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PREFACE Every reader of a book, a magazine, or a newspaper, is sometimes at loss for a date or fact, and meets witli frequent references to. historical and biographical subjects which he knows nothing about, or obscurely remembers, or only partially understands. If he has at hand a volume which will readily answer any inquiries that arise in his mind, he will turn to it, and thus remove his ignorance, or clear away the doubt and obscurity that rest upon his understanding. If he has no such work at easy command, he wilt in most cases let the matter pass, and the need for knowledge goes unsatisfied. Such extensive works as the Encyclopaidia Britannica and the Ameri- can Cyclopedia are costly, and are therefore in the hands of compara- tively few persons ; besides, they are too cumbrous for easy and frequent reference. The value of a volume like The Cottage Cyclopedia of History and Biography, to lie familiarly upon the table or the shelf, ready at call to answer the thousand questions that arise, is too plain to require discussion. It will prove a great convenience even to those who possess ample libraries, and whose minds are stored with historical data. But it is more especially designed for family use, and for the young. The Cottage Cyclopedia is intended to supply to every general reader such a book of reference as that of which the need has been shown. It is particularly commended to the attention of parents : let them place iv PREFACE. it witliiu the reach of their children, and inculcate the habit of consult- ing it as a dictionary of history and biography, whenever curiosity, doubt, or want of information may suggest. There will be thus laid up a store of precise practical knowledge, incalculable in value. It is not, however, as a mere book of reference, that this volume is offered to the public. The materials are, it is true, gathered to a great extent from books familiar to the public. The Compiler, however, has culled many traits, anecdotes, and adventures, from less common sources ; and interspersing these and other illustrative sketches throughout the pages, he has sought to enliven the work, and thus render it amusing, attractive, and readable. Many of the articles are more extensive than in the voluminous encyclopedias. Literesting topics not found in those are also introduced. The history of our own country will be found fully treated of, under different heads ; and at the close of the volume a Chronological View of American History is appended. The present condition of the various countries of the earth is sketched in connection with their history. The lives of eminent political characters in all ages, as well as the lives of those whose greatness in science or literature made their names enduring, are given, some of them at considerable length, and with many characteristic anecdotes. Extended sketches will be found of several royal families ; as the houses of Hanover, Plantag- enet, Romanoff, Stuart, Tudor, &c. Such topics as Oracles, Druids, El Dorado, Knighthood, Chivalry, Fairies, the Argonauts, the Man in the Iron Mask, Don Carlos, the Gulf Stream, Jesuits, &c., &c., which are frequently alluded to in literature, are treated of with particularity. The dates of important inventions, discoveries, and improvements in the arts and sciences, and remarkable and interesting facts generally, will be found appropriately arranged. Among such topics may be men- tioned the following :— Abdications ; Alliances; Amazons; Ambassadors; the Armada; Bachelors; Banks; order of the Bath; Bells; Bible; the vicar of Bray; the Cinque Ports; Coin; the Continental Congress; Conspiracies and Insurrections; the English Constitution; the Consti- tution of the United States; Councils of the Church; Declaration of Independence, with those passages in the original draught which were PREFACE. V omitted or changed by Congress ; Discoveries in modern times , Dress ; Earthquakes; order of the Garter; Labor; Libraries; Luxury; Lynch Law; Marriage; Massacres; Metals; Naval Battles; North-west Passage ; Painting; Plague; Planets; Poet Laureate; Popes; Printing; Time; Wandering Jew; Wonders of the World. The great battles of the world, ancient and modern, by land and by sea, — Thermopylse, Marathon, Cannae, Pharsalia, Blenheim, Austerlitz, Marengo, Waterloo, Bunker Hill, Saratoga, Yorktown, New Orleans, Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo, Chapultepec, Alma, Inkermann, Balaklava, &c.; Salamis, Actium, Aboukir, Trafalgar, Erie, Champlain, &c., — are duly chronicled. The work is liberally illustrated with wood-cuts, of a superior execu- tion ; the most of them designed by Baker & Andrew. A" list of them is given on another page. The Cottage Cyclopedia is arranged with a view to compress a great amount of matter into a small compass, that the bulk of the volume may not render it inconvenient, and that its expense may not hinder its general circulation. Li preparing so extensive a publication for the press, the Compiler can not hope that he has wholly escaped error or that omissions may not be noticed ; but he trusts that the volume may be found sufficiently accurate and complete to fulfill the proper design of such a work, and that it may prove a valuable accession to the means of diffusing useful knowledge. ILLUSTRATIONS, Residence of Adams Family, Quincy, Mass. Great Chestnut-tree of Mount ^tna. Alabama. Alcibiades. Cleopatra's Needle, at Alexandria. The Court of Lions, -Alhambra. Mont Blanc. Mount Ararat. Arkansas. The Hill of the Ai'eopagus. Place where Gold was first discovered in Australia. The Balloon. Reading the Bible to the People. Diamond Washing in Brazil. The Britannia Tubular Bridge. California. Peak of Teneriflfe. Charles the Twelfth. The Charter Oak. Chinese Lady of Rank. Great Wall of China. Ashland. De Witt Clinton. Capitol at Washington. Connecticut. Delaware. Stonehenge. A Druid. Earthquake at Lisbon. Colossi near Thebes. Florida. Cathedral of Notre Dame at Strasburg. Frankhn's Grave at Philadelphia. Fulton's First Steamboat. Georgia. Hamilton's Monument in Trinity Church- yard, New York. The Hancock House in Boston. Hieroglyphics. Homer. Illinois. Indiana. Iowa. Jackson at the Hermitage. Monticello. Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. Kentucky. Louisiana. Montpelicr, Madison's Residence. Maine. Maryland. Massachusetts. Michigan. Minnesota. Mississippi. Missouri. New Hampshire. New Jersey. New York. North Carolina. Ohio. Pennsylvania. Temple of Isis at Pompeii. Faust taking First Proof from Moveable Types. Rhode Island. The Colossus of Rhodes. The Coliseum. St. Peter's. South Carolina. Story's House at Cambridge, Mass. Tennessee. Texas. Arch of Titus at Rome. Plains of Troy. Henry the Eighth. Leaning Tower of Pisa. Tyrolese Peasants. Vermont. Vesuvius. Virginia. Mount Vernon. Washington's Tomb. Birthplace of Webster. Wisconsin. The Pyramids and Sphinx. COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA ; OF HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. AARON, the brother and associate of Mo- ses, and the first high-priest of the Jews, born about b.c. 1574, and died b.c. 1451. ABAUZIT, FiRMiN, a ProtestJint author of celebrity and learning, born in Languedoc, 1679, and died in 17G7, having long filled the office of public librarian at Geneva. His knowledge was great, and embraced the whole circle of the sciences. He enjoyed the friendship of Sir Isaac Newton. ABBAS, Shah, the Great, ascended the throne of Persia in 1589, and distinguished himself in arms, by his victories over the Ot- tomans, and by wresting Ormus from the Portuguese in 1622, aided, however, by the British. During his reign, Ispalian became the capital of Persia. His death tooli place in 1629. ABBASSIDES. The caliphs who, during the eighth and ninth centuries, made Bagdad their capital, are distinguished in history as the Abbassides. Their sway extended over Persia, Arabia, and Syria. Al-Mansur, in 762, built Bagdad, and raised the Saracenic empire to its highest point of splendor and fame. Al-Modi, to whom the empire was transmitted, did not let its reputation wane, and, under Haroun al Raschid, the dignity of the caliphate was preserved and adorned. After Haroun, reigned Al-Amin and Al-Ma- mun. Under Al-Motasser the governors of several provinces asserted their independence, and Bagdad alone was governed by the caliph. ABBEY, or monastery, is a house erected for the dwell ng of men or women who have taken the monastic vow, which binds them to relinquish all worldly interests, and devote themselves to the performance of religious duties, living in a state of celibacy. A mon- astery receives its title from that of the eccle- siastic governing it. An abbey is governed by an abbot or abbess ; a priory, by a prior or prioress, &c. The term nunnery is applied to a religious house inhabited by women. The buildings inhabited by religious commu- nities were originally of the plainest kind, but increased in extent and splendor witl: their revenues, until, from the humble dwell- ings of unpretending ecclesiastics, they be- came the abodes of luxury, brilliant with costly architectural decorations, and hiding, within their lofty walls, the revels of men whose piety was but a cloak for unlimited indulgence. The buildings constituting an abbey or monastery, consisted principally of churches, cloisters, refectories, chapters, par- lors, dormitories, courts, gardens, &c. The choir and interior buildings of convents were fenced in by gi-ates, and inaccessible to vis- itors. The church consisted of the choir, an altar, a nave, aisles, chapels, and a tower. The cloister comprehended the galleries or covered porticoes of a monastery, in which the monks took their exercise, and surround- ed an open space, generally devoted to the cultivation of flowers, neatly distributed in parterres, interspersed with grass-plats, and refreshed by careful irrigation. The cloisters were sometimes adorned with valuable paint- ings, and were generally finished specimens of art. The refectory of an abbey was the hall in which the fathers ate. The refector}' ABB COTTAGE CYCLOP KDIA OP furnished at first frugal fare, and the holy fathers did not tarry long in it ; but with the declension of ecclesiastical simplicity, the character of their meals was changed, and they made the walls ring with the merriment of high living and rich wines. The refectory of the Abbey of St. Denis, at Paris, has been celebrated for its architectural beautj". The chapter was for the reception of assemblies to discuss the private affairs of the house. The chapter-houses were sometimes orna- mented with splendid pictures. The parlor was a kind of cabinet, where visitors convers- ed with the monks or nuns through a grated window. Formerly, convents contained par- lors, in which novices were allowed the priv- ilege of conversing together, at hours of recreation, but even then they were over- heard by their superiors, who were provided with places for eavesdropping. The dormi- tories were usually wings in the building, containing the cells of its inhabitants. Here the monks enjoyed their brief repose, from which they were awakened to acts of devo- tion, or to bend in solitude befoi-e the crucifix, with its accompanying mementos of mortal- ity, and lose themselves in the reveries of religious enthusiasm. The gardens of mon- asteries generally exhibited neatness, and were not the least favorite appendage to the dwellings of the monks. The monks, in the ages of general dark- ness (that is, from a.d. 600 to 1500), pre- served in their monasteries many valuable volumes, and kept alive the spark of learning, which, but for their exertions, would have been extinguished. Religious houses were, for ages, the sole depositories of literature and science, and their inhabitants were act- ively employed in the duties of education. In England, one person or more in each con- vent w'as appointed to instruct pupils, and these were the childi-cn of those neighbors who chose to send them. They were instruct- ed in grammar and church music, free of ex- pense. In the nunneries, females were taught to read and work, and the daughters of noble- men and gentlemen, as well as of the poorer people, were indebted to the nuns for a large part of whatever knowledge they possessed. Many poor descendants of noble families looked to monasteries for refuge, and having taken the vow, made use of the influence of ABB friends to gain high ecclesiastical ofiiccs. Many of the monks were men driven to enter religious houses by the pangs of remorse, and who hoped to expiate a career of crimes by se- clusion from the world, and the observance of the most austere rites of the church. These, as well as some who were unaffectedly pious,lived a blameless life ; but there were others whose profligacy was unreprcssed, because hidden by that veil of hypocrisy which they closely drew around them. Many monks were skill- ful painters, as the richly illuminated manu- scripts of other days prove, and numerous were the legends of saints, gorgeously bla- zoned upon pages of vellum, that filled the shelves of the holy fathers. Living a life of undisturbed seclusion, those who possessed a literary turn, had ample time to indulge their propensity, though very few literary works of any merit issued from the monasteries. The year 305 is that in which the earliest monasteries were established in Egypt, under the conduct of St. Anthony, and hence sprang shortly afterward, many others in various places. In 3 GO, the earliest monastery in France, that of Saint Martin, at Poitiers, was established. In the beginning, monasteries were inhabited by laymen. For more than six centuries all th^ eastern monasteries were independent of each other, and governed by abbots who were answerable to their bishops only. The first monasteries, in times of trouble and darkness, preserved the spirit of religion, and were sanctuaries in which piety and learning sought refuge from the igno- rance, irreligion, and persecutions of the world. A mild light, denied to the rest of mankind, was shed upon those who took upon themselves the fulfillment of monastic vows. The conduct of the monks was regu- lated by the plain commands of the Scriptures, and antiquity was followed in the celebration of religious ceremonies, and the practice of Christian virtues. The monks, as remarked above, were, for many centuries, the pre- servers of literature, many valuable works of the present day having been rescued from destruction bj- monastic libraries. But with the i-evival of letters, and the triumph of the Reformation, the usefulness of monastic es- tablishments passed away. Constantine r\^ ordered a vast number of friars and nuns to appear at Ephesus, where HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 3 he bade them change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images. They remonstrated that because of their vows, to obey was impossible ; whereupon their eyes were put out, they were banished, and their monasteries forfeited and sold for the uses of the state. The suppression of monastic houses has been frequent, even in Roman Catholic countries. All those in England were swept away by Henry VIII. Their revenues, treasures, and lands were either retained by the crown or bestowed upon favorite courtiers. The diminution of the papal power, and the enlightened spii'it of the age, in the eighteenth century, exerted a strong influ- ence upon the public mind with regard to monasteries in Catholic countries, and they lost many of their privileges and much of the protection previously given them by law. Joseph II. of Austria, in 1781, abolished some orders of monasteries and limited the number of inmates in others. In France they were all abolished in 1790. During the reign of Napoleon, all the states incorporated with France, as well as other Catholic coun- tries of Europe, abolished them, with the ex- ception of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Austria, Poland, and Kussia. Pope Pius VII. pro- cured means for the maintenance of old, and the foundation of new ones in France, Bava- ria, and Naples, while in Austria they became extinct. ABBOT, Georgk, born in 1562, and made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1610. He was a cloth-worker, and early remarkable for polemical skill. He strenuously opposed some measures of King James, thereby dis- proving the assertion that he owed his rise to acts more worthy of a courtier than an ecclesiastic. Having the misfortune to kill a gamekeeper of Lord Zouch, he ever afterward fasted upon Tuesday, the day on which the unhappy event took place. He was sup- planted in favor at court by Laud, and died at the age of seventy-one in 1633. ABBOT, Charles, Viscount Colchester, was speaker of the British House of Com- mons, from 1802 to 1817. He was born in 1757, and died in 1829. ABDICATIONS OF MONARCHS: of Sylla as perpetual dictator of Rome, b.c. 79. Dioclesian, a.d. 304. Ceawlin, king of the West Saxons, 593. Henry IV. of Germany, 1080. Stephen IL of Hungary, 1114. Al- bert of Saxony, 1142. Lestus V. of Poland, 1200. Uladislaus IIL of Poland, 1206. John Baliol of Scotland, 1306. Otho of Hungary, 1309. Eric IX. of Denmark, 1439. Eric XIII. of Sweden, 1441. Amurath IL, em- peror of the Turks, 1447. Charles V. of Germany, and as Charles I. of Spain, 1556. Christina of Sweden, 1654. John Casimir of Poland, 1668. James IL of England (really dethroned), 1688. Frederick Augus- tus IL of Poland, 1704. Philip V. of Spain, 1724, January 15th, but resumed the scepter in about fourteen months afterward, on the death of his son Louis, in whose favor he had abdicated. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, 1730. Charles of Naples, 1759. Stanislaus of Poland, 1795. Victor of Sax'dinia, June 4th, 1802. Francis II. resigns his title as Emperor of Germany, August 11th, 1804. Charles IV. of Spain, March 19th, 1808. Joseph Bonaparte from Naples to take the crown of Spain, June 1st, 1808 ; fled before the British from Madrid, July 29th, 1808. Gustavus Adolphus , IV. of Sweden, March 19th, 1809. Louis Bonaparte of Holland, July 1st, 1810. Jerome Bonaparte of West- phalia, Oct. 20th, 1813. Napoleon Bonaparte of France, April 5th, 1814. Emmanuel of Sardinia, March 13th, 1821. Pedro IV. of Portugal, May 2d, 1826. Charles X. of France, Aug. 2d, 1830. Pedro I. of Brazil, April 7th, 1831. Miguel of Portugal, May 26th, 1834. William I. of Holland, Oct. 8th, 1840. Christina of Spain (queen dowager and regent), Oct. 12th, 1840. Louis Phil- ippe of France, Feb. 24th, 1848 (deposed immediately afterward). Louis Charles of Bavaria, March 21st, 1848. Ferdinand of Austria, Dec. 2d, 1848. Charles Albert of Sardinia, March 26th, 1849. ABEL, son of Waldemar II. of Denmark, gained the scepter by assassinating his brother Eric in 1250. A revolt of the Frisons caused the loss of his life, in 1252. His appellation was certainly a misnomer. ABELARD, Peter (properly Abailard, Pierre), was born in 1079, of a noble family, at Palais, near Nantes in Brittany. The stir- ring incidents of his chequered life, and especially his passion for Heloise, with its melancholy fruits, have thrown a peculiar and ABE COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF romantic charm around the name of Abelard. From his j^outh he devoted himself to study. Coming to Paris at the age of twenty, and having soon rivaled and eclipsed his tutor, Guillaumc de Champcaux, he removed in two years from Paris to ^Iclun, thence to Corbeil, and thence to Palais, his birthplace, teaching philosophy all the while with great success. The attractions of Paris soon drew him again to the metropolis, where he attacked the realism of his old master with such dialectic dexterity and vigor, that Champeaux's school was speedily extinguished. By and by his antagonist was made Bishop of Chalon-sur- Marne, and Abelard commenced to study theology under Anselm at Laon. Having, by his transcendent talent, made the seminary at Laon his envious enemy, he returned to Paris, and opened a school of divinity with unrivaled popularity. In that school were trained many men, from various countries, who afterward arrived at high ecclesiastical honors; one pope, nineteen cardinals, and above fifty bishops. In this zenith of his fame, when, according to his own confession, pride and luxury had misled him, he loved and seduced his pupil, Heloise, a, young and fatherless lady, not twenty years of age, and a niece of Canon Fulbcrt, a Parisian ecclesi- astic. Heloise was conveyed to Brittany, and bore a son in the house of Abelard' s sister. The canon insisted upon a marriage, which accordingly took place ; a union which He- loise openly denied, to her uncle's great vexa- tion. Abelard placed her in the convent of Argenteuil ; but her uncle took a terrible re- venge for the abduction of his niece. Hired ruffians broke into Abelard's chamber, and inflicted on his person a disgraceful mutila- tion. Heloise became a nun, and Abelard retired as a monk into the abbey of St. Denis. At length he resumed his prelections, but had the misfortune of being suspected of heresy, and was condenmed in 1121, by a council which met at Soissons. He retired to Troves, and selected a retreat which his subdued and chastened spirit named the Par- aclete, or Comforter; and in this convent Heloise was at length established as superior. But the unfortunate recluse provoked the ire of his neighbor, Bernard of Clairvaux, and ar ain, for suspected heresy, did the council ff Sens put its brand upon him. He appeal- ed to Rome, but did not follow out his appeal. Worn out with fatigue, persecution, and infirmity, he at length took refuge in the priory of St. Marcel, where he died April 21st, 1U2, at the age of sixty-three. His body, first interred at Cluni, was soon removed to the Paraclete ; and twenty years afterward Heloise was buried beside him at her own request. Their ashes lay undisturbed for three hundred years ; but in 1497 they were transferred to the church of the abbey ; then in 1800 removed to the garden of the Musce Francais, in Paris; and lastly, in 1817 they were deposited beneath a Gothic shrine in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. The brilliant talents and oratory of Abelard are bej'ond dispute. As a subtle and accomplished dia- lectician he had no rival. ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., a writer of some note in intellectual philosophj", born at Aberdeen, Scotland, Nov. 11th, 1781 ; attain- ed high rank as a physician at Edinburgh ; died Nov. 14th, 1844. ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, an eminent British general, was born in Scotland, in 1738. He entered the army at eighteen, and rose from cornet to general. He distinguished himself in the Duke of York's campaigns in Holland, from 1793 to 179-5. He was then made commander-in-chief in the West Indies, and conquered several islands from the French. He commanded the expedition to re-conquer Egypt in 1801, and fell at the battle of Alex- andria, March 21st. In this action, by whose decision Egypt was lost to France, Gen. Abercrombie displayed the chivalric valor of a kright of the olden time. Dismounted, and suffering from two mortal wounds, he disarmed his adversary, and gave the sword into the hands of Sir Sydney Smith. He survived about a week. His memory was honored by his countrymen, and a costly monument erected in St. Paul's, a public token of the respect of England for as brave and true a soldier as ever fought beneath her banner. ABERNETHY, John (1763-1831), was a native of the north of Ireland. He was a pupil of John Hunter, and became an emi- nent s- geon in London. He was as eccen- tric and brusque in his manners as he'was skillful in his profession. ABINGER (James Scaklett), Lord, an ABI HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. eminent English ban-istcr .ind judge, was born in Jamaica, about 1769, of an iniiuential West Indian family. He studied at Cam- bridge and the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1791. He was a successful lawyer ; sat in parliament, at first acting with the Wuigs ; going over to the Tories, he was attorney-general under Canning, and after- ward under Wellington. In 1834 he was made chief baron of the exchequer, and raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Abinger. He died April 7th, 1844, of paraly- sis, by which he was attacked while on the circuit. ABOUKIR, the site of the ancient Cano- pus, is an Arabian village containing but about a hundred inhabitants. Its bay is spa- cious, and has, upon the western side, a castle of considerable strength. It is thirteen miles north-east of Alexandiia, upon the coast of Egypt. Aboukir is rendered famous by the important naval battle fought here between the French and English fleets, the latter com- manded by Admiral Nelson, on the 1st of August, 1798. Bonaparte's army was con- veyed to Egypt by the French fleet, which sailed from the harbor of Toulon, on the 19th of May, 1798. As soon as intelligence of this reached the English fleet before Cadiz, Admiral St. Vincent despatched Rear-Admiral Nelson with fourteen ships of the line, to the Mediten-anean, with orders to find and attack the French fleet. Nelson, burning for fome, and eager to meet the enemy, at length found them in the road of Aboukir. The signal for battle was immediately given. The Frcnch captains, who had been assembled on board the admiral's ship, hastened to their posts, and an English ship instantly commenced the attack. The French fleet was disposed in the form of a crescent, following the curve of the bay, and anchored as close as possible to an island on which was erected a powerful battery of cannon and mortars. Nelson or- dered a part of his fleet to break through between the island and the French line of battle, and to coast along until they gained the enemy "fe rear, while the remainder of the English fleet approached the enemy's front, and anchored within pistol-shot. These or- ders were executed with skill and daring, and, at half past six in the evenmg, the battle i>egan, just as the setting sun tlarew a fiery hue upon the fearful scene. The fire of the English was well directed and deadly. At the end of one hour, five French ships were disabled and captm'cd. Admiral Brueys was shot as he was directing the fight from his ship rOrient. After the admiral was shot, Capt. Casablanca and crew, determined to maintain the honor of the flag-ship, fought her with great spirit. L' Orient blew up after having been fought for four hours. She was a superb vessel, a hundi-ed-and-twenty gun ship, with a crew of a thousand men, out of whom but eighty or ninety wei-e saved fi-om destniction. This scene of the combat must have been awfully sublime, for the cannon- ading continued all night, and day davraed upon a scene of destruction and dismay. The French suffered severely. Only two of their ships of the line, and two frigates, got oiF clear. Nine ships of the line were taken, one blown up, and one frigate sunk. The French themselves set fire to and burned a ship of the line and a frigate. The success of the British was a severe blow to Bona- parte, as it cut off his communication with France, and inspired his enemies with fresh hope and resolution, giving spirit to the coali- tion formed against the power which had so suddenly attained a giant strength. The con- flict is also sometimes called the battle of the Nile: it obtained the victorious admiral a peerage, by the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. His exclamation upon going into the fight was, " Victory or Westminster Abbey ! " Aboukir was also the point where Abercrom- bie's forces debarked, and it surrendered to him after an obstinate and sanguinary strug- gle with the French, March 8th, 1801. ABRADATES, a king of Susa, of whom Xenophon relates that his wife, Panthea, having been taken prisoner by Cyrus, was well treated, in consequence of which her husband joined the troops of the conqueror, but was killed in the very first battle which he fought for him. His wife, in despair, killed herself upon his corpse. Both were honored and lamented by Cyrus. ABRUZZO is divided into three provinces : Abruzzo Citra, and Abruzzo Ultra, I. and II. ; so named from their relative position with re- gard to Naples. It is the northern extremity of the Neapolitan kingdom, and bounded on the north and west by the territories of the ABR 6 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF ohurch, and on the east by the Adriatic. Its population in 1845 was estimated at 825,940. The country is crossed in all directions by the lofty Apennines and their ofF-shoots. The spring rains and thaws often swell the streams to such an extent, that bridges are swept away, and all communication broken up. The inhabitants of the valleys, which are fertile, are generally shepherds, and fine herds feed upon the eminences and pasturage spots of the valleys. Abruzzo is a very im- portant division of the Neapolitan states, of which it constitutes the chief defense on the land side. During the numerous invasions and civil wars of that kingdom it has often been the scene of protracted contests. The chief towns are, Chieti, population 15,000; Teramo, population 10,000; Aquila, popula- tion 14,000. ABULFEDA, or Ishmael, prince of Hamah in Syria, an Arabian, famous for his historical and geographical writings, and surnamed the Pillar of Religion, and the Prince of Victory. He was a native of Damascus, and born a.d. 1273. Although inheriting the throne of Hamah from his uncle, he was debarred for a long time from the enjoyment of his rights, but when gained, the kingdom remained un- disturbed under his sway, until the time of his death, which took place a.d. 1333. ABYDOS, a city on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, of Milesian origin, famed for the bridge of boats constructed by order of Xerxes, and familiar to all readers as the res- idence of Hero, the mistress of Leander, viho swam the Hellespont to meet her, until " That night of stormy water, When Love — who sent — forgot to save The lone, the beautiful, the brave, The only hope of Sestos' daughter." Lord Byron, whose lines we quote, per- formed Leander's feat in company with Mr. Ekenhead, an Englishman. The turbulence of the currents renders the passage a critical undertaking. The inhabitants of Abydos gallantly defended their city against Philip of Macedon. Another Abtdos in Upper Egypt, was famed for the magnificence of the palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. Some splendid ruins, manifesting its former grand- eur, are to be found in the village of El- Kherbeh. ABYSSINIA is a large tract of elevated table-land in eastern Africa, the north-eastei n edge of which is directed toward the Red Sea, and is from thirty to sixty miles from the coast. It lies between 8° 30' and 15° 40' N. lat., and between 35° and 42° E. long., and is drained by the principal branches of the Nile. The name is thought by most authors to be derived from the Arabic Habesh, which signifies a mixed people. Tho Portuguese gave this country the name of Prester or Presbyter John's empire, but it appears that there is no foundation for the supposition that any such person ever dwelt or was heard of in Abyssinia. The ancients, who were very little acquainted with the kingdom, represent- ed its extent as far greater than the reality proved. Its three grand divisions are Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa and Efat. There is an ancient tradition that Abyssinia was the kingdom of Sheba or Seba, the visit of whose queen to Solomon is spoken of in the sacred writings, and that the Queen of Sheba had a son, of whom Solomon was the father. From this prince, whose name was Menileh, the sovereigns of Abyssinia claimed to be de- scended. The Jewish religion, some think, was prevalent in Abyssinia until nearly the middle of th ' fourth century, when mission- aries from Alexandria converted the people to Christianity. Others conjecture that Abys- sinia was the kingdom of that queen Can- dace, whose eunuch was baptized by Philip, and that Candace and her people embraced the same faith. In the fifteenth centm-y the Portuguese assisted the Abyssinian monarch against his enemies and in return he adopted the Catholic religion. The Romish priests were finally expelled in 1032. For more than a century this country has been in anarchy. There is a sovereign, but his authority is only nominal, and civil wars arc frequent. The population is estimated at between three and four millions. The bulk of the people Are of the Circassian race. There are many Mohammedans in the land, but the prevailing faith is Coptic Christianity. The head of the church, called Abuna, (meaning "our father"), receives his ordination from the Archbishop of Alexandria. Wheat and barley are grown; in some places Indian corn, and in others cotton. The country is poor in minerals. Iron-ore of good quality ABY HI.STORY AND BIOGRAPHY. i.-; found. Rock s.ilt i.s found abundantly in the eastern extremity of Tigre, and the common currency consists of pieces in the shape of a whetstone, weighing nineteen or twenty ounces. The manufactures are rude, but what progress in these the Abyssinians have made, is original, for they have had little in- tercourse with Europeans. They tan skins well, make rough iron implements, and weave coarse cotton cloth. Coarse black pottery is made in every part of the country. They have some traffic with the interior of Africa, in slaves, ivory, coffee, civet, gold, cloth, iron, and cattle. Bruce gives a sony picture of the people. The punishments in Abyssinia are severe, and frequently as well as unfeelingly inflicted. Death on the cross, hanging, stoning to death, flaying alive, and plucking out the ej^es, stand foremost in the dark catalogue. The bodies of those who suffer death for treason, mur- der, and the commission of some other crimes, rarely receive the rites of sepulture. Pieces of dead carcasses are frequent in the streets of Gondar, and nightly attract numbers of wild beasts. The hyenas, whose craving for human fiesh is well known, rush to their banquet as soon as night settles on the town, howling over the bones for which they have contended fiercely. The manners and cus- toms of the Abj^ssinians prove the shocking cruelty and brutality of this people. Their festivities are disgraced by the most revolting practices. When the guests are assembled, the cooks cut steaks from the cattle at the door while they are yet alive, and roaring with agony. The guests wipe their fingers upon the cakes which they afterward eat. The people are illiterate and depraved, and their whole country exhibits the appearance of hopeless wretchedness and poverty. ACARNANIA, a division of ancient Greece, now II Carnia, or II Despotato, Albania, was formerly called Curetis, a country of Epirus, separated from .^tolia by the Achelous, and long an independent state. After having been conquered by the Romans, it was per- mitted to retain its own laws until the de- struction of Corinth by Mummius, when it was united to the province of Achaia. ACHAIA was a narrow strip of the Pelo- ponnesus, and stretching along the Bay of Gorinth. The name is sometimes employed by the early poets to distinguish all Greece. After Greece became a Roman province, Achaia included all the Grecian states but Macedonia and Thessaly. Eighty years after the Trojan war, the descendants of Achgeus, who first dwelt in the country near Argos, being driven out by the Heraclidse, seized upon the twelve Ionian cities, and kept them. These were Pellene, ^gira, -^ges, Bura, Tritaea, JEgion, Rhypae, Olenos, Helice, Pa- trae, Dyme, and Pharse. These twelve little states of Achaia were independent republics, and were combined in the famous confederacy known as the Achaian League, about b.c. 281. This was much like the federal union of our own states. Aratus and Philopoemen by their talents and bravery raised it to a high rank. It was conquered by the Romans 146 B.C. ACHILLAS, a general of Ptolemy, and the murderer of Pompey the Great. ACHILLES, as the poets tell us, was the son of Peleus, a Thessalian king, and Thetis, daughter of Nereus, grandson of JSacus. Thetis, in order to preserve her beautiful boy from the dangers of war, dipped him in the Styx (a river of hell), which rendered him invulnerable, with the exception of the heel by which she held him. Having been warned that if Achilles went to the Trojan war, he would meet death after a glorious career, while, in remaining at home, he would attain a good old age, Thetis disguised her boy in a female dress, and sent him, under the name of Pyrrha, to be educated at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, who brought him up with his daughters. The Greeks wei'e informed by the prophet Chalcas, that Troy could not be taken without the aid of Achilles, and accordingly, Ulysses, the most wily of the Greeks, went as a merchant to the court of Lycomedes. Here he was surrounded by the princesses, before whose eager eyes he spread out his sparkling store, taking care to mingle implements of war with feminine articles. While the daughters of the king seized upon the trinkets, Achilles possessed himself of the arms. The gleaming breastplate and the burnished spear ill matclied the garb he wore, and the fiery young hero was soon induced to cast it off^ and take part with the Greeks in their expedition. Phoenix and the Cen- taur Chiron had instructed him in mental AOH 8 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA ,0F and bodily accomplishments, and the former accompanied him to Troy. Achilles is one of the bravest and most beautiful of the Homeric heroes, being the subject of some of the finest verses in the " Iliad." The following glowing description is from the nineteenth book of the immortal poem. "In the midst was arm'd the godlike Achilles, Grinding his teeth, and whose eyes Roll'd glowing like a flash of fire, into whose heart Enter'd intolerable pain: raving against the Trojans, He donn'd the gifts divine which the artist Vul- can had made for him. First around his thighs he placed the cuishes Beautifidly form'd, and fix'd with silver clasps. Next the cuirass on his chest he placed, Then around his shoulders he threw the baldric of his sword studded with silver knobs And brass : and then his shield, large and broad. He took, whose refulgence spread far and wide like that of the moon. As when from the sea, there shines to mariners a beam Of flaming fire, which blazed aloft from the mountains. In a shepherd's solitude: them reluctant, the tempests Bear far a«'ay from their friends over the fishy sea: Tn like manner the gleam mounted heavenward from Achilles' shield Beautiful, Dredalaean. His mighty helmet up- lifting On ills head he placed ; like a star, shone The horsehair-crested helmeS : there waved around him the hair Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, was forced to restore the maid to avert from the Greeks the plague which Apollo, moved by the prayers of his aged worshiper, sent upon them. Agamemnon offended Achilles by taking from him his beautiful captive, Briseis, daughter of Brises, and wife of Mines, king of L^^rnessus. En- raged at his loss, the formidable warrior re- tired from the field, permitting the Trojan Hector to cany terror and slaughter through the ranks of the Greeks. He, however, suf- fered his friend Patroclus to assume his arms, and take the field at the" head of his own warriors ; but this hero soon fell beneath the arm of Hector. Burning to revenge the death of his friend, Achilles determined again to confront the Trojans. His mother brought him the splendid arms which Vulcan had forged for him, so finely described above. Again he burned with a warrior's ardor, was reconciled to Agamemnon, and, refreshed by nectar and ambrosia sent by Minerva, plunged into the heat of battle. Achilles speedily rolled back the tide of war. He pursued the retreating Trojans into the river Xanthus, which became choked with bodies, and crimson with carnage. The river-god, resenting this sanguinary pursuit as an insult, commanded Achilles to desist, and on the refusal of the impetuous warrior, over- flowed his banks, and opposed him, assisted Of gold, with which in great abundance Vulcan by the waters of Simois. The west and south had surrounded the crest, The godlike Achilles essayed himself in hi:; armor. Whether it might fit him, and if his fair limbs should move easily : To him it was like wings, and buoyed up the Shepherd of the people. From the sheath his paternal spear he drew. Ponderous, huge, strong: which none other of the Greeks was a1)le To brandish, and which Achilles alone knew how to rear, — That ashen spear of Peleus which Chiron had hewed for his father From the summit of Pelion, — to be death to heroes ! " Achilles proved himself no wavering or weak partisan. His presence was a host, but he also sailed with fifty ships well manned, and destroyed twelve island cities, and eleven on the main-land. Minerva and Juno aided him. Agamemnon, whom the Greeks had chosen their leader, having taken prisoner winds, and the aid of Vulcan, sent by Juno, chastised the assumption of the river-god and reduced him to his original limits. Achilles was only prevented from taking the city by the interference of Apollo, the pi'otector of the Trojans. Hector confronted and fought Achilles, by whom he was slain. His body, after being attached to the chariot of the vic- tor, and dragged round the city, was ran- somed by Priam, the venerable fother of the slain warrior. Achilles, falling in love with Polyxena, daughter of Priam, purchased her hand by a promise to defend Troy ; but while standing at the altar with her, an arrow from the bow of Paris pierced his heel and slew him. His body was a prize for which a fierce contest arose. The Greeks sacrificed his bride upon his tomb, according to his dying request, that he might enjoy her society ir, the Elysian fields, the paradise of the heathen. ACH HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. Alexander the Great, who venerated and im- itated Homeric heroes, visited the tomb of Achilles, and crowned it, saying, "Achilles was happy in having Patroclus for a friend, and Homer for a poet." ACHMET I., sultan of the Turks, began to reign in 1603, and died in 1617. The tran- quillity of this sovereign was disturbed by insurrections, and the intrigues of a pretender to his throne. Achmet II. was sultan of the Turks from 1691 to 1695. Aciimet HI., son of Mahomet IV., was raised to the throne of the Ottoman empire, in 1705, by the revolt of the Janizaries, who deposed his brother, Mustapha H. Achmet, although he appre- hended and punished the leaders of the revolt, yet availed himself of the fruits of their crime. His reign, however, was by no means passed in tranquillity, and repeated changes of the viziers marked the insecurity felt b)^ the monarch. Achmet placed his principal reliance on the power of gold, which he sometimes used for good ends. When Charles XII. had been defeated at Pultowa, he was hospitably received at the Turkish court, where his intrigues soon kindled the flame of war between Russia and Turkey; but Achmet III. was unable to compete with Peter the Great, and the military views of his vizier were by no means clear. When the fortunes of the czar were in the hands of the Turks on the borders of the Pruth, the Muscovite purchased of the vizier permission to retreat, but surrendered Azof to the Otto- mans. Against the Venetians Achmet was more successful, wresting the Morea jfrom their grasp in a single campaign. But the imperialists, under the able conduct of Prince Eugene of Savoy, trampled on the laurels of the Turks, and humbled the pride of their sultan. Achmet, by the loss of Peterwaradin, and the taking of Belgrade and Temeswar, was forced to sign the treaty of Passarowitz. In 1718, the sultan lost Temeswar, Orsoa, Belgrade, Servia, and part of Wallachia; a loss which was compensated, in the ensuing year, by his Persian successes. A revolt of the Janizaries made Achmet sultan, and a similar rebellion hurled him from the throne in 1730. The celebrated Caliph Patrona headed this revolt. Achmet went in person to seek his nephew, Mahmoud I., and, saluting him as ruler, said, " Profit by my example. | Had I always adhered to my old policy of permitting my vizier but a short stay in office, I should have ended my reign as triumph- antly as I commenced it. Farewell ! May your career be happier than mine ! I com- mend to your especial care my son." He then went into the obscurity of that prison from which he had di-awn his nephew. lie died of apoplexy, on the 23d of June, 173(j. Achmet possessed a brilliant wit, and much shrewdness, with a ready turn for public business. He loved money, and was the first to levy imposts -on the Turks, but he was ni) less attached to science, which he patronized. He established the first printing-press at Con- stantinople, 1727. He was fond of pleasure, and the Turks yet cherish the recollection of those splendid festivals at Constantinople, which sprang from his luxury, and were graced by his presence. Achmet gave con- certs of nightingales, numbers of those birds being inclosed in cages, delighting the court with their rare and plaintive melody. ACRE, called also, Akka, St. Jean d'Acre, and, in the middle ages, Ptolemais, is a town on the coast of Syria. The famous Mount Carmel overlooks the city, which contaii.s 16,000 inhabitants, and is the emporium (ji' the cotton trade of Syria. Its harbor is good, although containing many sand-banks. Acre has been a noted scene in war. It was taken by Richard I. and other crusaders, July r3th, 1191, after a siege of two years, which cost the lives of six archbishops, twelve bishops, forty earls, five hundred barons, and three hundred thousand Soldiers. It was held by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem till 1291, when it was retaken by the Saracens. Sixty thousand Christians perished in this capture, which was also memorable for the slaughter of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to avoid the lust of the conquerors. In the siege of Acre by Bonaparte in 1799, the Turks were relieved by a British fleet under Sir Sydney Smith. Twelve assaults were repulsed between March 6th and May 27th. Baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte raised the siege. On the retreat from St, Jean d'Acre, it is said that a body of French soldiers, who were sick of the plague, were poisoned by order of Bonaparte; but this has been frequently denied. Of the kindness ACR 10 COTTACxE CYCLOPEDIA OF of Bonaparte to his sick soldiers we have many proofs. Louis Phihppe, when king of the French, having his attention called to an old veteran who had heen in the army of Napoleon, rode up and shook hands with him. The old man was not flattered. "When I was sick with the plague at Jaffa," said he, hluntly, "the emperor shook hands with me; hut he didn't have gloves on." The siege of St. Jean d'Acre lasted sixty-one days, and was attended with great loss to hoth parties. Acre was seized by Ibrahim Pacha in 1832 when Egypt revolted from Turkish rule. In 1840 it was stormed by an Anglo-Austrian fleet, given up by the Egyptians, and restored to the sultan. ACTIUM, a promontory on the Gulf of Arta on the western coast of Greece, at the extremity of Acarnania. Here was fought the most memorable naval battle of antiquity, since the stake was the empire of the world, Sept. 2d, B.C. 31. The leaders of the hostile forces were Marc Antony and Octavius. The latter had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; while Antony had 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 22r. ships of war. The battle was hotly contested. Cleopatra, the beautiful Egyptian queen who had captivated Antony, seized with a panic, fled from the battle with her sixty galleys, the most brilliant vessels brought into action. Antony, whose energies had been prostrated by dissipation, followed his leman, and a dis- graceful rout among the troops on shore com- pleted his ruin, while the sovereignty of the world was the prize of Octavius, afterward Augustus Caesar. KESIDEN'CE OF ADA.MS FA.AIILY, QIINCY, MASS. ADAMS, John, the second president of the United States, was born October 19th (o.s.), 1735, in that part of Braintree, Mass., which has since been incorporated as the town of Quincy. He was the fourth in descent from Henry Adams, who fled from persecution in Devonshire, and settled in Massachusetts, about 1 G30. Another of his ancestors was John Alden, ono of the pilgrim founders of ADA Plymouth. He received his early education in his native town, and in 1751 entered Har- vard College, where he graduated in regular course four years afterward. He commenced the study of law at Worcester with Mr. James Putnam, defraying his expenses by his in- come as instructor in Greek and Latin. In 1758 Mr. Adams entered the office of Jeremy Gridley, attorney-general of the province. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 11 who had previously directed the law studies of James Otis, and who, in allusion to his two talented pupils, said, " I have trained up two j^oung eagles, who are, one day oi'' other, to pick out my eyes." In 1759, Mr. Adams was admitted to the Suifolk bar, and com- menced practice in Braintree. In 1701, he was admitted to the degree of barrister at law, and very soon afterward his father's decease put him in possession of a small landed property. In the February of this year the British cabinet enjoined the Massa- chusetts custom-house officers . to execute their oppressive acts of trade, applying to the supreme provincial judicature for writs of assistance, 3, kind of general search-warrants. The applications made in consequence to the court at Salem,' were resisted on the ground of their unconstitutionality. When it was determined to argue the matter by counsel in Boston, Mr. Otis was engaged to defend the rights of the Salem and Boston mer- chants, and, that he might do it with the more freedom, he relinquished his lucrative office of advocate-general in the court of admiralty. Mr. Adams, who took a deep interest in the affiiir, was present at the dis- cussion, and thus eulogizes the orator : " Otis was a flame of fire ! With a promptitude of classical allusion, a depth of research, a rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion of legal authorities, a prophetic glance of his eyes into futurity, and a rapid torrent of impetuous eloquence, he hurried away all before him. Aineriean indeiyendence was then and there boi'n.^' In 1764, Mr. Adams married Abigail, daughter of the Rev. William Smith, of Wey- mouth, and grand-daughter of Col. Quincj^ She was a lady of uncommon endowments and excellent education, and her patriotism and piety rendered her worthy of her hus- band. He had previously imbibed a preju- dice against the prevailing religious opinions of New England. He was Unitarian in his predilections, and a firm believer in the Cliristian faith. In 1765, he published anon- ymously a series of articles in the Boston Gazette, under the title of "An Essay on Canon and Feudal Law," the object of which was to show the conspiracy between church and state to oppress the people. It was re- printed in England and gained high com- mendation. In 1766, by the advice of Mr. Gridley, he removed to Boston, where his superior talents soon won him a prosperous practice. At an earlier period of life he had turned his thoughts to politics and the condition of the harassed colonies. Soon after leaving college, he wrote a letter to a friend, dated at Worcester, Oct, 12th, 1755, which evinces so remarkable a foresight that it is fortunate it has been preserved. " Soon after the refor- mation, a few people came over into this new world for conscience' sake. Perhaps this apparently trivial incident may transfer the great seat of empire into America. It looks likely to me, if we can remove the turbulent Gallics, our people, according to the exactest computation, will, in another century, become more numerovis than England herself. The only way to keep us from setting up for our- selves, is to disunite us. Divide et impcra. Keep us in distinct colonies, and then some great men in each colonj% desiring the mon- archy of the whole, will destroy each other's influence and keep the country in equilibrio. Be not surprised that I am turned politician : the whole town is immersed in politics. I sit and heai-, and, after being led through a maze of sage observations, I sometimes retire, and, by laying things together, form some reflec- tions pleasing to myself The produce of one of these reveries you have read above." After his removal to Boston, the friends of the crown attempted to lure him by the ofi:er of the office of advocate-general in the court of admiralty, but he refused "'decidedly and peremptorily, though respectfully." He was appointed, in 1769, chairman of the commit- tee chosen by the town of Boston to draw up instructions to their representatives to resist the unpardonable and increasing encroach- ments of the crowTi. At this time the indig- nation of the friends of liberty was excited by the- presence of an armed force in the town, while a band of hirelings surrounded ' the state-house, and cannon menaced its doors. Mr. Adams displayed his sense of honor and firmness by advocating the cause of the soldiers who, when attacked by the mob, in State street, on the 5th of March, 1770, fired upon them and killed several ADA 12 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Such was the excitement of the pubHc mind that a word in defense of the British was almost sure of being punished by the loss of popularity, and yet, Adams, in company with Josiah Quincy and Mr. Blowers, scrupled not to defend the soldiers on their trial In con- sequence of this, all were acquitted but two, who, being found guilty of manslaughter, were dismissed with a slight branding. But in May, 1770, Mr. Adams received a proof that he had not lost favor with his fellow- citizens, being chosen a representative of the town of Boston in the legislature. The active part which he took in resisting despotism in every shape, and espousing the cause of his countrymen in every way, brought him under the displeasure of Gov. Hutchinson, who negatived the choice of Mr. Adams as coun- cilor, in 1773. In 1774, Gov. Gage also re- jected him, and he was soon chosen member of the conmiittec employed to prepare reso- lutions on the Boston port-bill. That same year Gov. Gage dissolved the assembly. Before separation, Thomas Gushing, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Robert Treat Paine had been chosen to act as delegates in the first continental congress. Mr. Adams took his seat in Congress on the first day of the session, September 5th, 1774. He was one of the most efficient and able advocates of liberty, and his voice was decided for prompt and vigorous action. The following spring he was instrumental m put- ting Washington at the head of the army. He was the adviser and great supporter of the Declaration of Independence. May 6th, 1776, Mr. Adams moved a resolution, recom- mending the colonies " to adopt such a gov- ernment as would, in the opinion of the representatives of the people, best conduce to the happiness and safety of their constitu- ents and of America." It was pot without a hard struggle that this passed on the 15th of the same month, and preluded Richard Henry Lee's daring resolution of the 7th of June following, declaring the dissolution of the connection with Great Britain. On the 4th of July, the Declaration of Independence, with but few alterations from the words of Mr. Jefierson, passed The committee who had been chosen to prepare it was composed of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Adams were deputed a sub-committee to prepare the instrument, and the former did so at the in- stigation of the latter. The declaration did not pass without the most strenuous opposi- tion by many members, including some lead- ing and able men. Mr. Adams overcame all arguments offered against it, by an ovei- whelming torrent of splendid eloquence. In the words of Mr. Jefferson, "the great j)il!ar of support to the Declaration of Independ- ence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the house, was John Adams." His speech on the subject of independence is said to have been unrivaled. Mr. Webster has done honor to the style and sentiments of Mr. Adams, in alluding to. his brightest effort. He tells us that he spoke right on, and that the torrent of his manly reasoning car- ried conviction along with it. Mr. Webster gives what we may well suppose to be a por- tion of Mr. Adams's speech, concluding with this powerful and patriotic language. "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration. Living, it is my living sentiment, and, by the blessing of God, it shall be my dying sentiment — hidependenee now and indejjendence forever ! '''' On the recall of Silas Deane, who (with Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee) was a com- missioner at the court of Versailles, Mr. Adams was appointed to fill his place, Nov. 28th, 1777. Mr. Adams, embarking on board the frigate Boston, arrived safely at his place of destination, notwithstanding the efforts of an English fleet to intercept him. On his return, in the summer of 1779, being chosen member of the convention to form a plan of government for Massachusetts, he was placed upon the sub-committee whose task it was to draught the plan of a constitution. His plan was, in most of its important features, adopted by the convention. He went abroad again upon public business and visited Holland and France. The definite treaty of peace which he visited Paris to negotiate, in 1782, with Dr. Franklin, Air. Jay, Mr. Laurens, and Mr. Jefferson for colleagues, was ratified, Jan. 14th, 1784. The next year Mr. Adams was appointed the first minister to London, an office at that time peculiarly delicate and in- teresting. His reception by George III. was favorable and courteous, but the cabinet were ADA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. la cold and unfriendly, and Mr. Adiims was unable to negotiate a commercial treaty. Having assisted in forming treaties with Prussia and Morocco, he resigned, and in June, 1788, arrived in his native land after an absence of nearly nine years. That fall he was chosen vice-president, the first elected under the new constitution, and was re-elected in 1792. On the resignation of Washington, Mr. Adams was chosen president, entering upon office March 4th, 1797. The adminis- tration of Mr. Adams though at first popular, was strongly opposed toward its close. At the expiration of his term he was the candi- date of the Federal party for re-election. He was defeated, and was succeeded by Mr. Jefferson, his warm personal friend and de- cided political adversary. After Mr. Adams's retirement from public life, he occupied himself with literary and agricultural pursuits at his seat at Quincy, and with the exception of severe afllictions, the loss of his wife in 1818, and the death of his only daughter in 1813, his days glided calmly away until the ith of July, 1826. On that day he died, with the sentiment upon his lips which he had uttered with such force fifty years before upon the floor of Con^p-ess — independence forever ! On the morning of that eventful day, the peals of the bells and the report of cannon awakeij.ed him. He was asked if he knew what day it was. "Oh! yes," he replied, "it is the glorious