 508, 509. 
 
 Beneventum, battle of, 108 ; (Manfred), 
 */26. 
 
 Bengal, 22 ; Muhammedan sultans in, 353 ; 
 British in, 443. 
 
 Bennington, battle of, 429. 
 
 Bentinck, earl of Portland, 386. 
 
 Bentinck, lord William, gov. gen. in India, 
 541. 
 
 Berengar II. (of Ivrea), 195. 
 
 Berezina, passage of the, 475. 
 
 Berg, grand duchy of, 468, 478. 
 
 Bergen, 405. 
 
 Bergerac, peace of, 322. 
 
 Berkeley, lord, grant in America, 358. 
 
 Berkeley, sir AVilliam, 358. 
 
 Berlin, in Hanseatic league, 249; univer- 
 sity founded, 471 ; conflicts in the streets, 
 492 ; peace of, 401 ; truce of, 496 ; con- 
 gre.-s of, 524 ; conference of, 525. 
 
 Berlin decree, 537, 550. 
 
 Bermudas, 292. 
 
 Bernadotte, on middle Rhine, 460 ; on up- 
 per Danube, 467; crown prince of Swe- 
 den, 473 ; acts with allies, 476, 477. 
 
 Bernard, a. of Clairvaux, 214. 
 
 Bernard, gov. of Mass., 424. 
 
 Berne, joins Swiss confederacy. 248; ob- 
 tains the Waadtland, 327 ; confederate 
 council in, 492. 
 
 Bernhard, of Ascania, 222 ; k. of Italy, 
 186 ; d. of Saxe-AVeimar, 312, 313. 
 
 Bernicia, 178. 
 
 Bernstorff, c.,409. 
 
 Berry, d. of, murdered, 527. 
 
 Berthier, prince of Neuchatel, 468. 
 
 Berthold of Zahringen, receives Oarinthia, 
 199 ; aids Lothar, 218. 
 
 Berwick, EngiisU, ^o» ; capture of, 264, 274 ; 
 treaty of, 33S ; pn-iMcation of, 345. 
 
 Berwick, marshal, 445. 
 
 Bessarabia, ceded by Russia, 501 ; taken 
 back in treaty of San Stefano, 623 ; in 
 congress of Berlin, 524. 
 
 Bessus, the satrap, 29, 74. 
 
 Bestushef , 411. 
 
 Bethlen Gabor, pr. of Transylvania, 3< 9, 
 310. 
 
 Beust, v., 511. 
 
 Beziers, storm of, 227. 
 
 Bhartpur, battle of, 541. 
 
 Biarni, discovers America, 281. 
 
 Bible, translated by Luther, 3*; 2; English 
 translation completed, 341. 
 
 Bibracte, battle of, 138. 
 
 Bidar, kingdom of, 353 ; conquered by Au- 
 rangzeb, 389. 
 
 Bijapur, kingdom, 353 ; annexed to Mughai 
 empire, 389. 
 
 Bill of Attainder, last used, 388. 
 
 Bill excluding bishops from House ol 
 Lords, 347. 
 
 Bill of Rights, 386, 
 
Indnx. 
 
 571 
 
 Bills, the four, presented by parliament to 
 
 C'harles 1., 8')0. 
 Birger Jarl, '237. 
 Birkebenerne, 238. 
 
 Biroii, •llO, 411 ; invested with Curland, 414. 
 Birthen, battle of, I'Jo. 
 Biscop, Benedict, 180. 
 
 Bismarck, count v., early life, 504; chan. 
 of the confederation, 511 ; negotiations 
 with Favre, 5l7 ; chan. of the empire, 
 520 ; at congress of Berlin, 524 ; at Vien- 
 na, 525 ; defeated in Reichstag, 52tj. 
 Bitiiynia, subjugated by Alyattesof Lydia, 
 21"; kings of, 78; war with Mithridates, 
 129 ; beque tthed to Rome, 134, 133. 
 Bla, Lydian goddess, 21. 
 Black Death, in England, 268, 269 ; in 
 
 France, 258. 
 Bla-^k Hole of Calcutta, 443. 
 Black Prince. See Edward, the. 
 Blackhcath, battle of, 333. 
 Bladcnsburgh, battle of, 551. 
 Bladud, 37. 
 Blake, 376. 
 Blanche, regent, 227. 
 Blanket meeting at Manchester, 538. 
 Blekiug, joined to Sweden, 236 ; ceded to 
 
 Denmark, 238. 
 Blenheim, battle of, 392, 434. 
 Block, Adrian, 296, 298. 
 Bloody Assize, 383. 
 
 Blucher, surrenders, 469 ; occupies Dres- 
 den, 476; in the war of liberation, 477- 
 434 ; created Prince of Wahlstadt, 477 ; 
 at Waterloo, 484. 
 Blumenau, battle of, 509. 
 Boadicea, revolt of, 37. 
 Bobadilla, 283. 
 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 263. 
 Bocchus, k. of Mauritania, 127. 
 Bocholt, battle of, 185. 
 Bockelsohn, Johann, 394. 
 Bodenstein, 301. 
 Body of Liberties, 298. 
 Boeotia, 40 ; conquered by ^olians, 48 ; 
 submits to Xerxes, 58 ; allied with Sparta, 
 62 ; aristocracies in, 63 ; war with Sparta, 
 77, 80. 
 Bohemia, occupied by Boii, 167 ; by Mar- 
 comanni, 167 ; by Slavs, 168 ; war with 
 Henry I., 194 ; does homage to empire, 
 218 ; dukes created kings, 248; Ottokar's 
 war with Rudolph, 244 ; Luxembourg 
 house, 247 ; Charles IV.,emp., 248 ; Hus- 
 sites, 252; united with Hungary, 278; 
 Ferdinand I. elected king, 306 ; in Thirty 
 Years' \Var, 308, 309 ; in Austro- Prussian 
 war, 509 ; Bohemian language in Univer- 
 sity of Prague, 526- 
 Bohemond of Tarentum, 214. 
 1! ihmisch-Brod, battle of, 252. 
 I'.oii, in Gaul, 34, 35; in Bohemia, 167. 
 I'oilleau, 371. 
 
 Boleslav, k. of Poland, 197. 
 Bulingbroke, Henry. See Henry IV. of 
 
 England, 270. 
 Boliugbroke, vise, St. John created, 435; 
 
 impeached, 437. 
 Bolivar, 488. 
 
 Bolivia, independent, 488. 
 Bombay, 271 ; British in, 443. 
 Bonaparte, Jerome, k. of Westphalia, 470. 
 
 Bonaparte, JoBeph, 468; k. of Naples, 
 470; of Spain, 470; driven from Spain, 
 479. 
 Bonaparte, Louis, k. of Holland, 468, 470; 
 
 abdication, 473. 
 Bonaparte, Lucien, 461. 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, first appearance, 4.')5 ; 
 in command for the convention, 457 ; 
 marriage to .losephine, 458 ; crosseil the 
 Alps, 458 ; Egyptian exp., 460 ; regent of 
 the consulate, 461 ; campaign in Itiily, 
 462 ; passage of the Gt. St. Bernard, 462 ; 
 consul for life, 464 ; hereditary emp. of 
 the French, 465. See Napoleon I. 
 Bonaparte, Prince Napoleon, marriage, 531. 
 Bonaparte, Pierre, 512. 
 Bonapartists, ,527, 530, 534. 
 Bond of association, 339. 
 Bonder, family of, 237. 
 Boniface, apostle of the Germans, 180, 184. 
 Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 216. 
 Boniface Vlil., pope, 254. 
 Bouifacius, Roman governor, 184. 
 Bonner, b. of London, 336. 
 Boon, Daniel, 425. 
 Bordeaux, d. of, 527, 529. 
 Borgia familv, 327. 
 Bornhoeved, battle of, _ 224, 235. 
 Borodino, battle of, 475. 
 Boroughbridge, battle of, 267. 
 Bosnia, occupied by Austrians, 524 ; dis- 
 turbances, 525. 
 Bosphorus, bridge of boats over, 28 ; king* 
 
 dom of the, 129. 
 Bossuet, 371. 
 
 Boston, settlement of, 296 ; massacre, 425; 
 tea-party, 425 ; port-bill, 425, 440; siege 
 and surrender, 427. 
 Bosworth Field, battle of, 275. 
 Bothwell, 338. 
 
 Bothwell-Brigg, battle of, 381. 
 Bouillon, Godfray of, 214. 
 Bourbaki, 514, 519. 
 Bourbon, card, of, 322 
 Bourbon, constable of, defection, 302 ; 
 
 death, 303. 
 Bourbon, d. of, 445, 446. 
 Bourbon family compact, 4-39. 
 Bourbon, house of, contest with Catherine 
 de' Medici, 321 ; descent, 324; in Spain, 
 414 ; in Naples, 416, 468 ; return to 
 France, 481, 526 : final expulsion, 529. 
 Bouvines, battle of, 223, 227, 233. 
 Bovianum, capture of, 106. 
 Boyne, battle of the 370, 387. 
 Braddock^s defeat, 4-21. 
 Bradford, William, 295. 
 Bradstreet, 421. 
 
 Braganza, house of, in Portugal, 332, 415. 
 Brahma, religion of, 23. 
 Brahmans, caste of, 23. 
 Brandenburg, conquered by Albert the 
 Bear, 218 ; falls to Lndwig the Bavarian, 
 247 ; an electorate, 248 ; falls to Charles 
 IV. , 249 ; given to Frederic of Nuremberg 
 (Hohenzollern), 252 ; this not a sale, 252 
 n. ; joins peace of Prague, 314 ; indem- 
 nifications in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; 
 great elector, 368 ; elector becomes king of 
 Prussia. 372 ; East Prussia, secured to, 
 377. 
 Brandt, 409. 
 
572 
 
 Index. 
 
 Brandywine, battle of, 429. 
 
 Bra.sidas, 66. 
 
 Eravalla, battle of, 207. 
 
 Brazil, discovered, 284 ; independent, 488. 
 
 Breda, compromise, 330 ; declaration of, 
 378 ; treaty of, 358, 364, 379. 
 
 Bremen, free city, 222 ; in league of Rhine 
 cities, 249; not ceded to Sweden, 316; 
 remains free in 1803, 464. 
 
 Bremen, bishopric, ceded to Sweden as a 
 duchy, 316; Danes capture and sell to 
 Hanover, 396. 
 
 Brennus, British prince (?) 37; at Rome, 
 100. 
 
 Brentford, affair of, 347. 
 
 Breogau, 39. 
 
 Breslau, battle of, 404 ; peace of, 401 ; fall 
 of, 469. 
 
 Bretigny, peace of, 258, 268. 
 
 Bretwalda, 178. 
 
 Brienne, de, 447. 
 
 Bright, John, 542; resignation. 548. 
 
 Brissot, Girondist, 451, 452, 454. 
 
 Bristol, captured, 267 ; by Rupert, 347 ; sur- 
 rendered, 349. 
 
 Britain, geography, religion, mythical his- 
 tory, 36 ; probable history to the year 
 411, 37; Irish invasion, 39; expedition 
 of Caesar, 139 ; conquest begun, 150 ; de- 
 scription, 163, 164 ; Roman Britain, 176 ; 
 Teutonic conquest, 176. See. England. 
 
 Britannicus, 150. 
 
 Brithnoth, death of, 205. 
 
 British Museum founded, 439. 
 
 Brittany (Bretagne), independent, 182, 201 ; 
 under Henry II. of England, 231 ; con- 
 tested succession, 257 ; final union with 
 French crown, 320 ; annexed to France, 
 3.33. 
 
 " Broad Bottom Ministry," 433. 
 
 Broglie ministry, 527, 529, 533. 
 
 Briimsebro, peace of, 315, 352. 
 
 Brook, Lord, grant in Conn., 296. 
 
 Brougham, lord chancellor, 539. 
 
 Brown, John, hanged, 556. 
 
 Bruce, claimant for Scottish crown, 264. 
 
 Bruce, Robert, coronation, 269; wins Ban- 
 nockburn, V67 ; death, 268. 
 
 Bruhl, c, 403. 
 
 Brunanburh, battle of, 205. 
 
 Brundisium, siege of, 141. 
 
 Brunhilde, 181. 
 
 Brunswick, 222, 316, 490. 
 
 Brunswick, d. of, manifesto, 452 ; com- 
 mands Prussians, 469 ; expedition, 472. 
 
 Brunswick-Liineburg, duchy of, 224. 
 
 Brute, 37. 
 
 Brutus, Decimus, 144, 145. 
 
 Brutus, L. Junius, 89; consul, 93; puts 
 his son to death in 509 (accidentally 
 omitted from the first paragraph in page 
 95). 
 
 Brutus, M. Junius, 133 ; murder of Caesar, 
 144 ; death, 145. 
 
 Brythonic Celts, 37. 
 
 Buccaneers, 417. 
 
 Buchanan, James, U. S. sec. of state, 554 ; 
 pres., 556. 
 
 Bucharest, peace of, 473. 
 
 Buckingham, d. of: (1) favorite of Richard 
 III., 275; (2) d. in the reign of Henry 
 VIII., 334 ; (3) Villiers, favorite of James 
 
 I., 341 ; assassination, 343 ; (4) favorite of 
 Charles II., 380. 
 
 Buddha, 23. 
 
 Buddhism, its origin, 23; introduced into 
 China, 31 ; into Japan, 33. 
 
 Buena Vista, surrender of, 554. 
 
 Bulgaria, revolt in, 521 ; principality of, 
 523, 524. 
 
 Bull of Alexander VI., dividing the world, 
 282 ; ausculta fill, 254 ; clericis laicos, 
 254, 266. 
 
 Bull, golden, of the H.R. E., 248 ; of Hun- 
 gary, 277. 
 
 Bull Run, battles of, 557. 
 
 Bunker's Hill, battle of, 427. 
 
 Bunyan, John, 389. 
 
 Bunzelvvitz, 405. 
 
 Burford, battle of, 180. 
 
 Burghley, baron, 3:^8. 
 
 Burgoyne, gen., 428 ; surrender of, 429. 
 
 Burgundiaus, on the Oder, 164 ; around 
 Worms, 170, 171 ; on the Rhone aud 
 Saone, 172 ; subjugated, 181. 
 
 Burgundy (see Burgundians), part of 
 Frankish kingdom, in the second divis- 
 ion, 181; in the third, 182; given to 
 Lothar in the treaty of Verdun, 187 ; 
 after his death, assigned to the west 
 Franks, 193 ; divided into transjurane 
 under Rudolf, 209 ; aud cisjurane under 
 Boso, 193, 201 ; these two united into the 
 kingdom of Burgundy or Aries, 198 ; 
 which Rudolf III. bequeathed to Henry 
 II., 198 ; and which was united with the 
 empire, 198 ; the duchy of Burgundy re- 
 mained with France, was seized by John 
 II., and given to Philip the Bold, 258 ; 
 growth of its power, strife with kings of 
 France, '259 ; Burgundy and Orleans, 259 ; 
 in the Hundred Years' War, 260 ; death of 
 Charles the Bold, the duchy united with 
 France, 262 ; the other Bvxrgundian lands 
 fell to Maximilian of Germany, 253, 301 ; 
 the duchy claimed by Charles V., .302; 
 these claims renounced by Charles, 305; 
 new kingdom of Burgundy proposed by 
 Joseph II., 408. 
 
 Burke, Edmund, 441. 
 
 Burkersdorf, battle of, 406. 
 
 Burleigh, baron, sec. of state, 338. 
 
 Burlingame, Anson, 562. 
 
 Burma, 22, 30 ; invasion of, 444 ; 1st Bur- 
 mese war, 541 ; 2d, 546 ; annexed to In- 
 dia, 546. 
 
 Burnet, b. of Salisbury, 386. 
 
 Burnet, \Villiam, gov. of New York, 417; 
 of Mass., 418. 
 
 Burnside, gen., 557. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, vice-pres. of U. S., 549; duel 
 with Hamilton, 549: trial, 550. 
 
 Burs-Nimrud, ruins of, 12 n. 2. 
 
 Bute, lord, 439. 
 
 Butler, Irish gen., 313. 
 
 Button's Bay, discovery of, 299. 
 
 Buzzard's Bay, discovery of, 290. 
 
 " Bye " or " Surprising " treason, 340. 
 
 By lot, voyage of, '.^99. 
 
 Bvng, admiral, 434. 
 
 Byron, lord, 488. 
 
 Byzantium, captured, 61, 68 ; importance to 
 Athens, 72; name changed to Constanti- 
 nople, 159 ; capital of eastern empire, 161« 
 
Index. 
 
 bn 
 
 "Cabal" ministry, 3S0. 
 
 Caboi-bians overthrown, 259. 
 
 Uabot, John and Sebastian, discover North 
 America, 28;i, 3^38; Sebas'ian, voyajxe of, 
 283 ; alleged voyage, 285 ; voyage to 
 South America, 'iStJ. 
 
 Cahral, discovers Brazil, 284, 353. 
 
 Cade, Jacli, rebellion of, 271. 
 
 Cadiz, expedition of Wimbledon, 342 ; siege 
 of, 473 ; capture, 527. "SVe also Gades. 
 
 Cadmus, 18, 45. 
 
 Cadoudal, executed, 465. 
 
 Csedmou, 180. 
 
 Caesar, C. Julius, leader of the democrats, 
 13(3; consul, 137; triumvir, 137; re- 
 ceives (}allia Cisalpina and Narbonen- 
 sis, 138; conquest of (Jaul, visits to 
 Britain, 139; war with Pompeius, 140; 
 Phansalus, 141; in Egypt, 142; vtni, 
 vi//i, I'ici, 142 ; Africau war, 142 ; war 
 with sons of Pompeius, 143 ; C. impera- 
 tor, 143 ; reform of the calendar, 143 ; 
 a.ssassination, 144. 
 
 Caesar, G. and L., adopted by Augustus, 148. 
 
 Calfir war, 543. 
 
 Cairo captured by the French, 460. 
 
 Cajetanus. i<ee Vio. 
 
 Calais, captured by Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, 257 ; only English possession in 
 France, 272; lest, 321,338. 
 
 Calatrava, order of, 240, 328. 
 
 Calcutta, 22, 390. 
 
 Calendar, reformed by Caesar, 144; by 
 Gregory XI 11., 327 ;' republican c. in 
 France, 455. 
 
 Calhoun, John C, U. S. sec. of war, 551 ; 
 vice-pres., 552. 
 
 California, discovered by Cortez, 285, 287 ; 
 by Drake, 289 ; gold discovered in, 555 ; 
 31st State of the Union, 555. 
 
 Caligula, 150. 
 
 Caliphate, early history, 182, 183 ; Ilaroun- 
 al-Kashid, 186; division into c. of Bag- 
 dad, 183; under Abbasides, 210: de- 
 stroyed, 241; and the c of Cordova, 
 founded and broken up, 209. 
 
 Calixtinians, 252. 
 
 Calixtus II., Pope, 201. 
 
 Calniar, union of, 237, 238, 276, 351 
 
 Calonne, 197, 447. 
 
 Calonues, 449. 
 
 (^alpurnius, C, 118. 
 
 Calvin, 304. 
 
 Calvinists, not included in convention of 
 P.assau, 305 ; nor in peace of Augsburg, 
 306 ; included iu peace of Westphalia, 
 317. 
 
 Camaret, of Rouen, 284. 
 
 Camargo, Alonzo de, 287. 
 
 Cambray, league of, 300, 318, 326 ; peace of, 
 303. 
 
 Cambyses, k. of Persia, defeats Psamethik, 
 7 ; attempted conquest of Carthage, 19 ; 
 conquest of Egypt, slaughter of Apis( ?), 
 27. 
 
 Camden, battle of, 430. 
 
 Camillus, M. Furius, 100, 103. 
 
 Campania, 81, 83, 104. 
 
 Campbell, lord chau., 544. 
 
 Campeggio, 302. 
 
 Camperdown, battle of, 536. 
 
 Campo Formio, peace of, 458, 459, 463, 4GS. 
 
 Canaan, 7, 8, 16. 
 
 Canada See New France, French in, 299, 
 French claims to, 363; wars with Iro- 
 quois, 364, 36.J ; with British colonies, see 
 King William s war. Queen Anne's war, 
 Georges war, old French and Indian 
 war ; in the peace of Ryswick, 362, 371, 
 388; in the peace of Utrecht, 363, 393, 
 43i ; in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 404, 
 419,438 ; Seven Years' War, 420 ; peace of 
 Paris, 422, 439 ; ceded to Great Britain 
 receives representative gov., 535 ; divided 
 into upper and lower C., 542 ; dominion 
 of C, 545. 
 
 Panaris. 488. 
 
 Canary Islands, discovery of, 279. 
 
 Candaules, k. of Lydia, 21. 
 
 Candia. See Crete. 
 
 Cannae, battle of, 115. 
 
 Cannibals, 283. 
 
 Canning, e., gov. gen. in India, 546. 
 
 Canning, George, home sec, 537 ; foreign 
 sec, 539. 
 
 Canos.«a, castle of, 200. 
 
 Canrobert, 500, 502, 514. 
 
 Cantabri, 148. 
 
 Canterbury, 38; captured by Danes, 203; 
 archb. of, see Dunstan, Anselm, Becket, 
 etc. 
 
 Canton, 31, 561. 
 
 Canusium (Marcellus defeated at, in 209 
 B. c, accidentally omitted on p. 117). 
 
 Canute. See Knut. 
 
 Cape Ann, settlement of Puritans at, 295 ; 
 Augustine, discovery of, 284 ; Cod, dis- 
 covered by Northmen (?), 281 ; by Gos- 
 nold, 290; surveyed, 294: Florida, 285 ; 
 Good Hope, rounded, 280 ; seized by 
 J]ngland, 535, see Caffii war, Zulu war ; 
 Jlendocino, discovered, 288 ; Peregrine, 
 300 ; Vela, 283 ; Verde, discovery of, 
 276. 
 
 Capet, Hugo, 272. 
 
 Capetian dynasty, 202, 206, 257. 
 
 Capitolinus, M. Manlius, lOO. 
 
 Capitularii, 186. 
 
 Capo dlstria, 489. 
 
 Cappadocia, conquered by Cyrus, 26 ; occu- 
 pied by Tigranes, 134 ; subject to Rome, 
 156 ; Roman pro v., 149. 
 
 Capua, battle of, 105 ; secession of, 115 ; 
 surrender, 116. 
 
 Caracalla, Roman emp., Parthian exp.,30; 
 reign, 155. 
 
 Caractacus, 37. 
 
 Caraffa. See Paul IV. 
 
 Carbury Hill, battle of, 338. 
 
 Carchemish, battle of, 6, 11, 16. 
 
 Carew, sir Thomas, 336. 
 
 Caria, 20 ; subdued by Alyattes, 21 ; by 
 Ilarpagus, 26. 
 
 Carihs, 282. 
 
 Carinthia, made a duchy, 196 ; surrendered 
 by Bohemia, 244. 
 
 Carinus, 158. 
 
 Carisbrooke castle, 350. 
 
 Carlos, don, son of Philip II., revolt and 
 arrest, 330 ; leader of the absolutists in 
 Spain, 400 ; Carlists, 520, 521. 
 
 Carlowitz, peace of, 372, 374, 375, 417. 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of ministers at, 487. 
 
 Carlstadt. See Bodeustein. 
 
574 
 
 Index. 
 
 Camatic, 448. 
 
 Cariiot, 454, 457, 459. 
 
 Carolana, 288; granted to Heath, 293; 
 claimed by Coxe, 365. 
 
 Carolina, Carolana regranted under this 
 name, 293 ; granted to Clarendon, 358 ; 
 fundamental constitution adopted, 358 ; 
 invaded by French and Spanish, 363 ; 
 Indian war, 417; pi'oprietary gov. over- 
 thrown, 417 ; divided into North and 
 South C. (q. v.), 417 ; boundary rectified, 
 425. 
 
 Carolina, fort, 288. 
 
 Caroline, q. of England, 539 
 
 Caroiingians, Austrasian mayors of the pal- 
 ace, 182 ; kings of the Franks, 184 ; in 
 Italy and Germany, 193 ; in France, 201. 
 
 Carpi, battle of, 392. 
 
 Carrhae, battle of, 140. 
 
 Carteret, Sir George, 358. 
 
 Carthage, founded, 18 ; Meltzer's view con- 
 cerning, 18, n. 1; constitution, 19 ; oppo- 
 sition to Grecian colonization, 19 ; threat- 
 ened by Cambyses, 19, 27 ; wars with 
 Sicilian Greeks, 20 ; defeat at Ilimera, 
 20 ; treaty of commerce with Rome, 103 ; 
 allied with Rome, 108 ; war with Rome. 
 See Punic wars ; destroyed, 12 ; occu- 
 pied by Vandals, 172. See Phoenicia. 
 
 Carthage, New, taken by Scipio, 117. 
 
 Carthagena, 285 ; sack of, 290 ; sacked by 
 Drake, 339 ; attacked by Vernon, 419, 438. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques, voyages to America, 287. 
 
 Carus, Roman emp., 157 
 
 Carver, John, gov. of Plymouth, 294. 
 
 Casco, destruction of, 361. 
 
 Casimir the Great, k. of Poland, 277. 
 
 Casimir, John, 373, 374. 
 
 Cassander, 76. 
 
 Cassiterides, visited by Phoenicians, 17 n. 
 
 Cassius, 144, 145. 
 
 Cassius, Sp. 97. 
 
 Cassivelaunus, 37, 139. 
 
 Castelfidardo, battle of, 503. 
 
 Castes, in Egypt, 3 ; in India, 23. 
 
 Castile, county , afterwards kingdom of, 209 ; 
 final union with Leon, 240 ; kings of, 276 ; 
 united with Aragon, 328 ; supports Philip 
 of Anjou, 392. 
 
 Castillon, battle of, 272. 
 
 Castlereagh, at Vienna, 482; foreign sec, 
 537 ; suicide, 539. 
 
 Catalauniau fields, battle of the, 173. 
 
 Catalonia, 240 ; royal house extinct, 276 ; 
 invaded 392. 
 
 Cateau-Cambrt5sis, treaty of, 321, 327, 338. 
 
 Catesby, Robert, 340. 
 
 Cathari, 227. 
 
 Cathay, 30. 
 
 Catherine de' Medici, 321, 324. 
 
 Catherine, emp. of Russia, I., reign, 410; 
 II., in .seven years' war, 406 ; reign, 411 ; 
 war with the Turks, 412, 413. 
 
 Catholic league, 308. 
 
 Catholic relief act, 539. 
 
 Catiline, conspiracy of, 136. 
 
 Catinat, 370, 392. 
 
 Cato, M. Porcius, the elder, in Spain, 118 ; 
 accuses Scipio, 120 ; " Carthaginem esse 
 delendam," 121 ; the younger, absent from 
 Rome, 138; returned, 139; at Dyrra- 
 chium, 141 ; suicide, 142. 
 
 Cato street conspiracy, 538. 
 
 Cattle plague, 544. 
 
 Catullus, C. Valerius, 148. 
 
 Caudine Pass, 105. 
 
 Caulaincourt, 477, 480. 
 
 Causa fidei, reformationis, unionis, 251,252, 
 
 " Cavalier " parliament, 378, 381. 
 
 Cavendish, F., sec. tor Ireland, 546. 
 
 Cavour, c. 503, 531. 
 
 Cawnpore, massacre at, 546. 
 
 Caxtou, William, 275. 
 
 Ceawlin, k. of Wessex, 178. 
 
 Cecil. See Burghley. 
 
 Cecrops, 44. 
 
 Celibacy introduced, 200. 
 
 Celtiberians, 35. 
 
 Celts, migrations of, 35 ; Goidelic and Bry- 
 thonic, 35 ; Celts of Gaul. See Gauls. 
 Celts of British isles, 36. See also Brit- 
 ain. Celts in Italy, 85, 86; join Hanni- 
 bal, 114 ; annihilated as a nation, 138. 
 
 Censor, creation of the office, 99 ; one cen- 
 sor plebeian, 102 ; power limited, 132 ; re- 
 stored, 133 ; given to Caesar, 143. 
 
 Censorship of the press abolished in Eng- 
 land, 388. 
 
 Census of American colonies, 423 ; of In- 
 dia, 1881, 547 ; of Ireland, 543 ; of Japan, 
 445 ; of New France, 365 ; Roman c, 92; 
 of U. S. 1st, 547 ; 2d, 549 ; 4th, 552 ; 5th, 
 553; 6th, 554; 7th, 555; 8th, 556; 9th 
 and 10th, 560 ; of Virginia, 292, 293. 
 
 Ceorl, 177. 
 
 Cerausius, emp. of Britain, 38. 
 
 Cerdic, 178. 
 
 Cerealis, 152. 
 
 Ceres, 84. 
 
 Cerro Gordo, battle of, 554. 
 
 Ceylon, Buddhism in, 23 ; seized by Eng- 
 lish, 535. 
 
 Chabrias, 70, 71. 
 
 Chaeronea, battle of, 73, 131. 
 
 Chaireddin Barbarossa, 304. 
 
 Chait Sinh, raja of Benares, 444. 
 
 Chalcedon, battle of, 134 ; fall of, 191. 
 
 Chaldea, 13. 
 
 Chaleur Bav, 294. 
 
 Chalons, battle of, 173; 516. 
 
 Chambers of Reunion, 368. 
 
 Chambord, c. of. See Bordeaux, d. of, 529. 
 
 Champigny, storm of, 518. 
 
 Champlain, Samuel, voyage, 290 ; discoV" 
 ers the lakes, 299 ; death, 300. 
 
 Chancellorsville, battle at, 558. 
 
 Chandra-gupta, 23. 
 
 Chanzy, defeat of. 519. 
 
 Chapultepec captured, 554. 
 
 Charge of the Light Brigade, 500. 
 
 Charibert I., k. of Franks, 181, 
 
 Charlemagne. See Charles I., emp. 
 
 Charles of AnjoU, 225, 226. 
 
 Charles, archd. of Austria, 392, 458, 460, 
 467, 471, 472. 
 
 Charles of Bavaria, 509. 
 
 Charles the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 260. 
 
 Charles I., k. of England, government iu 
 Virginia, 293 ; in Spain, 342 ; marriage, 
 342 ; reign, 342-351 ; surrenders to Scots, 
 349; escapes, 350 ; execution, 351. 
 
 Charles II., defeat and flight, 375; pro- 
 claimed k., 378 ; marriage, 379 ; treaty oi 
 Dover, 380 ; death, 383. 
 
Index, 
 
 bib 
 
 Charles III., k. of France, 202 ; IV., the 
 J-'air, 265; V., tlu- W i.-e, '2.jS ; VI., 259; 
 VU., 25'J, 2G(); Vlll., '202; IX., 321; 
 "X.'', cardiiiiilof Bourbou, 324 ; X.,48S; 
 abdicates, 4Sy, 527. 
 
 Charles 1., eiiip. of the H. 11. E., the Great 
 (Charlemagne), 184, 1>J3 ; II., the Bald, 
 18(3, 187, 201; 111., the Fat, 193, 201; 
 IV., 248; v., ancestor of the Span- 
 ish line of Ilupshurjj, 301; reign, 3u2; 
 Charles and Luther, 302 : wars with 
 Francis I., 302, 3(i3, 304 ; with Henry 11., 
 3UG ; Schmalkaldic war, 305 ; abdica- 
 tion, 30G. Sff Charles I., of 8pain ; VI., 
 claims to Spanish succession, 390 ; reign, 
 3J7 ; pragm.-itie sanction, 39>< ; death, 
 400; VII., election, 401; exile, death, 402. 
 
 Charles, card, of Lorraine, 319. 
 
 Charles, d. of Lorraine, last Caroliugian 
 heir to French crown, 202. 
 
 Charles of Lorraine, Austrian gen., 372, 404. 
 
 Charles, k. of Navarre, the Bad, 258. 
 
 Charles, k. of Spain, 1., possessions in the 
 Netherlands, 329 : reign, 330. See, also, 
 Charles, emp. of 11.11. E., V.; II., 390; 
 III., 414 ; IV., abdicates, 470. 
 
 Charles, k. of Sweden, IX., 352; X., 373; 
 XL, 373: XII., 394: wars with Peter 
 the Great, 394 , Varna, 395 ; in Turkey, 
 death, 396; XIII., 472. 
 
 Charles Albert, e. of Bavaria, claimant for 
 Au.strian inheritance, 400. 
 
 Charles Albert, k. of .Sardinia, 49i. 
 
 Charles Edward, young pretender, 438. 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Tfalz-Zweibriicken, 
 k. of Sweden, a')2. 
 
 Charles Martel, 183, 184. 
 
 Charles Theodore, 406 ; elector p.alatine, 
 claimant for the Spanish succession, 406. 
 
 Charleston, Carolina, foundation of, 358, 
 359; capture by I'linton, 430; evacua- 
 tion, 431 , in the civil war, 537 ; evacua- 
 tion, 559. 
 
 Charter Oak, 361. 
 
 Chartists, 542. 
 
 Chase, Salmon P., U. S. see. of thetreaB.,556. 
 
 Chastcnoy, peace of, 322. 
 
 Chateaubriand, 527. 
 
 Chatham, e. of, as \Vm. Pitt in Broad Bot- 
 tom ministry, 433 ; sec. of state, 4o9 ; 
 sketch of life, 4.39 ; prime minister, 424. 
 
 Chatillon, congress at, 480. 
 
 Chattanooga, battle of, 558. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 270. 
 
 Chaumont, alliance of, 480. 
 
 Chedorlaomer, k. of Babylon, 13. 
 
 Cheops. See Khufu. 
 
 Chephren. See Khafra. 
 
 Cherry Valley, massacre of, 430. 
 
 Cherusci, 168". 
 
 Chester, battle of, 179. 
 
 iievy Chase, battle of, 269. 
 
 riie-wang-te, emp. of China, built the 
 Chinese wall ; destroyed books, 32. 
 
 Chiari. battle of, 392. 
 
 Chierasco, treaty of, 311, 325. 
 
 Chiersi, diet of, 201. 
 
 Chil<lehert I., k. of the Franks, 181. 
 
 Childeric III., k. of the Franks, 184. 
 
 Chili, invaded by Almagro, 287 ; indepen- 
 dent. 488. 
 
 Chilperic I., k. of tbn Fmnks, 181. 
 
 China, geography, 30 ; religion, 31 ; chro- 
 nology, 31 i origin of Chhiese, 31; early 
 (lyna.-<ries, 3'5 ; brilliant epoch, 32; the 
 three kingdoms, 32 ; Buddhism in, 23 ; 
 brilliant period, 211 ; con(iuered by Mon- 
 gols, 242 ; in the 15th cent., 278 ; Tatar 
 conquest, 354 ; war with Russia, 390 ; 
 French and English exp. against, 501 ; 
 opium war, 542, 561 ; treaties with France 
 and U. S., 561 ; war with Great Britain 
 and France, 561 ; famine, 562 ; treaty 
 with Russia, 562. 
 
 Chinese emigration to U. S. suspended, 
 560. 
 
 Chios, battle of, 412 ; 416 ; revolt, 488. 
 
 Chippewa, battle of, 551. 
 
 Chlodwig, k. of the Franks, 173. 
 
 Chlopicki,49a. 
 
 Chlotar I., k. of Franks, 181. 
 
 Choiseul, d. de., 446. 
 
 Chosroes, k. of Parthia, war with Trajan, 
 30 ; k. of Armenia, 153 ; deposed, 189. 
 
 Chosroes, k. of Persia, I., (Anushirwau), 
 reign, 190, 191 ; II., Eberwiz, 191. 
 
 Chotusitz, battle of, 401. 
 
 Chow dynasty in China. 32 ; later Chow, 
 211. 
 
 Chowaresmians, empire of the, 240. 
 
 Chremonides, 79. 
 
 Christ, birth of, 11, 149. 
 
 Christian of Anhalt, 309; of Brunswick, 
 defeatedby Tilly, 310. 
 
 Christian, k. of Denmark, I., of Olden- 
 burg, 351 ; II., union of Calmar broken, 
 3,51,352; III., 352; IV., head of lower 
 Saxon circle, in thirty years' war, 31't ; 
 war with Sweden, 314, a52 ; VI., VII., 
 409; VIII., annexes Schleswig-Holstoin, 
 409 ; IX., accepts the constitution, 505, 
 506. 
 
 Christiania founded, 209. 
 
 Christianity, first persecution, 151 ; under 
 Decius, 156 ; under Diocletian, 158 ; made 
 state religion by Constantine, 159 ; aban- 
 doned by Julian, 16U; reinstated by .lovi- 
 anus, 160; adoption of pagan cu.stonis, 
 165 ; conversion of Goths, 170 ; of the 
 Franks, 173; of Langobards, 175 ; begin- 
 ning of the papacy, 175 ; conversion of 
 Britons, 38 ; of the Anglo-Saxons, 179 ; of 
 the Germans, 184 ; Christians persecuted 
 in Persia, 189; tolerated in Persia, 190; 
 conversion of the North, 207, 208, 209 ; 
 tolerated in China, 211 ; conversion of Po- 
 land, Pru.ssia, Hungary, 277 ; preached in 
 China, 355 ; introduced in Japan, but re- 
 jected, 356; Jesuits in Canada, 3t>4 ; per- 
 secution in China, 444; Christians in 
 Turkey, 522, 624 ; toleration secured in 
 China. 502. 
 
 Christina of Sweden, 352. 
 
 Christopher II., k. of Denmark, 236. 
 
 Chrysanthemums, war of the, 243. 
 
 Church, high and low, 4:33. 
 
 Churchill. .S^? Marlborough. 
 
 Cibola, seven cities of, 287. 
 
 Cicero, birthplace of, 82; sketch of life, 
 1-36 : speeches against Catiline, 137 ; 
 banished, 1.38; recalled, 139 ; proconsul, 
 i^O ; murdered, 145. 
 
576 
 
 Index. 
 
 Cid, 209. 
 
 Cilicia, Semitic, 21 ; under Persia, 26, 27, 
 134 ; Roman province, 136. 
 
 Cimbri, invade Italy, 127, 128, 167. 
 
 Cimon, 57, 61 ; rivalry with Themistocles, 
 62 ; recalled to Athens, death, 63. 
 
 Cimon, peace of, 63. 
 
 Cincinnati, society of the, 432. 
 
 Cincinnatus, L. Quinctius, 98. 
 
 Cineas, 108. 
 
 Cinna, 130, 131. 
 
 Cinq-Mars, marquis of, 326. 
 
 Cinque Ports, 264. 
 
 Circles of the H. R. E.,300. 
 
 Cisalpine republic, founded, 459 ; included 
 in Italian republic, 454. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, captured, 473. 
 
 Civil marriage compulsory, 521. 
 
 Civil rights bill, 559. 
 
 Civil service act, 560. 
 
 Civil war, in England (Roses), 272 ; great 
 rebellion, 347, 350 ; in France, 321, 322 ; 
 in Portugal, 488 ; in Rome, 130, 140 ; in 
 Spain, 4b0, 520 ; m Switzerland, 492 ; in 
 United- States, Shays's rebellion, 433 ; 
 whiskey, 548 ; great rebellion, 557. 
 
 Civilis, CL, 168. 
 
 Clarence, d. of, 274. 
 
 Clarendon, e. of, first interview with the 
 king, 346 ; receives grant of South Caro- 
 lina, 358 ; chancellor, 378 ; fall, 379. 
 
 Clark, John, settles Rhode Island, 297. 
 
 Claudia, 148, 319. 
 
 Claudius, Roman emp., conquest of Brit- 
 ain, 37 ; reign, 157. 
 
 Claudius Pulcher, 111. 
 
 Claverhouse, defeat, 381 ; victory and 
 death, 386. 
 
 Clay, Henry, U. S. sec. of state, 552. 
 
 Clay's compromises, 555. 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 555. 
 
 Clemens Maximus, 161. 
 
 Clement II., pope, 199 ; III., 200 ; V., 254 ; 
 goes to Avignon, 263 ; XIV., 416. 
 
 Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 55 ; III., 79. 
 
 Cleon, 65, 66. 
 
 Cleopatra placed over Egypt by Caesar, 
 142 ; meets Antonius, 145 ; fails to charm 
 Octavian, death, 147. 
 
 Clermont, council of, 214. 
 
 Cleve-Jiilich, contested succession begun, 
 308 ; ended, 372. [Geneal. table, 307.J 
 
 Clientes, 90. 
 
 Cliff temples in India, 23. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, 429, 430. 
 
 Clisthenes, reforms of, 64. 
 
 Clitus, murder of, 75 
 
 Clive , lord, 442 ; sketch of life, 443 ; in 
 India, 443, 444. 
 
 Clodius, P., 135 ; tribune exiles Cicero, 
 128 ; ultra democrat, 139 ; death, 140. 
 
 Cloten, 37. 
 
 Clovis. See Chlodwig. 
 
 Cnut. See Knut. 
 
 Coalition ministry, 441. 
 
 Cobbet, William, 538. 
 
 Cobden, Richard, 542. 
 
 Cochin China, 30 ; annexed to China, 278 ; 
 invasion of, 444. 
 
 Code Napoleon, 462. 
 
 Codrus, k. of Athens, 48. 
 
 Coercion act, 546. 
 
 Coke, Sir Edward, 341, 342. 
 
 Colbert, 366. 
 
 Colchester, taken by Fairfax, 851. 
 
 Coleman, execution, 381. 
 
 Coligny, adm. de, attempts to found a 
 Huguenot colony in America, 288 ; mur- 
 dered, 321. 
 
 Collatinus, 89, 93. 
 
 College, execution of, 383. 
 
 Colleges of sacred lore, 85 ; founded, 170. 
 
 Colniar, 186. 
 
 Cologne, diet of, oOO : archbishop of, elec- 
 tor, 248. 
 
 Colombia, 488. 
 
 Colonies, Greek, 48, 49 ; Roman and Latin, 
 109; in America: Spanish, 282, etc.; 
 English, 291; Dutch, Swedish, 298; 
 French, 299, 363. 
 
 Colosseum, 82, 152. 
 
 Columbey-Nouilly, battle of, 516. 
 
 Columbus, Bartholomew ,2S3 ; Christopher, 
 voyages to America, 282, 283, 284 ; state 
 of Japan at the time of his voyage, 278 ; 
 Diego, 284. 
 
 Comitia, centuriata, origin, 92 ; growth of 
 power, 94, l(i2 ; chooses censors, 99 ; de- 
 cline, 107 ; democratic reform of, 112 ; 
 reformed by Sulla, 130 ; further conser- 
 vative changes, 132; powers transferred 
 to the senate, 149 : curiata, original con- 
 stitution, 91, 92; changes in the consti- 
 tution, 94 and n. ; constitution in the 4th 
 cent. B. c, 102 : iributa, established, 96; 
 summons Coriolanus, 97 ; made equal 
 with centuriata, 98 ; constitution in 4th 
 cent. B. c, 102 ; resolves made univer- 
 sally binding, 107. 
 
 Commercial panic in England, 539 ; in U. 
 S., 556, 560. 
 
 Committee of public safety, in England, 
 347 ; in France, 453, 455. 
 
 Commodus, Roman emp., 154. 
 
 Common law, 266. 
 
 Commune of Paris 451, 454, 455; upris- 
 ing, 532. 
 
 Comuenes, dynasty, 240 : house, 240. 
 
 Compton, b. of London, 383, 384. 
 
 Compurgation, abolition of, 232. 
 
 Concilium Germanicum, 184. 
 
 Concini (Marechal d'Ancre), 325. 
 
 Concord, battle of, 426. 
 
 Concordat in France, 319, 463. 
 
 Cond.5, 315, 366, 368, 450. 
 
 Condillac, 448. 
 
 Confederate States of America, 556 ; recog- 
 nized by Great Britain, 555. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine, establishment, 
 468 ; dissolution, 479. 
 
 Confession of faith, 338. 
 
 Confirmatio chartarum, 266. 
 
 Conflans, treaty of, 250. 
 
 Confucius, 32. 
 
 Congress, (Continental, 426,427 ; of United 
 States, 547. 
 
 Connecticut, colony of, 296 ; charter, 358; 
 united witk New Haven, 358 ; govern- 
 ment, 3R1, 362; slavery partially abol- 
 ished, 432. 
 
 Conrad, emp. of the H. R. E., I. (of Fran- 
 conia), 194 ; II. (the Salian), 198 ; III., 
 crusade, 215 ; reign, 219 ; IV., 225. 
 
 Conrad the Red, of Lothariugia, 195. 
 
Index. 
 
 577 
 
 Conradin, 225, 226. 
 
 Consi'il (lu Hoi, 446. 
 
 Coiisistorium priiicipis, 159. 
 
 Coiistauco, council of, 251 ; peace of, 222. 
 
 Constiiuce, of Sicily, married Henry VI., 
 222. 
 
 Con.>(tans, Roman emp., 160. 
 
 Constiint, B., 527. 
 
 Constantine, Roman emp., I. (the Great), 
 159: II., 160. 
 
 Constantinople, fall of, 260, 278 ; palace, 
 revolution in, 521 ; conference of, 622. 
 See Byzantium. 
 
 Constantius, Roman emp., 158, 160; Per- 
 sian war, IBS. 
 
 Constjintius Chlorus, 158. 
 
 Constituent assembly in France, 447, 449. 
 
 Coustitutio Autoniana, J55. 
 
 Constitution of Austria, of 1849, 495 ; Feb- 
 ruary c, 504 ; c. of 1866, 511. 
 
 Constitution, French, _/irst, accepted by 
 Louis XIV., 450 ; second (Republican), 
 never executed, 454 ; third (of 1795), 
 457; fourth, 461; ffth, 464; of the 
 First Empire, 465; c. of Louis XVllL, 
 665 ; c. of Louis Philippe, 529 ; c. of 1848, 
 631 ; c. of Louis Napoleon, 531 ; third re- 
 public, 532 ; c. of 1875, 533. 
 
 Constitution of (iermany. See Bull, Gold- 
 en, and diet of llegensburg. End of the 
 H. R. E. , 464; German confederation, 
 483; attempt to frame a new c, 493; 
 new c. completed, 497 ; return to the 
 confederation, 498; confederation dis- 
 solved, 459 ; North German confedera- 
 tion, 511 : c. of the German empire, 520. 
 
 Constitution of Hungary. See Bull, gold- 
 en. Under Joseph II., 408; in 1848, 494; 
 abrogated, 495; in 1861, 504; restored, 
 511. 
 
 Constitution of Naples, 493. 
 
 Constitution of Poland, old, 374; c. of 1791, 
 413; abrogated, 490. 
 
 Constitution of Prussia, 497. 
 
 Constitution of 1812 in Spain formed, 473 ; 
 abrogated, 483 ; restored, 487 ; abrogated, 
 488. 
 
 Constitution of United States signed, 433. 
 See Amendments. 
 
 Constitutions of Clarendon, 232. 
 
 Consulate, French, 448, 461 : Roman, es- 
 tablished, 93 ; first plebeian consul, 101 ; 
 age of eligibility, 120 ; treatment under 
 the empire, 147. 
 
 Conventicle act, 379. 
 
 Convention parliament, 378, 385. 
 
 Convocation, 340, 437. 
 
 Convulsionnaires, 446. 
 
 Cook, James, voyages of, 442. 
 
 Coote, Sir Eyre, 444. 
 
 Copenhagen, capture of, 249; 1st bom- 
 bardment, 470 ; battle of, 536 ; 2d bom- 
 bardment, 537 ; peace of, 373. 
 
 Corcyra, t)4, 66. 
 
 Corday, Charlotte, 454. 
 
 Uordeiiers, 451. 
 
 Cordova, Caliphate of, 183, 209. 
 
 Cordova, Gonsalvo de 818. 
 
 Corea, conquered by Chinese, 32 ; by Jap- 
 anese, 33; treaty with Japan, 564. 
 
 Corfinium, capital of Italia, 129. 
 
 Goriuth, origin, 48 ; national assembly at, 
 37 
 
 73 ; joins Achaean league, 79 ; destroyed, 
 
 80, 122. 
 Corinthian war, 70. 
 Coriolanus, 97. 
 Corn laws repealed, 542. 
 Cornaro, Catherine, 262. 
 Corneille, 371. 
 Cornwallis, lord, in the Southern States, 
 
 430 ; surrender of, 431, 441 ; in India, 
 
 541. 
 Cora'bus, 61. 
 
 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 287. 
 Coronea, battle of, 63, 70. 
 Corporation act, 379, 539. 
 Corpus Catholicorum, 371. 
 Corpus Evangelicorum, 371. 
 Corpus juris civilis, 210. 
 Correggio, 328. 
 Corsica, Phocaeans driven from, 19, 26, 84 ; 
 
 assigned to Sextus Pompeius 146 ; king- 
 dom of, 415. 
 Cortenuova, battle of, 224. 
 Cortereal, Gaspar and Miguel de, 284. 
 Cortes at Cadiz, 473. 
 Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 285; 
 
 discovers Lower California, 287. 
 Corvinus, Matthias, k. of Hungary, 253. 
 Cosa, Juan de la, 284. 
 Council of ten, 262. 
 Council of the church, first oecumenical, 
 
 159 ; last, 159, 512. 
 Count of the Saxon Shore, 38. 
 Courcelles, gov. of New France, 364. 
 Court of Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's 
 
 Bench, 266. 
 Courtrai, battle of, 264. 
 Couthon, 454, 456. 
 Covenant. See. Solemn League. 
 Covenanters, defeat of, 379. 
 Covilham, 353. 
 Cowpens, battle of, 431. 
 Coxe, 365. 
 
 Cracow, 414 ; free state of, 483. 
 Cradock, Matthew, gov. of Mass. Bay, 295. 
 Cranmer, archb. of Canterbury, 335 ; burnt 
 
 338. 
 Crassus, expedition against Parthia, 30, 
 
 133 ; democrat, 136, 137 ; consul, 140. 
 Craterus, 74 ; regent of West, 76 ; in the 
 
 Lamian war, 79. 
 Craven, gov. of Carolina, 417. 
 Crawford, W. H., U. S. sec. of the treas., 
 
 551. 
 Crt^cy, battle of, 248, 257. 
 Crefeld, battle of, 405. 
 Cremona, 35 ; founded, 112 ; battle of, 151 ; 
 
 diet, 224. 
 Crescentius, 197. 
 Crespy, peace of, 305. 
 
 Crete, Phoenician settlements in, 17 ; un- 
 der Minos, 18, 41 ; assigned to Brutus, 
 
 144 ; belongs to Venice, 326 ; yielded to 
 
 Turks, 416. 
 Crimean war, 499, 500, 543; end of, 531. 
 Critias slain, 69. 
 Croatia, 511. 
 Croesus, k. of Lydia, conquers Grecian 
 
 cities, intercourse with Greece, war with 
 
 Persia, 21, 22; defeated, 22, 26; story of 
 
 his miraculous rescue, 26. 
 Cromwell, Oliver, sketch of life, 375; first 
 
 speech, 343; " Ironsides," 347; Mars ton 
 
578 
 
 Index. 
 
 Moor, 348 ; lieutenant-general, 349; lord 
 protector, 376 ; turns out the rump, 376 ; 
 rejects title of king, 377 ; death, 377- 
 
 Cromwell, Richard, 375, 377. 
 
 Cromwell, Thomas, 335. 
 
 Crown Point, 421, 428. 
 
 Crozat, sieur Antoine, 365. 
 
 Crusades, cause, 213; I., 214; II., III., 
 215; IV., v., 216; VI., VII., 217; re- 
 sults, 217. 
 
 Ctesiphon, 153, 192. 
 
 Cuba discovered, 278, 282 ; circumnavigat- 
 ed, 284 ; conquered, 284 ; attack on, 419. 
 
 CuUoden, battle of, 438. 
 
 Culpepper, lord, grant in America, 357. 
 
 Cumberland, d. of, became k. of Hanover, 
 642. 
 
 Cumberland Straits, discovery of, 289. 
 
 Cunaxa, battle of, 29. 
 
 Cunctator. See Fabius. 
 
 Cup-bearer, 195. 
 
 Curiae, 91. 
 
 Curio subjugated Sicily, 141. 
 
 Curius Dentatus, M'., 106. 
 
 Curland, incorporated with Russia, 414. 
 
 Curland, d of, restored, 373. 
 
 Custine, gen. 453, 454. 
 
 Cu8toz2a,, battle of, 494, 510. 
 
 Cyaxares, overthrows Nineveh, 15, 16 ; war 
 with Alyattes, 21, 25. 
 
 Cybele, Lydian goddess, 21. 
 
 Cylon, insurrection of, 51. 
 
 Cymbeline, 37. 
 
 Cynoscephalae, battle of, 71, 80, 119. 
 
 Cynric, 178. 
 
 Cyprus, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; Phoeni- 
 cian colonies in, 17, 41 ; given to Guy of 
 Lusignan, by Richard of England, 215 ; 
 given by Catherine Cornaro to Venice, 
 262; surrendered to the Turks, 326; 
 given to England, 524 ; British take pos- 
 session, 545. 
 
 Cyrene in Africa, hostilities with Egypt, 
 6 ; founded, 19 ; submits to Cambyses, 
 27 ; conquered by Darius, 28 ; assigned 
 to Cassius, 144. 
 
 Cyrus, emp. of Persia, deposes Astyages, 
 62 ; defeats Croesus, 21, 26 : takes Baby- 
 lon, 16, 26 ; death, 27 : the younger, 29. 
 
 Cyzicus, battle of, 68, 134, 
 
 Czartoryski, 490. 
 
 Czaslau, battle of, 401. 
 
 Czechs, 493. 
 
 Dablon, 864. 
 
 Dacia, war with Rome, 152, 153 ; made a 
 Roman province, 152 ; given up by Au- 
 relian, 157. 
 
 Daedalus, 18. 
 
 Dale, Sir Thomas, 292. 
 
 Dalecarlians, revolt of the, 352. 
 
 Dalhousie, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. 
 
 Dalmatia, 525, 526. 
 
 Dalziel, 379. 
 
 Damascus, defection from Solomon, 9 ; 
 captured by Ramannarari, 14, 136 ; sul- 
 tanate of, 210. 
 
 Damiens, 446. 
 
 Damietta, captured, 217. 
 
 Dan no ura, battle of, 242. 
 
 Dan the Famous, k. of Norway, 207. 
 
 Danaus, 44. 
 
 Danby, impeachment, 381, 383, 384 ; pres 
 of privy council, 385. 
 
 Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 216, 262. 
 
 Danegeld, instituted, 205 ; abolished, 231. 
 
 Danelagh, 204 ; reconquered and lost, 205. 
 
 Danes. See Denmark, Northmen. In Eng- 
 land ; three epochs of their ravages, 203 ■. 
 ti'eaty of Wedmore, 204 ; massacre of 
 Danes, 305 ; political conquest of Eng- 
 land, 206. 
 
 Dangerfield, 382, 383. 
 
 Danish vespers, 205. 
 
 Danneborg, 235. 
 
 Dannevirke, 207. 
 
 Dante Alighieri, 263. 
 
 Danton, member of Cordeliers, 451, 452, 
 
 453 ; of the Committee of Public Safety, 
 
 454 ; execution, 455. 
 
 Danzig, annexed to Poland, 413 ; captured 
 by Napoleon, 469. 
 
 Daras, battle of, 190. 
 
 Dare, Jeanne, career, 260. 
 
 Dardanos, peace of, 131. 
 
 Dare, Virginia, 289. 
 
 Darien, discovered by Columbus, 284 ; at- 
 tacked by Drake, 289 ; Scotch settlement 
 at, 362. 
 
 Darius, name of several k.'s of Persia, I. 
 succeeds Bardija, recaptures Babylon, 
 27 ; war with Scythians, reforms, war 
 with Ionian Greeks, with European 
 Greeks, death, 28 : II. Not/ms, 29 \ III., 
 Codomannus, defeated by Alexander, 
 death, 29, 74. 
 
 Darnley, murdered, 338. 
 
 Datis, 57. 
 
 Daun, marshal, 404, 405. 
 
 Dauphin, title of the heir to the French 
 crown, 258. 
 
 Dauphine of Vienne, transferred to the 
 crown of France, 258, 
 
 David, k. of the Jews, 8, 9. 
 
 David II., k. of Scotland, capture of, 268. 
 
 Davila, 285. 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, U. S. sec. of war, 555 ; 
 pres. of the Confederate States, 556. 
 
 Davis, John, Arctic voyages, 289, 290. 
 
 Davout, on the Rhine, 467 ; defeated at 
 Eylau, 469 : in Hamburg, 476, 479. 
 
 Day of the sections, 457. 
 
 Decazes, ministry of, 527. 
 
 Deccan, in India, geographical position, 
 22 ; arrival of Hindus, 23 : state of, in 
 1498,353; independence of, 442; passes 
 under the control of the British, 541. 
 
 Decebalus, 152, 153. 
 
 Decelean war, 67. 
 
 Decemvirs, 98. 
 
 Decius, Roman emp., 156. 
 
 DeciusMusP.,108. 
 
 Declaration of Independence in Belgium. 
 489 ; in the United States, 428. 
 
 Declaration of indulgence, 380. 
 
 Declaration of rights, 385. 
 
 Declaration of rights and liberties, 424. 
 
 Deerfield, Indian attack, 3G3. 
 
 Defoe, Daniel, 389, 436. 
 
 Deiotarus, k. of Galatia, 78,. 136 ; submit! 
 to Caesar, 142. 
 
 Deira, 178. 
 
 Dejoces, Median chief, 25. 
 
 Delaware, lord, gov. of S. Virginia, 292. 
 
Index. 
 
 579 
 
 Delhi, in India. 22; snlfans of, 241, 863 ; 
 capfiired V'j Liike, 541 ; revolt, 546. 
 
 Delos, 41, 62. 
 
 Delphi, advice to Croe.sus, 21 ; nttjirlted by 
 (ijiul.s, 35; oracle. 51- plundered by 
 Krisa, 54 ; by I'hocians, 72. 
 
 Deniades, peace of, 73. 
 
 Deniaratu-s, 55, 58. 
 
 Pemes, 52. 
 
 Demetrius, the false, 352. 
 
 Demetrius Polioroetes, 77; in Athens, 79. 
 
 Democnitic party in U. S., 548. 
 
 Demosthenes, tlie general, 60, 67. 
 
 Demosthenes, tlie orator, opposition to 
 Philip, 72 ; forms alliance with Thebes, 
 73 ; poisons himself, 79. 
 
 Denain, battle of,3i>2. 
 
 Denmark, people of, 164; early history, 
 207: war with Charles the Great, 185; 
 with Otto I., 195; with Otto II., 197 ; in- 
 vasion of England, 2(t3, 2l)4 ; conquest of 
 England, 205, 2u6 ; under Waldemar the 
 conqueror, 235 ; capitulation, 236 ; Union 
 of Calmar, 237, 276; share in thirty 
 years' war, 310 : war with Sweden, 314 : 
 feuds of the counts in, 352: lex regia, 
 374; treaty with Sweden, 397; alliance 
 with France, 470 ; receives Lauenberg, 
 483 ; Schleswig-IIolstein, 496 : incorpora- 
 tion of the duchies, 505 ; war with Aus- 
 tria and Prussia, 505. 
 
 Dennew itz, battle of, 477. 
 
 Denys, Jean,2S4. 
 
 Deorham, battle of, 178. 
 
 Derby, e. of, impeachment, 270. 
 
 Derby, e., 1st ministry of, 543 , 2d, 544 ; 3d, 
 544. 
 
 Dermod, k. of Leinster, 232. 
 
 Derwentwater, execution of, 437. 
 
 Desaix, 460. 
 
 Desiderius, k. of Langobards, 184. 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille, at the storm of the 
 Bastile, 449 ; member of Cordeliers, 451 ; 
 executed, 455. 
 
 Despensers, 267. 
 
 Dessau, bridge of, battle. 310. 
 
 Dessoles-Decazcs, ministry of, 527. 
 
 Detmold, battle of, 185. 
 
 Detroit, besieged by Pontiac,423. 
 
 Dettingen, battle of, 402. 
 
 Deutsch-Brod. battle of, 252. 
 
 Deuxponts. See Zwoihrucken 
 
 Devolution, war of, 3'30. 
 
 Diadochi. wars of, 76. 
 
 Diaeus, 122. 
 
 Diana of I'oitiers, 320. 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomasus, 280. 
 
 Dictatorship, established, 93 : nature, 94 ; 
 opened to plebeians, 101 ; disappearance, 
 123 ; Sulla assumes the office, 132. 
 
 Diderot, 448. 
 
 Didius, Julianus, Roman enip., 154. 
 
 Dido, 17, 18. 
 
 Diebitch, 490. 
 
 Dieskau,421. 
 
 Digges, 8ir Dudley, 343. 
 
 Dijon, battle of, 174, 25a 
 
 Dillon. 545. 
 
 Dinwiildie, Robert, gov. of Virginia, 420. 
 
 Diocletianus, IJoman emp , 158. 
 
 Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. 
 
 Directory, in France, 448 ; government of, 
 
 457 ; 18th Frnetidor, change within the 
 directory, 459 : 3d I'raiiial, rooigauized, 
 18th Hruuuiirc, ovi-rthrowu, 451. 
 
 Disrnli. Si-e Heaconstield. 
 
 l)is.seuter«, 379. 
 
 Dobrudsha, invaded by French, 500: occu- 
 pied by Russians, 522 ; <eded to Uus.sia 
 and exchanged for Bessarabia, 623, 624. 
 
 Dodecarchy in Egypt, 6. 
 
 Dodona, 43. 
 
 Dijfflngen, battle of, 250. 
 
 Doge of Venice, 2iJz. 
 
 Dolabella, consul, 144. 
 
 Dolgoruky, family of, 410. 
 
 Domitianus, Roman emp , conquest of Brit' 
 ain, 37 ; reign, 152. 
 
 Donauwijrth, 308. 
 
 Doomsday book, 229. 
 
 Dorea, Andrea, doge of Genoa,. S03, .326. 
 
 Dorians in Asia Minor, subjugated by Crce- 
 8US, 21 ; Dorus, mythical ancestor, 43; 
 migration of, 48 : Doric communities, 
 48, 49 ; colonies, 49. 
 
 Dorr rebellion, 554. 
 
 Dorylctum, battle of, 214. 
 
 Dost Muhammnd, 546. 
 
 Douglas, e. of , 270 
 
 Dover, secret treaty of, 380. 
 
 Draco, 51. 
 
 Dragonnades, 369. 
 
 Drake, Francis, vovage around the world, 
 289: New Albion, 289: expedition to 
 ^^'est Indies, rescues Virginia colony , 290, 
 339. 
 
 Dred Scott case. 5.56. 
 
 Drepanum, sea-tight at, 111. 
 
 Dresden, peace of, 402 ; battle of, 477 ; up- 
 rising in, 497 ; conference at, 498. 
 
 Drogheda, statute of, 333. 
 
 Drogheda, storm of, 375. 
 
 Drogo, 199. 
 
 Druids, 34. 
 
 Drumclog, battle of, 381. 
 
 Drusus, M. Livius, 125, 126, 128. 
 
 Drusus (the younger), son of Tiberius, 
 campaigns in Germany, 167 ; poisoned, 
 149. 
 
 Drvden,.7ohn, 389. 
 
 Diibienka. battle of, 413. 
 
 Dublin, conquest of, 208, 209. 
 
 Dubois, card., 445. 
 
 Ducas, dyna.sty,240. 
 
 Duclerc, ministry, 535. 
 
 Ducrot, 517, 518. 
 
 Dudley, Joseph, pres. of New England, 
 361 ; gov. of Mass., 363. 
 
 Dufaure, ministry in France, 534. 
 
 Duilius, C. 110. 
 
 Diilcigno, ceded to Montenegro, 525. 
 
 Dumouriez, 452, 453. 
 
 Dunbar, battle of, 266, 375. 
 
 Dundee. See Claverhouse, 386. 
 
 Dunes, battle of the, 377. 
 
 Dunkirk, siege of, 377 ; sold to France, 
 3i9. 
 
 Dunse, pacification of, 345. 
 
 Dunstan, archb. of Canterbury. 205. 
 
 Dupleix,gov. of Pondicherri, 443. 
 
 Diippel, storming of, .506. 
 
 Durazzo, house of. in Naples, 2(33. 
 
 Dur-Sarrukin, 12, 15. 
 
 Dutch in America, 298 ; in India. 354. 
 
580 
 
 Index. 
 
 Dutch war, 876. 
 
 Dutch West ludia Company, 298. 
 Duttlingea, battle of, 314. 
 Duumviri eacrorum, 86. 
 Dyaush-pitar, 22. 
 Dyrrhachium, battle of, 141. 
 
 Eadberht, 180. 
 
 Eadgar, 205. 
 
 Eadgar, .^theling, 206. 
 
 Eadgar, k. of Scotland, 230. 
 
 Eadmund Ironside, 205. 
 
 Eadred, 206. 
 
 Eadward (the elder), k. of England, 204; 
 the confessor, 206. 
 
 Eadwig, 205. 
 
 Eadwin, earl of Mercia, 206 ; revolt of Eng- 
 lish under, 229 ; k. of Northumbria, 179. 
 
 Eastern empire, separated from western, 
 161 ; under Justinian l.,210, 216 ; under 
 Macedonian house, 210 ; under the houses 
 of Ducas, Oomnenes, and Angeius, 240 ; 
 conquest of Constantinople, 278 ; plan 
 to restore, 413. 
 
 East Goths, iu Southern Ruesia, 170 ; king- 
 dom of, in Italy, 174 ; destroyed by Nar- 
 ses, 175. 
 
 East India bill, 442. 
 
 East India Company of London, origin, 
 354 ; charter renewed, 640 ; government 
 of India ceases, 644 ; exclusive trade 
 with China ceases, 561. 
 
 East Indies, ocean route to, discovered, 
 279. See, also, India. 
 
 Eastphalia, 185. 
 
 East Roumelia, province of, 624. 
 
 Eberhard, d. of Franconia, 196 ; d. of 
 Wiirtemberg, wars with Rudolf I., 244 ; 
 der Greiner, wars with cities, 249. 
 
 Eberwiz. See Chosroes II. 
 
 Ecbatana, 24, 26, 26, 28. 
 
 Ecclesiastical commission, new court of, 
 383. 
 
 Ecclesiastical titles bill, 543. 
 
 Ecgberht, k. of VVessex, lord of England 
 south of the Forth, 180, 181, 203. 
 
 Eck, 301. 
 
 Eckmiihl, battle of, 471. 
 
 Eclipse of the sun, 21. 
 
 Ecnomus, battle of, 110. 
 
 Ecuador, republic of, 488. 
 
 Edda, eider and younger, 165. 
 
 Edessa, captured, 215. 
 
 Edgehill, battle of, 347. 
 
 Edict of Nantes, promulgation, 324; revo- 
 cation of, 369; of restitution, 310; of 
 tolerance of Joseph II., 407. 
 
 Edinburgh, treaty of 338 ; liturgy in, 344 ; 
 general assembly, 345. 
 
 Edmund, St., k. of England, 203. 
 
 Edward I., k. of England, agreement with 
 Philip IV., of France, 254 ; reign, 263, 
 264 ; reforms, 266 ; II., reign, 267 ; III., 
 reign, 268 ; war with France, 257 ; laws in 
 Ireland, 269 ; 1 V., reign, 272, 274 ; invades 
 France, 260; V., reign, 275; VI., reign, 
 336. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince, victorv of Poitiers, 
 2iT8; aids Peter the Cruel, 276; death, 
 209. 
 
 Egmont, at Gravelmes, 321 ; sketch of life, 
 execution, 330. 
 
 Egremont, sec. of state, 439. 
 
 Egypt, geography, religion, 2; civiliza- 
 tion, chronology, 3 ; old empire, new 
 empire, 4 ; stories of Sesostris, 5 ; not con- 
 quered by Assyrians 961 B. c, 5 n. 2 ; con- 
 quered by Ethiopians, 6 ; by Assyrians, 
 6, 14 ; revolt of Psamethik, 6 ; becomes 
 a province of Persia, 7 ; conquered by 
 Cambyses, 27 ; under the Ptolemies, 77 ; 
 conquered by Caesar, 143 ; Roman prov- 
 ince, 147 ; reconquered by Aurelian, 157 ; 
 by Muhammedans, 182 ; sixth crusade, 
 217 ; revolt of Mehemed Ali, 491 ; revolt 
 of ArabL Pasha, 546. 
 
 Eider-Danes, 506. 
 
 El, 13. 
 
 El Dorado, 288. 
 
 Elagabalus, Roman emp., 155. 
 
 Elam, empire of, 13. 
 
 Elba, conferred upon Napoleon, 481. 
 
 Eldon, lord chan., 636. 
 
 Eleanor of Poitou, married Louis VII., and 
 afterward Henry of Anjou, 226. 
 
 Eleanor, wife of Edward I. of England, 
 death of, 264. 
 
 Electoral reform bill in Italy, 526. 
 
 Electors of the H. R. E., 248. 
 
 Electro-magnetism discovered, 487. 
 
 Elgin, lord, viceroy of India, 646; envoy 
 to China, 561. 
 
 Elijah, 9. 
 
 Eliot, John, missionary, 857. 
 
 Eliot, sir John, 341, 343. 
 
 Elisha, 9. 
 
 Elissa, founds Carthage, 18. 
 
 Elizabeth of Bohemia, 341. 
 
 Elizabeth of Valois, 824, 330. 
 
 Elizabeth, q. of England, reign, 838, 339. 
 
 Elizabeth, tsarina of Russia, ally of Aus- 
 tria, 403 ; death relieves Frederic, 405 ; 
 reign, 411. 
 
 Elizabeth Islands, 290. 
 
 EUenborough, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. 
 
 Ellichpur, kingdom founded, 353; con- 
 quered by Auranzeb, 389. 
 
 Elster, battle of the, 478. 
 
 Ely, capture of, 229. 
 
 Emadeddin Zeuki, 215. 
 
 Emancipation of the serfs in Russia, uOO. 
 
 Emancipation proclamation, 558. 
 
 Embargo policy of U. S., 650. 
 
 Emir-al-Mumenin, 182 ; al Omra, 210. 
 
 Emmanuel Philibert, d. of Savoy, 326. 
 
 Emmanuel the Great, k. of Portugal, 332. 
 
 Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, 536. 
 
 Emund Gammle, k. of Sweden, 208. 
 
 Enactment of the delegates, 404. 
 
 Encumbered estates act, 543. 
 
 Endicott, John, 295, 296. 
 
 Enghien, d. of. See Condt5. 
 
 Enghien, d. of executed, 466. 
 
 England. See Britain. Teutonic conquest, 
 176 ; West Saxon kings, 203 ; Danish su- 
 premacy, 206; Norman conquest, 206; 
 Norman kings, 229 ; house of Plantagenet, 
 large possessions in France, 231 ; conquest 
 of Ireland, 232 ; magna charta, 233 ; par- 
 liament, 234; hundred years' war, 267' 
 loses French possessions, 260 ; annexation 
 of Wales, 264 ; reforms under Edward I. 
 266 ; first perfect parliament, 267 ; Scot 
 land lost, 268 ; black death, 268 ; peac« 
 
Index. 
 
 581 
 
 of Bretigny, 268; peasant revolt, 269; 
 luiusi- of Lam-Jir^tor, 270 ; wjirt! of tlie 
 Roses, 272 : house of York, 272 ; scttlo- 
 rut'iits in America, 2S'J, 291-298 ; liouse 
 of Tudor, 33:3 ; secession from tlie Ro- 
 man Catholic church, 335 ; house of 
 Stuart, personal union with Scotland, 
 3^39 : long parliament, 345 ; great rebel- 
 lion, 347; execution, of Charles I., 351; 
 British in India, 364; commonwealth, 
 375 ; monarchy restored, 37!i ; interreg- 
 num, 3S4 ; rev)lution, 385 ; bill of rights, 
 3S6 ; war of the Spanish succession, 3S8, 
 390 ; protestJint succession secured, 393 ; 
 union with Scotland, 434 ; peace of 
 Utrecht, 4:35 ; house of Hanover, 436 ; war 
 with Spain, 419, 437 ; war of the Aus- 
 trian succession, 419, 438 ; peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, 404, 419, 438 , adoption of 
 new stvle, 438 ; seven years' war, 404, 
 420, 43«, 445 ; peace of Paris, 422, 439 ; 
 V ar with the revolted American colonies, 
 424, 426, 440 ; peace of Versiiilles, 432, 441 ; 
 armed neutrality, 413, 441 ; British in 
 India, 443; war with France, 453, 535; 
 with Holland, 535; with Spain, 535; 
 union with Ireland, 463, 536 ; Peninsula 
 war, 471, 479 ; treaty of Vienna, 482, 537 ; 
 Waterloo, 538 ; war with United States, 
 474, 551 ; commercial panic, Catholic 
 emancipation, 639 ; reform act, 540 : ab- 
 olition of slavery, 540; India, 541 ; Vic- 
 toria, 642 : quoen, sovereign of India, 
 544 ; Irish troubles, 545 ; India, 545. 
 
 English Pale, 270. 
 
 Enkoeping, battle of, 238. 
 
 Enzio, k. of Sardinia, 226. 
 
 Epaminondas, 71. 
 
 Ephialtes, law of, 62. 
 
 Ephialtes, the traitor, 59. 
 
 Ephthialites, wars w ith Persia, 189, 190. 
 
 Epigoni, war of the, 47. 
 
 Epirus, 41 ; allied with Macedonia, 79 ; sub- 
 dued by Flamininus,119 ; punished, 121. 
 
 Episcopacy in England, 338 : restored in 
 Scotland, 340: abolished, 344: attempt 
 to introduce, 379 ; abolished 386; not 
 introduced at the union, 434. 
 
 Equity, 266. 
 
 Eresburg, captured, 185 ; battle of, 195. 
 
 Eretria, deserts the lonians, 28 ; captured, 
 57. 
 
 Erfurt, as.«cmbly of princes at, 471. 
 
 Erfurt, parliament of, 498. 
 
 Erie canal, 552. 
 
 Erigena. See Joannes Scotus. 
 
 Erik, Ejesod, k. of Denmark, 208 ; GUp- 
 phii^, k. of Denmark, 236 ; Menved, k. of 
 Denmark, 236. 
 
 Erik, Blod'dxe, k. of Norway, 208 ; Graa- 
 f'Ll, k. of Norway, 208; Priest-hater, k. 
 of Norway, 238. 
 
 Erik E'lmundsson, k. of Sweden, 208; TX., 
 the saint, k. of Sweden, 237; Eriksson 
 LfT.sfie, k. of Sweden, 237; XIV. of 
 Sweden, 352. 
 
 Erik the Red, discovery and settlement of 
 (ireenland by, 209. 
 
 Erikson, Leif and Thorw%qld, 281. 
 
 Ermanarich, k. of Kast (Jotha, J 70. 
 
 Ermeland, bishopric of, 373. 
 Ernestine line in Saxony, 305. 
 
 Ernst, d. of Swabia, revolt of, 198. 
 
 Ernst August, k. of Hanover, 491. 
 
 Erskine, lord chan., 537. 
 
 Eryx, 111. 
 
 E.sarhaddon, k. of Assyria, 6, 16. 
 
 Espartero, 490. 
 
 Essex, settled, 178. 
 
 Essex, e. of, rebellion, 3.39. 
 
 Essex, e. of, in cabinet, 381 ; suicide, 382. 
 
 Essling, battle at, 472. 
 
 Estaing, c. d', in America, 430. 
 
 Estai)les, peace of, 333. 
 
 Este map, 284. 
 
 Esthonia, retained by Denmark, 236; re- 
 nounced by Poland, 373. 
 
 E.stridsen, dynasty in Denmark, 207; ei- 
 
 , tinct. of, 235. 
 
 Etats-Generaux, summoned by Louis XIII. 
 the last time before 1789, 324; sum- 
 moned bv Louis XVI., 449. 
 
 Ethandun,' battle of, 204. 
 
 Ethiopians, attacked by Seti I., 5 ; founda- 
 tion of the kingdom of Napata, 5 ; con- 
 quer Egypt, expelled by Eserhaddon, 6, 
 15 ; war against, 148. 
 
 Etruria, kingdom of, 463. 
 
 Etruscans, expel the Phocaeans from Cor- 
 sica, 19; country of, 81; ethnographj', 
 86 ; war with Rome, 95 ; Veil taken by 
 Rome, 99; all southern Etruria submits 
 to Rome, It 3 ; share in second Samnite 
 war, 105 ; in the second, 106 ; peace with 
 Rome, 108. 
 
 Euboea, 41; land given to Athenians, 55 ; 
 Persian ships lost at, 59 ; second division 
 of land, 63. 
 
 Euclides, laws of, 69. 
 
 Eudes, c. of Paris, 201, 202. 
 
 Eugene, pr., sketch of life, 370 ; war with 
 Turks, 372; head of grand alliance, 391, 
 392 : war with Turks, 397, 398. 
 
 Eugene, viceroy, 472. 
 
 Eugenie de Montijo, 5-31. 
 
 Eugenius, Roman emp., 161. 
 
 Eugenius IV., pope, 253. 
 
 Eumenes, k. of Pergamus, 76, 78 ; ally of 
 Rome, 119, 120. 
 
 Eunjolpus, 44. 
 
 Eupatridae, 45, 51, 54. 
 
 Euphrates, expedition of Seti I. to, 5 ; 
 Babylon built on, 12 ; diverted by Cy- 
 rus," 26; battle of, 135. 
 
 Euripides, 64. 
 
 Europa, 18. 
 
 Eurybiadcs, 59. 
 
 Eurvmedon, battle of the, 62. 
 
 Eutaw, battle of, 431. 
 
 Everett, Edward, U. S. sec. of state, 555. 
 
 Evesham, battle of, 234. 
 
 Exarchate, 175 ; given to the papacy, 184. 
 
 Exchequer, reestablished, 231 ; closed by 
 Charles II., 380. 
 
 Exodus of the Jews, 8. 
 
 Eylau, battle of, 469. 
 
 Ezekiel, 11. 
 
 Fabii, 97, 100. 
 
 Falnus Maximus, Q. (runftator), 114, 115, 
 
 Rullianus Q., 103. 105, 106. 
 F'abricius, ('., victory of, 107, 108. 
 Fairfax, sir Thonms, 348, 349 ; superseded 
 
 by Cromwell, .375. 
 
582 
 
 Index. 
 
 Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, 262. 
 
 Falk, 525. 
 
 Falkirk, battle of, 266. 
 
 Falkirk Moor, battle of, 438. 
 
 Falkland, lord, 346, 348. 
 
 Falkceping, battle of, 237, 238. 
 
 Farmer, pres., of Magdalen college, 383. 
 
 Faruese, extinction of the family, 3i:^8. 
 
 Fatima, 182. 
 
 Fatimites, 213, 214. 
 
 Faust. See Fust. 
 
 Faventia, battle, 131. 
 
 Favre, 512, 517. 
 
 Fawkes, Guy, 340. 
 
 February revolution, 492. 
 
 Federalist party, 548. 
 
 Fehrbellin, battle of, 368, 374. 
 
 Fenelon, 371. 
 
 Fenians, 545. 
 
 Fenwick, condemned, 388. 
 
 Feodor, tsar of Russia, 374. 
 
 Ferdinand, arclid. of Austria, 467. 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, k. of Aragon, 276, 
 318 ; marries Isabella of Castile, 328. 
 
 Ferdinand I., emp. of Austria, 491 ; abdi- 
 cates, 495. 
 
 Ferdinand, d. of Brunswick. See Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 Ferdinand emp. of H. R. E., relation to 
 Spain, 301, 303; reign, 306; II., 308, 
 309; III., 314. 
 
 Ferdinand VI., k. of Spain, reign, 414; VII., 
 479, 482, 490. 
 
 Ferdinand, k. of Naples, expelled by Napo- 
 leon, 468 ; reinstated, 484. 
 
 Ferdinand, k. of Two Sicilies, 416. 
 
 Ferdinand Joseph, of Tuscany, 416. 
 
 Ferrex, 37. 
 
 Ferry, Jules, ministry of, 534. 
 
 Ferry Bridge, battle of, 274. 
 
 Fetiales, college of, 85. 
 
 Feudal system in China, 32 ; in Europe, 
 166 ; in Japan, 212 ; iu Norway, 208 ; in 
 England, 229. 
 
 Feuillants, 451. 
 
 Fidenae, 88. 
 
 Fiefs declared hereditary, 201. 
 
 "Field of Lies," 186. 
 
 Fieschi's infernal machine, 529. 
 
 Fiesco, conspiracy of, 326. 
 
 Fillmore, Millard, 555. 
 
 Fimbri, 131. 
 
 Financial crisis in U. S., 552, 553. 
 
 Finch, sir H., e. of Nottingham, 380. 
 
 Firbolgs, in Ireland, 39. 
 
 Firdusi, 25. 
 
 Fire worship, 25. 
 
 Fisher's Hill, battle of, 5^8. 
 
 Fisheries, in peace of Paris, 432 ; partially 
 settled, 560. 
 
 Fitz Peter, Geoffrey, 233. 
 
 Five Forks, battle of, 559. 
 
 Flaccus, L. Valerius, 130. 
 
 Flaccus, M. Fulvius, 125. 
 
 Flambard, Ranulf, 230. 
 
 Flamines, 85. 
 
 Flamininus, T. Quinctius, 119. 
 
 Flaminius, 114. 
 