Fourth of July : God bless it, God bless you all ! " In the course of the day, he said, "It is a great and glorious day ! " Before his death, he said, " Jefferson survives." He was mis- taken. On that very day, an hour after noon, Jefferson breathed his last. The services of John Adams to the cause of independence were unsurpassed. They were not so readily appreciated by the people, as exploits in the field, and though he was of gi'eat worth in the public comicils, others may have outshone him there. But he was an indefatigable man of business, lofty in his patriotism and honest in his devotion to what he considered the true interests of the coun- try. He has been called the Great Leader of the American Revolution. ADAMS, John Quincy (sixth president of the United States, and the son of John Adams, the second president), was born at Braintree, July 11th, 1767. The boy was cradled and bred amid the most ardent pat- riotism, and when but a lad of nine years, heard the first reading of the Declaration of Independence from the old state-house in Boston. His flxther took him abroad, and he studied at the public school of Amsterdam and the university of Ley den. In 1781, Fran- cis Dana, of Massachusetts, who had been designated as minister to Russia, selected young Adams as his private secretary. In the winter of 1782-3 he retui-ned to Holland, and till May, 1785, he was chiefly with his father in England, Holland, and France. It was at this time, that he became acquainted with Mr. Jeft'erson, who was his father's in- timate friend and then minister at Paris. He was now a youth of eighteen. His life had been one of unusual wandering and changes. His studies had been interrupted and irregular. When his father, in 1785, was appointed minister to England, he obtained permission to return to America, studied at Harvard College, and graduated in 1787. After preparatory law studies under Theoph- ilus Pareons at Newburyport, he began prac- tice at Boston. His essays and speculations on the politics and public questions of the day attracted attention, and won him high reputation as a statesman and political think- er. They drew upon him the notice, and gained him the confidence, of Washington, to whom he had been warmly recommended by Jefferson; and in 1794 he was honored with the mission to the Netherlands, where he remained for two years. His father was then vice-president, but the appointment was ' made by Washington without any intimation to him. Toward the close of the administra- tion, Washington made Mr. Adams minister to Portugal. On his way from the Hague to Lisbon he received a new commission, changing his destination to the Prussian court. This transfer to Berlin was made by his father, who had succeeded Washington in the presi- dency. Fearful that the change might be imputed to paternal partiality, the senior Adams had consulted his predecessor, and had received the following letter. "Monday, February 20, 1797. "Dear Sir: I thank you for giving me a perusal of the enclosed. The sentiments do ADA u COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Iionor to the licad and heart of the writer; employed in adjusting a commercial conven- siiul if my wishes would be of any avail, the}- tion with Great Britain, and in February, should go to you in a strong hope that you ^\•iIl not withhold merited promotion from John Q. Adams because he is your son. For, without intending to compliment the fathei- or the mother, or to censure any others, I 1815, he was appointed minister to the Brit- ish court Mr. Monroe recalled him in 1817 to take the post of secretary of state in his cabinet. During the eight years of Mr. Mon- roe's administi'ation, Mr. Adams continued at give it as my decided opinion, that Mr. Adams the head of that department, and his expe- ls the most valuable public character we have rience abroad was of great service in directing abroad ; and that there remains no doubt in the foreign policy of the government With my mind, that he will prove himself to be the Mr. Clay he was instrumental in obtaining ablest of all our diplomatic corps. If he w;'.." the recognition of the independence of the now to be brought into that line, or into any .South American republics. Long standing other public walk, I could not, upon the prin- difficulties with Spain were also honorably fiple which has regulated my own conduct, ] and successfully closed under his direction, disapprove of the caution which is hinted at i and the important acquisition of Florida was in the letter. But he is already entered ; the made. public, more and more, as he is known, are At the close of Mr. Monroe's second term, appreciating his talents and worth ; and his Mr. Adams was a [)rominent candidate for the country would sustain a loss, if these were to succession, and of many who preferred Jack- be checked by over-delicacy on your part | son, or Claj', or Crawford, he was the second "With sincere esteem and affectionate re- j choice. When the votes of the electoral col- lege were counted, it was found that Mr. Cal- gard, I am ever yours, "'CiEoiiGE Washington." Mr. Adams was recalled by his father in 1801, and after serving in the state senate, was chosen United States senator in 1803. He pursued an independent course in the senate, and for supporting the embargo rec- ommended by Jefferson, was censured in 1808, by the Federalist legislature of his state. Not choosing to represent constituents whose confidence he had lost, he resigned his seat. Soon after Mr. Madison sent him to Russia, the first minister from the United States to that country. Through his influence the Em- peror Alexander offered himself as a media- tor to conclude the difficulties between Great Britain and our country ; and although the proffer was declined by the British, it led them to an offer to treat directly, which re- sulted in peace. Mr. Adams was therefore fitly put at the head of the American com- mission by which the treaty of Ghent was negotiated. His colleagues were, James H. Bayard, of Delaware, Henry Clay, of Ken- tucky, Jonathan Russell, of Rhode Island, and Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania. In the counsels and labors of the important confer- ence, Mr. Adams bore his full part With Messrs. Clay and Gallatin he was afterward houn had been elected vice-president, while for president there was no choice. General Jackson had received ninety-nine votes, Mr. Adams eighty-four, Mr. Crawford forty-one, and Mr. Clay thirty-seven. The choice of president from the three leading candidates, accordingly devolved upon the house of rep- resentatives. The fi-iends of Mr. Clay in that body voted for Mr. Adams, and his election was effected on the first ballot He received the votes of thirteen states. General Jack- son seven states, and Mr. Crawford four states. The Crawford men and Jackson men com- bined in opposition to the administration, and although Mr. Adams's course was not parti- san, but conciliatory to his opponents, his efforts to conduct the public affiiirs with in- tegi-ity and usefulness could not turn the flood of popular opinion that set steadily against him; and in 1828, General Jackson was elect- ed president by a large majority over him. Mr. Adams retired to private life at Quincy, esteemed by his political friends and respected by his opponents. But his neighbors and friends were not willing that the country should have no more the benefit of his ser- vices, and they elected him to represent the district in Congress. In December, 1831, being then in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and already forty years in active public ser- ADA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 15 vice, he took his seat in the house of reprc- earth." A committee from Congi'ess accom- sentatives, a member of which he continued \ panied his remains to the family's place of till his death, more than sixteen years after. burial at Quincy, and solemn honors were In this position he maintained the stand to paid to his memory in the towns and cities which his distinguished services and expe- i through which the corpse was borne, rience, no less than his eminent talents, well I Mr. Adams was of middle stature and full entitled him. At the opening of the twenty- person, his eyes dark and beaming, and pierc- sixth congress, a singular scene was exhibited j ing with intelhgence. He always led an act- ive life, and enjoyed good health to an advanced age, the fruit, no doubt, of his in the house of representatives. Eight seats were contested, and the clerk of the last house, upon whom it fell to preside till a speaker should be chosen, in calling the roll of mem- bers elect, refused to call the gentlemen hold- ing certificates for the contested seats. An angry and discordant debate, amid confusion and disorder, ensued for three days, and on the fourth there was little better than anar- chy. The clerk persisted in his contumacy, no speaker could be chosen, and the mode of extrication could not be discerned. At this point Mr. Adams rose. The tumult hushed. After a short, pointed speech, aimed at the impudence of the acting clerk, he submitted a motion that that official should at once pro- ceed with the call of the roll m due and usual order. The clerk, as he had previously done, refused to entertain the motion. " How shall the question be put?" anxiously cried several voices. " I intend to put it myself! " replied Mr. Adams. This restored order. Richard Barnwell Rhett, of South Carolina, sprang to the floor and loudly moved that John Quin- cy Adams should take the speaker's chair until the house should be constitutionally oi^anized ; put the question himself, and de- clared it carried. Mr. Adams presided several days, till Mr. Hunter, of Virginia, was chosen speaker. A striking feature of Mr. Adams's congres- sional career, was the earnestness and firmness with which he adhered to the right of the people to petition Congress, and to be heard tlirough their representatives, on any subject whatsoever. He took an active part in debate, on nearly every topic of public interest, and his speeches were marked with a fervor that won him the name of "The Old Man Elo- quent." Like Lord Chatham, he died at his post. The 22d of February, 1848, he was stricken by paralysis in his seat, was borne to the speaker's room, and there died the next day, being in his eighty-first year of age. His last words were, "This is the last of early rising and bodily exercise. His mind was highly cultivated, and he was considered one of the most accomplished among Ameri- can scholars and statesmen. In May, 1Y97, he was married to Louisa Catherine, daugh- ter of Joshua Johnson, Esq., of Maryland, who then resided in London. By this lady who survived him, he had three sons and one daughter. Only one child, Charles Francis, survived him. ADAMS, Samuel, a distinguished patriot in our revolution, born in Boston, Sept. 27th, 1722, was descended from a family which had been among the earliest settlers in New Eng- land. Mr. Adams graduated at Harvard, with the usual academical honors, in 1740. On taking the degree of master of arts he dis- cussed the question, "Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the com- monwealth can not be otherwise preserved ? " and maintained the affirmative with great ability. He commenced the study of divin- itj% but found his attention completely ab- sorbed by politics, which then excited an universal interest. His vigorous support of republican principles soon endeared him to the patriotic party, wlio placed him in the leg- islature in 1766. Thenceforward he distin- guished himself as one of the most active, able, and uncompromising advocates of inde- pendence. He was on every committee, his hand was employed upon every report, and his voice heard upon every subject, involving opposition to the tyrannical measures of the colonial government. The enemies of Amer- ica heard that Mr. Adams was poor, and those among them who believed in the omnipotence of British gold, asked why this demagogue was not silenced by a bribe. Governor Hutch- inson answered, "Such is the obstinacy and inflexible disposition of the man, that he can never be conciliated by any ofiice or gift what- ever." In 177-4, he was sent to the first con- ADA 16 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF gress of the old confederation. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independ- ence in 1776. He was active in the conven- tion which formed the constitution of Massa- chusetts, was placed in the senate of the state, presided for several years over that body, and was elected lieutenant-governor in 1789. In 1794, at tlie death of Hancock, he was chosen governor, and was yearly re-elected until 1797. His retirement from public life took place in that year ; and, on October 2d, 1803, he expired at his house in "Winter street, Boston, in the eighty-second year of his age. Mr. Adams foresaw the course which the colonies were obliged to take from the begin- ning. He was aware that, upon the side of the British, there would be no concessions, no retractions ; that they entertained a con- temptuous opinion of the force and spirit of the colonies, and would abide by their own measures. He received warning at Lexing- ton, on the night of the 18th of April, of the intended British expedition, which turned out so disastrously for them, and prepared to make his escape at dawn across the fields. Turning to the friends who accompanied him, he exclaimed, " This is a fine day ! " His re- mark was thought to allude to the weather, and one of his companions answered, "It is really a pleasant day." "I mean," said he, his eye lighting up, as he spoke, " I mean, this is a glorious day for my country!" There was a certain narrowness and sternness in the political and religious opinions of Samuel Adams. He was a strict Calvinist, and re- garded with no favor opinions at variance with those of his sect. He was firmly at- tached to habits and principles in which he had been bred, and too fond of making im- portant measures conform to a certain code of his own. He vmdervalued the services of Washington during the war, thinking him too slow and cautious, and being impatient for some decisive stroke, which the commander- in-chief would not have failed to strike when- ever the opportunity occurred. After the war was happily concluded, and there could be but one opinion of the services of "Washing- ton, Mr. Adams feared for his country, when the man who had led her through the perils of the armed struggle was made her chief mag- istrate. He feared the popularity of "Wash- ington; but his was the error of judgment. No unprejudiced man who had regarded the previous course of the Father of his country, could fear that he could prove either a Cassar or a Cromwell. Mr. Adams possessed those manly virtues which eminently fitted him for a revolutionary epoch, and when the cloud hun;r darkest over his country, his character and resources appeared most strikingly. Of v.n austere and unyielding mind, he was yet dig- nified and courteous to a high degree. He was never shackled by pecuniary considera- tions, and would have died in poverty, had not the death of an only son supplied his wants, while it grieved him to the soul. A colleague of Mr. Adams thus described him in good- humored caricature: " Samuel Adams would have the state of Massachusetts govern the Union, the town of Boston govern Massachu- setts, and that he should govern the town of Boston, and then the whole would not be in- tentionally ill-governed." ADDISON, Joseph, an author of celebrity, was the son of a clergyman, and was born at Milston, "\Yiltshire, in 1672. He was educated at the Charter-House in London, and at Ox- ford, where he distinguished himself b}^ his Latin poetry. Having obtained a pension, he set out on his travels, remaining abroad two years. Of his " Travels," which he published on his return. Dr. Johnson said, that "they might have been written at home." In 1704, a poem on the victory of Blenheim procured him the office of commissioner of appeals. In 1796 he was chosen under- seci'etary of state, and in 1709 went to Ireland as Lord "Whar- ton's secretary, at the same time deriving an income of £300 a year fi'om his appointment of keeper of the Irish records. The "Tat- tler," "Spectator," and "Guardian," periodi- cal papers commenced by Steele, owed their celebrity in a good degree to the essays of Ad- dison. In these papers, which were read with avidity by all classes, Addison displayed that chaste humor, refined observation, and world- ly knowledge, that poetical imagination, deep vein of feeling, and purity of style, which make his prose a model in our language. The success of his tragedy ot "Cato," pro- duced in 1713, was owing less to the merits of the piece (which is better adapted to pri- vate perusal than public exhibition), than to the high state of party feeling; anything ADD HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 17 liberal in tone being warmly supported by the Whigs. The pen of Addison was devoted to politi- cal subjects for a long time, and he was em- ployed a second time as secretary to the viceroy of Ireland, and afterward was ap- pointed one of the lords of trade. Having fixed his affections on the dowager Countess of Warwick, he obtained her hand with diffi- culty, and was married in 1716. The union, however, was anything but happy. The lady awarded him the "heraldry of hands, not hearts," treated him with contempt, and made his fireside so uncomfortable that he often forsook it for a tavern. In 1717 he was appointed secretary of state, but finding him- self incapable of filling the office with honor, he retired with a pension of £1,500. He wanted the physical boldness and ready re- sources of an effective public speaker, and was unable to defend his measures in parlia- ment. He is also said to have been slow and fastidious in the quieter duties of office. When he was undei'-secretary, it fell to him to send word to Hanover of the death of Queen Anne. The critical nicety of the au- thor so distracted him in the choice of ex- pressions, that the task was abandoned to a clerk, who boasted of having done what was too hard for Addison. In retirement he en- gaged himself in writing a work on "The Evidences of the Christian Keligion," which he did not live to complete. Throughout his life he was a sincere Christian. He died in 1719, and on his death-bed he sent for Lord Warwick, a youth of dissolute habits, and said to him: "I have sent for you, young man, to show you with what calmness a Christian can die." The temper of Addison was jealous and taciturn, until cheered by wine. "I have never seen a more modest or more awkward man," was the remark of Lord Chesterfield, one of the best judges and most accurate ob- servers of manners that ever lived. Button's coffee-house was the favorite resort of Ad- dison and contemporary wits in London. ADRIAN, or HADEIAN, Publius ^lius, the fifteenth emperor of Rome, was born A.D. 76, and brought up under the eye of Trajan, his father's kinsman, who adopted him as his son, and to whom he succeeded, 117. He was a successful soldier, and a great lover of literature and the arts, but disgraced by the indulgence of sensuality. In the course of his reign he visited nearly every part of his dominions, and when in Britain, 120, built a wall eighty miles in length, from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to prevent the incursions of the Caledonians, He was the restorer of Jerusalem, which he named ^lia Capitolina, and on Mount Cal- vary he erected a temple to Jupiter ; died 138. Six popes have also borne the name of Adrian. ADRIATIC SEA, or Gulf of Venice, wash- es the shores of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, and Albania. It is about 480 miles long, and gen- erally 130 broad. Venice claimed the exclu- sive sovereignty of this sea. The ceremony of the Doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic was instituted in 1173. Annually, upon As- cension day, the doge dropped a ring into its waves from his bucentaur or state barge. On these occasions he was attended by all the Venetian nobles and the foreign ambassa- dors in gondolas. The ceremony was inter- mitted, for the first time in centuries, in 1797. ^GINA, an island thirty miles in circum- ference, between the coasts of Attica and the Peloponnesus, formerly independent, popu- lous, wealthy, and famed for the commercial spirit of its inhabitants. Its capital bore the same name. yELFRIC, a brave and talented Archbishop of Canterbury, who lived in the tenth centu- ry. He translated the historical books of the Old Testament, and distinguished himself for his resistance to the Danes. His death took place in 1005. ^MILIUS PAULUS, a brave and noble Roman, father of Scipio Africanus the Young- er. He defeated Perseus, king of Macedon, and celebrated his success by a triumph, B.C. 168, which was rendered memorable by the death of his two sons, and the heroic fortitude with which he bore their loss, thanking the gods that they were chosen for victims, so that the Roman people might be shielded from calamity. J^INEAS, a Trojan prince, the hero of the "^neid" of Virgil, who represents him as the son of Anchises and the goddess Venus. The former he bore in safety, from the flames of Troy, which he had defended until valor ^NB 18 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF was of no avail. He retired to Mount Ida, where he built a fleet, and sailed in quest of a settlement. He is said to have been con- temporary with Dido, and, after plighting his faith to the Carthaginian queen, to have left her a prey to pangs so poignant as to deprive her of judgment, in which state she threw herself upon a funeral pile and was burned alive. Tliis, however, is a poetical anach- ronism. xEneas, after various adventures, and great sufferings, landed on the coast of Latium, in Italy, where he was hospitably received by king Latinus, who bestowed upon the stranger the hand of his daughter Lavin- ia. This gift involved ^neas in a war with Turnus, a disappointed rival, who was signally defeated by the son of Venus. The history of iEneas is wholly traditional. JilOLIANS, a Thessalian tribe, who estab- lished several small states in Greece, while a portion settled iEolis, in Asia Minor, in the ancient Tread. They united themselves in a confederacy, and were free while they pre- served it. The name jEolic is applied to a dialect of the Greek language, very nearly resembling the Doric. ^SCHIXES, an Athenian orator, the rival of Demosthenes, born 393, died 323 B.C. He at first led a life of wandering poverty, but be- came an actor, a pupil of Plato and Socrates, and attained some distinction. Having lost the favor of the people, he fled to Samos and Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric until his death. Another ^schines, a philosopher, was a poor disciple of Socrates. ^SCHYLUS, a celebrated Greek di-amatic writei', was born of a noble family at Eleusis in Attica, b.c. 525, and died at Gcla in Sic- ily, B.C. 456. At the age of twenty-five, B.C. 499, he first presented himself at the festival of Bacchus as a competitor for the public prize, and fifteen years afterward, b.c. 484, gained his first victory. The pre-emi- nence which he thus acquired was success- fully maintained till b.c. 468, when he was defeated in a similar contest by his younger rival, Sophocles. Mortified at the indignity he thought thus put upon him, he quitted Athens and went to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse. Of the remaining portion of his life but little is known, except that he con- tinued to prosecute his favorite pursuit ; and that his residence in Sicily was of some dura- tion, may be inferred from the fact that it was sufficient to afiect the purity of his language. His thirteenth and last victory was gained B.C. 458. On the manner of his death, which was singular, the ancient writers are unani- mous. While sitting motionless in the fields, his bald head was mistaken for a stone by an eagle which happened to be flymg over him with a tortoise in her bill. The bird dropped the tortoise to break the shell, and the poet was killed by the blow, ^schylus is said to have been the author of seventy tragedies, of which only seven . are now extant. The im- provements which he introduced in the econ- omy of the drama, were so important as to gain for him the distinction of the Father of Greek Tragedy. To the single actor of Thes- pis he added a second, and thus presented the regular dialogue. He abridged the length of the choral odes and made them subservient to the main interest of the plot ; substituted a regular stage for the movable wain of his predecessor ; provided appropriate scenic dec- orations, and dresses for the actors; and removed all deeds of murder and bloodshed from public view. His style is bold, lofty, and sublime, full of gorgeous imagery and magnificent expressions, suitable to the ele- vated characters of his dramas. His plays have little or no plot ; and have therefore been blamed as deficient in dramatic interest. But ^schylus was illustrious not merely as a poet. Along with his brother Cyngegirus he distinguished himself so highly in the battle of Marathon, b.c. 490, that his exploits weie commemorated by a descriptive painting in the theater of Athens ; and it is probable that he took part in the subsequent battles of Artcmisium, Salamis and Plataja. ^SCULAPIUS, believed to have been the inventor of medicine, and worshiped as a di- vinity in many cities of Greece. He is gen- erally represented with a long beard, and grasping in one hand a staff entwined by a serpent, the emblem of convalescence, the other hand supported by a serpent. Some- times he was denoted by a serpent only. He was believed to be the son of Apollo. -SSOP, whose fables have been so celebra- ted, was born in Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, about the fifty-second Olympiad, the first year of which corresponds with 572 B.C. The age in which he lived is noted in Grecian MSO HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 19 history as that in which Solon, the famous lawgiver, flourished. In his youth /Esop was a slave. Among the Greeks the condition of the slaves was abject and pitiable indeed ; the Spartans, in particular, regarding them in the light of brute beasts, whom it was allowable to kill upon the least provocation, and even without the slightest offense. It docs not, however, appear that iEsop experienced any great severity of treatment. His first master was one Dinarchus, who resided at Athens. Msop passed into the hands of Xanthus of Samos, who afterward sold him to ladmon of the same place. There were no fewer than three islands to which the ancients gave the name of Samos. That of which we speak was situated off the coast of Ionia. It was supposed to have been the birthplace of the goddess Juno, to whom a magnificent tem- ple was erected, no remains of which have escaped the ravages of time. The fertility of -he island, and the salubrity of its climate, gained it universal admiration, and made its possession an object of great importance. It was formerly not so much noted for its wine as it is at present, the Samian wine being con- sidered by the moderns as equal to that of Cyprus, while it was very much underrated by the ancients. After he had obtained his freedom, iEsop distinguished himself by his art of inculcat- ing useful truths under the cloak of fiction. This invention is attributed to him, and Phse- drus acknowledges this in his own fables. "The words," says the latter, "are mine, but the invention belongs to ^sop." It is, how- ever, probable that fables originated with the oriental nations, from whom ^sop borrowed them. Croesus, king of Lydia, whose wealth was so immense, hearing of the fame of yEsop, invited him to his court. It has been said that the personal appearance of JEso-p was far from being prepossessing ; that he was of small size and dreadfully deformed; that Croesus was at first disgusted at beholding a figure so entirely at variance with his precon- ceived ideas of the man; and that iEsop speaking of his own deformity, said, "It is not the exterior of the vase that we should court of Croesus, exhibited a marked con- trast. The fabulist played well the part of an accomplished courtier, but the stern lawgiver rigidly adhered to the truth in all he said. Solon having ^displeased the monarch by the independent tone which he assumed, ^sop said to him, "You should never speak to kings, or only tell them what will flatter them." "Not so," said Solon; "we must never speak to kings, or only tell them useful truths." ^sop had lived too long in slavery not to have acquired habits of submission and def- erence toward those whom circumstances made his superiors. He found no difficulty in winning the entire confidence of Croesus. The latter, wishing to consult the oracle of Delphi with regard to Cyrus, who menaced him with ruin, sent /Esop with instructions to offer up sacrifices to the deity in the name of the king of Lydia, and to present to each inhabitant of Delphi a considerable sum of money. iEsop came to Delphi, and offered up his sacrifices, but having quarreled with the Delphians, he sent away the money which the Lydian monarch had intended for them, and declared that they were unworthy of such benefactions. The cause of this quarrel is not exactly known, but perhaps the nat- ural shrewdness and intelligence of ^sop enabled him to make a discovery of the arti- fices employed to deceive those who referred to the oracle for instruction, and his indigna- tion impelled him to reproach the priests with their imposition. The Delphians, enraged at the conduct of the bold stranger, and fearing that, if permitted to depart, he might reveal enough to destroy their character and hopes forever, determined, if possible, to effect his ruin. To accomplish their purposes, they hid a golden cup which had been consecrated to. Apollo, among his effects, and then charged him with having stolen it. He indignantly denied the charge. His enemies were inex- orable ; a search was made, and the golden cup having been found in his possession, he was condemned to death, and, pursuant to his unjust sentence, hurled from the summit of a high rock. Soon after this bloody deed, heavy calamities fell upon the Delphians, regard, but the quality of the wine which it i which they did not fail to attribute to the ih- contains." The conduct of .^sop and Solon, dignation of the gods, aroused at their inhu- both of whom were at the same time at the i man conduct. Various methods were resorts iESO 20 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF ed to in order to appease the just indignation of their deities. At length they offered to malvc restitution to the descendants of ^sop, if any such existed, ^sop, however, was a solitary being, tlie last of his race. But a relation of laclmon, his last master, came forward, claimed, and received, the proffered indemnity. The authorship of the fables attributed to ^Esop has been a source of much dispute among different writers. It is thought that many of the fables which have descended to us with his name were not of his invention. The fables of yEsop attained a very great ce- lebrity in Greece. yEsop was peculiarly hap- py in the application of his fables. Having visited Athens soon after Pisistratus had usurped the authority, and found the Athen- ians shrinking beneath the yoke which had been imposed upon them, he related to them the following fable. "Once upon a time, the frogs, thinking it a fine thing to have a ruler, petitioned Jupiter to give them a king. Yielding to their wishes, he threw down a huge log, from which they at first fled in dis- may. But finding it quiet and harmless, they at length ventured to approach, and soon after grew weary of its inaction, and complained bitterly to Jupiter of their stupid ruler, desiring one more active. Indignant at their querulous cries, Jupiter sent down a stork, whose activity made up for the long sloth of the log ; in fact, he was never idle, but darting here and there, preyed upon his subjects with restless ferocity, until the rem- nant of the frogs groaned to be restored to their former liberty." The moral of this fable was apparent to the meanest under- standing. The Athenians honored the mem- ory of J5sop, by erecting a fine statue, executed by Lysippus, to the man who was once a slave. Its design was to show that the road to fame was open to all, and that, with perseverance and mental power, a man requires few external advantages, to succeed in what he undertakes. The life of JEsop was checkered with light and shade : perhaps the latter predominated, for, in allusion to the misfortunes of humanity, he was wont to say that "Prometheus formed man of clay, and tempered it with tears." His death took place about the year 531 B.C. iETIUS, the brave general of Valentinian III., who repulsed Attila, and was stabbed by his suspicious master in 454. ^TNA, the greatest volcano in Europe, is on the north-eastern coast of Sicily, and now called Mongibello. Its elevation above the surface of the sea is 10,784 feet. Towns and villages are scattered on its sides. It exhib- its three distinct climates, the hot, temperate, and frigid; and three distinct regions, the fertile, woody, and barren. It measures nine- ty miles round the base, and its crater forms a circle of three or four miles in circumfer- ence. The crater's shape and size are liable to constant change from the eruptions. The summit is enveloped in smoke and snow at the same time, while the sides of the moun- tain present a rich prospect of cultivated fields and smiling vineyards. The mountain fur- nishes snow and ice to Sicily and Malta, and thus jaelds quite an income to the Bishop of Catania, the exclusive proprietor of the trade. A chestnut-tree, wonderful for its gigantic size, stands upon the side of Mount ^Etna. It is known by the name of the Castagno de Cento Cavilli, because it is said to be capable of sheltering a hundred horses beneath its boughs. It still bears rich foliage and much small fruit, though the heart of the trunk is decayed, and a road leads through it wide enough for two coaches abreast. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption as hav- ing happened 1693 B.C. Thucydidcs speaks of three eruptions, occurring 734, 477 and 425 B.C. To the second of these, both ^s- chylus and Pindar allude. The awful erui>- tion of 1169 overwhelmed Catania, and fifteen thousand persons perished among the burn- ing ruins. There were destructive eruptions in 1329, 1408, 1444, 'l536, 1537, 1564. In that of 1669, tens of thousands lost their lives in the streams of lava that flooded the land. The hot flood reached the walls of Catanin, which had been raised to save the town, swelled over the barrier, and fell in a fiery cascade. The wall was not thrown down, and the solid lava may still be seen, curling ovci- 4;he rampart like a torrent in the act of fall- ing. There were eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in Maj-, 1830, when several villages were destroyed and showers of lava reached near to Rome. By the violent out- break of November, 1832, Bronte, a town of iETN Blf^TOKY AND BIOGBAPHY.. 21 GREAT CHESTNCT-TREE OF MOUNT jETNA. 13,000 inhabitants was destroyed. A violent eruption occurred in August and September, 1852. ^TOLIA, a country of antiquity, in the middle of Greece, whose boundaries varied greatly from time to time. It was strong, but unfruitful, and the inhabitants illiberal, given to plunder and avaricious. Divided into small tribes, they were proud of their in- dependence, and ardent lovers of freedom. After the ruin of Athens and Sparta, they attained an eminence which they had not be- fore possessed, and ranked with the Mace- donians and Achaians as a leading power in Greece. As allies of the Romans, they ren- dered themselves formidable, and were no less so when they forsook the former for the Mace- donians. They were conquered by Fulvius. In war, their fine cavalry was famed for the fierce impetus of its attacks. Their common- wealth was much like that of Achaia. AFGHANISTAN, in Asia, has an area somewhat larger than that of France. To the north of it is Turkistan, to the east the Punjaub, to the south Beloochistan, and on the west Persia. Beloochistan is properly a part of Afghanistan, but is at present polit- ically separated from it. Afghanistan is an elevated table-land, the eastern base of which is washed by the Indus. The mountain range of Hindoo-Coosh on the north, rises to eighteen and twenty thousand feet, and may be considered as an offshoot of the Himalaya chain. The valleys are fertile. The snow on the mountains feeds numerous streams, but there are no navigable rivers. The pop- ulation is estimated at 14,000,000, inclusive of Beloochistan. The large towns, such as Cabul, Candahar, Ghuznee, Jellalabad, and Herat, are inhabited chiefly by Persians and Hindoos ; an Afghan never keeps a shop or labors at a trade. The only Afghans found AFG 22 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP in the towns are officers of government, and their followers, with ' soldiers and priests. The Afghans, who number little more than a third of the people, are of moderate stature, remarkably hardy and athletic. Their high cheek-bones and prominent noses distinguish them essentially from the Tartars. Their manners are frank and open. Little respect is paid to rank, but great reverence is shown for old age. They are sociable, and like sing- ing, dancing, and music. Of games of chance or skill they are fond. In long genealogies they feel pride, scarcely allowing a man to be a genuine Afghan, if he can not prove six descents. Hospitality is a point of honor. A man may travel without money from one end of the country to the other, and the bit- terest enemy is safe if he claims the protection of hospitality. They have, however, more of such honor than conscience, and robberies are frequent in the more remote districts. Social intercourse with women is less re- strained than among other Mohammedans. Women are generally well treated, not being permitted to engage promiscuously in the labors of the men, but being employed in domestic avocations. Wives, are, however, regarded as property, being invariably pur- ."hased, and those of the upper classes live in total seclusion, though their privacy is lux- urious, and their style of life magnificent. Want of feeling is not in general a fault of the Afghans, and the females are frequently regarded with a tenderness and devotion worthy of the chivalric age. Many a young Afghan, in consequence of passionate attach- ment to some young woman to whom his plighted faith belongs, resolutely bids a fare- well to home, and labors for a long time in a distant place, until he procures sufficient money to buy her from her father. Instances of cruelty to women are of infrequent occur- rence. The Afghans are not insensible to the advantages of education, and are rather liber- al m their allotments of land for the support of public teachers, who are also ministers of religion. They are an imagniative people, and take delight in those wild narratives which it is the sport and province of oriental imaginations to create. The spirited lyrics of their poets breathe a strong love for liberty. The Afghans are divided into ti-ibes, almost independent in their government. Their re- publican spirit has saved them from sinking into the common oriental despotism. The Durances and the Ghiljies are the leading tribes. The tribes are subdivided into clans, often at feud with one another. To an En- glish traveler, who expatiated on the freedom from alarm, blood, and discord, that a stead- ier government would give, this reply was made : " We are content with discord, we are content with alarms, we are content with blood, but we will never be content with a master." There are three independent po- litical states, Cabul, Candahar, and Herat, the chiefs of which have but a limited authority. Afghanistan was known to the Greeks as Ariana. As part of tlw Persian empire, it passed under the dominion of Alexander the Great. The origin of the Afghan race and the date of its settlement in the land are un- certain. They have a tradition that they are the descendants of Afghan, the son of Irmia, or Berkia, son of Saul, king of Israel ; and their histories begin with narrating the trans- actions of the Jews, from Abraham down to the captivity. Various tides of conquest, Scythian, Arab, Tartar, and Mogul, have swept over the land. Ahmed Khan estab- lished its independence of Persia in 1747, and founded the Durance dynasty. In the early part of this century the sway was disputed by various rivals. In 1838 the British es- poused the cause of Shah Soojah against Dost Mahomed. Candahar, Ghuznee, and Cabul were taken ; Shah Soojah was put on the throne ; the conquest was considered com- plete ; and the main body of the British army returned to India. The next year insurrec- tions broke out and grew more and more troublous. In September, 1841, the neigh- borhood of Cabul swarmed with predatory bands. On the 2d of November, the house of Sir Alexander Burnes, one of the British envoys at Cabul, was fired, and he and every man, woman, and child on the premises, murdered. The British officers seemed to be stupefied. General Elphinstone held the chief command, but was in such a state of nervous weakness from ill health as to be utterly in- capable of acting with the energy necessary for such an emergency. The Afghans grew bolder; the Bi'itish became more confused and indecisive. The 23d of December, Sir William MacNaghten, the other envoy, was AFG HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 23 murdered by Akbar Khan, (son of Dost Ma- homed), who had invited him to a conference. Three days later the despairing Europeans agreed to yield all but six guns, to relinquish all the treasure, to leave four oflScers as host- ages, and to pay forty thousand rupees, in bills drawn upon India, but negotiated on the spot by Hindoo bankers, for a safe escort to Peshawur. Akbar Khan undertook to con- duct them in safety to Jellalabad. The disas- trous retreat from Cabul was commenced on the 6th of January, 1842. The British force was estimated at forty-five hundred soldiers, twelve thousand men of camp-followers, be- sides a great number of women and children. . Massacre began at once. The cold was in- tense ; the attacks of the Afghans were inces- sant ; the fugitives were almost without food ; only a handful escaped ; twenty-six thousand individuals were destroyed. This terrible reverse aroused the British to great effort; victories were gained, and before the close of 1842 the war was at an end, and the British army withdrawn. Shah Soojah had been assassinated, and Dost Mahomed regained the sovereignty. AFRICA formed a third part of the world, known to the ancients. They gave it the name of Libya, and divided it into Africa Propria and Africa Interior. The former of these, or the territory of Carthage, included several countries inhabited by twenty-six dif- ferent nations, comprehending two provinces, the Regio Zeugitana "and Byzacium, corre- sponding with the kingdom of Tunis. Ham and his descendants are thought to have first peopled Africa. Egypt was peopled by Miz- raim. Africa Interior included the distant portions of Africa little known to the ancients, whose knowledge did not extend much be- yond the tropic of Cancer, the limit of both their victories and researches. Those parts of Africa which they did not visit, their fer- tile fancies peopled with various races of men endowed with strange attributes ; and singu- lar tales, thus originating, have been handed down even to modern times. Thus we hear of nations of curious dwarfs, of men who dwelt in trees like monkeys, of races forming a connecting link between man and the brutes, and tribes whose history has been invented by wild imaginations in their wildest flights. Herodotus states that Africa is surroundd with water except at the narrow neck of Suez. He reports its circumnavigation by Phenician mariners between the years 610 and 594 b.c. "Necho, king of Egypt," he says, " dispatched some Phenicians in vessels, with instructions to sail round Libya and through the Pillars of Hercules [straits of Gibraltar] into the northern [Mediterranean] sea, and so to return to Egypt. They set out from the Red Sea and navigated the southern ocean. When the rainy season came on, they would land on whatever part of the coast they happened to be, sow the ground, and wait for the harvest. After reaping it, they would again put to sea ; and thus after two years had gone, in the third they passed through the Pillars of Hercules and arrived at Egypt. And they said (but for my part I do not believe the assertion, though others may) that in their voyage round Libya, they had the sun on their right hand." Africa was an important division of the ancient world. Many of her nations and states, at a very early period, had made great advancement in the liberal arts. The north- ern part was inhabited by several enterprising nations, whose extensive commerce rolled abundant wealth into the land. With their riches the power of these states increased: Egypt and Ethiopia became famous, and Carthage sent forth her fleets to every part of the then known world. The career of dis- covery by which Africa has become known to the modern world, was commenced by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century. Prince Henry, a younger son of John I., devoted his life to the task. The Azores, the Cape Verde Isles, and various points on the coast, were colonized under his auspices. His zeal excit- ed long-continued ridicule and opposition, but Afi'ican discovery became a national passion, and after his death, was prosecuted by the government. Bartholomew Diaz rounded the continent's farthest promontory in 1487. The storms that tossed him there led him to call it the Cape of Tempests, but John II., thinking the discovery a precursor of brighter revelations beyond, changed the name to the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco de Gama doubled it in 1497, sailed along the eastern coast, and found the path to India. Portuguese mar- incTS had now navigated the whole extent r>f the African coast, from the Straits of Gib- AFR 24 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF raltar to the Straits of Bab-el-mandeb, with the exception of the thousand miles between the latter point and Magadoxa. They had as- certained the general shape of the continent to this extent, and the position of most of the principal rivers and headlands. At the be- ginning of the century, the line of coast thus traced was entirely unknown to the nations of Europe, excepting the extent of six hund- red miles between the Straits of Gibraltar and Cape Nun. But the Arabs had long been ac- quainted with the greater part of the eastern coast along which Vasco de Gama passed after doubling the Cape of Good Hope; and the great towns which he saw or heard of, from Sofala onward to Magadoxa, were for the most part settlements that they had founded. The chief of these was the town of Quiloa. In course of time the Portuguese gained consid- erable knowledge of the interior also, partly by means of the establishments they formed at divers points, and partly from information brought them from other parts by the natives. Very early they heard of a great Christian potentate whom they called Priest John ; anglicized to Prester John. The expeditions to find the domains of this mysterious person- age, and the missions of a later date, all help- ed to increase the scanty and confused knowl- edge of the vast country. The French, the En- glish, the Dutch, and others, followed the lead of Portugal, and founded settlements on the coast, and penetrated a little into the interior. The discoveries of Bruce in his long and perilous journey toward the sources of the Nile, gave a new impetus to African explora- tion at the close of the last century. An association for its promotion was formed in London, under whose auspices Mungo Park searched for the secret of the Niger's course. Since then important discoveries have been made ; discoveries bought by the lives of the explorers, the most of whom have died either from the malaria of the clime or at the hand of treacherous barbarians. Eminent are the names of Park, Burckhardt, Ledyard, Horne- mann, Laing, Denham and Clapperton, Lan- der, Richardson, Overweg and Barth, in the north ; and Sparrman, Vaillant, Cowan and Donovan, Lichtenstein, Campbell, Alexander, and Livingston, in the southern part. Dr. Livingston, who was a missionary at Kolo- beng, (240 30' S. lat., 26o E. long.,) made several journeys thence into the interior, and in 1849, reached Lake Ngami. The exist- ence of this large inland sea had been report- ed to the Portuguese as early as 1508. In a subsequent journey Dr. Livingston penetrated as far north as 10° S. lat., came out unexpect- edly at the Portuguese settlement of Loanda, pushed back into the wilderness, and at last returned to England in 1856. The river Lee- ambye, after innumerable windings, he traced to the river Zambezi, which discharges itself into the Mozambique Channel. The Leeam- bye consists of a system of rivers, which spread out periodically into a great sea, filling hundreds of lateral channels. The principal stream is about a thousand yards broad. But a small portion of its waters reaches the sea, the remainder being absorbed by vast lakes and marshes. It is so diminutive when it reaches the sea as not to be navigable for vessels. It will, however, be of great use, as a means of communication with the interior. Dr. Liv- ingston ascertained that a large portion of the blank in South x\frican maps consists of fer» tile countries, inhabited by populous tribes, and intersected by large rivers. The farther he traveled into the interior of Africa, the more civilized and numerous he found the inhabitants. They were less ferocious and suspicious, had better and more settled forms of government, and more comforts than the coast tribes. He met with tribes who practic- ed inoculation, knew the medicinal virtues of quinine, and had a tradition of Noah's deluge. He found the climate of eastern Africa more humid than the other sections. The natives were athletic and brave. The next or middle zone is comparatively arid and fiat. The in- habitants are not as well developed as the Kaf- firs. The western portion is nearly flat and sandy, but it is not a desert. There is abund- ance of vegetation, but water is scarce. The inhabitants manage to subsist on a very small supply of the precious fluid, some of which is obtained from tuberous roots, which con- tain in their cellular tissues supplies of pure water. In the plains are immense numbers of ostriches and antelopes, which can subsist for months without water. Mr. Anderssen, in 1851, penetrated from the western coast to Lake Ngami. He there heard of the existence of a large town called Liberbe, nineteen days journey to the north- AFR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 25 east, which was said to be a great place of trade. Between 1847 and 1850, Messrs. Krapf and Rebmann, missionaries stationed near Mombaz on the eastern coast, made scv- eraljourneys inland, and discovered two lofty mountains, crowned with everlasting snow, Kilimandjaro and Kenia. From the latter a river flows northward, which is conjectured to feed the Nile. One of the most important expeditions ever undertaken to the interior of Africa was that sent out by the British and Prussian govern- ments in 1849, and conducted by Messrs. Richardson, Barth, and Overweg. The trav- elers departed from Tripoli in March, 1850. On the way across the desert Dr. Barth vis- ited Agadez, the capital of Air, a city of eight thousand inhabitants, situated in a fer- tile valley. The kingdom has a population of seventy thousand. The climate is healthy for Europeans. The people are tall and fine- ly formed. The children are taught to read the Koran and to write. No European had wandered there before Dr. Barth. The par- ty arrived on the borders of Soudan Jan. 1st, 1851. Here they separated. Richardson sickened under the heat and fatigue, and died in the following ]\Iarch. Dr. Overweg visited Mariadi and Guber, two independent pagan nations toward Sackatoo, where he was kindly received by the natives, who are a cross between the Tuaricks and the negro races, and obtained much curious information. Dr. Barth at Kano heard of a large kingdom in the south, called Adamawa, said to be the most beautiful portion of Central Afi'ica. The sultan of Bornou furnished him an escort ; he traveled three weeks over broad, fertile plains and through a forest infested with lions and elephants. He found Adamawa thickly populated. The inhabitants have large herds of cattle. The soil is tilled by slaves, who gi-eatly outnumber the free inhab- itants. On the 18th of June Dr. Barth came to the great river Benueh. The name signi- fies the 'mother of waters,' and the stream is half a mile wide and nine feet deep in the channel. His conjecture that it was the same as the Chadda, the eastern arm of the Niger, has been confirmed. Yola, the capital of Adamawa, is a town two miles and a half in length by one and a half in breadth, sited on a. plain at the foot of Alantika, a mountain ten thousand feet in height. Dr. Barth was allowed to tarry in Yola only three days, re- turned by the route he came, and rejoined Dr. Overweg at Kuka the 22d of July. During his absence the latter had launched his boat on Lake Tchad, and explored the islands and shores. He found the lake to be about eighty miles in breadth, quite shallow, and filled with islands inhabited by the Biddumas, who treated him with great kmdness. Barth and Overbeg planned an excursion to Kanem and Borgou, an unexplored region north-cast of Lake Tchad, and extending midway to Egypt. Their party was driven back by the Zibboos, and they returned to Kuka. They accompa- nied an expedition sent to subjugate Mandara, a country north-east of Bornou. The campaign lasted from the 25th of November to the 1st of February, 1852. The army of twenty thousand men penetrated to the distance of two hundred miles, and returned with a booty of five thousand slaves and ten thousand head of cattle. The country was level, and abound- ed with marshes. The next year. Dr. Barth after great difficulties and dangers, succeeded in reaching Masena, the capital of Baghirmi, a powerful kingdom east of Bornou, never before visited by an European. Unable to penetrate further to the east, he returned to Kuka in August. Dr. Overbeg had unsuc- cessfully attempted to enter the great Fellatah kingdom of Yakoba, on the river Benueh. He succumbed to the heat, and died at Kuka in September. Thus left alone Dr. Barth relinquished the design of journeying from Kuka to the shores of the Indian Ocean, and turned his steps toward the Niger. He left Kuka on the 25th of November, 1852, reach- ed Sackatoo in April, 1853, and entered the famous city of Timbuctoo on the 7th of Sep- tember. Nothing was heard of him for a long time ; then rumors reached Tripoli that he had been murdered. At last came the joyful news that he was yet alive. He had tarried in Timbuctoo nearly a year, had ex- plored the whole middle course of the Niger, and had found two large kingdoms, Gando and Hamd-Allahi, the very names of which were before unknown. He finally returned safe to Europe in the autumn of 1855. The country traversed by Dr. Barth in this expedition extended over twenty-four degrees of latitude and twenty of longitude. He had AFR 26 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF crossed deserts of frightful desolation, and traversed fertile lands watered by navigable rivers and large central lakes, covered with the finest timber and fruitful in grain, rice, nuts, sugar-cane, cotton, and indigo, products found abundantly all over Central Africa. The people wear cotton of their own weav- ing, and dyed with native indigo. The Niger, by means of its eastern branch, affords unin- terrupted navigation into the interior for six hundred miles. At a distance of about three hundred miles from the coast, the western branch is interrupted by rapids and cataracts, but higher up, the river opens an unobstruct- -ed highway a thousand miles long, into the heart of western Africa, so rich in vegetable, animal, and mineral products. These regions exhibit an equal variety in the human race. Starting from Tripoli, on the north, the trav- eler proceeds from the Arab villages, rem- nants of the empires of the middle ages, into a country dotted with ruins of the Roman dominion, through the wild roving hordes of the Tuaricks, to the Negro ti-ibes and the na- tives of Southern Africa. Throughout this vast region the greatest diversity of race and idiom prevails. Mohammedan learning is ingrafted on ignorance, and magnificent cere- monial rises side by side with the simplicity of barbarous Negi-o tribes. A thread of his- tory, even, can be traced through this laby- rinth of tribes and overthrown kingdoms, and a commerce is found radiating from Kano, the great emporium of Central Africa, in every direction, and spreading far and wide the manufactures of that industrious region. Dr. Barth says that the people of the interior, although in a low, are not at all in a degrad- ed state of civilization. Between the farthest points reached by Barth ^nd Livingston, only a strip of fifteen degrees in latitude remains. We venture the prediction that before the •close of the present century Ethiopia, so long unknown to the world, will be explored and her casket of wealth opened to traffic and industry. Africa comprises an area of 10,786,000 square miles. Its population, roughly estima- ted of course, is set down at 61,689,000. Its chief rivers are the Nile, in Egypt ; the Senegal and Gambia, in Senegambia; the Niger or Quorra, the Congo or Zaire; the Orange, the northern boundary of the Cape colony ; and the Zambezi on the eastern coast The great feature of Northern Africa is the Sahara or Great Desert, the most barren, parched, and terrific waste on the globe. The mineral treasures of this immense continent are of course as imperfectly known as its geography. Salt is widely diffused ; gold dust is found in the sands of almost all the streams ; copper, iron, and some tin are also met with. The southern regions of this continent are occupied by two distinct races, Hottentots and Kaffirs ; the former one of the most indolent, shiftless, and dirty of the human family ; the latter higher in the scale. The most widely extended race in Africa is the Negro, varying in intelligence and power with different local- ities. The Moors of the north are of mixed descent, since the Barbary region has been occupied by various races. The Arab stock has produced the most marked effect. AGAMEMNON, leader of the Greeks in the Trojan war, was king of Mj^ccne and Argos, son of Plisthenes, and brother of Menelaus, the seduction of whose wife lighted the flames of war. Returning, after the destruction of the city, he was murdered by his wife, Cljt- emnestra, either from jealousy, or on account of her love for another. AGATHOCLES, a potter, who, from being a private soldier, made himself master of Syr- acuse and Sicily, b.c. 317. This he accom- plished by the death of thousands. Although defeated by the Carthaginians in Sicily, he carried the war into Africa, where he was successful. After having lost his sons and army by