 Flanders, indepenrlenco recognized, 254; 
 acquired by Burgundy, 329 ; ceded to 
 France, 456. 
 
 Flavian emperors, 141. , 
 
 Fleix, treaty of, 822. 
 
 Fletcher, gov. of New York, 362. 
 
 Fleurus, battle of, 370, 456. 
 
 Fleury, card., 446. 
 
 Flodden Field, battle of, 334. 
 
 Florence, under the Medici, 263 ; Savonac 
 rola, 327 ; peace of, 463 ; becomes capi* 
 tal of Italy, 503. 
 
 Florida discovered, 284 ; ceded by Spain 
 to England in 1763, 437 ; restored to 
 Spain in 1783, 441 ; sold by Spain to the 
 United States, 552 ; admitted to the 
 Union, 554. 
 
 Foix, Gaston de, 318. 
 
 Fokchany, battle at, 413. 
 
 Folkunger dynasty, 237. 
 
 Foutainebleau, peace at, 406 ; preliminary 
 articles, 422 ; Napoleon at, 481. 
 
 Foutanetum, battle of, 186. 
 
 Fontenoy, hattle of, 402, 438, 446. 
 
 Formosa, island of, 31 ; conquered, 390 ; re- 
 bellion, 444 ; Japanese expedition, 564. 
 
 Forster, W. E., chief sec, for Ireland, 546. 
 
 Fort Christiana, 298 ; Donaldson surren- 
 dered, 557 ; Du Quesne, 420; expedition 
 against, 421 ; Edward, construction, 421 ; 
 Erie, captured, 551 ; Fisher, surrendered, 
 559; George, captured by Montcalm, 
 421 ; Henry, captured by Union forces, 
 557 ; Moultrie, ue Fort Sullivan ; Ne- 
 cessity, 420 ; Orange, built, 298 ; St. 
 George, built, 294 (5«e Madras); Pitt, 
 423; Sullivan, 427: Sumter fired upon, 
 557 ; AVashington, 428 ; William Henry, 
 captured by Montcalm, 421. 
 
 Forum Romanum, 82. 
 
 Fossalta, battle of, 225. 
 
 Fotheringay, treaty of, 274. 
 
 Fouque, 405. 
 
 Fouquier-Tinville, 455, 456. 
 
 Fox, voyage of, 300. 
 
 Fox, Charles James, sketch of life, 441; 
 India bill, libel bill, 535 ; for. sec, 537. 
 
 Fox, Henry. See lord Holland. 
 
 France. See Franks. Capetian dynasty 
 of French kingdom, capital at Paris, 202 : 
 royal weakness, 203 ; loss of Poitou, 
 Guyenne,and Gascony, 226 : administra- 
 tion of Suger, 226; Philip II., Augustus, 
 crusades, 226 ; Bouvines, St. Louis, 
 growth of royal domain, 227 ; quarre with 
 Boniface VIII., 254 ; Courtrai, 254 ; Salic 
 law, 255 ; house of Valois, 257 ; hun- 
 dred years' war, Crecy, 257 ; black death, 
 Poitiers, 2§8 ; peace of Bretigny, 258 ; 
 Agincourt, 259 ; Jeanne Dare, English 
 expelled, 260; Burgundy united with 
 crown of France, 262 ; houses of Orleans 
 and Angouleme, 317, 318 ; Francis I., 
 319; wars with Charles V., 302; house 
 of Lorraine and Guise, 320 ; Brittany 
 united with crown, 320 ; capture of Ca- 
 lais, 321 ; St. Bartholomew, 321 ; wars of 
 the Huguenots 321, 324 ; house of Bour- 
 bon, 324; Henry IV., edict of Nantes, 
 324 ; last states-general, 325 : Richelieu, 
 325; era of Louis XIV., 365; Mazarin, 
 Fronde, 366 ; France in thirty years' 
 war, 314 ; peace of Pyrenees, 366 : peace 
 of Nimwegen, 368 ; reunions, 36S : revo- 
 cation of edict of Nantes, 369 ; peace 
 of Ryswick, 371 ; golden age of liter* 
 
Index. 
 
 583 
 
 ture, 371 ; war of Spanish Buccpssion, 
 8!>(i; partition treaties, linl . peace of 
 Utrecht 393; Floury s administration, 
 44li ; France in Austrian succession, 401) ; 
 Beven years' war, 4U4, 424 , peace of 
 Paris, 441 ; Louis XVJ., 44t) ; France in 
 war of American inJepeudence, 431 ; first 
 Frencii revolution, 448 ; storm of Bas- 
 tile, 449; constituent, 449; legislative, 
 451 ; convention. 4r)'2 : first coalition, 452; 
 first republic, 453 ; directory, 457; second 
 coalition, 4i)0 . consulate, 457 ; third coa- 
 lition, 467 : first empire, 465 ; wars, 468, 
 471, 474,475; congress of Vienna, 4S2 ; 
 hundred days, 483 ; restoration of the 
 Bourbons. Louis XVTIL, 529 ; July rev- 
 olution, 529 ; second republic, 530 ; sec- 
 ond empire, 531; Crimean war, 499; 
 Fi-anco- (Jerman, 513; third republic, 
 632; excesses of the socialistic com- 
 mune, 532; fall of Mac.Mahou, 534; 
 Tonquin, 535. 
 
 Franche-Comte, 367, 368. 
 
 Fnuicis, d. of Alen9on, 322. 
 
 Francis, d. of Guise, 319, 321. 
 
 Francis I., emp. of Austria, 468. 
 
 Francis I., k. of France, reign, 319 ; IJ.., 
 321, 338 
 
 Francis 1., emp. of II. R. E., 402 : II., 452 ; 
 abdicated the crown of the II. R. E.,468. 
 S^e Francis I., emp. of Austria. 
 
 Francis II., k. of Two Sicilies, 5(i3. 
 
 Francis Joseph I., emp. of Austria, 495, 
 602, 505, 509 : k. of Hungary, 511. 
 
 Francis, Philip, 444. 
 
 Francis Stephen, d. of Lorraine, 398. See 
 Francis 1., emp, of II. R. E. 
 
 Franco-German war, 513, 532. 
 
 Franconia, duchy of, 181, 194, 313. 
 
 Frauconian or Salian emperors, 198. 
 
 Frankfort, imperial chamber at, 300 : grand 
 duchy of, 438, 478 ; uprising, 490 : pre- 
 liminary parliament, 492 ; parliament re- 
 opened, 498 ; incorporated with Prussia, 
 510 ; peace of, 520. 
 
 Frankland, organization of, 432. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 420; minister to 
 France, 430 ; death, 547. 
 
 Frank-pledge, 232. 
 
 Franks, Hipuarian and Salian, 170, 171; 
 Chlodwig, ruler of, 173 ; under the Mero- 
 wingians, 181 ; under rt»e Carolingians, 
 183; Charles the Great, 184; treaty of 
 Verdun, 187 ; later Carolingians, 201 ; 
 Northmen in France, 2u9 ; extinction of 
 Carolingians, 209. See France. 
 
 Fratres arvales, 85. 
 
 Fredegunde, 181. 
 
 Frederic, burgr. of Nuremberg, 251. 
 
 Fred(Tic I., k. of Denmark and Norway, 
 3;-<2; IV., 394, 409; V.,409; VII., 505. 
 
 Frederic I., Barbarossa, emp. of II. R. E., 
 crusade, 215 ; reign, 219 ; expeditions to 
 Ifcily, 219, 221, 222, 235; II., 223, 224; 
 cession to the Danes, 235 ; cliarter to 
 Schwvz,245; III. (of Austria), 247; III. 
 (IV.), reign of, 253. 
 
 Frederic of llohenstaufen, 200. 
 
 Frederic of Ilohenzollern, 244. 
 
 Frederic the Warlike, d. of Au.'^tria, 224. 
 
 Frederia the Warlike, marg. of Meissen, 
 251. 
 
 I Frederic the Warlike, d. of Saxony, 2.52. 
 ; Frederic \'., elector palatine, elected to 
 throne of Boliemia, 309. 
 
 Frederic I., k. of Prussia, 372; II., the 
 Great, reign. 400 : first Silesian war, 400 ; 
 second, 402; seven years' war, 4t)3 ; war 
 of IJavarian succession, 406 ; league of 
 princes, death, 408 
 
 Frederic VIU., d. of Schleswig-IIolstein, 
 505. 
 
 Frederic, d. of Swabia, 218, 219. 
 
 Frederic of llesse-Cassel, k. of Sweden, 393, 
 409. 
 
 Frederic Charles, pr. of Prussia, 505, 506, 
 508, 509, 514, 518. 
 
 Frederic William, el. of Brandenburg (the 
 great elector;, accession, 314; peace of 
 Vos.sem, 367 ; Fehrbellin, 368 ; Polish 
 affairs, 373; Silesian duchies, 401. 
 
 Frederic William I., k. of Prussia, 397 ; 
 death, 398; II., 451 ; III., 459; con- 
 quered by Napoleon, 469 ; appeal to the 
 people, 475, 476 ; war of liberation, 477 ; 
 in London, 482; IV., 491; declines the 
 German crown, 497 ; death, 503. 
 
 Frederic William, crown pr. of Prussia, 
 war with Austria, 608 ; with France, 
 514. 
 
 Frcilericia, siege of, 496. 
 
 Fredericksburg, battle of, 557. 
 
 Free soil party, 555. 
 
 Freedmen's bureau, .559. 
 
 Freiburg, battle of, 406; treaty of (la paix 
 perpetuelle), 319. 
 
 French revolution, 448. See, also, France, 
 and Table of Contents, p. vi. 
 
 French settlements in America, 363. 
 
 Frey Yngve, k. of Sweden, 208. 
 
 Freycinet, ministry of, 534, 535. 
 
 Fribourg. See Freiburg. 
 
 Fridigern, k. of West Goths, 171. 
 
 Friedewald, treatv of, 305. 
 
 Friedland, battle of, 469. 
 
 Friedrichsburg, peace of, 396. 
 
 Friedrichshall, siege, 396. 
 
 Friedrichsham, peace of, 473. 
 
 Friedrichstadt, storm of, 497. 
 
 Frobisher, Martin, voyages, 289. 
 
 Frode the Peaceful, k. of Denmark, 207. 
 
 Fronde, old and new, 366. 
 
 Frontenac, gov. of Canada, 362, 364. 
 
 Frontieres naturelles, 513. 
 
 Fuca, Juan de la, 290. 
 
 Fugitive slave act of 1793, 548 ; revived in 
 1850, 555. 
 
 Fujiwara, family of, 212, 213, 243. 
 
 Fulco of Anjou, k. of Jerusalem, 214. 
 
 Fulton, Robert, 486, 550. 
 
 Fnlvius, M., 126. 
 
 Fulvius Flaccus, Q., 118. 
 
 Furrukabad, 541. 
 
 Fiirstenwalde, treaty of, 249. 
 
 Fushimi, battle of, 563. 
 
 Fiissen, separate peace of, 402. 
 
 Fust, Johann, 253. 
 
 Gabelle, 258. 
 
 Gades, Pho-nician colony, 17; capture by 
 
 Scipio, 117, 141. 
 Gadsden purchase, 555. 
 (iaekwars, 443. 
 Gaels, 38, 176. 
 
584 
 
 Index. 
 
 Gaeta. siege of, 503. 
 
 Gag resolutions, 553. 
 
 Gage, general, gov. of Massachusetts, 425. 
 
 Gaillard, Chateau, erection, 226, 232; fall, 
 227. 
 
 Galatia, 35, 37, 78. 
 
 Galba, Sulpicius, Roman emp., 151. 
 
 Galerius, 158, 159. 
 
 Galilaea, 7, 11. 
 
 Galileo Galilei, 327. 
 
 Gallas, 313, 315. 
 
 Gallatin, Albert, U. S. sec. of treas., 549. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina, 81, 144. 
 
 Gallia Narbonensis, 36; Roman province, 
 125. 
 
 Gallienus, 156, 157. 
 
 Gallus, Roman emp., 156. 
 
 Gama, Vasco da, 279, 353. 
 
 Gambetta, in opposition, 512; member of 
 national defense, 517, 518, 519 ; speaker, 
 534 ; ministry, 534 ; death, 535. 
 
 Garay, gov. of Jamaica, 285. 
 
 Gardiner, lord chan., 336. 
 
 Garfield, James A., pres. U.S., 560. 
 
 Garibaldi, invades Lombardy, Sicily, 502 ; 
 death, sketch of life, 526- 
 
 Garigliano, battle, 318. 
 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, 553. 
 
 Gasea, Pedro de, pres. of Peru, 288. 
 
 Gascony (Gascoyns), 312; gained and lost 
 with Eleanor, 226, 231 : ceded to Eng- 
 land, 258 ; lost by England, 260. 
 
 Gaspe, destroyed, 425. 
 
 Gaspereaux, 421. 
 
 Gast, Pierre du, 290. 
 
 Gastein, treaty of, 506. 
 
 Gates, general, succeeds Schuyler; Bur- 
 goyne surrenders to, 429 ; defeated by 
 Oornwallis, 430. 
 
 Gaugamela, battle of, 29, 74. 
 
 Gauls, geography, religion, 34 ; civiliza- 
 tion, chronology, emigrations, 35 ; con- 
 quest of Gaul by Caesar, ending 51 B. c, 
 36, 138 ; in Asia Minor, 78 ; invade La- 
 tium, 100 ; wars with Rome, 103 ; Cisal- 
 pine Gaul subjugated, 118 ; Cispadane 
 and Transpadane Gauls Latinized, 118. 
 
 Gaurus, battle of, 104. 
 
 Gauta, 237. 
 
 Gaveston, Piers, 267. 
 
 Geert, c. of Ilolstein, 236. 
 
 Gelimer, 174. 
 
 Gellius Egnatiue, 106. 
 
 Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. 
 
 Genealogies. 
 
 Angouleme, 318. 
 
 Anjou, 261. 
 
 Augustus, family of, 148. 
 
 Bonaparte family, 466. 
 
 Bourbon, Louis IX., to Henry III., 323 ; 
 
 Henry IV. to " Henry V.,'- 528. 
 Brittany, descent of, 320. 
 Brunswick, 43^3. 
 Buckingham, 275. 
 Burgundy, 261,. 329. 
 Cleves-Jhlich, 307. 
 County Palatine, 369. 
 Denmark, 2-39. 
 
 England, sovereigns from Ecgbehrt to 
 Henry III., 228 ; succession in 1553- 
 1603, 337 : descendants of Geo. III., 
 
 ' 638. 
 
 Flanders, counts of, 228. 
 France, succession in 1328, 256. 
 France, succession from Louis VIII. to 
 
 Charles VIII., 261. 
 Guise, 320 
 
 Hanover or Brunswick, 436. 
 Hapsburg, 301. 
 
 Hapsburg, German branch, 399. 
 Hohenstaufen, 220. 
 HohenzoUern, since the assumption of 
 
 the royal title, 515. 
 Lancaster and York, 273. 
 Lorraine, 320. 
 Naples, kings of, 261. 
 Normandy, dukee of, 228. 
 Norway, sovereigns of, 239. 
 Orleans, 318. 
 
 Portugal, illegitimate house of Burgun- 
 dy, 332. 
 Russia, descendants of Alexis, 410. 
 Scottish succession, 265. 
 Spanish succession, 390. 
 Sweden, sovereigns of, 239. 
 Valois, 257. 
 Welfs, 220. 
 
 General fundamentals, 297. 
 
 General warrants, 440. 
 
 Geneva annexed to France, 460 ; restored 
 to Switzerland, 483 ; treaty of, 319. 
 
 Geugis Khan. See Jenghiz Khan. 
 
 Genji. See Minamoto. 
 
 Genoa, war with Venice, 262 ; government, 
 263, 326 ; republic of, 415 ; transformed 
 into Ligurian republic, 459; given to 
 Sardinia, 483. 
 
 Genseric conquered Carthage, 172. 
 
 Geoffrey of Anjou, 230 ; of Monmouth, 
 235. 
 
 George I. k. of England, 436; death of, 
 437; IL, 403, 437 ; III., 439; insanity, 
 537; death, 538 ; IV., 538, 539. 
 
 George, k. of Greece, 505. 
 
 George Podiebrad, k. of Bohemia, 253. 
 
 George William, el. of Brandenburg, 311. 
 
 Georgia, in America, settlement of, 418, 
 420 ; Spanish attack upon, 419 ; pro- 
 vincial gov. restored, 430 ; Sherman's 
 march through, 558. 
 
 Georgia, in Europe. See Iberia. 
 
 Gepiidje, 175. 
 
 Gerbert, archb. of Rheims, 202. See Syl- 
 vester II. 
 
 Gergovia, siege of, 139. 
 
 Germania magna, 163, 167. 
 
 Germanicus, expeditions, 149, 167. 
 
 Germantown, battle of, 429. 
 
 Germany, geography, 162 ; high and low 
 Germans, 163 ; ancient religion, 164 ; civ- 
 iliziition, 166 ; early history, 167 ; futile 
 attempt of Rome to subdue, 148 ; habita- 
 tions of the tribes in 4th cent., a. d. 170 ; 
 migrations and settlements, 170-175; 
 Prankish empire under Merowingians, 
 181 ; under Carolingians, 183 ; Charles the 
 Great, 184 ; renewal of the Roman em- 
 pire, 185 ; treaty of Verdun, separation 
 of French and German nationalities, 187 : 
 Carolingians in Germany, 193 ; Saxon 
 house, 194; Ho'y Roman empire, 196; 
 Prankish, or Swabian emperors, 198 ; im 
 vestiture strife, 199 ; concordat of Worms, 
 201 ; house of Uoheustaitf en, 219 ; Bar 
 
Index. 
 
 585 
 
 O!irossji,219 ; Wolf and Waihlinpon (IIo- 
 heiistiuili'u), 2'23 ; iiitcnT^iium, 'J2o ; llu- 
 dolf of llapsburj;, '1\\ : Liulwig and 
 Frederic, 247 ; Luxemburg emperors, 
 golden bull, 24S ; city leagues, 24it ; 
 council of (.'onslance, 251 ; house of 
 llapsburg, 2i)3 : Max, 3(K) ; reformation, 
 301; Charles V, 302: peace of Augs- 
 burg, 300; auti-reformation, 306; thirty 
 years' war, 308 ; peace of Westphalia, 
 315; Leopold l.,371; war of the Span- 
 ish succession, 300; pnigmatic sanction, 
 3'.'"^ : Polish succession, 30S ; male line of 
 llapsburg extinct, 400; war of Austrian 
 succession, Maria Theresa, and Frederic 
 the Ureat of Prussia, 400 ; seven years' 
 war, 403 : Joseph 11., 407 ; war with first 
 French republic, 453; peace of Lune- 
 ville, 402 ; enactment of imperial dele- 
 gates, 464; end of the Holy Koman em- 
 pire, 408. Conff deration of the Rhine, 
 408 : war of liberation, 475 ; congress 
 of Vienna. 482 ; establishment of the 
 German confederation, 483 ; reactionary 
 measures in Germany, 487,490 ; founda- 
 tion of the Zollverein, 491 ; Gottiugen 
 professors expelled, 491 ; revolutionary 
 movements, 492 ; national assembly, 493 ; 
 constitution completed, 497 ; conference 
 at Olmutz, 498 ; confederation renewed, 
 498 ; (ierman (Austro-Prussian) war,5"'7 ; 
 North German confederation, 510, 511 ; 
 Franco-German war, 513 ; capture of 
 Paris, 519 ; German empire founded, 519, 
 520; Kulturkampf, 521, 525; congress 
 of Berlin, 524 ; tobacco monopoly de- 
 feated, 526. 
 
 Gero, nmrgr., 194, 195. 
 
 Gerontes, 50. 
 
 Gerson, 251. 
 
 Gertruydcnburg, 393. 
 
 Gessler, 246 
 
 Geta, 155. 
 
 Gettysburg, battle of, 558. 
 
 Ghazni, supremacy of the sultans of, 211. 
 
 Ghent, pacification of, 331 ; peace of, 474, 
 537, 5r,l. 
 
 Ghihellines, 219. 
 
 Gibraltar, whence named, 183 n. ; taken by 
 English, 392, 434 ; ceded to England, 437 ; 
 defended bv Elliott, 440. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 289. 
 
 Gilbert, Raleigh, 293. 
 
 Ginkell, 387. 
 
 Girondists, party, 451 ; execution of, 455. 
 
 Giselbort, 195. 
 
 Glabrio, M. Acilius, 119, 135. 
 
 Gladiators, war of the, 133. 
 
 Gladstone, \X. E., 542; chancellor of the 
 exchequer, 543, 544 ; 1st ailminisiration, 
 545 ; 2d administration, 546. 
 
 Glasgow, general assembly at, 344. 
 
 Glaucia, C. Servilius, pra'tor, 128. 
 
 Glencoe, massacre of, 387. 
 
 Glendower, Owen, revolt of, 270. 
 
 Gloucester, d. of, protector, 271. 
 
 Gloure-;tor, d. of, 274; becomes king Rich- 
 ard 1 IT. ,275. 
 
 'Gneisetiau, defeats Kolberg, 469 ; reforms 
 the army, 471 ; at Waterloo, 484. 
 
 Onesen, archbishopric, 197- 
 
 Goa, 353. 
 
 Gtiben, gen. von, 519. 
 
 (Jo-Daigo, 243. 
 
 (iodericli, lord, premier, 539. 
 
 (Jodfrey of Bouillon, 213, 214. 
 
 Godfrey, k. of Denmark, 207. 
 
 Godfrey the Bearded, d. of Lotharingia, 
 190. 
 
 Godfrey, sir Edmonsbury, 381. 
 
 Godolphin, e. of, in council, 882; cham- 
 berlain, 383 ; lord high treas.,433: dis- 
 missed, 435. 
 
 Godoy, 470. 
 
 Godwine, e. of Wessex, 206. 
 
 Goffe, 359, 360. 
 
 Goidelic Celts, 37. 
 
 Golconda kingdom, 353; annexed to Mu- 
 ghal empire, 389 : Nizsim of, 443 
 
 Golden bull, of II. R. E.,248 ; of Hungary, 
 
 Golden rule enunciated by Confucius, 31. 
 
 Gollheim, battle of, 246. 
 
 Gomez, Estevan, voyage of, 286. 
 
 " Good ■■ parliament, 209. 
 
 Gordianus 1., II., 111., Roman emp., 155; 
 
 Persian exp., 188. 
 Gordias, kings of Phrygia, 22. 
 Gordon assists Peter the Great, 374. 
 Gordon, col. (" Chinese"), suppresses Tai- 
 
 ping rebellion, 562. 
 Gordon, lord George, 440. 
 Gorges, sir Fernando, 295-297. 
 Gorgey, 495. 
 
 Gorkhas, conquest by Chine.«e, 444. 
 Gorm the Old, k. of Denmark, 207. 
 Gortschakotf , in Sebastopol, 500 ; retires, 
 
 526. 
 Gorz, baron von, 396, 406. 
 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 290, 291. 
 Goths, 164; location, 170; defeated by De- 
 
 cius, 156 ; Goths in Sweden, 208. See 
 
 Gauta,, East Goths, West Goths. 
 Goui-geo, Dominique de, 289. 
 Graagaas, 209. 
 Gracchus, Caius, attempts revolutionary 
 
 reforms, 124 ; tribune, 125; death, 126. 
 Gracchus, Tiberius, victory over the Celti- 
 
 berians, 118. 
 Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, attempts 
 
 revolutionary reforms, 124. 
 Grafton, d. of, 424; administration, 424, 
 
 440. 
 Granada, kingdom of, 275 ; conquest of, 
 
 276. 
 Grand alliance between England, Holland, 
 
 and others, 370, 391. 
 Grand remonstrance presented to Charles 
 
 I., 340. 
 Granicus, battle of the, 74. 
 Granson, battle of, 262. 
 Grant, U. S., takes Fort Donel.«on, 557; 
 
 Vicksburg, 558; lieut.-gen., 558; Lee 
 
 capitulates to, 559; president of U. S., 
 
 560. 
 Granvella.b., 330. 
 Grasse, de, 441. 
 Gratianus, Roman emp., 160. 
 Gravamina ecclesiastica, 317. 
 Gravel ines, battle of, 321. 
 
 Gravelotte, battle of, 616. , rr 
 
 Great Britain. »-» England, (i. e K 1^ \(a>9U k. 
 (Jreat contract, 341. ' ' 
 
 Great protestation, 342. 
 
586 
 
 Index. 
 
 Great rebellion, in England, 347 ; in the 
 Uuitetl States, 557. 
 
 Great wall of China, 32. 
 
 Great war of liberation, 475. 
 
 Greece, geography, 3J ; religion, 41; my- 
 thological history, 43 ; Thessalian and 
 Dorean migrations, 47; early constitu- 
 tions, 50, 52; Persian wars, 28, 56-60; 
 hegemony of Sparta, 56 ; hegemony of 
 Athens, 61 ; age of Pericles, 64 ; Pelopon- 
 nesian war, 64-69 ; hegemony of Sparta, 
 69 ; hegemony of Thebes, 70 ; rise of 
 Macedonia, 71; Macedonian svipremacy, 
 73 ; empire of Alexander, 73-76 , strug- 
 gles of the Diadochi, 76 ; formation of 
 separate kingdoms, 77; Lamian war, 79 ; 
 Achaeun and ^toliau leagues, 79 . de- 
 clared independent, 119: Macedonia, 
 Roman province, 122 ; Acliaia, Roman 
 province^l47 ; Ajorea, conquered by Ven- 
 ice, 372 ; by Turks, 397, 416; war of in- 
 dependence, 488 ; revolution, 505. 
 
 Greek colonies, 19, 2U. 
 
 Greene, gen., 431. 
 
 Greenland, discovery of, 209, 280. 
 
 Gregorian calendar Introduced, 327 ; 
 adopted by England, 420, 438 
 
 Gregory I., pope, 175; VI., 199; VII. (Ilil- 
 debraud), 199, 200 ; IX., 224 ; XII., 251 ; 
 abdicated. 252 ; XIII., reformed the cal- 
 endar, 327 ; XVI., 492. 
 
 Grenville, George, prime minister, 423; 
 leader of Commons, 439 
 
 Grenville, lord, prime minister, 537. 
 
 Grenville, sir Richard, 289. 
 
 Grevy, Jules, pres. of the French republic, 
 534. 
 
 Grey, e., prime minister, 539 ; resigned, 540. 
 
 Grey, lady Jane, 336. 
 
 Grijalva, Juan de, 285. 
 
 Grimoald, 175. 
 
 Grochow, battle of, 490. 
 
 Grodno, diet of, 413. 
 
 Grosbeeren, battle of, 477. 
 
 Gross-Gorschen, battle of, 476. 
 
 Grossjagerndorf , battle of, 404. 
 
 Grumbach, execution of, 306. 
 
 Guadaloupe, Hidalgo, treaty of, 554. 
 
 Guanahani, its identification, 282. 
 
 Guastalla, house of, 311,416. 
 
 Guatimozin, k. of Mexico, 285. 
 
 Guebriant, French marshal, 314. 
 
 Guelfs. See Welfs. 
 
 Guesclin, Bertraud du, 259, 276. 
 
 Gueux, 330. 
 
 Guilford, battle of, 431. 
 
 Guinegaste," battle of the spurs,'' 319, 334. 
 
 Guiues captured from the English, 321. 
 
 Guise, house of, 319,321. 
 
 Guizot, 527; ministry of, 497, 529; with 
 Soult, 530 
 
 Gunpowder tirst used, 279. 
 
 Gunpowder plot, 340. 
 
 Guntherof Schwarzburg, 248. 
 
 Guntram, 181. 
 
 Guptas in India, 24, 210. 
 
 Gurko, 522, 523. 
 
 Qustavus I., Vasa, k. of Sweden, 352 ; IT., 
 Adolphus, reign in Sweden, 352 ; in the 
 thirty years' war, 311; death of, 312; 
 III., 409 ; IV., abdication of, 472. 
 
 Gutenberg, Johu, early printer, 253. 
 
 Guthorm, 204. 
 
 Guy of Lusignan, k. of Jerusalam, 214, 
 
 215, 216. 
 Guyenne, transferred from France to Eng. 
 
 land, 226, 231: ceded to England, 25S; 
 
 lost, 260. iSee Aquitania. 
 Guzerat, expedition of Mahmud to, 211; 
 
 conquest of, 241 : Afghan kings, 353. 
 Gyges, k. of Lydia, 6, 21. 
 Gylippus, 67. 
 Gyulay,502. 
 
 Habeas corpus act, 381 ; suspended, 388, 
 535, 536, 538 ; in Ireland, 544. 
 
 Hadrian, Roman emp., revolt of Jews un- 
 der, 12,37 ; reign, 153; in Britain, 176. 
 
 Ilafurstfjord, battle of. 208. 
 
 Ilagelberg, battle of, 477. 
 
 Hague, convention of the, 396. 
 
 Ilaidar Ali of Mysore, 442, 444. 
 
 llaidarabad, nizam of, 443. 
 
 Hakem II., 209. 
 
 Hakodate, battle of, 563 
 
 Hakou, k. of Norway, 208 ; IV., 238 ; V., 
 23-S ; VII., 237, 238 ; VIII., 238. 
 
 Ilakon Jarl, k. of Norway, 208. 
 
 Hale, Nathan, 428. 
 
 Hales, sir Edward, 3''3. 
 
 Halfdan the Black, k. of Norway, 208. 
 
 Haliartus, battle of, 70. 
 
 Halifax, member of council, 381 ; in oppo- 
 sition, 382 ; pres. of council, 383 ; pres. 
 of provisional council, 3S5 ; resigns, 387 ; 
 impeached, 388; not in council, 433; 
 whig leader, 435 ; first lord of treas. 436. 
 
 Halifax, e. of, sec. of state, 439. 
 
 Halland, 236, 238. 
 
 Halys, 21, 134. 
 
 Hamburg, free city, 222 ; conquered by 
 Knut VI., 2.35 ; alliance with Llibeck, 
 249 ; Davout in, 476 : siege of, 479 ; peace 
 of, 405. 
 
 Hamilcar, 20. 
 
 Hamilcar Barak or Barcas, 111, 113. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, 547, 549. 
 
 Hampden, John, refuses to pay ship money, 
 344 : impeached, 346 ; death, 347. 
 
 Hampden clubs, 538. 
 
 Hampton court conference, .340. 
 
 Han, dynasty in China, 32; later Han, 211. 
 
 Hanau, battle at, 478. 
 
 Hancock, John, 424. 
 
 Hanging gardens in Babylon, 12. 
 
 Hannibal, destroys Saguutum, 113 ; crosses 
 the Alps, 113 ; arouses the Gauls, 35, 114 ; 
 Canna^ 115 ; befoi-e the gates of Rome, 
 110 ; leaves Italy, 117 ; defeated at Zama, 
 118 ; received by Antiochus, 119 ; death. 
 120. 
 
 Hanover, ninth electorate, 372 ; treaty 
 with Sweden, 396 ; allied with Prussia, 
 404 ; treaty with England, 437 ; receives 
 Osnabrlick, 465 ; Prussia receives H., 
 467 ; Napoleon wishes to take away, 468 ; 
 occupied by French, 469 ; becomes king- 
 dom under Geo. III. of England, 538; 
 separation from Great Britain, 491, 542 ; 
 invaded by Prussians, 508 ; incorporate^ 
 with Prussia, 510. 
 
 Ilanseatic cities annexed to France, 473. 
 
 Hanseatic league, ".^37, 249. 
 
 llapsburg counts in Switzerland, 245. 
 
Indej', 
 
 587 
 
 Hapsburg, house of, 253 ; male line ex- 
 tinct, 400 ; deposition. 49'). 
 
 Ilai-ilekiiut. See llartbaciiut. 
 
 llardenberg, 457, 482. 
 
 Uardiuge, sir Henry, gov. gen. in India, 
 54G. 
 
 llarley, Robert, speaker, 3SS, 433; di.s- 
 missed from cabinet, 434 ; attempted a.s- 
 gas.sination, 43o ; created earl of Oxford 
 and Mortimer, 435. 
 
 Ilarmodius, 54. 
 
 Harold Hild^tantl, k. of Denmark, 207; 
 Blue-tooth, k. of Denmark, 'ZU7 ; Utyn, 
 k. of Denmark, 208. 
 
 Harold I., linrt'fuot (.son of Cnut), k. of 
 England, 206; II. {.son of Godwine), 
 20(5. 
 
 Harold Haar/ager, k. of Norway. 208; 
 Hardrnda, k. of Norway, invaded Eng- 
 land, 20(3-, war with Denmark, 207; 
 founds Opsla, 209; Gille,k. of Norway, 
 238. 
 
 Hai-oun-al-Rashid, 186, 210. 
 
 Ilarpagus, 26. 
 
 Harrison, Wm. II., pres. of U. S., 554. 
 
 Hartford convention, 551. 
 
 llarthacnut, k. of England, 206 ; k. of Den- 
 mark (Hardeknut), 207. 
 
 Hartiugton, marquis of, sec. for India, 546. 
 
 Harvard College, 297. 
 
 Ha.xdrubal, in iSpain, 113; defeated, 115; 
 death, 117. 
 
 Ilasdrubal, son of Gisgo, 117. 
 
 Ha^^tenbeck, battle of, 404. 
 
 Hastings, battle of, 206. 
 
 Hastings, Warren, sketch of life of, gov.- 
 gen. of India, 444. 
 
 Ilatto, archb. of Mainz, 194. 
 
 Havana, surrendered to English, 422 ; re- 
 stored to Spain, 423. 
 
 Hawaii, 442. 
 
 Haves, R. 13., pres. of the United States, 
 560. 
 
 Ilaynau, 495, 496, 498. 
 
 llavne. colonel, 553. 
 
 Hekthtield, battle of, 179. 
 
 llebert, 451, 454, 455. 
 
 Hebrides, conquest of, 209. 
 
 Hector, 47. 
 
 Hegemony of Argos, 48 ; of Sparta, 56, 69 ; 
 of Athens, 61 ; of Thebes, 70 ; of Mace- 
 donia, 73. 
 
 Hegira, 182. 
 
 Hei. See Heike. 
 
 Heidelberger .Stallung, 250. 
 
 Heike. See Taira. 
 
 Heilbronn, league of, 313. 
 
 Hcinrich R-ispe, 225- 
 
 Ileinsius, A., 391. 
 
 Helena, 47. 
 
 Heliasts, 53. 
 
 Heliogabalus. See Elaeabalus. 
 
 Heliopolis, battle of, 463. 
 
 Helle, 46. 
 
 Hellen, 43. 
 
 Helluland, 281. 
 
 Helots, 50; revolt, 62. 
 
 Helsingborg, battle of, 249. 
 
 Helvetian republic, 460. 
 
 Helvetius, 448. 
 
 Helvoetsluys, 384. 
 
 Hemming, k of Denmark, 207. 
 
 Hengestesdun, battle of, 181, 203. 
 
 llcugi.^t. 177. 
 
 HenuL'pin, ili.<covers Mis-sissippi, 364. 
 
 Henry, d. of Aujou. See Henry III., k. 
 of France. 
 
 Henry the Bastard, k. of Castile, 276. 
 
 Henry tlie (.^iKiirelaotne. d. of Bavaria, 196, 
 jy. ; the froiW, d. of Bavaria, 218, 219; 
 Jusomirgott, d. of Bavaria, 219. 
 
 Henry I.,"k. of England, reign, 230; II., 
 Beduderc, acquired Poitou, Ouyeime, 
 and Gascony by marriage, 226 ; reign, 
 231; conquest of Ireland, Becket, 232; 
 111. of England, reign, 234; IV. (d. of 
 Liincaster), reign, 270 ; V., war with 
 France, 259 ; reign, 271; VI. in France, 
 259; reign, 271; captured, 277; put to 
 death, 274; VII. (e. of Richmond), 275; 
 reign, 333; VIII., alliance with Charles 
 v., 305 ; reign, 334 ; head of church, 335. 
 
 Henry I.,k. of France, 203 ; II., treaty with 
 Charles V., 305; reign, 319 ; acquisition 
 of Brittany, 320; of Calais, Metz, Toul, 
 and Verdun, 321 ; III., reign, 322 ; k. of 
 Poland, 352; IV. (Navarre), part in the 
 wars of religion, 322 ; reign, 324 ; "' V.,"' 
 533. 
 
 Henry I., k. of Germany, 194, 195 ; II. (the 
 Saint), emp. H. R. E., 197, 198; 111. 
 (the B'ack), 19j ; IV., 199, 200 ; V., 201 ; 
 VI., 222, 223; VII., 245. 
 
 Henry of Champagne, k. of Jerusalem, 216. 
 
 Henry of Guise, 321. 
 
 Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV., k. of 
 France. 
 
 Henry of Plauen, 277. 
 
 Henry, k. of Portugal, 240, 332. 
 
 Henry, pr. of Prussia, 406, 407. 
 
 Henry, e. of Richmond. See Henry VII. 
 of England. 
 
 Henry the Lion, d. of Saxony, 219; fiefs 
 forfeited, 222 ; war with Henry VI., 223. 
 
 Henry the Navigator, 276, 279. 
 
 Henry, pr. of Wales, death of, 341. 
 
 Henry, Patrick, 424, 426. 
 
 Henrys, war of the three, 322. 
 
 Ueraclea, battle of, 108. 
 
 Heracles, 45- 
 
 Heraclidae, Lydian dynasty, 21 ; Dorian 
 dynasty, 45 ; conquest of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, 48 ; kings of Sparta, 50. 
 
 Ileraclius, Grecian emp., 191. 
 
 Herbert, adm.,384. 
 
 Herbert of Vermandois, 202. 
 
 Ilerbois, CoUot d', 453, 454, 456. 
 
 Ilerculaneum, 83, 152. 
 
 Hercules. .SVe Heracles. 
 
 Ilerdonius, 97. 
 
 Hereward, 229. 
 
 Hermandad, 328. 
 
 llermanduri, 167, 16S. 
 
 Hermann of Balk, 218; of Salm, 200 ; of 
 Salza, 218 ; Billung, uiarg. of Schleswig, 
 195. 
 
 Hermann, d. of Swabia, 197. 
 
 Hermanrich. See Ermanarich, 170. 
 
 Ilermanstadt, battle of, 495. 
 
 Hermiuones, 163. 
 
 Ilermus, battle on the, 26. 
 
 Ilernici join Litin league, 97 ; war with 
 Rome, 103 ; Hernician league dissolved, 
 106. 
 
588 
 
 Index. 
 
 Herod (the Great), k. of Judea, 11. 
 
 Herod Agrippa, I., k. of Judea, 11. 
 
 Herrenhauseii, alliance of, 398. 
 
 Herzegovina, revolt, 521 ; given to Aus- 
 tria, 524 ; disturbance in, 525 ; sup- 
 pressed, 526. 
 
 Hesse, origin, 225, 492. 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; 
 becomes an electorate, 464 ; not in con- 
 federacy of the Rhine, 468 ; revolution 
 in, 492 ; invaded by Prussians, 5U4 ; in- 
 corporated with Prussia, 510. 
 
 Hesse- Darmstadt, joins confederacy of the 
 Rhine, 468 ; joins allies, 479. 
 
 Ilia, dynasty of, in China, 31. 
 
 llideyoshi, government of, 355,356. 
 
 Iliempsal, 126. 
 
 Hienfung, 561. 
 
 Hiero, k. of Syracuse, 110, 115. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, 3. 
 
 High Commission, 346. 
 
 Hildcbrand. tiee Gregory VII. 
 
 llimera, battle of, 20. 
 
 Iliucmar of Rheims, 201. 
 
 Hindus. See India. 
 
 Ilipparchus, 54. 
 
 Hippias, 54,57. 
 
 Hippo, 17, 19. 
 
 Hiram, k. of Tyre, 18. 
 
 Hirhor, k. of Egypt, 5. 
 
 Hirtius, 144. 
 
 Hispania, citerior, 118 ; ulterior, 118, 141. 
 
 Ilistiaeus of Miletus, 28. 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 431. 
 
 Hoche, 455, 457 ; expedition to Ireland, 
 536. 
 
 Ilochelaga. See St. Lawrence. 
 
 Hochkirch, battle of, 405. 
 
 Ilochst, battle of, 310. 
 
 Ilochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. 
 
 Hofer, Andreas, 471, 472. 
 
 Hohenfriedberg, battle of, 402. 
 
 Hohenlinden, battle of, 462. 
 
 Hohenstaufen, house of. See Frederic of 
 H.,219, 220. 
 
 Hohenzolleru. See Frederic, burggrave of 
 Nuremberg, 244 ; acquires Brandenburg ; 
 in Prussia, 302 ; in thirty years' war, 311, 
 312 ; in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; kings 
 of Prussia, 372 ; in the north and east, un- 
 der the great elector, 368, 373, 374 ; gene- 
 alogy, 515; emperors of Germany, 519. 
 
 Hohenzollern, pr. of, 512, 513. 
 
 Hojeda, Alonzo de, 283, 284. 
 
 Hojo, family of, 243. 
 
 IIolbach,448. 
 
 Holkar, 443, 541. 
 
 Holland, kingdom of, under Louis Bona- 
 parte, 468 ; merged in kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, 483 ; separated from Bel- 
 gium, 439. (S>'g,al.'*o, Netherlands. 
 
 Holland, lord, 439, 441. 
 
 Holies, impeachment of, 346, 351. 
 
 Holstein, given to Adolf of Schaumberg, 
 218 ; Adolf capt. by Knut VI. of Den- 
 mark, cedes U. to Waldemar, II., k. of 
 Denmark, 235 ; ceded to Adolf the young, 
 235 ; peace of Travendal, 394 ; united 
 ■with Denmark, 409 ; war with Denmark, 
 496 ; occupied by the German confedera- 
 tion, 505 ; united with Pru.ssia, 510. 
 
 IIolstein-(;obtorp, d. of, 394, .397. 
 
 Holstein-Gottorp, house of in Sweden, 409; 
 in Russia, 411. 
 
 Holy alliance, 485 ; Monroe's attitude con- 
 cerning, 552. 
 
 Holy league against France, 300, 318, 326, 
 334. 
 
 Holy league in France, 322. 
 
 Holy Roman Empire, revival of Roman em- 
 pire under Otto, 196 ; end of, 462, 468. 
 See Germany. 
 
 Holy wars, I., 52 ; II., 71 ; III., 72- 
 
 Homer, 49. 
 
 Homildon Hill, battle of, 270. 
 
 Hone, acquittal of, 538. 
 
 Honorius, Roman emp., 38, 161. 
 
 Honorius III., pope, 224. 
 
 Hooker, gen., 557, 558. 
 
 Hoorn, c. von, executed, 330. 
 
 Hophra, k. of Egypt, 6. 
 
 Hopital, de 1', 321. 
 
 Horatii, 89. 
 
 Horatius, laws of, 98. 
 
 Horatius, Flaccus, Q., 83, 147. 
 
 Horatius, Marcus, 93. 
 
 Horatius Codes, 95. 
 
 Hormisdas I., emp. of Persia, 188 , II., 188} 
 IV., 191. 
 
 Hormuz, battle of, 187. 
 
 Ilormuzan, 192. 
 
 Horn, Gustavus, 312. 
 
 Horsa, 177. 
 
 Hortensius, dictator, 107. 
 
 Hospitalers. See Knights of St. John. 
 
 Hotel de Ville destroyed, 533. 
 
 Hotham, adm., 484. 
 
 Hotspur See Percy. 
 
 Howe, lord, occupies Philadelphia, 429. 
 
 Howick, first lord of the admiralty, 537; 
 sec. of war, 540. See earl Grey. 
 
 Hubert de Burgh, 234. 
 
 Hubertsburg, peace of, 406. 
 
 Hudson Bay Company, incorporation of, 
 358. 
 
 Hudson's Bay, discovery of, 299, 363. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 298. 
 
 Hudson river, 294, 298. 
 
 Hugh the White, d. of France, 202. 
 
 Hugh Capet, k. of France, 202. 
 
 Huguenot colony in America, 288. 
 
 Huguenots, wars of the, 321. 
 
 Humbert 1., k. of Italy, 524. 
 
 Humboldt, W. von, 477, 482, 487. 
 
 Hundred days in France, 526. 
 
 Hundred years' war, 257. 
 
 Hungary, occupied by Magyars, 193, 277 ; 
 Hungarians ravage (Jermany, 194 ; de- 
 feated by Henry, 195; and Otto (Lech- 
 feld), 196 ; lose Styria to Bohemia, 244; 
 emp. Albert, II., k. of, 253; history to 
 149U, 277 ; golden bull, 277 ; 11. united 
 with Boheniiaand secured to emp. Max., 
 278 ; war with Turks (Mohacs), disputed 
 election, 3U3 ; Ferdinand 1., elected k., 
 306 ; succession secured to llapsburg, 
 372; Maria Theresa, q. of II., 400 ; Mo- 
 riamur, etc., disputed, 401, n. ; revolt 
 under Kossuth, 494 ; constitution abol- 
 ished, 496 ; Feb. constitution, 504; con- 
 stitution of H. restored, Austrian emp., 
 k. of H. 511. 
 
 Hung Sui-tsuen, leader of the Tai-ping re 
 bellion, 561 ; suicide, 562. 
 
Index. 
 
 589 
 
 lliiiis (TOSS the Volga, 170; under AttilJi, 
 
 lliiii.vadi, John, k. of lluugtiry, 278. 
 
 lluroiiti, 8t>4 
 
 llus.uu Ali, 442. 
 
 lluskisson, 53ii. 
 
 lluss, Jolin, 252. 
 
 Hussite war, 252. 
 
 Hutrhinsou, gov. of Mass, 424, 425. 
 
 llutten, Llrieh von, 302. 
 
 llwang-ho, iu China, 30 ; first settlements 
 
 of Chinese made along, 31. 
 llvdaspes, battle of, 75. 
 Hyde, .Vnne, 3*^3. 
 
 livde, sir Edward. Sre. Clarendon, earl of. 
 iryder.\li. Set Uaidar Ali. 
 Ilyksos, 4. 
 llyph;w>is, 75. 
 llyrcanus, 136. 
 
 lapvgians, 85. 
 
 Iberia, 34, 188. 
 
 Iberville, 362. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, 488, 491. 
 
 Iceland, settled by Northmen, 280 : con- 
 quered by llakon V., of Norway, 238. 
 
 Icouium, sultanate of, 210. 
 
 Iconoclasts, 210. 
 
 Ida, " the tlame bearer," 178. 
 
 IdistaTiso, battle of, 149. 
 
 Idstedt, battle of, 497. 
 
 Ilerda, 141. 
 
 Illinois, 3t>4 ; admitted to the Union, 552. 
 
 Illiturgi, battle of, 115. 
 
 lUyrian provinces, 472. 
 
 Illvrians, war with Rome, 112 ; conquered, 
 121. 
 
 Imperial chamber, 300. 
 
 Impositions, 340. 
 
 Imprisonment for debt abolished in Eng- 
 land, 545. 
 
 Inaros, 28. 
 
 Independents, 349, .350. 
 
 India, visited by Tyrians, 18; geography, 
 early religion, 22 ; arrival of Hindus in 
 the Punjab, 22; settlement and con- 
 quest, 23 , castes, ib. ; rise of Braiiuiisin, 
 ib. ; of Buddhism, ih. ; invasion of Alex- 
 ander, 23, 75 ; Bactrian rulers, 24 ; Scyth- 
 ians, Guptas, ib.: early history, 210 ; sul- 
 tans of Ghazni, of Ghor, 211 ; sultans of 
 Delhi, Timur .Shah, 241 ; western route 
 to India, 282 ; Mughal empire, 353 ; 
 Portugue.se, Dutch, English in I., East 
 India companies 354 ; Auraugzeb, 389; 
 decline of .Mughal empire, 442; Mah- 
 ratta power, 443 ; British in Indii, 
 Black, Hole, 443 ; Clive, Hastings, 444 , 
 East India Company subordinated to 
 government, 442 ; Comwallis and Wel- 
 lington ; Mahratta wars, 541 ; queen of 
 England proclaimed sovereign of India, 
 644 ; .\fghan war.-<, 546, 547 ; Sepoy re- 
 bellion, ;)4'i , government transferred to 
 crown, 544 : famine, 547. 
 
 India bill, 53). 
 
 Indians of America ; rapid disappearance 
 from West Indies, 284 ; John Smith cap- 
 tured by, 2yl ; intercourse with Plym- 
 outh colony, 295: Pe<iuot war, 297; 
 Champlain among, 299 ; John Eliot 
 among, 357 ; Ilurons massacred by Iro- 
 
 quois, 357: King Philip's war, 359; 
 Penn's treaty, 36*), King William'H war, 
 361 , Queen Anne"s war, Deerlield de- 
 stroyed, dtJ3 ; Krencn among the Ilurons, 
 wars with Iroquois, ;i64 ; war in Caro- 
 lina, and New England, 417 ; old French 
 and Indian war, 420; conspiracy of I on- 
 tiac, 423: Wyoming massacre, 4;J0; In- 
 dian war, 547; Seminole war, 552, 553. 
 
 Indo-European family, Introduction, x., 
 85, 86. 
 
 lue, king of Wesse.x, 180. 
 
 Inge Biuirdsen, k. of Norwav, 238. 
 
 1 ngebord, 226, 2:i5. 238. 
 
 Ingjald 111-raada, k. of Sweden, 208. 
 
 lng«vones, 103. 
 
 Inkermann, battle of , 500. 
 
 Innocent HI., pope, originates thb 4th 
 cru.sade, 216 ; obtains Mathilda's estates 
 from Otho IV., 223; contest with John 
 of En-laud, 2:33 , IV., 2i5. 
 
 Inquisition, establishment of, by Gregory 
 IX., 227 ; by Paul HI., 327 ; "in Spain, 
 330. 
 
 Interim of Augsburg, 305. 
 
 International postal congress, 521 
 
 Interregnum in the Holy Koman Empire, 
 225 ; in England, 384. 
 
 Intibili, battle of, 116. 
 
 Inverlochv, battle of, 348 
 
 Investiture strife, 200, 201. 
 
 Ionian Islands, retained by Venice, 326 ; 
 occupied by French, ceded to France, 
 459; Republic of the Seven I. 1. 461; 
 forms a part of the lUyrian provinces, 
 472 : protectorate over, given to Eng- 
 land, 483 ; ceded to Greece, 505, 544. 
 
 loniaus in Greece, 43 ; colonize Asia Mi- 
 nor. 49 : subdued by Croesus, 21 ; revolt 
 from Persia, 28. 
 
 Ipsus, battle of, 77. 
 
 Iran, plateau of, 12; subjugated by Tiglath- 
 Pileser 11., 14; inhabited by Bactrians, 
 Medes, Persians, 24 ; attacked by Assyr- 
 ians, 25; conquered by Cyrus, 26; sul- 
 tanate of, 210. 
 
 Ireland, ancient, geography, religion, and 
 civilization, 38 ; mythical history, 38, 
 39; Norwegians take Dublin, 209; con- 
 quered by Henrv II., 232; English Pale, 
 270 ; statute of Drogheda, 333 ; rebellion 
 of Tyrone, 339: government of Went- 
 wortii (Strafford), 344 ; Ulster rebellion, 
 346, 348 ; I'romwell in Ireland, storm ot 
 Drogheda, 375 ; war for James II., 386 ; 
 battle of the Boyne, 387 ; treaty of 
 Limerick, ib.; Irish catholic laws, 4.33 , 
 United Irishmen, 536; union with Great 
 Britiiin, ib. : Irish reform act, 540 ; fam- 
 ine of 1846-47, 543 ; uprising under 
 O'Brien, ib. ; habeas corpus act suspend- 
 ed, 544 ; disestablishment of the Irish 
 (Episcopal) church, 545; land league, 
 ib. ; coercion act, land act, 646. 
 
 Irene, 210. 
 
 Ir«ton.376. 
 
 Iroquois, war with Hurons and Canada, 
 364. See Indians of America. 
 
 I.saac, 7. 
 
 Isa-'ic Angelus, Grecian emp., 216. 
 
 Isabeau of Bavaria, 2.59 
 
 Isabella heiress of Castile 276 328. 
 
590 
 
 Index. 
 
 Isabella II., q. of Spain, claims of, 490, 512. 
 
 laagoras, bo. 
 
 Isdigerd 1., k. of Persia, 189 ; II., 189 ; III., 
 192, 193. 
 
 Isis, Egyptian goddess, 3. 
 
 Islam, 182. 
 
 Isle of Sable, 290. 
 
 Ismail, 413. 
 
 Israel, a separate kingdom, 9 ; contest over 
 idolatry, ib. ; tributary to Assyrians, 10 ; 
 destroyed by Sargon, 10, 14. 
 
 Issus, battle of, 74. 
 
 Istaevones, 168. 
 
 Istar, Phoenician goddess, 13, 14, 16. 
 
 Isthmian festival, 42. 
 
 Italia, federal republic of, 129. 
 
 Italy, geographical survey of, 81 ; ethno- 
 graphical sketch, 85; ancient history, 
 see Rome ; Odovaker, ruler, 173 ; Kast 
 Goths, Theodoric, 174; Langobards in 
 Lombardy, papacy, 175; Charles the 
 Great, king of Italy, 184 ; Carolingians in 
 Italy, 193 ; Berengar of Ivrea, 195 ; Otto, 
 II. III., in Italy, 197 ; Crescentius, ih. ; 
 Normans in Italy, 199 ; Frederic Barba- 
 rossaand the Lombard cities, Guelfs and 
 Ghibelins, 221 ; peace of Constance, 222 ; 
 Frederic II., in Sicily, 224,225; Naples 
 conquered by Charles VIII. of Prance, 
 262 ; league of Cambray, 800 ; holy 
 league, 800, 818 ; campaigns of Napoleon 
 in Italy, 458 ; Cisalpine and Ligurian 
 and Roman republics founded, 459 ; Par- 
 thenopoean republic founded, 460 ; abol- 
 ished, 461 ; Roman republic abolished, 
 461 ; Napoleon in Italy, 462 ; Cisalpine 
 and Ligurian republics recognized, 463 ; 
 Napoleon president of Italian (Cisalpine) 
 republic, 464 ; Napoleon king of Italy, 
 Ligurian republic incorporated with 
 France, 467 ; Italy restored to its condi- 
 tion before 1789, 488 ; absolutism, 488 ; 
 uprisings suppressed by Austrians, 490 ; 
 Austro-Sardinian war, 494 ; liberation of 
 Italy, Garibaldi, 502 ; Victor Emmanuel 
 king of Italy, 508 : war with Austria, 
 Venice acquired, 510 ; recognized as sixth 
 great power, 511 ; Rome the capital, 520 ; 
 dissolution of monasteries, 520 ; electo- 
 ral reform act, 526. See, also, Florence, 
 Genoa, Naples, Papal States, Sardinia, 
 Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. 
 
 Ithome, 51. 
 
 Iturbide, emp. of Mexico, 488. 
 
 Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, 374. 
 
 Ivan III., the Great, of Russia, 277. 
 
 Ivan IV. (or VI.), 411. 
 
 Ivar Vidfadme, k. of Skaania, 208. 
 
 Ivry, battle of, 824. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, pres. of U. S., 552. 
 
 Jackson, Stonewall, 558. 
 
 Jacob, his sons, 8. 
 
 Jacobins, 451 ; elub closed, 456. 
 
 Jacobite rebellions, 1., 487 : II., 438. 
 
 Jacqueline, of Holland, her inheritance 
 
 goes to Burgundy, '.^59. 
 Jacquerie in Fraiice, 258. 
 Jaffa stormed by Bonaparte, 460. 
 JageUo, house of, 277, 352. 
 Jahandar Shah, emp. of India, 442. 
 Jahan^ir, emp. of India, 354. 
 
 Jail delivery at Paris, 452. 
 
 Jamaica, discovery of, 283 ; taken by Penn 
 and Venables, 377 ; insurrection, 544. 
 
 James Bay discovered, 3U0. 
 
 James, e. of Douglas, 2ij8. 
 
 James I., k. of England (VI. of Scotland), 
 reign in England, 839; II., reign, 888; 
 flight, 884 ; deposition, 885 ; takes reluge 
 with Louis XIV., 8.0; death, 391. See 
 duke of York. 
 
 James I., k. of Scotland, murdered, 271 ; 
 II., 272 ; IV., invaded England, 833 ; de- 
 feat and death, 334 ; VI., of Scotland, 
 abdication of Mary in favor of, 388. See 
 James I. of England. 
 
 James Edward, the old pretender, 389, 
 485. 
 
 Jamestown, foundation of, 291. 
 
 Janizaries, 853 ; massacre of, 489. 
 
 Jankau, battle of, 815. 
 
 Japan, Buddhism in, 28; geography, relig- 
 ion, 82 ; chronology, 88 ; early rulers, 
 88 ; conversion of native names into Chi- 
 nese, 33, n. 2 ; origin, 38 ; development 
 of dual gov., mikado superseded by 
 shogun,212; war of Gen and Hei,242; 
 Hojo supremacy, repulse of the Mongols, 
 war of the Chrysanthemums, develop- 
 ment of feudalism, 243 ; Ashikaga sho- 
 guns, dynastic wars, J. in the time of 
 Columbus, 278; domination of Nobu- 
 naga and Hideyoshi , 355; Tokugawa sho- 
 guns, 356; extirpation of Christianity, 
 357 ; later Tokugawas, 445 ; Pen-y"a 
 treaty, 563 ; restoration of the mikado, 
 abolition of feudalism, ib. ; assimilation 
 to western civilization, 564. 
 
 Jason, 46. 
 
 Jassy, peace of, 413. 
 
 Jay, John, in continental congress, 426 ; 
 chief justice, 547. 
 
 Jay's treaty, 585, 548. 
 
 Jeanne d'Arc. See Dare. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 427 ; drafts declaration 
 of independence, 427 ; sec. of state, 547 ; 
 vice-pres., 548 ; pres., 549. 
 
 Jefferson's embargo, 550. 
 
 Jeffries, chief justice, 882; " bloody as- 
 size,'' 384. 
 
 Jemmapes, battle of, 453. 
 
 Jena, battle of, 469. 
 
 Jenghiz Khan, leader of the Mongols, 240; 
 conquered China, 242. 
 
 Jeremiah, 11. 
 
 Jersey, east and west, 359. 
 
 Jerusalem conquered by Shisak, 5 ; names, 
 7 ; captured by David, 9 ; taken by Is- 
 raelites, 10 ; besieged in vain by Assyr- 
 ians, 10 ; captured by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and destroyed, 11, 16 ; destroyed by Ti- 
 tus, 12, 152 : storm of, 214 ; kingdom of, 
 214; finally' lost, 217. 
 
 Jesuits, order of, founded, 304 ; banished 
 from Spain and Portugal, 405 ; abol- 
 ished, 416 ; expelled from France iu 
 1672. 
 
 Jews, geography, chronology, 7 ; settled in 
 Egypt, exodus, 8; government, ib.; di- 
 vision into Israel and Judah, 9; carried 
 to Assyria, 10 ; to Babylon, 11 ; sent 
 back by Cyrus, 11, 27; subject to Per- 
 sians, etc., 11 ; revolt under the Macca- 
 
Index. 
 
 691 
 
 bees, 11, 78; subdued by Rome, 11; 
 revolt, fall of Jerusulcm, 12; UisjKTsal, 
 ib. : accui-t'd of tirin;; liouie, lul ; perso- 
 cutioa, lu'2 ; revolt, \iy6; expelled from 
 England, 264; admitted to parliament, 
 544. 
 
 Jimuut Tenno, mikado of Japan, 33. 
 
 Joachim 11., elector of Brauilenburg, 401. 
 
 Joanna, heiress of Castile, 3ul, 328. 
 
 Joanna, heiress of Navarre, 254. 
 
 Joannes, the usurper, Itil. 
 
 Joannes Scotus Erigena, 201. 
 
 Jobst, of Moravia, 251. 
 
 John, archduke of .Vustria, administrator 
 of the German euii>ire, 471, 493. 
 
 John, don, of Austria, Lepanto, 326; in 
 the Netherlands, 330, 331 ; popish plot 
 attributed to, 381. 
 
 John, k. of Bohemia, 247 ; death, 257. 
 
 John, k. of Knglaud, Lackland, reign, 233. 
 
 John II., le Bon, k. of France, reign, 258. 
 
 John of Brienue, " king of Jerusalem," 
 216. 
 
 John of Gaunt, 269. 
 
 John de Montfort, 257. 
 
 John of Procida, 226. 
 
 John the !•' ear less, d. of Burgundy, 259. 
 
 John XXIII., pope, 251. 
 
 John IV., k. of Portugal, 332 ; VI., 488. 
 
 John III., k. of Sweden, a52. 
 
 John Casimir, k. of Poland, 352, 374. 
 
 John Frederic, el. of Saxony, 305. 
 
 John George, el. of Saxony, 312, 401. 
 
 John Parricida, 245. 
 
 John Sobieski, k. of Poland, 374. 
 
 John Zimi.sces, Grecian emp., 210. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, 558, 559. 
 
 Johnson, Sir William. 421, 423. 
 
 Johnston, ./oe, gen., 558 
 
 Joint committee of the two kingdoms, 
 348. 
 
 Jones, John Paul, 430. 
 
 Jonson, Ben, 339. 
 
 Joseph, 8. 
 
 Joseph I., emp. of the Holy Roman Em- 
 pire, 390; reign, 392; death, 393, 397; 
 II., co-regent, 406; reign, 407; plan of 
 an exchange of territory , 408. 
 
 Joseph, k. of Naples. Set Bonapnrte, Jo- 
 seph. 
 
 Jo.seph I., k. of Portugal, reign, 415. 
 
 Joseph I., k. of Spain. See Bonaparte, Jo- 
 seph. 
 
 Joshua, 8. 
 
 Joubert, 461. 
 
 Jourdan, 455, 457, 458, 460, 479. 
 
 Jovianus, Roman emp., 160; peace with 
 Persia, 188. 
 
 Juan de la Fuca strait, 290. 
 
 Juarez, 503, 504. 
 
 Juba, k. of Numidia. 141, 142. 
 
 Judaea, attacked by Shi.sak, 5; geograph- 
 ical position, 7; dependent kingdom un- 
 der Herod, 11 ; part of Roman province 
 of Syria, 11 ; Roman province, 150. 
 
 Judah, kingdom of, geography, 7 ; founda- 
 tion, 9; idolatry in, 10; allied with 
 Egyptians, ih. ; tributary to the Assyri- 
 ans, 10, 14 ; subject to Babylonians, 11 ; 
 to the Egyptians, i*.; ravaged by Scvth- 
 ians, ib. 
 
 Judges arnon^ the Jews 8. 
 
 I Jugurthan war, 126, 127. 
 
 Julia, the elder and younger, 148. 
 
 Julian, count, 183, n. 
 
 Julian emperors, 147. 
 
 Julianus, Roman emp., 160; invaded Per- 
 sia, 188. 
 
 Jiilich-CUeves succession, quarrel begun, 
 3u8 ; ended, 372. 
 
 Julius II., pope, 327. 
 
 July revolutiou at Paris, 489,529; its re- 
 sults, 490. 
 
 Junius, 440. 
 
 Juno, 84. 
 
 Junonirt, colony of, established, 126. 
 
 Junot, duke of Abrantes, 47u, 471. 
 
 Junto, 435. 
 
 Jupiter, 84 ; Ammon, his temple in Africa, 
 27, 74 ; Capitolinus, temple of, 82. 
 
 Jury, grand, 232. 
 
 Jury trial, its Norman origin, 2o4; 
 
 Jus auxilii, intercessionis, 96 ; reformandi, 
 306, 317. 
 
 Justinian I., Grecian emp., victories in 
 Italy and Africa, 174 ; war with Persia, 
 190 ; reign, 210. 
 
 Jutes, 176. 
 
 Juvenum, foundation of, 167. 
 
 Kaempfer in Japan, 445. 
 
 Kaeoshima, bombardment of, 563. 
 
 Kahror, battle of , 24. 
 
 Kaiserslautem, battle of, 455, 456. 
 
 Kalb, de, 430. 
 
 Kaled, expedition of, 192. 
 
 Kalish, alliance of, 475. 
 
 Kamakura, 242, 243. 
 
 Kameel, sultan, 217. 
 
 Kandahar, 442. 
 
 Kanishka, Scythian k. in India, 24. 
 
 Kansas admitted to the Union, 556. 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska bill, 555. 
 
 Kapolna, battle of, 495. 
 
 Kara, Mustapha, 372. 
 
 Karl Martel, 183, 184. 
 
 Karlmann, brother of Charles the Great, 
 
 184. 
 Karlmann, k. of Aquitiune, 201. 
 Karlsefuc, Thorfinn, 281. 
 Kars, storm of, 489, 501, 523. 
 Kashgar, rebellion of Yakub Beg in, 562; 
 
 capture of, ib. 
 Katzbach, battle, 477. 
 Kaunitz, prince, 403. 
 Kay, battle of, 405. 
 Keiki, the last shogun, 563. 
 Kellermann, 452. 
 Kelso, battle of, 348. 
 Kenmure, execution of, 437. 
 Kentucky admitted to the Union, 548. 
 Kentucky and Virginia resolutioni of 
 
 1798-1799, 549. 
 Kepler, 306. 
 
 Kerman, sultanate of, 210. 
 Kcrtk, Louis, Thomas, and David, 299. 
 Khafra, k. of Egypt, 4. 
 Khanates, 241. 
 
 Khazars, war with Persia, 189, 190. 
 Khorsabad, 12. 
 Khufu, k. of Egypt, 4. 
 Khusru in India, 211. 
 Kieff, grand prince of, 276. 
 Kieft, gov. of New Netherlands 357. 
 
592 
 
 Index. 
 
 Kiel, peace of, 479. 
 
 Kiew. See Kiett". 
 
 Kilij Arsian, sultan of Iconium, 214. 
 
 Kilkenny, statute, 269. 
 
 Killiecrankie, battle of, 386. 
 
 Kilsvth, battle of, 348. 
 
 Kimbolton, lord, 346. 
 
 Kin dynasty, in China, fall of, 242. 
 
 King George's war, 419 ; Philip's war, 359 ; 
 William "s war, 361. 
 
 King's Mountain, battle of, 431. 
 
 Kinsale captured, 387. 
 
 Kioto, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the mikado, 
 213, 242 ; false mikado at, 278 ; capital 
 transferred to Tokio, 563. 
 
 Kirke, 386 ; appointed gov. of Mass., 361 ; 
 Kirke's lambs, 383 ; raises siege of Lon- 
 donderry, 386. 
 
 Klapka, 495, 496. 
 
 Kleber, 463. 
 
 Klissow, battle of, 395. 
 
 Knighthood, religious orders of, 217 ; Span- 
 ish orders, 240, 328. 
 
 Knights at Rome, 3 centuries, 88 ; number 
 doubled, 89 ; in the army, 91 ; farm the 
 taxes, 123 ; change in nature, 125 ; de- 
 prived of jury service, 132 ; which is par- 
 tially restored, 133. 
 
 Knights in Athens, 53. 
 
 Kniprode, VVinrich von, 277. 
 
 Knowles in Boston, 419. 
 
 Knox, Henry, U. S. sec. of war, 547. 
 
 Knox, John, 304, 338- 
 
 Knut the Great, k. of England and Den- 
 mark, visit to Rome, 198 ; reign in Eng- 
 land, 205, 206 ; in Denmark, i!07. 
 
 Knut, St., k. of Denmark, 208 ; VI., 235. 
 
 Kobad I., k. of Persia, first reign, 189; 
 second reign, 190; II., 192. 
 
 Kblhapur, 443. 
 
 KoUin, battle of, 404. 
 
 Kong, prince, 502. 
 
 Koniggratz, battle of, 509. 
 
 Kouigsberg, treaty of, 373, 470. 
 
 Konigsmark, 315, 416. 
 
 Koran, the, 182. 
 
 Kosciuszko, 413, 414. 
 
 Kossuth, 494, 495, 496. 
 
 Kotzebue, murder of, 487. 
 
 Krasnoy, battle of, 475. 
 
 Kublai Khan in China, 242. 
 
 Kuldja, disputed between China and Rus- 
 sia, 562. 
 
 Kulm, battle at, 477. 
 
 Kulturkampf in Italy, Switzerland, and 
 Prussia, 520 ; in Prussia, Frauce, Bel- 
 gium, 525 ; approaching end, 526. 
 
 Kuuersdorf, battle of, 4lj5. 
 
 Kurile islands given to Japan by Russia, 
 32, n. 3. 
 
 Kusunoki-Masashige, 243. 
 
 Kiitab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi, 241. 
 
 Kutschouc Kainardji, peace of, 412. 
 
 Kutusoff, 467, 475. 
 
 Labiau, treaty of, 373. 
 Labienus, 139, 142, 143. 
 Laborers, statute of, 268. 
 Labrador, discovery of the coast of, 284. 
 Labyrinth, in Egypt, 4, 6 ; in Crete, 18. 
 Lacedemonian.^, in Sparta, 50. &« Greece 
 and Sparta. 
 
 Laconia, name first given to Maine, 295. 
 
 Lade, battle of, 28. 
 
 Ladislaus II., k. of Hungary and Bohe- 
 
 mia, 278. 
 Ladislaus Postumus, k. of Hungary, 278. 
 Lady of England, 231. 
 Lady of the Mercians, 204. 
 Laets, 177. 
 Lafayette, in America, 428 ; commander of 
 
 national guard, 450; proscribed, 452; a 
 
 liberal, 527 ; commander of national 
 
 guard, 529. 
 La Fere-Champenoise, battle of, 481. 
 Lafitte, ministry of, 529. 
 La Fontaine, 371. 
 Lagidae. See Ptolemies. 
 La llogue, battle of, 370, 387. 
 Lahore, Muhammedan dynasty at, 211. 
 Lake Erie, battle of, 551 ; Geoi-ge, battle of, 
 
 421. 
 Lally, 444. 
 Lamachus, 67. 
 Lamberg, count, 494. 
 Lamian war, 79. 
 Lamoriciere, 503, 527. 
 Lancaster, house of, 270. 
 Lancaster Sound, 299. 
 Laud act, 545, 546. 
 Land league in Ireland, 545. 
 Landshut, battle of, 405, 471 
 Landwebr,-sturm, established, 476. 
 Lanfranc, archb. of Canterbury, 229. 
 Langensalza, 510. 
 Langobards, location, 170 ; found kingdom 
 
 in Italy, 175 ; crushed by Charles the 
 
 Great, 184. 
 Langside. battle of, 338. 
 Langton, Stephen, 233, 234. 
 Lansdowne Hill, battle of, 347. 
 Laon, capital of German kingdom of the 
 
 Franks, 202 ; battle of, 481. 
 Laotsze, Chinese philosopher, 31. 
 La Plata, discovery of, 286 ; a free state, 
 
 488. 
 La Rochelle, granted to Huguenots, 221; 
 
 siege of, 325. 
 La Rothiere, battle of, 480. 
 La Salle, discoveries of, 364, 365. 
 Lascaris, Theodore, 216. 
 Las Casas, Bartholome de, 285. 
 La Soledad, treaty of, 503. 
 Laswari, battle of, 541. 
 Lateran council, 201. 
 Lateranus, L. Sextus, 101. 
 Latham house, siege of, 348. 
 Latimer, 338. 
 Latin empire, 216, 240. 
 Latin league, Rome's hegemony over, 90 ; 
 
 dissolution of, 104. 
 Latin war, great, 104. 
 Laud, William, 344. 345; execution, 348. 
 Lauderdale, 380, 381. 
 Laudou, 405, 413. 
 Laudonniere, Ren^, 288. 
 Launay, de, murder of, 449. 
 Lautrec, invaded Naples, 303. 
 Laval, Franfois de, 364. 
 Law's Mississippi scheme, 445. 
 Lawrence, lord, viceroy in India, 546. 
 Law of Edward the Confessor, 230. 
 Laws of Ine, of Offa 180 ; of the twelve 
 
 tables, 98. 
 
Index. 
 
 593 
 
 Lnybach, concrross at, 4^7. 
 
 Lazicii, oodi'd to Koiue, 190; invaded by 
 
 lloiinindui<, lltl ; lloruclius in, YSl. 
 League in France, 322. Set Holy league. 
 League of the Herman princes, 408. 
 Lt-ague of the public weal, 260. 
 Lear (Leir),37. 
 Lebtfuf, mari*hal, 513, 514. 
 Le Hourget, battle of, 519. 
 Lechfeld, battle of, 190. 
 Lee, Charles, 430. 
 Lee, Richard Henry, 427. 
 Lee, Robert E., in command of Confederate 
 
 army, 567; Gettysburg, 658; Burreuder, 
 
 558." 
 Lefort, in Switzerland, 374. 
 " Legacy of Igeyasu," 350. 
 Leges Cornelise, 132 ; duodecim tabularum, 
 
 9S ; Liciniae, 101 ; Publilise, 102 ; Valerias 
 
 lIorati.<e, 98. 
 Legion, in the Servian constitution. 92 ; 
 
 change in the 4th cent., b. c, 103; 
 
 change under Marius. 128. 
 Legion of honor, created, 404. 
 Legislative assembly in France, 447, 451. 
 Legitimitists, in France, 630. 
 Legnano, battle of, 222. 
 Leipzig, battle of, 312 ; second battle, 314 ; 
 
 battle of the nations, 478 ; supreme court 
 
 in, 525 ; university founded, 251. 
 Le Mans, battle of, 519. 
 I^nthull, 345. 377. 
 Leuzen, battle of, 194. 
 Leo the Great, pope, 173 ; X., 327 ; XIII., 
 
 624. 
 Leo the Isaurian, Grecian emp., 210. 
 Leoben, peiice of, 458. 
 Leofric, e. of Mercia, 206. 
 Leon, name changed from Asturia, 209 ; 
 
 finally united with Castile, 240. 
 Leonidas, 58. 
 Leopold, IV. (V.) d. of Austria, receives 
 
 Bavaria, 219 ; V. detains llichard Coeur 
 
 de Lion, 216. 
 Leopold, archd. of Austria, defeated by the 
 
 Swiss, 247 ; III., Sempach, 250. 
 Leopold 1., k. of the Belgians, 490. 
 Leopold of Dessau, 392, 3'97. 402. 
 Leopold 1., emp of the II. R. E. ; reign of, 
 
 371, 372 ; Spanish claimant, 390 ; death, 
 
 392; II., 408, 416, 451. 
 Leotvchidas. 60. 
 Lepa'nto, battle of, 326, 330. 
 Lepidus, M. ^milius, 133, 141. 
 Leptis, 17, 19. 
 Lernui, d. of, 331. 
 Lesbos, 41, 66. 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 512. 
 Lestocq, in Russia, 411. 
 Leucopetra, battle of, 80, 122 
 Leuctra, battle of, 70. 
 Leuthen, battle of, 404. 
 Leverett, John, gov., of Mass. 360. 
 Levites, 8. 
 
 Lewes, battle of, 234. 
 Lex agraria, 128. See agrarian laws ; an- 
 
 nalis, 120 ; Aurelia, 133 : Canuleia de 
 
 conubio, 99 ; de civitate socii^ danda, 
 
 128 ; Clodia, 138 ; de falso, 122. 182 ; Ga- 
 
 binia, 134 ; llortensia, 107 ; judiciaria, 
 
 126, 12S ; Julia de agro campano, 137 ; 
 
 Julia, 149 ; Msenia 107 ; de maiestate 
 38 
 
 149 : Manilla, l.V. ; Pnpia Poppfrn, 149 •, 
 I'e.lia, 145 ; I'lauti.i-I'apiria, 129 ; I'u'tilia, 
 lOo ; I'ompeia, 129 ; de proscribendia, 
 132, provocatio, 91, 93, 94, 98, 125 ; I'ub- 
 lilia, y7 ; regia, 374 ; de sicariis, 122, 132 ; 
 Trebonia, 14<) ; Valeria de provocutlone, 
 93 ; do vi et ambitu, 140. 
 
 Lexington, battle of, 426. 
 
 Liberty of conscience, declarations of, 
 384. 
 
 Licensing act, expiration of, 388. 
 
 Liciuiau laws passed, lOl : reenacted, 124. 
 
 Licinius appointed Augustus, 159» 
 
 Liegnitz, battle of, 405. 
 
 Ligny, battle of, 484. 
 
 Ligue du bien publique, 260. 
 
 Ligurian republic, founded, 459 ; incorpo- 
 rated with F'rance, 467. 
 
 Libybeeum, siege of. 111. 
 
 Lima, occupation of, 287. 
 
 Limerick, siege of, 387 ; treaty of, 387. 
 
 Lincoln, Abi-aham, pres. of the United 
 States. 656; reelection, 668; assassina- 
 tion, 559. 
 
 Lincoln, gen. 430. 
 
 Lincoln, battle of, 231. 
 
 Lindolf, d. of Swabia, 195. 
 
 Lisbon, earthquake of, 416. 
 
 Li.^^sa, battle of, 610. 
 
 Lithuanians, 169. 
 
 " Little ■' parliament. See BareboneB. 
 
 Liudolf, d. of Swabia, 195. 
 
 Liutprand, 175. 
 
 Liverpool ministry, 537. 
 
 Livia, 148, 149. 
 
 Livius, T.,8L 
 
 Livius Salinator, 117. 
 
 Livonia, 373. 
 
 Lobositz, battle of, 404. 
 
 Locke, John, 358,389. 
 
 Locomotive invented, 486. 
 
 Lodbrog, Raguar, 208. 
 
 Lode, battle at, 28. 
 
 Lodi, storming of the bridge at, 458. 
 
 Lollards, 269. 
 
 Lombard league, 219, 221, 224. 
 
 Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 482, 494,502. 
 
 Lombards. See Langobards, 175. 
 
 Lombardy. See Langobards, Italy, Pied- 
 mont, Sardinia. 
 
 London, founded, 176 ; captured by Danes, 
 203 ; great fire, plague, 379 ; first indus- 
 trial exhibition, 498 ; peace conference, 
 506 ; second industrial exhibition, 644 ; 
 financial panic in, ib. 
 
 London Company, 291 ; conference, 489, 
 511 ; protocol, 505 : treaty of, 498. 
 
 Londonderry, siege of, 386. 
 
 Long Island, battle of, 428. 
 
 Longjumeau, peace of, 321. 
 
 Longland, William. 268. 
 
 Long parliament, 345-361, 375-378 *, reca- 
 pitulation, 378, n. 
 
 Longobards. See Langobards. 
 
 Loo-Choo islands, 5W. 
 
 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 558. 
 
 '' Loose coat field," 274. 
 
 Loris-Mclikoff, 523, 526. 
 
 Lorraine, German part of Ludwig's share 
 in the treaty of Verdun, 187, 193 ; be- 
 comes a duchy, 194; vacillates between 
 East and West Franks 194 ; upper and 
 
594 
 
 Index. 
 
 lower Lorraine, 199 : occupied by France, 
 3H9 ; exchanged to Stanislaus Lesczin- 
 ski for Tuscany, 398 ; house of, 399, 416 ; 
 ceded to the German empire, 519. 
 
 Lorraine, d. of, partially reinstated, 366, 
 368 ; transfer of the duchy, 398. 
 
 Lothar, d. of Saxony, war with Henry V., 
 201. 
 
 Lothar, emp. 186 ; treaty of Verdun, 187. 
 
 Lothar, emp. of the H. K. E., 218. 
 
 Lothar, k. of West Franks, 202. 
 
 Louis I., k. of Bavaria, 492; 11., 514. 
 
 Louis of Condt§, 321. 
 
 Louis, emp. See Ludwig. 
 
 Louis VI., k. of France, 226. [For the Car- 
 olingian kings of this name, see Lud- 
 wig k. of France, l.-V.] Vll., crusade, 
 215 ; reign, 226 ; in England, 232 ; Vlll., 
 227; as prince, in England, 233; iX., 
 St. Louis, reign, 227; arbitration, 234; 
 crusades, 217; X., Le Hittin, 255; XL, 
 of France, 260; XIl., 318; Xlll., 325; 
 XIV., 366-371 ; Spanish succession, 390 ; 
 XV., 445 ; XVI., 446 ; flight and return, 
 451; trial and execution, 453 ; (XVIL,) 
 of France proclaimed, 453 ; death, 457 ; 
 XVIII., first return, 481 ; flight, 483 ; 
 return, 484, 526 ; death, 527. 
 
 Louis the Great, k. of Poland and Hun- 
 gary, 277. 
 
 Louis Napoleon, first attempt to be pro- 
 claimed emperor, 529; second, 530 ; pres- 
 ident of the republic, 494, 531 ; coup 
 d' t^tat, 498, 531 ; as emperor, see Napo- 
 leon III. 
 
 Louis Napoleon, pr. of France, imperial 
 birth, 531 ; death, 534. 
 
 Louis Philippe I., accession, 489, 529 ; ab- 
 dication, 530 ; death, 531. 
 
 Louisa, q. of Prussia, 469. 
 
 Louisburg, siege, 419, 421. 
 
 Louise la Querouaille, 380. 
 
 Louise of Savoy, 303. 
 
 Louisiana, discovered by La Salle and set- 
 tled by French, English attempt to colo- 
 nize fails, 362, 365 ; ceded to Spain, 423, 
 439 ; restored to France, 463 ; bought by 
 the United States, 463, 549 ; admitted to 
 the Union, 551. 
 
 Louvois, 366, 370. 
 