a mutiny in Africa, he succeeded in establishing tranquillity, B.C. 306. In Italy he conquered the Brutii, and took and sacked Crotona. He was killed by his favorite, Ma3non, who poisoned the feather with which the king usually cleansed his teeth after dinner. AGESILAUS, king of Sparta, signalized himself bj' his valorous resistance to the Per- sians, and successfully opposed the arms of the Thebans under Epaminondas. Agesilaus was lame and of small stature, but brave, and almost idolized by his troops. He was eighty- four years old at the time of his death, b.c. 360. AGINCOURT, or Azincocr, a village in the department of Pas de Calais, France, where Henry V. of England, with an army of AGI HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 27 little more than fifteen thousand men, defeat- ed the flower of the French troops, amount- ing to seventy or a hundred thousand. Hen- ry entrenched his archers against onsets of cavalry, within fences of pointed stakes, then first used, and in modern times, known under the name of chevaux de frise. The rashness and disordered impetuosity of the French, and the coolness and orderly intrepidity of the English, produced the same effects at Ag- incourt as at Poictiers. The English had spent the previous evening-in preparing their weapons, confessing themselves, and receiving the sacrament ; while the French gamed and drank the night away. The narrowness of the field prevented the French from profiting by their superior force. The Constable d'Al- bret, the Count de Nevers, and the Duke of Brabant, the Dukes of Alcncon and Bar, the Counts of Vaudemont and Marie, scorning to survive defeat, rushed into the thickest of the fight and died, with upward of ten thousand of their followers. The number of captives taken by the English was fourteen thousand, a number about equal to that of the conquer- ors. Among the captives were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. The loss of the Eng- lish was about twelve hundred, and the Duke of York almost the only person of rank who fell. This nobleman was Henry's uncle, and was slain in defending the king against the Duke of Alencon, who rode furiously upon him. Alencon dashed Henry's crown fiom his head, with a blow of his battle-axe, and was preparing to dispatch him, when the king's attendants closed around him in a steely circle, and he fell, covered with wounds, the blood pouring from every joint of his ar- mor. This great battle was fought October 25th, 1415. AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, born at Milan, in 1718. In a Latin oration, delivered in her ninth year, she advocated the study of the ancient languages by females. At the age of eleven, she was conversant with Greek, which she spoke with great fluency, and she after- ward mastered the oriental languages. Ge- ometry and philosophy next engaged her attention. She was the ornament of brilliant and talented circles, and her loveliness added to the magic of her words. In mathematics she was no less successful, and at thirty she published a treatise on the rudiments of analysis, thought to be the best introduction to Euler's works extant. She acquired such fame by this performance, that she was ap- pointed professor of mathematics in the mii- versity of Bologna. Incessant application seems finally to have rendered her melan- choly ; she renounced society, and died in a nunnery, 1799. AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, a brave Ro- man commander, and a distinguished states- man. He subjected a great part of Britain, A.D. 70. Domitian recalled him, and he died in retirement, a.d. 93. AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, a native of Cologne, born in 1486, and noted for his acquirements, talents, and eccentricity. For his military services, he was knighted. He was acquainted with eight languages, and made pretensions to magic, which procured him invitations from various personages of celebrity, who sought to acquire a knowledge of futurity. After a life full of change and incident, he died at Grenoble, in 1535. AGRIPPA I., grandson of Herod the Great, and king of Judea. St. James per- ished in a persecution commenced by him. The occasion and manner of his death are related. Acts xii. 20-23, under his patronymic name of Herod. AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, the son-in- law and friend of Augustus, whose fleet he commanded in the battle of Actium ; died B.C. 12. AGRIPPINA, the elder, daughter of the above, wife of Germanicus Caesar, whom she accompanied in his German expeditions. She was banished a.d. 33, by the cruel Tibe- rius, who hated her for her virtues and popu- larity, to the island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death. AGRIPPINA, the younger, daughter of the former, was born at Cologne. She was pos- sessed of talents, but intriguing, dissolute, and ambitious. She was married to her uncle Claudius, the emperor, whom she poisoned to clear the throne for her wicked son Nero, who assassinated her when she became trouble- some after his elevation. AHASUERUS, the king of Persia whose marriage with Esther, and protection of the Jews, are described in the Scriptures. He is probably the Artaxerxes Longimanus of the Greeks, whose reign began B.C. 465. AHA 28 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Prus- sian city on the borders of Belgium, lying be- tween the Rhine and Mouse, in a rich valley encompjissed by hills ; population 45,000. It was the birth-place of Charlemagne, accord- ing to some authors, and contains many build- ings and monuments of historical interest. It was the northern capital of Charlemagne, who held a splendid court here, and was buried in its cathedral. Succeeding empe- rors conferred so many privileges on the city, that it was remarked that "the air of Aix- la-Chapelle gave freedom even to the outlaws." By the celebrated treaty signed here in 1784, peace was concluded between England, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Rus- sia, and Prussia, with ambassadors from England and France, was held at Aix-la- Chapelle in 1818, to decide upon the terms for the evacuation of France by the allied army. AKBAH, a Saracen conqueror, who over- ran Africa from Cairo to the Atlantic, was killed in a revolt of the Greeks and Africans, 682. AKENSIDE, Mark, the son of a butcher, born at Newcastle-upOn-Tync, November 9th, 1721. He was intended for the ministry, but preferred the study of medicine. He never had much success in the practice of his pro- fession, but as a poet acquired renown. His "Pleasures of the Imagination" is bis best poem. He died of a fever, June 23d, 1770. ALABAMA was originally settled by Frenchmen and Spaniards. In 1800 the region between Georgia and the Mississippi river was organized as a territory. It was divided in 1817, the western portion forming the state of Mississippi ; the eastern the ter- ritory of Alabama, now the state of that name, having been so constituted by Congress in 1819. It contains 50,722 square miles. The state is divided into several regular terraces, or belts, as it were, which rise above each other from the Gulf of Mexico. Of these the southern is flat and swampy, containing sev- eral savannahs. In the center of the state the wide spread plains or gently waving lands of the prairies are covered with herbage, grass, and flowers. The greater part of Ala- bama is separated from the Tennessee valley by abrupt and precipitous hills, or rather mountains, which, in some places, rise to an elevation of two thousand feet above the gulf level. The swamps in the vicinity of Florida are numerous, and covered with cypress, gum, and loblolly pine-trees, while the uplands are timbered with the long-leaved pine. What are termed the hummock lands, the fertility of which is lasting, form a belt between the pine ridges and the bottoms. The French imag- ined that they were well adapted to the rearing of grape-vines. Attention is now being more than ever turned to wine-grow- ing, and it may not be long before these slopes will be clustered with smiling vine- yards, and echo the joyous song of the vine- dresser, and the merriment of the autumnal vintage. Corn, cotton, wheat, and rice con- stitute the main products of the state. Groves of orange-trees, undoubtedly of Spanish or- igin, are not infrecjuent. Tobacco and sugar are growTi to some extent. Iron and coal are found in various parts of the state. Nearly every part of the state is amply watered by large streams, admitting of extensive steam- boat navigation. The most important of these rivers are the Tennessee, Chattahoo- chee, Alabama, and Tombigbee. The French who settled on the borders of the Mississippi at an eai'ly period, did not meet with much success at first, and for a long time the French settlements were insig- nificant and unnoticed. Instead of di-awing their support ft-om the fertile bosom of the earth beneath their feet, they are said to have subsisted on provisions obtained from France and the Spanish colonies. So slow were they in appreciating the richness of the soil, and so tenacious of established opinions and pre- judices, that on a superficial examination of focts, we are surprised to find that, in the northern and more sterile parts of North America, where a thousand obstacles pre- sented themselves in the path of the adven- turer, the work of colonization went on with the greatest rapidity. This appears to have been a wise ordination of providence. The French settlers, while they wanted the per- severance of the English and the colonial experience of the Spaniards, had a singular fecility in winning the friendship and esteem of- the savages. Yet, in spite of this advan- tage, few of the colonies they founded at the south, went on without many interruptions. ALA HISTOHV^ AND BIOOUAPHY. 29 while the Spanish settlements were generally permanent. After the English had obtained possession of the whole country cast of the Mississippi, which was ceded to them by the French, in the treaty of peace concluded between France and Great Britain, Feb. 10th, 1763, they en- countered the hostility of the Spanish, who were in possession of Louisiana, and were inflamed against the English by hostiKty and j ealousy. The war of the American revolu- tion placed the British colonists in this section in a peculiarly embarrassing and dangerous situation. On the one hand they were threat- ened by the Spanish colonists of Louisiana, while, on the other, they feared the hostility of the new states. The Spanish colonists in turn, although fearful of the spread of liberal principles, and aware that the discomfiture of the British in the south-west would be a source of congratulation to th^ Americans, yet so ardently desired the conquest, that they laid aside all minor considerations, and determined on attempting it. At this time, Galvez, a gallant and enterprising officer, was the Spanish commander of Louisiana. He took the field against the British with twenty- three hundred men. Natchez and Pensa- cola capitulated, and Galvez, in 1780, sailed against Mobile with a powerful armament. A storm overtook him in the gulf, and the wreck of one of his armed vessels, with the wetting ofhis provision and ammunition, gave no good omen of ultimate success. Manj' commanders so circumstanced, would have despaired, but Galvez, keeping up a tolerable appearance, landed near Mobile, and halted in the momentary expectation of an attack from the British. He saw that such an attack would be ruinous, and entertaining no doubt that the British would commence hostilities, made preparations for relinquishing his artil- lery and military stores, and falling back, in what order he might, upon New Orleans. Whether from want of foresight, or from cowardice, the English did not attempt to disturb him. Finding himself, much to his surprise, un- molested, Galvez took heart again, and having carefully dried his stores and ammunition, which, upon examination, were found not to have been spoiled, though badly wet, he marched upon Mobile, which was garrisoned and defended by regulars and militia. Six Spanish batteries, playing, with well-directed aim, upon the place, opened a breach, and the garrison immediately capitulated! At Pen- sacola, only sixty miles oflF, General Camp- bell was stationed with an overwhelming force ; yet he marched not to the relief of Mo- bile, until it was in the hands of Galvez. Toward the close of the year 1811, the troops of the United States were employed against the Indians, who formed powerful hostile combinations in the western country. During the war with Great Britain, many ALA 80 C T T A (J E CYCLOPEDIA OF bloody engagements were fought with the ; with enviable facility. What praise is too Indians. After the surrender of Detroit, an event which produced such an universal feel- ing of shame and degradation in the west, the Indians sent news of their triumph even to the most southerly extremity of the Union, and invited the neutral tribes of the south to assume the hatchet. The Creeks and Sem- inoles, with many other tribes, were not slow in responding to the summons, and became involved in the war, which was felt, in hostile incursions, bj^ the entire frontier, from Ten- nessee to the bay of Mobile. Tecumseh, arming himself with the persuasive predic- tions of his brother, the Prophet, arrived among the Creeks in 1812, and urged them forward to deed^of blood. The most dread- ful outrages were consequently perpetrated by the Creeks along the Alabama frontier, which suffered extremely during this war. In 1814, Mobile was attacked by the Brit- ish, and defended by Major Lawrence, with a gallantry which gained him no inconsiderable renown. His Spartan band of one hundred and thirty men were resolved to suffer no stain to dim the brilliancy of their starred banner, and to uphold it while life-blood ran warm in their veins. On the 12th of Sep- tember, intelligence was received at the fort of the landing of a pretty large force of In- dians and Spaniards in its vicinity. In the course of that day two British brigs and sloops hove in sight, and anchored at no in- considerable distance. At half after four in the evening of the 15th, the Hermes, Charon, Sophia, and Anaconda, with ninety guns, anchored at such a distance from the fort, as to admit of firing upon it conveniently. A simultaneous land attack was begun by Cap- tains Nicholls and "Woodbine. Their fortifi- cations were made of sand, and they brought a howitzer to bear upon the fort at point blank distance ; but they were soon compelled to abandon their position. Still a severe firing was maintained by the ships and fort. The Hermes, receiving a raking fire, ran ashore, was abandoned, and blew up. The Charon was almost wholly disabled. When the flag-staflf of the fort was shot away. Woodbine and Nicholls, thinking the foe van- quished, rushed forward to the fort, but were awakened to a sense of their error by a mur- derous fire which sent them to the right about ALA warm for the conduct of the few who com- posed the garrison, when we consider the numbers and advantages of the enemj^ ? Six hundred men attacked the fort by sea, sup- ported by ninety heavy guns. Four hund- red Indians and others made an attack in the rear. Captain Lawrence had but about a seventh of the enemy's numerical force, and twenty guns, all badly mounted, and some of them quite ineffective. Yet, while he lost but ten men, he compelled the enemy to retire with a loss of their very best ship, and two hundred and thirty men. The state secaded January 11, 1861 ; at its eapital, Montgomery, the rebel congress as- sembled, Feb. 4, inaugurated the rebel gov- ernment, and adjourned to Richmond, March IG, 1861. It underwent a fair share of the miseries of war, having been penetrated and traversed a number of times by the Union troops, particularly by Gen. Rousseau with a strong cavalry force in July, 1864, during Sherman's investment of Atlanta, by Gen. Wilson with an army of 10,000 cavalry in March and April, 1865, and by the forces operating against Mobile, in 1864 and '65. Farragut, with a fleet of 32 vessels and 2;)1 guns, forced an enti*ance into Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, defeating the rebel fleet and tak- ing the ram Tennessee. Operations against the city itself began March 25th, 1805, when Smith and Canby broke ground before Span- ish Fort. Mobile was evacuated Apr. 10th and 11th, and Gen. Canby's troops entered it on the 12tb. This was the last important fighting of the rebellion, Lee having surren- dered to Grant some days before Alabama has a long death code. Murder, treason, rape, man-stealing, arson, robbery, burglary, counterfeiting and forgery, are pun- ishable with death. Killing in a duel is made willful murder. A system of common schools was established in 1854, and a state univer- sity is sustained at Tuscaloosa. The capital of Alabama is Montgomery, a thriving city, built on a high bluff at the head of steamboat navigation on the Alabama river; population in 1860, 35,902. The most important town is Mobile, Mhich except New Orleans is the largest cotton mart in the United States. It is a handsome city, and rapidly growing in business and prosperity. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY SI Population in 1860, 29,258. Tuscaloosa, the former capital, stands at the head of steam- boat na^^gation on the Tuscaloosa River; population in 1853, 3,500. By the U. S. census of 1860, Alabama had a population of 964,201 : consisting of 526,431 whites, 435,080 slaves and 2,690 free colored There were IT colleges, 160 acade- mies, 1,074 common schools, 40,280 children at school, and 93,443 white children between eight and sixteen years of age. AL ANI, or Alans, a warlike tribe that left their abodes near Mount Caucasus, in Asia, when the Roman empire was declining, and aided in its overthrow. After 412, they be- came lost among the Vandals. ALARIC, king of the Visigoths, and con- queror of Rome. But little is known of his early history. His wald ambition was excited by overtures from intriguers against Arca- dius, emperor of the eastern empire, and he commenced his famous march from, the Dan- ube, through Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, into Achaia. Everywhere the Goths were victorious, and in their ravages some of the finest monuments of Grecian art were lost. Honorius, the emperor of the west, sent an army to the aid of his brother, and for a few years a truce was had between Alaric and the Romans. But in 405 his army entered the eternal city. The Romans bought his forbearance by a ransom of five thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, four thousand garments of silk, three thousand pieces of fine scarlet cloth, and three thousand pounds of pepper. In 410 his bands returned and sacked the city. The treasures which had been accu- mulated during a thousand years, vanished in three days beneath the hands of the rapacious conquerors. The flames destroyed works of art which the barbarians were unable to carry off, but Alaric spared tire churches and those who had sought refuge in them. Alaric died at a Oalabrian town (Cosenza), a.D'. 410, when he was preparing to lay waste Sicily and Africa. In order to conceal his remains from the Romans, slaves were employed to divert the waters of the Busento, and hollow his last resting-place in the channel of the stream. When the earth had received the body of the conqueror, the waves were per- mitted to rush in above it, and the slaves were murdered, that Alaric's secret might ]ye in the keeping of the waters and the voiceless dead. ALBERT I., emperor and duke of Aus- tria, the son and successor of Rudolph of Hapsburg. He was crowned in 1298, after defeating and slaying Adolphus of Nassau, his competitor. The rival leaders engaged in single combat, and Adolphus exclaimed, "Your crown and life are lost!" "Heaven will decide," was the answer of Albert, as he forced his lance into the face of his adver- sary and unhorsed him. Albert was assassin- ated in 1308, by his nephew John, son of the Duke of Suabia, whose paternal estates he had seized. John had often asserted his claims, and uj'ged them upon Albert when he was departing for Switzerland, on account of the revolt of the Swiss. The emperor con- temptuously oiFered his nephew a garland of flowers. " Take this," said he, "amuse j'our- self #ith botanical investigations, but leave the cares of government to those who are old and wise enough to understand them." Al- bert breathed his last in the arms of a poor w^oman, who was sitting by the road-side at the time of his assassination. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, or Albektus Gro- TUS, was born in Lauingen, in Suabia, about the commencement of the thirteenth century. In youth he is said to have been singularly obtuse; but he afterward studied at Paris, Padua, and Bologna, displayed prodigious capacity, and became a wonder of erudition. He was a Dominican, and was made Bishop of Ratisbon in 1260 ; resigned his episcopate in 1263, and died in 1280. Cologne was his chief place of residence. Thomas Aquinas was among his pupils. ALBIGENSES, the Protestants of Savoy and Piedmont, in the middle ages ; the ob- jects of cruel persecution and of several cru- sades. They are said to have originated at Albigeois, m Languedoc, 'about 1160. They professed a hatred of the corruptions of the Church of Rome. ALBRET, Jeanne d', daughter of Marga- ret, Queen of Navarre, was married at the age of eleven to the Duke of Cleves, but the mar- riage was annulled in 1548, when she espous- ed Anthony de Bourbon, Duke of Vendomc, by whom she became mother of Henry IV. In 1555, her father dying, she became Queen ALB COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF of Navarre, and in 1562, the death of her husband left her independent. She then set herself to establish the Reformation in her kingdom, although opposed by France and Spain. She expired suddenly, at Versailles, in 1572, and her death was attributed to poison. ALBUERA, Battle of. Between the French, commanded by ]\Iarshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by Marshal Beresford, May lOtli, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the latter obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant achievements of the peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 7,000 men, and the allies lost an equal number. ALBUQUERQUE, the name of two Portu- guese brothers, distinguished for bravery, who founded the Portuguese dominion m the Indies. They took Cochin, in India, in 1505. Francis was lost on his passage home. #Vhen Alphonso captured Ormus, the Persian king demanded the tribute which he had been accustomed to receive from the princes of the island. Upon this Albuquerque laid down a sword and a bullet, saying haughtily, " This is the coin in which Portugal pays her tribute." After a rash and unsuccessful at- tempt upon Calicut, he took Goa and Malacca. The envy of courtiers, and the suspicions of King Emmanuel, did not spare even the dis- tinguished merit of Albuquerque, who died at Goa, in 1515, after his ungrateful master had appointed his personal enemy, Lopez Soarez, to fill his post. ALCIBIADES, an Athenian, famous for his enterprise, gallantry, versatility, and nat- ural foibles. He was the son of Clinias and Dinomache, and was born at Athens, about 450 B.C. He inherited high rank and vast wealth, while nature had endowed him with a person unusually handsome, manners the most fascinating, and talents of high order. Left early an orphan, he was educated in the house of Pericles, who was too much occu- pied with state affairs to pay much attention to the youth. The impetuosity of Alcibiades displayed itself early, as the following anec- dote shows. "VMiile he was playing dice in the street with some juvenile companions, a wagon came up. Alcibiades requested the driver to stop, but he refused. The daring alcieial; youth then threw himself before the wheel, and exclaimed, " Drive on, if thou darest ! " The instructions of Socrates restrained for a time his vain and wanton propensities. Socrates fought by his side in his first battle, and, when he w^as wounded, defended him, and bore him off safe. The dissipation and ex- travagance of Alcibiades were unbounded. One night, being at a banquet, he laid a wager that he would box the ears of the rich Hipponicus, and did so. This excited gen- eral indignation, but Alcibiades went to the injured party, threw off his garment, and, placing a rod in his hand, bade him strike and revenge himself. Hipponicus not only pardoned him freely, but gave him his daugh- ter in marriage with a goodly portion. At the Olympic games, xVlcibiades would enter seven chariots, and at one time won three prizes. In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the Athenians to engage in an expedition against Syracuse. He was chosen general in that war, and in his absence, his enemies, having found all the statues of Mercury broken, charged him with being concerned in the deed and confiscated all his property. He then fled to Sparta, where he attempted to gain popularity by adopting the temperate habits of the Spartans, whom he wished to rouse against the Athenians. Finding this of no avail, he went to Tissaphernes, the ALC HI ST OK Y AND BIOGRAPHY. satrap of Lydia. He was afteru-ard recalled by the Athenians, and having compelled the Spartans to sue for peace, and been success- ful in Asia, was welcomed to Athens with high honors. The failure of an expedition, with the command of which he was intrusted, again aroused the resentment of the people, and Alcibiades fled to Pharnabazes, satrap of Bithynia. Lysander, the Spartan general, induced Pharnabazes to assassinate him. The attendants sent for that purpose, found him in a castle in Phrygia, in company witli his favorite Timandra. They set the building on fire, and the warrior rushed out sword in hand. Dreading his valor, the cowardly as- sassins retreated to a safe distance, and shot him with their arrows. Thus perished Alci- biades, in the forty -fifth year of his age, about 404 B.C. Though he wanted firm moral prin- ciples, he was generous, brave, persevering, and gifted with distinguished qualities. Plis eloquence won the hearts of men impercep- tibly and unostentatiously ; although it is said that he stuttered, and was unable to pro- nounce the letter 'r.' ALEMANNI, the ancient inhabitants of Suabia and Switzerland, united in a league, from wlience Germany derives its French name of Allemagne. They were the deter- mined opponents of the Romans. They finalljr submitted to the Franks. ALEXANDER the Great, son of Philip of Macedon, was born at Pella, b.c. 356. Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus of Epi- rus, was his mother. At an early age, he showed a veneration for great deeds and a determination to achieve them. Hearing of the victories of Philip, he exclaimed, "My father will leave nothing for me to do." Ar- istotle instructed him in the most elegant as well as the most profound branches of knowl- edge, and never for a moment forgot that it was his duty to fit him for governing a great kingdom. That he might become acquainted with military virtues and ambition, Aristotle put the "Iliad" into the hands of his noble pupil. Alexander was so fond of this, that he never lay down without having read some ' iges in it. His exclusive ambition is' well ustrated by the letter which he wrote his ■eceptor on the publication of his " Meta- lysics." "You did wrong in publishing lose branches of science hitherto not to be 3 acquired but from oral instruction. In what shall I excel others, if the more profound knowledge I gained from you be communicat- ed to all ? For my part, I had rather surpass the majority of mankind in the sublimcr branches of learning, than in the extent of power and dominion." It was no part of the ancient Grecian plan of education, to permit the culture of the mind to supersede that of the body. The instructors of the young trained the intellec- tual and corporeal powers at the same time. Alexander was early accustomed to gymnas- tic exercises, and at a tender age, displayed his strength and skill in an extraordinary manner. His father had been presented with a superb charger (Bucephalus), which no one dared to mount. Alexander sprang upon his back and succeeded in completely taming him, after which the steed would permit none but the noble youth to mount him. He bore him through some of the most perilous scenes of his career, and, when he died, was honored by a splendid memorial, the erection of a city called Bucephalia. At the age of sixteen years, Alexander was appointed by his father, regent of Macedon, when the latter departed on his expedition to Byzantium. In 338, at the battle of Chajronea, he so distinguished himself, that Philip, embracing him, exclaim- ed, "My son, seek another empire, for that you will inherit is unworthy of you." When Philip married Cleopatra, and di- vorced, or at least disgraced, Olympias, Al- exander, having taken the part of his mother, incurred the displeasure of his father, and was forced to fly to Epirus, whence, however, he was soon recalled. Soon after this he saved his father's life in an expedition against the TribaUi. Philip was assassinated, b.c. 336, when preparing to make war upon Per- sia, at the head of all the Grecian forces. Alexander, then twenty years of age, ascended the throne, and soon gave proof of talents to govern and to conquer. He conquered the Illyrii and Triballi, and forced a triumphant passage through Thrace. Urged by the elo- quence of Demosthenes, the Athenians were about to join the Thebans, who had taken up arms, to throw off the yoke of Macedon. Alexander promptly repaired to Thebes, and on the refusal of the citizens to surrender, took it and destroyed it, with the exception ALE ^4 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF of the poet Pindar's house. Six thousand individuals were put to the sword, and thirty thousand reduced to captivity. The Athen- ians, although punished, were not so severely handled, and the fate of Thebes had the intended effect of striking terror into all Greece. The general assembly of the Greeks confirmed Alexander in the chief command against Persia, and he determined to leave Antipater, who had been a minister of his father, at the head of the government. The confidence reposed in this man was great, as appears from the following anecdote. Philip was fond of wine, and occasionally indulged himself to excess. One night, observing one of his companions unwilling to drink deeply, "Drink, drink," said he, "all's safe, for An- tipater is awake." In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed into Asia with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. In the plains of Ilium, he offered sacrifices to Minerva, and crowned the tomb of Achilles. Approaching the Granicus, he learned that Persian satraps, with 600,000 foot and 20,000 horse, were prepared to oppose his progress. The passage of the river was effected in the teeth of this force, and Alexander was com- pletely triumphant. During the heat of battle, the Macedonian monarch was a mark for the weapons of the enemy, by the splendor of his equipments, and the conspicuous beauty of his superb charger. The cities of Asia Minor, with few exceptions, now opened their gates to the youthful conqueror. In passing through Gordium, Alexander cut the Gordian knot. Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappa- docia, were successively conquered. The con- queror was seized with a severe illness in consequence of imprudently bathing in the Cydnus, which proved a check to his career. While in a dangerous state, he received a letter from Parmenio, his general, warning him against his physician Philip, whom Par- menio accused of the design of poisoning his master. Philip was at that time preparing a potion for the king; and Alexander, hand- ing him the letter, looked steadily in his face while he drank off the draught. He recovered. Darius, instead of waiting for Alexander on the plains of Assyria, had advanced with an immense army to the defiles of Cilicia, whither the Macedonian followed, defeating the Per^ sians in the battle of Issus, which placed the treasures, and the mother, wife, and children of Darius in the hands of the conqueror. His generous treatment of the family of Da- rius conferred as much honor upon Alexander, as the victory which preceded it. He turned toward Coelosyria and Phoenicia for the pur- pose of cutting off Darius, who had fled toward the Euphrates. The Persian monarch sent a letter to Alexander suing for peace, and the latter answered him, that if he would come to him, he should receive his mother, his wife, his children, and his empire ; but no notice was taken of this liberal proposal. Damascus, and all the towns along the Med- iterranean, were entered and taken possession of by Alexander. The resistance of Tyre was severely punished ; it stood a siege of seven months ; the inhabitants were massa- cred or sold as slaves. This is one of the blackest acts in Alexander's career. In Pal- estine, Gaza, which resisted the conqueror like Tyre, shared a like fate. Gaza was the emporium for the productions of Arabia, and a place of considerable wealth and import- ance. Among the plunder, the conquer- or gained great quantities of fi-ankincense, myrrh, and other aromatics, the sight of which recalled a long forgotten incident of his juvenile days. His governor, Leonatus, observing him one day at a sacrifice throw incense into the flame by handfuls, remon- strated, and said, "Alexander, when you have conquered the spice countries, you may be thus lavish of your incense ; meantime use what you have more sparingly." Alexander now sent his governor several large bales of spices, with the following note: "Leonatus, I have sent you frankincense and myrrh in abundance ; so be no longer a churl to the gods." On his way through Palestine it is said that Alexander marched against Jerusa- lem to destroy it ; but when he saw Jaddus the high-priest clad in his solemn robes, he declared he had seen such a figure in a vision in Macedonia, inviting him to Asia and prom- ising to deliver the Persian empire into his hands. The holy city was spared, and in the temple Alexander offered sacrifices to the God of the Jews. He proceeded into Egypt, and founded the city of Alexandria. The Egyptians, to whom the Persian yoke had been a galling burden. ALE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 35 were well pleased with the arrival of Alex- ander, whom they gratefully regarded as a deliverer. His next expedition was a visit to the temple of Jupiter Amnion, in the des- erts of Libya, where, having consulted the oracle, the crafty god is said to have acknowl- edged him as his son. In the ensuing spring, learning that Darius had gathered an im- mense force in Assyria, and was determined to fight to the last, rejecting all proposals for peace, Alexander marched in that direction. In 331, a furious battle was fought at Gauga- mela, not far from Arbela, in which the army of Darius was not less than 500,000 strong. Notwithstanding this overwhelming force, the Macedonian was irresistible, and scattered the thronged Persians like leaves before the tempest. Alexander's principal object was to capture the Persian monarch, or prevent his flight by death. In the midst of the crowd and crush of battle, Darius was no incon- siderable figure, for he was mounted on a char- iot of great height, and surrounded by guards splendidly armed and equipped. These, however, no sooner perceived the extraordi- nary success of Alexander, than, forgetful of their duty, they took to flight. Darius was saved by the speed of a horse upon which he hastily threw himself The immense wealth of the East was de- posited in Babylon and Susa, both of which opened their gates without hesitation to the mighty victor, who continued his march to- ward Persepolis, then the capital of Persia. Ariobarzanes, with 40,000 men, had thrown himself into the only passage which opened on Persepolis, to defend it as long as he was able. He did not hold out long, for the troops of Alexander, flushed with success, and impatient of opposition, swept away all obstacles. Persepolis, with all its wealth and luxury, was won. In Persepolis, Alex- ander forgot his duty and his interest in unexampled riot and dissipation. He was intoxicated with success, and inclined to believe himself the god which his flatterers would have made him. In a moment of in- toxication and unbridled pleasure. Alexander, yielding to the persuasions of an abandoned woman, Thais, the Athenian, fired the cap- ital of Persia, which was soon reduced to ruins. On the right bank of the Medus and Araxes, near Istakar, the ruins of the royal palace of Persepolis are still visible ; tall col- umns yet attesting its former magnificence, before the vengeance of the Greek was wreaked upon the pride of art. The burning of Persepolis filled Alexander with remorse, and he set forth in pursuit of Darius. He soon learned that Bessus, the per- fidious satrap of Bactria, kept his master in custody, but before he could save Darius, Bes- sus had the unfortunate monarch assassinated, B.C. 330. He was found lying in his chariot covered with wounds. The perfidy of Bessus was subsequently punished with death. Da- rius was interred with great solemnity, and Alexander caused himself to be proclaimed king of Asia. While occupied in the for- mation of plans of vast importance, a conspir- acy broke out in the camp of Alexander, in which Philotas, the son of Parmenio, was found to be concerned. Philotas, though brave and hardy, was addicted to pleasure, to expensive amusements, and given to boast- ing. He frequently spoke slightingly of Alexander to the companions of his pleasures, calling him the loy^ and saying that the victories were rather the result of his own exertions and those of his father, than of the bravery and skill of Alexander. Parmenio endeavored to check his son, saying, "Make yourself less conspicuous," but his counsel was of no avail. Alexander heard of the boastings of Philotas with indignation ; and when the conspiracy broke forth, his anger knew no bounds. Philotas was executed, and, by the orders of Alexander, the veteran Parmenio was secretly put to death, a crim- inal act which excited the displeasure of the whole army. Meanwhile Agis, king of Sparta, tlireatened the destruction of the power of Alexander in Greece, and raised a powerful army to obtain independence, but he was defeated by Anti- pater, and the dissolution of the Grecian league ensued. Neither the severity of the winter nor the want of local knowledge pre- vented Alexander from marching into the north of Asia and reaching the Caspian Sea. He attacked the Scythians, urged on by an insatiable thirst for distinction. On his re- turn to Bactria, he assumed the dress of the Persians, which disgusted the Macedonians, who thought the flowing robes of the orien- tals too effeminate. The Persians were dis- ALE 36 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF pleased at beholding the Macedonian oflBecrs entering the royal presence without those tokens of respect, which the kings of their nation invariably exacted from their subjects. The low inclinations of reverence could omly be claimed from the Greeks on the plea that Alexander, as a god, was entitled to them. A blunt Spartan once satisfied the master of ceremonies and his own scruples, by first dropping a ring and then stooping to pick it up in the presence of the king. Offended witlvthe independence and freedom of Clitus, Alexander slew him with his own hand at a banquet. As soon as he saw the lifeless body of his most faithful friend and bravest general stretched before him, he was seized with all the agonies of remorse. The next year Alexander subdued Sogdi- ana, and married the Bactrian Roxana, love- liest of Asiatic women. Tlio Asiatic women, but particularly the ladies of Persia, were famous for the richness of their attire, and the art with which they heightened their native beauty. The Persian ladies wore the tiara or turban, richly adorned with jewels. They wore their hair long, and both plaited and curled it ; nor, if the natural failed, did they scruple to use false locks. They pen- ciled the eye-brows, and tinged the eye-lid, with a dye that was supposed to add a pecu- liar brilliancy to the eyes. They were fond of perfumes, and the delightful attar was the favorite. Their tunic and drawers were of fine linen ; the robe or gown, of silk, with a long train that on state occasions required a supporter. Round the waist they wore a broad zone or cincture, flounced on both edges, and embroidered and jeweled in the centre. They also wore stockings and gloves, but history docs not record their materials. They used no sandals ; a light and ornamental shoe was worn in the house ; and for walking they had a kind of coarse half boot. They used shawls and wrappers for the person, and veils for the head ; the veil was large and square, and when thrown over the head descended low on all sides. They were fond of glowing colors, especially of purple, scar- let, and light-blue dresses. Their favorite ornaments were pearls ; they wreathed these in their hair, wore them as necklaces, ear- drops, amulets, bracelets, anklets, and worked them into conspicuous parts of their dresses. Of the precious stones they preferred eme- ralds, rubies, and turquoises, which were set in gold and worn like the pearls. No fewer than ten thousand Greeks, captivated with their charms, married Asiatic brides, and each couple received a present from Alexan- der. Soon after the marriage of Alexander with Roxana, a conspiracy was discovered among his troops, headed by Ilermolaus. All were condemned to death but Callisthenes, who was mutilated and carried about with the army in an iron cage, until his tortures be- came insufferable, and he killed himself by poison. Alexander penetrated into India and was highly successful. His most determined enemy was Porus, an Indian king, whom he effectually subdued. When this warlike monarch was asked how he should be treated, he answered Alexander, "Like a king," and was consequently restored to his kingdom. Alexander established Greek colonies in India, and is said to have built no fewer than seventy towns, one of which was erected in honor of his horse Bucephalus, "killed on the banks of the Hydaspes. He would have pen- etrated as far as the Ganges, but for the mur- murs of his fatigued army. He returned to the Hydaspes, and built a fleet upon its banks, dispatching part of his army by water, while the remainder marched down by land. His march through the country was not unopposed, and he himself received a severe wound, from which, however, he recovered, and sailing down the Indus, reached the sea. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, sailed to the Persian gulf, while the conqueror reached Babj'lon by land, in the spring of 824 B.C., after encountering incredible fatigues, which cost him the loss of many men. At Susa, he was married to two Per- sian princesses. At Opis, on the Tigris, he sent home the invalids with presents, and quelled a mutiny of his troops. Not long after this, his friend and favorite, Ilephajstion, died. It is asserted that the fever of He- phajstion was brought on by hard drinking. Alexander's grief at the loss of his favorite was excessive, and even endangered his rea- son ; for three days he tasted no food, and lay stretched upon the ground, either in silent sorrow or loud lamentation. The monej- expended on the funeral pile might have ALE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 37 erected a palace ; and all the barbarian sub- jects of Alexander were ordered to go into mourning. When Alexander went from Ecbatana to Babj^lon, which he meant to make the capital of his empire, he is said to have been warned by the astrologers that the latter place would prove fatal to him. Despising these warnings, he went to Babylon and gave audience to the several foreign ambassadors who awaited his arrival. His mind was engaged in forming vast plans of future conquest, when he was seized with sickness, after a banquet, and died in the spring of 323 B.C. Alexander had reigned twelve years and eight months, and was thirty-two years old at the time of his death. The vast possessions which he had acquired by force, were deluged by continual bloodshed when he was no more. When asked to whom he left his kingdom, he an- swered, "to the worthiest." The body of Alexander was interred with all the pomp and circumstance of regal burial at Alexandria, where Ptolemy inclosed his remains in a golden coffin. The Egyptians and other na- tions paid divine honors to him after his deith. A modern writer has said: "The history of Alexander forms an important epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked by something more than devastation and ruin ; at every step of his course the Greek language and civilization took root and flourished ; and after his death, Greek king- doms were formed in all parts of Asia, which continued to exist for centuries. By his con- quests the knowledge of mankind w\as in- creased; the sciences of geography, natural history, and others received vast additions ; and it was through him that a road was opened to India, and that Europeans became acquainted with the products of the remote East." ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Phoenician by birth, related to Heliogabalus, who at- tempted his life, in consequence of which the pr;etorian guards slew the monster, and made Alexander emperor in his seventeenth year. He proved himself worthy of the sceptre, and having gained a great victory over the Persians, on his return to Rome was honored by a triumph. When he marched into Gaul, where an irruption of the Germans required his presence, he fell, by a mutiny of his troops, in the year 235, after a reign of twelve years. He was temperate, frugal, humane, and so favorably disposed to Chris- tianity, that he placed the statue of Jesus in his private chapel. ALEXANDER, the name of seven popes, the first of whom introduced the use of holy water. The sixth was remarkable for his cruelty and the infamy of his son, Caesar Borgia. He died in 1503, having greatly extended the papal dominions in Italy. ALEXANDER NEVSKOI, grand 'duke of Russia, a hero and saint of the Russian church, was born in 1218, and died 1263 ALEXANDER I., of Russia. [Bee Roman- off.] ALEXANDRIA was the Greek capital of ancient Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, wliose favorite residence it was, was cele- brated for its wealth, splendor, and arts. It was founded in 332 b.c. by Alexander, who employed the celebrated architect, Dinocrates, in beautifying and embellishing it, and sprang at once into beauty and importance. The situation of Alexandria, and the excellence of its fine harbors, appeared to adapt it to the rank which its founder hoped that it would hold among the cities of the world. Ptolemy Soter, or the Savior, and Ptolemy Philadelphus, conferred great benefits upon the city, which became the seat of literature, the resort of the learned of all countries, and an important mart. Its earliest inhabitants were Greeks and Egyptians. The population was augmented by colonies of Jews trans- ported thither for that purpose. These peo- ple made themselves familiar with Grecian lore, and translated into the Greek language the whole of the Old Testament, a version called the Septuagint. Four hundred thoiu sand volumes of the royal library were con- tained in a magnificent edifice belonging to the academ.y and museum, in which Euclid taught; 300,000 more were deposited in the temple of Jupiter Serapis. As all these works were in manuscript, their value was immense. The Ptolemies spared no pains to enrich their library, which became the finest in the world. AVhen Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, 47 B.C., the library was injured by fire, but the loss was repaired by the library of Pergamus which Antony presented to Queen Cleopatra. ALE 'dS COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF CLEOPATRA S NEEDLE. It was much injured by the Christians under Theodosius the Great, and the Arabs com- pleted the devastation. When the division of the Roman empire was effected, Alexan- dria, together with the country of which it was the capital, was included in the Eastern empire. Alexandria came into the hands of the Arabs in 640. It received the attention of the Caliph Motawakel, who, mindful of its former state, restored both the library and academy, in 845. In 868, it was taken by the Turks, and under their sway, very rap- idly declined. Still its commerce was in a flourishing state, and continued so until the close of the fifteenth century, when the Por- tuguese, by the discovery of the passage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, altered the commercial channel, and enriched them- selves at the expense of the Egyptians. The modern city of Alexandria occupies only a part ALE of the site of the ancient city. The remains of ancient Alexandria are unimportant, the red granite obelisks called Cleopatra's needles, and Pompey's pillar, being the most conspic- uous. The latter was erected by a prefect of Egypt, in honor of the Emperor Diocletian ; but the equestrian statue which formerly surmounted it, is gone. Some years past, a party of English sailors resolved to amuse themselves, and astonish the natives, by mounting to the top, and refi-esliing them- selves at an elevation which should put them above the cares and turmoils of humanity. How to accomplish their purpose was the next question. This was soon settled. They raised a line by means of a kite, and dropped it over the pillar, and by this means drew up a rope, by which they gained tlie top, whence, looking down upon the spectators from a giddy elevation of eighty-eight feet, they con- HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 39 gratulated themselves on their success. The island of Pharos yet bears the ruins of the light-house erected by the Ptolemies. This celebrated building was of white marble. Ptolemy directed his name to be inscribed upon the tower, but the cunning architect carved the name of his employer upon a tablet of plaster, which, decaying in time, displayed the name of the builder, with a dedication to the gods, claiming for himself all the honors due to his sovereign. One of Cleopatra's needles was presented to En- gland by the pacha, but its weight, 400,000 pounds, was a serious bar to its transportation. The ancient Alexandria had a population of 600,000; the modern contains about 60,000. It is the seat of a patriarch. It is the only port of Egypt, and the ancient canal com- munication with the Nile has been reopened. This, and the establishment of the overland route to India, have increased its importance. A battle was fought at Alexandria, March 21st, 1801, between the French under Mcnou and the British under Abercrombie. The latter gained the day. Abercrombie was mortally wounded. ALFIERI, Victor, Count, was born at Asti in Piedmont, in 1749. His family was rich and distinguished, but, an orphan from childhood, his education was neglected, like that of most of the young Italian nobles of his age and rank. Thus he quitted the academy of Turin, with an undisciplined and uninformed mind, and joined a regiment in the hope of finding something exciting in military pursuits. But here he was disap- pointed : the regiment was mustered only a few days in the year, and he was compelled to seek some other mode of killing time. For several years he led a dissipated and wander- ing life through Italy, France, England, and Holland, but wanted the information to ren- der his wanderings profitable. A love for horses and horsemanship was one of his two strongest passions. The other involved him in a swarm of profligate amours. Yet by one of these affairs, his poetical susceptibility and his literary ambition were for the first time aroused. Aware of his deficiencies, he resolved to educate himself He studied as- siduously Latin and Tuscan. In Tuscany, he became acquainted with the Countess of Albany, the unhappy wife of the Chevalier Charles Edward Stuart. To her love he owed much of his inspiration. Settling his fortune on his sister, he resided alternately at Florence and Rome, until the death of Charles Stuart put an end to the woes of the Countess of Albany, and enabled her to marry him. They lived together in Alsace and at Paris, until the revolution in France drove Alfieri from a country he loved, to his native land, where he resided at Florence till his death, in 1803. Alfieri's talents were great, but misapplied, and his tragedies are rather valuable as indicating his powers, than as establishing his fame. ALFRED TUE Gkeat, was born 849, and died 900. He was the youngest son of Eth- elwolf, king of the West Saxons, and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He went to Rome at the age of five years, and was annointed by the pope, although he then had an elder brother. This brother, Etheldred, fell in battle with the Danes, and in 872, Alfred ascended the throne. This was an unpropitious time, for the power of the Danes was then great and employed in harassing the Saxons, whose country they ravaged in various directions. Alfred concluded some treaties with them, but they were not kept, and unable to make head against the invaders, he was compelled to fly, and in concealment to await a moment when his reappearance would be advantageous for his country. The old chronicles tell that he fovmd refuge in a peasant's hut at Athelney in Somersetshire. The goodwife set the disguised monarch to watch the baking of cakes. His mind was busy with the Danes ; the cakes burned to a coal ; and the words of his mistress were loud and sharp. In the disguise of a harper, he penetrated the Danish camp to gain infor- mation of the strength and hopes of his foes. Having satisfied himself of both, he directed his nobles and their vassals to assemble at Selwood. Here he headed the troops, and, attacking the Danes at Eddington, gained a signal victory. A series of successes soon restored him his throne. He permitted those Danes who were willing to embrace the Christian religion, to remain in the kingdom of East Anglia, which he surrendered to them. He built forts to secure his subjects, augmented and strengthened his navy, and established the prosperity of London on a ALF 40 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF firm basis. He defeated the Danes who still persisted in attempting to obtain footing in England, and made his name a terror to the pirates. He had fought fifty-six battles by sea and land, in every one of which he was personally engaged. His zeal for the reforma- tion of laws and manners is as honorable to him as his military prowess. He composed a valuable code. By some he is said to have instituted the trial by jury, and to have divided England into shires, hundreds and tithings. But it is probable that the jury trial and these municipal divisions had pre- viously subsisted among the Anglo-Saxons, and that Alfred confirmed them upon a surer basis. He so arranged the business of the nation that all measures passed through three councils. To the first of these only those high in the king's confidence were admitted, and here were debated all afiiiirs that were to be laid before the second council, which con- sisted of bishops and nobles, appointed by the king. The third was a general assembly of the nation, called Wittenagemote, to sit in which quality and ofiiccs gave a right in- dependent of the king. In these councils we discern the origin of the present cabinet, privy council, and parliament of England. Alfred was an ardent lover of learning, and was himself a distinguished scholar. He in- vited learned men from all parts, and estab- lished schools throughout his kingdom. He is said to have been the founder of the uni- versity of Oxford, or, at least, to have exalted it to a height which it had never before attained. University College sprang from his liberality. He composed several works, and translated others into Anglo-Saxon for the benefit of his subjects. Among his trans- lations may be mentioned the "Consolations of Philosophy" of Bocthius, and perhaps the Psalms of David and the Fables of yEsop. He was industrious and fond of order, divid- ing the twenty-four hours into three equal portions; one devoted to religious duties, another to public affairs, and the third to rest. Alfred laid the foundation of the navy of England, by building galleys of a size superior to that of any of the age. In pri- vate life, he was distinguished by piety, affability, and cheerfulness. His person was commanding and stately. ALGIERS. The state formely known as the regency of Algiers is now in possession of the French, and called by them L'Algerie. It comprises the territory of the kingdom of Numidia, which was reduced to a Roman province 44 B.C., and afterward subjugated bj^ the Vandals, then by the Byzantine Greeks, and finally by the Arabs, who invaded the north of Africa at the beginning of the eighth century and established Islamism. The city of Algiers was founded by Zeiri, an Arab of distinction, in 944, and his family were en- dowed with hereditary power by one of the Fatimite caliphs. TheZeirite dynasty ruled until 1148, when Roger, king of Sicily, and the Moravites, possessed themselves at diff'erent times of the whole of the territory of Hassad Ben Ali. Algiers was again an independent sovereignty after 1270. The regency of Algiers, tributary to the Turkish sultan, Avas founded about 1518, by Horush (nicknamed Barharossa) and his brother Khair-ed-din, two Turkish corsairs who were summoned by the Algerines to beat back Ferdinand of Spain, and who usurped the government. It was about this time that the Christian knights, having war- red against the Mohammedan states, and al- most annihilated the Moorish commerce, the Moslem rulers exhorted their subjects to make reprisals, and to annoy their foes by extensive piracies. The call was obeyed without reluctance, and the Mohammedans, crowded beneath the crescent, spread the terror of their name upon the seas. The piratical republic founded by the fierce chieftains above named, was the stronghold of religious fonaticism and authorized piracy. The barks of the corsairs swept the seas in triumph, and the Algerines distinguished themselves above the inhabitants of the other Barbary states, by the fierce perseverance with which they pursued their career of crime. Charles V. undertook the siege of Algiers, in the latter part of 1541, with an armament of two hundred sail and thirty thousand men. But his ships and camp were destroyed bj' storms of uncommon violence, followed by the ravages of earthquakes. He lost his cannon, military stores, and baggage, and was compelled to abandon some of his scattered troops, while fifteen ships of war, a hundred and forty transports, and eight thousand men perished in the storm. This success ALG HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 41 inspired the Moors with the liveliest joy, but they attributed it entirely to the pious exer- tions of Sid-Atica, a marabout who employed himself diligently in beating the sea with his stick, until the waves lost all patience, and, rising in a body, destroyed the Christian fleet. The worthy old gentleman was buried with great solemnity, and his bones rested beneath a monument erected by his country- men. They were said to be gifted with the magic power of his stick, and, employed upon the waves with proper emphasis, capable of raising the wind to an incredible extent. Antiquity fii -nishes precedent for a belief in the efficacy of chastising the waters, for Xerxes, enraged at the turbulence of the Gre- cian waves, caused them to be. whipped with rods. The corsairs continued the scourge of Chris- tendom. On even the coasts of England and Ireland they swooped, and " took prey of men to be made slaves." " They carried their En- glish captives to France, drove them in chains overland to Marseilles, to ship them thence with greater safety for slaves to Algiers," an old historian says. Admiral Blake taught the pirates to respect the flag of England, in 1G53 ; but they repulsed later attacks of that and other European powers. Many nations paid tribute to the dey, and thus bought freedom for their flags. In 1815 Commodore Decatur compelled the Algerines not only to renounce their claim to black mail from our shipping, but to make indemnification for the losses which we had experienced from their pira- cies. The city of Algiers was vigorously bombarded by a British fleet under Lord Exmouth, Aug. 27th, 1816. The dey was forced to conclude a treaty, by which all Christian slaves were set free, and he prom- ised that no more captives should be reduced to that ignominious condition. This last stipulation was afterward evaded. The Al- gerines claimed the right, as an independent power, of declaring war against any state they chose, and of seizing its merchantmen, and keeping the crews in prison till peace was agreed on. In 1817 their corsairs pene- trated the North Sea, and there, with sur- prising audacity, captured ships which did not belong to tributary powers, or to those who were exempted from their depredations by treaty. Prisoners were only ransomed at enormous prices. Their treatment, now, in- stead of being ameliorated was more harsh than ever, and the corsairs, although they respected the flags of America and other strong powers, warred with the ships of weaker states, and enforced the superiority of might over right. The jealousy of the Eu- ropean states for a long time favored the encroachments of the Algerines, until the French prepared for conflict with stern de- cision. One of the last events in the reign of Charles X., was the entire prostration of the power of Algiers. The dey, with his personal treasures and his women, was permitted to retire, and selected Italy as a retreat. The French took possession of the town, the castle,, and all public property whatsoever. Among the spoil were twelve ships of war, fifteen hundred brass cannon, and forty-eight mil- lion francs in gold and silver. They secured their conquest, and since then Algiers has been a military province of France. During the prosperity of Algiers, a strug- gle was kept up with the Sublime Porte about the appointment of the dcys, till the sultan finally relinquished the claim of choosing them to the soldiery, and retained but a nom- inal authority over Algiers. The deys, when- ever they displeased the ferocious soldiery they afiected to rule, were deposed and put to death. The lives of these men were pro- verbially short, but we admit an exception in the person of Mohammed III., who died in 1791, after a reign of twenty -three years, at the age of ninety -three. Omar Pacha, the oppo- nent of Lord Exmouth, was murdered in 1817. Ali Hodya, his successor, shut himself up in the castle of Casaba, where, by means of his fifty-six cannon, a;id a garrison on which he could rely, he maintained ascendency over the city and the cruel Tui'kish troops, who had murdered Omar. Hussein, successor of Hodya, rendered cautious by experience, likewise occupied this strong castle. The government of Algiers was despotic, the dey possessing unlimited power, but being assisted by a divan composed of his chief officei-s of state and first ministers. The common soldiers elected the dey, but no election was permit- ted without unanimity in the electors. There- fore, when there was a difference, the majority compelled the weaker party to concur with them. The new dey espoused the principle ALG 42 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF of proscription, and frequentl}^ put to death incumbents, for the sake of opening state oflBccs to his partisans. He held a court of justice on four days in the week, where pro- ceedings were summary, and condemnation was followed by punishment at no long interval. By the capitulation of the dey, the French became possessed "of the city of Algiers, and the forts and harbors depending on it." No mention was made of the provinces, or of the native tribes in the interior, over which the authority of the dey was little else than nominal. Ahmed Bey of Constantine and the Bej^ of Titteri refused allegiance, and were not subdued for several years. The grasping policy of the French alienated the Arab tribes moreover. In May, 1833, Abd- el-Kader, the Emir of Mascara, took up arms against the invaders, and his leadership was soon recognized by all the Arabs. The con- test between him and the French was not closed till December, 1847, when he surren- dered and was sent with his family and attendants to France. There he remained a prisoner, treated however with much cour- tesy, till October, 1852, when he was released by Louis Napoleon. He swore upon the Koran never to disturb Africa again, and was to reside thenceforward at Broussa, in Asia Minor. In consequence of the earth- quake at that place, Feb. 28th, 1855, he removed to Coastantinople. The French keep a large army in the col- ony. The European emigration settled in Algeria up to 1852, amounted to about sev- enty thousand, and it has since been rapidly augmented. The native races of the country consist of Berbers or Kabyles (the aboriginal inhabitant^'), Arabs, ]\Ioors, Kooloolis (de- scendants of Turks), Jews (who flocked hither when extirpated from Spain and Portugal), and negro slaves from Soudan. Slavery has been abolished by the French. The popula- tion of the city of Algiers in 1852 was 54,041, of whom 24,649 were native Mussul- mans and Jews. The French have much improved its appearance ; they have opened wide streets and squares, built fine houses in the European style, hotels, coffee-houses, a theatre, &c. The activity of the new settlers wiU soon change the look of the whole coun- try. Constantine, the ancient Cirta, has a population of about 30,000. ALHAMBRA was the fortified palace of the Moorish kings of Granada, a possession to which they clung with their latest grasp, and which was the best beloved spot in their terrestrial paradise. The meaning of the Moorish name is 'the red,' and it was so called from the deep red brick of which the pile is built. The Spanish term it the Sierra del Sol, because, from its situation on an emi- nence, it catches and reflects the first beams of the rising sun. The palace composes but a small portion of the fortress, whose walls encompass the crest of a lofty hill rising from the Sierra Nevada, or 'snowy mountain.' The fortress was at one time capable of con- taining forty thousand men. The Alhambra originally consisted of a summer palace and a winter palace. The latter was pulled down to make room for the palace commenced and never finished by Charles Y. The pile that remains exhibits traces of the splendor of the arts among the Moors. A striking portion of the palace is the Court of Lion.s, which is a hundred feet in length, and fifty in breadth, surrounded by a beautiful colon- nade seven feet broad at the sides, and ten at the ends Two splendid porticoes, fifteen feet square, project into this court. The square is paved with tiles, the colonnade with white marble. The walls are covered with arabesques. The columns upon which the roof and gallery rest, are grotesquely or- namented and irregularly distributed. Over the columns is inscribed in Cufic characters, "And there is no conqueror but God." The capitals abound with curious devices. The fountain consists of twelve ill-shaped lions, bearing on their backs a large basin, out of which rises a smaller one. Here Avater gushed from the inner basin, and, passing through the lions, communicated by channels with other apartments. The fountain is of white marble and inscribed with Arabian distiches, like the following: "See'st thou hoAV the water flows copiously like the Nile ? " "The fiiir princess that walks by this garden, cov- ered with pearls, ornaments its beauty so much, that thou may est doubt whether it be a fountain that flows or the tears of her admirers." ALH HISTORY A iN U B 1 U G R A F U y . 