 Lciwen, battle of, 193. 
 
 Lowenbund, 250. 
 
 Lowestoft, battle of, 379. 
 
 Loyal association, 388. 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius, 304. 
 
 Liibeck, free city, 222 ; conquered by Knut 
 VI., 235 ; capital of the Hansea tic league, 
 249 ; peace of, 310. 
 
 Lubecki, 490. 
 
 Lucanians, 83 : wars with Rome, 106, 107. 
 
 Lucius, k. of Britain, 36, 38. 
 
 Lucka, battle of, 245. 
 
 Luckuow, relief of, 546. 
 
 Lucretia, 89. 
 
 LucuUus, L.,131, 134,135. 
 
 Lud, k. of Britain, 37. 
 
 Luddites, 537. 
 
 Ludwig I., the Pious, le D^bonnaire, emp., 
 186; II., 193; of Bavaria, 247. 
 
 Ludwig, the German, k. of the East Franks, 
 share at the treaty of Verdun, 187 ; reign, 
 193; the Child. 194 
 
 Ludwig II., the Stammerer, k. of the West 
 Frank.« ; 201 [Ludwig the Pious, emp., 
 is also Ludwig 1 ., k. of the West Franks] ; 
 III., 201 ; IV., d" Outre Mer, 202 ; V., the 
 Faineant (for kings of France, see Louis), 
 202. 
 
 Ludwigslied, 201. 
 
 LUgenfeld, 186. 
 
 Lumley's Inlet, 290. 
 
 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 551. 
 
 Luneville, peace of, 462. 
 
 Luperci, 85. 
 
 Luque, Hernando de, 286. 
 
 Lusatia (Lausitz), origin, 194; lower Lu- 
 satia united with Bohemia, 248 ; mort- 
 gaged to Saxony, 310 ; ceded to Saxony, 
 314. 
 
 Lusitanians, 118 ; war with Rome, 123. 
 
 Lustrum, 92. 
 
 Lutetia Parisiorum, 139. 
 
 Luther, Martin, 301. 
 
 Luther am Barenberge, battle of, 310. 
 
 LUtzcu, battle of (Gustaviis Adolphus), 
 312 ; (Napoleon), 476. 
 
 Luxembourg, marshal, 370. 
 
 Luxemburg, house of, 245, 248 ; Hungary 
 under, 277. 
 
 Luxemburg question, 511, 532. 
 
 Luynes, d. of, 325. 
 
 Luzzara, battle of, 392. 
 
 Lycia conquered by Uarpagus, 26 ; Roman 
 province, 150. 
 
 Lycos, battle on the, 135. 
 
 Lycurgus, constitution of, 50. 
 
 Lydia, geography, 20 ; religion, chronology. 
 21 ; under Attyadae, HeraclidiB, Mermna- 
 da;, 21 ; conquers Phrygia, 21 ; war with 
 Cvaxares, 21, 25 ; conquered by Cyrus, 
 22; 26. 
 
 Lyons, council of, 225 ; partially destroyed, 
 454. 
 
 Lysander, 68, 69, 70. 
 
 Lysimachus, 76. 
 
 Lytton, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 
 
 Macao, Portuguese at, 354. 
 
 Macartney, e., embassy of, 445. 
 
 Macaulay, T. B., sec. of war, 540 ; in In- 
 dia, 542 ; paymaster gen., 543. 
 
 Maccabaeus, Judas, 11. 
 
 Macchiavelli, 328. 
 
 McClellan, gen., 557. 
 
 Macdonald, 460, 461, 474, 477, 480. 
 
 Macedonia, 41 ; rise in power under Philip, 
 71; Macedonian supremacy, 73; Alexan- 
 der, 73-76 ; under descendants of Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes, 78; wars with Rome, 
 116, 118, 120, 121 ; fall of the monarchy, 
 120 ; Roman province, 78, 122. 
 
 Macedonian line, Greek emperors, 210. 
 
 Maciejowice, battle of, 414. 
 
 Mack, gen., 467. 
 
 Mackay, gen., 386. 
 
 MacMahon, in Italy, 502; in Franco-Prus. 
 sian war, 514, 516; siege of Paris (com 
 mune), 532 ; pres., 533 ; resigned, 534. 
 
 Macon's No. 2 act, 550. 
 
 Macrinus, Roman emp., 30, 155. 
 
 Macro, 150. 
 
 Madagascar, French claims upon, 535. 
 
 Madeira, discovery of, 276, 279. 
 
 Madison, James, 549. 550. 
 
Index. 
 
 595 
 
 Madoc, rebellion of, 204. 
 
 Miulrus, in India, '12 ; founded, 3o4 ; cap- 
 tured and rustored. 44o. 
 
 Madrid, Cbarles in, 3;»"J ; Napoleon at, 471 ; 
 taken by Wellington. 474; by tbe 
 French, 527 ; peace of, a03. 
 
 Ma'cena.*', 147. 
 
 Mielius, Sp. 99. 
 
 Magadha, empire of, 23. 
 
 MagalhcTes, F., 280. 
 
 Magdeburg, bishopric of, 19fi ; placed un- 
 der ban, 305 ; stormed by Tilly, 311. 
 
 Magellan. See Magelhaes. 
 
 Magellan, straits of. 2S0, 286. 
 
 Magenta, battle of, 502. 
 
 Magians, 25. 
 
 Maglster equitum. 94. 
 
 Magna Charta, 23o. 
 
 Magnano, battle of, 460. 
 
 Magnesia, battle of, 78, 119. 
 
 Magnetic needle, 279. 
 
 Magnus the Good, k. of Norway, reign in 
 Denmark, 207; in Norway, 209; II., 
 209; III.. Barfod, 209, 23S ; IV., the 
 Blind, k. of Norway, 1:38; V.,238; VI., 
 Lagaboeter, 238. 
 
 Magnus, d. of Saxony, 199. 
 
 Magnus, k. of Sweden, 237, 238; Smek, k. 
 of Sweden, 236. 237. 
 
 Mago, 117. 
 
 Miigyars. See Hungary. 
 
 Maha-bharata, Hindu epic, 23. 
 
 Mahmud, sultan of Ghazui, 211. 
 
 Mahmud II., sultan of Turkey, 489. 
 
 Mahratta wars, 444, 541. 
 
 Mahrattas, rise of, 38t^, 443, 444 ; conquered 
 by the British, 541. 
 
 Maid of Norway. See Margaret. 
 
 Maid of Orleans. See Dare. 
 
 " Main '" plot, 340. 
 
 Maine (in America), Pring's voyage, 290; 
 Popham colony, 29.S ; granted to Gorges 
 and Mason, 295, 297 ; annexed to Mass., 
 3.58 : restored to heirs of Gorges, ib. ; 
 bought by Mass., 359; admitted to the 
 Union, 552. 
 
 Maine (in France), 231. 
 
 Mainots, 488. 
 
 Maintcnon, Madame de, 369. 
 
 Mainz, first archbishop of, 184 ; elector, 
 248 ; electoral archchancellor, 464. 
 
 Majestatsbrief, 308. 
 
 Majorianus, Roman emp., 162. 
 
 Malacca taken bv the Dutch, 353. 
 
 Malaga, battle of, 434. 
 
 Malakoff, storm of the, 501. 
 
 Malcolm, k. of Scots, 205, 230. 
 
 Waldon, battle of, 205. 
 
 Malmo, truce of, 496. 
 
 Malmutius Dunwall, k. of Britain, 37. 
 
 Malplaquet, bnttle of, 392, 435. 
 
 Malta, I'ha-nicians settle upon, 17; given 
 to knights of St. John, 217 ; surrendered 
 to Napoleon, 460; to be restored to the 
 order, 464 ; not surrendered, 465 ; given 
 to England, 483. 
 
 Malvern Hill, battle of, 557. 
 
 Mamelukes, overthrow the Ayoubites, 217; 
 defeated by Napoleon, 460. 
 
 Mamertines, 109. 
 
 Mamun, 186, 210. 
 
 Manchester massacre, 538. 
 
 .Manchester and liivcrpool railway, 539. 
 
 Mandats, 4r)7. 
 
 Manes. Sfe Mani. 
 
 Manetho, hist, of Egypt, 3, 4, n 3. 
 
 .Manfred, 225. 
 
 .Manhattan Island, purchased, 298. 
 
 .Mani, .Manicheism, 188. 
 
 .Maulius, Capitolinus, M., 100 ; Imperiosuej 
 
 ]., 104; Torquatus, T.. 103. 
 Mansfield, count, 309, 310. 
 Mansfield, lord, 440. 
 .Manteutfel, gen., governor of Sehleswig, 
 
 507,508; Franco-Prussian war, 518, 519. 
 Manteuffel, minister, 494 ; at Olmiitz, 498 ; 
 
 dismissal, 502. 
 Mantinea, battle of, 67, 71, 80. 
 .Mantua, siege of, 458. 
 Mantuan war, 311. 
 .Mann, 23. 
 
 Maori war in New Zealand, 544. 
 Marat, member of Cordeliers 451 ; assaasi- 
 
 nated, 454. 
 Marathon, battle of, 57. 
 Marbod, 149. 167. 
 Marcel, Etienne, 258. 
 Marcellus, M. Claudius, 115-117. 
 Marchfeld, battle of, 244. 
 Marcouianni, 154, 167. 
 Marcy, William L., 555. 
 Mardonius, 56, 60. 
 Marengo, battle of, 462. 
 Margaret of Austria, negotiated Paix des 
 
 Dames, 303; q. of Denmark, Norway, 
 
 and Sum/en, 237, 238, 276 : wife of Henry 
 
 VI. of Engtnud, 240, 271, 272, 274. 
 Margaret, " The Maid of Norway," 238. 
 Margaret Maultasch, 247, 249. 
 Margaret of Parma, 330 ; c. of Salisbury, 
 
 335. 
 Marhattis. See Mahrattas. 
 Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I., 481. 
 Maria Theresa of Austria, heiress of Charles 
 
 VI., 398 ; wars with Frederic the Great, 
 
 400-406. 
 Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 366; 
 
 died, 369. 
 Mariana, 295, 296. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, unpopularity, 446 ; exe- 
 cution, 455. 
 Marienburg, grandmaster at, 218, 277; 
 
 treaty of, 373. 
 Marignano, victory of, by Francis I., 319. 
 Marion, Francis, 430. 
 Marius, C, 82; in Numidia, 127; defeats 
 
 Cimbri and Teutones, 127, 128; social 
 
 war, 129 ; death, 130. 
 Marius the younger, 131. 
 Marlborough, d. of. sketch of life. 382 ; 
 
 joins U'illiam HI., 384; in Irel.and, 3S7 ; 
 
 disgniced, 387 ; in the war of the Spanish 
 
 succession, 391-3i»3, 434; made a duke, 
 
 433; dismissed, 393, 435; reinstated. 
 
 436. 
 Marmont, gov. of Illyrian provinces, 47^ 
 
 481. 
 Marquette discovers the Mississippi, 364. 
 Mars, 84, 85. 
 Marshal, office of, 195. 
 Marshall, .John, 549. 
 Marshall William, regency of, 234. 
 .Marsian, or .social war, 12'.». 
 Marstou Moor battle of 348. 
 
596 
 
 Index, 
 
 Martignac ministry, 527. 
 
 Martin V., pope, 252. 
 
 Martinique, talven by England, ceded to 
 France, 422, 4il. 
 
 Martiuitz, 3U9. 
 
 Martinsvogel, the, 250. 
 
 Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 253. 
 
 Mary, the Catholic, q. of England, reign, 
 330, 336, 338 ; married Philip of Spain, 
 336. 
 
 Mary Stuart, q. of Scotland, married Fran- 
 cis II. of France, 321 ; reign, 338 ; exe- 
 cution, 339. 
 
 Maryland, granted to lord Baltimore, 293 ; 
 rebellion of Olayborne and Ingle, 357 ; 
 English parliament assumed control, 358 ; 
 quo warranto against, 361. 
 
 Masaniello, 327. 
 
 Maserfeld, battle of, 180. 
 
 Masham, Mrs.,434, 435. 
 
 Mason, John, grant of Mariana, 295, 296. 
 
 Mason taken from the Trent, 544, 557. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay colony founded, 295; 
 separation of general court into two 
 houses, 357 ; execution of Quakers, 358 ; 
 reassumed government of Maine, 358 ; 
 forfeiture of the charter, 360 ; new char- 
 ter, 361 ; treaty of peace with the east- 
 ern Indians, 418 ; adoption of a constitu- 
 tion, 431 ; insurrection in, 432. 
 
 Massagetae, 27. 
 
 Massalia, founded, 19, 141. 
 
 Massasoit, 295. 
 
 Massena, 460, 461, 462, 467, 472 ; masterly 
 retreat, 473. 
 
 Massinissa, 116 ; dethroned, 117 ; restored, 
 118, 121. 
 
 Match in, 413. 
 
 Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, 200 ; her 
 estates accepted bv Lothar from the pope, 
 218 ; withheld by Henry VI., 223 ; given 
 to the papacy by Otto IV., 223. 
 
 Matthias, emp. of the H. R. E., 308. 
 
 Matthias of Thurn, 309. 
 
 Matthias Corvinus, k. of Hungary, 278. 
 
 Maupeou, 446. 
 
 Maupertuis. See Poitiers. 
 
 Maurepas, 447. 
 
 Mauretania, Roman prov., 150. 
 
 Maurice, Greek emp., 191 ; of Nassau, 331; 
 d. of Saxony, 305. 
 
 Maxen, surrender of, 405. 
 
 Maxentius, Roman emp., 158, 159. 
 
 Maximianus, 158, 1-59. 
 
 Maximilian, d. of Bavaria, in thirty years' 
 war, 308, 309. 
 
 Maximilian, emp. of Mexico, 504. 
 
 Maximilian I., emp. of the II. R. E., mar- 
 ried heiress of Burgundy, 253; secures 
 succession of Hungary, 278 ; reign, 300 ; 
 II., 492, 306. 
 
 Maximinus, 158, 159. 
 
 Maximinus Thrax, Roman emp., 155, 156. 
 
 May laws in Prussia, 521. 
 
 Mayas, 285. 
 
 Mayence. See Mainz. 
 
 Mayenne, d. of, 324. 
 
 Mayflower, 294. 
 
 Mayo, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 
 
 Mayors of the palace, origin of their power, 
 182, 183, 184 ; compared with the sho- 
 guns in Japan 213. 
 
 Mazarin, in thirty years' war, 314 ; agent 
 of the pope, 325 ; his administration and 
 death, 366. 
 
 Mazdak, 189. 
 
 Mazeppa, 395. 
 
 Meade, gen., 558. 
 
 Mecklenburg, 226, 316. 
 
 Medea, 46. 
 
 Media, revolt under Phraortes, 15 ; geog- 
 raphy, 24 ; subject to Assyria, 25 ; re- 
 volt suppressed by Sargon, 14 ; revolt 
 under Phraortes, 15, 25 ; Median empire, 
 25 ; supremacy passed from Media to 
 Persia, 26 ; revolt suppressed by Da- 
 rius, 27; subject to Parthia, 30 ; large 
 portion ceded to Armenia, 188. 
 
 Median wall, 16. 
 
 Medici, Alexander de', 327 ; Catherine de-, 
 321 ; Cosimo de", created g. d. of Tus- 
 cany, 327 ; Mary de', regency of, 325. 
 
 Medici family in Florence, 263 ; in Flor- 
 ence and Tuscany, 327 ; extinction, 398. 
 
 Megacles, 51. 
 
 Megalopolis, 71 ; battle of, 73. 
 
 Megara, Doric state, 48 ; ally of Athens, 
 62 ; old constitution restored, 63 ; joined 
 the Peloponnesians, 65. 
 
 Megiddo, battle of, 6, 11. 
 
 Mehemed Ali, revolt of, 491, 53). 
 
 Meissen, origin, 194 ; given to Conrad of 
 Wettin, 218 ; eastern part of Thuringia 
 joined to, 225 ; Frederic of Meissen re- 
 ceives the electorate of Saxony, 252. 
 
 Melac, 370. 
 
 Melanchthon, 303. 
 
 Melas, 460, 461, 462. 
 
 Melbourne, lord, home sec, 539 ; premier, 
 540. 
 
 Melkart, Phoenician divinity, 17. 
 
 Meminius, C, 126, 128. 
 
 Memnon, 5. 
 
 Memphis, in Lower Egypt, 2 ; worship of 
 Ptah, 2 ; Cambyses in, 27. 
 
 Mena, first k. of Egypt, 3, 4. 
 
 Mendoza, viceroy, 287. 
 
 Menkaura, k. of Egypt, 4. 
 
 Menou, 463. 
 
 Menschikoff, 410, 500. 
 
 Mentana, battle of, 511. 
 
 Mercia, founded, 179 ; supremacy of, 180 ; 
 Danes in, 203. 
 
 Mercurius, 84. 
 
 Mercy, 314. 
 
 Mergentheim, 218 ; battle of, 315. 
 
 Meri lake, constructed by Amenemhat 
 I., 4. 
 
 Mermnadae, dynasty in Lydia, 21. 
 
 Meroe, kingdom in Ethiopia, 5. 
 
 Merowingians, 35 ; derivation of the name, 
 170 ; defeat Syagrius, 173 ; Franks un- 
 der, 181 ; superseded by the Carolingh 
 ans, 184. 
 
 Merseberg, 195, n. 
 
 Merwan II., last Ommiad caliph, 182. 
 
 Meschish, k. of Gaul, 36. 
 
 Mesopotamia, Roman prov., 153. 
 
 Messalina, 150. 
 
 Messana, 51, 109. 
 
 Messenian wars, I., II., 51 ; III., 62. 
 
 Meta Incognita, 289. 
 
 Metaurus, battle of the, 117. 
 
 Metcalfe, fcir Charles, in India, 542- 
 
Index. 
 
 597 
 
 Metellus, L. Caecilius, defeats Ilasdrubul 
 at Panormus, 111. 
 
 Metellus (Macedtinicus), Q. Ceecilius, in 
 the 4th Macedouiau aud Aeha-an war, 
 122. 
 
 Metellus (Numanticus), Q. Cjucilius. cap- 
 tures Nuuiautia. 123; defeats , I ugurtlia, 
 126 ; superseded by Marius, 127. 
 
 Metellus (Pius), Q. Ca>eilius, war with Ser- 
 torius, 133 ; subdues Crete, 134. 
 
 Methuen treaty, 434. 
 
 Metteci,52. 
 
 Metteriiich, at the congress of Prague, 476 ; 
 of Vienna, 482 ; of (.'arlsbad, 487 ; head 
 of the conservative party, 491 ; driven 
 from Vienna, 492. 
 
 Metz, siege of, 306, 516, 518. 
 
 Mexican expedition, 5U3, 532. 
 
 Mexico conquered by Cortez, 285 ; freed 
 from Spanish rule, 488 ; war with the 
 United States, 554. 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 328. 
 
 Michigan admitted to the Uniou, 553. 
 
 Michillimachiuac, Jesuit mission, 364. 
 
 Micipsa, 126. 
 
 Midas, k. of Phrygia, 22. 
 
 Middle Kingdom, 32. 
 
 Middlesex, 178. 
 
 Mieczeslav II., leader of the Poles, 198. 
 
 Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 488. 
 
 Mikado. See Japan. 
 
 Milan, captured by Scipio, 35 ; captured by 
 Barbarossa and destroyed, 221 ; rebuilt, 
 ib. ; under the Visconti and Sforza, 262; 
 war between Charles V., and Francis I., 
 concerning, 3r)4, 319 ; Philip invested 
 with, ib. : claims of Louis XJI. to, 318 ; 
 appanage of Spain, 326 ; assigned to the 
 emperor, 393 ; Victor Emmanuel in, 562. 
 
 Milan decree, 550. 
 
 Milan, pr. of Servia, 521 ; becomes k., 526. 
 
 Milesians settle at the mouth of the Tigris, 
 28; in Ireland, 39. 
 
 Miletus, in league with Croe.sus, 21, 28; 
 lonians settle, 49 ; battle of, 67. 
 
 Milhaud, confederation of, 322. 
 
 Military roads in Persia, 28 ; constructed 
 in Italy, 82 : in Britain, 176. 
 
 Millenary petition, 340. 
 
 Millesimo, battle of, 458. 
 
 Milo, S. Annius, 139. 
 
 Miltiades, 28 : at Marathon, 57. 
 
 Milton, John, 3S9. 
 
 Minamoto family, 212, 21?, 242. 
 
 Mindcn, battle of, 405. 
 
 Mineptah, k. of Egypt, 5. 
 
 Minerva, 84. 
 
 Ming dynasty in China, 242. 
 
 Minnesota admitted to Union, 566. 
 
 Minos, k. of Crete, 18, 46. 
 
 Minotaur, 18. 
 
 Minto, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 
 
 Minucius, M., 114. 
 
 Minuit, Peter, 298. 
 
 Minv8B, 4.3, 46, 48, 49. 
 
 Mir J afar, 443, 444; Kosim, 444. 
 
 Mirabeau, C, 449, 451. 
 
 Miramichi Bay, discovery of, 287. 
 
 Miranda, 550. 
 
 Mi.senum, treaty of, 146. 
 
 Missi regis, 186. 
 
 Miasionary Ridge battle of, 558 
 
 Misfiissippi admitted to the Uoion, 551. 
 
 Missi8sipi)i riv«-r. discov. 287, 3(34; pos.session 
 taken for France, 362, 36j : claimed by 
 Fmuce, 420 ; navigation free to England 
 and France, 422 ; tu England and the 
 United States, 432. 
 
 Missolonghi, 488. 
 
 Missouri .idmitted to the Union, 652. 
 
 Missouri compromise, 652. 
 
 .Mithra. 25. 
 
 Mithrkdates, I., founded Parthian empire, 
 30; II., k. of Parthia, 30. 
 
 Mithridates VI.. k. of Pontus, his power, 
 129; Sulla concluded peace with, 131; 
 alliance of Sertorius with, 133 ; killed 
 himself, 1.36. 
 
 Mithridatic wars,T.,129; ll.,132i 111., 134. 
 
 Mobile colcmy, 365. 
 
 Mocenigo, adm., 416. 
 
 Miickern, battle of, 478. 
 
 Modena, 416, 458. 
 
 Moesia, 148, 153. 
 
 Mohacs, battle of, 303, 372. 
 
 Mohammed, 182. 
 
 Moira, lord. gov. gen. in India, 64L 
 
 Molai, Jacques de, 255. 
 
 Moldavia, 395, 488. 
 
 Mol«^, ministry of, 530. 
 
 MoUerc, 371. 
 
 MoUwitz, battle of, 401. 
 
 Moloch, 17, 18. 
 
 Moltke, 508, 509, 517. 
 
 Momemphis, battle of, 6. 
 
 Mompcson, impeachment of, 342. 
 
 Monasteries in Ireland, 39 ; suppressed In 
 England, 335 ; in Austria, 40^ ; in France, 
 534 ; in Rome and Papal states, 520. 
 
 Mondovi, battle of, 458. 
 
 Mongols, defeated by the Chinese, 32 ; in- 
 vasion of Germany, 240 ; conquest of 
 China, 242 ; repulse from Japan, 243 ; 
 supremacy in Russia, 277 ; check the Os- 
 man power, 278. 
 
 Monk, 376, 377, 378. See Albemarle. 
 
 Monmouth, battle of, 430. 
 
 Monmouth, d. of, 382, 383. 
 
 Monroe doctrine, 552. 
 
 Monroe, James, 550, 551. 
 
 Mons sacer, 96, 98. 
 
 Montague, proceedings against, 342, 387. 
 
 Montaigne, Michael, 324. 
 
 Montcalm, 421, 422. 
 
 Monteaglc, lord, 340. 
 
 Montebello, battle of, 502. 
 
 Montecuculi, 3G8, 372. 
 
 Montenegro, war with the Porte, 521, 522; 
 became independent, 524. 
 
 Montereau, 259 ; battle of, 480. 
 
 Monterey, battle of, 554. 
 
 Montesquieu, 448. 
 
 Montezuma, Mexican empire of, 285. 
 
 Montgomery, general, 427. 
 
 Montiel, battle of, 276. 
 
 Montrhery, battle of, 260. 
 
 Mnntmartre, storm of, 481. 
 
 Montmirail, battle at, 480. 
 
 Montmorency, 320 ; execution, 326. 
 Montpellier, 2.58. 
 
 Montreal, settled by Maisonneuve, 300 ; sur- 
 rendered to English, 422; captured bj 
 Montgomery, 427. 
 Montrose, murquis of, plots against Argyle. 
 
598 
 
 Index. 
 
 346 ; campaign, in Scotland, 348 ; execu- 
 tion, 375. 
 Monts, sieur de, 290. 
 Moors, origin, 183 ; conquer Spain, 183 ; 
 
 caliphate, 209 ; conquered by Almora- 
 
 Tides, 209 ; by Almohiades, 240 ; conquest 
 
 of Granada, 276. 
 Moqui Canon, 287 
 Morabethes, 209, 240. 
 More, Sir Ttiomas, 335. 
 Morea (see Greece), conquered by Turks, 
 
 397 ; ravaged, 488. 
 Moreau, 458, 460, 462, 465, 477. 
 Moi-gan, 431. 
 Morgarten, battle of, 247. 
 Morliere. 206, 229. 
 
 Mornington, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 
 Moro, Ludovico, 318. 
 Morosini, 416. 
 Morse, 487. 
 Mortier, 481. 
 
 Mortimer, Edmund, 270; Roger, 267, 268. 
 Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 272. 
 Mortmain, statute of, 266. 
 Moscow, national centre of Russia, 277 ; 
 
 burning of, 475. 
 Moses, 8. 
 
 Moshaisk, battle of, 475. 
 Moslems, 182. 
 Mt. Cenis tunnel, 520. 
 Mount Desert, 292, 299. 
 Mountain, the, in the legislative assembly, 
 
 451, 453. 
 Mowbray, conspiracy of, 270. 
 Muawwiyah I., caliph, 182. 
 Mucins Scaevola, 95. 
 Mughal empire, founded, 353; end of, 546. 
 
 See, also, India. 
 Muhammed II., destroyed eastern empire, 
 
 278. 
 Muhammed Ghori, 211, 241 ; Shah, 442 ; 
 
 Tughlak, 241. 
 Muhammedanisra, in China, 31 ; origin in 
 
 Arabia, 182 : conquests in west, la3 ; in 
 
 Persia 192, 193. 
 Mulilberg, battle of, 305. 
 Muhldorf, battle of, 247. 
 Mukhtar Pasha, 523. 
 Mummius, 122. 
 Miinchengriitz, 491, 509. 
 Munda, battle of, 143. 
 Miinger, Thomas, 302. 
 Munich, 312, 492. 
 
 Municipal corporations reform act, 541. 
 Mlinnich, 410, 411. 
 IMuuro, major, 444. 
 Mlinster, anabaptists in, 304 ; negotiations 
 
 for peace at, 315. 
 Murad, I., sultan of the Turks, 278; V., 
 
 deposed, 521. 
 Murat, 460, 467 ; g. d. of Berg, 468 ; k. of 
 
 Naples, 470 ; drivea from Naples, 484 ; 
 
 executed, 485. 
 Murray. See Mansfield, lord. 
 Murray, earl of, regent, 338. 
 Murray, lord George, 438. 
 Murten, battle of, 262. 
 Musa, 183. 
 
 Muthul, battle of, 126. 
 Mutina, founded, 112 ; battle of, 35, 144. 
 Mutiny act, 386. 
 Mutsu-IIito, 33, 562. 
 
 Mycale, 61. 
 
 Mylae, battle of, 110, 146. 
 Myonuesus, battle of, 119. 
 Mysia, 20, 21. 
 
 Nabis, 80, 119. 
 
 Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 16. 
 
 Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 15, 16, 26. 
 
 Nachod, battle of, 509. 
 
 Nadir Shah, invades India, 442. 
 
 Nafels, battle of, 250. 
 
 Nagpur, raja of, 541. 
 
 Najara, battle of, 259. 
 
 Nancy, battle of, 262. 
 
 Nangis, battle of, 480. 
 
 Nankin, treaty of, 542, 561. 
 
 Nantes, edict, see edict of, 369; revolu 
 tionary tribunal of, 454. 
 
 Nantwich, battle of, 348. 
 
 Napata, kingdom of, 5. 
 
 Napier, 500. 
 
 Napier, lord, 561. 
 
 Naples (see Sicily), separated from Sicily, 
 under Charles of Anjou, 226 : conquered 
 by Charles VIII., 262 ; by Alphonso of Ar- 
 agon, 263 : by Louis XII. and Ferdinand, 
 318 ; revolt of Masaniello, 327 ; ceded by 
 Austria to Spain, 398, 416 ; transferred 
 into Parthenopasan republic, 460 ; French 
 garrison, 463 ; Bourbons banished, 468 ; 
 restored, 483 ; revohxtionary movements, 
 487, 493; liberated by Garibaldi, 503. 
 
 Napoleon I., emp. of the French (see Bona- 
 parte, Napoleon), crowned, 465 ; k. of 
 Italy, 467 ; protector of the confederacy 
 of the Rhine, 468 ; divorced from Jose- 
 phine, 473 ; birth of the k. of Rome, 474 ; 
 campaign of Feb., 1814, 480; abdicated, 
 481 ; removed to Elba, 481 ; return, 483, 
 
 526 ; hundred days, 483 ; Waterloo, 484 ; 
 transported to St. Helena, 484; death, 
 
 527 ; entombment in Paris, 530. 
 Napoleon III., emp. of the French (see 
 
 Louis Napoleon), elected, 499, 531; at- 
 tempted assassination, 531, 544 ; war 
 with Italy, 502, 532 ; Mexican expedi- 
 tion, 503; Luxembourg question, 511; 
 Franco-Prussian war, 513 ; surrenders to 
 William III., 517 ; death, 520, 533. 
 
 Narragansett Indians, 359. 
 
 Nar.'ses, 175, 188. 
 
 Narva, battle of, 395. 
 
 Narvaez, 285, 286. 
 
 Naseby, battle of, 349. 
 
 Nassau incorporated with Prussia, 510. 
 
 National convention, 447, 451, 452 ; feder*. 
 tion, 450 ; petition, 542. 
 
 Naucrarics, 53, 55, 58. 
 
 Navarino, battle of, 489, 539. 
 
 Navarre, origin, 209; Joanna, heiress of, 
 marries Philip IV., 254; Charles the Bad, 
 k. of, 258 ; in the Huguenot wars, 321. 
 
 Navarrete, battle of, 276. 
 
 Navigation act, 376 ; repealed, 643. 
 
 Nayler, 377. 
 
 Nebraska, admitted to the Union, 559. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 6, 11, 16. 
 
 Necker, 447, 449. 
 
 Neerwinden, battle of, 370, 388, 453. 
 
 Nehavend, battle of, 182, 193. 
 
 Neku, k. of Egypt, 6, 11, 16. 
 
 Nelson at Aboukir, 460; at Trafalgar, 467 
 
Index. 
 
 591) 
 
 Nemean festiv.al, 42. 
 
 Nemod, 3'J. 
 
 Ncpalese, conquerod by Chinese, 444. 
 
 Neptuuus, 84. 
 
 Nero, 0. Claudius, consul, 117. 
 
 Nero, Uoiuau emp., lo'.i, 151. 
 
 Nerva, llouiaii emp., 152. 
 
 Nesselrodo, 4S2. 
 
 Netiu'rlands, acquisition by the house of 
 lUir^'iindy, 828, 329 ; war of liberation, 
 3o() ; independence recognized, 331 ; war 
 with Louis XIY., 367 ; with England, 
 379, 38U ; New Amsterdam lost, 358 ; 
 Spanish Netherlands given to Austria, 
 strife with Joseph II., 408 ; trans- 
 formed into the liatavian republic, 4o6 ; 
 into the kingdom of Holland, 468; in- 
 corporated with France, 473 ; the French 
 expelled, 479; kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands formed, 483 ; Belgium separated 
 from Holland, 489. 
 
 Neuchatel, given to Prussia, 393; to Ber- 
 thier, 4bS ; as principality restored to 
 Prussia, 482 ; as canton joined to the 
 Swi"is confederacy, 483; revolt from 
 Prussia, 492 ; given up by Prussia, 501. 
 
 Neuhof, baron, k. of Corsica, 415. 
 
 Neustria, decay of, 35 ; in the 2d division 
 of the Frankish kingdom, 181 ; in the 3d, 
 182, 183 ; in treaty of Verdun, 187. 
 
 Neutrality act, 548. 
 
 Nevada admitted to the Union, 558. 
 
 Nevers, house of, 311. 
 
 Neville's Cross, battle of, 268. 
 
 New Albion, ivest, discovered bv Drake, 
 289 ; east, granted to Plowden, 293. 
 
 New Amsterdam, founded, 298 ; captured 
 by English, 358, 379. 
 
 Newbury, b.ittles of, 348. 
 
 Newcastle, ministry of, 438, 439. 
 
 Newcomen, 486. 
 
 New England, named, 294 ; presidency of, 
 361 ; Indian hostilities in, 417. 
 
 New Forest, 230. 
 
 Newfoundland, discovery, 284, 287 ; Gilbert 
 takes possession of, 289 ; grant of a part 
 to sir Geo. Calvert, 299. 
 
 New France, French settlements in, 299 ; 
 name extended to the west, 364, 365 ; 
 ceded to England, 422. 
 
 New Granada, 488. 
 
 New Hampshire, granted to Mason, 296; 
 separated from Massachusetts, 359; in- 
 surrection in, 432. 
 
 New Haven, colony of, 357 ; union with 
 Connecticut, 358. 
 
 Nesv Jersey, granted to Berkeley and Car- 
 teret, 358 ; under Andros, 361 ; divided 
 into ea.st and west Jersey, .'>59. 
 
 New Netherlands, agreement with the ( 
 united colonies, 357; granted to dukes of 
 York and Albany, 358. 
 
 New North Wales, 299. 
 
 New Orlean.s reserved to France, 422; 
 British repulsed at, 551. 
 
 Newport, treatv of, 351. 
 
 New South Wales, 299. 
 
 New Sweden, 298. 
 
 Newton, I.saac, 388, 389. 
 
 Newtown Butler, battle of 386. 
 
 New York, name of New Amsterdam 
 changed to, 358 ; captured bj' the Dutch, 
 
 restored to England, 359 ; gov. Andros, 
 359, 361; gov. Fletcher, 362 ; gov. lUir- 
 ni't, 417 ; settlement of idnn boundary, 
 41S; treaty with the Iroquois, 418 ; occu- 
 pied by the Hritisii, 428 ; evacuated, 432. 
 
 Ney, 4r)7 ; " bravest of the brave," 475, 
 477; joined Napoleon, 483 ; executed, 485 
 
 Niagara, expedition Hgaiust, 421, 423. 
 
 Nicaja, council of, 159 ; Greek empire of, 
 216. 
 
 Nice, truce of, 304 ; annexed to France, 
 502. 
 
 Nicephorus Phocas, (Jreek emp., 210. 
 
 Nicholas I., tsar of Russia, 488 ; Polish 
 revolution, 490; intervention in Hun- 
 gary, 495; joins Austria, 498; Crimeaa 
 war, 499 ; death, 500. 
 
 Nicholas V., anti-pope, 247. 
 
 Nicia.s, 65-67 ; peace of, 66. 
 
 Nicomedes, k. of Bithynia, 78; III., 129, 
 134. 
 
 Niels, k. of Denmark, 208. 
 
 Nightingale, Florence, 500. 
 
 Nihilists, 525, 526. 
 
 Nikita, pr. of Montenegro, 521. 
 
 Nikolsburg, truce of, 5"9. 
 
 Nile, battle of tlie, 460, 536. 
 
 Nimrod, k. of Assyria, 5, n. 2 ; 13. 
 
 Nimwegi-n, peace of, 368. 
 
 Nineteen propositions, 347. 
 
 Nineveh, on the Tigris, 12; foundation, 
 14 ; captured by Cyaxares, 15, 25 ; battle 
 of, 192. 
 
 Ninus, 14. 
 
 Nippon, proper meaning, 32, n. 2, 
 
 Nisib, battle of, 491. 
 
 Nitta Yoshisada, 243. 
 
 Nizam ul Mulk, 442. 
 
 Noah, 36, 39. 
 
 Noailles, Ticomte de, 450. 
 
 Nobility in Rome, 101, 102; abolished in 
 France, 453 ; new nobility, 467. 
 
 Nobunaga, 355, 356. 
 
 Noisseville, battle of, 516. 
 
 Nola, battle of, 149. 
 
 NoUendorf, battle of, 477, 478. 
 
 Nombre de Dios, 289. 
 
 Non-jurors, 386. 
 
 No popery riots, 440. 
 
 Nordlingen, battle of, 313. 
 
 Nore, mutiny at the, 536. 
 
 Noreia, battle of, 127. 
 
 Noricum, 148, 167. 
 
 Normandy, settled, 202 ; Vexin annexed 
 to, 203; duke William conquers Eng- 
 land, 206 ; belongs to Henry II. of Eng- 
 land, 231 ; conquered by Philip Augus- 
 tus, 227. 
 
 Normans. See Northmen. 
 
 North, sir Francis, 382. 
 
 North, lord, administration, 400, 425; re- 
 signs, 441. 
 
 Northampton, battle of, 272. 
 
 North Anna, battle of, 558. 
 
 Northbrook, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 
 
 North Carolina, separated from South Car- 
 olina, 418 ; colonial charter suspended, 
 427 ; insurrection in, 425 ; accepted the 
 constitution of U. S., 547. 
 
 Northcote, sir Stafford, 545. 
 
 Northern convention, 462 463. 
 
 Northern war, 394. 
 
600 
 
 Index. 
 
 North German Confederation. See Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Northmen, wars with Charles the Great, 
 185 ; ravages in France and Germany, 
 193, 201 ; settled in Italy, 198, 199, 200 ; 
 siege of Paiis, 201 ; settlement, 202 ; in 
 England, 203, 204, 205 ; contiuest of Eng- 
 land, 206. 
 
 Northumberland, d. of, 336 ; e. of, 270, 271. 
 
 Northumbria, kingdom of, 178, 179, 180. 
 
 Norway, early history to 1103, 208 ; from 
 death of Magnus Barfod to union of Cal- 
 mar, 1103-1397, 238 ; to 1524, 276, 351 ; 
 to 1789, 409 ; ceded to Sweden, 479, 483; 
 war with Sweden, 484 ; constitutional 
 contest in, 526. 
 
 Notables, assembly of, 447. 
 
 Notium, battle of, 69. . 
 
 Nottingham, e. of, impeached, 270. 
 
 Nottingham, e. of, sec. of, state, 385, 433 ; 
 pres. of council, 436. 
 
 Novara, battle of, 319, 488, 494. 
 
 Nova Scotia, granted to sir Wm. Alexan- 
 der, 295, 299 ; ceded to England, 393 ; 
 422, 439 ; fisheries in, 432. 
 
 Novgorod, 208, 277. 
 
 Novi, battle of, 461. 
 
 Nullification proclamation, 653. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, k. of Rome, 88. 
 
 Numautia, destruction of, 123. 
 
 Numerianvis, Roman emp., 158. 
 
 Numidia, divided between Bocchus and 
 Gauda, 121, 127, 142. 
 
 Nuremberg, peace of, 303 ; fortified camo 
 of, 312. 
 
 Nymplienburg, alliance of, 401. 
 
 Nystadt, peace of, 397. 
 
 Gates, Titus, plot, 381 ; trial, 383 ; pardon, 
 386. 
 
 Oaths of allegiance and supremacy, 386. 
 
 Obelisks, 3. 
 
 Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, 284. 
 
 Occasional conformity act, brought in, 433, 
 434 ; passed, 435 ; repealed, 437. 
 
 Octavia, 145, 150. 
 
 Octavianus, C. Julius Caesar ; negotiations 
 with the senate, 144 ; appointed consul, 
 145 ; receives the west, 145 ; war with 
 Sextus Pompeius and Antonius, 146 ; sole 
 ruler, 147. See Augustus. 
 
 Odenathus, 157. 
 
 Odin, 164, 165. 
 
 Odo, b. of Bayeux, 229 ; c. of Paris. See 
 Eudes. 
 
 Odovaker, ruler of Italy, 162, 173 ; over- 
 thrown by Theodoric, 174. 
 
 Odys.seus, 47. 
 
 <Edipus, 46. 
 
 (Eaeus, k. of Athens, 44. 
 
 CEuophvta, battle of, 63. 
 
 Ofta, k' of Mercia, 180. 
 
 Offices of state opened to plebeians, 101. 
 
 Oglethorpe, James, settles Georgia, 418, 
 419. 
 
 Ohio admitted to the Union, 549. 
 
 Ohio Company, 419, 420. 
 
 Olaf Hunger, k. of Denmark, 208. 
 
 Olaf , k. of Denmark, 237 ; of Norway, 240. 
 
 Olaf, St., k. of Norway, 209; Trastelje, 
 first k. of Norway, 208; Trygvasson, k. 
 of Norway, 208, 209. 
 
 Olaf, the Lap-king, of Sweden, 208. 
 
 Oldcastle, sir John, 271. 
 
 Old French and Indian war, 420. 
 
 Oldenburg, 409 ; house of, 351 ; annexed 
 to France, 473. 
 
 Oliva, peace of, 373. 
 
 Olivarez, 332. 
 
 Ollivier, ministry of, 512, 532. 
 
 Olmlitz, conference of, 498 ; siege of, 404. 
 
 Olybrius, Roman emp., 162. 
 
 Olympiad, first, 50. 
 
 Olympian festival, 42. 
 
 Olympias, 77. 
 
 Olynthiac orations, 72. 
 
 Olynthus, battle of, 65 ; revolt and de- 
 struction, 72. 
 
 Omar, 182, 192. 
 
 Omar Pacha, 499. 
 
 Ommiads obtained the caliphate, 182 : over- 
 thrown by Abbasides, 183 ; founded cal- 
 iphate of Cordova, 183, 209. 
 
 O'Neil, Hugh. See Tyrone. 
 
 Onomarchus, 72. 
 
 Opcquan, battle of, 558. 
 
 Opium war, 542, 561. 
 
 Oppius, Spurius, 98. 
 
 Optimates, lOl. 
 
 Orange, VViUiam of (the Silent), 330, 331. 
 
 Orban Frere, ministry, 525. 
 
 Orchomenus, battle of, 131. 
 
 Ordinance for the government of the terri- 
 tory northwest of the Ohio, 433. 
 
 Ordinances instead of acts passed by long 
 parliament, 347. 
 
 Orebro, peace of, 474. 
 
 Oregon admitted to the Union, 656 ; boun- 
 dary decided, 543, 560 ; treaty, 554. 
 
 Orellana, Francisco, 288. 
 
 Orford (adm. Russell), invites William III., 
 384 ; victory of La Hogue 387 j created 
 earl of Orford, impeached, 388. 
 
 Organic statute, 490. 
 
 Orinoco, discovery of, 283. 
 
 Orkneys, conquest of, 209. 
 
 Orleanists, 580. 
 
 Orleans besieged by Attila, 173 ; maid of, 
 260 ; cap. of Burgundy, 181 ; battle of, 
 518. 
 
 Orleans, d. of, murdered, 259 ; death, 530 ; 
 Gaston of, conspiracies of, 325, 326, 366 ; 
 Philip of, regent, 445; Philip Egalit6, 
 450 ; execution of, 455. 
 
 Orleans, house of, strife with Burgundy, 
 259 ; comes to the throne in France, 
 317 ; again in 1830, 489, 529 ; expelled, 
 530 
 
 Orloff, 411. 
 
 Ormaguas, empire of the, 288. 
 
 Ormond,duke of, impeachment, 437. 
 
 Ormuzd. See Ahuramazda. 
 
 Orodes I., k. of Parthia, 30. 
 
 Orsini, 531. 
 
 Osborne, Pir Thomas. See Danby, 380. 
 
 Osiris, 2, 3. 
 
 Osman I., 278 ; Pasha, 522. 
 
 Osnabrlick, negotiations for peace at, 315. 
 
 Ostend East India Co., 437. 
 
 Ostmark (Lusatia), formation of, 194 ; Ba- 
 varian 0?tmark reestablished, 196 ; en 
 larged, 199. See Austria. 
 
 Ostrach, battle of, 460. 
 
 Ostracism, 55. 
 
Imli 
 
 eoi 
 
 Ostrogoths. Stf Eiipt (ioths. 
 
 Ostrulouka, battk. ..f, 4'.n». 
 
 Oswald, of N"(.rtliiiml.m, ISO 
 
 Osweijo, captuii'tl by >U)iiti-alin, 421. 
 
 OswU'U, k. of NortUuuibria, 180. 
 
 Othmann, 1S2. 
 
 Otho. For tJerinan rulers, see Otto. 
 
 Otho, Roman emp.. 151. 
 
 Otis, James, 422, 42^3. 
 
 Otterburne. .St Chevy Chase. 
 
 Otto the Fiune, marg. of Brandenburg, 
 249. 
 
 Otto I., k. of Greece, accession, 489; ex- 
 pulsion, 605. 
 
 Otto I. the Great, emp. of the II. R. E., 
 Iit5 ; II., 1%, 197 ; III., " Wonder of the 
 World,'" 197 ; IV., of Brunswick, 223. 
 
 Otto of Nordheim. 199. 
 
 Otto of Wittelsbach, 222. 
 
 Otto the Illustrious, d. of Saxony, 194. 
 
 Ottocar, k. of Bohemia, 244. 
 
 Oudenarde, battle of, 392, 435. 
 
 Ouilh, province in India, 22; under the 
 Guptas, 24; independence of, 442: an- 
 nexation, 546. 
 
 Oudinot, 475, 477, 480. 
 
 Ovando, 283. 
 
 Overbury, sir Thomas, 341. 
 
 Ovidius Naso, P., 83, 148. 
 
 O.xbridge, treaty of, 349. 
 
 Oxenstiema, A.xel, 313, 314, 315. 
 
 Oxford, parliament of Charles I. at, 348. 
 
 Oxford, e. of (Ilarley), lord high treas., 
 435 ; dismissed, 435 ; impeached, 437. 
 
 Paches, 66. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, discovered, 284. 
 
 Pacte de famine, 446. 
 
 Paix des dames, 303 ; de monsieur, 322. 
 
 Pal.TGologi, Greek emperors, 278. 
 
 Palaeologus, Michael, 216. 
 
 Palatinate, electorate, 248 : in the thirty 
 years" war, 310 ; division of, 316 ; war 
 over the succession in, 369 ; devastation 
 of, 370 ; in the war of the Bavarian suc- 
 cession, 406. 
 
 Palestine, (j, 7. 
 
 Palikao, battle of, 502, 562. 
 
 Palladius, in Ireland, 39. 
 
 Palm, execution of, 468. 
 
 Palr\erston, lord, in the Egyptian trouble, 
 491; alliance with Turkey, 499; for. 
 sec, home sec, premier, 543 ; second 
 ministry, death, 544. 
 
 Palmvra, 157. 
 
 Palo Alto, battle of, 554. 
 
 Panipeluna, siege of, 479. 
 
 Panama congress, 552. 
 
 Pandulf, 234. 
 
 Pauipat, battles of, 353^ 443. 
 
 Pannonia, Roman prov., 149, 167. 
 
 Panormus, 17, 20 ; battle of, 111. 
 
 Pan.sa, 144. 
 
 Paoli, 415. 
 
 Papacy, origin, 175 ; foundation of its sec- 
 ular power, 184 ; German popes, 196 ; 
 Gregory VII., investitures, 199; Canos- 
 sa, 200 ; concordat of Worms, 201 ; Ur- 
 ban II., crusades, 213-217 ; contest with 
 Frederic I., 221 ; Innocent III., 223 : Greg- 
 ory IX., strife with Frederic 11., 224, 225 ; 
 council of Lyons, 225; Adrian IV. gives 
 
 Ireland to Henry II.. 2:52; Innocent III., 
 contest with .Idni, 2^i3 ; council of Con- 
 stance prorlaiius its superiority, 251 ; 
 Boniface VIII., quarn-l with Philip 
 the Fair, 254; Babyl(jnish captivity in 
 Avignon, 255, 263; great schism, 2G3; 
 reformation, 301; council of Trent, 305; 
 anti-reformation, 306; Alexander VI „ 
 Gregory Xlll., reform of calendar, 327 ; 
 dispute with Henry VIII., 3;i4 ; bull ap- 
 portioning the undiscovered portions of 
 the world, 353; Pius VI. and .Joseph II., 
 408 ; I'ius VI ., seized by the French, 459 ; 
 concordat of 1801, 463 ; Pius VII., seized 
 by Napoleon, 473 ; receives the papal 
 states again, 483: Pius IX., 492; revolt 
 in Rome suppressed by French, 493 ; 
 honorary president of the Italian league, 
 502; Vatican council papal infallibility, 
 512; temporal power of the pope abol- 
 ished, 518 ; guarantee for the pope, .520 ; 
 contest with Italy, Prussia, Switzerland, 
 521; Leo XII I. ,524. 
 
 Papal states founded, 184 ; estates of 
 Matilda obtained, 223; independent of 
 the empire, 2(33; declining prosperity, 
 416 ; cession of Bologna, Ferrara, the 
 Romagna, 458 ; transformation into the 
 Roman republic, 459 ; without Romagna, 
 Bologna, and Ferrara restored to the 
 pope, 464 ; incorporated with France, 
 473; restored to the papacy, 483; Bo- 
 logna, Ferrara, Romagna, incorporated 
 with Italy, 402 ; p.'itrimonium Petri to be 
 protected by Italy, 503; patrimonium 
 Petri also incorporated, 518. 
 
 Paper, improvement in, 279. 
 
 Paphlagonia, 21, 136. 
 
 Papin, Denis, 486. 
 
 Papirius Carbo, 125, 127, 130, 131 ; Cursor, 
 105. 
 
 Papists disabling act, 381. 
 
 Pappenheim, 311, 312. 
 
 Paraguay, discovery of, 286 ; rule of Fran- 
 cia, 488. 
 
 Paris, Lutetia Parisiorum, occupied by La- 
 bienus, 139; court-camp of Childeberfc 
 I., 181 ; siege by Otto II., 196; siege by 
 the Northmen, 201 . capital of the French. 
 monarchy (see Laon), 202: entrance of 
 the allies, 481 ; second capture, 484 ; 
 siege, 517 ; bombardment, 519: capitu- 
 lation, 519 ; second siege, 530. See, also, 
 France. 
 
 Paris, peace of 1763, 422, 439 ; of 1783, 
 431, 441 : between Sweden and France, 
 473 ; of 1814, 481 ; of 1815, 485 ; closing 
 the Crimean war, 510. 
 
 Paris, son of Priam, 47. 
 
 Paris, Matthew, 2-35. 
 
 Parker, archb. of Canterbury, 338. 
 
 Parliament, in P>nglaud, the witan, 177; 
 p. of Simon of Montfort, 234; fixation 
 without consent of p., illegal, 266: first 
 perfect p., 267 ; separation into two 
 houses, 268 : the " good p.," the " won- 
 derful p.,'" 269: English in the house 
 of commons, 271 : grand protestation 
 342; petition of right, 343, scene in the 
 commons, 343 : no p. for 11 years, 344 ; 
 the "short p.,'" 345 ; the '' long p.,"' 
 345; "Rump,"' 376; " Barebone's p.," 
 
C02 
 
 Index. 
 
 376; long p. dissolved, 378; resume of 
 its history, 378, n. ; " conveution p.," 
 378; "cavalier p.,"' 378; couveiitioti p., 
 385; first triennial p., 388; first p. of 
 Great Britain, 434; first septennial p., 
 437 ; Wilkes, 440 ; speeches printed, 440 ; 
 contractors and revenue officers excluded, 
 441 ; first imperial p., 520 ; Catholics first 
 admitted, 339 ; reform act, 540: annual 
 p. demanded, 542 ; property qualification 
 abolished, Jews admitted, 2d reform act, 
 544. 
 
 Parliament of France, explained, 254, mixed 
 chambers, 324 ; mixed chambers in 4 par- 
 liaments, 324; resistance of the. p. of 
 Paris, 366 ; p. of Paris abolished, but re- 
 stored, 446; again abolished, 447. 
 
 Parliament of Germany, 493-498. 
 
 Parma ceded to Spanish Boui'bons, 403, 416 ; 
 ceded to Fi'ance, 463 ; given to Napoleon's 
 wife, 481 ; incorporated with Sardinia, 
 502. 
 
 Parma, d. of, 331, 458. 
 
 Parmenio, 74, 75. 
 
 Parnell, 545. 
 
 Parthenon, built, 64 ; blown up, 416. 
 
 Parthenopaean republic, kingdom of Naples 
 transformed into, 460 ; abolished, 461. 
 
 Parthia, on the plateau of Iran, 24 ; revolt 
 subdued by Darius, 27 ; geography of, 
 29 ; revolt under Arsaces, 29 ; kingdom 
 of, wars with Rome, etc., 30; kingdom 
 of, 78 ; Crassus, 140 ; war with Trajan, 
 153 ; dissolution, of monarchy, 30, 155. 
 
 Partholan, k. of Ireland, 38. 
 
 Partition of Poland, I., 411 ; II., 413 ; III., 
 414. 
 
 Partition of Prussia proposed, 404. 
 
 Partition treaties, 391. 
 
 Paschal II., pope, 201; III., 221. 
 
 Paskevitch, 489, 490, 495, 499. 
 
 Passarowitz, peace of, 397. 
 
 Passau, convention of, 305, 317. 
 
 Patkul, 394, 395. 
 
 Patna, massacre of, 444. 
 
 Patricians, origin, 88, 90 ; conflicting views 
 concerning. 94 ; conflict with the plebei- 
 ans, 95, 96, 97, 100 ; create a new office, 
 but soon lose exclusive control of all 
 offices, 101. 
 
 Paul I., tsar of Rus.sia, 422, 459, 463. 
 
 Paul IV., pope, 327. 
 
 Paullus, L. ^ISmilius, 112 ; consul, falls at 
 Cannae, 115 ; the younger, victory over the 
 Lusitanians, 118 ; defeated Perseus, 120. 
 
 Paulus Diaconus, 186. 
 
 Pausanias, 60, 61, 69. 
 
 Pavia, 175 ; siege, 184 ; battle of, 303. 
 
 Peasants' war, in Germany, 302. 
 
 Pedro. I., emp. of Brazil, '488 ; IT., 488. 
 
 Peel, Robert, home sec, 539 ; first adminis- 
 tration, 540 ; second administration, 542. 
 
 Peking, treatv of, 502, 543, 562. 
 
 Pelagius, 183. 
 
 Pelasgians, 43, 49. 
 
 Pelham, Henry, administration, 438. 
 
 Pelissier, 600. 
 
 Pelopidae, 44. 
 
 Pelopidas, 70, 71. 
 
 Peloponnesian war, 64-69. 
 
 Pelusium, 2 ; battle of, 7, 27 ; taken by 
 Persians, 191. 
 
 Penates, 84. 
 
 Penda, k. of Mercia, 179, 183. 
 Peninsula campaign of McClellan, 567. 
 Peninsula War, 471, 637. 
 Penn, William, 360, 377. 
 Pennsylvania granted to William Penn, 
 359 ; government taken from Penn, 362 ^ 
 new charter obtained by Penn, 362. 
 Penny postage in England, 542. 
 Penobscot, 294, 300 
 Penrith, battle of, 43S. 
 Penruddock. rebellion of, 376. 
 " Pensioned," parliament, 378, 381. 
 Pensions, 552. 
 
 Pentarchy of the great powers, 482. 
 Pentland Hills, battle of, 379. 
 Pepperell, William, 419. 
 Pequigny, peace of, 274. 
 Pequot war, 297. 
 Perceval, 537. 
 
 Percy, Harry (Hotspur), 270. 
 Perdiccas, 74, 76. 
 Pere la Chaise, 381. 
 Pergamon, kingdom of, 78, 124. 
 Pericles, rival of Cimon, 62; administra« 
 
 tion of, 64 ; death, 65. 
 Perier, 486, 527 ; ministry of, 529. 
 Perioeci, 50. 
 
 Perozes, k. of Persia, 189. 
 Perperna, 132, 133. 
 Perpetual peace, 319. 
 Perry, com., at Yedo, 562. 
 Perseus, k. of Macedonia, 78, 120. 
 Persia, geography, 24 ; religion, 24, 25; 
 revolt under Cyrus, 26 ; old Persian em- 
 pire, ib. ; conquests of Cambyses and Da- 
 rius, 27 ; administration of the empire, 
 28 ; war Avith the Greeks of Asia Minor, 
 ib^; of Europe, 28, 56 ; decline and fall of 
 the empire, 29; subject to Parthia, 30; 
 new Persian empire founded, ib., 155, 
 187 ; wars with Rome, 190 ; restored to 
 the limits reached under Darius, 191 ; 
 conquest by Arabs, 192, 193. 
 Persian wars, I., II., 66; III., 58; IV,, 
 
 60. 
 Pert, air Thomas, 286. 
 Pertinax, Roman emp., 164. 
 Peru, exploration of, 286 ; conquest of by 
 
 Pizarro, 287 ; a free state, 488. 
 Perusia, civil war of, 146. 
 Pescennius Niger, 155. 
 Peshwa, 443, 541. 
 Peter, k. of Aragon, 226; III., 276; IV., 
 
 276. 
 Peter the Cruel, k. of Castile, war with, 
 
 258, 276. 
 Peter T., the Great, tsar of Russia, 374 ; in 
 England, 388 ; war with Charles XII., k. 
 of Sweden, 394, 395, 396, 410; II., 410; 
 III., 406, 411. 
 Peter the Hermit, 200, 213. 
 Peter de la Mare, 269. 
 Peter des Roches, 234. 
 Peter de Vinea, 226. 
 Peterborough, lord, 434. 
 Peterborough, sack of, 204. 
 Peterloo. S^'c Manchester Massacre. 
 Peterwardein, battle of, 397. 
 Petion, 451, 454. 
 Petition of Right, 343. 
 Petrarca, Francesco, 263. 
 
Index. 
 
 603 
 
 Petre, father, 384. 
 IVtrdus, 141. 14*2. 
 
 retninius Maxiiuus. Roman emp., 161. 
 PfanVudorf, battle of, 405. 
 riiamoh, 2, n., 3; 4, 4. 
 PbiiriseeB, 11. 
 I'haruabazus, 68, 70. 
 Pbiiniaces, 142, 143. 
 Pbiirsalus, battle of, 141. 
 I'hiilias, 64. 
 
 I'biladolpbia, foundation of, 360 ; occupied 
 by Hritisli, evacuated, 429; centennial 
 exhibition at, 660. 
 Philadelphia, burning of the frigate, 649. 
 Philicui, altars of, 19. 
 Philip, d. of Anjou. See Philip V., k. of 
 
 Spain. 
 Philip the Fair, archd. of Austria, 253, 
 
 301, 328. 
 Philip the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 258 ; the 
 
 Good, 259. 
 Philip 1., k. of France, 203,226: II., Au- 
 gustus, cru.-^de, 215 ; Bouvines, 223 : 
 reign, 226 ; intrigue.^ against Richard of 
 England, 232; trouble over Ingebord, 
 235 ; Ul.,U Hardi, 254 : IV., le Bel, 254 ; 
 v., le Long,'2Lb: VI., 257. 
 1 hilip, landgr. of Hesse, 304, 305. 
 Philip, k. of Macedonia, 71 ; V., k., war 
 with Rome, 116, 118 ; with Antiochus, 
 119. 
 Philip, d. of Orleans. See Orleans. 
 Philip II., k. of Spain, war with Henry 
 II., of France, 321 ; claim to French 
 crown, 324; reign, 330: III., 331 ; IV., ] 
 331; v., claim urged by Louis XIV., 391; ' 
 war of Spanish succession 392 ; recog- 
 nized in Spain, 393 ; claimant for Aus- 
 trian succession, 400 ; reign, 414. 
 Philip of Swabia, emp. of the II. R. E., 
 
 223. 
 Philip, king, Indian chief, 359. 
 Philiphaugh, battle of, 348. 
 Philippi, founded, 71 ; battle of, 145. 
 Philippics of Demosthenes, 72; of Cicero, 
 
 144. 
 Philippus Arabs, Roman emp., 156, 188. 
 Philistines, 7, 8, 14. 
 Philocrates, peace of, 72. 
 Philomelus, 72. 
 Philopoemen, 80. 
 
 Phips, sir \Vm., gov. of Mass., 361. 
 Phocacans, 19, 26. 
 Phocion, 70, 79. 
 Phoebidas, 70. 
 
 Phoenicia, Phoenicians, expeditions of Ra- 
 messu I., 5: war of Psamethik I., 6; 
 subject to Tiglath-Pileser I., 14: geog- 
 raphy, 1>) ; religion, 16, 17; constitution 
 of the cities, 17 ; Sidon"s greatest power, 
 ib. : voyages and colonies, ib. ; rise of 
 Tyre, 18; foundation of Carthage, ib.; 
 decline of Phoenician cities, 19 ; subject 
 to Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ib. ; 
 to Macedon, the Seleucidse, the Ptole- 
 mies, 20 ; retains native rulers under 
 Persia, 26, 37 : P. refuse to assist faniby- 
 ses against Carthage, 27 ; revolt sup- 
 pressed by Artaxerxes III., 29; neve^ 
 visited Britain, 37. 
 Phraates, name of .several Parthian kings, 
 1., 29 ; II., 30 ; III., first war with Rome, 
 
 30; IV , attacked by Antonius, 30. war 
 with AuguKtuH, 148. 
 Phraortes, 15, 25. 
 Phratries, 54. 
 Phrixos, 46. 
 Phrvgia, 21, 22. 
 Phylu;, 45, 54. 
 Piacenza, 416, 467. 
 Piasts, Poland under the, 277. 
 Piccolomini, 313, 314. See ^Eneas SiLvius. 
 Picenum, 81, 83, 141. 
 Pichegru, 455, 456, 469, 465. 
 Piedmont, settled by Celts, conquered by 
 Rome, 35, 118 ; under the East (joths, 
 174; under the Laugobards, 176. con- 
 quered by Charles the Great, 184 ; Caro- 
 lingians in, 193; Otto I. conquers Be- 
 rengar of Ivrea, 195, 196; Henry II. 
 conquers Ardoin, 197; Lombard league 
 and Frederic Barbarossa, 219-222 ; Fred- 
 eric I., 224 ; divided into small states, 
 262; under dukes of Savoy, 327; who 
 became kings of Sardinia, 415 ; Napoleon 
 occupies P., 458 ; Cisalpine republic, 469 ; 
 abolished 460 ; restored, 462 ; Italian re- 
 public, 464; Napoleon, k. of Italy, 467; 
 ceded to France, 467 ; Lombardo-Vene- 
 tian kingdom ceded to Austria, 483 ; rev- 
 olutionary movements, 487 : war between 
 Austria and Sardinia, 494; intervention 
 of France, Austrians expelled, 502, 5U3. 
 Pierce, Franklin, 565. 
 Piers Plowman, 268. 
 Pignerol ceded to France, 325. 
 Pilgrims, 294. 
 
 Pillnitz, conference, 451 ; declaration 452. 
 Klpay, fables of, 191. 
 Pindar, 73. 
 
 Pinerolo, pacification of, 377. 
 Pinto in Japan, 3o5. 
 Pinzon Vincent Yanez, 284. 
 Pipin, d'Heristal. 183 ; the Small, k. of the 
 
 Franks, 175, 184. 
 Piraeus, fortified, 58,61,64; blockade of, 
 
 68, 70. 
 Pirates, war against, 134. 
 Pi.«a, conquered by Genoa, 263; council 
 
 of, 261. 
 Pisistratus, 54. 
 Pistoria, battle of, 137. 
 Pitt, William, the elder. See Chatham. 
 Pitt, William; the younger, sketch of life, 
 441 ; first administration, 442, 6.36 _; sec- 
 ond administration, 536 ; death, 537. 
 P=us II., pope, 253 ; VI , 407 ; VII., con- 
 secrated Napoleon I., 465; imprisoned, 
 473; returned to Rome, 482; IX., at- 
 tempted reforms of, 492 ;_ death, 524. 
 Pizarro, Francisco, 286, 287. 
 Placida, 161. 
 
 Plague in Germany, 248 ; in London, 379. 
 Plains of Abraham, battle of, 422. 
 Plantagenet, house of, 231. 
 Plassey, battle of, 443. 
 Plata;ae, battle of, 60 ; surrenders, 66. 
 Plato, 69. 
 
 Plebeians, traditional origin, 89 ; true ori- 
 gin, 90, 91, 92; admitted to senate, 94; 
 contest with patricians, 95 ; tribunes, 
 96; comitia tributa, 96, 97; secession, 
 96 ; one plebeian consul, 101 ; all ot&cet 
 opened to, 101, 107. 
 
604 
 
 Index. 
 
 Plovna, capture of, 522. 
 Plinius, tbo elder, 152. 
 Plistonmx, 63. 
 *'Plon-[>lou,--466, 534. 
 
 PlovAlen, sir Edward, 293. 
 
 Pluukett, executioa of, 382 
 
 PJyinoutli, council of, 294 ; surrenders 
 charter, 297 ; settlement of, in New Eng- 
 land, 294. 
 
 Plynioutli Company, 291, 293. 
 
 Pocahontas, 291. 
 
 Poischwizt, armistice of, 476. 
 
 Poitiers, battle of (Charles Mattel), 183 ; 
 (Black Prince), 258. 
 
 Poitou, acquired by England, 226, 231, 
 258 ; lost, 260. 
 
 Poland, kingdom formed, 168 ; war with 
 Henry II., 197; with Conrad II.; sub- 
 mits to empire, 198; under the Piasts, 
 united with Lithuania, 277 ; Jagallons ; 
 P. an elective monarchy, 352 ; elector of 
 Saxony, k. of P., 372; republic, 374; 
 Stanislaus, k., 395; truce of, 397; war 
 of the Polish succession, 398, 414 ; first 
 division, 411; second, 413; third, 414; 
 kingdom of, 483 ; revolution in, 490 
 
 Pole, Michael de la, 269. 
 
 Pole, Reginald, card., 335, 338. 
 
 Polignae ministry, 527. 
 
 Polk, James K., 554. 
 
 PoUentia, battle at, 171. 
 
 Polo, Marco, 242, 282. 
 
 Polycrates of Samos, 7. 
 
 Polygnotus, 64. 
 
 Polysperchon, 76. 
 
 Pombal, marquis of, 415. 
 
 Pomerania, extinction of the ducal house, 
 314 ; given to Sweden and Brandenburg, 
 316 ; lost by Sweden, Hither P. given to 
 Prussia, 396 ; Hither P. ceded to Den- 
 mark, 479 ; to Prussia, 482. 
 
 Pompadour, marquise de, 403, 446. 
 
 Pompeii, 83, 152. 
 
 Pompeius(ilIag-re;<5), subjected the Jews to 
 Jloine 11; consul, 129; joined Sulla, 
 131; war with Sertorius, 133; defeats 
 the pirates, 134; command in Asia, 135 
 first triumvirate, 137 ; consul, 140 ; de 
 feat at Pharsalus, 141 ; death, 142, 143 
 Ser.tus escaped to Spain, 142; repulsed 
 CsBsar, 143 ; treaty with triumvirs, 145 
 defeated and died, 146. 
 
 Ponce de Leon, 284. 
 
 Pondicherri, 443. 
 
 Poniastowski, 413. 
 
 Pontefract, castle of, 270. 
 
 Pontiac, conspiracy of, 423. 
 
 Pontifices, college of, 85. 
 
 Pontius Gavius, 105, 106. 
 
 Pontus, kingdom of, 78 ; first Mithridatic 
 war, 129; second, 132; third, 134; P. 
 Roman province, 136. 
 
 Pooua, confederacy of, 443. 
 
 Poor-law amendment act, 540. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, 436. 
 
 I'opham, George, 293. 
 
 Popillius Laenas, 121. 
 
 Popish plot, 381. 
 
 Poplicola, L. Valerius, 93. 
 
 Popptea Sabina, 150. 
 
 Populonia, battle of, 107. 
 
 Porrex. k. of Brita,in, 37. 
 
 Porsena of Clusium, 95. 
 
 Port Royal, foundation of, 290 ; razed by 
 Argal, 292 ; captured by Phips, 361 ; by 
 English, 363. 
 
 Porteous riots in Edinburgh, 438. 
 
 Portland, d. of, administration, 537. 
 
 Porto Bello captured by Vernon, 438. 
 
 Portocarrero, card., 391. 
 
 Portugal granted to Henry, count of Bur» 
 gundy, 240 ; his son becomes king of 
 Portugal, ib. ; P. reaches its greatest 
 power, discoveries, and settlements, 276, 
 280 ; Portuguese in India, 354 ; Emman- 
 uel the Great ; Spanish province ; revolt, 
 332, 393 ; house of Braganza ; earth- 
 quake of Lisbon, 415 ; refuses to join 
 continental system ; occupied by French, 
 470 ; peninsula war, 471 ; revolution, 488. 
 
 Poscherun, treaty of, 475. 
 
 Potemkin, 412, 413. 
 
 Potocki, Pelix and Ignaz, 413. 
 
 Potosi, mines of, 288. 
 
 Poutrincourt, 290. 
 
 Powhattan, 291. 
 
 Poyning's law. See statute of Drogheda. 
 
 Prsemunire, statute of, 269, 270. 
 
 Praetorship, established, 101 ; first ple- 
 beian, 102 ; limit of age for, 120 ; num- 
 ber of, 122 ; pro-prsetors, 122. 
 
 Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis, of France, 
 227; of Charles VII., revoked, 260; of 
 the emp. Charles VI., 398, 403. 
 
 Prague, battle of, 404 ; compact of, 252 ; 
 congress at, 476 ; peace of, 314, 510 ; uni- 
 versity of, founded, 248; secession of 
 Germans, 251 ; lectures in Czechish lan- 
 guage establislied, 526. 
 
 Presbytei'ians, 350. 
 
 President, engagement with the Little Belt, 
 551. 
 
 Pressburg, anti-Jewish riots, 526 ; peace of, 
 467. 
 
 Preston, 425. 
 
 Preston, battle of, 437. 
 
 Preston Pans, battle of, 351, 438. 
 
 Pretender, old P., 437 ; young P., 438. 
 
 Priam, 47. 
 
 Pride's Purge, 351. 
 
 Prie, marquise de, 446. 
 
 Prim, murdered, 512. 
 
 Prince Edward's Island, 287. 
 
 Princes in the Tower, murder of, 275. 
 
 Princeton, battle of, 428; foundation of 
 college at, 419. 
 
 Pring, Martin, 290. 
 
 Printing, invention of, 211, 253, 279. 
 
 Probus, Roman emp., 157. 
 
 Proconsuls, the first, 105; proconsulai 
 provinces, 123. 
 
 Propertius, S., 148. 
 
 Property qualification abolished, 544. 
 
 Prophets in Israel, 9. 
 
 Pro-prsetors, 122. 
 
 Proscriptions, under Sulla, 132; undei 
 the second triumvirate, 145. 
 
 Protectorate in England, 376. 
 
 Protestant union, 308. 
 
 Protestants, 303. 
 
 Providence, foundation of, 297. 
 
 Providence Plantations, charter of, 358i. 
 
 Provisions of Oxford, 234. 
 
 Prusias, 78, 120. 
 
Index. 
 
 605 
 
 rnssia {set also Rran<lonburK), inhabited 
 by Wends, ItJH ; (•(MKiucrcd l>y tlio Ti-u- 
 ton'.c order, 218,277 ; West l'rus.«iii ceded 
 to t'oUnd, 277 ; reformation in, Albert 
 of Hniudenburg becomes d. of 1'. under 
 Polish suzerainty, 3i>2: elector of Bran- 
 denburg becomes k. of Prussia, 372, 373; 
 P. obtains Neuchatel, and upm-r Guel- 
 ders, ri'linquishes claims upon Orange to 
 France, 3i)3 ; cessions from Sweden, 39»5 ; 
 1*. under Frederic the Great, 4(>5-408 ; 
 claims upon Silesia, 400; proposed parti- 
 tion of P., 404; Silesia retained, 40(3; 
 shares in the partition of Poland, 411, 
 413, 414 ; joins first coalition against 
 France. 462; alliance with England, 
 455 : peace of Ba^le, 457; indemnifica- 
 tions, 4ti5 ; treaty with Napoleon, 467 ; 
 not in the confedemcy of the Rhine, 
 468; war with Fi-.ince, 468; peace of Til- 
 sit, 470; reform of the state and army, 
 471; war of liberation, 475; congress of 
 Vienna, 482 ; receives Saarbriicken, 485; 
 ZoUverein,A^\ ; united La«r/«rt^. 492 ; up- 
 rising in Berlin, 492 ; Schleswig-IIol- 
 stein, 496 ; offer of German crown to 
 king of Prussia, 497; revised constitu- 
 tion, 497 ; conference of Olmiitz, 498 ; 
 William I., 503; constitutional conflict, 
 Bismarck, 504 ; war with Denmark, 
 5i>5; with Austria, 507-510 ; Luxemburg 
 question, 511 ; war with France, 513- 
 620; king of Prussia German emp.,519; 
 numt)er of votes in the Bitndesrath, 520 ; 
 May laws, civil marriage, 521 ; alliance 
 with Austria, 525 ; royal rescript of Jan., 
 1882, 525. 
 
 Pruth, peace of the, 395. 
 
 Prynne, William, 344. 
 
 Prytauies, 55. 
 
 Psamethik, ks. of Egypt : I. revolted 
 against Assyria, 6, 15 ; 11., 6; III., de- 
 fejited by ("ambyses, 7. 
 
 Psammeticus. See Psamethik I. 
 
 Pseudo-Philippus, 122; Smerdis, 27, 
 
 Pteria, battle at, 21, 26. 
 
 Ptolemais. See Acre. 
 
 Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 11, 20, 74, 76, 
 77, 142. 
 
 Public peace, 300. 
 
 Publilius Philo, 102, 105. 
 
 Pugacheff, 412. 
 
 Pul, Chaldean king, 13. 
 
 Pulaski, death of, 430. 
 
 Pultowa, battle of, 395. 
 
 Pultusk, battle of, 395. 
 
 Punic wars, I., 109 ; II., 35, 113 ; III., 121. 
 
 Punitz, battle of, 395. 
 
 Punjab, 22 ; invaded by Alexander, 23 ; 
 conquered by Gneco-Bactrian-J. ib.; by 
 Scythians, 24, 241 ; annexed, 546. 
 
 Pupienus Maximus, 156. 
 
 Purandocht, reigu of, 192. 
 
 Puritans in America, 295 ; in England, 345. 
 
 Putnam, general, 428. 
 
 Puttkamer, v., 525. 
 
 Pydna, battle of, 120. 
 
 Pvgmalion, of Tyre, 18. 
 
 PV1os.66. 
 
 Pym. John, M. P., 341; imprisoned, 342 ; 
 impeached, 346; death, 34S. 
 
 Pyramids, 3; battle of the, 460. 
 
 I Pyrenees, battle of, 479; peace of the, 
 I 866. 
 Pyrrhus, k. of Britain, 37. 
 Pyrrhus, k of Epirus, aids the Syracu- 
 sans, 20; war with the KomaDS, 107- 
 1(»9 ; death, 108. 
 Pytheas of Massilia, 37, 167. 
 Pythian festival, 42. 
 
 Quadi, war with Rome, 154. 
 
 Quadruple alliance, 397. 437, 445. 
 
 Qu.'rstiones perpetutc, 122. 
 
 Qujestors appointed, 93 ; two more added, 
 
 99 ; accompany pro-praetors, 122 ; 20 
 
 quaestors, 132. 
 Quaker Hill, battle of, 430. 
 Quatre-Bras, battle of, 484. 
 Quebec, founded, 299 ; taken by the Kertks, 
 
 299; surrendered to the English, 422; 
 
 besieged in vain by Arnold, 427 ; battle 
 
 of, 439. 
 Queen Anne's bounty, 434 ; war, 363, 365 
 Queenstown, battle of, 551. 
 Quiberon Bay, battle of, 439. 
 Quincy , .Tosiah, 425. 
 Quito, 287. 
 Quivira, 287. 
 
 Rabelais, 319. 
 
 Racine, 371. 
 
 Radagais, 171. 
 
 Radetzki, 494, 523. 
 
 Radowitz, 497, 498. 
 
 Radzivil, 490. 
 
 Rjedwald, k. of East Anglia, 179. 
 
 Rastia, 148, 167. 
 
 Rafn, descripton of Vinland, 281. 
 
 Ragaz, battle of, 253. 
 
 Raglan, lord, 500. 
 
 Ragnarok, 166. 
 
 Railroads, invention, 486 : in the United 
 
 States, 486, 552. 
 Rain, battle of, 312. 
 Rajputana, 22 ; conquered by Akbar, 354; 
 
 unsuccessful wars of Aurangzeb in, 389; 
 
 independent, 442. 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, grant of Virginia, 289 ; 
 
 expedition to Guiana, 290 ; expedition to 
 
 the Orinoco and execution 341. 
 Ramannarari, 14. 
 Ramayana, Indian epic, 23. 
 Rambouillet decree, 550. 
 Ramessu, k. of Egypt, II., the Greek Sesos- 
 
 tris, 5 ; III.. Rhampsinitus, 5. 
 Ramillies, battle of, 392, 434. 
 Ramses. See R^imessu II. 
 Riindolph, Edward, 361 ; Peyton, 426. 
 Raphael, Santi, 327. 
 Rastadt, peace of, 394; congress of , 459; 
 
 dissolution, 461. 
 Ratisbon. See Regensburg. 
 Raucoux, battle of, 402. 
 Ravaillac, 325. 
 Ravenna, imperial residence, 161 ; res! 
 
 dence of Theodore, 174 ; battle of, 318. 
 Recimir, 162. 
 
 Reciprocity treaty, 543, 556. 
 Recdinage act, 388. 
 Reconstruction act, 559. 
 Redan, storm of tiie. 501. 
 Reform act, first, 540 ; Scotch, 540 ; second^ 
 
 644 
 
606 
 
 Index. 
 
 Reformation, beginning of, 301 ; ir, Eng- 
 liind, 335 ; in France, 321 ; introduced 
 into Geneva by Calvin, 304 ; in Switzer- 
 land, 301. 
 
 Regensburg, founded, 167, 215 ; electoral 
 assembly at, 311 ; permanent diet at, 316, 
 371 ; battle of, 471. 
 
 ftegillus, battle of, 95. 
 
 Kegulus, M. Atilius, 110, 111, 112. 
 
 Reichenbach, battle of, 406 ; conference at, 
 408 ; treaty of, 476. 
 
 Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 464. 
 
 Reichshofen, battle of, 516. 
 
 Reichskammergericht, 300. 
 
 Reichstag, German, 511, 520, 526. 
 
 Reign of terror, 454. 
 
 Rekenitz, battle of, 196. 
 
 Remigius, b. of Ilheims, 174. 
 
 Reuse, electoral meeting at, 248. 
 
 Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. See 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 Republican party in U. S., 548 ; in France, 
 530. 
 
 Republics founded by the French during 
 the revolution : Batavian, 456 ; Cisal- 
 pine, 459 ; Helvetian, 460 ; Ligurian, 
 459 ; Parthenopaan, 460 ; Roman, 459. 
 [Seven Ionian Islands, founded by Rus- 
 sia, 461.] 
 
 Reservatum ecclesiasticum, 306, 310. 
 
 Restoration of the Bourbons, 481, 484, 526, 
 527; of the Stuarts, 378. 
 
 Resumption of specie payments, 560. 
 
 Reutlingen, battle of, 250. 
 
 Revolution, American, 426 ; Belgian, 408 
 of 1830, 489 ; Central American, 488 
 English, I., 347,375; II., 384; French. 
 I., 447; II. (July), 529; III. (Feb.), 530 
 IV. (Sept.), 517 ; German, 492 ; Greek 
 488; i/MHg-nr/an, 494 ; /«a/mn, 490, 493 
 502; Japanese, 563; Polish, 490, 505 
 Fortitguese, 488 ; South American, 488 
 Spanish, 488, 512. 
 
 Revolutionary tribunal, 453. 
 
 Rezonville, battle of, 516. 
 
 Rhampsinitus. See Ramessu III. 
 
 Rh.i, Isle of, 343. 
 
 Rhett, William, 363. 
 
 Rhine cities, league of, 249. 
 
 Rhode Island, colony, founded, 297 ; pe- 
 tition of, to be admitted to the colonial 
 union rejected, 357 ; charter, 358 ; gov- 
 ernment, 361,362; accepted the consti- 
 tution of U. S., 547 ; Dorr rebellion, 
 554. 
 
 Rhodes, colonized by Phoenicians, 17, 41 ; 
 independent, 78 ; Roman province, 79 ; 
 war with Antiochus III., 119, 120 ; cap- 
 tured by Persians, 191 ; given to knights 
 of St. John, lost to Turks, 217. 
 
 Ribault, Jean, 288. 
 
 Ricci, Jesuit general, 416. 
 
 Richard of Clare, e. of Leinster, 232. 
 
 Richard of Cornwall, elected emp. of H. R. 
 K., 225. 
 
 Richard I., Coeur-de-Lion, k. of England, 
 crusade, 215 ; imprisoned, 216; released, 
 223 ; war with Philip Augustus, 226 ; 
 reign in England, 232; II., 269, 270; 
 III., 275. 
 
 Richard, d. of York, 271. 
 
 Richelieu, card., in thirty years' war, 311, 
 
 314; administration, 325; d. of, 487 
 ministry, 527. 
 
 Richmond, surrender of, 559. 
 
 Richmond, e. of, 275. See Henry VIL, 
 k. of England. 
 
 Ridley, 838. 
 
 Ried, treaty of, 478. 
 
 Rienzi, Cola di, 263, 
 
 Riga, siege of, 474. 
 
 Rimnik, battle of, 413. 
 
 Rio de la Plata, discovery, 285. 
 
 Ripon, marq. of, viceroy of India, 647. 
 
 Ripon, treaty of, 345. 
 
 Rivers, e. of, execution, 274. 
 
 Rizzio murdered, 338. 
 
 Roanoke Island, colony, 289. 
 
 Roberjot, murder of, 461. 
 
 Robert of Belesme, 230. 
 
 Robert, c. of Clermont, 324, 
 
 Robert, d. of France, proclaimed k., 202. 
 
 Robert I., k. of France, 203. 
 
 Robert, d. of Normandy, 214, 230. 
 
 Robert Guiscard, 200. 
 
 Roberval, gov. of Canada, 287, 288. 
 
 Robespierre, member of the Jacobins, 451 ; 
 in the convention, 453 ; at the head of 
 the reign of terror, 454 : crushes the 
 moderates and radicals, 455 ; overthrow 
 and execution, 456. 
 
 Robinson, John, 294. 
 
 Rochambeau, 4-30, 452. 
 
 Roche, marquis de la, 290. 
 
 Rochefort, 512. 
 
 Rochester, e. of, 882, 383. 
 
 Rockingham, first administration, 424, 440 ; 
 second, 431, 441. 
 
 Rocroy, battle of, 366. 
 
 Rodney, 441. 
 
 Roe, sir Thomas, 354. 
 
 Roeskild, peace of, 373. 
 
 Roger II., k. of the Two Sicilies, 218. 
 
 Rogers, Wood, capt., 417. 
 
 Rohan, card., 447. 
 
 Roland, death of, 185. 
 
 Roland, madame, executed, 455. 
 
 Roldan, revolt of, 283. 
 
 Rolf, 208 ; siege of Paris by, 201 ; first d. 
 of Normandy, 202. 
 
 Roman republic, proclaimed, 459 ; abol- 
 ished, 461. 
 
 Romanow, house of, 353, 374. 
 
 Rome, geography, 81 ; religion, 84 ; eth- 
 nography, 85 ; origin, mythical and real, 
 87 ; the kings in legend, 88 ; in history, 
 90 ; constitution, 91 ; republic, constitu- 
 tion, 93; patricians and plebeians, 95; 
 decemvirs, 98; conquest by the Gauls, 
 85, 99 ; equalization of the old orders, 
 100 ; Samnite and Latin wars, l(i4, 105, 
 106 ; war with Tarentum, conquest of 
 Italy, 107 ; Punic war, I., 109 ; II., 113 ; 
 Hannibal in Italy, 114-117 ; Macedonian 
 wars, 116, 118, 120, 121 ; war with Antio- 
 chus, 119; Punic war, III., destruction 
 of Carthage, 121 ; destruction of Corinth, 
 122; provinces of Rome, 122; civil dis- 
 turbances, the Gracchi, 124 ; Jugurthian 
 war, 126 ; Cimbri and Teutones, 127 ; 
 Mithridatic wars, 129, 132, 134; Marius 
 and Sulla, 130 ; conservative reforms of 
 Sulla, 132 ; war with the gladiators, 133; 
 with the pirates, 134 ; organization of 
 
Index. 
 
 607 
 
 Asia, 136 ; Catiline, 136 ; Cicero, 137 ; l«t 
 triumvirate, 137 ; coiKniest of (Jaul, l.'iS ; 
 civil war, 140; constitution uihUt C'lesur. 
 143 ; a-ssjuisiimtion of Cii'sjir, 144 ; 2«1 tri- 
 umvinit**, 145 ; war Itetween Octaviunus 
 and Antouius, 14() ; (U-tavianus ruler and 
 enipiTor, 147 ; Julian emperors, 147-151 ; 
 Flavian, 151 ; X\w. good emperors, 15ti- 
 154 ; emperors appointed by tlie soldiers, 
 154; Aurelian, 157; Diocletian, 158; 
 Constantine, 15i) ; division of the empire 
 into the eastern, or Ciroek, and the west- 
 ern empire, 161 ; fall of the western em- 
 pire, 162 ; Persian wars, 187, 188 ; Par- 
 thian wars, 3(>. See Holy Roman Em- 
 pire, and Eastern Empire. 
 
 Borne (the city), described, 82; founded, 
 87 ; Cloaca>, Servian wall, 89 ; sacked by 
 Gauls, 1(X>; fire in, under Nero, 151; 
 sacked by Alaric, 171; by the Vandals, 
 173 ; seat of the papacy, 176 ; Pipin pa- 
 tricius, 184 ; Charles the Great crowned 
 in, 185 ; Arnulf, li)4 ; Otto 1., 195 ; Fred- 
 eric III. (IV.), last emp., crowned in 
 Rome, 263 ; sacked by the army of the 
 constable of Bourbon, 303; occupied by 
 the French, 459, 473 ; return of pope, 
 482; occupied by French, 503; captured 
 by Italians, 518 ; capital of Italy, 620. 
 
 Romulus and Remus, 87. 
 
 Romulus Augustulus, Roman emp., 162. 
 
 Roncevaux, 185. 
 
 Rooke, sir George, 434. 
 
 Ro.>iamunda, 175. 
 
 Roses, wars of the, 272. 
 
 Rosny. See Sully. 
 
 Rossbach, battle of, 404. 
 
 Rostra, 82, 104. 
 
 Rothari, 175. 
 
 Rouher, bit. 
 
 Roum, sultanate of, 210. 
 
 Roumania, indeiiendent, 524 ; kingdom, 524. 
 
 Roumanian lanjxuage, 153. 
 
 Roundheads, a^U. 
 
 Roundway Down, battle of, 347. 
 
 Rousseau, 448. 
 
 Royalists, .3.50. 
 
 Rudolf, archd. of Austria, 249. 
 
 Rudolf, of Burgundy, k. of France, 202. 
 
 Rudolf III., k. of Burgundy (Arlea), be- 
 queaths kingdom to Henry II., 198. 
 
 Rudolf 1., of Hapsburg, emp. of U. R. E., 
 reign, 244; II., reign, .308. 
 
 Rudolf, of Rheinfeld, d of Swabia, 199; 
 anti-king of Germany, 200. 
 
 Rudolfian line, 316. 
 
 Ruol, treaty of, 366. 
 
 Rulliauus, 102, 1()6. 
 
 Rump parliament, in England, .3.51, 376 ; 
 in Germany, 496. 
 
 Rupert, count palatine, 250. 251. 
 
 Rupert, pr., at Edgehill, :j47 ; at Marston 
 Moor, 348; in cabinet, 3S0. 
 
 Rurik, house of, 276, .'i52. 
 
 Ru.ssell, adm. 5fe Orford. 
 
 Russell, lord, executed, 382. 
 
 Ru.ssell, lord John, 539; home sec, 540; 
 first ministry of, 543 : foreign pec, .543; 
 earl Russell, 544 ; second ministry, 544. 
 
 Russia, Swedes subjugate the Slavs around 
 Novgorod, 208; R. Under the Mongols, 
 241, under the house of Rurik, rise of 
 
 Moscow, 276, house of Rurik succeeded 
 by that of Romanow, 353 ; Peter the 
 Great, 374 ; war with Charles XII., 394 ; 
 peace of Nystadt, 397 ; seven years' war, 
 403; Elizabeth succeeded by Peter III., 
 Frederic's friend, 405; Catherine II., 
 neutral, 406; war with Sweden, 4<)9 ; 
 house of Ilolstein-Ciottorp in K. , 411; 
 the partition of Poland. 411, 413, 414; 
 peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. 412; Paul 
 I. , 459 ; R. in the second coalition against 
 Fnmce, 460; Suwarotf in Italy and Swit 
 zerland, 461; Alexander I., 463; third 
 coalition, 467 ; war with France in alli- 
 ance with Prussia, 468; p«!ace of Tilsit, 
 470 ; war with France, 474 ; burning of 
 Moscow, 475 ; alliance of Kalisch with 
 Prussia, 476; receives Warsaw at the 
 congress of Vienna, 483; Nicholas I., 
 488; war with Turkey, 487; peace of 
 Adrianople, 489 ; revolt in Poland, 490 ; 
 alliance of 1840, 491 ; intervention in 
 Hungary, 495 ; Crimean war, 499 ; peace 
 of Paris, 501 ; Turkish troubles, 521 ; 
 war with Turkey, 622 ; peace of San Ste- 
 fano, 523 ; congress of Berlin, 524 ; Alex- 
 ander III., 525; Nihilists, 626. 
 
 Rustchuck, battle at, 473. 
 
 Rut, John, 286. 
 
 Rlitli, oath on the, 246. 
 
 Ruyter, de, .368, 376, 379. 
 
 Rydesdale, William of, 272. 
 
 Ryswick, peace of, 362, 371. 
 
 Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas, 192. 
 
 Saalfeld, battle of, 469. 
 
 Sabellians, 86. 
 
 Sablnes, Sabine , women, 88; war with 
 Rome, 89 ; subjugated, 107. 
 
 Sacheverell, Dr., 435. 
 
 Sadducees, 11. 
 
 Sadowa, battle of, 509. 
 
 Saghalen, ceded to Russia, 32, n. 3. 
 
 Saguntum, siege of, 113. 
 
 Sahs, in India, 210. 
 
 Saif , 190. 
 
 St. Albans, battles of, 272. 
 
 St. Aldegonde, 330. 
 
 St. Augustine, castle of, 289 ; siege of,419l 
 
 St. Bartholomew, night of, 321. 
 
 St. Clair, defeat of, .547. 
 
 St. Claire sur Epte, treaty of, 202. 
 
 St. Denis, 517. 
 
 St. Esprit, mi.ssion of, 364. 
 
 St. Estienne de la Tour, 300. 
 
 St. Germain, peace of, 321 ; treaty of, .300. 
 
 St. Germain-en-Laye, treaty of, 368, 374. 
 
 St. Gotthard, battle of, 372 ; ^railroad, 526. 
 
 St. Ignatius, massacre at, 357. 
 
 St. Jacob, battle of. 253. 
 
 St. John, Henry, dismissed from the cabi- 
 net, 434 ; sec. of state, 435 ; created vise 
 Bolingbroke, q. v. 
 
 St. John, Oliver, 341. 
 
 St. John, knights of, 217. 
 
 St. John River, di.scoverv of, 290. 
 
 St. Just, 454, 4,56. 
 
 St. I..awrence, discovery of, 284, 287. 
 
 St. Leger, 428. 
 
 St. Louis, settlement of, .365. 
 
 St. Lucia, ceded to the English, 422. 
 
 St. Mary, mis.«ion of, 364. 
 
608 
 
 Index. 
 
 St, Patrick, 39. 
 
 St. Petersburg, foundation of, 395 ; peace 
 of, 405, 474. 
 
 St. Privat, battle of, 516. 
 
 St. Quentin, battle of, 321, 338, 519. 
 
 St. Ruth, gen., 387. 
 
 St. Savior, colony of, 292. 
 
 St. Vincent, ceded to English, 422. 
 
 Saladin, 215. 
 
 Salamanca, battle of, 474. 
 
 Salamis, battle of, 69, 62. 
 
 Salem, settled, 295 ; witchcraft, 362. 
 
 Salic emperors, 198. 
 
 Salic Franks, 170, 173. 
 
 Salic law, 255, 491. 
 
 Salii, or dancing priests, 85. 
 
 Salisbury, e. of, 272. 
 
 Salvius Julian us, 153. 
 
 Salzburg, made an electorate, 464 ; given 
 to Austria, 468 ; ceded to Bavaria, 472 ; 
 ceded to Austria, 482. 
 
 Samaria, 7 ; capital of Israel, 9 ; captured 
 by Sargon, 10 ; tributary to Assyria, 14. 
 
 Sammuramit, 14. 
 
 Samnites, 81, 83; wars with Rome. I., 104 ; 
 II., 105; III., 105; join Pyrrnus, re- 
 conquered, 108 ; revolt after Cannae, 115 ; 
 attack Rome, but are repulsed by Sulla, 
 131. 
 
 Samo, k. of the Slavs, 168. 
 
 Samson, 8. 
 
 Samuel, 8. 
 
 Samurai in Japan, 212, 563. 
 
 Sancho IV., k. of Castile, 276. 
 
 Sancho I., k. of Navarre, 209; III., the 
 Great, 209. 
 
 Sancroft, archb. of Canterbury. 384. 
 
 San Domingo, foundation of, 283 ; sack of, 
 290, 339. 
 
 Sandon, 21, 26. 
 
 Sandonidae, 21. 
 
 Sandra-Kottos. See Chandragupta, 28. 
 
 San Jago, 240, 328. 
 
 San Stefano, peace of, 523. 
 
 Santa F^, foundation of, 291. 
 
 Sapor I., k. of Persia, 187 ; II., 188 ; III., 
 189. 
 
 Saragossa, surrender of, 471. 
 
 Sarakos. Sre Asshur-ebil-ili. 
 
 Sardanapalus. See Asshur-natzir-pal I., As- 
 shur-bani-pal, Grecian myth concerning, 
 16. 
 
 Sardes, 21, 22, 26, 28. 
 
 Sardinia, Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; sub- 
 jugated by Carthage, 19 ; ceded to Rome, 
 112 ; given to Sextus Pompeius, 146 ; 
 Enzio, k. of Sardinia ; S. also claimed 
 by the pope, 225 ; reserved for the em- 
 peror, 393; seized by Spain, but aban- 
 doned, and given to Savoy in exchange 
 for Sicily ; dukes of Savoy, kings of Sar- 
 dinia, .397, 415 ; compelled to cede Savoy 
 and Nice to France, 458 ; possessions on 
 the main-land occupied and annexed by 
 France, 460 ; old dynasty restored, 483 ; 
 Austrians put down the liberals, 488 ; 
 war with Austria, 494 ; shares in the 
 Crimean wars, 500 ; the French and Sar- 
 dinians defeat Austria, 502, 531 ; Victor 
 Emmanuel k. of Italy, 503. ^e Italy. 
 
 Sargon, k. of Assyria. 10, 14. 
 
 Sasbach, battle of, 368. 
 
 Sarsfield, 387. 
 
 Sassanidae, in Persia, 30, 155 ; fall of, 
 182. 
 
 Satsuma rebellion, 564. 
 
 Saturninus, L. Appuleius, 128. 
 
 Saucourt. battle of, 201. 
 
 Saul, k. of the Jews, 8. 
 
 Saussage at St. Savior, 299. 
 
 Savage, conspiracy of, 339. 
 
 Savannah, captured by the British, 430; 
 evacuated, 431 ; taken by Sherman, 568. 
 
 Savery, capt., 486. 
 
 Savonarola, 327. 
 
 Savoy, most powerful state in northern 
 Italy, 327 ; obtains Sicily as a kingdom, 
 393 ; exchanges Sicily for Sardinia, dukes 
 become kings of Sardinia, 397 ; acquires 
 part of Milan, 415 ; ceded to France, 458 ; 
 restored, 485 ; ceded again to J; ranee, 502. 
 
 Savoy palace, 2H9 
 
 Saxe, marshal, 438, 446. 
 
 Saxon kings and emperors, 194. 
 
 Saxons, pirates, 38: location, 170; settle 
 in Britain, 172, 176, 177,178; subdued 
 by Charles the Great, 184, 185. 
 
 Saxony, 194 : revolt against Henry IV., 
 199, 200 ; Lothar, duke, becomes emp., 
 218 ; Saxony under Henry the Proud and 
 Henry the Lion, 218, 219 ; division of the 
 old duchy, 222 ; electorate given to Fred- 
 eric, margrave of Meissen, 252 ; separa- 
 tion of the Albertine (Catholic), and Er- 
 nestine (Lutheran) line, 305 ; alliance of 
 Ferdinand and the Lutheran elector, 
 309 ; receives Lusatia, 314 ; Augustus 
 II., becomes k. of Poland, 372 ; deposed, 
 395 ; Augustus III. , claimant for Poland, 
 398 , claimant for the Austrian succes- 
 sion, 400 ; allied with Prussia, 408, 469; 
 with Napoleon, 469 ; elector becomes 
 king and joins confederacy of the Rhine, 
 469 ; capture of the king, 478 ; half of S. 
 ceded to Prussia, 483 ; revolutionary dis- 
 turbances, 492, 499 ; allied with Aus- 
 tria against Prussia, 507 ; vote in the 
 Bundesrath, 520. 
 
 Say and Seal, vise, 296. 
 
 Saybrook united with Connecticut, 357. 
 
 Scandinavia, geography, 163 ; ethnography, 
 164; religion, 165. See Denmark, Nor- 
 way, Sweden. 
 
 Scharnhorst , 471, 476. 
 
 Schenectady, destruction of, 361. 
 
 Schill, 472. 
 
 Schism act, repeal of, 437. 
 
 Schism in the chm-ch, 221; the great S., 
 263. 
 
 Schlegler, the, 250. 
 
 Schleswig, foundation of, 194 ; yielded to 
 the Danes, 198 ; war in Denmark over, 
 236 ; conquered by Wallenstein, 310 ; 
 taken from the duke of Holstein-Got- 
 torp by the Danes, 396 ; annexed to 
 Denmark, 496 ; three wars with Den- 
 mark, 496 ; delivered to the Danes, 498; 
 incorporated with Denmark, 505 ; re- 
 signed by Denmark, 506 ; provisionally 
 governed by Prussia, 507 ; incorporated 
 with Prussia, 510. 
 
 Schmalkaldic league, 303 ; war, 305. 
 
 Schoffer, Peter, 253. . 
 
 Schomberg, 384, 385, 386, 387. 
 
Iitdex. 
 
 609 
 
 Schonbninn, treaty of, 467. 
 
 Scliuli'iihur)?, 3i*o. 
 
 ScluivliT, jjeii., 429. 
 
 .^^cliwarzeiiben,', 474, 477, 478, 480. 
 
 SchweiiischJidel, battle of, 6U9. 
 liwepporuiann, 247. 
 
 S.ipio, Cn., 112; killetl, 116. 
 
 S< i|>io (.Vsirtticus), L. Cornelius, 119. 
 
 Scipii) (B!""l»i't>'-^)- !'• Cornelius, llM3. 
 
 .Siiiiio, P. Cornelius, 113, 115 ; killed, 116. 
 
 Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus major), 
 elected consul, 117; defeated Autiochus, 
 ll't; death, 120. 
 
 Scipio, P. Cornelius, iEmilianus (Africanus 
 minor), captures Carthage, 121 ; takes 
 Numantijv, 123. 
 
 Scipio, P. Nasioa, 124. 
 
 Scotland, geography, 36 ; Scots ravage 
 Britain, ^, 176 : war with Edward 1., 
 264 ; contested .succession, 264, 266 ; Scot- 
 land independent after Bannockburn, 
 268; capture of James, prince of Scot- 
 land, 270 : James iV. invades England, 
 333 : Flodden field, 334 ; Mary queen of 
 Scots, 338, 339: James VI. succeeds in 
 England as James I., ;3.39 : episcopacy in 
 Scotland, 340 ; riot in Edinburgh, solemn 
 league and covenant, 344 ; bishops' war, 
 345: Scotch invade England, 348; Mon- 
 trose in Scotland, 348 ; Charles surren- 
 ders to Scotch, 349; secret treaty with, 
 350 ; Cromwell in Scotland, 375 ; perse- 
 cution of covenanters, 382 : William and 
 Mary receive the crown, 386; union with 
 England, 434. 
 
 Scroop, archb. of York, 270. 
 
 Scurcola, battle of, 226. 
 
 Scutage, introduction of, 231. 
 
 Scythians, invade Media, 15, 25 ; India, 24 ; 
 attacketl by Darius without success, 28. 
 
 Sebastian, k." of Portugal, 332. 
 
 Seba.stopol, siege of, 500. 
 
 Secessio plebis, 96, 98, 107. 
 
 Secession of the Southern States in North 
 America, 558. 
 
 Sedan, battle of, 517. 
 
 Sedgemoor, battle of, 383. 
 
 Seisachtheia, 52. 
 
 Sejanus, 149. 
 
 Sekigahara, battle of, a56. 
 
 Seleucidae, conquer the Jews, 11 ; over the 
 Phoenicians, 20 ; kings of Syria, 77 ; con- 
 quered by Rome, 120, 153. 
 
 Seleucus, 76. 
 
 Self-denying ordinance, 349. 
 
 Selim II., i^ultan of Turkey, 306 ; III., 473. 
 
 Seminole war, 552. 
 
 Seniiramis, 14, 16. See Sammuramit. 
 
 Semitic peoples, religion of, 12. 
 
 Sempach, battle of, 250. 
 
 Sempronius Longus, T., 114. 
 
 Sena gallica, battle of, 117. 
 
 Senate, French, under the 4th constitu- 
 tion, 461 ; receives greater power, 464 ; 
 umler Louis Napoleon, 531 ; constitution 
 of 1875, .5*3. 
 
 Senate, Roman, origin, 87 ; enlargement, 
 89 : in the monarchical constitution, 91 ; 
 under the republican constitution, 94; 
 growing importance, 102; conflict with 
 the Onicchi, 124; io.ses the jury duty, 
 125 ; the reforms of Sol la give the S. a 
 
 temporary representative character, 132 ; 
 j)ower of revision restored Xo censors, 
 133; reduced to a council under Cjpsar, 
 143 ; receives the power of appointing offi- 
 cials, 149. 
 
 Senate in the United States, 433. 
 
 Seneca, 150. 
 
 Sen lac. See Hastings. 
 
 Sennacherib, 10, 15. 
 
 Senones, 34, 35, 107. 
 
 Sentinum, battle of, 106. 
 
 Sepoy mutiny, 646. 
 
 September laws in France. 529. 
 
 Septennial parliament, 437. 
 
 Septimaiiia, 174, 201. 
 
 Septimius Severus, Roman emp., 154. 
 
 Serfdom, 166; abolished by Joseph II., 
 407 ; by Alexander II., 500. 
 
 Sertorius, Q., 130, 133. 
 
 Servia, 521, 523; independent, 524; king- 
 dom, 526. 
 
 Servian constitution, 91. 
 
 Servile wars, I.. 123 ; II., 128 ; III., 133. 
 
 Servilius, P., consul, 134, 141. 
 
 Servilius Ahala, C, 99. 
 
 Servius Tullius, 89. 
 
 Sesonchis. See Shashang I. 
 
 Se.sostris, 5. 
 
 Seti I., k. of Egypt, 5. 
 
 Seven years" war, 403 ; in America, 420 ; va. 
 India, 443 ; participation of Spain, 414. 
 
 Severus Alexamler, Iloman emp., 154. 
 
 Seville, treaty of, 437. 
 
 Seward, William II., 556. 
 
 Sextius Lateranus, L., 100, 101. 
 
 Seydlitz, 404, 405. 
 
 Seymour, lord, execution of, 336. 
 
 Sforza, Francesco, becomes d. of Milan 
 262, 302, 303, 304. 
 
 Shabak,6. 
 
 Shaftesbury, lord chan., 380, 381, 382. 
 
 Shah Alam II., emp. of India, 442, 444 ; 
 Jahan, emp. of India, reign of, 354. 
 
 Shahnauieh, Persian epic, refers to old Bao- 
 trian empire, 25, 191. 
 
 Shahr-Barz, Persian general, 191, 192. 
 
 Shakespeare, 339. 
 
 Shalmane-ser, ks. of Assyria, II., 14 ; IV, 
 10, 14. 
 
 Shang, mythical dynasty in China, 31. 
 
 Shanghai, 31, 501 ; opened to British trade, 
 561. 
 
 Sharpe, archb., murdered, 381. 
 
 Shashang 1., k. of Egypt, 5, 10, 
 
 Shavs's rebellion, 433. 
 
 Sheeah, 182. 
 
 Shelburne, lord, administration, 431, 441 ; 
 .sec. of state. 440. 
 
 Shenandoah valley, 558. 
 
 Shepherd kings in Egypt, 5 
 
 Sher All, death of, 547. 
 
 Sheridan, general. Opequan, 558 ; FivO 
 Forks, 559. 
 
 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 441, 
 
 Sheriffmuir, battle of, 437. 
 
 Sherman, gen., campaign against John- 
 ston, .558 ; march through (ieorgia, 558; 
 received the surrender of the hist confed- 
 erate armv, 559. 
 Shiloh, battle of, 557. 
 Shimonoseki batteries destroyed, 5'h3. 
 Shinto religion, 32, 33; reestablished, 564 
 
610 
 
 Index. 
 
 Shipka pass, 522. 
 
 Ship-money, writs for, 344. 
 
 Shisak. See Shashang I. 
 
 Shoguns, Japanese mayors of the palace, 
 rise of, 213 ; Yoritomo, 243 ; Ashikaga 
 shoguns, 278, 355 ; Tokugawa shoguns, 
 356, 445 ; overthfow of the shogun, 563. 
 
 Shore, sir John, gov.-gen. in India, 541. 
 
 " Short '- parliament, 345. 
 
 Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 434. 
 
 Shrewsbury, battle of, 270. 
 
 Shrewsbury, e. of. See Talbot. 
 
 Shrewsbury, e. of, 384 ; secretary of state, 
 385 ; resignation, 387 ; laSt lord high 
 treas., 435, 436. 
 
 Sicilian vespers, 226. 
 
 Sicily, Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; wars of 
 Carthaginians and Greeks in, 20 ; Messe- 
 nians settle in, 51 ; Syracusan expedition 
 of the Athenians, 67 ; geographical de- 
 scription, 83 ; collision between Rome 
 and Carthage, 110 ; ceded to Rome, west- 
 em S. the first Roman province. 111 ; 
 war in Sicily, 116 ; subjugated, 117; re- 
 volt of slaves in, 123, 128 ; war with Sex- 
 tus Pompeius in, 146. 
 
 Sicily, kingdom of, Roger II. assumes 
 title of k. of the Two S., 218 ; Constance, 
 heiress of the kingdom, wife of the 
 emp. Henry VI., 222 ; war with Tancred, 
 223; Frederic II., 223; Manfred, 225; 
 Charles of Anjou receives kingdom 
 from tae pope, 'A'Z^ ; Sicilian vespers, 
 French driven from S., which falls to 
 Peter of Aragon, "226 {see Naples) ; S. 
 united with Aragon, 263 ; given as 
 kingdom to Savoy, 393 ; seized by Spain, 
 but abandoned, and, by Savoy, exchanged 
 with Austria for Sardinia, 397 ; after the 
 war of the Polish succession ceded by 
 Austria to Spain, ivith Nnples, 398; S. 
 and Naples (as kingdom of the Two Sici- 
 lies) given to Ferdinand, 3d son of Charles 
 III. of Spain, 416 ; deprived of Naples 
 by Napoleon, the court retires to S., 468 ; 
 dynasty restored, 483 ; revolt, 493 ; Gari- 
 baldi liberates S., 502. 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von, 302. 
 
 Sicyon, 40, 48 ; joins Achaean league, 72. 
 
 Sidney, execution of, 382 ; pir Philip, death 
 of, 339. 
 
 Sidon, chief town of the Sidonians, 16 ; 
 greatest power, 17 ; superseded by Tyre, 
 18 ; first city of Phoenicia under Persia, 
 19 ; abandoned by crusaders, 217. 
 
 Sievershausen, battle of, 306. 
 
 Sieyes, 449, 4d1. 
 
 Sigibert I., k. of the Franks, 181. 
 
 Sigismund, emp. of the II. R. E., 251. 
 
 Sigismund, k. of Hungary, 277. 
 
 Sigismund III., k. of Poland, 352. 
 
 Sigurd, k. of Norway, 238. 
 
 Sigurd Ring, k. of Sweden, 207, 208. 
 
 Sikhs, revolt, 442 ; two wars with the Brit- 
 ish, 546. 
 
 Silarus, battle of, 133. 
 
 Silesia united with Bohemia, 248 ; claims 
 of Prussia, 400 ; retained by Prussia, 
 406. 
 
 Silesian wars, I., 400 ; II., 402 ; III., 404. 
 
 Simon, J , 517 ; ministry, 534. 
 
 Simon of Montfort, the elder, 227. 
 
 Simon of Montfort, e. of Leicester, his pap 
 
 liament, 234. 
 Simony, 200. 
 Sindhia, 443, 541. 
 Sinope, battle of, 499. 
 Sipylus, battle of, 119. 
 Siraj-ud-Daula, 443. 
 Sistova, peace of, 413. 
 Sivaji, 389, 443. 
 
 Siward, e. of Northumberland, 206. 
 Six articles, 335. 
 Sixtus v., pope, 327. 
 Skaania, 236, 237, 238. 
 Skobeleff , 523, 526. 
 Skrzynecki, 490. 
 Slavery abolished throughout the British 
 
 empire, 540 ; partially abolished in 
 
 Conn., 432; abolished in Massachusetts, 
 
 431 ; in Pennsylvania, 431 ; in the United 
 
 States, 433. 
 Slave trade abolished in British dominion, 
 
 537; in the United States, 550. 
 Slaves in Athens, 52; in Germany, 166, 
 
 177. 
 Slavonic congress in Prague, 493. 
 Slavs, great monarchy of, 168 ; religion, 
 
 169 ; regain their liberty, 173. 
 Slawata, 309. 
 Slidell, 544, 557. 
 Sluys, battle of, 257. 
 Smerdes. See Hirhor. 
 Smith, John, in Virginia, 291, 292 ; explo. 
 
 ration of coast of New England by, 294. 
 Smolensk, 474, 475. 
 Sobieski, John, k. of Poland, relieves Vi- 
 
 enna, 372 ; in Poland, 374. 
 Social democrats in Germany, 524. 
 Socialistic commune, in France, 532. 
 Socrates, 64, 69. 
 Sogdianus, k. of Persia, 29. 
 Soissons, battle of, 173, 181. 
 Solemn league and covenant, in Scotland, 
 
 344 ; in England, 348. 
 Solferino, battle of, 502. 
 Soliman II., sultan of Turkey, besieged 
 
 Vienna, 303 ; alliance with Francis I., 
 
 304, 305 ; death, 306 ; reign, 353. 
 Soliman Pasha, 522. 
 Solis, Juan Diaz de, 284, 285. 
 Solomon, k. of the Jews, 9. 
 Solon, of Athens, visited Croesus of Lydia, 
 
 21 ; constitution of, 52. 
 Solway Moss, battle of, 335. 
 Somers, lord keeper, 387 ; lord chan., 388; 
 
 whig leader, 435. 
 Somerset, execution of, 336. 
 Sommering, 486. 
 Sconces, 182. 
 Soor, battle of, 402, 509. 
 Sophia, princess of Hanover, 435. 
 Sophia of Russia, 374. 
 Sophocles, 6i. 
 Sophonisbe, 117. 
 Soto, Ferdinando de, 287- 
 Soult, marshal, on the Rhine. 467 ; in 
 
 Spain, 471, 473, 479 ; in France, 481. 
 Soult, ministry of, 530. 
 South Sea bubble, 435, 437, 445. 
 Southwold Bay, battle of, 380. 
 Spain, Phoenician settlements in, 17 ; Car- 
 
 thaginian colonies in, 19 ; vvar with Car. 
 
 thaginians in, 1J5 ; regarded as a Roma« 
 
Index. 
 
 611 
 
 province, 118 ; Invaded by Vandals, Suovi 
 Alani, 171 ; West (Jotliic kiiigilom in, 
 172, 174 ; Sucvi and West Goths unito and 
 are converted, 175 ; conquered by Moors, 
 183 ; fall of Cordova, rise of Christian 
 kingdoms, 75G-103o, i09 ; revolt of Por- 
 tugjil, union of Castile and Leon, 240 ; 
 conquestof Granada, wars between Castile 
 and Aragon, 276 ; union of Aragon and 
 Castile, 328 ; discoveries in America, 
 282 ; war with France, peace of the Pyre- 
 nees, 366 ; war with England, 377 ; war 
 of the Spanish succession, 390 ; partition 
 treaties, 391 ; peace of Utrecht, 393 ; 
 house of Bourbon, 414 ; Jesuits expelled, 
 415; war with England in America, 419, 
 437, 438 ; Florida ceded to England, 423, 
 439; war with England, 440 ; Florida re- 
 stored to Spain, 432,441 ; France declares 
 war against, 453 ; Bourbons displaced in 
 favor of Joseph Bonaparte, 470 ; penin- 
 sula war, 471,473 ; constitution of 1812, 
 ib. ; French driven from Spain, 479 ; 
 Bourbons restored, 483; liberal rising, 
 const, of 1812 restored, 4S7 ; French in- 
 tervention, 488 ; revolt of the American 
 colonies, 488 ; revolution of 1868, 512 ; S. 
 a republic, 520 ; monarchy restored, 521 ; 
 treaties with the United States, 548, 652. 
 
 Spanish succession, 388 ; war of, 390. 
 
 Sparta, founded, 48 ; constitution of Ly- 
 curgus, 50; first hegemony, 56 ; Ther- 
 mopylae, 58 ; Platajaj, 60 ; hegemony 
 transferred to Athens, 61 ; war with 
 Athens, 62 ; Peloponnesian war, 64 ; sec- 
 ond hegemony, 69 ; loss of hegepiony to 
 Thebes, 70 ; war with the Achaean 
 league, 79, 122 ; Nabis defeated by Ro- 
 I mans, 80. 
 I Spartacus, 133. 
 
 Speptator, 436. 
 
 Speier, diet at, 224 ; imperial chamber at, 
 300; diet of , 302 30a 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, 339. 
 
 Speyer. Sec Speier. 
 
 SphJacteria, 66. 
 
 Sphinx, 3, 46. 
 
 Spicheren, battle of, 516. 
 
 Spinola, 309, 310. 
 
 Spitamas, 26. 
 
 Spithead, mutiny at, 535. 
 
 Spoils system, in U. S., 552. 
 
 Spottsylvania, battle of, 558. 
 
 Spuilus Cassius, 97. 
 
 Stadtlohn, battle of, 310. 
 
 Stahremberg, 372. 
 
 Stamford, battle of, 274. 
 
 Stamfordbridge, battle of, 206. 
 
 Stamp act, passage of, 423, 440 ; repeal of, 
 424, 440. 
 
 Standard, battle of the, 230. 
 
 Stiindish, Miles, 295. 
 
 Stanislaus Lesczinski, k. of Poland, 395 ; 
 abdicates, 398, 445. 
 
 Stanislaus Poniatowski, k. of Poland, 411. 
 
 Stanton, Edwin .M., 556. 
 
 Star chamber, ^33 ; abolition of, 346. 
 
 Stargard, truce of, 405. 
 
 Stark, gen., 429. 
 
 States General. Sep 6tats Gt-nt^raux. 
 
 StJitthaltership, in the Netherlands 331 
 
 Steam, first attempt to utilize, 485 ; first 
 
 steam-engine, 48G ; applied to navigation, 
 486. 
 
 Steele, sir Richard, 436. 
 
 Steenkirke, battle of, 370, 387. 
 
 Stein, baron of, reorganizes Prussia, 471 ; 
 central admiuistnition, 478, 479; at con- 
 gress of Vienna, 482. 
 
 Steinmetz, 614. 
 
 Stenbock, Swedish general, 396. 
 
 Stenkil, k. of Sweden, 20S, 237. 
 
 Stephen, archd. palatine, 494. 
 
 Stephen of Blois, k. of England, 230. 
 
 Stephen, St., k. of Hungary, 277. 
 
 Stephen Bathory, elected k. of Poland, 
 362. 
 
 Stevenson, George, 486. 
 
 Steward, office of, 195. 
 
 Steyer, truce of, 462. 
 
 Stilicho, 161, 171. 
 
 Stillwater, battles of, 429. 
 
 Stockach, battles of, 460, 462. 
 
 Stockholm, massacre of, 352 ; treaty of, 
 396, 437. 
 
 Stony Point, storm of, 430. 
 
 Strafford, earl of, sketch of life, 344 ; im- 
 peachment, 345 ; execution, 346. 
 
 Stralsund, peace of, 237, 249 ; siege of, 310 ; 
 lost by Sweden, 396. 
 
 Strassburg, remains to the empire, 316; 
 seized by Louis XIV., 369; siege, 516; 
 capitulation, 518 ; ceded to the German 
 empire, 519 ; bi-lingual oath of, 186. 
 
 Strategi, 65. 
 
 Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria, 180 ; 
 submits to England, 204. 
 
 Stratton Hill, battle of, 347. 
 
 Strelitzes, 374. 
 
 Struensee, 409. 
 
 Stuart, house of, succeeds in England, 
 339; expelled, 375; restored, 378; ex- 
 pelled, 385. 
 
 Stuart, Arabella, 340 ; imprisonment and 
 death, 341. 
 
 Stuyvesant, Peter, 357, 358. 
 
 Suessula, battle of, 104. 
 
 Suevi, location, 164, 170 ; invade Spain, 
 171 ; unite with West Goths, 175. 
 
 Suez Canal, 512, 545. 
 
 Suffolk, d. of (Wm. de la Pole), impeach- 
 ment, 271. 
 
 Sugar act, passage of, 423. 
 
 Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 226. 
 
 Suleiman. See Soliman. 
 
 Sulla, L. Cornelius, takes Jugurtha, 127 ; 
 in the social war, 129 : war with Marius, 
 130 ; war against Mithridates, 130 ; ap- 
 pointed dictator in Rome, 132 ; abdicated, 
 133 ; death, ib. 
 
 Sully, d. of, 325, 340. 
 
 Sulpicius Galba, P., 118 ; Rufus, 1.30. 
 
 Sumir, 13. 
 
 Sumter, Thomas, 430. 
 
 Sunderland, (2d) e. of (Spencer), in cabinet, 
 381 ; sec. of state, .382 ; becomes Catho- 
 lic, 383; dismis.sed, 384; returned to 
 parliament, 387 , lord chamberlain, 388 ; 
 (Sd) e. of, whig leader, 435; lord lieut. of 
 Ireland, 436. 
 
 Sung, kingdom of, 242. 
 
 Snrajah Kowhih. See Siraj-ud Daula- 
 
 Sunit, Knglish factory at, 353. 
 
 Surinam, discovery of, 2S^. 
 
612 
 
 Index, 
 
 Surrey, earl of, executed, 336. 
 
 Susiiina in Persia, 24, 30 ; invaded by 
 Arabs, 192. 
 
 Sutras, Hindu scriptures, 23. 
 
 Suttee, abolition of, 541. 
 
 Suvaroff , Turkish war, 413 ; storms Prague, 
 414 ; in Italy and Switzerland, 460, 461. 
 
 Suy dynasty in China, 32. 
 
 Svatopluk II., k. of Moravia, 194. 
 
 Svea, 208, 237. 
 
 Svend, Forked Beard, k. of Denmark, 207 ; 
 in England (Swegen), 205 ; Estridsen, k. 
 of Denmark, 207. 
 
 Sverre, k. of Norway, 238. 
 
 Svold, battle of, 209. 
 
 Swabia, duchy of, 194 ; revolt of duke 
 Ernst, 198 ; Rudolf of, anti-king, 200 ; 
 rise of Wiirtemberg and Baden, 244 , 
 league of cities, conflict with counts of 
 Wiirtemberg, 250. 
 
 Swabian city league, 249. 
 
 Swally, battle of, 354. 
 
 Sweden, Svea and Gota, mythical history, 
 208 ; Christianity introduced ; union of 
 Calmar, 238 ; settlements in America, 298 ; 
 in the thirty years' war (Gustavus Adol- 
 phus), 311-314 ; at the peace of West- 
 phalia acquires Pomerania, Riigen, 
 Wismar, Bremen, Werden, 316 ; house 
 of Vasa, 352; house of Zweibriicken, 
 373 ; war with Brandenburg, 374 ; Charles 
 XII. 's war with Peter the Great, 894, 
 376; loss of Bremen, Werden to Han- 
 over; Stettin, Wollen, Usedom, Hither 
 Pomerania to Prussia, 396 ; " Hats " 
 and " Caps," 409 ; house of Holstein-Got- 
 torp ; war with Russia, 409 ; joins third 
 coalition against France, 467 ; forced ab- 
 dication of Gustavus IV. , 472 ; loss of 
 Finland, 473 ; Bernadotte crown prince, 
 473 ; alliance with Russia, promise of 
 Norway, 474 ; alliance with England, 
 476 ; peace with Denmark, loss of Pom- 
 erania and Riigen, 479; at congress of 
 "Vienna receives Norway, 483 ; which has 
 to be subdued, 484. 
 
 Swegen. See Svend. 
 
 Swift, Jonathan, 436. 
 
 Switzerland, 162 ; origin of the confeder- 
 acy, 245 ; story of Tell, 246 ; war with 
 Austria, 247 ; Berne joins the confed- 
 eracy, 248 ; Sempach, 250 ; Armagnacs 
 attack Basle, 253 ; practically indepen- 
 dent, 300 ; reformation, Zwingli, 301 ; in- 
 dependence acknowledged, 316 ; Berne 
 takes the Waadtland from Savoy, 327 ; 
 transformed into the Helvetian republic, 
 460 ; restoration of the independent can- 
 tons, 464; addition of Geneva, Wallis, 
 and NeucMtel, 483 ; civil war, new con- 
 stitution, 492 ; NeuchS-tel resigned by 
 the king of Prussia, 501 ; rupture with 
 the papacy, 520. 
 
 Syagrinus, 173. 
 
 Sybota, battle of, 65. 
 
 Sylvester II., pope, 197 ; III., 199. 
 
 Symington, 486. 
 
 Sypbax, 116, 118. 
 
 Syracuse besieged by Carthaginians, 20 ; 
 foundation of, 51 ; expedition of Athe- 
 nians au;ainst, 67; war under Hioro ; war 
 with Rome, 111 ; sack of, 110. 
 
 Syria, Egyptian supremacy over, 4 ; lost 
 by Ramessu II. , 5 ; wars of Psamethik 
 in, 6 ; subject to Assyria, 14 ; conquered 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; under the Seleu- 
 cidse, 77 ; taken possession of by Ti- 
 granes, 134 ; a Roman province, 136 ; 
 subdued by Aurelian, 157. 
 
 Szczekoziny, 414. 
 
 Tabernacle, 8. 
 
 Taborites, 252. 
 
 Tacitus, Roman emp., 157. 
 
 Tadmor, foundation of, 9. 
 
 Tadoussac, 290. 
 
 Taginac, battle of, 175. 
 
 Tagliacozzo, battle of, 226. 
 
 Taharak, k. of Egypt, 6. 
 
 Tai-ping rebellion, 561. 
 
 Taira family in Japan, 212, 213,242. 
 
 Talavera, battle of, 471. 
 
 Talbot, e. of Shrewsbury, 272. 
 
 Talikot, battle of, 354. 
 
 Tallagio, de non concedendo, 267. 
 
 Talleyrand, 481, 482. 
 
 Tamerlane, defeats Bajazet, 278, 353. 
 
 Tanagra, battle of, 63. 
 
 Tancred of Haute ville, 199, 214 ; of Lecce, 
 223. 
 
 Tang dynasty in China, 211. 
 
 Tanneguy Duchatel, 259. 
 
 Tannenberg, battle of, 277 
 
 Taoism, in China, 31. 
 
 Tarentum, 51 ; war with the SamniteS^ 
 104 ; war with Rome, 107. 
 
 Targowitz, confederacy of, 413. 
 
 Tariff of abominations, 552. 
 
 Tarik, 183. 
 
 Tarleton, 431. 
 
 Tarpeian rock, 82. 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus, 35, 89 ; Superbus, 89. 
 
 Tarquins, expulsion of, 93 ; war with, 103. 
 
 Tassilo, d. of Bavaria, revolt of, 185. 
 
 Tasso, Torquato, 328. 
 
 Tatars, Mo7igols, 240 ; Khitans in China, 
 241 ; Mongols in China, 242 ; Manchoos 
 invade China, 355 ; become independent, 
 412. 
 
 Tatler, 436. 
 
 Ta-tsing dynasty in China, 356. 
 
 Tauroggen, treaty of, 475. 
 
 Taylor, Zachary, 555. 
 
 Tegethoff, 506, 510. 
 
 Teja, k. of East Goths, 175. 
 
 Telamon, battle of, 112. 
 
 Telegraph invented, 486 ; first submarine, 
 487 ; communication between France 
 and England, 543 ; experimental line 
 built by S. F. B. Morse, 554 ; communi- 
 cation between U. S. and Great Britain, 
 559. 
 
 Tel-el-Kebir, capture of, 546. 
 
 Tell, William, 246. 
 
 Temesvar, 372, 397, 495. 
 
 Templars , 217. 
 
 Temple, in Jerusalem, erection of, 9; d» 
 struction, reerection, 11. 
 
 Temple, sir William, 382. 
 
 Temuchin, 240. 
 
 Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 548. 
 
 Tenure of office bill, 559. 
 
 Teplitz, alliance of, 477; conference at 
 491. 
 
Index. 
 
 618 
 
 Tert>ntiliu« Araa, 97. 
 
 Tfiifiir hltiuchu, 5*27. 
 
 tnry N. W. of Ohio, 433. 
 , ^jt'ueral, 669. 
 II- II, jioaco of, 407. 
 
 r.-t act, 380; repealed, 539. 
 
 T.'stri, battle of, 183. 
 
 IVtricus, 157. 
 
 IVtzel, Dominican monk, 801. 
 
 Ti'uta, queen of the lll.vrians, 112. 
 
 Tt'iitobod, king of Teutones, 127. 
 
 Teutoburg forest, Komau legions annihi- 
 lated in, 149, 167. 
 
 Teutones, invaiie Italy, 127, 167. 
 
 Teutonic knights, 21 7, 464. 
 
 Teutons, 36 ; geography, 162 ; ethnology, 
 163; religion, 164; civilization, 166; 
 history, 167 ; migration of Teutonic 
 tribes, 170 ; Teutonic monarchies in the 
 Roman empire, 171; in Britain, 176. 
 
 Tewksbury, battle of, 274. 
 
 Texas, annexed to United States, and ad- 
 mitted to the Union, 554. 
 
 T hales, 21. 
 
 Thaiikmar, 195. 
 
 Thapsus, battle of, 142. 
 
 Thebes, in Egypt, 2, 4. 
 
 Thebes, in Boeotia, founded, 45 ; war of 
 the Seven against, 46; subdued, 48; 
 Thebans at Thermopylae, 59 ; allied with 
 Sparta against Athens, 62, 6o ; war with 
 Sparta, hegemony of, 70 ; destruction, 73. 
 
 Themistocles, 57 ; rebuilds walls of Ath- 
 ens, 61; death, 61. 
 
 Theodelinde. 175. 
 
 Theodora, 210. 
 
 Theodore, archb. of Canterbury, 180. 
 
 Theodore I., k. of Corsica, 415. 
 
 Theodoric the Great, k. of East Goths, 174. 
 
 Theodoric I., k. of the Franks, 181. 
 
 Theodoric I., k. of West Goths, 173. 
 
 Theodosius, Roman emp. , 161, 171. 
 
 Theophauo, wife of Otto II., 196, 197. 
 
 Theramenes, 69. 
 
 Thermidorians, 456. 
 
 Thermopylaj, battle of, 58, 119. 
 
 Theron of Agrigentum, 20. 
 
 Theseus, 45, 61. 
 
 Thesprotians, 41. 
 
 Thessalian migration, 47. 
 
 Thessalonica, kingdom of, 216. 
 
 Thespalv, 40, 79, 141, 523. 
 
 Thevet, Andre, 288. 
 
 Thibet, Buddhism in, 23; conquered by 
 Kang-he, 390. 
 
 Thierry, k. of the Franks. See Theodoric. 
 
 Thiers, fall of the ministry of, 491 ; in op- 
 position, 512; head of the executiTe 
 519 ; ministry, 529 ; fall , 530 ; president, 
 533 ; resigns, ib. ; death, 534. 
 
 Thirty-nine articles, 338. 
 
 Thirty tyrants, 69, 157. 
 
 Thirty years' war, 308. 
 
 Thistlewood, executed, 638. 
 
 Thomas, gen., 658. 
 
 Thor, 164, 165. 
 
 Thorn, peace of, first and second, 277. 
 
 Thracia, 28, 150. 
 
 Thrasybulus, 68, 69, 70. 
 
 Three bishoprics (Toul, Metz, Verdun), 
 taken by France, 306, 321; ceded to 
 France, 316 ; taken by Germany, 518. 
 
 Three kingdoms in China, 32. 
 
 Throgmortoii, SpaniHh plot of, 339. 
 
 Tluicydides (son of Melasias), 04. 
 
 Thucydides (the historian), 64; banish- 
 ment, 66. 
 
 Thugs, suppression of the, 541. 
 
 Thuringia, kingdom of, conquered by The- 
 odoric I., 181; landgraves become ex- 
 tinct, territory divided, 226. 
 
 Thusnelda, 149. 
 
 Thutmes ill., k. of Egypt, 4. 
 
 Thyrea, battle of, 66. 
 
 Tiberias, battle of, 215. 
 
 Tiberius, Roman emp. , 149 ; adopted by Au- 
 gustus, 148; subjugated Paunouia, 149. 
 
 TibuUus, Albius, 14S. 
 
 Ticinus, battle of, 114. 
 
 Ticonderoga, fortification of, 421 ; captured 
 by Ethan Allen, 427 ; by Burgoyne, 428. 
 
 Tien-Tsin, treaty of, 601, 502, 543, 561, 
 562. 
 
 Tifata, battle of, 131. 
 
 Tiglath-Adar, k. of Assyria, 14. 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser, ks. of Assyria, I., II., 14. 
 
 Tigranes, k. of Armenia, 30, 134, 135. 
 
 Tigranocertii, battle of, 135. 
 
 Tillotson, archb. of Canterbury, 387. 
 
 Tilly, White Hill, 309; in Holstein, 310; 
 Magdeburg, 311 ; death, 312. 
 
 Tilsit, peace of, 409, 537. 
 
 Timoleon, 20. 
 
 Tin not brought from England by Phoeni- 
 cians, 17, n. 
 
 Tinchebrai, battle of, 230. 
 
 Tingitana, 150. 
 
 Tippamuir, battle of, 348. 
 
 Tipu sultan, 442, 444, 54L 
 
 Tirhakah. See Taharak. 
 
 Tiridates, k. of Armenia, 150, 188. 
 
 Tiridates, k. of Parthia, 29. 
 
 Tissaphemes, 67, 70. 
 
 Titian, 328. 
 
 Titus, Roman emp., 151, 152 ; destroys Je« 
 rusalem, 12. 
 
 Togrul Beg, 210. 
 
 Tokio. See Yedo. 
 
 Tokoly, count, 372. 
 
 Tokugawa lyeyasu, 355. 
 
 Tokugawa shoguns, 356. 
 
 Tolbiacum, 173. 
 
 Tolentino, battle of, 484 ; peace of, 458. 
 
 Toleration act, 386. 
 
 Tolly, Barclay de, 472, 474. 
 
 Tolosa, kingdom of, 172 ; battle of, 240. 
 
 Tbnningen, surrender of, 396. 
 
 Tonquin, annexed to China, 278 ; disputa 
 with the French over, 662. 
 
 Toonin-shah, 217. 
 
 Torbay, 384. 
 
 Torgau, alliance of, 302 ; battle of, 406. 
 
 Tories, origin of the name, 382. 
 
 Torres Vedras, lines of, 473, 637. 
 
 Torstenson, 314, 315. 
 
 Tostig. 206. 
 
 Totila, k. of East Goths, 174, 176. 
 
 Totleben, 405, 500. 
 
 Toul. See Three bishoprics. 
 
 Toulouse, battle of, 481. 
 
 Tours, battle of, 183. 
 
 Tourville, 370, 387. 
 
 Tower of Babel, 12. 
 
 Townshend, 436, 440. 
 
614 
 
 Index. 
 
 Towton, battle of, 274. 
 
 Trafalgar, battle of, 467. 
 
 Traitorous correspondence bill, 535. 
 
 Trajan, Roman emp. ; Parthian exp. 30 ; 
 reign, 152, 153. 
 
 Trausubstantiation, 269. 
 
 Transylvania, 3u9, 315, 416, 511. 
 
 Trasimenus, battle of lake, 114. 
 
 Trautenau, battle of, 509. 
 
 Travendal, peace of, 394. 
 
 Ti-eason, statute of, 269. 
 
 Trebia, battle of the, 114, 461. 
 
 Trebizond, Greek empire of, 216. 
 
 Trelawney, b., 384. 
 
 Trent, affair of the, 557. 
 
 Trent, council of, 305. 
 
 Trenton, battle of, 428. 
 
 Trevelyan, G. 0., sec. for Ireland, 546. 
 
 Treves. See Trier. 
 
 Trevithick, 486. 
 
 Trevor, sir John, 388. 
 
 Trial of the bishops under James II., 384. 
 
 Tribes of Israel, 8. 
 
 Tribunes, appointment, 96, 97 ; military 
 tribunes created, 99 ; abolished, 101 ; 
 lose their revolutionary character, 102 ; 
 their power limited by Sulla, 132 ; re- 
 stored, 133 ; conferred upon Caesar, 143. 
 
 Tribur, imperial diet at, 199, 200. 
 
 Tribus, 92. 
 
 Triennial act, 345, 388. 
 
 Trier, archb. of, 248. 
 
 Trierarchy, 58. 
 
 Trifanum, battle at, 104. 
 
 Trifels, 216. 
 
 Triple alliance between England, Holland, 
 and Sweden, 367, 380 ; between England, 
 France, and Holland, 437. 
 
 Tripoli tan war, 549. 
 
 Triumvirate, first, 137 ; second, 145. 
 
 Trochu, 517, 518, 519. 
 
 Trojan war, 47. 
 
 Troppau, congress at, 487. 
 
 Troyes, peace of, 259, 271, 338. 
 
 Truce of God, 199, 203. 
 
 Tschesme, battle of, 412. 
 
 Tseng, marquis, 562. 
 
 Tshernajeff, 521. 
 
 Tsin dynasty in China, 32 ; later Tsin, 211. 
 
 Tuathal, 39. 
 
 Tudor, house of, 333. 
 
 Tughlak, sultan of Delhi, 241. 
 
 Tuileries, storm of the, 452 ; burnt, 533. 
 
 Tullus Hostilius, 89. 
 
 Tunes, battle of. 111. 
 
 Tunis, Louis IX. at, 217 ; expedition of 
 Charles V. against, 304 ; French expe- 
 dition to, 534. 
 
 Turco-Russian war in Europe, 522 ; in 
 Asia, 623. 
 
 Turenne, marshal, 315, 366 ; death, 368. 
 
 Turgot, 447. 
 
 Turin, peace of, 371 ; battle of, 392, 434. 
 
 Turks, Turkey, empire of the Seljuk T., 
 210 ; supremacy of the Osman or Otto- 
 man T., 278 ; war with Charles V., 303 ; 
 alliance with Francis I., 305; war with 
 Max. II., 306 ; with Venice (Lepanto), 
 326 ; highest development of the em- 
 pire, decline, 353 ; wars with Leopold I. 
 (siege of Vienna), 372; peace of Carlo- 
 vvitz, T. receives Temesvar, loses Morea 
 
 to Venice, Hungary and Transylvania to • 
 Austria, 372, 416 , Azoff lost to Russia, 
 375; Charles XII. in T., 395; Azoff re- 
 gained, 396 ; conquest of Morea, war 
 with Austria, peace of Passarowitz, Aus- 
 tria receives Temesvar, Little W'allachia, 
 Belgrade, part of Servia, 397 ; war with 
 Poland and Russia, regains Belgrade, 
 Servia, Little Wallachia, 398 ; war with 
 Russia and Austria, 408, 410 ; Azoff finally 
 lost, 410 ; with Catharine II. (1), peace of 
 Kutschouc Kainardji, Bug the boun- 
 dary, 412 ; (2) peace of J assy, Dniestei 
 the boundary, 413 ; war with Russia, 
 peace of Bucharest, Pruth the boun- 
 dary, 473 ; revolt of Greece, 488 ; mas- 
 sacre of Janizaries, Navarino, 489 ; war 
 with Russia, peace of Adrianople, 489 ; 
 Crimean war, 499 ; peace of Paris, 501 ; 
 revolt of Herzegovina, etc., "Bulgarian 
 atrocities," 521; war with Russia, 522: 
 peace of San Stefano, 523 ; congress of 
 Berlin, 524 ; loss of much territory, 524 ; 
 conference of Berlin, surrender of Dul- 
 cigno, 525. 
 
 Tuscany, Cosimo de Medici of Florence 
 becomes grand duke of T., 327 ; Francis 
 Stephen, of Lorraine, receives T., 398, 
 416 ; becomes an appanage of Austria, 
 416 ; grand duke expelled, 461 ; ceded to 
 Parma, as kingdom of Etruria, 463 ; old 
 dynasty restored, 483 ; united with Sar- 
 dinia, 502. 
 
 Tuscaroras, 363, 417. 
 
 Two Sicilies. See Naples, Sicily. 
 
 Tycoon. See Shogun. 
 
 Tyler, John, 654. 
 
 Tyler, Wat, 269. 
 
 Tyndale's translation of the Bible, 335. 
 
 Tyndaris, battle off, 110. 
 
 Tyrant, 49. 
 
 Tyrconnel, 383, 387. 
 
 Tyre, 16 ; subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; 
 surpasses Sidon, 18 ; height of its pros- 
 perity under Hiram, 18 ; decline, 19 ; be- 
 sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 19 ; captured 
 by Alexander, 20. 
 
 Tyrol, acquired Carinthia, 244 ; given to 
 Austria by Margaret Maultasch, 249 ; 
 falls to archduke Maximilian, 253 ; in- 
 vaded by Bavarians, 392 ; ceded to Ba- 
 varia, 468 ; revolt of Tyrol under Hofer, 
 471 ; revolt subdued, southern Tyrol an- 
 nexed to Italy, 472 ; T. restored to Aus- 
 tria, 482. 
 
 Tyrone, e. of, rebellion, 339, 341, 
 
 Ulf-Jarl, 207. 
 
 Ulm, 250 ; truce of, 315 ; surrender of, 
 
 467. 
 Ulrica Eleanora, q. of Sweden, 396. 
 Ulrich, d. of Wurtemberg, victory of Swai 
 
 bian league over, 250. 
 Ulrich, d. of ^yiirtembe^g, restored, 304. 
 Umbria, 81, 83, 141. 
 Umbro-Sabellian tribe, 86. 
 " Unam Sanctam," 254. 
 Union of Calmar, 237, 238, 240, 35L 
 Union Gt5nerale, failure of, 534. 
 Union, German, 498. 
 Union, Protest-ant, 308, 309. 
 Union Jack, 434. 
 
Index. 
 
 615 
 
 Onitcd colonies of New England, 298. 
 
 United Irishmou, 53'I. 
 
 United Kingdom of Cireat liritain and Ire- 
 hind, f)30. 
 
 UnittMl Netherlands, republic of, 316. See 
 Netherlands. 
 
 (Jnited New Netherland company, 298. 
 
 United Provinces. ISee Netherlands. 
 
 United States of America, independence 
 proclaimed, 428 ; articles of confedeni- 
 tion, 429 ; independence recognized and 
 boundaries established, 432 ; first con- 
 gress at New York, 547 ; first meets at 
 Washington, 649; Jay's treaties, 648; 
 Louisiana purchase, 649 ; war of 1812, 
 651 ; Missouri compromise, 552; war with 
 Mexico, 654 J fugitive slave law, 648, 665 ; 
 civil war, 657, prohibition of slavery, 
 568 ; resumption, civil service reform, 
 660. 
 
 United States bank, 647 ; second, 651. 
 
 Unstrut, battle of, 196, 199. 
 
 Urana, Pedro de, 288. 
 
 Urban II., pope, 213. 
 
 Urchan, 278. 
 
 Uruguay, discovery of, 286 ; independent, 
 488. 
 
 Usurtasen, ks. of Egypt, I., XL, III., 4. 
 
 Utica, Phoenician colony, 17 ; battle of, 
 141. 
 
 Utraquists, 252. 
 
 Utrecht, peace of, 393, 435 ; treaty of, 363 ; 
 union of, 331. 
 
 Uzeda, d. of, 331. 
 
 Vapa, Cabepa de, 286. 
 
 Vadimonium lake, battle of, 105, 107. 
 
 Valdivia, 287. 
 
 Valens, Roman emp., 160. 
 
 Valentinianus, I., Roman emp., 160; II., 
 
 160; III., 161, 173. 
 Valerianus, Roman emp., 156, 188. 
 Valerius, laws of, 98. 
 Valerius Corvus, M., 103, 104 ; Maximus, 
 
 110 ; Poplicola 93. 
 Valley Forge, 429. 
 Valmy, battle at, 452. 
 Valois, house of, 257. 
 Van Buren, Martin, 552, 553, 
 Vandals, location, 170 ; invaded Spain, 171 ; 
 
 kingdom in Africa, 172 ; power in Africa 
 
 destroyed, 174. 
 Vane, sir Henry, execution of, 379. 
 Van Tromp, 376. 
 Varahran I., k. of Persia, II.. III., 188; 
 
 IV., v., 189; \\.,see Bahram. 
 Varna, battle of, 278. 
 Varro, C. Terentius, 115. 
 Varus, Quintilius, 143, 149, 167. 
 Va.sa, house of, 352. 
 Vassals, 166. 
 Vatican council, 512. 
 Vaucelles, truce of, 306. 
 Vauchamps, battle of, 480. 
 Vedas, 22, 23. 
 Veii, war of Romulus with, 88; siege of, 
 
 99. 
 Velasquez, Diego, 284, 285. 
 Venaissin, annexed to France, 452. 
 Vendee, royalistic revolt in the, 453, 454 ; 
 
 conclusion of the war, 457 ; new revolt 
 
 repressed, ib. 
 
 Vcndome, 392, 435. 
 
 Vendomo, column, 532. 
 
 Venezuela, discovery of, 283 ; republic ol, 
 488. 
 
 Venice founded by Italian fugitives, 173 ; 
 shares iu 4th cru.xade, 216 ; constitu- 
 tion, 697-1464, 262 ; acquisition of Corfu 
 and Cyprus, height of its power, ib.; 
 leuguo of Cambray , 3<X), 318 ; holy league, 
 318 ; decline in power, loses Cyprus to 
 the Turks, 326 ; at the peace of Carlo- 
 witz receives Morea, 372 ; which it loses 
 at the peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; these 
 wars described, 415 ; V. seized by France, 
 gov. overthrown, 459 ; ceded to Austria, 
 except Ionian Islands, 459 ; at the con- 
 gress of Vienna, Austria retains V., which 
 forms with .Milan the Lombardo- Venetian 
 kingdom, 482 ; revolt and subjugation, 
 494 ; ceded to Napoleon III., 509 ; ceded 
 to Italy, 510, and united with that king- 
 dom, 511. 
 
 Venus, 84. 
 
 Vera Cruz, 286 ; surrender of, to gen. 
 Scott, 554. 
 
 Vercellae, battle of, 128. 
 
 Vercingetorix, 139. 
 
 Verden, ceded to Sweden, 316; conquered 
 by Denmark and sold to Hanover, 396. 
 
 Verdun, see the Three bishoprics ; tr«ai;7 
 of, 187. 
 
 Vere, Robert de, impeachment, 269. 
 
 Vergennes, c. de, 447. 
 
 Vergilius Maro, P., 81, 147. 
 
 Vergnlaud, 451, 452, 454. 
 
 Vermont, organized, 429 ; admitted to 
 Union, 547. 
 
 Verona, congress of, 488. 
 
 Veronese, Paul, 328. 
 
 Verrazzano, Giovanni di, 286. 
 
 Versailles, convention of, 519 ; prelimina* 
 ries of peace at, 519; treaty of, 408; 
 peace of, 432, 441. 
 
 Verus, Lucius, 154. 
 
 Vervins, treaty of, 324. 
 
 Vesontio, battle of, 138. 
 
 Vespasianus, Roman emp., 37, 150, 151. 
 
 Vespucci, Amerigo, 283, 284. 
 
 Vestal virgins, 85. 
 
 Vesuvius, eruption of, 152 , battle of, 104, 
 175. 
 
 Vexin, 203. 
 
 Via .Emilia, 118 ; Appia, construction of, 
 105 ; Flaminia, construction of, 106, 113 ; 
 Valeria, 106. 
 
 Vicksburg, 568. 
 
 Victor Amadeus, k. of Sardinia, 458. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, returns to 
 Turin, 482. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, succeeds 
 to the throne, 494 ; in Crimean war, 500 ; 
 k. of It-ily, 503 : death, 524. 
 
 Victoria, q. of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 491 ; marriage, 542 ; empress of India, 
 546,547. 
 
 Vienna, grand alliance of, C73. See Grand 
 alliance. 
 
 Vienna, alliance of, against Napoleon (1815), 
 483 ; concordat of, 253 ; conference in, 
 491 ; congress of, 482, 537 ; final act, 487 ; 
 peace of (ending war of Polish succession \ 
 398 ; peace of between Franco and Aug 
 
616 
 
 Index. 
 
 tria (1809), 472; peace of, ending the war 
 of Austria and Prussia with Denmark 
 (1864), 506 ; peace of, between Austria 
 and Italy (1866), 511 ; treaty of (1731), 
 437 ; siege by the Turks, 303, 372 ; foun- 
 dation of, 167 ; outbreak in, 492 ; second, 
 499 ; third, 493. 
 
 Vienne. See Dauphin^. 
 
 Vijayanagar, Hindu kingdom of, 241, 353 ; 
 destruction, 354. 
 
 Vilagos, capitulation of, 495. 
 
 Villafafila, treaty of, 328. 
 
 Villafranca, meeting at, 602. 
 
 Villars, 366, 392, 393. 
 
 Villegagnon, 288. 
 
 Villehardouin, 216. 
 
 Villele, ministry of, 527. 
 
 Villeroi, 370^ 392. 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 327. 
 
 Yindelicia, 34, 148, 167. 
 
 Vindex, C. .lulius, 151. 
 
 Vinegar Hill, battle of, 536. 
 
 Vinland (America), 209, 281. 
 
 "^inoy, general, 532. 
 
 Vio, cardinal de, 301. 
 
 Vionville, battle of, 516. 
 
 Virginia, 98. 
 
 Virginia, named, 289 ; division of, 291 ; 
 first general assembly in, 292 ; massacre 
 of colonists in, 357 ; Bacon's rebellion, 
 359 ; resolutions of the house of bur- 
 gesses, 424 : secedes, 556. 
 
 Viriathus, 123. 
 
 Visconti, John Galeazzo becomes duke of 
 Milan, 251 ; extinction of the line, 262, 
 318. 
 
 Visigoths. See West Goths. 
 
 Vitellius, Roman emp., 151. 
 
 Vitigis, k. of East Goths, 174. 
 
 Vittoria, battle of, 479, 537. 
 
 Vladimir the Great, of Russia, 276. 
 
 Vladislas III., of Poland, elected k., of 
 Hungary, 278; IV., 352. 
 
 Volabhis in India, 210. 
 
 Volero, Publiiius, 9/. 
 
 Vologeses, ks. of Parthia, III., war with 
 M. Aurelius, 30 ; IV., loses northern 
 Assyria, 30. 
 
 Volscii, wars with Romans, 97, 98, 100, 
 103 ; receive citizenship without suf- 
 frage, 104. 
 
 Voltaire, 400, 448. 
 
 Voltri, battle of, 462. 
 
 Vortigern, 37, 38. 
 
 Vossem, peace of, 367. 
 
 Vote by ballot in England, 545. 
 
 Vouill(5, battle of, 174. 
 
 Vul-lush III. , see Ramannarari. 
 
 Wachau, battle at, 478. 
 
 Waddington, ministry of, in France, 534. 
 
 Wads worth, 362. 
 
 Wagram, battle of, 472. 
 
 Wahlstatt, battle of, 240, 477. 
 
 Waiblingen. See \Velfs. 
 
 Wakefield, battle of, 272. 
 
 Walcheren expedition, 471. 
 
 Waldemar I., k. of Denmark, the Great, 
 
 235; II., the Conqueror, 224,235; III., 
 
 237. 
 Waldemar the False, 248. 
 Waldenses, 227. 
 
 Wales, migration of Britons to, 172 ; con- 
 quest by Edward I. , 364 ; annexed to 
 Eng., 364. 
 
 Wales, pr. of, visits United States and Can- 
 ada, 544 : India, 545. 
 
 Walja, k. of the West Goths, 172. 
 
 Wall of China, 32. 
 
 Wallace, sir \Vm., 266. 
 
 Walleustein, Albert of, 310, 313. 
 
 Waller, 347. 
 
 Walpole, 434; administration 437; falL 
 438. 
 
 Walsingham, 339. 
 
 Walter the Penniless, 200. 
 
 Walter, Hubert, archb. of Canterbury, 233. 
 
 Waltzemiiller, Martin, 283. 
 
 Wandewash, battle of, 444. 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin, 333. 
 
 Warsaw, battle of, 373 ; besieged by Prus- 
 sians, 414 ; captured by Russians, 490. 
 
 Warsaw, duchy of, created for the k. of 
 Saxony, 470 ; West Galicia ceded to, 
 472 ; a portion ceded to Prussia, 482 ; 
 the rest, as kingdom of Poland, to Rus- 
 sia, 483. 
 
 Wartburg, Luther at the, 302 ; festival of 
 the, 487. 
 
 Wartenburg, battle of, 478. 
 
 Warwick, e. of, impeachment, 270. 
 
 Warwick, e. of (the King-maker), takes up 
 arms, 272, 274. 
 
 Warwick, e. of, grant in America, 296. 
 
 Warwick, e. of, executed, 333. 
 
 Washington city laid out, 547. 
 
 Washington, treaty of, 545, 560. 
 
 Washington, George, expedition to the forts 
 on the Alleghany, 420 ; at Braddock's 
 defeat, 421 ; in continental congress, 426: 
 commander-in-chief, 427 ; war of inde- 
 pendence, 427-431 ; resigned his commis- 
 ission, 432 ; first pres. of U. S., 547 ; re- 
 elected, 548 ; death, 549. 
 
 Waterloo, battle of, 484, 538. 
 
 Watt, .Tames, 486. 
 
 Wayne, 430, 547. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, speech in reply to Hayne, 
 553 ; IF. S. sec. of state, 554, 555. 
 
 Wedmore, treaty of, 204. 
 
 Wehlau, treaty of, 373. 
 
 Weinsberg, battle of, 219. 
 
 Weissenburg, engagement at, 516. 
 
 Welf, 186, 199; V., marries Matilda of 
 Tuscany, 200. 
 
 Welfs, contest with the Hohenstaufen 
 (Waiblingen), 219, 224; genealogy of, 
 220. 
 
 Welfesholze, battle of, 201. 
 
 Wellesley, sir Arthur, in India 541. See 
 Wellington. 
 
 Wellington, d. of, 537 ; sketch of life, pen- 
 insula war, 471 ; in Portugal, 473 ; Vit- 
 toria, 479 ; in France, 481 ; congress of 
 Vienna, 482 ; Waterloo, 484 ; administra- 
 tion, 539 ; for. sec, 540; death, 543. 
 
 Welser, 286. 
 
 Wenceslaus. See Wenzel. 
 
 Wends, 168; wars with Henry I., 194; 
 Otto L, 195; Otto II., 197; Teutoni? 
 knights, 218 ; subjugated by Waldemat 
 235, 249. 
 
 Wentworth, Thomas. See Strafford. 
 
 Wenzel, emp. of II. R. E., 250. 
 
Index. 
 
 G17 
 
 Vferder, gen. von, 616, 519. 
 
 Werolic, peace of, 4U'J. 
 
 Worth, 313, 814.315. 
 
 Wessv'.\, founik'il, 178; growth of, 180; 
 Danos in, 2(>4 ; kings of, become kings of 
 Eugliind, 213. 
 
 \Vo8t, Fniucis, 295. 
 
 >\'t'8t Franks, separation from the East 
 Franks, 187 ; Curolingiim rulers, 201 ; 
 develop into the French nation, 202. 
 
 Western empire separated from the eastern 
 empire, 10 ; fall of, 162, 173 ; revival by 
 (.'harles the Great, 185 ; by Otto 1., 190. 
 
 West (loths, location. 170 ; enter the Roman 
 empire, 171 ; found kingdom in Spain, 
 172 ; under Theodoric, k. of the East 
 Goths, 174 ; conquered by the Arabs, 183. 
 
 Westminster assembly, 347. 
 
 Westminster, treaty of, 380. 403. 
 
 Weston, lord treasurer, 344. 
 
 Westphalia, 184 ; kingdom of, formed, 470 ; 
 fall of, 478 ; peace of, 315 ; conditions of 
 the peace, 316, 317. 
 
 West Point, 430. 
 
 West Virginia admitted to the Union. 558. 
 
 Wettin, house of, in Meissen, 218 ; receives 
 electoral Saxony, 252 ; division of the 
 line, 305 
 
 Wetzlar, imperial chamber at, 300. 
 
 Wexford, massacre of, 375. 
 
 Weymouth, George, 290. 
 
 Wharton, Thomas, sec. of state, 387 ; in the 
 whig junto, 435. 
 
 Wheatstone, 487. 
 
 Whigs, origin of the name, 382. 
 
 Whislcev insurrection 548. 
 
 White, John, gov., 289. 
 
 White Hill, battle on, 309. 
 
 White Plains, battle of, 428. 
 
 Whitney, Eli, invented cotton gin, 548. 
 
 Whittingtou, sir Richard, 271. 
 
 Wiclif, doctrine as taught bv Huss con- 
 demned, 252 ; in England, 269. 
 
 Widukind, 185. 
 
 Wiesloch, battle of, 310. 
 
 Wilderness, battle of the, 558. 
 
 Wilkes, John, 4^39, 440. 
 
 William I., the Conqueror, k. of England, 
 Hastings, 206 ; reign, 229. See William 
 duke of Normandy; II., the Red, reign 
 of, 230. 
 
 William and Mary sovereigns of England, 
 370, 371 ; reign, 385 ; of Scotland, 386 ; 
 wars with France, 370, 371 ; death of 
 Mary, 388. See William, prince of Or- 
 ange. 
 
 William III., k. of England, reign alone, 
 388, 389 : war of Spanish succession, 390- 
 394; death, 389, 392; IV., 489; reign, 
 539 ; death, 491, 541. 
 
 William I., emperor of Germany, election, 
 519 ; attempted assassination, 524. 
 
 William I., k. of Holland, 489. 
 
 William Longsword, d. of Normandy, 202. 
 
 William, d. of Normandy's claim to the 
 English succession, 20<J, 206 ; conquest 
 of England, 206. See William I., k. of 
 England. 
 
 William I., of Orange, the Silent, 331. 
 
 William of Orange, 367; marriage with 
 Mary, 368, 381 ; becomes stadtholder, 
 380 ; declaration to the people of Eng- 
 
 land, 384. See William III., k. of Eng- 
 land. 
 William I.,k. of Prudsia, 6'^)3 ; coronation 
 of, 504 ; comuiaiider of tlie army, 5(i8, 
 609,514. See William l.,emp. of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 William the Lion, k. of Scotland, 232. 
 
 William II., k. of Sicily, 222. 
 
 William and .Mary college, 362. 
 
 William and Mary, war of, 365. 
 
 Williams, Uog«'r, 297, 357. 
 
 Wilmington, e. of, 438. 
 
 Wilmot proviso, 555. 
 
 Wimbledon, expedition against Cadiz, 342. 
 
 Wimpfen, battle of, 310. 
 
 Wimplfen, general, 617. 
 
 Winchester, statute of, 267. 
 
 Windischgratz, pr., 495. 
 
 Winfrith. See Boniface. 
 
 Winkelried, Arnold of, 250. 
 
 Winlhrop, John, 296. 
 
 Winthrop, John, sou of gov. W., founda< 
 tion of Conn, colony by, 297. 
 
 Winwajd, battle of, 180. 
 
 Wisconsin, exploration of, 364 ; admitted 
 to the Union, 555. 
 
 Witt, de, 367, 383 ; commander, 379. 
 
 Wittelsbach, house of, in Bavaria, 222; 
 count palatine, 223 ; head of the unioa 
 and the league both of this house, 308 ; 
 Wilhelmian and Rudolfian line, 316; 
 Bavarian succession, 406. 
 
 Wittstock, battle of, 314. 
 
 Wladimir. See Vladimir. 
 
 Wocokon, island of, 289. 
 
 Woden. See Odin. 
 
 Wolfe, gen., 421, 422. 
 
 Wollaston, 295. 
 
 Wolseley, sir Garnet, 645, 646. 
 
 Wol.sey, Thomas, card., 334. 
 
 Wolstenholme's Sound, 299. 
 
 " Wonderful " parliament, 269. 
 
 Worcester, battle of, 375. 
 
 Worcester, e. of, conspiracy against Henry 
 IV., 270. 
 
 Worcester, marquis of, 486. 
 
 Worms, capital of the old kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy, 170 ; concordat of, 201 ; diet of, 
 302. 
 
 Worth, battle of, 616. 
 
 Wrangel, German commander, 494, 496, 
 505. 
 
 Wrangel, Swedish commander, 315. 
 
 Wrede, 480. 
 
 Wren, sir Christopher, 379. 
 
 Writs of a.<»sistance in Massachusetts, 422. 
 
 Wurschen, battle of, 476. 
 
 Wurtembcrg, rise of the Swabian counts 
 of, 244 ; contests with the league of Swa- 
 bian cities, 249, 250; duke Ulrich forced 
 to abdicate, 3<)4 ; becomes an electorate, 
 464 ; enriched by the mediatization of 
 many imperial cities, 466; troops join 
 Napoleon, 467 ; becomes a kingdom and 
 acquires lands from Austria, 468; be- 
 longs to the confederation of the Rhine 
 468 ; joins the allies, 479 ; joins thfe 
 North German confederation, 514. 
 
 Wlirzburg, diet at, 223; battle of, 458. 
 
 Wusterhausen, treaty of, 398. 
 
 Wyandots, 423. 
 
 Wyat, sir Francis, gov of S. Virginia. 292. 
 
618 
 
 Index, 
 
 Wyclif . See Wiclif. 
 Wykeham, William of, 269. 
 
 X. Y. Z. affair, 549. 
 
 Xanthippus accuses Miltiades, 57; leads 
 
 Athenian fleet, 60; father of Pericles, 
 
 62. 
 Xanthippus, the Spartan, ill. 
 Xenophon, leads the Greek mercenaries 
 
 under Cyrus the younger, 29, 69. 
 Xeres de la Frontera, battle of, 183. 
 Xerxes, ks. of Persia : I., war with Greece, 
 
 28, 58-60 ; II., 29. 
 
 Yakub Beg, 562. 
 
 Yakub Khan, abdication of, 547. 
 
 Yale college, founded, 363. 
 
 Yamassees, Indian war, 417, 418. 
 
 Yeardley, gir George, gov. gen. of S. Vir- 
 ginia, 292. 
 
 Yedo, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the shogun, 
 356; name changed to Tokio, becomes 
 capital of the mikado, 563. 
 
 Ynglingar dynasty in Sweden, 208. 
 
 Yokohama, 32 ; opened to trade, 563. 
 
 York, James, duke of, grant of New 
 Netherlands, 358 ; lord high admiral, 
 378 ; professes Catholicism, ^0 ; thrown 
 out by the test act, 380 ; exclusion bill, 
 381 ; succeeds as James II., k, of Eng- 
 land, 383. 
 
 York, gen., 474, 475, 478, 480. 
 
 York, house of, in the wars of the roses, 
 272. 
 
 Yorktown, siege of, 431. 
 
 Yoritomo, 242, 243. 
 Ypsilauti, 488. 
 
 Yucatan, discovery of, 284, 285. 
 Yussuf , 209. 
 
 Zama, battle of, 118. 
 
 Zamasp, k. of Persia, 189. 
 
 Zapolya, John, pr. of Transylvania, SOS 
 
 Zcerneboh, 169. 
 
 Zela, battle of, 135, 142. 
 
 Zendavesta, 24, n. 
 
 Zenger, arrest of, for libel, 419. 
 
 Zeno, 64, 162. 
 
 Zenobia, 157. 
 
 Zenta, battle of, 372. 
 
 Ziela. See Zela. 
 
 Zipangu,32, n,282. 
 
 Ziska, 252. 
 
 Znaim, truce of, 472. 
 
 ZoUverein, founded, 491 ; first parliament, 
 
 512. 
 Zopyrus, 27. 
 Zorndorf , battle of, 405. 
 Zoroaster, reforms the c religion, 24 J 
 
 his religion restored, lo<. 
 Zriny, 306. 
 Zul-fikar Kh&n, 442. 
 Zulpich, battle of, 178. 
 Zulus, war of England with, 545. 
 Zurich, battle of, 461 ; peace of, 502. 
 Zutphen, battle of, 339. 
 Zweibriieken, house of, in Sweden, 8i2, 
 
 373. 
 Zwingli, 801. 
 
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