43 S if u COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP The hall beyond the colonnade on the south side was the place chosen by Boabdil for the execution of the chiefs of the Abencerrages, and their bleeding heads fell, as fast as they were decapitated, into the limpid waters of the fountain. The hall of the Two Sisters {Toi're de las dos Hernuinas) was named from two beautiful slabs of white marljle, inserted in the pavement. El Toeadoi\ or the Tiring Tower, was appropriated to the toilette of the sultana, who in one part had a marble slab in the floor perforated with holes, to admit vapor and perfumes for the purification of her person. The king's bed-chamber was furnished with . fountains to cool the atmos- phere, and the royal baths were commodious and superb. Beneath were vaults used as a cemetery by the Moorish monarchs. The regret of the Mooi*s at leaving this place, which wealth, art, and taste had brought to such splendor, can easily be conceived. They never ceased to offer up prayers in their mosques for their restoration to Granada. After it fcU into the hands of the believers, Alhambra continued to be a royal dejnesne. Charles V. abandoned it as a residence in consequence of earthquakes; and Philip V., with his beautiful queen, Elizabeth of Parma, was the last roj'al tenant of this princely , abode. Subsequently it became infested by a lawless population ; this was expelled ; but, owing to culpable negligence, the palace was permitted to fall into decaj', from which the ^Moorish portion was partially rescued by the exertions of .the French troops gaiTisoned in it from 1810 to 1812. The French, on their departure, blew up part of the walls of the fortress, and destroyed its importance as a military post To the historian, the poet, the antiquary, and the artist, this relic of Moorish splendor possesses an indisputable interest Nothing could be more plain and unattractive than its exterior, but within it was probably the most gorgeous specimen of Moorish architecture and decoration that has ever existed. ALT, the cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet. When Mahomet, assembling his kinsmen, and making known to them his pretended mission, asked who would be his vizier, Ali, then only fourteen years of age, started up and exclaimed : " I will ! Let but a man advance against thee, I will pluck out his ALL eyes, dash in his jaws, break his legs, and tear up his belly. prophet, I am thy vizier." So wefl did he keep his word, that he was called the 'lion of the Lord,' the 'ever victorious.' He should have succeeded Mahomet, but being opposed successfully by Omar and Othman, he formed a sect of his own, and gained many followers. On the death of Othman, he was declared caliph, but was assassinated in a mosque, at Cufa, in the sixty-third year of his age, 669. The Persians belong to the sect of Ali. ALT, Pacha of Janina, commonly called Ali Pacha, was born in Albania, in 1744, and at the age of sixteen, headed the followers whom the death of his father left with no other leader. In freebooting he was so unsucces.s- ful, that he was forced to pawn his sabre to keep himself from starving. As he was sit- ting, ruminating upon his hard luck, and carelessly turning up the ground with his staff, he struck upon something hard. Cu- riosity induced him to search fm-ther, and he dug up a chest of gold ! He now equipped a band of followers whose cruelty and rapac- ity made them formidable. Having rendered some service to the Porte, he obtained the pachalic of Janina in southern Albania, and maintained himself in almost independent sovereignty. He subjugated the Suliotes, be- came a formidable military potentate between 1790 and 1821, and raised Albania to power and renown that recalled the memory of its ancient Epirote princes. Having declared himself independent, and his capital, Janina, being taken, he was put to death by order of the sultan, in 1822. He was brave and able, but cruel, rapacious, false, ambitious, and suspicious. He had a Greek lady, Euphros- yne, and fifteen other women thrown into the sea, because he suspected that they ex- erted an undue influence over his son. Tf he wished to possess himself of a beautiful Greek girl, he sent his executioner to her parents, with this message, "Your daughter has found favor in the eyes of Ali." They were forced to surrender her, or fly. ALLEN, Ethan, brigadier-general in our revolutionary army, was born in Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10th, 1737. His parents re- moved to Vermont, when he was quite j^oung. Tn the contest bet-ween the settlers of Ver- mont and the colony r f New York, which HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 45 began about 1770, he took so active a part that he was outlawed by New York and five hundi-ed guhieas were offered for his capture. Soon after the battle of Lexington, in com- pliance with the request of the legislature of Connecticut, he headed two hundred and thirty Green Mountain boys, and marched against the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. At Castleton he was to have been joined by a reinforcement under Bene- dict Arnold, but the latter, unable to raise the proposed force, set forward with the Spartan band of Allen. On the night of the 9th of May, 1775, Allen landed eighty -three men near Ticonderoga, having with difficulty pro- cured boats for that purpose. Day surprised him before his rear-guard was brought over, and he found himself compelled to attack the fort. He concluded an animated speech by saying, "lam going to lead you forward/ The attempt is desperate. I wish to urge no man onward against his will. Those who will follow me, poise firelocks ! " Every fire- lock was immediately poised. "On then, my boys ! " said Allen, and led the central file to the wicket gate. He was opposed by a sentry, but brought his men through the covered way, and formed them on the parade. The huzzas of the assailants roused the com- manding officer, Captain de la Place, from his slumbers. He awoke to find Allen hold- ing a drawn sword over his head and demand- ing the surrender of the fortress. " In Avhose name?" asked the commander. "In the name of the Great Jehovah, and the Conti- nental Congress." On the same day, by the capture of Crown Point, and the only armed vessel on Lake Champlain, that im- portant lake was placed in Allen's power. In the autumn, in conjunction with Col. Brown, he attempted the reduction of Mon- treal, but being attacked by the British before Col. Brown's troops came up, he was defeated and made prisoner. He was treated with great barbarity in his captivity ; carried to England, and then to Halifax ; thence to denl}^, at his estate at Colchester, Feb. 13 th, 1789. He pubhshed some pamphlets, one of which contained an open declaration of infi- delity. He adopted the most absurd ideas of the ancients, with regard to the transmi- gration of souls, often saying that he expected to live again in the form of a large Avhite horse ; but if we may believe the following anecdote, his atheism was insincere. When his daughter was dying, she sent for him, and said, "Father, I am about to die: shall I be- lieve in what you have taught me, or in the Christian principles my mother teaches." After a moment of convulsive agitation, he replied, "Believe in what your mother has taught you." ALLIANCES. Between the confederate Greeks, against Troy, b.c. 1194-84. Between the Romans and the Carthaginians, B.C. 508. Between the Athenians, Thebans, Corin- thians, and Argives, against the Lacedemo- nians, B.C. 395. It is not a little remarkable, that in the long course of Roman conquest, not one well arranged and conducted alliance was formed and contributed to restrain her power. In modern ages, alliances in the true sense of the term, are recent. The crusades were really a species of alliance, but with very little of the system of modern alliances. The league of Cambray, formed Dec. 10th, 1508, between Louis XTI. of France, Maxi- milian of Germany, Pope Julius II., and Ferdinand of Spain, against the Venetians, was the first of those coalitions so disastrous or beneficial, as the case may be, which have so deeply influenced modern European policy. By it Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples. Those of most importance since have been, a league between Henry VIII. of England and the Em- peror Charles V., against Francis of France. The league of the princes of Germany in favor of Protestantism, at Smalcald, Dec. 22d, 1530. Between Francis I. of France and Sultan Solyman, against Charles V., 1536; renewed in 1542. Between Charles V. and New York, where he remained a year and a Pope Paul IIL, against the Protestants, 1546. half, before he was exchanged. His health having been greatly impaired, he returned to Vermont, where he was appointed to com- mand the militia. He indignantly rejected the bribes offered by the British to attempt a union of Vermont with Canada. He died sud- Betwcen Spain, Venice, and Pope Pius V., against the Turks, 1570. Between England and the states-general of Holland, against Spain, 1578. Union of Utrecht, whereby began the Dutch republic of the Seven United Provinces, 1579. Evangelical league, ALL 4(5 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF formed in 1G26, between the Protestant princes of Germany and Denmarlc (Sweden afterward acceded), against the Emperor Ferdinand I. Triple alliance between En- gland, Sweden, and the states-general of Holland, against France, 1GG8. Alliance of the empire and Holland against France, July loth, 1672. League of Augsburg against France, July 11th, IGSG. Grand alliance between Emperor Leopold L, the states-gen- eral of Holland, and William HL of England, against France, May 12tli, 1689. First treaty of partition, between England and Holland, for regulating the Spanish succes- sion, 1G98. Second treaty of partition, be- tween France, England, and Holland, declar- ing the Archduke Charles heir presumptive of the Spanish kingdom, 1700. Alliance of Germany, England, and Holland, against France, Spain, and Portugal, 1701. Barrier treaty of Antwerp, between Germany, Hol- land, and England, by which the Low Coun- tries were ceded to the empire, Nov. 15th, 1715. Quadruple alliance between Great Britain, France, Germany, and Holland, to guarantee the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and France, and to settle the partition of the Spanish monarchy, Aug. 2d, 1718. Defensive alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, 1742. Between Great Britain and Prussia, Feb. 16th, 1756; renewed April 11th, 1758, without any regu- lar compact. France, Austria, Russia and Sweden, were at the epoch of the last men- tioned alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, actually in the field against Prussia. To the United States, if not to the world, the most important of all alliances or confedera- tions was that of the British North Ameri- can colonies. This great union, not for war, but defense, after many incipient steps, was formed in 1775; announced to the world as free and independent, July 4th, 1776; received the general name of the United States, by a resolution of Congress, Sept., 1776, and was consummated by the adoption of a federal constitution of government, March 3d, 1789. First coalition against France, by Great Brit- ain, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia, &c., 1793. Second, by Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, June 22d, 1799. Third, by Great Britain, Austria, and Naples, Aug. 5th, 1805. Fourth, by Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, Aug. Gth, 1806. Fifth, by Great Britain and Austria, April Gth, 1809. Sixth, by Russia and Prussia, March 17th, 1813. Sweden joined the grand alliance against Napoleon, March 13th, 1813. Alliance of Toplitz be- tween Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain, Sept. 13th, 1813. Holy Alliance, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 1815. Alliance of England, France, and Turkey, against Russia, signed at Constantinople, March 12th, 1854; ratified by the first two powers, April 3d, 1854; joined by Sardinia, Jan. 26th, 1855. ALLSTON, TTAsniNGTOx, was born in Charleston, S. C, Nov. 5th, 1779. He fitted for college at Newport, R. L, and entered Hai-vard University in 1796, graduating four years after. He had inherited a handsome patrimony, and he determined to devote him- self to art. For this purpose he repaired to London in 1801, and entered as a student in the Royal Acadcmj^ Benjamin "West, who had just succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as president of the institution, warmly wel- comed his young countryman. Two years were well spent in London; then Allston enriched his pencil awhile amid the rich col- lection of the Louvre, richer than ever with the spoils that Napoleon had borne there ; and soon after we find him settled in Rome, where he dwelt four years. There he formed an acquaintance with Coleridge, which be- came a close friendship. He studied his art diligently, and by fellow-artists was held in high esteem. He returned to America in 1809. The public mind was absorbed in pol- itics, and Art could not gain its attention. Allston had married, and needed that the pro- fession in which his genius and skill were so great, should support him. After two years' trial he repaired to London again. There he was embarrassed by the hostilities which arose between the two countries. He lost heart, was laid low by a long and serious illness, and had but a little while recovered when he was bereft of his cherished and lovely consort. "When again he resumed the pencil, he found his pictures sought for by the most approved judges, and he was no less beloved for the qualities of his heart than admired for his genius. He returned to America in 1818, and for the remaining ALL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 47 twenty -five years of his life Boston or its vicinity was his residence. Here he found cordial welcome from a wide circle of friends, and a patronage only limited by his power of producing. His great historical painting, "Belshazzar's Feast," unfinished as it is, fur- nishes decisive proof that in the highest branch of the art he has had no equal in the present century. His relative, Mr. Dana, in the preface to Mr. Alls ton's "Lectures on Art," thus describes his last hours: "His death occurred at his own house, in Cam- bridge, a littla past midnight, on the morning of Sunday, the 0th of July, 1843. He had finished a day and week of labor in his studio, upon his great picture of ' Belshaz- zar's Feast;' the fresh paint denoting that the last touches of his pencil were given to that glorious but melancholy monument of the best years of his later life. Having con- versed with his retiring family with peculiar solemnity and earnestness upon the obliga- tion and beauty of a pure spiritual life, and on the realities of the world to come, he had seated himself at his nightly employment of reading and writing, which he usually carried into the early hours of the morning. In the silence and solitude of this occupation, in a moment, ' with a touch as gentle as the morn- ing light,' which was even then approaching, his spirit was called away to its proper home." Allston was an author as well as an artist, and published a volume of poems and several works of fiction. ALMA, Battle of the. The English and French armies moved out of their first en- campment in the Crimea, Sept. 19th, 1854, and bivouacked for the night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- manded by Prince Menschikoff) mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights of the Alma, and on the morning of the 20th were joined by 6,000 cavalry. The English force, under Lord Raglan, consisted of 25,000 men ; the French, under Marshal St. Arnaud, of 23,000. At twelve o'clock the signal to advance was made, and the river Alma crossed under the severe fire of the Russian batteries. After four sanguinary hours the allies were completely victorious. The Russians flung away their arms and knapsacks in their hasty flight, having lost about 5,000 men, of whom 900 were made prisoners. The loss of the English was 853 killed, 1,612 wounded; that of. the French, 236 killed, 1,087 wounded. ALPS, the loftiest system of mountains in Europe. Mont Blanc, the highest, is 15,777 feet high, Monte Rosa, 15,206 and Monte Cervin, 14,835. Separating Italy from Spain, France, and Germany, it would seem as if they opposed an insurmountable barrier to the march of conquest ; but thej' have been several times crossed by large armies, the expeditions of Hannibal and Bonaparte being the most celebrated. Bonaparte passed the Great St. Bernard, in the year 1800, and swooped like a hawk upon the plains of Italy. His army met with obstacles which only genuine enthusiasm enabled them to sur- mount. They had to draw their artillery along narrow paths, in many places almost perpendicular, and over mountains of snow. A very small force would have arrested their progress, but they met no opposition. They reached St. Peter, near the Great St. Bernard, on the 15th of May, General Berthier acting as Bonaparte's lieutenant. Here the whole park of artillery was collected. The moun- tain they had to pass over was wild and bar- reri, with a vast extent of snow and ice, mingled with terrific silence. Over this frightful route the mind of Bonaparte had con- ceived the possibility of passing his army with all its artillery, baggage, &c. The can- non, caissons, forges, &c., were immediately dismounted, piece by piece; a number of trees were hollowed like troughs, in which the pieces of cannon might safely slide, and five or six hundred men drew them up these tremendous heights ; the wheels were carried on poles ; sledges conveyed the axle-trees ; and empty caissons and mules were loaded with the ammunition-boxes made of fir. The consul took no more baggage than was absolutely necessary. Five hours were con- sumed in climbing as high as the monastery of the Bernardines, where the good fathers gave each individual a glass of wine ; this, though frozen, was to them delicious, and not one would have exchanged it for all the gold of Peru. There were still six leagues to go, and the rapidity of the descent made that distance truly terrible ; men and horses con- stantly falling, and often recovering with the greatest diflBculty. The march commenced ALP 48 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF MONT BLANC. at midnight, and did not finish till about nine o'clock the next evening. For nearly fourteen leagues the army had scarcely had a meal, or any repose, and at the end of the journey, sleep hung so heavily even upon the most robust of them, that they resigned them- selves to it M-ithout a struggle, or a thought of their evening repast. Bonaparte traversed a portion of the way attended only by a peasant. He was dressed in the little gray surtout and cocked hat, in which artists delight to repi'esent him. He conversed with his companion, and learned that his wishes centered in the possession of a little farm. The farm was afterward presented to the peasant, whose delight and surprise may be readily imagined. Over the pass of the Simplon a magnificent road leading from Switzerland into Italy was constructed by order of Napoleon in 1801-6. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and tunnels through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. Between thirty and forty thousand workmen were employed upon this undertaking at once. ALYA, Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, descended from a high Castilian family, born in 1508, distinguished himself in the career of arms at the age of seventeen, and was at the siege of Pavia. Charles V. made him a general, and he was commander at the siege of Mentz, where he fought with desperate but unavailing valor, for the siege was raised. He was noted for excessive cruelty and super- stition. In the campaign against the pope, Alva compelled the pontiff to sue for peace, and then went to Rome to supplicate pardon for the offense. In 1567, he was sent to the Netherlands by Philip II., to reduce them more completely to the Spanish yoke, and ALV HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 49 extirpate the Protestant heres)'. The Cruelty of the Council of Blood, a military ti-ibunal which he established, deluged the United Provinces in their best blood. At first the arms of Alva were successful, but the mad- dened malcontents afterward gaining head, he was recalled. In Portugal, he acquired renown by his success in driving Don Anto- nio from the throne. He died in 1582. AMADEUS, the name of several of the Counts of Savoy, of whom Amadeus VI. was the most famous. He lent his powerful aid to John of France, against Edward of En- gland, and was the ally of John Paleologus (Emperor of Greece), in 1365. His reign of forty years was glorious, and his death in 1383, deeply lamented. AMAZONS, a fabulous race of female war- riors in antiquity. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians in Cappa- docia, whose husbands were all slain in war. The widows resolved to form a female domin- ion. Having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful state. They were said to have been con- quered by Theseus about 1281 b.c. These warlike women burned their right breasts off, that they might hurl the javelin with more force; whence their name, from the Greek o (no) and /^a^oj (ireast). Orellana, the discoverer of the river Amazon, saw bands of armed women on its banks, whence he gave the stream that name. AMBASSxiDORS and ministers plenipoten- tiary, have been from time immemorial, con- sidered in some measure, privileged charac- ters. Those of King David, about 1030 b.c, being insulted by the king of the Ammonites, led to a war destructive to the aggressors. The Roman ambassadors at Clusium, b.c. 390, mixing with the inhabitants in battle with the Gauls, Brennus, king of the latter, considered their conduct an act of hostility on the part of their country, raised the siege of Clusium, marched toward Rome, defeated the Romans at the Alia, and took, plundered, and burned Rome. In modern times the privileges of ambassadors have been more distinctly de- fined. In England during the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell, Don Pantaleon Sa, brother to the Portuguese ambassador in London, committed a murder in open day, and sought refuge in his brother's house; but the pro- : tector refused to sanction svich an asylum iu a case of murder, and Sa was seized, tried, and hanged, 1653. About twenty years af- terward, the Prince of Furstenbiirg was ar- rested at the diet of Ratisbon, for murder, by order of the Emperor of Germany, and the case of Sa given as a justification. In 1709, in England, the Russian ambassador was ar- rested for debt by a lace merchant, which led to an act of parliament exempting ambassa- dors, or their immediate suit, from arrest in civil cases. The first ambassador from Russia to Eng- land, arrived in London, 1556. First from India to any part of Europe, was from Tippoo Saib to France, 1778. First from the United States was Silas Deane to France, 1776. First from the Ottoman emperor to Great Britain, 1793. The first from the United States to England was John Adams, presented to George IIL June 2d, 1785. The first from England to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. AMBROSE, St., was born at Treves about 340. He was Bishop of Milan, and died in 397. He introduced anthems into the church service, and the glorious " Te Deum Lwiida- mus" is ascribed to him and Augustin, al- though some say a later date belongs to it. AMERICA, one of the t^\an continents of the earth, including a vast extent of territory, embracing every variety of climate, and bear- ing within it, besides its precious ore and gems, the germs of immense wealth, remained undiscovered until the 11th of October, 1492, when Christopher Columbus, a native of Ge- noa, who had sailed from Spain with three small vessels under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, seeking a westward way to In- dia, first beheld a light on the shores of the new world, two hours before midnight. On the ensuing day he set foot in the virgin isle. Columbus felt the importance of the discovery, as, erecting the cross, and surrounded by his crew and the wild and wonder-stricken na- tives, he took possession of the new country in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. The Christian adventurers did not fail to kneel upon the sand, and offer up their thanks for having been preserved through the perils of a long voyage, and favored with such brilliant success to compensate for all their perils. This island was called Guanahani by the na- AME 50 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF tives, a name which Cohimbus altered to St. Salvador, and was one of the Bahamas. He then visited other adjacent islands, and pro- ceeded to Cuba and Hay ti ; the latter he called Hispaniola. In subsequent voyages he dis- covered Jamaica and Trinidad, and landed on the coast of South America near the mouth of the Orinoco. It is worthy of remark, that the vast conti- nent which Columbus discovered was not called by his name, but derived its appellation from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine naviga- tor, who made some subsequent discoveries, in company with Alonzo de Ojeda, in 1499, and was the first to publish an account of the new countries. The work which he issued became very popular and was soon translated into several different languages. Thus Amerigo Vespucci attained a greater degree of celebrity than he merited, and, bj^ the concurrence of all classes, gave his name to that extensive and important country which another had dis- covered. Neither was Columbus the first to reach the continent. He did not touch upon South America till May 30th, 1498. Almost a year sooner, Jime 24th, 1497, Sebastian Cabot had reached the coast of North America. The wondrous field for exploration and dis- covery that Columbus had opened was soon thickly occupied. In 1498, Cabot in a second expedition visited Newfoundland. In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, admiral of a Portuguese fleet bound for the East Indies around the Cape of Good Hope, blundered upon Brazil. Nunez de Balljoa saw the Pacific Ocean from a mountain near Panama, in 1513. He was transported with delight as he beheld its waves sparkling in the light of the sun, and appearing to glitter with that gold which the natives told him abounded in the country to the south. He imagined that he had found the Indies, a region then the greatest ambition of European adventurers to reach. He acquainted the Spanish court with his discovery, and solicited an appointment proportionate to the extent of his services. He was, however, grievously disappointed ; the government of Darien was obtained by Davila, and this rival, finding a pretext for wreaking his vengeance upon Bal- boa, had him executed publicly in 1517. In 1513, Diaz de Solis landed on the south-east coast of South America, about the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, where he and several of [ his crew were killed, roasted, and eaten by I the savages. In 1 520 Magellan passed through the straits that bear his name and crossed the Pacific. The Spaniards entertained the most exag- gerated ideas of the wonders of the New World. To most of them, it appeared a realm of magic, a fairy-land, in which supernatural occurrences were by no means infrequent. Thus Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, fitted out three ships from Porto Rico, of which he was governor, and set forth in search of a fountain which was fabled to restore all who bathed in it, even if they were tormented by the infirm- ities of extreme old age, to the freshness, vigor, and beauty of youth. Although he failed to find the fountain, he made the discovery of Florida. As the Spaniards had been foremost in American discover}'', so they were first in conquest and settlement. Early in the six- teenth century Cortez conquered Mexico, and not long after Pizarro subjugated Peru. More than a hundred years elapsed after North America was first visited by Cabot, before an English colony was established in the country. The external appearance of the New World has much which presents a very marked con- trast to the superficial features of the Old. A stupendous chain of elevated mountains traverses the whole continent, running from north to south, and even under the equator, where, upon the low lands the most intense heat is felt, these tall mountains elevate their heads into the region of intense cold. Every- thing in the New World appears to be of greater magnitude than the corresponding- objects in the Old. The lakes are vast inland oceans, exhibiting in storms the striking and sublime aspects of the great deep, rolli% as mighty waves, and shaken by an equal con- vulsion. The rivers are of prodigious size, and the plains of extraordinary extent. Over those of South and North America, countless herds of wild cattle roam at will. The Amer- ican continent stretches from the icy ocean of the north to the cold regions of the south. It is composed of two great peninsulas linked by an isthmus. The Atlantic washes its eastern coast, the Pacific its western. Its length, from 80° N. lat. to 55° S. lat, exceeds 9,000 miles ; its greatest breadth is between Cape St. Roque in Brazil and Cape Parina in Peru, where it is upward of 3,250 miles wide. The AME HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 51 narrowest part is the Isthmus of Panama, which divides it into North and South Amer- ica ; the isthmus is only twenty-eight miles wide. The area of North America, not includ- ing the West Indies, may be estimated at 7,779,218 square miles, and its population at 35,774,4:98; the area of South America at 6,199,080 square miles, and its population at 18,033,465. About half the population of the continent are whites ; the other half, native Indians, negroes, and mixed races. The New World was inhabited by a race of men differing, in many respects, from the na- tives of the eastern hemisphere. The Indians of North America varied, in many particulars, from those of the southern portion of this vast continent, and the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico, at the time when they were first vis- ited by the Spaniards, had attained a greater degree of refinement than was found by the Europeans in any other quarter of the New World. Malte Brun has thus described the general personal appearance of the aborigines : " The natives of this part of the globe are in general large, of a robust frame, well propor- tioned, and without defects of conformation. They have a bronzed or coppery red complex- ion, as it were ferruginous, and very like cin- namon or tannin ; the hair black, long, coarse, shining, and scanty ; the beard thin, growing in tufts ; the forehead short, the eyes elonga- ted, and having the corners pointing upward to the temples ; the eyebrows high, the cheek bones projecting, the nose a little flattened, but marked ; the lips wide, the teeth serrated and sharp ; * in the mouth an expression of mildness, which is contrasted with a sombre, and severe, and even hard expression of coun- tenance; the head rather square, -the face large without being flat, but diminishing to- ward the chin ; the features taken in profile, projecting and strongly marked; the belly high, the thighs large, the legs bowed, the foot large, and the whole body squat." Such are said to be the general characteristics of the aborigines of this continent, with perhaps two exceptions, the Esquimaux at the north- ern extremity and the Patagonians at the southern. The copper or bronze hue of the skin is, with some slight exceptions, common to almost all the native nations of America, whatever the climate, the situation, or the mode of living. In regard to the peopling of the continent, various conjectu-res have been formed, and no- thing is known. Some have supposed that the lost tribes of Israel wandered hither; others that the Mexicans were of Egyptian ancestry ; some that the Carthaginians, and others that the ancient Celts, made expeditions to America. What surmise too fanciful to meet with supporters, when facts are few and doubtful. Perhaps the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Americans has been most gener- ally accepted. The question is buried in ob- scurity. The great number of separate lan- guages goes to show that the American tribes must have long existed in the savage solitude in which the Europeans found them plunged. There are scattered over the continent traces of the labor of man that belong to no race known since its discovery by Europeans. The mounds in our western states, overgrown with primeval trees ; the teocallis of Mexico, the strange remains of Central America, and the ruins of Peru ; these, their buried trinkets and utensils, their hieroglyphics, idols, orna- ments, and sculpture, sjieak variously of arts, religions, civilizations, and races that were above the savage, and were gone before the European came. North America is politically divided into the republics of the United States, Mexico and Central America, the British and Russian possessions, and the tracts still possessed by native tribes. The north-western coast has been discovered and held by the Russians. Greenland is subject to Denmark. The pop- ulation of Danish America is stated at 10,000, that of Russian America at 66,000. Over the broad tract usually called British America the Hudson's Bay Company have control. The British provinces lie between this territory and the United States. They consist of Can- ada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Bre- ton, Prince Edward Island, and Newfound- land. The extent of these, in square miles, is about 2,425,000, and the present population may be computed at 2,515,000. [See Canada, United States, Mexico, Central America.] The Bermudas are under the control of En- gland, and the West Indies are possessed by various European powers. [See West Indies. ] South America is thus divided. The north- ern portion, formerly Colombia, is now cut into the three republics of New Grenada, Ven- AME 52 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF ezuela, and Ecuador. To the south of these on the western coast, lie the repubUcs of Peru, Bolivia, and ChiU. The states of the Argen- tine Confederation, formerly known as the United Provinces of La Plata, lie between the two last-mentioned states and the Atlantic. Buenos Ayres once belonged to this confeder- acy, but is now a distinct republic. The em- pire of Brazil is the largest of South American states. South of it lies the republic of Uru- guay. Paraguay lies south-west of Brazil, between the rivers Paraguay and Parana. Guiana is a tract on the north-eastern coast between the mouths of the Amazon and the Orinoco. The southern part of the continent is called Patagonia. Further information concerning the countries of America will be found under the articles devoted to them sep- arately. AMERICUS VESPUCCIUS, a Florentine navigator, of an ancient family, born 1451. His first voyage to America was made under Ojeda, a year after its discovery by Columbus, and yet the vast continent bears his name, while that of the great discoverer is applied to it only by poetical courtesy. In the glowing narrative which he wrote, he appropriated the laurels of Columbus to his own brow, and strengthened his claims by a tale of a voyage made before that in which Columbus touched South America. This was afterward proved a falsehood, but the old world had already named its new-born sister America. Ves- pucci died in Spain in 1512 or 1514. AMES, Fisher, was born in Dedham, Mass., April 9th, 1 758. He was educated at Harvard College, which he left with high character. After instructing a school for some years, in 1781 he commenced the practice of law, and becoming distinguished for his oratorical powers, and his success as a political essayist, was chosen member of the legislature. He was the first representative of the Suffolk dis- trict in the Congress of the United States, in which he remained during Washington's ad- ministration. On the retirement of TTashing- ton, Mr. Ames, whose health had been im- paired, occupied himself in farming at Ded- ham, and practicing law. But although his voice was unheard in public, his pen was not inactive, and the publication of various essays proved the interest which he continued to take in politics until the time of his deat-h, July 4th, 1808. Fisher Ames had fine fea- tures, and a commanding person, and his manner in speaking was expressive, although not characterized by studied grace. His con- versational abilities are said to have been of the highest order. His father, Nathaniel, was a phj^sician, and well versed in astronomy. AMHERST, Jeffery, Lord, was born in 1717. He commenced his military career in 1731, and regularly rose to the rank of field- marshal. He was at Dettingen, Fontcnoy, Piocoux, commanded at the siege of Louis- burg, and reduced the Canadas. He was successively governor of Virginia, and of the isle of Jersey, and commander-in-chief of the British army. He died in 1798. AMIENS, an ancient city of the old prov- ince of Picardy in France, ninety -two miles north of Paris, having a population of 47,000. Its cathedral is one of the most magnificent Gothic edifices in the world. Here, March 27th, 1802, peace was concluded between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Sjjain. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the man- agement of all affairs relative to Greece, 1498 B.C. It consisted of twelve delegates. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their wisest and most virtuous men, till the num- ber was increased to thirty. This is the first instance on record, of a fi-ee representation of independent states, meeting to deliberate and settle their concerns by the force of reason, in place of arms. ANABAPTISTS, a fanatical sect which arose about 1525 in Germany. They taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no' original sin, and that men have a free will in spiritual things. Munster in "Westphalia they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias a baker was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and at length they rose in arms under pretense of gospel liberty. Their fanatical leader, John of Ley- den, a tailor, defended himself in Munster for a whole year. After this, the execution of the leaders quelled the insurrection. Munster was taken, June 24th, 1535. ANACREON, a Greek lyric poet of Teos, in Ionia, who flourished in the sixth century B.C. Poly crates. King of Samos, was his pat- ron until his death. At Athens he was en- ANA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 53 couraged by Hipparchus, but the fall of the latter drove hhn from Athens, and he passed an old age of gayety at Abdera, where he was choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year. He was the poet of love and wine, practiced what he praised, and was much honored by the Greeks. Verse of a jovial or bacchanalian strain is called Anacreontic. ANAXAGORAS, one of the Ionic philoso- phers, born at Clazomene, in Ionia, 500 b.c. died at Lampsacus at the age of seventy -two. Anaxagoras is celebrated as the friend of Per- icles, and for his trial and condemnation at Athens for alleged impiety and a suspicion of favoring the interests of Persia. The inter- cession of Pericles softened his sentence from death into banishment. The researches of the Ionic school were confined to the nature and laws of phj^sical phenomena, and Anaxa- goras in his investigations groped near the thought of a great First Cause. ANAXIMANDER, a disciple of Thales, whose chief study was mathematics and as- tronomy, born at Miletus, GIG B.C., died 546 B.C. He is said to have been the first who constructed maps and spheres. ANDRE, John. Among the various events which contributed to give a distinctive char- acter to the war of our Revolution, the fate of Major Andre, a young English oflBcer, can never be forgotten, nor the sad story of the close of his life ever read without a deep and painful interest. This young man was hand- some, talented, brave, entliusiastic, generous, and accomplished, beloved by all his acquaint- ance, without distinction of country. He was born in England in 1749, entered the royal army with high hopes in 1771, and was well fitted to adorn an elevated station. His history is connected with that of the worst traitor who ever disgraced the name of Amer- ica. This man was Benedict Arnold. His unrepressed extravagance had led him to incur heavy debts which he saw no means of dis- charging but by accepting the gold of the British as the price of treason to his country. In September, 1780, Arnold was in command of West Point, a post on the Hudson, of vast importance to the Americans. Arnold had selected for betrayal this fortress, which was almost impregnable from natural defenses, and from fortifications on which no care or expense had been spared. Arnold had opened a correspondence with Sir Heniy Clinton, under fictitious names and the pretense of mercantile business, through Major Andre, then holdix^-g the rank of adjutant-general. The young officer was conveyed up the river in the Vulture sloop-of-war, and, under a pass for John Anderson, came on shore in the night, and had an interview with Arnold. Morning surprised them before their business was transacted, and, as it was impossible for Andre to get on board the Vulture by day- light, he consented to remain hidden till the next night. In the course of the day, the Vulture altered her position, in consequence of a gun being brought to bear upon her, and the boatmen, at night, refused to take Andre on board. The young officer found himself compelled to attempt to get to New York by land. Ar- nold gave him a pass, granting permission to John Anderson "to go to the lines of "White Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being on public business." Changing his uniform, which he had previously worn under a sur- tout, for a plain coat, he mounted a horse, passed the American guards in safety, and was congratulating himself on his escape, when three militia men, suddenly appearing, seized his bridle-rein, and demanded his busi- ness. Surprised, and oif his- guard, he did not produce his pass, but hastily asked the men where they belonged. "Down below," was the answer. " So do I," replied Andre, rejoiced to find them fi-iends. But he was mistaken, and being pressed, he finally de- clared that he was a British officer. He beg- ged them to suffer him to pursue his way, offering them gold, and a watch of great value. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wert were poor men; their dress be- spoke it ; but they loved their country, and despised a bribe. They might have answered Andre, in the words of another American, on another occasion, "Your king has not gold enough to buy us." They carried Andre be- fore Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson, who com- manded the troops on the lines. The captors of Andre were rewarded by Congress with an annual pension of two hundred dollars each, and a silver medal bearing on one side a shield inscribed "Fidelity;" and on the other the motto "Amor Patrige." Andre still passed as John Anderson. He AND 54 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF generously wished to save Arnold, and asked permission to write to him. This the com- manding otficer incautiously permitted, al- though in Andre's boots there had been found, in the handwriting of Arnold, returns of the state of the forces, and the condition of West Point, with other important papers. Arnold was at dinner when the letter arrived. Ab- ruptly leaving the table, he ran down a steep bank, threw himself into a boat, and was rowed to the Vulture, which immediately got under sail, and carried the traitor to New York. Gen. Washington was soon apprised of the circumstances, and the same express which conveyed the intelligence, carried a let- ter from the prisoner, frankly avowing his name and the circumstances under which he had been forced to appear as an impostor. All the American officers who saw Andi-e, were struck with his candor and manliness, and there was not one who did not feel for his situation. The consideration of his case was referred by Gen. Washington to a board of fourteen general officers, of which Gen. Green was president, and Steuben, Knox, and La Fayette were members. It was decided that he ought to be regarded as a spy, and the stern rules of war, and the necessity of an example, re- quired that he should die upon the gibbet. He begged of Washington to be allowed to (fie as a soldier, but the patriotism of the gen- eral refused what his feelings would have granted. Led to the place of execution, An- dre, surveying the instrument of his fate, asked with concern, " Must I die by this ? I am reconciled to my death, but oh ! not to the mode." Recovering his composure, he added, "It will be but a momentary pang." His countenance was unruffled and calm, to the very last moment of his life ; the instant before he was launched into eternity, it ex- hibited a sunny serenity and high magnanim- ity which touched the hearts of all ! At the last moment he was asked if he wished to say anything. "But this," he replied: "You will witness to the world, that I die like a brave man." The kindest attentions were bestowed on Andre by the American officers, particularly by Alexander Hamilton, who did all in his power to soothe him. Far different was the treatment of the pious and patriotic Captain Hale, a young American oflBcer, who was taken as a spy, and ordered to be executed the next morning. He begged the use of a Bible, which was refused; to be allowed to write a letter to his mother, which poor priv- ilege was also denied him. " The Americans," said the British commander, " shall not know that they have a rebel in their army who can die with so much firmness." On the occasion of the capture of some 3'oung American offi- cers upon Long Island, they were brought be- fore Sir Henry Clinton, who thus addressed them : " Gentlemen, do you know that I can hang every man of you as rebels, taken in arms against the king." "Hang and be hanged !" blimtly exclaimed Lieut. Dunscomb, with the energy of a rough soldier; "I have lived for my country, and I am not afi-aid to die for her." Andre's ashes, several years ago, were se- cured by the British, and convej^ed to Eng- land, where a monument was erected to him in Westminster Abbe)^ ANDROCLUS, a Dacian slave, of whom a story is told that he was exposed in the arena of a Roman circus, to fight a lion ; but the animal forbore to injure him, because he had formerly extracted a thorn from his foot while in the Dacian wilds. Androclus was released, and used to lead the friendly lion about the city. ANDROMACHE, the faithful and affection- ate wife of Hector, prince of Troy, of whom she was so fond, as to feed his horses with her ovra hands. After his death, she was married to Neoptolemus, to whose share the lovely captive fell, and afterward to Helenus, son of Priam. ANDROMEDA, daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, by Cassiopeia. She is fabled to have been exposed by Neptune to a sea-mon- ster, from which she was delivered by Perse- us. An explanation of the fable is offered in the supposition that she was courted by the captain of a ship, who attempted to carry her away, but was baffled by the enterprise and activity of a more faithful lover. ANDROS, Sir Edmund, royal governor of New York from 1674 to 1682, of New England from 1686 to 1689, and of Virginia from 1692 to 1698. His tyrannical administration in New England rendered his name obnoxious. His failure to seize the charter of Connecticut AND HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY is told in another place. [See Charter Oak.] In April, 1689, the people of Massachusetts, irritated by his exactions, deposed Andros, put him in prison, and declared for William and Mary. The subsequent career of Andros in Virginia was more moderate. He died in England in 1714. ANGLES, a tribe which occupied the coun- try between the Weser and the Elbe, now a part of Prussia. In the fifth century, uniting with the Saxons, their powerful neighbors of the north, under the name of Anglo-Saxons, they effected the conquest of England. A small tract of land near the Danish peninsula, where some of them remained, is called at the present day Angeln. ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquis of, was born May IVth, 1768, the eld- est son of the Earl of Ux bridge. At" an early age he entered the army, and his first active service was in Flanders under the Duke of York in 1794. Toward the close of the year 1808, having been raised to the rank of a major- general, he joined Sir John Moore, and took a brilliant share in the Peninsular campaign. On his return to England he was a member of the Commons from 1806 to 1812. On the death of his father in the latter year, he took his seat in the upper house, as Lord Uxbridge. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Lord Uxbridge was given the command of the British cavalry in Flanders, and fought with great gallantry at Waterloo, where he lost a leg. "Five days after the battle he was created Marquis of Anglesey. During the trial of Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV., he took the unpopular side in favor of the king, and when he was surrounded by a crowd who insisted upon his hurrah- ing for the queen, he cried out at last, "Well then, the queen ! may all your wives be like her!" In April, 1827, he held office under Canning, and in 1828 was lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Wellington. Having expressed a strong sympathy with Catholic emanci- pation, he was recalled from Ireland and resumed his place in parliament, where he continued to advocate the Irish cause. The bill of Catholic emancipation having passed. Lord Anglesey was restored to the lord-lieu- tenancy of Ireland, and continued at that post until his resignation in 1833. He died in 1854. ANHALT was an ancient principality in the north of Germany. The house of Anhalt traced their origin to Ascanius, grandson of Japhet the son of Noah ! whose descendants were reputed to have migrated from the marshes of Ascania in Bithynia, and at last to have settled among the forests of Germany. Whether this somewhat lengthy pedigree be correct or not, it is certain that no family in Germany has produced a greater number of brave and skillful warriors than the house of Anhalt ; beginning with Bernhard, who de- clined the imperial sceptre in 1198, because he deemed himself "too corpulent" for such a dignity ; or from Wolfgang, one of the staunchest soldiers of the Reformation, who on being reinstated in his possessions ex- claimed, " Old and poor as I am, I would give a thousand florins could I gibbet a pope;" down to Leopold, at the beginning of the last century, who led the Branden- burg troops to victory in the Low Coun- tries and Italy, created the Prussian infantry, and invented the iron ramrod. The prin- cipality is now divided into three duchies, the former two of which are under the same monarch: Anhalt-Dessau, area 360 square miles, Anhalt- Kothen, area 318 square miJes, population, of the united duchies in 1855, 114,850; Anhalt-Bernburg, area 339 squitre miles, population in 1855, 53,475. ANNA, a heathen goddess, in whose honor the Romans instituted festivals. Several fabulous explanations of the origin of these celebrations have been given, but the most probable is the least poetic ; that Anna was an industrious old lady of Bovilte, and her apo- theosis the reward of her kindness in daily sup- plying the Romans at Mount Sacer with cakes. ANNA COMNENA, daughter of Alexis I., Emperor of the East, celebrated for her beauty and acquirements, born in 1083. Being de- feated in a conspiracy for placing the crown on the head of her husband, she devoted her life to letters, and wrote the history of her father's reign. She died in 1148. ANNE of Austria, was daughter of Philip III., of Spain, and was born in 1602. She became the wife of Louis XIII. of France, in 1615, but lived upon bad terms with him. On the death of Louis, she became sole regent during the minority of her son, Louis XIV., but made herself unpopular among her sub- ANN 56 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF jccts by reposing unbounded confidence in Cardinal Mazarin. Affairs assumed so threat- ening an aspect, that she was compelled to leave Paris. Tranquillity was restored at length, and when her son assumed the reins of power, in 1661, she went into retirement, in which she lived till her death, in 166G. ANNE, daughter of John III., Duke of Cleves, was married in 1540, to Henrj^ VIII. of England, who had fallen in love with her picture. He was soon, however, disgusted with the Flanders mare, as he coarsely termed her, and she quietly returned to her native land, where she died in 1557, happy in escap- ing the dangers by which Henry's queens were beset. ANNE, Queen of England. [See Stuart.] ANSON, Geokge, Loi-d, was born in 1697, in Staffordshire, and entered the navy at an early age. In his twenty-seventh year he gained the rank of post-captain, and when, in 1739, a war with Spain appeared inevitable, he was made commander of a squadron for the South Pacific. He sailed Sept. 18th, 1740, but encountering a violent storm, was prevented, for three months, from doubling Cape Horn, and was rejoined at Juan Fer- nandez, by only three of his eight vessels, in a wretched condition. He sailed for the coast of Peru, made some prizes, and burned the town of Paita, but found himself compelled to destroy all his disabled vessels but one. Having equipped this one, the Centurion, he retreated to Tinian, one of the Ladrone Islands. He refitted at Macao, and there formed the plan of taking the Acapulco gal- leon, which brought every year treasure from Mexico to exchange for goods at Manilla. To accomplish this bold purpose, he gave out that he had returned to England. Mean- while, he directed his course to the Philip- pines, cruising in the vicinity of Cape Espir- itu Santo. After about a month, the long expected galleon appeared, and, confident in her superior strength, eagerly commenced the fight. The British fought with cool, daunt- less valor, and succpeded in making a prize of the galleon, whose gold and precious wares some have estimated at the worth of a million sterling. The whole amount of the booty previously taken was £600,000. Anson then returned to Macao, where he disposed of his prize. The Chinese were inclined to insult his flag, but he maintained his rights with his characteristic pertinacity. From Macao, he sailed for England, which he reached June 15th, 1744, having escaped the French fleet which lay in the channel. Anson's perilous voyage threw new light upon the geography and navigation of the southern ocean. He was liberally rewarded for his bravery and perseverance, being made, soon after his return, rear-admiral of the blue, and at no gi-eat distance from that period, rear-admiral of the white. In 1747, he gained a brilliant victory over the French under Admii-al Jonquiere, off Cape Finisterre, and was consequently raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Anson of Soberton. L' Invincible and La Gloire, two French vessels, were taken by Anson on this occasion, and the captain of the former, on surrendering his sword, said, "Monsieur, you have conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows you." Lord Anson was made first lord of the ad- miralty, four years after his elevation to the peerage. In 1758, he commanded the fleet before Brest, protecting the landing of the English, and receiving them after their re- pulse. He died in 1762. ANT.EUS, the fabulous son of Neptune and Terra (the Earth), of a gigantic stature. He resided in Libya, where he challenged every stranger to single combat. What made him peculiarly formidable, was the circum- stance of the renewal of his strength by his mother, every time he was thrown to the earth. Hercules, having found out the secret of his prowess, overcame him by lifting him in the air, and crushing him in his iron grasp. The dwelling of this monster was adorned with the skulls of his vanquished adversaries. ANTARCTIC OCEAN, a name properly applied to the seas between the Antarctic Cir- cle and the South Pole, and used to denote generally those cold oceanic regions without strict regard to the limits of the Antartic Circle. It was long considered beyond the pale of navigation because of the ice, which extends much farther than in the polar re- gions of the north. During the present century important discoveries have been made in these high southern latitudes. The South Shetland and the South Orkneys were discovered, and various navigators saw bits of apparent coast. The expedition under ANT HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 0/ Capt. "Wilkes, sent out by the United States in 1839, found a coast line in 154° 27' E. long., and in a westward course as far as 97° 30' E. long., had either always a coast in sight or unequivocal indications that land was not far. The same year (1840), a French expedition under d'Urville reached this coast in 140° 41' E. long., traced it to 130° E. long., and called it Adtlie Land. This coast, as well as Trinity Laud, Palmer's Land, Gra- ham's Land, and Alexander's Land, points previously seen between 36" and 70° W. long., and Enderby's Land (between 49° and 51o E. long.), all lie close upon the Antarctic Circle. In January, 1841, Sir James Clarke Ross ' discovered a mountainous coast, on which he landed, trending to the southward, near 70" 41' S. lat. and 170° 3G' E. long. He traced a continuous shore over six hundred miles as far as 78° S. lat. To this tract he gave the name of Victoria Land, and he supposed it to be a continent. In 77° 30' S. lat. and 167° E. long., he placed Mount Erebus, an active volcano, about 12,'400 feet high, and an extinct crater of somewhat less elevation, to which he gave the name of Mouiit Ter- ror. A main object of his expedition was to seek the position of the south magnetic pole. This he found to be 75° 5' S. lat., 154° 8' E. long. No traces of vegetation have been observed on these far southern coasts, and no quadrupeds. Some birds, whales, and seals are found. ANTHONY, St., the Great, first institutor of the monastic life. His native place was Coma, a town of Upper Egypt, where he was born, A.D. 251. In 285, he retired into soli- tude from a devotional spirit, and in 305, established the first community of monks. Being disappointed in his attempts to gaii the honor of martyrdom at Alexandria, he left the cottages of his monks to the car.e of his pupil Pachomius, and, in company with two of the brethren, retired to a very remote desert, where he died, a.d. 356. The disease, called from him St. Anthony's fire, is a mal- ady of peculiar violence with frightful accom- paniments, in which every limb attacked, becomes withered, shrunk, and blackened, as if under the influence of flame. The life of St. Anthony in the wilderness, was believed to have been fearfully eventful, in combats with devils. ANTIGONE, a daughter of (Edipus, king of Thebes, by his incestuous connection with Jocasta. Antigone was ihe faithful guide of (Edipus, after his loss of sight; having buried the corpse of her brother Polynices, against the express commands of Creon, the tyrant ordered her to be buried alive, but she killed herself before the execu- tion of the sentence. [See GEdipus.] ANTIGONUS, 'the Cyclops,' one of the generals of Alexander the Great, after whose death he attempted to gain the sovereignty of xisia, but was defeated by Seleucus, Ptol- emy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, at Ipsus, 301 B.C. In this battle Antigonus fell. The first profile on record is that of this Anti- gonus, whose likeness was thus taken because of the loss of one of his eyes. ANTINOUS, a Bithynian youth, of whom the Emperor Adrian was excessively fond. When the latter was on his travels, Antinous threw himself into the Nile and was drowned, A.D. 132, but whether the act was conmiitted with the intention of saving the life of the emperor, or from weariness of existence, has not yet been decided. The grief of Adrian was intense, and the honors of divinity were, by his command, paid to his yoimg and unfortunate favorite. He named a newly discovered star Antinous, and gave this name to cities, while various images of the lost youth emanated from the hands of different artists. Those w4iich have come down to us bearing the name of Antinous, are distin- guished for a languid loveliness, and a round- ness of contour, which resemble the traits of female rather than manly beauty. ANTIOCHUS. Several distinguished kings of Syria bore this name. [See Syria.] The first was the general of king Philip, a Mace- donian by birth, whose fame_ was eclipsed by that of his son Seleucus. Antiocuus Soter, the son of Seleucus, was unsuccessful in war, but is chiefly distinguished by his pas- sion for his step-mother, the beautiful Strat- onice. His struggles to quell his misplaced affection, threw him into a lingering disorder, the cause of which he was unwilling to divulge. Erasistratus, the king's physician, penetrated his secret in the following man- ner. As he was holding the hand of his patient, he perceived by the accelerated motion of his pulse on the entrance of Strat- ANT 58 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF onice, that love for her was the cause of his disorder. The king, to save the hfe of his son, reUnquished to him his young and lovely bride. Antiochus the Gkeat succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, 223 b.c. Molo, governor of Media, felt the power of his arms, and Ptolemy Philopater was by him compelled to give up the whole of Syria. Over the Parthians, also, he was completely triimiphant, and favoring the cause of Hanni- bal, he made war upon the Romans. He was, however, dispirited by ill success in the com- mencement of this contest, and not fully comprehending or seconding the views of the Carthaginian general, was several times de- feated, but signally at Magnesia, the conse- quence of which was the conclusion of a peace disgraceful to the Syrian monarch. He was killed in an attempt to plunder a temple of Jupiter. ANTIOCHL'S EPIPHANES, second son of Antiochus the Great, oppressed the Jews cruelly and laid siege to Alexandria. He was compelled to desist by the interference of the Romans in behalf of their ally Ptolemy. Nothing can show in a more striking light the terror of tlie Roman name, than the follow- ing anecdote. "When Antiochus was on the point of marching against Ptolemy, Popilius Lajnas arrived at his court as ambassador from the Roman senate. He was instructed to command Antiochus to relinquish his hos- tile project. Any other but a Roman citizen would have been awed at the presence of the courtiers and army of the king, sitting as he was, surrounded by all the imposing splen- dors of a regal camp. But Popilius sternly delivered the message of the senate, and with such an air of haughty authority, that Anti- ochus was embarrassed. He endeavored, however, to satisfy the ambassador with an evasive answer ; but Popilius, with his staff; drew a circle around the king's seat, and said sternly, " Pass not that boundary, I command you, king, until you have given a plain answer to the senate's demand." The king overawed by this boldness, promised to sacrifice his project to the wishes of the Romans. ANTIPATER, a Macedonian, the faithful minister of Philip and Alexander, and pupil war with the states of Greece terminated successfully. He died, b.c. 317. ANTISTHENES, founder of the sect of the Cynics, was born at Athens between 424 and 431 B.C. From Socrates he imbibed an enthusiastic love of virtue. He thought that virtue consisted in independence of circum- stances, and to maintain this, he thought it requisite that our wants should be reduced to the smallest number. He affected a con- tempt for wealth, honor, the delights of the senses, and knowledge, and sturdily walked the streets, in the ragged garb of a beggar. Plato was one of the first to pene- trate his whims, and guess at their design, and his brilliant remark to the Cynic, has not escaped oblivion : " I see your vanity," said the sage, "through the holes of your coat." Antisthenes is worthy of high praise, if it be true that he attacked the accusers of Soci'ates, and by his perseverance obtained the banishment of one, and the death of another. ANTIUM, a city of the Yolsci on the Tuscan Sea, traces of which are still visible in Porto d'Anzo. Camillus took it, b.c. 337, and car- rying the beaks of the vessels to Rome, employed them in ornamenting a tribunal in the forum, thence called the Bostra (beaks). The city was dedicated to the goddess of For- tune, whose statue nodded answers, when consulted as an oracle, being probably formed upon some simple mechanical principle. In Antium Coriolanus sought refuge. It be- came a favorite residence for the opulent Romans. Cicero had a splendid villa here, Augustus a palace, and here Caligula and Nero were born. In the excavations made among the ruins of the imperial villa, two of the noblest works of ancient sculpture were found, the Apollo Belvidere and the Fighting Gladiator. ANTONINUS, Annius Verus, best known by the name of Marcus Aurelius, born a.d. 121, assumed the imperial dignity, a.d. 161, on the death of Antoninus Pius. He chose for his colleague, Lucius Verus, but the latter, dying a few years after, left the govern- ment solely in the hands of Antoninus. In the prosecution of the war against the Quadi, his &rmy was on the point of perishing of of Aristotle. He obtained the European I thirst, when there fell an abundant shower provinces on the death of Alexander. His | of rain, which was attributed to the prayers ANT HISTOEY AND BIOGRAPHY. 69 of the tenth (a Christian) legion, and they were thenceforth termed the 'thundering- legion.' Though justly celebrated for benefi- cence and equity, Antoninus was not free from religious fanaticism, and authorized a persecution of the Christians in Gaul. His want of foresight in introducing the profligate Commodus, his son, into the government, was productive of most unhappy consequences. After his death, which took place in the fifty- ninth year of his age, and the nineteenth of his reign, he was deified by the Romans. ANTONINUS PIUS, Titus Aukelius Ful- vius, originally of a Gallic family, was born near Eome, a.d. 86. He succeeded to the consulate in a.d. 120, and was adopted by, and succeeded Adrian in 138. He was toler- ant to the Christians, humane, dignified, and just, and his reign was one of undisturbed tranquillity. He was wont to say, with Scipio, " I had rather save the life of a single citizen, than destroy a thousand of my enemies. He died a.d. 161. ANTONY, Mark (Marcus Antonius), the triumvir, was born 86 b.c. He attracted notice at an early age by his bravery and dissipation. He attached himself to the party of Ogesar, whose favor he gained by the em- ployment of all the arts of which he was master, and was appointed by Caesar his colleague in the consulship, b.c. 44. After the fall of Caesar, Antony obtained from the senate a confirmation of the acts of his col- league, and a pubUc funeral, at which he delivered an harangue so eloquent and stir- ring that he roused the indignation of the people, and forced Brutus and Cassius to fly. Octavius, the heir of Caesar, was supported by the enemies of Antony, who wished to curtail the authority of this ambitious man, but Antony, uniting with Lepidus and Octa- vius, formed the triumvirate, which speed- ily manifested the most sanguinary designs. Each of the triumvirs agreed to sacrifice his friends, and their alliance was cemented by the blood of Rome's bravest and best citizens. Antony alfixed the head and hand of Cicero to the rostrum dignified by his eloquence. Brutus and Cassius being defeated at Philippi, Antony went to the East, and surrounded by Asiatic luxuries, forgot the manliness he had once possessed. Captivated by Cleopatra, his ambition was lost in the indulgence of his passions. Fulvia, his wife, having taken up arms against Octavius, the latter quarreled with Antony, but a reconciliation was efiected, and Antony, on the death of his wife, mar- ried Octavia, the sister of his colleague, to strengthen the bonds which united them. His renewal of the amour with Cleopatra di-ew down upon him the vengeance of Octa- vius, and war was declared against Egypt by the Romans. How Antony fought and fled at Actium has been described. [See Actium.] Finding himself deserted on all sides, and hearing of the death of Cleopatra, Antony desired his slave Eros to slay him. This humble friend, affecting to consent, requested his master to turn away his face, and then falhng on Antony's sword, died at his feet. Antony, touched at this heroism, snatched the weapon, and gave himself a mortal wound, but had strength enough left to be cai-ried into the 2)resence of Cleopatra, in whose arms he died, b.c. 30. APELLES, a celebrated painter of anti- quity, was born about 365 B.C. at Cos, or at Colophon in Ionia. The date of his death is unknown. He seems to have earned skill and reputation by his unflagging industry, which became proverbial among the Romans, and their saying. Nulla dies sine linea, "no day without a line," is reported to have had its origin with Apelles. His most celebrated work was "Venus Anadyomene," (Venus rising out of the ocean), which centuries after was such a favorite with the Romans, that Ovid says but for this picture, Venus would still have remained buried beneath the waves of the sea. He received the patron- age of Alexander the Great, and for a paint- ing representing the Macedonian monarch as Jupiter hurling his thunderbolts, he is said to have received twenty talents of gold, about $250,000. Having limned Campaspe, a beau- tiful slave and favorite of Alexander, he had her in recompense for the picture. The pic- tures of Apelles were probably mostly painted upon panels of larch, in distemper. They were celebrated for the beauty of the horses introduced in them. It is said that he had painted a horse which was severely criticised by a person who examined it, and in such a manner that the pride of the artist was wounded. Resolved to put his performance to the test, he had a horse led into his paint- APE 60 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP ing-rooni, where the animal, on beholding the picture, neighed, and thus secured the triumph of Apelles. APOLLO, the fabled son of Jupiter and Latona, and twin brother of Diana, born on the island of Delos. He was the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, and considered by physi- cians, shepherds, and founders of cities, as their patron. A few days after his birth, he killed the serpent Python with an arrow, and is generally represented with a bow and quiver. He fought bravely against the Ti- tans, under Jupiter. When his son Mscu- lapius was killed by Jove's thunder-bolt, Apollo slew the Cyclops, who forged the thunderer's weapons. Having conquered the satyr Mar.«yas, in a musical dispute, Apollo flayed him alive. Pan having disputed the superiority of Apollo in music, a day was appointed for deciding their merits, and Timolus and Midas were judges. The lat- ter, denying the merit of Apollo, was pun- ished by having a pair of ass's ears aflBxed to his head. When he built the walls of Megara, he laid his hite upon a stone, which ever afterward sent forth a strain of music upon being touched. The Romans celebrated games in his honor which were called Apol- linaria, and consisted of bull-fights, contests of athletse, and theatrical shows. Temples and statues were erected to him in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The most splendid shrine of Apollo was at Delphi, built 1263 b.c. The laurel was sacred to Apollo, and fi-om the earliest times was used for crowning successful poets and victorious generals. APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, one of the most celebrated architects of antiquity, built the forum and column of Trajan at Rome, of which there are still magnificent remains, A.D. 113. His most remarkable work, how- ever, was the great bridge over the Danube in Bulgaria. It stood on twenty piers, one hundred and fifty feet high above the founda- tions, sixty feet wide, and one hundred and seventy feet apart. It was built for the emperor Trajan ; thebridge was of wood, the piers of stone. The woodwork was after- ward, destroyed by Hadrian, as it gave the barbarians too great facilities for crossing the Danube. Remains of the piers are still stand- ing. ApoUodorus is said to have fallen " victim to the jealousy of Hadrian, who dab- bled in architecture as well as in other arts. APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSINUS, the profligate decemvir, who attempted to destroy the virtue of Virginia. His conduct pro- duced a revolution, and he killed himself in prison, according to Livy. He was at the height of his power about 450 b.c. AQUINAS, Thomas (often called the An- gelic Doctor), was a younger son of the Count of Aquino, and was born at the castle of Rocca Sicca in Italy, in 1227. From his earliest years he was smitten with a love for solitary study. Force was used to prevent his be- coming a monk, but in vain ; he entered the Dominican order when a very young man. So much was the youthful scholar wrapt up in his own cogitations, that when he studied under Albertus Magnus at Cologne, his fellow- pupils nicknamed him Bos Mutus (mute ox) on account of his taciturnity and apparent stupidity. He received a doctorate in theol- ogy fi-om the university of Paris in 1255, and lectured with brilliant success in Paris, in several Italian universities, and afterward at Naples. Being summoned by the pope to at- tend a general council at Lyons in 1274, he died at Merracina on his way thither. He was canonized by Pope John XXII. in 1328. His works are numerous, but his mental vigor surpassed even his amazing industry. He is the most famous of the medieval schoolmen and divines. ARABIA has an area about four times that of France. It presents the form of a vast pe- ninsula, lying between 12° and oO® N. lat, and 32° and 59° E. long., partly within and partly north of the tropical region. Arabia is mostly populated by independent tribes each governed by its own sheikh. Muscat or Oman is quite an important state. The fol- lowing are the other principal divisions now generally adopted: Yemen, bordering upon the Red Sea and upon the territories of Hejaz, Nejd, and Hadramaut. It includes the towns of Sana, Mocha, and Aden, M'hich is now in the hands of the British as a depot for the overland mail to India. Eadramaut, on the southern coast, a country once famous for its trade in frankincense. Hrjaz is the holy land of the Mohammedans, and contains the cities of Mecca and Medina [which see]. The greater portion of Arabia is occupied by long, dreary ARA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 61 deserts of sand ; while, in some parts, as on the western side of the Arabian desert, the soil is rendered fertile by the irrigation of rivulets, and various flowers, both indigenous, and transplanted from India, spring up, bud, and blossom, filling the air with their ravish- ing perfume. Some precious stones are found in Arabia, but its principal riches are flocks and herds. Of the natural history of Arabia we can say but little. Ferocious animals pursue their prey in the deserts, which they render terrific by their presence and ferocity, while the mountains produce animals yielding many and great advantages to commerce. Of these we may mention the civet-cat, the be- zoar-goat, the musk-rat, and others of domes- tic habits and importance. Concerning the old Arabians, who are now destroyed, or merged and lost in other tribes, there is no distinct history extant. Kahtan or Joktan, son of Eber, and Adnan, the direct descendent of Ishmael,'were the ancestors of the present races of Arabians. The posterity of Joktan are termed genuine or pure Arabs, that of Ishmael, naturalized Arabs, or Mosta- rabi. More than thirty-six hundred years ago, Yarab, Joktan's eldest son, is said to have succeeded his father in the kingdom of Yemen, while Jorham, the younger, founded the king- dom of Hejaz, which his posterity possessed until the time of Ishmael. In the time of Al- exander the Great, the inundation of Arem overwhelmed with misery the tribes settled in Yemen, eight of which were forced to fly their dwellings and migrate to other lands. Ish- mael, marrying the daughter of Modab, one of the princes of Hejaz, had twelve sons. The descendants of Ishmael, driving out the Jor- hamites, took possession of their country. The government appears to have been in the hands not of one ruler, but of the leaders of the different tribes. An aristocracy prevailed at Mecca until the time of Mahomet. Sesos- tris, of whom Josephus speaks under the name of Sesac, conquered Arabia. Yet this conquest was but in name, for the Arabs were too proud and independent to bow their necks beneath the tread of the conqueror, and sub- sequent events show, that even during his reign, they made themselves formidable to the Egyptians, and Sesostris was forced to erect a wall between Heliopolis and Pelusium, to guard his native subjects against the attacks of the Arabs. Although he had a powerful fleet upon the Red Sea, he did no more than skirt the shores of Arabia Felix, or at most, take possession of some of its maritime prov- inces. It may safely be asserted that the whole peninsula of Arabia never was, or at least never for any length of time, subjected to the Egyptians. The Hycsos or Shepherd Kings, who in- vaded Egypt, and for a long time held undis- puted sway in that country, were Arabians. Neither the Assyrians, the Medes, nor the Persians, ever obtained firm footing in Arabia. The Persian monarchs were regarded by the Arab chiefs in the light of friends, and received annually a voluntary present of frankincense as a tribute of respect, but other ties than those of the heart never bound the free dwell- ers of Arabia to the proud potentates of Persia. Cambyses, when flushed with ambitious pride, and rushing forward to the conquest of Egypt, paused in his impetuous career, and respect- fully asked of the Arabians permission to pass through their country. The Spartans, war- like and daring as they were, had reason to repent of an incursion which they made upon the Arabs. Alexander the Great, when in- flated with the success of his arms, was sur- prised to find that the Arabs so little dreaded his tremendous power, as to neglect sending ambassadors to him. This gave the Macedo- nian a high opinion of them as "warriors worthy of his steel ;" but death put an end to his hostile projects. His successors attempted the conquest of Arabia, but were completely defeated. The Eomans made different incur- sions into Arabia with but partial successes to compensate for heavy losses, luitil ^Elius Gallus, in the reign of Augustus, penetrated into the interior of the country, and gained victories which the deadly heats his army en- countered rendered unavailing. The Arabs were not again disturbed by the Romans until the reign of Trajan. The north-western part of Arabia, the country of the Nabachasi, was called Arabia Petrsea, from their chief town, Petra. In the reign of Trajan it became a Roman province. Petra sunk into insignifi- cance ; its dwellers forsook it for the freedom of the deserts ; even its site was forgotten till Burckhardt discovered the ruins of its temple and tombs in the Wady Musa. At the commencement of the seventh cen- ARA 62 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF tmy a few small provinces in the north were subject to the Byzantine empire, while those bordering on the Euphrates acknowledged Persian supremacy, and an Ethiopian dynastj- ruled temporarily at Yemen. This latter fact had a melancholy importance for the world, through the small-pox which the victors brought into Arabia and which, by the con- quests of the Mohammedans, was soon carried far and wide. But the great mass of the land was possessed by wandering tribes whose freedom, even of each other, was unbounded. The union of these tribes into a nation, a na- tion which conquered old empires and founded new, dates from the day of Mohammed. Be- fore the close of the century the Saracens had overcome a large part of Europe, Asia, and Af- rica. Disunion had heretofore weakened their forces, but now, uniting, they showed their power was indeed formidable. If they had no knowledge of those military arts by which alone the strongholds of power are prostrated, they possessed that wild and desperate valor which carried them triumphantly through their predatory expeditions. Mohammed, and after him the caliphs, called forth the energies of the Arabs and the display of every quality which fitted them to bear arms, but that of hnplicit obedience. The Arabs were too proud of their hereditary independence to submit blindly to the yoke of any man or combination of men, and they accordingly, for the most part, acknowledged only the spiritual author- ity of the caliphate. When the power of the Turks gained the ascendant, the Arabs shook themselves free from fetters, rejoicing in the chainless spirit of liberty. It is not difficult to conceive the wild delight of roaming the desert on a fleet horse, and beholding all around a plain which seems interminable, and presents to the Arab horseman the idea of solitary existence in a world of his own. In the sixteenth century, during the war between the Turks and Portuguese, Solyman Pacha seized upon all the towns on the Ara- bian Gulf His successors also were victori- ous, and almost all Arabia became subject to the Ottoman empire. These events occurred between 1538 and 1568. Still all the sheikhs and princes were not subdued, but many of them, remaining independent, continvied to harass the Turks, until, about the middle of the seventeenth century, the latter were forced to relinquish all the conquered places on the coast of Arabia. The independent spirit of the Arabs has gained them gi-eat celebrity. Arabia is celebrated as being the scene of many of those wonderful events which are commemorated in the Holy Scriptures! It was for a long time the dwelling-place of Mo- ses, who married thg daughter of Jethro and fed his flocks upon Mount Horeb. The chil- di-en of Israel, under the guidance of the Lord, passed into Arabia, when they went from the grinding bondage of the Egyptians. In the desert of Sinai, rises that lofty mount which was clad in thunder and lightning, when God gave his commandments to the people. Mount Sinai commands a view of Mount Horeb, where again the Lord appeared in the burning bush to Moses. There is still to be seen that rock, which, when the people thirsted for water, Moses smote; where, from twelve mouths, the living waters gushed profusely. Again, when they were in want of water, in the wilderness of Paran, Moses smote a rock twice before the water flowed. That rock also remains at the present day, an impressive memorial of the miracle, exhibiting the vari- ous fissures whence the clear element gushed forth, cheering, by its presence, the many hearts of those who had panted for the succor. The Bedouin Arabs, although possessed of not a few good qualities, are inveterate rob- bers. When a Bedouin descries a traveler at a distance, he puts his horse to his speed, and rides furiously up, exclaiming loudly, "Un- dress thyself, thy aunt [my wife] is without a garment." There is no way to avoid death in this case but submission, as the possession of the meanest article of wearing apparel is an object important enough to warrant the shed- ding of human blood, in the eyes of the Arabs. There are many singular contradictions in the character of these wild people. A stranger who confides his safety to their honor will be treated with the utmost kindness, and share the wealth or poverty of his entertainer, who bids him welcome to what is his. The patri- archal form "of government has ever subsisted among the Arabs. The dignity of grand sheikh is hereditary in certain families, but the inferior sheikhs choose a successor out of his family, on the death of a grand sheikh. The greater portion of the inhabitants are ill fed and clad, simply because they prefer a ARA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 63 wandering life of freedom, to one of confine- ment and restraint, even if it bring tlie great- est luxuries. These they profess to despise. One trait in their character is highly praise- worthy ; their extreme kindness to the do- mestic animals to which they owe so much. They free these creatures from work in their old age, and permit them to die a natural death. The Arab horses are reared with ex- treme care ; spirited, docile, fleet, handsome, and hardy, they always command the highest prices. The Arabs, proud of the antiquity of their own origin, are no less careful of the fame of their horses, of which they preserve authenticated pedigrees. For chargers, the Arab horses are unrivaled. A war-horse of this country appears delighted with the din of battle. His spirit rises with the ardor of the conflict, and he dashes into the " current of a heady fight," reckless of the volleys of musketry and cannon pealing around him, even when struck with shot, "Staggering, yet stemming all, his lord, un- harmed he bears." He will watch his master if he falls from his saddle in the fight, and not only s^iield him, but neigh for assistance. The price in Eng- land for an Arabian horse has been 1,000, 2,000, or even 3,000 pounds sterling. Some- times even the poorest Arabs will not part with their faithful chargers, even though the most tempting offers be held out. "No, my jewel, was the affectionate exclamation ad- dressed to his mare by that Arab who, after he had agreed to relinquish the beautiful crea- ture to grace the stud of the King of France, at an enormous price, could not find it in his heart to tear himself from his faithful servant : " No, my jewel ! they shall never part us ! we have lived and we will die together." Saying this with tears in his eyes, he sprang upon her back, and rushed back to the desert, happj' in having escaped the temptation and the sac- rifice. The camel, which the natives call the ship of the desert, is also an invaluable treas- ure. Like the Bedouins themselves it learns from early youth to endure hunger, thirst, and fatigue. ARAGO, Francois Dominique, was born in Estagel, in the south of France, Feb. 26th, 1786. His father had originally intended him, in accordance with his himible position, for a simple agricultural life. But the taste and aptitude he evinced for the natural sci- ences were such, that he was presented for admission into the Polytechnic school of Paris, His examiner sent him to the institution, with high compliments of his ability and attain- ments. He distinguished himself by the ardor and success of his studies while a student of the Polytechnic, and was attached to the ob- servatory of Paris. Such was the rapid ac- knowledgment of his ability, that in 1806 he received the appointment of assistant to M. Biot, in the scientific commission for the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Spain. While Arago was at Galazo in the island of Majorca, engaged in this scientific duty, war broke out between France and Spain. The fires which he made, to aid his observations, excited the suspicions of the ig- norant populace, who, fancying them beacons to guide the French in their march, attempted to seize the young philosopher. He escaped to the coast in disguise, could not get off, and sought security for his life by yielding him- self to the authorities. On his way to the prison he was beset by a rabble, and his life put in great danger. By the connivance of the Spanish captain-general he escaped to Al- giers. There he embarked on an Algerine vessel for Marseilles. In sight of that port the vessel was captured by a Spanish priva- teer, and Arago was thrown into prison at Rosas. An attempt was made to frighten him, by the show of preparation for his exe- cution, into a confession that he was a rene- gade Spaniard, that the government might confiscate the vessel. He lay in a loathsome dungeon, overrun with vermin, and almost starved to death. Two lions had been sent by the Dey of Algiers as a present to Napoleon, in the vessel in which Arago had taken pas- sage and which had been captured. One of these animals had died, and Arago bethought himself of writing word to the dey that it had been starved to death by the Spaniards. He succeeded in sending off a letter to that pur- port, Avhich was received by the dey, who, much enraged at the treatment of his beast, called the Spanish government to account, and demanding compensation for the seizure of the vessel, threatened war if the demand was not instantly complied with. Arago was now permitted to set sail for Marseilles, but under the guidance of an ignorant pilot, his ARA rrv COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF vessel drifted about for several days, until by hazard the coast of Africa was made. The vessel had been so much damaged that it was determined to abandon her. Arago resolved to make his way to Algiers by land, and dis- guising himself as an Arab, he succeeded in reaching that place with safety. He found that the dey had just died, and a revolution resulted in the death of the legitimate suc- cessor. The usurper made a demand upon France for a pretended debt, and as the French government positively refused compHance, the names of the French residents were placed on the list of slaves. The galleys threatened the philosopher. After much suffering and anx- iety, Arago, in 1809, obtained permission to leave Algiers Avith a convoy of Algerine ves- sels and a corsair of that nation, in which he himself embarked. The convoy had not sailed Out of sight of Algiers when they were pomiced upon by a brace of English frigates. The corsair, on board of which Arago had taken passage, succeeded in eluding the Eng- lish, and landed him in safety on the French coast. On his arrival at Paris he was welcomed with great enthusiasm and elected with ac- clamation a member of the institute. It is impossible here to enumerate all the brilliant discoveries with which Arago has illuminated natural science. The determination of the diameters of the planets, the discovery of col- ored polarization of light, and of magnetism by rotation, are among the most remarkable. The "Transactions of the Academy of Scien- ces," of which society he was secretary, are enriched by his scientific contributions ; and various published memoirs testify to his in- dustry and philosophical genius. Arago al- ways advocated the cause of progress, and in the revolution of 1830 he boldly presented himself as a champion of democracy. During the reign of Louis Philippe he was a member of the chamber of deputies and sat on the ex- treme left. His interest in politics was never allowed to interfere with his philosophic pur- suits. He was appointed head of the Paris observatory, and directed with undiminished ardor its astronomical observations. In the provisional government of 1848 he held the oflBce of minister of marine, and fulfilled its duties to the manifest advantage of the repub- lic, of which he was an ardent supporter. On the violent accession of Louis Napoleon to the imperial throne, Arago refused to take the oath of allegiance to the usurper, but m con^ sequence of his fame and the glory he had shed over his country, he was left undisturbed in his position at the head of the observatory, and continued to devote himself with exclusive ardor to his scientific pursuits until his death in the year 1853. ARAM, Eugene, whose erudition and fate have rendered him remarkable, was born in Yorkshire, England, in the year 1V04. His father was forced to contend with depressing poverty. Eugene was sent to school, and learned to read the New Testament in English ; but from that period, with the exception of a month's tuition fi-om a clergyman, Aram owed nothing to teachers, all his learning being self-acquired. His father Avas gardener to Sir Edward Blackett, at Newby ; and, when about thirteen or fourteen years of age, Aram joined him. In the house of the baronet, Eugene first displayed his love of literature and sci- ence. Apart from the bustle and turmoil of the world, he passed his solitary hours in in- cessant study. Mathematics early engaged his attention, and he became a proficient in the exact sciences ; indeed, his fondness for mathematics recommended him to Mr. Chris- topher Blackett, of London, whom he served for some time in the cajiacity of book-keeper, commencing his London life at sixteen years of age. After residing with Mr. Blackett for a year and a half, he was taken with the small-pox, and suifered greatly from the ter- rible disorder. He afterward returned to Yorkshire, where he pursued his studies with increasing avidity, but with altered views, having discovered that polite literature possessed greater charms for him than mathematics. He made himself ac- quainted with the works of the most celebra- ted poets, and went through a course of his- torical reading. He went to Netherdale for the purpose of engaging in teaching, and here, considering himself satisfactorily settled, he. married. IFis marriage proved unhappy, and to his matrimonial connection he afterward attributed the evils which befell him, and the crime which he committed. Finding himself deficient in classical learning, he resolved to master the learned languages and applied himself to the study of the Latin and Greek ARA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 65 grammars with great spirit. He soon perused the Latin classics, poets, and historians. He next read the Greek Testament, and finished his course with Hesiod, Homer, Theocritus, Herodotus, and Thucydides, with the Greek tragic poets. At the seat of his friend, WiUiam Norton, Esq., of Knaresborough, he learned the He- brew language, and read the Pentateuch, in 1734. In 1744, he was engaged in London, as usher, and gave instruction in Latin and writing. Here he became acquainted with the French language. Afterward, he was employed as usher and tutor in various semi- naries in England, and never suffered a single opportunity of making new acquisitions to escape. He was acquainted with the volum- inous and quaint details of heraldry, and with the gentle lore of flowers. He acquired the Ohaldee and Arabic languages, and investi- gated the Celtic dialects. Having discovered an affinity between the Celtic, English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew tongues, he was employed upon a comparative lexicon of these languages, when a frightful event arrested his literary progress. Aram was accused of having mur- dered Daniel Clark, a shoemaker. The mur- der had been concealed for nearly fourteen years, when the discovery of a skeleton, at first supposed to be that of Clark, set on foot investigations which resulted in the arrest of Aram. At the time of his being taken into custody, he was usher of a school at Lynn, in Norfolk. The murder was committed on the 8th of December, 1744-5. Its object was a little paltry gain, although the murderer as- signed jealousy as the motive. Remorse had preyed upon the spirits of Aram from the time of the commission of the deed, and he is said to have conversed with the boj^s at Lj^nn on the subject of murder, and related to them tales of murders, commencing with the crime of Cain. Upon his trial at York assizes, on the 3d of August, 1759, he displayed great calmness and self-possession. The principal evidence against him was his wife, from whom he had been a long time separated. Circumstantial evidence, in addition to that of Richard House- man, helped to convict him. His defense dis- played talent and consummate address ac- knowledged by the judges. He was found 5 ARC guilty. He subsequently confessed his crime, and acknowledged the justice of his sentence. While in prison, he attempted to commit sui- cide by opening his arm in two places with a knife which he had concealed for the purpose. He almost succeeded, and was in a state of excessive weakness, when conducted to the scaffold. Standing beneath the fatal tree, he was asked if he had anything to say, " but he silently shook his head. He was instantly executed, and his body hung in chains in Knaresborough forest. ARAR^^fr, a mountain in Armenia, where it is supposed Noah's ark rested. It rises majestically from a fertile plain in two conical peaks, one of which rises fnv above the limits of perpetual snow, and is the highest point in western Asia. The whole country is full of traditions about the ark and the flood. Vari- ous attempts have been made to gain the top of Ararat ; none of which were successful till Jul}'-,' 1856, when the toilsome and perilous ascent was achieved by five Englishmen. The dwellers about its base regard the snowy summit with mingled awe and veneration, and as a spot not to be profaned by the impious tread of man. None had stood there since the days of Noah. Ararat shows traces that at some period it has been subjected to violent volcanic action. Major Stuart, one of the party mentioned above, pronounces the sum- mit an extinct crater filled with snow. The highest peak of Ararat is 17,328 feet above the sea, and 14,300 feet above the table-land on which it stands. ARCADIA, a mountain country in the heart of the Peloponnesus. Originally called Pelasgia, from the Pelasgi, its first inhabit- ants, it received its name of Arcadia, from Areas, grandson of Lycaon. The shepherds inhabiting the sequestered valleys were for a long time rude and uncivilized, but when they cultivated the arts of agriculture, and sweet- ened their labors by occasional intervals of relaxation, in which they occupied themselves with music and dancing, they became famous in song, and Arcadian felicity was a phrase expressive of unalloyed enjoyment. But Ar- cadia was far from being a paradise, and its inhabitants were not so devoted to pastoral pursuits, that they forgot the excitements of war. On the contrary, when no quaiTels of GG COTTAGE CYCLOP KDI A OF MOUNT AKAKAT. their own occupied them, thej^ engaged in the service of other states. It was finally united to the Achaian league. ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated geom- etrician of antiquity, born at Syracuse, 287 B.C. He was famed for the mechanical con- trivances which he employed to defend his native city, when besieged by the Romans (212 B.C.), whose fleet, Lucian says, he fire with burning-glasses. Marcellus, who took the city, wished to spare the life of Ar- chimedes. When the Romans entered the city, Archimedes was found by a soldier, poring over some figures which he had drawn in the sand. He begged the Roman to spare his circle, but the man heedless of his re- quest, rushed forward and killed him with a blow. He was then seventy-five years old. He is said to have declared that he could move the globe, if he only had a place to stand upon. To Archimedes we ascribe the discovery of the fundamental properties of the lever, inclined plane, and pullej^, of the screw for raising water, which yet bears his name, and much advancement in geometry and mensuration. * ARCOLA, Battle of. Between the French under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under Marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19th, 1796. This bloody conflict continued eight success- ive days and resulted in a disastrous defeat to the Austrians, who at the outset had the advantage^ ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION, com^ prises an area of 927,000 square miles, and has a population of 800,000. This estimate does not include Buenos Ayres, which is now a distinct republic. [See Buenos Ayres.] The population consists of descendants of Spaniards and wandering tribes of Indians. There are twelve states in the confederacy, on Santa Fe, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Cordova, Santiago, Tucuman, Salta, Catamarea, La Ri- oja, San Luis, Mendoza, and San Juan. Diaz de Solis visited the mouth of the La Plata in 1512, but formed no settlement. Before the end of the century the Spaniards founded the towns of Salta, Tucuman, Cordova, Buenos Ayres, &c. These regions formed a part of the viceroyalty of Peru till 1777, when they were made into the separate viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. Like the other colonies of Spain in South America, these provinces did not submit to the authority of Joseph Bona- parte, and in 1810 they organized an inde- pendent government in the name of Ferdinand YIL In 1816 they threw oif Spanish domin- ion altogether. Since then they have been torn by intestine commotions. Rosas was placed at the head of affairs in 1835. His commercial policy had for its object to secure Buenos Ayres the monopoly of the trade of the Plata; his political policy was to obtain a similar superiority. His sway was marked by cruelty and despotism, and his ambitious designs against Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bra- ARG HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 67 zil, interfering with commerce and the rights of European merchants, caused the interposi- tion of England and France. Buenos Ayres was blockaded by their fleets from 18-i5 to 1847, and the free navigation of the Parana thus maintained. Rosas was at last deposed in 1851, and fled to Europe. Civil war con- tinued between Buenos Ayres and the other states, which resulted in the establishment, in 1856, of the Argentine Confederation and the distinct republic of Buenos Ayres. In 1865 the Confederation under President Mitre, took sides with Brazil and Buenos Ayres, against Paraguay, after having long endeav- ored to remain neutral. The seat of govern- ment for the confederation is Parana, the cap- ital of Entre Rios, population, 6,000. ARGOLIS lay in the eastern part of the Peloponnesus, bounded on the north by Achaia and Corinth, on the north-east by the Sar- onic gulf and on the west by Arcadia, and on the south by Laconia. The Argolic gulf lies upon the south-west. Fertile plains and swelling hills vary the surface of this region. Pelops, who reigned over Argos, gave his name to the peninsula. It was the kingdom of Atreusand Agamemnon, Adrastus, Eurys- theus, and Diomedes, the birth-place of Hercules, and the scene of his victory over the Lernaean Hydra. The fine arts, and music in particular, were successfully cul- tivated by the Argives. The modern Ar- golis is but a shadow of the ancient city. Argos was anciently divided into small, inde- pendent states. These were Argos, Mycenae, Tirynthus, Troezen (now Damala), Hermione (now Castri), and Epidaurus. ARGONAUTS. The story of the expe- dition of Jason and his adventurous compan- ions, to procure the golden fleece of Colchis, is chiefly fobulous, and has probably little connection with any known facts. Jason was not permitted to ascend the throne of his father by Pelias, who filled it, except on con- dition of bringing from Colchis the golden fleece of the ram, which bore Phryxus and Helle away from their cruel step-mother, Ino. Most of the heroes of Greece embarked with Jason in the Argo, a splendid vessel built for the adventure, and superior to any which had previously floated on the waves. After encountering many vicissitudes, they came to the country of ^etes. This monarch. whose life depended on the preservation of the golden fleece, without refusing to surren- der it, first imposed upon Jason three labors which he hoped would destroy him. He was to yoke the bulls of Vulcan to a plough of adamant, and turn up a field consecrated to Mars, which had never been opened ; in the furrows thus formed, he was to sow the serpent's teeth of Cadmus, which would in- stantly start forth as armed men, whom he was to slay ; and finally, he was to kill the dragon that was the watchful guardian of the golden fleece. The magical arts of Me- dea, who had fJiUen in love with the young hero, assisted him to achieve these enter- prises with success, and when the king deter- mined on the murder of the Argonauts, enabled him to possess himself of the fleece, and escape with the enamored lady and all his companions. The king soon missing the fleece and the fleet, pursued and came in sight of them ; Medea then murdered her brother Absyrtus, whose limbs she strewed upon her father's path. The afflicted old man, by staying to collect them, gave the fugitives time to escape. After many adven- tures, the Argo returned safely. The time of the undertaking is placed in the middle of the thirteenth century b.c. ARGUS, the fabled son of Arestor, whose hundred eyes caused him to be selected by Juno as the keeper of lo. Having been slain by Mercury, he was changed into a peacock, and his eyes were placed in his tail. ARION, a musician and poet, born at Me- thymna, in Lesbos, and flourished b.c. 625. His fabulous fate has been often celebrated. When at sea with all his treasures, the mar- iners sought his life ; but he leaped overboard, and it is related that a dolphin, charmed with his music, carried him safe to land. ARIOSTO, LuDovico, the author of the celebrated " Orlando Furioso," was born at Reggio, Sept. 8th, 1474, and died at Ferrara, in 1533. Having lost the favor of Cardinal d'Este, he entered the service of Duke Al- fonso of Ferrara, whose rewards, how- ever, were but trifling. He experienced many vicissitudes. His minor works alone would entitle him to high rank in Italian literature. ARISTIDES, son of Lysimachus, a noble Athenian, surnamed, from his high integrity, ARI COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the Just. lie was instrumental in gaining the battle of Marathon. There were ten generals, of whom he was one, each having the command of the army for one day. Thinking this arrangement injurious to the troops, Aristide,? prevailed on the other gen- erals to give up their days of command to j\liltiades, and this measm-e secured the triumph of the Greeks. Becoming obnox- ious to the party of Themistocles, he was banished by ostracism. Each person wrote the name of the man he wished banished, on a shell (ostrahon) ; these were then counted, and the person whose name occurred most frequently was banished. An ignorant fel- low, in the public assembly, not knowing him, turned to Aristides, and asked him to write Aristides. "What reason have you for disliking him ? " asked Aristides. " Oh," replied the fellow, " I am tired of hearing him called the Just." "When the Athenians were alarmed by the approach of Xerxes, they recalled Aristides, who, casting away the remembrance of former wrongs, assisted Themistocles in the public cause. At the battle of Salamis his services were eminent. Aristides refused to countenance the banish- ment of Themistocles, when he incurred the displeasure of his countrymen. Nothing dis- plays more clearly the reputation of Aristides, than his being appointed to apportion the contributions to be paid by the several states of Greece toward the expenses of the Avar. This delicate duty he discharged to the sat- isfaction of all. He died poor about 467 B.C. His countrymen bestowed a magnifi- cent funeral upon him, pensioned his son, and portioned his two daughters. ARISTIPPUS of Gyrene, a pupil of So- crates and founder of the Cyrenaici, 392 b.c. This sect, which flourished for several ages, maintained that the supreme good of man in this life is sensual pleasure, and that virtue ought to be commended only so far as it con- duced to delight. He had no sternness. (Jaj^ brilliant, careless, and enjoying, Aris- tippus became the ornament and delight of the court of Dionysius, already made illus- trious by the splendid genius of Plato and the rigid abstinence, of Diogenes. The grave deportment of Plato and the savage virtue of Diogenes had less charms for the tyrant than the easy graces of Aristippus, whose very vices were elegant. His ready wit was often put to the test. On one occasion three hetmrce were presented for him to make a choice : he took them all three, observing that it had been fatal even to Paris to make a choice. On another occasion, in a dispute with ^schines, who was becoming violent, he said, " Let us give over ; we have quar- reled, it is true ; but I, as your senior, have a right to claim the precedency in the recon- ciliation." Scinus, the treasurer of Diony- sius, a man of low character, but immense wealth, once showed Aristippus over his house. While he was expatiating on the splendor of every part, even to the floors, the philosopher spat in his face. Scinus was furious. "Pardon me," exclaimed Aristip- pus, "there was no other place where I could have spat with decency." One day, when interceding with the tyrant for a friend, he threw himself on his knees. Being reproach- ed for such a want of dignity, he answered, "Is it my fault if Dionysius has his^ears in his feet?" ARISTOGITON, and Hakmodius, two of the most famous patriots of Athens ; finding their country oppressed by Hipparchus and Hippias; sons of Pisistratus, they formed a conspiracy against them. Hipparchus was slain 514 b.c, but owing to the backward- ness of the people, Harmodius was killed by the guards, and Aristogiton seized. Being tortured to make him disclose the names of his accomplices, he named the friends of the tjTant, and they were put to death in rapid succession. "Now," said Aristogiton to Hippias, " there only remains yourself worthy of death." Hippias was expelled three years afterward, and the Athenians paid the greatest honors to the memory of the two friends. Praxiteles executed their statues, which were erected in the forum, their praise was sung in hymns, and it was forbidden to give the name of either to a slave. ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated Greek dramatist, author of numerous comedies equally remarkable for the beauty of their composition and their pvmgent satire, flour- ished in the fifth century b.c. But little is known of his life. Out of forty -four compo- sitions of his, only eleven are extant. ARISTOTLE, the most famous philosopher of Greece, founder of the Peripatetic sect, was ARI HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, 384 B.C. He died 322 B.C., having taken poison to avoid the persecution of his enemies. He enjoyed the instructions of Plato. He was selected by Philip of Macedon as the pre- ceptor of Alexander. When the latter vrent forth on his Asiatic campaign, Aristotle re- paired to Athens. There in the charming retreat of the Lyceum, he delivered his teach- ings to a throng of pupils, while walking ! amid the groves and fountains. Envy of his fame rankled into persecution, and he was forced to flee to Chalcis, where he died. He is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany ; he was the first to write of mechanics; and with him the term 'meta- physics ' originated. His writings, on various branches of science, have been of great value to the world, although much of his philoso- phy has been supplanted in the progress of truth. ARIUS, the noted schismatic, was born about the middle of the third century. His entire life was embroiled with disputes, prin- cipally with Bishop Alexander and with Athanasius, on the divinity of Christ. He held that God created the Son, that the Son liad not existed from eternity, and was not ia dignity and essence equal with the Father. This doctrine was condemned by the great council which met at Nice in 325. After numerous vicissitudes, intrigues, and strifes, Arius was in the act of celebrating a triumph at Constantinople, and suddenly died at a verj' advanced age. ARKANSAS derives its name from a tribe of Indians now extinct. It is between 33° and 360 30' N. lat., and 89° 40' and 94° 40' W. long., having an area of 52,198 square miles. By the U. S. census of 1860, the state had a population of 324,191 whites, 111,115 slaves, and 144 free negroes, in all 435,450. This was a very rapid increase since the year 1854, when the whole population was only 251,458. The land on the Missis- sippi, and from forty to fifty miles back from it, is low, interspersed with lakes and swamps, and, with few exceptions, annually overflowed by that river and its tributaries. West of this tract, the ground rises, and near the centre of the state, becomes hilly, and ferther west, mountainous. Its rivers are the Ar- kansas, which has a course of 2,000 miles and traverses the whole state, the Mississippi, which washes its eastern side, the Red River, which furnishes steamboat transportation to the southern section, the St. Francis, the White River, and the Washita. The Ozark Mountains run through the western part of the state. The soil on the river bottoms is fertile, the other parts gen- erally are sterile. Cotton and Indian corn are the staple productions. Wild fowls and animals are abundant. A variety of mine- rals are found in the state, such as iron, gypsum, coal. Some salt is obtained. The ARK 70 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF country is well adapted for raising horses and cattle. Considerable quantities of wheat, oats, sweet potatoes, and tobacco are raised. The peach is cultivated with success, but the apple does not flourish. Arkansas was included in the Louisiana territory purchased from France in 1803. Settlements were made within its limits by French adventurers as early as 1685. It was organized as a territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Arkansas seceded March 20, 1861, ajid was during the rebellion more or less pene- trated by Union troops, several desperate bat- tles having teen fought in the rugged, moun- tainous country in the north-west corner of the state, the north-eastern part having been long held by the Union forces, and the Union navy controlling the chief rivers and their banks. The state returned to the Union ap- parently with readier and kinder feelings than most of the seceding states. A loyal state government was early organized with Isaac Murphy at its head, and at an election held March 16, 1864, this government was con- firmed and a new constitution adopted abol- ishing and prohibiting slavery. Tracts of land i;ave been set apart for school purposes, but an indifference on the subject of education has pervaded the public mind. The prevail- ing religious denominations in Arkansas are Methodists and Baptists, while there are also considerable bodies of Episcopalians, Presby- terians, and Roman Catholics. Little Rock, the seat of government, is on the Arkansas, about a hundred and fifty miles from its confluence with the Mississippi. The river is navigable for steamers to this point at all stages of water. The rocky bluff on which the town stands is the first stone met on the Arkansas west of the Mississippi. The town was founded in 1820, and in 1850 had 2,167 inhabitants. None of the other towns are very populous. Among the chief are Fulton, on the Red River, Helena, on the Mississippi, and Fort Smith, a government post on the western frontier. ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, was born in Preston in 1732, and in early life was a barber. He became interested in machinery for spinning cotton, and in 1769 obtained a patent for an improvement upon Hargreaves' spinning-jenny. Combinations were formed against him, and his patent was set aside in 1785. His business energy was equal to his mechanical skill ; he could not be crushed. "When he died in 1792, he had accumulated a property of £500,000, which his heirs, in their generation, increased to one of the most colossal fortunes ever realized in the king- dom. ARMADA, THE Invincible, a famous ar- mament fitted out against England in the time of Elizabeth (1588), by Philip II. of Spain. It consisted of one hundred and fifty large ships, with 20,000 soldiers, 8,250 sea- men, and 2,000 volunteers, under the Duke of Medina Sidouia. The number of guns the ships bore was 2,650, some of them of extra- ordinary calibre. The English navy at that time consisted of but thirty ships of war. It was reinforced, however, by volunteers. The proud armament was shattered by storms. The size of the Spanish vessels prevented them from acting with advantage on the seas in which they were engaged. Admiral How- ard, ably seconded by the officers under him, attacked and beat the fleet for several days, and very few of the Spanish vessels entered port again. Sir Francis Drake, Captain Hawkins, and others, greatly distinguished themselves at this time. The preparations on land, superintended by the queen herself, were fully commensurate to those at sea. ARMENIA, a country of western Asia, lying south of the Caucasus, in ancient times a powerful kingdom. The name lingers merely in geography ; the greater portion of the territory is in the hands of the Turks, the eastern part belongs to Persia, the northern to Russia. The early history of Armenia is not well known. The Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedonians by turns pos- sessed it. After the death of Alexander, it was united to Syria, of which it formed a part until it revolted from Antiochus the Great, when it was possessed by two difierent rulers and divided into Armenia Major and Minor. Tigranes, king of the former in 95 B.C., reduced Armenia Minor, and other prov- inces, and united the two countries. Under him it became tributary to Rome, in 63 B.C., and Trajan made it a Roman province in 106. After Sapor of Persia vainly attempted its conquest from the Romans, it was gov- erned by native princes, until the Arabians ARM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 71 conquered it in about 650. It was conquered by the Seljukiun Turks about 104(3, after which it suffered many changes, till it was reduced by the prince of Kharasm in 1201, who was driven out of it by Genghis Khan in 1218. In 1335, the Ilkanian dynasty began here, and continued till 1885, when Armenia was conquered by Tamerlane, from whom it was soon after recovered by the Ilkanian princes. On the death of Ahmed Jalayr, the last of the line, in 1405, Kara Yusef, the chief of the Turcomans, got possession of it. This dynasty had the name of the Black Sheep, and in 1488, it fell by conquest to the family of the White Sheep. In 1500, it was conquered by Ishmael Sosi, and reduced by Selim I. in 1514. During the late war between Eussia, and England, France, and Turkey, Armenia was a seat of hostilities, and the siege of Kars attracted much interest. The population is scanty, considering the extent of the country, and consists of Arme- nians, Turks, and the wild Kurds. Oppres- sion has driven the Armenians somewhat widely from the land of their fathers. They have much aptitude for business, and Arme- nian merchants are now established in nearly all the countries of Europe and Asia. At almost every great fair or mart, from Leip- zig and London to Bombay and Calcutta, they are to be seen. Originally the Arme- nians were worshipers of fire, but toward the close of the third century they became converts to Christianity. To their fidelity to their faith they owe their existence as a separate people through long centuries of servitude. The Armenian church is a cor- rupt form of the Roman Catholic. It does not acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, and is govci-ned by patriarchs. ARMINIUS (Van Hakmine) was born at Oudewater, South Holland, in 1560. After studying at Leyden, he went to Geneva and enjoyed the prelections of Beza. His mind seems to have had an early itching to oppose established forms of thought and belief, and he became a romantic supporter of the phi- losophy of Peter Ramus. At twenty-six he was ordained minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and there preached with great acceptance. He was soon entangled in con- troversy. In 1603 he succeeded Junius in the chair of theology at Leyden. There he attacked the doctrine of predestination, and based it upon foi-eknowledge of faith and merit. From this a hot theological war grew. Arminius died in 1609. His candor is unimpeached and his ability undoubted. The system that bears his name, was elab- orated after his death, several of its distinct- ive tenets not being held by Arminius. ARMSTRONG, John, a native of Penn- sylvania, was a brigadier-general in the Continental army, and fought well at Fort JMoultrie, Germantown, and Brandywine. Piqued at certain promotions, he resigned his commission in 1777, and afterward sat jn Congress. He died in 1795. ARMSTRONG, John, son of the former, was the author of the celebrated " Newburgh Addresses." He was aid-de-camp to Gates. He was United States senator from New York, and minister to France from 1804 to 1811. Mr. Madison made him secretary of war. The capture of Washington by the British, led to his retirement from office. He died in 1843, in his eighty-fifth year. ARNE, Thomas Augustine, was the son of an upholsterer, and born in London in 1710. His father educated him at Eton and placed him in an attorney's office ; but such was his love for music, that he had no relish for the quiddities of law. After a few lessons from a German violinist, he made such progress with the bow, that he left his master the attorney, and took music for a profession. His father happening accidentally to call at the house of a neighboring gentleman, was amazed and consternated to find his Thomas Augustine playing the leading violin. But the old gen- tleman acquiesced. The world gained an ex- cellent musician and lost a discontented pet- tifogger. Arne became a popular Ij^ical composer, writing several pleasing operas, many charming songs, besides a large number of fine glees, catches, and canons. His song and chorus, " Rule Britannia," has been said "to have wafted his name over the greater half of the habitable world." In 1769, the university of Oxford conferred upon Arne the degree of doctor in music. He died March 5th, 1778. His last moments were cheered by a Hallelujah sung by himself. ARNOLD, Benedict, was born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 3d, 1740, and before the outbreak of the Revolution was a druggist and book- ARN 72 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF seller in New Haven. He engaged early in the struggle between the colonies and the mother country, espousing the cause of the former. His reckless bravery gained him general applause. He was at the taking of Ticonderoga, and his expedition to Canada lias been celebrated as a great military enter- l-rise. The troops marched to Canada by the way of Maine, encountering the severity of midwinter, tlireading tangled forests, and suf- fering every hardship. In 1777, Arnold dis- played great gallantry, and bore a conspicuous part in those efforts which led to the capitula- tion of Burgoyne. Being unfitted for active service by a severe wound received in the battle of Stillwater, he was placed in command of Philadelphia. He plunged into expensive pleasures, soon became involved in debt, and saw no means of escaping from his embarrass- ments, but by flying into the arms of the British, and earning their gold by treason to his country. Having been reprimanded by Washington for misbehavior, he solicited and obtained the command of West Point, for the basest of purposes. The ill success of his traitorous scheme to yield this important for- tress to the British has been told in our sketch of Andre. Arnold escaped to the British camp. After joining the enemy, he published two manifestoes, in which he attributed the change in his opinions to the declaration of independence, and the alliance of America witli France, although long after the adoption of these measures, he had fought beneath the colonial colors, had been wounded at Quebec, and was pledged to support the cause of his country. A large sum of money, and the rank of brigadier-general in the British army, were the rewards of his apostasy. After his treason, he made war upon his former friends more after the manner of a bandit chieftain, than that of a high-souled warrior. Upon the recognition of the independence of the United States, Arnold retired to England, where he died in June, 1801. In the country for which he had given up his own, his reception was anything but flattering. . On one occasion the British monarch desired to make Arnold known to the high-minded Earl of Balcarras. After the usual form of introduction, Arnold extended his hand to the earl. " What, sir ! " said the latter to the king, drawing himself up to his proudest height ; "is this the traitor Arnold ? " He walked haughtily away. "The hand of Douglas was his owu." Arnold challenged the earl. They met, and Arnold missed his antagonist. The proud nobleman, instead of discharging his pistol, dashed it to the ground. " Stay, my lord," exclaimed Arnold, " you have not had jour shot!" "No," replied the earl indignantly, "I leave you to the hangman." ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., was born at West Cowes in the Isle of Wight, June 13th, 1795. After completing his collegiate studios at Oxford, and receiving deacon's orders, he was for nine years the principal of a private school of high repute, at Laleham near Staines. His success as a Christian teacher caused him to be chosen head-master of Rugby school in 1827. It was Dr. Arnold's aim to combine Christian with secular instruction. He taught the upper classes, governed and guided the whole great school, edited classics and wrote histories, and yet found time to watch over the careers of all his pupils, with- out taking the least credit to himself, or seem- ing to know, or let any one else know, that he ever thought particularly of any boy at all. It is related by an old Rugby pupil that one of the boys died, on a bright Saturday after- noon, while the cricket was going on as usual. The doctor coming from the death-bed, passed the merry crew cheerfully, and no one knew what had happened till the next day. His allusion, in the afternoon discourse, to the fact that while they were at their sports, their playmate was dying, was at once cheerful, grand, and impressive. " When I came yes- terday from visiting all but the very death-bed of him who has been taken from us, and looked around upon all familiar objects and scenes within our own ground, where your common amusements were going on, with your common cheerfulness and activity, I felt there was nothing painful in witnessing that ; it did not seem in any way shocking or out of tune with those feelings which the sight of a dying Christian must be supposed to awaken. The unsuitableness in point of natural feeling between scenes of mourning and scenes of liveliness did not at all present itself But T did feel that if at that moment any of those faults had been brought before me which ARN HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. sometimes occur amongst us; had I heard that any among you had been guilty of false- hood, of drunkenness, or of any such sin; had I heard from any quarter the language of profaneness, or of unkindness, or of indecen- cy ; had I heard or seen any signs of that wretched folly, which courts the laugh of fools Ijy affecting not to th-ead evil and not to care for good, then the unsuitahleness of any of these things with the scene I had just quitted would indeed have been most intensely pain- ful. And why ? Not because such things would really have been worse than at any other time, but because at such a moment the eyes are opened really to know good and evil, because we then feel what it is so to live that death becomes an infinite blessing." He is known as an author by several vol- umes of discourses and by a "History of Rome " written on Niebuhr's plan. He was appointed to the chair of modern history at Oxford ; but he had only given his inaugural lecture, when a spasmodic affection of the heart cut him off suddenly at Rugby, June 12 th, 1842. ARTHUR, a mythical prince of ancient Britain, whose story Hume thinks has some foundation in fact. He is said to have been born about 501, and died 542. The institution of an order of chivalry, called the Knights of the Round Table, is attributed to him, and also the establishment of Christianity at York. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, containing a chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of thirtj^-seven statues and one hundred and twenty-eight busts, with two hundred and fifty inscriptions in Greek characters. They were found in the isle of Paros about 1610, purchased by the Earl of Arundel, and given to the university of Ox- ford, 1627. ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, priests among the Romans who foretold future events by observing the entrails of the animals sacri- ficed, and the manner in which the victim behaved. They existed from the time of Romulus to that of Constantine (337 a.d.), when all soothsaying was prohibited on pain of death. Their number at this time was seventy. ASBURY, Francis, a Methodist preacher who came hither from England in 1771, and was one of the first bishops of the Methodist Episcopal church in the United States. His labors were crowned with great good. He died suddenly at Spottsylvania, Va., March 31st, 1816, aged seventy. ASCALON. In this battle, Sept. 7th, 1191, Richard I. of England, conmianding the cru- saders, reduced to 30,000, defeated ten times that number of Saracens under Saladin. It is said that 30,000 of the paynim foe were left dead on the field of battle. • ASHANTEE, a nation of negroes, on and near the Gold Coast of Guinea. They are in the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, the British settlement at Sierra Leone. Warlike and un- yielding, they carried on a bloody war with the English from 1807 to 1826. The kingdom of the Ashantees has been in existence more than a hundred years. The king has a band of devoted attendants, one hundred in number, who are slain upon his tomb, that he may be properly accompanied on his arrival in the in- fernal regions. His 3, 333 wives are regarded with reverence, and on that mystical number the safety of the state depends. The empire of Ashantee, consisting of several conquered states, has a population of three million souls. The Ashantees display some ingenuity and taste in their architecture, and manufjicture cloths which are skillfully dyed in brilliant colors. Coomassie, the residence of the king, has been forcibly described by an intelligent traveler. "A prospect of the capital (if such it may be called) at last opened in front of us ; it was a partial glimpse, at the distance of twenty or thirty paces, of a few mud-built hovels, surrounded in part by plantations, and some straggling walls of the same mate- rial, covering a contracted space gained from the surrounding waste." ASIA is the largest of the great divisions of the earth. Hesiod and Herodotus give a mythical origin of the name from the nymph Asia, daughter of Oceanus and Zethys, and mother or wife of Prometheus. Strabo pre- serves an old statement that Asia was the original name of Lydia. Orientalists have concluded that the root-syllable . in ' Asia ' means the ' Sun,' especially as an object of religious worship ; that the Asians are ' the people of the Sun,' or ' the people from the east;' and that 'Asia' is thus the correlative of ' Europa,' which is derived from the Phoe- ASI .COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF nician or Hebrew word 'Ereb' or 'Oreb,' signifying 'evening,' 'sunset,' and hence the ' West.' The ancient Greeks were acquaint- ed with little more than Asia Minor. The establishment of the Persian empire, B.C. 550, advanced geographical knowledge, because many nations and extensive regions being gathered under one rule, the intercourse be- tween them, which before had been difficult, was much facilitated. The conquests of Alex- ander brought still farther advance. He had almost reached the valley of the Ganges, when a mutiny in his wearied army forced him to give over his scheme of penetrating India. He founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile ; the commerce of Tyre and the Phoenicians was diverted thither; and Egyptian vessels pushed from the Red Sea as far as the shores of Malabar and the isle of Oeylon. The extreme eastern boundary of the Roman empire was formed by the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the mountains of Armenia. In one instance their armies passed beyond the limits of the known world. When war- ring with Mithridates they arrived at Mount Caucasus, and on the shores of the 4)aspian Sea they learned of a commercial road through Bactria, by which an active traffic was had with India. Shortly after another route was discovered, leading over the high table-land of upper Asia to the Seres, or Chinese ; prob- ably the road which still passes through the town of Kashghar. Though the Roman eagles did not swoop in victory over these regions of the remote East, the wealth of the imperial city caused a demand for the productions and the luxuries of the oi'ient ; so that these newly discovered paths were much frequented by merchants, while the maritime trade was also duly enhanced. The dominion of the Saracens cut off the intercourse of Europe with Asia, and till the time of the crusades no new knowledge was gained by Europeans of its geography. The Arabians, however, began to nourish geography among other sciences. To them we owe its establishment upon math- ematical and astronomical principles. They renewed trading intercourse with India, and extended it to the Chinese seas. Zeal for propagating their creed inspired them, as well as the love of gain. In the thirteenth century, Genoa, Venice, and Florence commenced their lucrative trade with the East. In this century too, the Mon- gols under Genghis Khan crossed the Volga, sulijected Russia, and laid prostrate the power of Poland. All Europe trembled, but the death of Genghis stayed the Tartars in their western march. The policy of Innocent IV. and of Louis IX. of France suggested the plan of turning the Mongols against the Saracens. For this it seemed necessary to convert the barbarians to the Christian faith. Friars were accordingly sent among them. They did not succeed in their mission, but their journeyings made Europeans for the first time acquainted with the immense extent of those regions vaguely known as Scythia, which thenceforth were called Mongolia or Tartary. Genghis Khan had extended his dominion over all in- land Asia, from the boundary of Siberia to that of India and Thibet. After his death the Mongols continued in their career of victory, and at length in the reign of his most able successor, Kublai Khan (1259-1294), China came under their sway. At the court of this monarch at Pekin, Marco Polo dwelt from 1275 to 1292, and under his favor had the best opportunities for visiting the wide Mongol realm. The account which he published of his travels added more to geographical knowl- edge of Asia than all that was previously known. It very materially influenced the views of Columbus, and directed the course of Vasco de Gama. [See Polo.] After the circumnavigation of Africa by Vasco de Gama in 1498, the Portuguese rap- idly explored the Indian seas, founded many colonies, and carried on a rich commerce. At the close of the sixteenth century, Portugal passed under the yoke of Spain ; and one result of the struggle of the Netherlands against Philip II., was the gradual transfer of the Portuguese possessions in the Indies into the hands of the Dutch. About this time Siberia was subjected by Russia, and the Jesuits obtained a footing at the Chinese court which gained them considerable knowl- edge of that vast empire. India was longer involved in obscurity than almost any part of Asia. The progress of the East India Company of England during the last two centuries, has rapidly opened its recesses. Yet this quarter of the world, concerning which modern civilization has so slowly and imperfectly gained any information, was the ASI HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 75 first peopled ; here the law of God was first and Tonkm, East of China is the insular promulgated; here many of the greatest monarchies of the world have had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. To its immensity of extent, the importance of its history, and the vastness of its monumental remains, justly correspond. It has been the theatre of some of the most important events which history records, the clime of wonders and of wealth, the chosen region of romance. If we search for the fate of proud monarchies, for the tale of powerful dynasties, for the doom of splendid cities, we shall find the name of Asia constantly recurring, and the fame of Asia the theme of unfailing wonder and of praise. Its extent is estimated at 17,500,000 square miles, and its population set down at more than 600,000,000. We give a summary of the principal divisions of Asia. More detailed accounts may be sought in the appropriate place. Siberia, a division of the Russian empire, occupies the north. The Chinese empire comprises one-fourth of the surfoce of Asia, and one-half the inhabitants. The Brit- ish dominions are for the most part in India, the peninsula within the Ganges, but their rule has extended over a great number of dependent native sovereigns. Nepaul and Ava are the only important states of India that have remained independent of the Brit- ish. The Portuguese have saved from the wreck of their once mighty possessions little more than Goa on the Malabar coast. Daman, a small portion of the peninsula of Guzerat, the island of Macao in the bay of Canton, and some districts in the island of Timor. These are supposed to contain about 60,000 square miles and 600,000 inhabitans. The French have a small foothold in Asia at Pon- dicherry, at Chandernagore in Bengal, and at Nahe on the coast of Malabar. The Dutch have been driven from the mainland. Their power begins on the west with Sumatra, and extends beyond Java to the Moluccas or Spice Islands. Their possessions are roughly guessed to comprehend about 612,000 square miles, with 16,500,000 inhabitants. In the south-eastern corner of Asia lie the empires of Birmah, and the kingdoms of Siam and Annam, which latter comprehends the an- cient sovereignties of Camboja, Cochin China, empire of Japan. In the west we have Af- ghanistan, Beloochistan, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, and Persia. The tract between Persia and China, sometimes called Independent Tartary, is inhabited mostly by nomadic tribes. Here are the states of Bokhara and Khiva, and many petty sovereignties in the mountain regions. But none of these have any fixed government. The islands in the Asian seas are many and important. Besides those belonging to Japan, the larger are Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Philippines, the Moluccas, Ceylon, and Formosa. ASPERNE, Battle of. Between the Aus- trian army under the Archduke Charles, and the French ; fought on the 21st, 22d, and 23d of May, 1809. In this very sanguinary fight the loss of the Austrians exceeded 20,000, and that of the French was more than 30,000. It ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he had yet received. This success, however, benefited the Aus- trians but little in the end. ASSASSINS, the followers of an Arab chief in the time of the crusades, who pro- fessed a blind devotion to his will. When Henry, Count of Champagne, was passing through the dominions of their chief, Alo- addin, the " Old Man of the Mountains," he boasted of his power at home. " Are any of your vassals as devoted as my followers ? " asked the chieftain. On this he gave a signal to ten young men, clad in white, standing on the top of a tall tower, and they instantly threw themselves from it and were dashed to pieces ! To the stealth with which they took the lives of those they hated, the word 'assassin' owes its adoption and its meaning in European languages. ASSAYE. The British army under Gen. Arthur Wellesley (afterward the Duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south, took the fort of Ahmednugger Aug. 12th, and defeated Scindiah and the Rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23d, 1803. This was the future Wellington's first great battle, and the opposing force was ten times his own. The enemy retired in great dis- order, forsaking all their artillery, ammuni- tion, and stores. ASS 76 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP ASSYRIA, a kingdom of Asia, said to have been founded by Asher, whose boundaries varied greatly at different times. It was anciently bounded as follows : north by the mountains Niphates, and Armenia Major, east by Media, south by Susiana, and west by Mesopotamia. Ninus, the son of Belus, (2069-2017), subdued the Babylonians and Medes, and Semiramis, his wife and successor, increased the fame of the kingdom. The kings of Assyria degenerated fi-om this re- Tiown. Such were the indolence and volup- tuousness of Sardanapalus as to encourage the successful revolt of Arbaces the Mede, and Assj^ria was then divided into the Me- dian, Assyrian, and Babylonian kingdoms. It was over this second Assyrian kingdom that Sennacherib reigned, whose great army besieged Jerusalem and was swept away in a single night by the angel of the Lord. Nin- eveh was razed by the Medes and Babylo- nians, 621 B.C., and the Assyrian monarchy divided by the conquerors. Through the conquest of Cyrus these countries became one of the most important satrapies of the Pei'sian empire, sometimes called Babylonia and sometimes Assyria. ASTRONOMY. The history of the science of the heavens dates backward into the morning of time. Observations on the appa- rent and real revolutions of the stars must have been made, and a really gi-eat advance attained in the science, long before any form of record preserved the fruits of discovery. Some of the principal constellations, as they are now named, are mentioned in Job. The earliest accounts we have of the science are those of Babylon, about 2234 b.c. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldea under Nabonassar. It was known to the Chinese about 1100 b.c, some say many centuries before. One tradition is that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Jao, which is set down 2357 b.c. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b.c. Thales taught the spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, 640 b.c. Pythagoras, who made further discoveries, true doctrine of celestial taught nearly the motions and believed in a plm^ality of habit- 1 the sun's disk, Nov. 24th, 1639 (o.s.) AST able worlds, 500 b.c. Hipparchus began his observations at Rhodes, 1()7 b.c, and contin- ued them thirty-four j'ears, making great advances. He began his new lunar cycles from the new moon of Sept. 28th, 143 b.c The precession of the equinoxes w^as con- firmed, and the places and distances of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy, a.d. 130. The system he taught, in which the earth was made the immovable centre of the uni- verse, remained in vogue till the time of Copernicus. After the lapse of nearly seven centm-ies, during which astronomy was neg- lected, it was resumed by the Arabs, about 800, and was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about 1200, geography being introduced at the same time. The celebrated tables known as the Alj^hon- sine, were composed by command, and under the direction, of Alphonsus X. of Castile, at an expense of four hundred thousand crowns, in 1284. Alphonsus was justly surnamed the Wise. Clocks were first used in astron- omy about 1500. In 1530 Copernicus com-' pleted his immortal work, "Astronomia Instaurata," although it was not published until the year of his death, 1543. This treatise, in which the true doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies was revived, did more for astronomy than was ever done for any other science by a single production. The science was also greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe in the la,tter part of the same century. Kepler discovered the true laws of the planetary motions in 1019. Nearly a century before Copernicus had shown that the planets moved round the sun ; now Kep- ler showed in what manner and by what laws they moved : it was left for Newton to show why they moved. Kepler had before found that the planetary orbits were elliptical, and had demonstrated the equality of the spaces described by the radii vecfores in equal times ; and now he enunciated the im- portant law that the square of the periodic times of the planets' revolutions are as the cubes of their distances. Telescopes and other instruments were used about 1627. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 1631. Horrox, an Englishman, was the first who ever observed a transit of Venus over Hor- HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. '7 . rebow, in 1659, discovered the aberration of the light of the fixed stars. Hevelius con- structed a map of the moon, 16T0. Halley demonstrated the motion of the sun round its own axis, 1 676. Huygens discovered the rings of Saturn, 1686. In 1687 Newton's "Prin- L'ii)ia " was published, and the system initiated by Copernicus and confirmed by Kepler, was iucontrovertibly established. Flamstead cat- alogued the stars, 1688. La Grange demon- strated the harmony of the perturbations of the solar system, 1780. Herschel discovered Uranus, 1781. The "Mccanique Celeste" of La Place was published in 1796. Ceres was discovered in 1801 ; Pallas, in 1802; Juno, ill 1804; Vesta, in 1807. [For the several planets recently discovered, see Planets.] The distances of the fixed stars is supposed to be about four hundred thovisand times greater from us than we are from the sun ; that is to say, thirty-eight millions of mil- lions of miles ; so that a cannon-ball would be nine millions of years in reaching one of them, supposing there was nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars : yet the calciriations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us, and the light by which we now see these started on its journey three or four hundred years ago. ATHANASIUS, a great theological cham- pion in the fourth century, was born about 296. He was an active member of the coun- cil of Nice. His rising fame led to his eleva- tion to the see of Alexandria, upon the death of his patron. Bishop Alexander. He was immediately involved in contests with the Arians concerning the divinity of Christ, that ended only with his life. Deposed most unjustly in 335, he was reinstated in 338. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. The unscrupulous charges of his foes he refuted with overwhelming proof and eloquence. But in 355 he was again sen- tenced to be banished, when he retired to the deserts, till again he was welcomed back to the Egyptian capital. Once more, Julian the apostate exiled him, and once more he was restored. A fifth time was he banished by the Emperor Valens, who soon recalled him, however, and Athanasius, after holding the primacy for the long space of forty-six years, passed into peace in 373. He was a man of devout life, an orator of ready and forcible eloquence, and a prelate of heroic and inde- fatigable activity. ATHENS. The early period of Athenian history is so far beyond our ken as to be but dimly discerned. It is not till the time of Solon that the story becomes definite. Some- thing is said of Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some supposed to be no other than the great flood), that laid waste the land, and so it remained until the arrival of Cecrops and his colony, by whom it was peopled, 1556 B.C. Originally Athens was called from its founder, Cccropia, but in time his name was only retained by the citadel, the xicropolis, while the Greek name of Minerva (Athena) was applied to the city. The position of Athens is peculiar, and the surrounding scenery luxuriant and interesting. The blue Saronic Gulf, so often swept by victorious navies, the opposite shore of the Pelopon- nesus, the rocky steep of the Acropolis, and the beauty of the surrounding plains, are prominent features in a landscape which antiquity has jnade interesting, and fame immortaL Nor were the natural beauties of the scene its chief recommendation. Art here successfully vied with nature, and erec- tion of most noble edifices bore witness to the taste, industry, skill, and public spirit of the Athenians. Cecrops, the fomider of Athens, was an Egyptian, skilled in the arts of his countrymen, and possessing more than their customary enterprise; he founded the kingdom of Athens, dividing the country into twelve districts, over which he ruled for a long time with the title of king. He insti- tuted the senate called the Areopagus, which met upon a hill in the vicinity of the citadel, dedicated to Mars. This court acquired an active influence in the aiFairs of government. To it the examination of the laws and state of public morals was committed, v/hile crimes against religion and the state, required its peculiar attention. In 1498 B.C., Amphic- tyon, one of the successors of Cecrops, established the Amphictyonic council, an ATH 78 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP THE niLL OF THE AREOPAGUS. assembly which ultimately attained a high degree of celeljrity. At first they assembled at Delphi, where was the oracle of Apollo, hut finally at Anthela, a village in the vicinity of the famous Thermopylae. To both of these monarchs the Athenians owed much. If Cecrops softened the man- ners of the inhabitants of Attica, taught them how to clothe their lands with the verdure of the olive and the vine, and instructed them in the love of order, the worship of the gods, the rites of Hymen, and those of sepulture, Amphictyon strengthened and secured the advantages which his subjects had begun to reap. No longer they feared the incursions of predatory neighbors, but sat in the shade of their vineyards, enjoying the happiness which security and peace bestow. Theseus was the greatest warrior among these early kings of Athens. He is said to have united in one confederation the hitherto independ- ent twelve states of Attica founded by Ce- crops. Codrus was the last of the line. In a battle with the HeraclidfB, 1068 B.C., he sought and found death, for the oracle had promised that victory should rest with the side whose leader was slain. The govern- ment assumed a republican form. The change vras but in name, for the archon had nearly all the power of the king, whose place in the state he filled. The archon was orginally chosen for life. After a lapse of little more than three centuries, the term of office was curtailed to ten years, and less than a century afterward, the number of archons was increased to nine, and they served for a term of one year only. Originally all the Grecian states had a regal government, which was abolished in consequence of the tyranny of the various princes, and supplanted by republican forms. Recovering their liberty at an early period, the Greeks acquired that love of freedom which characterized them throughout their long career, and it was only when luxury and wealth had banished the temperate and unostentatious life of their ancestors, that the Greeks found themselves unable to con- tend against the encroachments of hostile power, and fell beneath the arms of more enterprising rivals. The rivalry of Athens and Sparta produced, together with much good, an infinity of evil. The Spartans were of a sterner cast than the Athenians, and even more distinguished for their love of fi'cedom and their invincible courage. They ATE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 79 despised those triumphs of the arts which the Athenians made their glory, and relied for fame on stern contempt of the elegan- ces and the common comforts of life. What their Lycurgus was to them, Solon was to the Athenians. Solon v/as one of those great characters whom their country- men regard with veneration for ages, and whose memory they recall even in the' midst of oppression, and the darkness of disgrace ; one oi^those rare spirits whose virtues and self-possession are most conspicuous when most needed, and whose knowledge, like the lamp of the glow-worm, shines brightest when the darkness is most heavy. At a time (B.C. 594r-578) when the turbulence and ambition of the archons threatened the Athe- nians with a multitude of evils, all eyes were turned upon Solon, as the pilot who alone could, guide the vessel of state through the rocks and surges that surrounded it. He was at once created archon extraordinary with unlimited power, for his high character and calm demeanor inspired confidence among the people he was destined to assist. Solon introduced a mild code of laws, in opposi- tion to that of Draco, his predecessor in legis- lation, whose appalling severity had raised him maijy enemies. The government was placed in the hands of a senate of four hun- dred members chosen by the people. After an acquittal of their debts, the people were divided into four classes. The members of the three first classes were eligible to office, while those of the fourth, whose poverty was thought to incapacitate them from serving, were yet allowed the privilege of voting in the popular assemblies. The power of the commonwealth was vested in these assem- blies, but there was a restrictive influence in the senate. Whatever merit we may be disposed to allow the constitution of Solon, framed as it was at a very early period, it was much too artificial to be permanently successful. Solon lived to see this. During his retire- ment from Athens, factions disturbed the peace of the people, and Solon, after having vainly endeavored to stem the current, re- tired to the isle of Cyprus, where he died, B.C. 560. A change of government was effected by Pisistratus, a popular but am- bitious man, who headed the poorer class of people (a class who considered themselves peculiarly oppressed by the constitution of Solon) and gained possession of the supreme power. The plans of the usurper possessed plausibility and brilliancy. His benevolence was undoubted; he governed with equity and moderation. At his death Pisistratus bequeathed his power to his two sons, Hip- parchus and Hippias, who, for a long time, by a liberal patronage of the arts and of learned men, gave a brilliancy to their admin- istration which was mihappily not destined to endure. Among thcniiost brilliant ornaments of the court was Anacreon, the elegant though effeminate poet of love and wine. The cru- elty of Hippias at length roused the spirit of the Athenians, who broke forth into an open revolt, in which Hipparchus was slain, and Hippias banished. Pisistratus and his sons governed under the title of tyrants, a term at that time not necessarily implying an abuse of power. They held the tyranny for thirty-six years, during which time we ma}' naturally infer that all tendency toward ;; democratical form of government was sup- pressed, but under their rule the arts began to flourish. Upon the downfall of Hippias, two factions contended for the mastery in Athens; the one headed by Cleisthenes, of the aristocratical family of the Alcmaeonidfe, the other by Isagoras, son of Tisander. Cle- isthenes effected some changes in the laws of Solon, increasing the number of the divis- ions of the people to ten, and of the members of the senate to five hundred, and by these and other measures he gained the favor of tin- Athenians. His rival called in the aid of Cleomenes, the mad king of Lacedgemon. But Cleomenes was baffled, his allies the Boeotians and Chalcidians defeated by the Athenians, and the territory of Chalcis in the fertile isle of Euboea colonized by four thou- sand Athenians. Athens lent some aid to the Ionian Greeks, who were in revolt against Darius. Hippias had fi.nally sought refuge at the Persian court, and when the Athenian force burned Sardis he easily excited thc- hostility of Darius against the city of his former rule. But the bravery of the Athe- nians was not wasted in words, and they joined against the invaders with heart and hand. When the heralds of Darius came with the insolent demand of earth and water, ATH 80 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the usual signs of submission, they were seized and thrown, the one into a ditch and the other into a well, whence they were con- temptuously told to satisfy their wants. The troops of Darius entered Attica, encamping at Marathon, a small town upon the sea-coast. Against an army of 500,000 horse and foot, the brave Miltiades led forth a band of 10,000 Athenians, who were victorious in the most sacred of causes, 490 b.c. Ten years after- ward when Xerxes poured his forces into Greece, the Athcniam, under Themistocles, were triumphant, ancf the victory of Salamis bore witness to the terrible energy and roused spirit of freemen. Yet it is painful to mark the fickleness and ingratitude of the Athenians. One would think that while Marathon was remembered, the services of Miltiades could not be forgotten. Yet the noble Athenian, in consequence of misfortune, was thrown into a prison where he perished. Aristides, whose virtue procured him the surname of " the just," was banished by ostracism, without any adequate cause. The practice of ostra- cism was so called, because the citizens wrote upon a tile or shell {ostraTcon) the names of those who were obnoxious to them. The shells being counted, the person whose name occurred most frequently, was banished. Themistocles was also persecuted and forced to seek refuge at the Persian court ; yet so fond was he of his ungrateful country, that rather than serve against her, he killed him- self. It was men like these who reflected a lustre on the Athenian name. Xerxes in his march through Attica had entered Athens. After his defeat at Salamis he hastily retreated into Asia, leaving his general Mardonius with 300,000 men. Mar- donius re-entered Athens, applied the torch, and reduced the city almost utterly to ruins. His defeat at Platfea, b.c. 479, by the com- bined Greeks, rid the land of its invaders. When the Persians, humbled to the ^ust, no longer had the audacity to threaten Greece, the glory of the Athenians brightened, day by day. The people saw with delight the extension of their privileges. All orders, feeling the benefit of equal institutions, lab- ored in common for the aggrandizement of their country. Members of all classes were now made eligible to ofBce, and the poor felt that they stood upon an equal footing with the rich, and might, by exertion, rise superior to them. The period from the close of the Persian war, b.c. 470, to the time of the Pelo- ponnesian war, B.C. 431, includes days of un- common splendor in the history of Athens. The naval supremacy of Attica arose. Cimon and Pericles introduced elegance into Athens, and the age of the latter is commonly quoted as the golden era of the country. The arts under his liberal patronage, flourished to a great degree. In his time, that glorious tem- ple to Minerva, the most perfect example of Grecian art, the Parthenon, was erected. Magnificent temples sprang up in every direc- tion, the marble breathed, the pencil glowed, and the lips of the orator and poet were gifted with kindling eloquence. To this age belong the tragic verse of ^schylus, the loft jf dramas of Sophocles and Euripides, and the biting satire of Aristophanes. In this time, too, Herodotus read his history publicly in the Athenian council. Yet, in the midst of much apparent prosperity, the foundation of mis- fortune was laid. The abundance of wealth was not without deteriorating influence, and the Athenians became so enamored of the elegances of life, that they began to prefer them to manliness and independence. Peri- cles was at the zenith of his greatness b.c. 444. He engaged in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 431, the end of which, after twenty-seven years, was that the Lacedaemonians, ever more hardy if not more brave than the ele- gant Athenians, made themselves masters of Athens, and granted peace to the vanquished on the most humiliating conditions. For eight months the Athenians groaned under the yoke of the thirty magistrates, or, as they were called, the thirty tyrants, whom the Lacedaemonians imposed upon them, and kept under the protection of their garrison. The man who led to the overthrow of this oppression, was Thrasybulus. Again the star of Athens rose to the zenith, bright as if no cloud had ever covered it and hid its silvery brilliancy beneath a veil. The Athe- nians joined the Thebans against Sparta and were successful. They were yet to feel, however, the importance of a power hitherto unacknowledged or despised. Philip of Mac- edon descended from the north. In vain did Demosthenes urge the Athenians to die in defense of their liberty. In vain did this ATH HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. SI extraordinary man hurl his tremendous anath- emas against PhiHp. He was doomed to see the subjugation of his countrymen. Phihp was neither daunted by eloquence, nor re- pulsed by bravery. The battle of Oheronasa, li.c. 338, struck, a death-blow to Grecian liberty. Athens remained, with the other states of Greece, dependent upon the Mace- donian power for existence. She did not sink without a struggle, but all her struggles ^vere of no avail against the giant power which had prostrated her, and fettered her with bonds of adamant. When Athens was taken by Oassander (B.C. 317), the oligarchy was restored, and Demetrius Phalerius, upheld by a Macedo- nian garrison, enjoyed the office of governor of the state for ten years. The Athenians entreated the assistance of Demetrius Polior- cetes, who, having taken the city, restored the form of the ancient constitution. To this dissolute ruler the corrupt Athenians paid the honors due only to the gods ; temples were erected to his mistresses ; nor did the abode of the Virgin Goddess herself, on the Acrop- olis, escape desecration from the unbridled licentiousness of the time. Demetrius was overthrown, 287 B.C. Antigonus Gonatas of Macedon conquered the Athenians, 208 b.c. After twelve years under his yoke they were delivered by Aratus, and joined the Achaean league. The Romans gladly availed them- selves of the co-operation of the Athenians against the last Philip of Macedon. After having drawn down upon themselves the vengeance of Rome by espousing the side of Mithridates, 88 B.C., the Athenians trembled for the consequences. Sylla took their city, B.C. 86, and the show of liberty which it after- ward retained, was but a bitter mockery. Yet under the Romans, Athens continued to be the centre of the arts,' of philosophy, and of all the learning of the time. Vespasian made Athens a Roman province, and it was included in the empire of the east, after the division of the Roman empire. But it was destined to feel the terror of that power beneath which the queen of cities was pros- trated to the dust. Alaric the Goth, a.d. 396, conquered and devastated the country, From this period, the liberty of Athens ex- isted but in the recollection of the past. In 420, paganism was abohshed in Athens, and the Parthenon converted into a church of the Virgin Mary. In 1456, the Turks gained possession of the city. A black eunuch held the place which Pericles once adorned, and the Parthenon, no longer a Christian church, was forced to answer as a mosque. In 1687, the Venetians besieged Athens, and some of the works of the immortal Phidias, the sculp- tor, were destroyed by the explosion of a magazine, fired by a bomb thrown into the Parthenon by the besiegers. On the 29th of September, Athens came into the hands of the Venetians, after its inhabitants had suf- fered severely from the siege, but was again relinquished to the Turks in 1088. From the erection of manj^ barbaric structures, some of the most valuable remains of antiquity have been covered and concealed, to be brought to light by the researches of the curious of later days. From the Turks, the Greeks of Athens experienced a milder treatment than many of their brethren, and were permitted to retain many of their an- cient observances. In 1822, the Acropolis sustained a long siege, which was terminated by its falling into the hands of the patriots. News of this was heard with delight by all the Greeks, who loved their country, and rejoiced to behold " The flag of freedom wave once more Above the lofty Parthenon." When at last Grecian independence was established, Athens was made the capital of the new kingdom. ATHOS, a mountain of ancient Macedonia, now Agion-oros, or Monte Santo, in the Turk- ish province of Saloniki. On its sides are many hermitages, and twenty monasteries, with over eight thousand monks, chiefly Rus- sians and Greeks, of the order of St. Basil. No female, even of the animal kind, is allowed to enter the peninsula on which the holy mountain stands. Some of the monasteries are said to contain very ancient and valuable manuscripts. Not long since, a manuscript of the eighth century, a translation of the Bi- ble into the Georgian language by St. Euphe- mius, was discovered here. The summit of this mountain is about 6,350 feet above the level of the sea. At the foot of it, Xerxes caused a trench a mile and a half long, to be cut and filled with sea-water. This was for ATH 82 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the passage of his fleet, and of such width that two ships could sail abreast. ATLANTIC OCEAN. There is not in the multitude of natural wonders, a more sublime spectacle than that afforded by the world of waters, under whatever view it is contempla- ted. Impressive and beautiful it is, when stretched out in the tranquil repose of an un- broken calm, reflecting the still splendor of the heavens by day, or their diamond bril- liancy by night. Far as the eye can reach, there is hardly a ripple on the wave, and at the horizon, the azure of the air and that of the ocean join in the bridal of the sea and sky. Yet more impressive is the aspect of the deep sea in a tempest; when the elements are awakened from their slumber, and abroad in their terrible strength, and the wild winds of heaven sport with gigantic mountains of wa- ter, heaving them to and fro, with the ease of zephyrs sporting with dew-drops. The formation of the bed of the Atlantic, from latitude 20^^ S., up to the north pole, has been ascribed to the concussion of im- mense masses of water, produced by the del- uge, when, it is conceived, the waters of the great southern ocean below the equator, rushed upon the northern hemisphere. From Cape Frio to the river of the Amazons, in vSouth America, there is a vast protuberance answering to the incurvation of the African shore fi-om the river of Congo to Cape Palmas ; while, from the Straits of Gibraltar to Cape Palmas, there is an immense protuberance, corresponding to the incurvation between New York and Cape St. Roque. This con- jecture is thought probable, since the depres- sion caused by such an innuense bodj^ of wa- ter could not be otherwise than enormous, considering the shock and weight of the op- posing body. Until the successful issue of the voyages of Columbus, it was imagined that there was one unbroken extent of water between the western shores of Europe and Africa, and the East Indies ; and the great navigator himself imagined that he had reached the Indian realms, by a shorter route than that pursued by the Portuguese. The name of the Atlantic Ocean is connected with a tradition which is lost in the night of antiquity, and which, reaching the Greeks from the Egyptians, has been commemorated by Plato. It was said that there originally existed an isle called At- lantis, which rose from the bosom of the ocean, and surpassed in extent Asia and Libya together. Plato's testimony has caused a controversy among modern authors respecting the situation and nature of Atlantis. Of course, it is impossible to determine the situ- ation of an isle which existed before the ages of history, but still shall we disregard the truth of the tale? What interest had the Greeks in imagining a fable, which bore no relation to their history, and which was not calculated to affect their religious belief? Why should the Greeks have adopted it? " The islanders," says Plato, " subdued Libya, Egypt, and Europe, as far as Asia Minor ; i;t last, Atlantis was swallowed by the waters, and for a long time afterward, the sea was full of earth and sand-banks, in the vicinity of the place which the island had occupied." This last passage proves the existence of a tradition of a terrible outbreak of the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, which overwhelmed Atlantis. The depth of the Atlantic is various, being in some parts unfathomable. Its saltness and si)ecific gi-avity diminish gradually from the equator to the poles. Near the British islands, the salt is said to be one thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The temperature of the Atlantic is influenced, considerablj^ by the masses of ice which float from the northward toward the equator, reaching frequently the fortieth degree of latitude. Dangerous as are these icebergs to the mariner, they yet pre- sent a splendid appearance as they float on- ward to southern latitudes, gleaming in the sunbeams, which, while they impart dazzling brilliancy, hasten the dissolutionof thefloating masses. The continual melting gives a very fanciful appearance to the icebergs, which is heightened by the rivulets pouring from point to point, like the streams trickling down a cavern of stalactites. Passages between North America and Europe in the months of June and July, are sometimes rendered perilous by the frequency of icebergs from the northward. Much important information concerning the currents and winds of the Atlantic has been gained by the observations planned and di- rected by Lieut. Maury. The waters of the tropical seas have a westward motion, known as the equatorial current. This oceanic stream ATL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 83 eows from the African coast to Cape St. Roque, where dividing, one branch sets southward along the coast of Brazil, while the larger branch rushes impetuously along the shore of Guiana, and through the Caribbean Sea. The Gulf Stream, the most famous of all the Atlantic currents, is described in a separate article. A powerful current takes its start from the sea between Ireland and Spain, and sweeps down the African coast as far as the shores of Guinea. The Arctic current has its origin in the polar seas of the north, skirts the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, and oif the banks of Newfoundland is bifurcated by the Gulf Stream. The forks continue south- ward in deep submarine currents. These are the great arteries of the Atlantic. The heart of the ocean never ceases to beat. A strong current, far down in the depths of the sea, is supposed to flow from the Atlantic into the Arctic seas. Lieut. Maury tells us of a Grassy (Sargasso) Sea, midway the Atlantic, in the triangular space between the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands. Covering an area equal in extent to the Mississippi val- ley, it is so thickly matted over with gulf- Vv-eed that the speed of vessels passing through it is often much retarded. The comrades of Columbus thought it marked the limits of navigation, and were much alarmed. Patches of the weed are always to be seen floating along the Gulf Stream. Now, if bits of cork be put into a basin, and a circular motion given to the water, they will be found crowding near the centre of the pool, where there is the least motion. Such a basin is the Atlantic to the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea is the centre of the whirl. Columbus found this grassy sea, and there it is at this day. The steady easterly breezes that prevail within the tropics are known as trade-winds. Without this region the winds are variable, but generally westerly. In the latitude of the equator and of the two tropics, calms pre- vail. Those of the tropic of Cancer have long been known as the 'horse latitudes,' from the fact that vessels carrying horses from New England to the West Indies were often be- calmed here till their water was almost ex- hausted, and some of the cargo must be thrown overboard, to save the remainder. By taking advantage of the prevailing winds and cur- rents, voyages have been almost incredibly shortened, and the old adage made true, that "the longest way round is the shortest way home." ATLAS is the historical and geographical name of the extensive mountain system whose ranges, branches, and table-lands cover the north-west of Africa, and form a barrier be- tween the Barbary states and the sands of the Sahara. ATTERBURY, Francis, Bishop of Roches- ter, an eloquent English preacher, born in 1G62, arrested on a charge of conspiracy in favor of the Stuarts, 1722 ; died in exile, 1732. ATTICA, a country of ancient Greece, is a peninsula, united with Boeotia toward the north, and partially with Megaris on the west. At Cape Sunium (now Colonna), it jjrojects far into the yEgean Sea. [See Athens.] At- tica was once famous for its gold and silver mines, which constituted the best part of the public revenues, and were worked by twenty thousand men. The inhabitants were num- bered, in the sixteenth Olympiad, at 31,000 citizens, and 400,000 slaves, in a hundred and seventy-four villages, some of which were considerable towns. The fragi-ance and abun- dance of flowers in Attica made the mountain slopes of Hymettus famous for their honey. ATTILA, king of the Huns, ravaged Europe between 434 and 453. He rendered the Greek empire tributary, and invaded Gaul, but was defeated on the j\Iaine. He threatened Rome, but was induced by a vast ransom to retire. Attila was given to excess, and died from the bursting of a blood-vessel on the night of his nuptials with the beautiful Ildico, 453. His body was put in three coffins, the outer of iron, the next of silver, and the inner one of gold. His personal appearance has been de- scribed by Jornandes. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short, mis- shapen body. The dread inspired by this fierce warrior, at the head of hundi'cds of thousands of barbarians, gained him the sur- names of the ' terror of the world ' and the ' scourge of God.' AUDUBON, John James, born inLouisiana 1782, died Jan. 27th, 1851. His life was de- voted to ornithology, and his great work, "The Birds of America," was pronounced by Cuvier, "the most gigantic and most magnif- icent monument ever erected to Nature." His parentage was French, and in youth he AUD 84 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF enjoyed the tuition of the great painter David. His love of nature led him to the forest, and he had crowded portfolios with drawings of birds long before he had any thought of pub- lishing. " The Birds of America " was a costly publication. There were one hundred and seventy-five subscriptions of a thousand dol- lars each, eighty of which were obtained in this country, and the remainder in Europe. The work was issued in Edinburgh. AUERSTADT. In this bloody conflict be- tween the French and Prussian armies, Oct. 14th, 1806, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon gained a decisive victory. The Prussians, routed on every side, lost two hundred pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 prisoners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field. Napoleon at once entered Berlin. AUGEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione, was one of those men who emerged from obscurity, and obtained a high rank among the officers that surrounded Napoleon, giving such unrivaled brilliancy to his court and camp. Augereau was the son of a fruit-merchant, and was bom at Paris, 1757; serving, as soon as he was able, as a carbineer in the French army. Having sub- sequently entered the Neapolitan service, he was banished from Naples, in 1792. He then served as a volunteer in the army of Italy, and attracted attention by his bravery and military talent. In 1794, we find him a gen- eral of brigade, and, in 1796, general of divis- ion. He distinguished himself, at the pass of Millesimo, at Lodi, at Castiglione, at Ar- eola, &c. In 1799, he was chosen member of the council of five hundred. He was intrusted by Bonaparte with the command of the army in Holland, joined Moreau, and fought with varying fortune, until the campaign was ended by the battle of Hohenlinden. In 1803, he was appointed to head the expedition against Portugal, which enterprise failed. Returning to Paris, he was named, in 1804, marshal of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honor and the next year, Duke of Castiglione. In 1805, he was in Germany, contributing to the successes of the French. Wounded in the battle of Eylau, he was forced to return to France. In 1811, he had a command in Spain. In 1813, he was engaged in the battle of Leipsic. After the success of the allies, Louis XYIII. named him a peer. In conse- quence of his speaking disrespectfully of Na- poleon after his fall, the latter, on his return from Elba, declared him a traitor, although Augereau had again acknowledged him as emperor. Augereau took no active part in affairs until the return of the king, when he resumed his seat in the chamber of peers. He died of the dropsy, June 11th, 1816. AUGSBURG, Battle of. Between the Austrians and the French, the latter com- manded b)'' Moreau, who gained a victory so decisive, that Augsburg and Munich were opened to him ; fought Aug. 24th, 1796. Mo- reau, Sept. 2d, again defeated the Austrians on the Inn, and again Sept. 7th, at Mainburg. AUGUSTINE, Bishop of Hippo, eminent among the church fathers, was born in Nu- midia, a.d. 354. In early life he was loose, roving, and sensual, but he was rescued for a higher existence by the influence of his mother, Monica, and the preaching of St. Am- brose. AVhen Hippo was menaced by the Vandals, the good bishop died in the third month of the siege, at the ripe age of seventy- six. AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St., has been sur- named the Apostle of the English. The time at which he flourished, was the reign of Ethelbert, toward the close of the sixth cen- tury. Ethclbert was then seated on the throne of Kent, to which he had succeeded on the death of his father Hermenric, about 560. After a determined struggle, he had mastered all the states of the heptarchy, with the exception of Northumberland. Ethelbert formed a matrimonial alliance with France, claiming in marriage the hand of Bertha, a Christian princess, from her father, Caribert, king of Paris. The princess, distinguished for her piety and virtue, exacted a promise from her husband that she should not be molested in the enjoyment of her religion, and that, on the contrary, she should be per- mitted to bring over to England with her a French bishop. Ethelbert, who was tenderly attached to her, made no objections, and the French bishop was received with every mark of respect. The conduct of the queen w^as such as to reflect honor on herself and the court of her husband, and excited the admiration of Ethelbert and his subjects. The king could not but perceive the salutary AUG HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 85 influence of Christianity, and was strongly- prepossessed in its favor. Pope Gi-egory the Great received the intelhgence of the favorable disposition of the king with un- feigned gladness, and dispatched a mission of forty monks, headed by Augustin, a.d. 596. Augustin found the king ready to lend a willing ear to his arguments, and displaj^ed in a striking and happy light the truth and beauty of the gospel. The king was not long in avowing his belief in the doctrines of Christianity. AYith his subjects, Augustin was no less successful ; they embraced the true religion with readiness, and crowded to baptism. It is said that Augustin baptized no fewer than ten thousand in one day. He desired to be made Archbishop of Cantei-bury, with supreme authority over all the churches in England. The pope was by no means dis- posed to refuse any of his requests, consider- ing that he had fairly earned any distinction which it was in papal power to bestow. The archiepiscopal pall was granted him, with •permission to establish twelve sees in the province. The British bishops in Wales refused to acknowledge the authority of the church of Rome, under whose jurisdiction they had never placed themselves. They were descendants of the British converts of the .second century, and sternly resolved to maintain their independence. Augustin urged, then threatened. The bishops were neither pliant nor timid, and adhered to their original determination. A dreadful tragedy was acted, twelve hundred Welsh monks being ruthlessly put to the sword. Augus- tin was suspected not only of having sanc- tioned, but of having instigated the massacre. He had been irritated by the refusal of the Welsh ecclesiastics to unite with the English church, and he thought their contumacy de- servmg of the severest punishment. He died in 604 or 614, and his relics were deposited in the Cathedral of Canterbury. AUGUSTUS, Caius Julius C^sar Octa- vius, son of Caius Octavius and Accia, niece of Julius Caesar, was born during the consul- ate of Cicero, 63 years b.c. His education was carefully attended to, and he was adopted by Julius Caesar. He was studying eloquence at Apollonia, when his grand-uncle was assas- sinated, and at nineteen years of age, placing himself at the head of the veterans, he marched to Rome, which he found distracted by the republicans and the followers of Antony and Lepidus. Here he announced publicly his adoption, and took his uncle's name. An- tony treated him with a contempt which the magistrates and leading men were far from feeling, and Octavius joined the army that was sent against Antony after his proscrip- tion. Thinking it politic, however, to con- ciliate him, he joined Antony, and they with Lepidus formed the triumvirate, which was to last for five j^ears, each enjoying an equal share of authority. Octavius sacrified Cicero to the malice of his associates, and Rome be- came the theatre of the most sanguinary tragedies. Brutus and Cassius having been defeated, a new partition of spoils took place, Octavius and Antony obtaining the Roman empire, while Lepidus was forced to content himself with the African provinces, and was finally deposed. Octavius gave his sister Octavia in marriage to Antony. The con- duct and fate of Antony have been related. [See Antony.] Octavius was soon firmly established in the empire. The senate gave him the title of Augustus, and, finding his power confirmed, he seems to have endeavored strenuously to render his conduct worthy of his dignity. He made regulations for the safe conduct of the government ; reducing the number of senators from a thousand to six hundred, and raising the degree of wealth which was to qualify them for a seat. He set about the reform of the public manners and morals, and carried his arms successfully into Gaul, Germany, and the east. In the latter part of his reign, however, he met with severe losses in Germany, when Hermann roused his enthralled countrj^men to arms. He died at Nola, a.d. 14, in the seventy- sixth year of his age, and forty-first of his reign. On the approach of death, he called for a mirror, and arranged his hair. He then asked those about him, if he had played his part well ? On their answering in the affirm- ative, he said, after the manner of the actors, " Then farewell— and applaud ! " He greatly improved the appearance of the capital, and it was said, that "he had found Rome brick, and had left it marble. ' ' He liberally patron- ized men of letters, and ,' Augustan age' is a phrase applied to any era distinguished for literature and the arts. Virgil and Horace AUG 86 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF were among the brightest ornaments of his reign. Two conspiracies formed against him miscarried, Cinna, the leader of one, being generously pardoned. The emperor's private griefs were heavy, and he suffered great misery from the debauchery of his daughter Julia. AURELIAN, Lucius Domitius, emperor of Rome, distinguished for his military talents and severity, was the son of a peasant of Illyricum, born a.d. 212, and having served with distinction under Valerian II. and Clau- dius II., was recommended as his successor by the latter, and raised to the throne to the satisfaction of all. He subdued Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, erected a new wall round Rome, and was assassinated, a.d. 275. AURENG-ZEBE (' ornament of the thi'one ') was born October 20th, 1G19. His father. Shah Jchan, succeeded to the :Mogul throne when Aureng-zebe was in his ninth year. In youth, he was distinguished by his great sanctity of appearance, and he used the arts of hypocrisy to cloak his designs. He looked forward to the possession of the throne of Hindostan, in the life-time of his father. In 1658, he seized Agra, and imprisoned his fiither. Having murdered his relatives in succession, he ascended the throne in 1659, and took the 'name of Aalem Guyr. Not- withstanding his crimes in gaining the throne, he governed with ability and success. He greatly enlarged his dominions, and became so formidable, that all the eastern princes sent him ambassadors. He died at the age of eighty-nine, bequeathing his possessions to his sons. Wars broke out immediately after his decease, and many of the conquered provinces sought their former independence. AUSTERLITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn, has been rendered famous by the battle fought in its neighborhood, on the 2d of December, 1805, in which the troops of France, under the command of Napoleon, defeated the combined forces of Russia and Austria, headed by their respective emperors. The combined troops amounted to 100,000 men, of whom one-fourth were Austrians ; while Napoleon had but 80,000, twenty bat- talions of which, with forty pieces of artillery, he kept back as a reserve. At sunrise the battle began, and shortly afterward, a most furious cannonade wrapped the combatants in fire and smoke. Two hundred pieces of cannon created an appalling uproar. At one o'clock in the afternoon, the French were vic- torious, and the Russians and Austrians retreated. The French found themselves in possession of forty stands of colors, and a hundred and fiftj^ pieces of cannon, while twenty generals, and upward of 30,000 pris- oners were taken. An artillery officer of the Russian imperial guard, having just lost his guns, met Napo- leon: "Sire," said he, "order me to be shot, fori have lost my pieces." "Young man," replied the emperor, " I appreciate your tears ; but you may have been defeated by my army and yet have indisputable claims to glory." The French artillery caused a heavy loss to the enemy, and Napoleon in noticing their exploits, said, "Your success has given me great pleasure, for I do not forget that in your ranks I commenced my military career." The soldiers called this battle the day of the three emperors, while Napoleon named it the day of Austerlitz. The commencement of the action was striking. The French empe- ror, surrounded by his marshals, in brilliant unif(fnns, refrained from giving his orders until the first rays of the sun shot a splendor on the scene, and the horizon became illumi- nated. He then issued his orders distinctly but rapidly, and the marshals parted at full gallop, each to his corps. The emperor, passing in front of several regiments, thus addressed them : "Soldiers! we must finish this campaign by a thunder-clap, which will astound our enemies and crush their pride ! " Thousands of hats waved on bayonets, and cries of " Long live the emperor," were the signals of attack. " Never," said Napoleon, "was field of battle more dreadful." On the 4th of December, Napoleon had an interview with the Emperor of Germany, in which an armistice and the principal condi- tions of peace were agi'eed upon. Meanwhile, the French troops having nearly surrounded the retreating Russians, Savarj^ Napoleon's aid-de-camp, was dispatched to the Emperor of Russia, to inform him that he could retire in safety if he adhered to the capitulation, retreating by stages regulated by Napoleon, and would evacuate Germany and Poland. "On this condition," added Savary, "lam commanded by the emperor to repair to our AUS HISTORY AND BIOGKAPHV 87 m^^^ PLACE WHERE GOLD WAS FIRST DISCOVERED IN AUSTRALIA. advanced posts, which have ah-eady turned you, and give them his orders to protect your retreat, the emperor wishing to respect the friend of the first consul." " What guar- antee must I give you V" " Sire, your word." " I give it." Orders were accordingly given, and the retreat of the Russians protected. This decisive battle led to the treaty of Presburg, by which Austria confirmed the independence of the Helvetic republic, aban- doned the Venetian territories to the king- dom of Italy, and renounced her possessions in the Tyrol and Suabia. The latter, Napo- leon transferred to the sovereigns of Bava- ria, Wurtemburg, and Baden, in reward for their aid. AUSTRALIA is the present name of a large island formerly known as New Holland, lying south-east of Asia. The Dutch discov- ered it in ICjOe. The British began the transportation of convicts to Botany Bay in 1787, and abandoned it in 1853. The dis- covery of gold has worked a startling revul- sion in Lhe condition of Australia. As early as 1841 Sir R. I. Murchison called attention to the similarity of the geological formations of the mountains of Australia to those of the Ural range in Russia, and asserted his belief that gold must exist in Australia. In 1849, a Mr. Smith informed the colonial govern- ment that he had found gold, and offered to make known the locality for a certain reward. Smith and the government could not agree upon the amount of bonus, and the matter dropped till 1851, when Mr. liar graves, who had come from gold-digging in California, also found gold, and disclosed the places. The colony was seized with a frenzy, and almost the entire population sought the golden realm. An immense emigration from Great Britain ensued, and has steadily continued The precious metal has been found in profu- sion, and to all appearance this golden garner of ages will not be exhausted for years to come. Copper, iron, lead, and coal have also been found in abundance. AUS 88 COTTACxE CYCLOPEDIA OF Australia is divided into the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and the district of North Australia. By the immigration rapidly pour- ing in, and the consequent swift development of its resources, Australia is in a transition state which precludes a detailed description. The truth to-day is far outstripped to- morrow. New South Wales, occupying the south-eastern portion, is the oldest colony. Sydney, its capital, a city on the south shore of Port Jackson, had a population of 50,000 in 1851. Bathurst, two hundred miles north- west, is a thriving town. Victoria, or Port Phillip, the most prosperous of the Australian colonies, lies between New South Wales and South Australia, and was first settled in 1835. Melbourne, its capital, is on the Yar- ra-Yarra Eiver, near the head of Port Phillip Bay. It is a spacious cit}^, the seat of ex- tensive commerce, and had a population of 100,000 in 1852. Geelong is an important port on the south-western shore of Port Phillip. The discovery of the gold-fields of New South Wales and Victoria checked for a while the growth of South Australia, but could not destroy its prosperity. Adelaide is its capital. Western Australia, or Swan River Settlement, is the least of the colonies. Perth is its seat of government. We have mentioned only the principal towns of Australia. Myriads of villages and settlements are springing from the wilderness. Eailroads are being constructed. The com- merce is an important item in the merchandis- ing of the mother country. From the fertile soil excellent crops of all the common grains are gained. Sheep and cattle are largely bred. Nearly all the vegetables of Europe are culti- vated. Australia was destitute of indigenous edible fruits, but those of almost every land and clime are successfully raised, and the grape and olive bid fair to take rank among the most valuable productions. The most unfavorable characteristics of the climate are the long droughts that prevail, apparently every ten or a dozen years, and the sudden transitions from heat to cold. In spite of these, the climate in the settled parts is com- monly delightful, and not unhealthy. AUSTRIA. The Austrian empire occupies nearly a twelfth of the surface of Europe. In its dominions are comprised, the archduchy of Austria and circle of Salzburg ; the ducliy of Styria ; the earldom of the Tyrol and ter- ritory of Voralberg ; the kingdom of Bolic- mia ; the margraviate of Moravia and Austrian Silesia; the kingdom of Illyria, comprising Cariiithia, Carniola, Trieste, and circle of Carlstadt ; the kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- meria, including the duchy of Aufschwitz and Zator and the Buckowine ; the kingdom of Hungary, with Sclavonia, Croatia, and the military frontier ; the principality of Transsyl- vania with the military frontier ; the kingdom of Dalmatia ; the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice ; and the territory of Cracow. These have an area of 255,722 square miles, and had in 1854 a population of 39,411,309. The only sea-coast which this great empire possesses is on the Adi'iatic, so that its commerce is re- stricted. Vienna, on the Danube, is the capi- tal of the empire, and the principal seat of trade and manufactures. [See Vienna.] The house of Hapsburg has been one of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence in the canton of Berne. This castle was the cradle as it were of the imperial line of Austria, whose ancestors may be traced back to the thirteenth century, when Rodolph, Count of Hapsburg, was chosen to wear the imperial diadem of Germany. He wrested the Austrian duchy from Bohemia, and confer- red its sovereignty upon his son Albert, as an appendage to the Hapsburg possessions. The house thus founded was much indebted for its rise to power, to the good fortune of suc- cessive marriages and the beauty of its daugh- ters ; whence it came to be a common saying, that "Venus was more favorable to it than Mars." Albert succeeded to the imperial crown. This monarch deputed harsh and ty- rannical governors to rule the Swiss, and, in consequence of continued oppression, that brave people revolted in 130T, headed by the famous Tell. Frederick, son of Albert, found himself forced to rehnquish the empire into the hands of Louis of Bavaria. The crowns of Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia, were united in the person of Albert II., Duke of Austria, who ascended the throne, a.d. 1438. Hungary and Bohemia were his by inherit- ance, and the empire by universal suffrage. The Emperor Maximilian, grandfather of Charles V., married the heiress of Burgundy, AUS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 89 in consequence of which aUiance, the Nether- lands were subjected to Austria in 1477. In 1496, the marriage of his son Phihp to the heiress of Castile and Arragon, led to the junction of the broad domains of Spain with the already ample territories of Austria. Charles V., desirous of retiring from public life and passing his da3^s in gloomy seclusion, resigned the crown in 1556 ; Philip II., his son, gained possession of Spain and the Neth- erlands; Ferdinand, his brother, received Austria, Bohemia, and Hungarj^, and was also chosen Emperor of Germany. The house of Austria was noted for its bigotry and cruel intolerance. In 1570, Maximilian granted liberty of conscience (a great grant in a mon- arch!) to the Protestants of Austria, but those in other portions of his dominions, par- ticularly in Bohemia, were most cruelly per- secuted. In their distress the Protestant Ger- man princes finally sought the assistance of the famous Gustavus Adolphus, King of Swe- den. This famous warrior, the "Lion of the North," as he was called, broke upo%the em- pire like a whirlwind, and its very foundations tottered beneath the shock. France, espous- ing the cau.se of the Protestants, hoped thus to weaken the power of Austria, and the coun- try experienced no release from the tumults and horrors of war, until the treaty of West- phalia was signed in 1648. The sword was idle for a time, but the war with France broke out afresh during the reign of Leopold I., and was continued under his successor. The Turks, emboldened by suc- cess, in 1688, pushed their arms into the heart of the empire, and the walls of Vienna echoed back the clangor of the oriental cymbals. The siege of Vienna by the Turks, is a memorable and impressive event. In the war of the allies with France, Joseph I., son of Leopold, joined with heart and hand, and acquired a share of their good fortune. His queen was a daugh- ter of John Frederick, Duke of Hanover. Charles VI. dying without issue, on the 20th of October, 1740, the extinction of the male line of the house of Austria was the signal for the movement of the Elector of Bavaria, to contest the succession. He seized the king- dom of Bohemia, was elected emperor in 1742, and died in 1745. Francis of Lorraine suc- ceeded to the Austrian dominions in right of his queen, Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. The throne is still occupied by his de- scendants. He was elected Emperor of Germany in 1745, and the crown, thougli nominally elective, descended to his suc- cessors with the regularity of an hereditary sovereignty. Francis II. was crowned emperor in 1792. In 1795, when the second division of Poland took place, Austria received an immense ac- cession of territory. In 1797, she relinquished to France her possessions in the Netherlands, as well as the duchies of Milan and Mantua. To compensate for this, the greater part of the Venetian states was transferred to Austria. The military power of France was so formid- able, that even the strongest sovereignties of Europe feared they should be unable to resist its encroacliments. The French threatened to attain the empire of the world by rapid strides. Involved in the wars of 1799 and 1805, Austria met with repeated defeats and continued discomfiture. After she had lost the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, Ulm and Austerlitz, her Venetian possessions, the Tyrol, and other territories were wrested from her grasp. In 1809, Austria took the field against Napoleon, but having to contend, not only against the French, but against Rus- sia, and the confederation of the Rhine, found herself defeated, and when Bonaparte entered the capital, she was compelled to relinquish again immense territories. After a hopeless inaction of some years, the failure of Napole- on's Russian expedition roused the Austrians to arms, and the subsequent success of the allied powers restored the power and splendor of the Austrian empire, which gained the ad- dition of some Italian territories. Of the sub- ject kingdoms and states of Austria, Hungary since 1563 has continued an appanage of the house of Austria ; Transsylvania came into possession of the Austrians in 1699 ; Croatia, anciently a part of Illyricum, was annexed to Austria in 1540 ; Sclavonia, also anciently a part of Illyricum, fell into the hands of the Austrians in 1687; the cro^;^^l of Bohemia passed to the house of Austria in 1526. In the eventful year of 1848, revolutions broke out in Lombardy and Venice, in Hun- gary, and in Austria proper. At first they were everywhere successful: the Austrian troops were driven back from Hungary and Italy, and the insurgents held Vienna. Hun- AUS 90 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF gary asserted its independence ; Venice united itself to Sardinia ; and this vast empire seemed rapidly falling to pieces. Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph ; a lib- eral constitution was proclaimed for a sop, in March, 18-i9, and the German subjects were satisfied or silenced. Radetzky conquered obedience in Italy, and with the assistance of Russia Hungary was crushed. In 1852 the constitution of 1849 was revoked, and the emperor now wields an absolute power. The early sovereigns of Austria will be found in the list of emperors of Germany. Francis II. surrendered the dignity of the empire, Aug. 11, 1804, and took the title of Francis I., Emperor of Austria. The Austrian emperor was one of the six leading members of the German confederation, by virtue of his sovereignt}" over certain states of Germany. This Confederation after half a century ceased to exist on the 14th of June, 1866. Early in the year trouble began between Austria and Prussia respecting the Danish Duchies, which Prussia desired for the devel- opment of her naval force. Austrian influ- ence prevailing in the German Diet it au- thorized overt measures against Prussia. The very next day, June 15th, Prussia, who had been girding herself for war, invaded Saxony. Austria counted upon her foe being as slow as herself, and relying upon her mili- tary resources, thought hers would be an easy victory. Her General Benedek arro- gantly cast disdain upon the soldiery and militaiy science of Prussia. The armies, after several small affairs, met at Gitschin on the 24th of June, and at Sadowa July 3d, in decisive conflict. The Austrians were thor- oughly routed. The battle of Sadowa will rank among the greatest of battles, there being 195,000 Austrians and Saxons, and 250,- 000 Prussians engaged. And thus, in 19 days, Austria was so thoroughly broken and humbled by her foe that she surrendered Von- etia, lost her place and provinces in Germa- ny, and her position as one of the leading continental governments. Peace negotia- tions were concluded August 2.3d, just 70 days after the decision of the Diet. EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 1804. Francis I.: died March 2d, 18S5. 1835. Ferdinand, his son March 2d: abdicated in favor of liis nephew, Dec. 2d, 1848. 1848. Francis Joseph, Dec. 2d. AZT AZORES, or Western Islands, a group of nine islands, lying in the x\tlantic, about 800 miles west of Portugal. Population in 1843, 214,300. They were discovered by the Por- tuguese, prior to 1439, and have ever since belonged to that nation. The name was given from the abundance of falcons (azores) found here. "When discovered by the Portu- guese they were void of inhabitants. In 1466 these islands were presented to the Duchess of Burgundy, by her brother, the King of Portugal. They were colonized by Germans and Flemings, who appear, however, always to have acknowledged the sovereignty of Portugal. The Azores are recognized at sea from a great distance, by Pico, a tall mountain, which, like the Peak of Teneriffe, towers far above the deep, and stands a last- ing landmark to mariners. The islands are subject to earthquakes and volcanic erup- tion, and, in 1574, St. George's, Pico, Fayal, and Terceira, although detached and distant from each other, were violently convulsed. The oceaji overflowed from the shock, which produced eighteen little islands. A similar convulsion of nature occurred in July, 1638. And after a commotion of six weeks, an island of nearly six miles in circumference, arose near St. Michael's, but was subsequently ab- sorbed. In 1720, the most horrible and tu- multuous scenes occuri-ed, and, amidst an almost unequaled combination of horrors, causing the death of many persons from fright, an island nearly as large as that of 1638, emerged from its submarine birth-place. The islands are supposed to rest on volcanic foundations, which extend to the western shores of Portugal, though the communica- tion may be in many parts obstructed. In 1811 a volcano appeared in the sea near St. Michael's, where the water was eighty fj^th- oms.deep, throwing up an island a mile in circumference. This new isle was called Sa- brina. It gradually disappeared. Fayal is frequently visited by American and European ships for provisions or refitting. AZTECS, a race supposed to have migrated from the region north of the Gulf of Califor- nia, to Mexico, where they founded the ex- tensive empire which was conquered by the Spaniards. They were possessed of knowl- edge in astronomy, architecture, sculpture, and other arts of social life, and their antiq- uities have been a puzzle for the learned. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 91 B. BAALBEC, a ruined city in Syria, forty- two miles east-north-cast of Beirut. The name signifies 'tlie city of the sun;' and accordingly by tlie Greeks and Romans it was called Heliopolis. Its origin and history are obscure. By some it is conjectured to be the Baalath reared by Solomon in Lebanon, as mentioned in the eighth chapter of the second book of Chronicles. Its ruins are magnificent. B AB YLONj a famous city of Assyria, and once the greatest in the world. Its ruins still exist on the banks of the Euphrates, near Hillah. Herodotus tells us that its walls, three hundred and fifty feet high, and eighty-seven feet thick, were cemented with bitumen, and were more than sixty miles in circuit. They had a hundred brazen gates, and two hundred and fifty towers. Nothing is left of this mighty town but rubbish and desolation, among which the recent excava- tions of Mr. Layard, Col. Rawlinson, and M. Botta, have brought to light many relics of interest. According to the Mosaic record. the Babylonian empire was founded by Nim- rod, supposed to be the Belus of profane ' history, 2245 B.C. After the destruction of Nineveh, b. c. C04, Babylon was the metropolis of the east. To this period is assigned the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, under whom the power of Babylon was extended over all the lands between Persia and Egypt. The great city was taken by Cyrus, B.C. 538, and Baby- lonia became a Persian province. Alexander the Great intended to make Babylon the cap- ital of the vast empire which he had won in war. Death forbade him, and the city never again regained its prosperity. ,JA BACHAUMONT, Francois IIeCotgj^evx DE, born at Paris, 1624, died in the same city, 1702. He was a counselor of parlia- ment, and opposed to the court party in the disturbances of 1648. He said that the members of the parliament put him in mind of the little boys that played with slings in the street, who dispersed on the appearance of a police oflBcer, but collected as soon as he was Out of sight. Pleased with this compar- ison, the enemies of Mazarin adopted hat- bands in the form of a sling (fronde), and hence were denominated Frondeurs. Ba- chaumont was distinguished for his epigrams and lively songs. BACHELORS. The Roman censors fre- quently imposed fines on unmarried men, and men of full age were compelled to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them around the altars, and put upon them various marks of disgrace. Bachelors have been taxed in England. Among the illustrious men of an- tiquity, the following eschewed matrimony : Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, Anaxag- oras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes. Their example has been followed among the modems, by Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, Sir Francis Drake, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thomson, Jeremy Bentham, and AYashington Irving. BACON, Francis, son of Sir Nicholas Ba- con, lord-keeper of the great seal, was born in London, Jan. 22d, 1561, and died in 1626. He was entered in the university of Cam- bridge, in his thirteenth year, and distin- guished himself for his early proficiency in the sciences. At sixteen he wrote against the Aristotelian philosophy, and at nineteen his work "Of the State of Europe," the fruit of a journey in France, attracted general attention from the clearness of perception and maturity of judgment which it displayed. At the age of twenty-eight, his legal reputa- tion was such that he was appointed couHsel extraordinary to the queen, a post of more honor than profit. Three years afterward he sat in parliament. Ben Jonson highly extols him as an orator. Bacon at first crouched for the favor of the Cecils, till disregarded by them, he attached himself to their rival, the Earl of Essex, who with generous ardor strove in 1594 to procure him the vacant office of attor- ney-general. Being unsuccessful, he soothed Bacon's regret with a gift of a fine estate. Yet when Essex sank into disfavor, Bacon not only abandoned him, but unnecessarily appeared as counsel against him, and with BAG 92 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP barbarous ingenuity aided greatly in bringing the unfortunate nobleman to the scaffold. Similar bju^eness stains all his public career. When first in parliament he made show of maintaining popular rights against exactions of the court Royal frowns soon brought him to his knees, and he disgraced himself by servility that was unmanly for even a courtier. He stood high in the good graces of James I., and was knighted by him in 1603. His marriage was fortunate, and he at length saw himself free from those pecu- niary embarrassments by which he had been so long shackled. In 1618 he reached the attorney-general- ship. Here he lent himself to the most arbi- trary measures of the court, and even as- sisted in an attempt to extort from an old clergyman, of the name of Peachham, a con- fession of treason, by torturing him on the rack. In 1617 he was made lord-keeper of the seals; in 161!), lord high chancellor of En- gland, and Baron Verulam, and not long afterward, VLscomit of St. Albans. He had not now the poor plea of necessity for mak- ing offices and privileges venal, yet he was charged with receiving bribes for his decisions. Rather than submit to a trial which would stamp his name with indelible disgrace, he confessed his guilt, supplicated the lenity of his peers, and begged to be dis- missed with the loss of his office. His sen- tence was severe but just. He was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, to be imprisoned in the Tower as long as the king should choose, declared incapable of office, forbidden to take his seat in parliament, or to show himself within the verge of the court. He was soon released from the Tower, but did not long survive his fall. His errors sprang more from weakness than from avarice or want of principle, for he displayed through life a strong sympathy for Virtue, if he did not have firmness enough to be fliithful to her cause. It is as a writer and philosopher that Lord Bacon is illustrious. Walpole called him the prophet of art. He examined the whole circle of the sciences. In so masterly a way did he expound the inductive method of philosophizing, that posterity has called him the father of experimental science. His B. prose is among the foremost in our tongue. He died in 1626. In his will this passage was found: "My name and memory I be- queath to foreign nations, and to mine own country after some time be passed over." BACON, RoGEK, an English monk, born at Ilchester in 1214. He made many discov- eries in the sciences, which caused him to be regarded as a sorcerer by the common people, whose prejudices were espoused by the clergj-, against whom Bacon had openly spoken. He was imprisoned in consequence of their denunciations, and at one time, kept in con- finement for ten years. He died in 1292. He had an idea of gunpowder, for he dis- tinctly says in one of his works that thunder and lightning could be imitated by means of charcoal, sulphur, and saltpetre. Like all philosophers of that day he dabbled in astrol- ogy ; he discovered the polarity of the load- stone ; he invented the camera-obscura and the magic lantern ; and he foreshadowed the invention of telescopes and spectacles, even if he did not really construct the latter. He was well versed in the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages, the last of which he wrote with facility and elegance, and although not free from many of the prejudices of his age, was altogether a very extraordinary man. Many of the old English ballads and romances contain accounts of the wonderful exploits of Friar Bacon, who is gifted with magical arts of the most tremendous nature. The "Famous Ilistorie of Fryer Bacon," toward the conclusion, informs us that Friar Bacon broke his magic glass, burned his books of the ' black art,' devoted himself to theological studies, and lived in a cell which he had excavated in a church wall. " Thus lived he two yeeres space in that cell, never coming forth : his meat and drink he received in at a window, and at that window he did dis- course with those that came to him; his grave he digged with his own nayles, and was laid there when he died." "He lived most part of his life a magician, and died a true Penitent Sinner, and an Anchorite." BACTRIANA, or Bactria, before the time of Cyrus was a powerful kingdom, and gave to the Persians their mythology and archi- tecture. It lay between the Oxus, Scythia, Mount Paropamisus, and Margiana. After the destruction of the Persian monarchy. HISTORY AND BIOGKAPHY, 93 it was held by the Parthians and Scythians, until they were expelled by the Huns. BADAJOZ, the Pax Augusta of the Ro- mans, a fortified city of Spain, on the left bank of the Guadiana, contains about 12,000 inhabitants. It is 220 miles south-west of Madrid. This important barrier fortress was besieged without success by the French under Kellerman and Victor, in 1808 and 1809. It surrendered to Soult March 11th, 1811. It was invested by Wellington March 16th, 1812, and taken by storm on the night of the 6th of April. The carnage was teiTi- ble. For two days and nights the city was sacked, British generals endeavoring in vain to check the atrocities of the infuriated sol- diers. The fall of Badajoz forced the French to a precipitate retreat from Poi'tugal. BADEN, a grand-duchy in the south-west of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, was erected into a grand-duchy in 180(3. In 1855 it had a population of 1,314,837, upon an area of 5,712 square miles. The surface of Baden is mountainous, and it contains the elevated range of the Black Forest, which derives its name from the dark tint of its foliage. The capital of the duchy is Karls- ruhe, population 23,219. Freiburg has a population of about 16,000. Its cathedral, built in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, is perhaps the most beautiful and perfect spe- cimen of Gothic architecture in Germany. The university of Freiburg, founded in 1454, is famous as a school of Catholic theology. Mannheim, at the junction of the Neckarand the Rhine, has 25,000 inhabitants. The an- cient city of Heidelberg stands on a narrow ledge between wooded vine-clad hills and the left bank of the Neckar, having about 16,000 inhabitants. It is famous for its Protestant university, founded in 1386, and the oldest in Germany, except that of Prague. In 1850 there were seventy-one professors and teach- ers, and six hundred and three students. On a hill overlooking the town is the vast ruin of the castle where once the electors palatine held their court. Here In a damp vault moulders the great tun that once was kept full with eight hundred hogsheads of best Rhenish wine. In a picturesque valley, twenty -three miles south-west of Karlsruhe, lies Baden-Baden ; population 6,000. These spri'g^ wore a resort for the Romans. In some late years the number of visitors has exceeded 14,000. The well-known gaming tables of this glittering haunt are farmed by the grand-duke, and thence he derives a handsome slice of his income. The Catholic and Protestant faiths are each sanctioned by the state, and full liberty of conscience and private worship prevails. The sovereign must be a Protestant. Ex- ecutive and judicial powers are vested in the grand-duke and a ministry of state ; the legis- lative powers are shared by the sovereign with an upper and lower chamber. In 1848 Hecker and Struve headed an attempt to establish a republic in Baden. The grand- duke fled fi'om his throne, but was restored by Prussian bayonets in 1849. BAERT, or Earth, John, was born at Dun- kirk, 1651. He was the son of a poor fisher- man, but his bravery and talents raised him to the rank of commodore in the reign of Louis XIV., whose navy he greatly impi-oved. The Dutch, English, and Spanish called him the French devil. " I have made you a com- modore,' was the king's annunciation of hi>» promotion to Jean Baert, at Versailles- "Your majesty has done well," replied th(? sturdy seaman- The courtiers tittered. " I^ is the reply," sa?d Louis, "of a man who knows his own wortb." He received a paten*^ of nobility for one of hi'' p-aval exploits, anc^ died in 1702. BAFFIN, "William, an Engli'^h navigator of the seventeenth century, was th^ fi^rst to determine longitude at sea by observations of the heavenly bodies. In 1616 he discovered and explored the bay which bears his name. He was killed near Ormuz in 1621, while en- gaged in an expedition against the Portuguese. BAGDAD, a large city of Asiatic Turkey, contains about 60,000 inhabitants. It lies on the east bank of the Tigris, over which a bridge is thrown. The city is surrounded by a brick wall ; the houses are of brick, and but one story high, and the unpaved streets so narrow as to admit of two horsemen abreast with difficulty. The palace of the pacha forms a contrast to the other buildings of the city, being spacious and splendid. Eu- ropean manufactures, as well as the produc- tions of India, Arabia, and Persia, find a sale here, and the thronged bazaars present a brill- iant and animated appearance. From Bag- BAG 94 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF dad, East Indian goods were formerly supplied to Asia Minor, Syria, and part of Europe, but of late its traffic has declined. The popula- tion consists of Turks, Persians, Armenians, and a small number of Christians and Jews. The ancient city, founded in 762, by the Ca- liph Abu Giafar Almanzor, once the residence of the caliphs, and containing 2,000,000 m- habitants, is now in ruins. The prosperity of this city completed the ruin of the neighboring city of Babylon. It was twice taken by the Turks and Tartars, and nearly destroyed. In j 1638, it was taken by Amurath IV., after a memorable siege, and the greater part of the i inhabitants were butchered in cold blood. In the eighteenth century, Nadir Shah was de- feated in an attempt to take it. BAHAMAS, or Lucaya Islands, are near the coast of Florida, in the Atlantic Ocean. : The soil of the islands is rich, but thin, and i soon exhausted. A large portion of the resi- ! dents are descendants of the loyalists who emigrated from Carolina and Georgia when ; the roj^al cause was lost in America. The ' wreckers, a large class of the population, are : hardy mariners, employed in assisting ship- ; wrecked vessels. They display admirable ' skill and courage in the working of their small flat-bottomed sloops, in which they fre- quent the most dangerous places, receiving legal salvage on all rescued property. They are licensed by the government. These islands were discovered by Columbus, Oct. 12th, 1492, St. Salvador being the first land he saw. In 1667, Charles II. of England granted the Bahamas to the Duke of Albe- marle and others. The first settlement was made on New Providence, one of the largest of the group. The settlers suffered severely from the ravages of pirates and the inroads of the Spaniards. Black-beard, the noted leader of the buccaneers, was killed off here in 1718. The town of Nassau on New Prov- idence was fortified in 1740. Nassau was taken by the Americans during the Revolu- tion, but was soon abandoned- Afterward the whole group was held by the Spaniards, but was regained by the English. Turk's Islands are well known for their salt. The entire population of the Bahamas in 1845 was 26,500: deducting Caicos and Turk's Islands (since set off under a separate B government), it was 22,841, which in 1857 had increased to 27,519. BAI.^, a town of Campania, a favorite re- sort of the ancient Romans, many of whom had country-seats here. Its sheltered bay. breezy hills, and baths gave it a high reputa- tion, but the dissoluteness practiced here was so notorious and infamous, that Cicero, in his defense of M. Coelius, thought it necessary to apologize for defending a j'ouhg man who had lived at JJaise. BAILLIE, Joanna, born in 1762, was the daughter of the parish minister of Bothwell in Lanarkshire, Scotland. Her mother was sis- ter of John Hunter, the great anatomist. Her brother, who became Sir Matthew Baillie, having settled as a physician in London, she removed thither at an early age, and resided either in London or its vicinage, till her death in 1851. She published several volumes of dramas and minor poems. BAINBRIDGE, William, a distinguished commodore in the American navy, was born at Princeton, N. J., on the 7th of May, 1774. He died at Philadelphia, July 27th, 1833. BAJAZET I.. Sultan of the Turks, son of Amurath, whom he succeeded in 1389. By strangling his brother and rival, Jacob, he established a precedent which has since been frequently followed by the Turkish court. The rapidity of his conquests gained him the name of Ilderim, ' lightning.' He carried his conquering arms far into Europe and Asia, and on the 28th of September, 1895, defeated the array of Hungarians, Poles, and French, who were headed by Sigismund, King of Hungary. In 1402, he was defeated near Ancyra, in Galatia, by Tamerlane, and was himself taken prisoner, and treated with great courtesy by the conqueror. The story of his being confined and carried about in an iron cage, is deemed unworthy of belief He died in the camp of Tamerlane in 1403. BAJAZET IL, son of Mohammed IL,» Sul- tan of the Turks, succeeded his father in 1481. He extended his empire, gained some Grecian towns from the Venetians, and by ravaging Christian states, sought to avenge the expul- sion of the Moors by the Spaniards. He fi- nally resigned his throne to his rebellious son Selim, by whose order, it is supposed, he was murdered in 1512. \J HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, was born in 1475. He was one of the numerous adven- turers who sought to retrieve their fortunes, by following up in the New World the discov- eries which Columbus had commenced. He formed a colony on the isthmus of Darien. An Indian, who was the scornful witness of a dispute between two of Balboa's companions about some gold, agreed to show him a coun- try where the precious metals might be ob- tained in abundance. He led Balboa to the fe'hores of the Pacific, and pointed the path to Peru. Considering his force of a hundred and fifty men too feeble to attempt the con- quest, Balboa took possession of the vast ocean that rolled before him in the name of the Spanish king, and after an absence of four months led back his followers to the colony, enriched with gold and pearls. Hftre he was required to obey a new governor, Pendrarias Davila, who held a royal commission. He was appointed, the ensuing year, viceroy of the South Sea, but seized by Davila, on pre- text of neglect of duty, tried, condemned, and beheaded in 1517. BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Cri- mea, with a fine harbor, ten miles south-east from Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the aUies advanced upon this place, Sept. 26th, 1854. Oct. 25th following, 12,000 Russians, commanded by Gen. Liprandi, captured some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been in- trusted to a scanty force of Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whose heavy cavalry they were compelled to retire. After this, from a disastrous misconception of Lord Raglan's order. Lord Lucan ordered the Earl of Cardigan with the light brigade to charge upon the Russioiis, who had formed again on their own ground with their artillery in front. This desperate gallop into the jaws of death was at once made, and great havoc dealt upon the enemy ; but out of 607 British horsemen only 198 returned. A sortie from the garri- son of Sebastopol led to another desperate en- gagement here on the night of March 22d, 1855, in which the Russians were repulsed with a loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, the allies losing about 600. BALDWIN. There were five kings of Je- rusalem of this name. Baldwin I. succeeded his brother Godfrey Bouillon, 1100, and died 1118. The second reigned from 1118 till his death in 1131. He founded the order of Templars. BAM)wiN III., king from 1143 to 1162, was one of the bravest and most honor- able of the crusaders. The Christians pos- sessed territories of vast extent, but the vas- sals of Baldwin were divided by dissensions among themselves this was also the case with their adversaries, although the latter warred with more*uccess. The reign of Baldwin was unhappy, and convinced the Christians of the impossibility of establishing Christian chivalry in the east. When Nou- reddin, his valiant and proud opponent, was counseled to fall upon the Christians during the funeral of their leader, he answered: "No! Let us respect their grief, for they have lost a king whose like is rarely to be met with." BALIOL, John, was a claimant for the Scottish crown on the death of Queen Marga- ret. Edward III., being made arljiter, award- ed it to Baliol against Robert Bruce. Baliol afterward allied himself with France, and took up arms in consequence of the interference of the English king in his government, but was defeated at the battle of Dunbar, andconsigned to the Tower, whence he was liberated by the intercession of the pope. He died on his es- tate in France, 1314. His son Edward after- ward gained the crown, but finally resigned it to Edward IIL of England. BALK, or Balkan, anciently H^mus, a chain of rugged mountains, extending from the Black Sea, in European Turkey, to the Adriatic. The summit of Orbelus, the high- est peak, is 9,000 feet above the surface of the sea. The passage of the Balkan by a hostile army was deemed impracticable till effected by the Russians under Diebitsch, whose march through the mountains m July, 1829, was a memorable achievement in the war then pend- ing between Russia and Turkey. Its conse- quence was an armistice, and this was followed by a trcafr of peace in September. BALLOONS. From the earliest ages men have longed to mount into the air and rival the easy flight of the birds. The first balloons on record were made in France by the broth- ers Montgolfier, and the first ascent made by M. Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes at Pa- ris, Nov. 28d, 1782. The elevating power of the Montgolfier balloon was air rarefied by fire. M. Rozier and M. Romain perished in BAL d'o COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF TIIL LALLOOIS. an attempted voyage from Boulogne to Eng- land, the balloon having taken fire, June 14th, 1785. Hydrogen balloons were successfully used soon after the Montgolfier. The para- chute was invented by Blan chard, in 1784. At the battle of Flcurus, June 17th, 1794, the French used a balloon to reconnoitre the op- posing army. In 1802, Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of four thousand feet, and descended safely by a parachute. Gay Lussac ascended at Paris. to the height of twenty-three thousand feet, Sept. 21st, 1802. The first ascent in England was by Sig. Lu- nardi, from Moorfields, Sept. 15th, 1784. Blanchard and Jeffries crossed from Dover to Calais in 1785. The first experiments with balloons in this country, were made by Dr. Rittenhouse and Francis Hopkinson, in De- cember, 1783. They connected several small balloons together, and thus enabled a man to ascend to the height of one hundred feet, and to float to a considerable distance. Afterward an ascent was made by Blanchard, at Phila- delphia, January 9th, 1793. Attempts to steer the balloon have proved futile, and it is now a mere toy. Its history is darkly marked with risk and loss of life. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night in the midst of fireworks, from which her balloon caught fire, and she was dashed to the ground and killed, July 6th, 1819. An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, Sept. 14th, 1851 ; his shattered corpse was found on the shore of a contiguous island. Mr, Arnold ascended near London, and was ducked in the Thames ; Major Money went up from Norwich and fell into the North Sea, but was saved by a revenue cutter ; Sadler, a vet- eran in the air, fell into the sea near Holy- head, but was picked up, Oct. 9th, 1812. A large balloon was sent up from London on an experimental voyage, having three persons in the car, and after being in the air eighteen hours, descended at Wielburg in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7th, 1836. The navigation of the air has ever been a favorite scheme, and artificial flying has been attempted in all ages. The fable of the waxen BAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 9" wings of Daedalus and his unlucky son Icarus, is familiar to all. Its interpretation is found in the tradition that Dsedalus invented sails for ships. Friar Roger Bacon maintained the possibility of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a general practice. Dr. Wilkins (brother-in-law of Cromwell, and Bishop of Chester), amused himself with dreaming of a voyage to the moon, and said it would yet be as usual to hear a man call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots. BALZAC, HoNORE de, a brilliant French novelist, born at Tours about 1799, and died at Paris, in August, 1850. BANCA, an island off the north coast of Sumatra; area 7,5.33 square miles; population in 1849, 43,000 ; since 1816 in the possession of the Dutch. Tin mines were discovered here in 1810, and their stores of ore seem in- exhaustible. BANKS. The first bankers were the Lombard Jews in Italy about 808, of whom some settled in Lombard street, London, where many bankers now do business. The mint in the Tower of London was used by merchants to lodge their money in, till Charles I. made free with it in 1 640 ; after which they trusted to servants, till too many of these ran to the army ; they then lodged it with the goldsmiths in Lombard street, whose business it was to buy and sell plate, and foreign coins. These at first paid four- pence per cent, per diem, but lent it to others at a higher interest, and so became the first bankers in England, 1645. The Bank of England was first incorpo- rated in 1694, in consideration of £1,200,000, then the amount of its capital, being lent to the government. It suspended specie pay- ments fi-om 1797 to 1817. In the United States, banks were com- menced in the early part of the Revolution- ary war ; the first by a number of gentlemen in Philadelphia, June 17th, 1780, with a cap- ital of $839,160; instituted for the purpose of supplying the American army with pro- visions. Bank of North America, at Phila- delphia, incorporated by Congress, Dec. 31st, 1781 ; the Massachusetts Bank, the first at Boston, began in 1784, and the Bank of New York commenced the same year. The Bank of the United States was in- corporated March 2d, 1791, with a cap- ital of $10,000,000, the government holding $2,000, 000. Its charter expired March 11th, 1811, and was not renewed; but the finan- cial burdens of the ensuing war with Great Britain, induced the creation of a similar in- stitution, the United States Bank, with a capital of $35,000,000. This was chartered for twenty years in April, 1816, with power to form branches, and went into operation at Philadelphia, Jan. 1st, 1817. The United States deposites, $9,868,435, were removed from it by Gen. Jackson, at the close of 1833, and at the expiration of the charter in 1836, Congress declined to renew it. A bank under the same name and with the same amount of capital was chartered by Pennsyl- vania, and continued in operation several years. BANKS, Sir Joseph, bart., a celebrated botanist and traveler, was born in London in 1743, and died in 1820. Inheriting at an early age an ample fortune, his love of botany led him to visit lands at that time little known to naturalists. He made a voyage to New- foundland and the coast of Labrador ; he accompanied Capt. Cook to the South Seas ; he visited the coasts of Scotland, and spent some time in Iceland. He made a vast col- lection of objects in natural science, and introduced many valuable species of plants and trees into Britain. In 1771 he was elected president of the Royal Society, over which he presided till his death. Soon after- ward he was created a baronet. With George IIL, who was fond of botany and agriculture, he was a great favorite. He was a generous patron of science and scientific men, both in England and abroad. BANNOCKBURN, a village in Scotland about three miles sovith-east from Stirling, Here was the field where the king of England had to flee before peasants ennobled by the struggle for freedom. The battle was fought June 24th, 1314. The English army consisted of 100,000 men under Edward IL, 52,000 of whom were archers, and the Scottish army of only 30,000, commanded by Robert Bruce. The Scottish leader had selected the ground of Bannockburn to meet his enemies, because on its rugged and broken surface his light- armed troops could better encounter the heavy men-at-arms of the English, He strength- BAN 98 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF ened his position among the morasses that lined the burn of Bannock by digging pits close together. These were slightly covered with brush and sods, so as not to be seen by an impetuous enemy. The English floun- dered into them, and while they were in confusion, the trembling scale of battle was turned by the sudden appearance of Bruce's camp-followers, on an upland behind the Scottish force. The wavering English, think- ing them an army of reserve, fled in utter rout. Edward barely escaped capture. His loss is estimated at upward of 30,000 men, and 700 barons and knights. When the son of James III. (afterward the clever and popular James IV., who fell at Flodden), was in rebellion, a fight occurred between the king's forces and those of the insurgent son, about a mile from Bannock- burn. King James, who was a weak man, was bade by some of his followers to see to his own safety, and all clad in burnished armor he galloped along an unfrequented road. The mill still stands whence issued a woman to draw water. Alarmed by the startling apparition of a knight in full armor, she dropped her pitcher and fled into the mill. She, in turn, had scared the king's horse, which fell, and smothered in his heavy armor the bruised monarch lay as if dead. He was carried into the mill, and put upon a bed. Abjectly depressed and fearing imme- diate death, he told the people of the mill that he was the king, and prayed for a confessor. Thereupon a woman ran abroad, calling fran- tically for a priest to come and shrive the king. FriencLs and enemies soon gathered round. A man clothed in a dark mantle, like an ecclesiastic, said, "I am a priest," and followed the woman into the house. Bend- ing down over the king as if to receive the whispered confession, he stabbed him over and over again, and vanished as mysteriously as he had come. The people of the mill had only the word of the man killed on their bed that he was their king. There was a mystery over the whole affair, and all that is abso- lutely known is that James III. was never seen again. The miller, apparently not know- ing what to do with the body, cast it forth by the wayside. Thence it was borne to the gray abbey of Cambuskenneth, whose monks bestowed upon; it royal obsequies. BANQUO, Thane of Lochabcr, from whom the royal house of Stuart was descended. He was murdered by Macbeth about 1046. BARBADOES, the most eastern of the Caribbean Islands, was discovered by the Portuguese, but belongs to the English, who planted here their first settlement in these seas, in 1605. Longitude 59° 41' W., lat. 13° 5' N. It is fifteen miles long, and ten broad, containing an area of 106,500 acres. Popula- tion, 135,939. The climate is hot, but the air uncommonly salubrious; though hurri- canes are unhappily not unfrequent. The soil is various and fertile, and greatly undu- lating. Bridgetown is the capital of the island. Barbadoes has often been sorely visited by tremendovis hurricanes and sweep- ing conflagrations, and in 1854 the cholera carried off nearly seventeen thousand persons. BARBARY STATES, are Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, and lie on the northern coast of Africa, extending westerly from Egypt to the Atlantic. The snow-capped Atlas range intersects them almost from east to west. The tract south of the mountains extending to the great desert, is sandy and unproductive of any fruit but dates. Be- tween the mountains and the Mediterranean lie fertile tracts, of which the climate is salubrious, the sea air tempering the heat, which is, however, of a degree to permit the growth of vegetation in April and May. Bar- ley', wheat, figs, grapes, olives, oranges, pomegranates, melons, cj'press, cedar, and almond trees, spring from the luxuriant soil. The sugar-cane, palm-tree, and lotus are abundant; and, in the early part of the spring, the country is bright and fragrant with roses, from which the purest attar is obtained. The domestic animals are valuable, and wild ones are found in abundance. Among the minerals of the mountains, are silver, copper, iron, lead, and antimony. Salt is abundant. The commerce between these and the Euro- pean states on the Mediterranean, is by no means inconsiderable. In antiquity, the countries now composing the Barbary States, were distinguished for the activity of the inhabitants in commercial pursuits. The Carthaginians were the most wealthy and enterprising of the possessors of these places, but the Romans, Vandals, and Saracens did not permit commerce to be prostrated. Now, BAR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 99 a country capable of sixty millions of inhab- itants, contains barely ten millions and a half. The patriotism of the Carthaginians induced them to labor for the promotion of the best interests of their country, but their power could not stand against that of a nation of victorious and hardy warriors. The Romans endeavored to make the most of their con- quered provinces, and the vast influx of wealth, which conquest poured in upon them, subdued that stern spirit of temperance which had carried their banners in triumph through the troubled tide of war. Then came the Vandals and Saracens, who endeav- ored to render the possessions they wrested from the Romans as available as possible. The present population of the Barbary States, is composed of Moors, Jews, who carry on the greater part of the business done here, Turks, and Arabs. The last are the descend- ants of the Saracenic conquerors of the coun- try. Their habits are migratory, and they dwell in tents, ten or a hundred ilunilies gathering together, each family being under the government of a sheikh. They are gen- erally at war with the Berbers, the descend- ants of the original inhabitants of the country. On these, and on the Turkish collectors of tribute, the Arabs wage war, and, when their hands are not full of personal quarrels, enter the service of any chieftain who may require them. The Moors are Moslems, indolent, unsociable, luxurious, superstitious, and un- cultivated. They treat the Jews, whom they despise and hate, with great harshness. In addition to the races above enumerated, there are many negroes in Barbary. BARCELONA, capital of Catalonia, and one of the largest cities in Spain, contains 140,000 inhabitants. It is built in the form of a crescent, and stands on the shores of the Mediterranean. The harbor is commodious, but rather difficult of access. In the middle ages, Barcelona was one of the most flourish- ing ports of Europe ; its trade has dwindled to a trifle. Its citadel, built in 1714, has a secret connection with the fort of San Carlos ; and it may be considered as a strongly forti- fied place. Until the twelfth century, Barce- lona was under the government of its own counts, afterward united with the kingdom of Arragon, but withdrew and united to the French crown in 1640. In 1652, it again submitted to the Spanish government, but was taken by the French in 1697. Its resto- ration was made at the peace of Ryswick. In the war of succession Barcelona adhered to the Archduke of Austria. It is famous for the resolute, but unavailing defense it made against the troops of Philip V., under the command of the Duke of Berwick, in 1714, when the sufferings of the inhabitants were unparalleled. In 1809, it was taken by the French, and remained in their power until 1814. In 1821, the yellow fever committed great ravages in it. The candor of a Barce- lona galley-slave, is brought to remembrance on seeing the name of this city. The Duke of Ossuna, as he passed by Barcelona, having obtained leave from the king to release some slaves, went on board the galley, and, pass- ing through the benches of slaves at the oar, asked several of them what their offenses were. Every one excused himself; one say- ing he was put there out of malice ; another by the bribery of the judge ; but all of them unjustly. Among the rest was a little sturdy fellow ; and the duke asked him what he was there for? "Sir," said he, "lean not deny that I am justly sent here ; for I wanted money, and so I took a purse from the high- way to keep me from starving." Upon this, the duke struck him gently with a little stick he had in his hand, saying, "You rogue, what do you do among so many honest men ? Get you gone out of their company." BARCLAY, Robert (the celebrated Apolo- gist for the Quakers), was born in 1648, at Gordonstown, county of Moray, Scotland, of an ancient and honorable family. The unset- tled state of affairs induced his father to send him abroad, and he received the greater part of his education at Paris, under the guidance of his uncle, who was rector in the Scots college. His parents, fearful lest he might be perverted to Romanism, called him home. An accomplished scholar, and of great natu- ral abilities, he rapidly rose to distinction. His family having become Quakers, he did likewise, and vaUantly combated the violent prejudices against the sect, by several trea- tises in defense of its tenets. He was enthu- siastic in his faith, and in 1776 accompanied William Penn in a tour of propagandism through England, Holland, and Germany. While at Amsterdam, he published his great BAR 100 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP work on which he had been long engaged : '' An Apology for the true Christian Divinity, as the same is preached and held forth by tlie people in scorn called Quakers." The original was in Latin, but it was speedily translated into most of the languages of Europe, and widely spread the author's rep- utation. On his return to Scotland he suf- fered severely from the cruelties practiced on the nonconformists. Latterly he was smiled on by Charles II. and James II. Through the royal favor he received a com- mission as governor of East Jersey, America, for life. On a visit to his native land in 1690, he was seized with fever, and died among his kinsmen at Ury in Aberdeenshire. BARCLAY DE TOLLY, field-marshal of Russia, born 1755 ; director of the war against Napoleon in 1810; commander of the Rus- sians at the battle of Leipzig 1812, and in France 1815 ; died 1818. BARDS. The Bards, among Celtic nations, in battle, raised the war-cry of their people, and in peace, sang the exploits of their war- riors. They appear to have acted, as the heralds, legislators, and priests of the free Celtic tribes of Europe, until the gradual progress of southern despotism and civiliza- tion di-ove them into the strongholds of the Welsh, Irish, and Scotch mountains, which echoed to the wild notes of their harps and i patriotic songs. Their music and poetry kept alive the spark of national patriotism and enthusiasm, and inspired a stern resistance to the attacks of despotism. Hence Edward I. of England caused the Welsh bards to be slain, as the instigators of sedition. Ossian flourished in the Highlands in the third cen- tury ; Merlin in the fifth. The poems of Ossian were gathered and translated by Mac- pherson, who was suspected of being their author. Of these poems, Bonaparte was passionately fond, and the influence they ex- erted upon his style, may be traced in many of his declamatory harangues. BAREBONES, Pkaise God, a fanatical leather seller, by whom one of Cromwell's parliaments gained the nickname of 'Bare- bones Parliament.' BARLOW, Joel, was born at Reading, Conn., about 1755. He was educated at Dartmouth and Yale Colleges, where he dis- tinguished himself by his poetical talent. In the college vacations he served as a volunteer, and was present at the battle of White Plains. His first publication was a collection of minor pieces called "American Poems." After leaving college, he commenced the study of law, but afterward became a chaplain in the American army. His patriotic lays are said to have exerted an animating influence upon his countrymen. His " Vision of Columbus," which was afterward expanded into "The Columbiad," met with a flattering reception, both in America and England. The first edition was printed in 1787. About this time, in pursuance of the request of the gen- eral association of the clergy of Connecticut, he revised the psalms and hymns of Dr. Watts. To fm-ther the sale of these works, he be- came a bookseller, at Hartford, but soon quitted the business. In Europe, whither he went to effect the sale of lands in Ohio, he made himself conspicuous by the publication of prose and poetical works of a political nature. He was in France at the outbreak of the revolution and •was intimate with the- Girondist leaders. He also found time to write a mock heroic poem, in three cantos, called "Hasty Pudding," doubtless the hap- piest of his efforts. In 1795, he was ap- pointed American consul at Algiers, con- cluded a treaty of peace with the dey, and procured the liberation of all American citi- zens who were held as slaves within that territory. By the conclusion of a similar treaty at Tripoli, he was enabled to redeem and send home all the American prisoners found there. In 1797, he returned to Pa- ris, where, by commercial speculations, he amassed a very considerable fortune. In Paris, he lived in sumptuous style, and lost no opportunity of serving his countrymen. When the rupture between America and France took place, on account of the mari- time spoliations of the latter, he endeavored to adjust the differences between them. After an absence of nearly seventeen years, he returned to his country earlj^ in the year ■ 1805. In 1808, appeared his " Columbiad," a splendid volume, ornamented with engrav- ings by London artists. It was so expensive a work that but few copies were sold. In 1811, Barlow was appointed minister pleni- potentiary to the French government. In 1812, while repairing to Wilna, in order to BAR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 101 have a conference with the Emperor Napo- leon, he died of an inflammation of the Imigs, Dec. 22d, at Zarnawica, an obscure Pohsh village, near Cracow. BARNEVELDT, John d'Olden, grand- pensionary of Holland, born 1547, became one of the greatest diplomatists of his age, but by adopting the opinions of Arminius, was involved in the religious controversies which then distracted his country. By his influence in great part, Spain, in 1609, ac- knowledged the independence of the seven united provinces. Under fi'ivolous charges he was beheaded in 1619. BARNEY, JosuuA, was born at Baltimore, July 6th, 1759. He was put into a retail shop at an early age, but manifesting a dislike for that employment, went to sea. At sixteen years of age, the illness of the captain and discharge of the mate of a vessel on board of which he was, put him in command of her, a station which he retained for eight months. At the commencement of the Revolution, he espoused the cause of the colonies, and was made master's-mate on board the Hornet sloop- of-war, Capt. William Stone. In 1775, the Hornet was concerned with Hopkins' fleet, in the capture of New Providence, one of the Bahama Islands. In 1776, in consequence of his conduct in the engagement between the American schooner Wasp and the English brig Tender, which was captured under the guns of two hostile vessels, he was presented vyith a lieutenant's commission, being then not seventeen years of age. Soon afterward, he became lieutenant of the Sachem, and as- sisted in the capture of an English brig, after a severe engagement. Being placed on board of a captured vessel as prize-master, Barney was taken, on his return from the West In- dies, by the Perseus, but prisoners were ex- changed in Charleston, S. 0. In 1777, Bar- ney was on board the Andrew "Doria, and as- sisted in the defense of the Delaware. Having been ordered to Baltimore, to join the Virginia frigate, Capt. Nicholson, his vessel was run ashore by the pilot, and taken by the British. Barney was exchanged in 1778, but while commanding a small schooner, was again taken in Chesapeake Bay. In November, 1778, he sailed with Capt. Robinson in a ship from Alexandria, with a letter of marque. They arrived at Bordeaux, after a warm action with the Rosebud, shipped eighteen guns and sev- enty men, and took on board a cargo of brandy. On their return, they captured a valuable prize. Barney reached Philadelphia in Octo- ber, 1779. In the following year, he married Miss Bedford, and, a month afterward, was robbed of his whole fortune, on the road to Baltimore. Saj^ing nothing of his misfortune, he returned to Philadelphia, and served on board the United States ship Saratoga, sixteen guns, Capt. Young. He was taken prisoner and sent to England, escaped, was retaken, again escaped, and reached Philadelphia, March, 1782. Soon after, he received from the state of Pennsylvania the command of the Hyder Aly, a ship of sixteen guns. With a loss of four killed and eleven wounded, the Hyder Aly captured the ship General Monk, twenty guns, after an action of twenty-six minutes. On board the captured vessel were thirty killed and fifty-three wounded, fifteen out of sixteen officers being either killed or wounded. For this exploit Barney was presented with a sword by the legislature of Pennsylvania. The General Monk having been purchased by the United States, Barney was put in com- mand of her, and sailed for France with sealed dispatches for Doctor Franklin, in November, 1782. He returned to America, after having been favorably received at the French court, with a large loan from the French king, a passport from the king of England, and assur- ances that the preliminaries of peace were signed. Barney then served in the French navy from 1795 till 1800, when, resigning the command of a French squadron, he returned to America. In 1812, on the breaking out of the war between England and the United States, he commanded the flotilla designed for the defense of the Chesapeake. He set out for Bladensburg, with a small force of marines and five pieces of artillery, in July, 1814, but found the Americans in full retreat. Notwith- standing, he made a most gallant opposition to the enemy, was wounded in the thigh, and taken prisoner. He received a sword from the corporation of Washington, and a vote of thanks from the legislature of Georgia for his gallant conduct. In 1815, he was intrusted with a mission to Europe. Commodore Bar- BAR 102 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP ney died at Pittsburg, in 1818, while on his way to Kentucky, whither he had resolved to emigrate. BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump because nature abhorred a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, in 1643. Descartes ex- plaihed the phenomena. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695 ; marine in lYOO. BARRAS, Paul Francis, Count de, was born about 1755, of a noble family of Provence, of whom it was proverbial to say, " Noble as the Barrases, old as the rocks." After a some- what adventurous youth he returned from the East Indies to France, dissipated and reckless, ready to share in the troubles of 1T89. He was one of the Jacobin club ; and as a mem- ber of the convention in 1792 he voted for the king's death, and declared against the Giron- dins. In 1793, he was sent to the south of France, in command of the left wing of the army besieging Toulon, and there became ac- quainted with Napoleon, then a captain of ar- tillery. He did not participate in the savage excesses of the revolutionists, and it was only his popularity that saved him from Robes- pierre. At the close of the reign of terror he was foremost in effecting Robespierre's down- fall. He was appointed general-in-chief, called in Bonaparte to suppress revolt, and when the directory was established, Barras was a member of it. For a while he had great power, but the directory waned, and was sup- planted by the consulate. Barras died in re- tirement, Jan. 29th, 1829. BARRfcRE DE VIEUZAC, Bertrand (1755-1841), styled by Burke, "theAnacreon of the guillotine," was a conspicuous character in the French revolution, and a colleague of Robespierre, Danton, &c. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., saying, " The tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants." BARROSA, or Barossa, Battle of, a long conflict in the Peninsular war, between the British array under Major-General Graham (afterward Lord Lynedoch) and the French under Marshal Victor, March 5th, 1811. The British at last forced the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3,000 dead. The loss of the victors was 1,169 killed and wounded. BARROW, Isaac, D.D., an eminent Eng- lish divine and mathematician, was born in London in 1650, and died in 1677. He was the predecessor of Newton as Lucasian pro- fessor of mathematics at Cambridge. His sermons are still held in high estimation. Charles II. called him " an unfair preacher, because he exhausted every subject and left nothing for others to say after him." BARRY, John, the first naval ofiicer that held the rank of commodore in the service of the United States, was born in the county of AVexford, Ireland, in 1745. His father was a respectable former, and made no opposition to his son's wish to lead a seafaring life. Barry acquired a good practical education, and was between fourteen and fifteen years of age, when he came to the country of his adoption. The experience which he had gained in the merchant service, and the naval skill which he displayed, procured for him a commission in the continental navy on the breaking out of hostilities with Great Britain. He was ap- pointed commander of the brig Lexington, sixteen guns, in February, 1776. After cruis- ing with success, he was transferred in the same year, to the frigate Effingham, at Phila- delphia, but the ice in the Delaware preventing immediate operations, Barry served on shore as aid-de-camp to General Cadwalader, and was present at the occurrences near Trenton. While the American vessels were shut up near Whitehill, he conceived the daring plan of descending the river in boats and capturing the supplies sent to the enemy. He succeeded in taking not only a valuable stock of provi- sions, but military stores, for which exploit he received the thanks of Washington. After the loss of his frigate, he was appointed to command the Raleigh of thirty-two guns, but ran her on shore in Penobscot Bay, on being chased by a large squadron. In February, 1781, he was in command of the Alliance, a frigate of thirty-six guns, and sailed from Bos- ton, for L' Orient with Colonel Laurens and suite, on an embassy of importance to the court of Paris. After having taken several prizes, he was severely wounded in the action with the ship Atalanta, and her consort the brig Trepasa, which were taken after an en- BAR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 103 gagement of several hours. Throughout the war, Commodore Barry behaved with gallant- ry, and on the termination of hostilities he was appointed to superintend the building of the frigate United States, which he was to command. In the short naval war with France, Barry was of great service to this country, and he remained in command of the United States till she was laid up in ordinary. He died Sept. 13th, 1803, with the reputation of a virtuous, brave, and talented man. BARRY, Marie Jeanne de Vaubernier, Countess du, was in early life a milliner, then a courtesan, and in 1759 succeeded Madame Pompadour as mistress of Louis XV. She was corrupt, even for that age of harlotry. Louis XVL sent her into retirement. She died under the guillotine in 1793, at the age of forty -nine, uttering on her way to the scaf- fold piteous cries for mercy. BARTHELEMY, John James, an eminent French writer, author of "The Travels of the Younger Anacharsis," born at Cassis in Pro- vence, 1716, died April 30th, 1795. BARTHOLOMEW, St., martyred Aug. 24th, A.D. 71. The festival was instituted in 1130. The horrid massacre of Bartholomew's day was perpetrated on the Huguenots of Paris, by the Catholic faction, during the reign of Charles IX., in 1572, according to secret orders from the king at $he instigation of Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The mas- sacre extended throughout the kingdom, and the victims were not fewer than seventy thou- sand. Women and infants were not spared. At Rome the news was received with every demonstration of joj^, salutes of cannon were fired, a procession went by order of the pope to the church of St. Louis, and the "Te De- um " was chanted. BARTLETT, Josiah, was born in Ames- burv, Mass., in 1729. He commenced the study of medicine at the age of sixteen, and at the age of twenty-one the practice of it, in which he was highly successful. In 1754, he was a representative of the town of Kingston, N. H., in the provincial legislature, where he took the side of the minority, firmly opposing all violations- of right. In 1775 he was de- prived by the governor of his commission in the army, and of that of justice of peace. From the provincial congress, however, he received a regiment, and, as a delegate to the Continental Congress, was the second signer of the declaration of independence. In 1780 he was appointed judge of the superior court of New Hampshire, and chief justice in 1790. In the same year he became president of New Hampshire, and its governor in 1793. He retired from ofiice in 1794, and died in 1795. BARTON, Bernard, the ' Quaker poet,' a banker's clerk in England, 1784-1849. BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl of Ad- dington, in Kent, commonly called the Holy Maid of Kent. She appeared in the reign of Henry VIII., with pretensions to miraculous powers, and was executed at Tyburn, April 30th, 1534, after a full confession of her im- posture. It was at the time that the king was about to be divorced from his first wife, and the English church separated from Rome, and this girl was deluded by priests to warn Henry of the vengeance of Heaven if he per- sisted. BARTON, William, lieutenant-colonel in the American army during the Revolution, was a native of Providence, R. I. He headed the party which seized Gen. Prescott of the British army neax Newport, July 10th, 1777. For this bold deed Congress gave Barton a sword and a large grant of land in Vermont. Some irregularity in the transfer of this land led to his imprisonment in Vermont for many years. La Fayette, on his visit to this countiy in 1825, heard of his incarceration, Hquidated the claim, and set the veteran fi-ee. He died at Providence in 1831, aged eighty-four. BARTRAM, William, an American natu- ralist, born in Pennsylvania, 1739. He ac- companied his father (John, also a learned botanist) on an expedition to explore the natu- ral productions of East Florida, and in 1773 commenced an examination of the natural pro- ductions of the Floridas, and the western parts of Carolina and Georgia, at the request of Dr. Fothergill of London. This employment lasted nearly five years. In 1790 he published an account of his travels and discoveries. He belonged to many learned societies in Europe and America. He assisted Wilson in the com- mencement of his "American Ornithology." On the 22d of July, 1823, a few minutes after writing an article on the natural history of a flower, he ruptured a blood-vessel and died. BASHKIRS, a tribe of Mongol origin, under Russian rule. They are Mohammedans, but BAS 10-i COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF little civilized, and live by hunting, raising cattle and keeping bees. They intoxicate themselves on a beverage made from fermented mare's and camel's milk. They dwell about Orenburg on the Ural. BASIL, St., an Eastern patriarch, called the Great, born 326, and made Bishop of Csesarea, in Cappadocia, in 370. Here he died in 379. The rules for the regulation of the monastic life, which he prepared, were followed by all the orders in Christendom. BASSOMPIERRE, Fkancois de, Marshal of France, enjoyed the favor of Henry IV. and Louis XITL, and was one of the most amiable and accomplished men of their courts. He was born in 1579 and died in IG-iG. He served in a military and civil capacit}^ Hav- ing become enamored of the charms of the daughter of the Constable de Montmorency, he relinquished his hopes when he discovered that he was the rival of Henry IV. BASTILE, a royal castle commenced by Charles V. for the defense of Paris against the English, and completed in 1383. It was of great strength. It was afterward used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and became the scene of deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. Prisoners were confined by the authority of lettres de cachet, that is, letters of arrest, written in the king's name, with blanks for the names of individuals, which wei-e to be filled up by the ministers who possessed these letters. Heads of fami- lies among the nobility, who wished to confine any unworthy member of the family, claimed the privilege of confinement by a lettre de cachet, and this privilege was next claimed by the ministers of government, to be used for the punishment of refractory servants and others. It will easily be conjectured that it was not long before unprincipled ministers abused this right by imprisoning worthy per- sons, who, in the actual discharge of their duties, had incurred the displeasure of men of power by thwarting their interests. In fact the use of the lettres de cachet was the main- stay of despotism, and used not merely by the throne, but by many of its satellites. Men were imprisoned for offenses too trifling to be registered, and remained thirty or forty years in the Bastile, or even till death, without any examination into the charges on which they were imprisoned. At the commencement of the French revolution, the attention of the people was called to this enormity. In July, 1789, they assembled in force and attacked the Bastile, which surrendered after a few hours. The governor and other officers were murdered. The prisoners were feasted in Paris, and the building was completely de- molished. M. Mercier has given an interesting account of a prisoner who was confined for some ex- jsressions of disrespect toward Louis XV. He was set at liberty by the ministers of Louis XVI. He had been in confinement for forty- seven years, and had borne up against the horrors of his prison-house with a manly spirit. His thin, white, and scattered hairs, had acquired an almost iron rigidity. The day of his liberation, his door was flung wide open, and a strange voice announced to him his freedom. Hardly comprehending the meaning of the words, he rose and tottered through the courts and halls of the prison, which appeared to him interminable. His eyes by degrees became accustomed to the light of day, but the motion of the carriage which was to convey him to his former abode appeared unendurable. At length, supported by a fi'iendly arm, he reached the street in which he had once resided, but on the spot formerly occupied by his house, stood a public building, and nothing remained in that quar- ter that he recognized. Norie of the living beings of the vast city knew him ; his liberty was a worthless gift, and he wept for the sol- itude of his dungeon. Accident brought in his way an old domestic, a superannuated porter, who had barely strength sufficient to discharge the duties of his office. He did not recognize his master, but told him that his wife had died of grief thirty years before, that his children had gone abroad, and that not one of his relations remained. Overcome by this intelligence, the captive supplicated the minister to take him back to the dungeon from which he had been liberated, and the man of office was moved to tears by his misery. The old porter became his companion, as he was the only person who could converse to him of the friends he had lost, but so w.retched was the isolated condition of the victim of the Bas- tile, that he died not long after his liberation. BATH, Ordek of the. Its origin is un- certain. The ancient Franks, when they BAT HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 105 conferred knighthood, bathed before tWy performed their vigils. Henry IV. instituted a degree of knighthood of the Bath, and on his coronation in the Tower, he conferred the order upon forty-six esquires, who had watched the night before and had bathed. To each of these he gave green side-coats reaching down to their ankles, with straight sleeves, and furred with minever ; they also wore upon their left shoulder two cordons of white silk, with tassels hanging down. It was usual in former times to create knights of this order from the flower of the nobility, who had not previously received the order of knighthood, at the coronation of kings and queens, and at their marriages ; sometimes also, when their sons were in- vested Prince of Wales, or dukes, or when they solemnly received the cincture or mil- itary girdle of knighthood ; and that accom- panied with many ceremonies, which at present are for the most part disused. After the coronation of Charles II., the order was neglected until 1725, when it was revived by George I., who fixed the number of knights at thirty-eight, the sovereign and thirty- seven knights-companions. By statute, January 2d, 1815, it was or- dained that, "for the purpose of commemo- ratiag the auspicious termination of the long and arduous contest in which this empire [Great Britain] has been engaged," the order should be composed of three classes. First class : to consist of Knights Grand Crosses ; number not to exceed seventy-two, i exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the | blood royal, one-sixth of which may be ap- j pointed for civil and diplomatic purposes. The remainder must have attained the rank 1 of major-general in the army, or rear-admiral in the navj^, and must have been previously appointed to the second class. Second class : Knights Commanders ; num- ber not to exceed, upon the first institution, one hundred and eighty, exclusive of foreign olBcers holding British commissions, of which not exceeding ten may be admitted as honorary knights commanders. In the event of actions of signal distinction, or future wars, the number of this class may be in- creased. To be entitled to the distinctive appellation of knighthood ; to have the same rights and privileges as knights bachelors. but to take precedence of them ; to wear the badge, &c., pendent by a ribbon round the neck, the star embroidered on the left side. No oflScer can be nominated, unless he shall have received a medal or other badge of honor, or shall have been especially men- tioned in dispatches in the London Gazette^ as having distinguished himself in action. No person is now eligible to this class under the rank of major-general in the arm}^ or rear-admiral of the navy. Third class : Companions of the Order ; not limited in nxnnber ; they are to take pre- cedence of esquires, but not entitled to the appellation, style, &c., of knights bachelors. To wear the badges assigned to the third class, pendent by a narrow red ribbon to the button-hole. Motto of the order, Tria juncta in uno — the Trinity. BATTHYANY, Count Casimir Stkalt- MAN, a Hungarian revolutionist, whose large estates wer& confiscated. He died in exile and poverty, at Paris, Julj^ 12th, 1854. BATTHYANY, Louis, a Hungarian noble- man, who was seized by the Austrians, sen- tenced to death by an unjust court-martial, and shot Oct. 6th, 1848. BATUTA, Ibn, an Arab Moor of Tan- giers, was one of the greatest travelers that ever lived. Between 1324 and 1354, he wan- dered from his native place to Timbuctoo, the Ural Mountains, Ceylon, and the eastern coast of China, visiting all the countries between these extreme points. BAUTZEN, or Bumssm, capital of Upper Lusatia, situated on a height washed by the Spree. It contains about 12,000 inhabitants. The Catholics and Lutherans worship to- gether in the large cathedral, divided by a screen of trellis-work, the former possessing the altar and the latter the nave. On the 20th and 21st of May, 1813, Napoleon here defeated an army of Prussians and Russians, whose masterly retreat left him but little advantage. In the evening of the 21st the field of battle presented a grand but terrible spectacle, more than sixteen thousand men being stretched in their last sleep, and the scene illuminated by the red glare of thirty burning villages. BAVARIA, a kingdom of Germany, a waste in the time of Caesar, and a Roman BAV 106 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP province (Vindelicia and Noricum) under Augustus. At the end of the fifth century, a confederacy was formed by several German tribes, under the name of Boioarians, Ratis- bon being their chief seat. Their coimtry was called Noricum, and was never subject to the Ostrogoths. They became subject however to the Franks, when the latter gained possession of Rhsetia. Otho, Count of Wit- telsbach, who after the death of Charlemagne, and the occurrence of convulsions incident to the division of the empire, gained possession of Bavaria, died in 1183. Louis I., his suc- cessor, enlarged his territories, and added the palatinate of the Rhine. Bavaria was divided into Upper and Lower, in 1255 ; Maximilian L, a distinguished leader of the league against the Protestants, gained the upper palatinate in 1623. He died in 1651. After the battle of Blenheim, the emperor treated Bavaria as a conquered country. Charles Albert of Bavaria was elected emperor of Germany in 1742, but in 1T43 the states of Bavaria were constrained to swear homage to Maria The- resa, and in the war, Charles's fortunes sank rapidly, and he was forced to abandon Bava- ria. His son and successor, Maximilian Joseph IIL, assumed, like his Mher, the title of Archduke of Austria, but making peace with Austria, in 1745, received from Francis all the Bavarian territories which had been conquered by that power. Maximilian Joseph devoted himself to the promotion of the interests of his people, and favored their industry by every means in his power ; the foundation of the academy ,of sciences at Munich proves his liberality, and the exten- sion of his views. By the treaties of the house of Wittelsbach, and by the terms of the peace of Westphalia, the right of succession reverted to the palat- inate, on the extinction of the Wittelsbach line in the person of Maximilian Joseph, who died 30th of December, 1777, but the claims of Austria to Lower Bavaria were enforced by arms, and Charles Theodore, in 1778, was persuaded formally to renounce the Bavarian succession. The Duke of Deux-Ponts, how- ever, the presumptive heir, relying on the en- couragement afforded by Frederick IL of Prus- sia, refused to acknowledge the surrender of the succession. This was the cause of the Bavarian war of succession, which was ter- minated by a treaty of peace, signed May 13th, 1779, in consequence of war being declared agains»t Austria by Russia, and Bavaria was secured to the elector palatine of Bavaria. The Austrians yet coveted the country, and, in 1784, Joseph IL proposed to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bava- ria, with the sum of three million florins for the elector and the Duke of Deux-Ponts, and the title of King of Burgundy. This, however, was formally refused by the Duke of Deux-Ponts, who declared he.would never barter away the inheritance of his ancestore. Charles Theodore revived the order of Jesuits, and restrained the freedom of the press, and on the I reaking out of the French revolution, the elector sent troops to aid the empire. In 1796 Bavaria became the theatre of war. Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Deux-Ponts, now came into possession of Bavaria. At the beginning of the war of 1805, the elector joined the French with 30,000 troops, and at the peace of Presburg received from Napoleon a vast addition of territory, and the title of king. A matrimonial alliance connected the interests of Bavaria still more closely with those of France. Bavaria took part against Prussia and Austria, in 1806 and 1809. In the war of 1812 between France and Russia, Bavaria brought 30,000 men into the field, and but a few fragments of her fine army survived the expedition to Moscow. In 1813, the King of Bavaria abandoned the confederation of the Rhine and turned his arms against Napoleon. In 1825, Louis Charles succeeded to the throne, and reigned till 1848, when he abdicated in favor of his son Maximilian Joseph II. His abdication was mainly caused by his attachment to the celebrated Lola Montez, whom he had created Countess of Landsfelt. She was expelled from the kingdom. The kingdom of Bavaria is among the prin- cipal of the secondary continental powers. Bavaria, exclusive of the province west of the Rhine, is bounded north by Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel, and Saxony; east and south by Austria, and west by Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. The kingdom con- tains 28,435 square miles, and had in 1855, 4,541,556 inhal3itants. It is a mountainous country, having, however, many extensive plains and valleys wide and fertile. Agri- BAV HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 107 culture is the chief branch of industry. The soil is mostly owned in small estates. Bava- ria's most important manufacture is beer, of which more than ninety-six million gallons are yearly brewed. Coarse linens are largely woven by the country women. Marriage is forbidden without permission from the au- thorities, who do not grant it unless there is sufficient probability that adequate means for maintaining a family will bo possessed. Lib- erty of conscience, and equality in civil rights, are guaranteed to both Protestant and Ro- manist. Education is supervised by the government, and no children are excused attendance at the schools, except such as have received permission for private tuition. No printing-press can be established without the previous sanction of the king. The gov- ernment is a limited monarchy. There are two legislative chambers. Bavaria has a right of way by a military road through Baden, which gives direct access to its domin- ions on the Rhine. Munich (Miinchen) is the capital of Bava- ria, and perhaps the handsomest city in Ger- many. Its population in 1853 was 127,385. The city is indebted mostly to the ex-king Louis for its splendid buildings and its treas- ures of ancient and modern art. It has a library of 400,000 volumes and 22,000 MSS. Here lithography was invented by Senne- felder, in 1796. Fraunhofer's astronomical and optical instruments are unsurpassed. Munich surrendered to the Swedes and Ger- man Protestants, under Gustavus Adolphus, in 1632 ; in 1704 it fell into the hands of the Austrians. In 1741, it shared the vicissi- tudes of the war, and in 1796, the French army under Moreau obliged the elector to make a separate treaty. In 1800, Moreau again occupied Bavaria, and secured his superiority by the victory of Hohenlinden ; and from that time, to 1813, Bavaria re- mained in alliance with the French. Niirnberg (incorrectly called Nuremberg), an ancient city in the province of Franconia once a flourishing member of the Hanseatic league, has 45,000 inhabitants. This " quaint old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town of art and song," was in the olden time one of the chief marts of Europe. It received the rich merchandise of Italy, and forwarded it to the north. Four hundred years ago its artisans in metals were famous. " Here when Art was still religion, with a simple reverent heart, Lived and labored Albrecht Durer, the Evangel- ist of Art." Here sang Hans Sach, the cobbler bard. Here were invented watches (first called Niirnberg eggs), the air-gun, the clarionet, brass, and the lock for fire-arms. Niirnberg continued a free city till 1808, when it was parceled to Bavaria. Augsburg, population 36,000, is a town of important trade and manufactures. Here dwelt the great family of the Fuggers. In the best days of Augsburg, the front of every respectable dwelling shone with the glories of the pencil, and the whole Scriptures might be studied in these fresco paintings out of doors. The first tulip known in the west of Europe, was brought to Augsburg from Con- stantinople in 1557. Here paper was made from rags as early as 1330. Printing was early established here, and is now largely carried on. The Allgemeine Zeitung, called also the Atigslnirg Gazette, the most widely circulated journal in German}-, is printed here. Augsburg was a free imperial city from 1276 to 1806. Melancthon drew up the celebrated confession of faith protesting against the abuses of the church of Rome, whence the Lutherans were called Protest- ants. By him and Luther, in 1530, it was presented to the Emperor Charles V. in the palace of the Bishop of Augsburg, whence it is called the confession of Augsburg. Here in 1555 was signed the celebrated treaty by which religious liberty was secured to Ger- many, BAXTER, Richard, a noted divine among the English nonconformists, was born at Rowton, Shropshire, November 12th, 1615. At first connected with the established church, he became a dissenting minister. Though he sided with parliament during the civil war, he did not approve of the exe- cution of the king and other extreme action of the day. During the persecution of the nonconformists in the reign of James II., Mr. Baxter was tried and abused by the in- famoxis Jeffreys, but the king remitted the fine imposed upon him. He was a volumi- BAX 108 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF nous author upon theological and religious subjects. "The Saints' Everlasting Rest^' and "A Call to the Unconverted" are still much read. He died in 1691. BAYARD, James A., an eminent Ameri- can lawyer and politician, born at Philadel- phia, in 1767. He was educated at Princeton CoUega He represented Delaware in both houses of Congress, and distinguished him- self by his patriotism and ability in debate. He was sent to Europe as one of the commis- sioners to treat for peace in 1813, but after the treaty of Ghent, the state of his health induced him to return home with all possible speed. He accordingly embarked at Havre, in May, 181.5, arrived in the United States, and died in the bosom of his family. BAYARD, John, an eminent patriot in our Revolution, born in Maryland, 1738, died in 1807. BAYARD, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier dc, called Le chevalier sansx>eur etsans re2iroc7ie (the knight without fear and without re- proach,) was born near Grenoble, 1476, of one of the most ancient families in Dauphiny. Ed- ucated under the eye of his uncle, the Bishop of Grenoble, he early displayed those traits for which he was afterward so much beloved and celebrated. Modest, pious, affectionate, tender, brave, and honorable, all who beheld him augured well of his future career. Charles Vni, who saw him at Lyons, managing a stately steed with ease and grace, begged him of the Duke of Savoy, whose page he then was, and committed him to the care of Paul of Luxemburg, Count de Ligny. He won his earliest laurels in tournaments, but he was destined to shine upon redder fields of glory, and at the age of eighteen accompanied Charles VIIL to Italy, and took a standard at the battle of Verona. When, in the reign of Louis Xn., he was taken prisoner by fol- lowing some flying adversaries into Milan, Ludovico Sforza generously returned him his horse and arms, and dismissed him without ransom. His exploit at the bridge over the Garigliano was worthy of a Roman in Rome's best days, for like Horatius Codes he gal- lantly defended the bridge against the victo- rious Spaniards, until the French army were safe. On account of this action, he had for his coat of arms a porcupine, with the fol- lowing motto: Vires agminis unvs hahet, 'alone he has an army's strength.' TVhen Julius IL declared himself against France, Bayard hastened to the assistance of the Duke of Ferrara. Defeated in his attempt to take the pope prisoner, he yet sternly refused to listen to an offer to betray him. He was wounded in the assault on Brescia, and car- ried into the house of a nobleman who had fled, leaving his wife and two daughters ex- posed to the brutal insults of a licentious soldier)'-. Bayard protected them faithfully, refusing their offers of reward, and returning, as soon as he was cured, to the French camp, whose stay and hope, Gaston de Foix, had been killed in consequence of neglecting the advice of Bayard. The latter received a second wound in the retreat from Pavia, which it was thought would prove mortal. On learning this, the gallant chevalier said, in the true spirit of a warrior, " I grieve not to die, but to die in xny bed like a woman." The military misfortunes of the latter part of the reign of Louis XH. did not cast a shadow on the glory of Bayard, but his personal bravery was conspicuous even in reverse. He was ever the foremost in the charge, and the last in the retreat. Fran- cis L had no sooner ascended the throne, than he gave proof of the confidence he re- posed in Bayard, by sending him into Dau- phiny to open a passage for his army over the Alps, and through Piedmont. Baj^ard cap- tui-ed Prosper Colonna, who lay in wait for him, hoping to surprise him. Elated with this success, in the battle of Marignano, to which it was a prelude, he performed prodi- gies of valor by the side of the king, who emulated the bravery of the gallant chevalier. After this day of glory Francis received knighthood from the sword of Bayard. Bay- ard defended the town of Meziere, when Charles V. invaded Champagne, with such spirit and resolution, that at Paris he was called the savior of his country. He received from the hands of the king the order of St. Michael, and a company of a hundred men to command in his own name, an honor never before conferred but on princes of the blood. Bayard reduced to obedience the revolted Genoa, but the fortunes of the French changed, and they were obliged to retreat. Bounivet the commander, his rear-guard beat- en, and himself severely wounded, committed BAY HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 109 the care of the army to the gallant Bayard. Compelled to pass Sesia in the presence of a superior force, Bayard, the last man in the retreat, was combating the Spaniards, when a stone from a blunderbuss shattered his back- bone, and he exclaimed, "Jesus Christ, my God, I am a dead man ! " He was removed at his request, under the shadow of a tree ; "From this spot," said he, "I can behold the enemy." He confessed his sins to his squire, and, in default of a crucifix, kissed the hilt of his sword. Bidding a farewell to his friends, his king, and his country, he died, surrounded by admiring and weeping friends and enemies, April 30th, 1524. His enemies, who retained possession of the body, em- balmed it, and restored it to his countrymen, by whom it was consigned to a tomb in a church of the Minorites, near Grenoble. A simple bust, and a Latin inscription, mark the place of his repose. BAYLE, Pierre, a French writer, born at Carlat, in Languedoc, in 1 64Y. He died, pen in hand, in 1706, at the age of fifty-nine. His " Historical and Critical Dictionary " is a grand monument of the logic and learning for which the author is so celebrated. He modestly called it "an ill-digested compila- tion of passages tacked together by the ends." Voltaire calls him "the first of logicians and skeptics," but adds, that his warmest apolo- gists can not deny, that there is not a page in his controversial writings, which does not lead the reader to doubt, and often to skep- ticism. He himself says, " My talent consists in raising doubts; but they are only doubts." BAYONNE, a fortified city in France, about two miles from the Bay of Biscay, at the con- fluence of the Nive and Adour. It is in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, and was formerly the capital of a district of Gascony. Population, 17,000. Bayonne has consid- erable commerce with Spain, and is much engaged in the cod and whale fishery. Its hams, wines, brandies, and chocolate are famous. It is said that in 1564 Bayonne was the scene of an interview between Catherine de Medici and the Duke of Alva, at which was planned the murder of the Huguenots, carried into effect seven years afterward on St. Bartholomew's day. When the massacre took place, however, D'Orchez, commandant of Bayonne, refused to execute the orders of the court, returning this noble answer: "Sire, I have communicated your majestj^'s letter to the garrison and inhabitants of this city. I have found only brave soldiers and good citizens, and not a single executioner." At Bayonne, in 1070, the bayonet was in- vented, whence its name. Here in 1808, Napoleon met the King of Spain, Charles IV., and his son Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, when they signed an agreement by which they and the king's other children renounced their rights in the European and Indian ter- ritories of Spain, in favor of Bonaparte. Dur- ing Wellington's invasion of France from Spain, the neighborhood of Bayonne was the scene of desperate fighting, Dec. 10th, 11th, and 13th, 1813. Soult then retired within the intrenchments of the city, and it was invested by Lieut. -Gen. Sir John Hope, Jan. 14th, 1814. On the morning of April 14th, Soult made a sortie with much success, though driven back in the end. Sir John Hope was wounded and made prisoner. News of Napoleon's abdication arrived shortly after. A treaty was signed at Bayonne, Dec. 2d, 1856, establishing the frontier line be- tween France and Spain. BEATON, David, Archbishop of St. An- drew's in Scotland, and cardinal, born in 1494. On the coronation of the young Queen Mary, he renewed his cruel persecutions of the heretics, and among others, brought George Wishart, the famous Protestant preacher, to the stake. Seated at his win- dow, he beheld with fiendish joy the cruel sufferings of this estimable man. He was openly licentious, and, although endowed with some good qualities, was disgraced by flagrant vices. He *^'as murdered in his chamber. May 29th, 1546. BEATTIE, James, a miscellaneous writer, and pleasing poet, born at Lawrencekirk, in Kincardine county, Scotland, in 1735, died in August, 1803. The poem by which he will be remembered as a follower of the muses, is the " Minstrel," the first book of which was published in 1771. He wrote an "Essay on Truth," and some other meta- physical works, in which, however, he did not shine so much as in his poems. BEAUFORT, Henry, cardinal, half-brother of Henry IV. of England, Bishop of Lincoln, afterward of Winchester, and chancellor of BEA no cottattE cyclopedia of the kingdom. In 1431, he crowned Henry YL, in the great church of Paris. He is strongly susjjected of having directed the assassination of Humphrey, Duke of Glou- cester. He was one of the judges of Joan of Arc. He died in 1447. BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, son of Vis- count Beauharnais and Josephine, born 1781. He was a general under Napoleon; viceroy of Northern Italy, 1805 ; married to the daughter of the king of Bavaria, 1806 ; made Duke of Leuchtenburg by his father-in-law ; died in 1824. BEAUHARNAIS, Hortense Eugenie de, daughter of Josephine, was born at Paris 1783, and married to Louis Bonaparte in 1802. This forced union proved unhappy to both husband and wife. They were sepa- rated, after Hortense had borne three sons, the eldest two of whom died early, and the other has become famous as Louis Napoleon. Hortense joined her mother in retirement at Malmaison, but the speedy fall of Napoleon left her a desolate wanderer, till at last the Bavarian king gave her a refuge at Augsburg. She died Oct. 5th, 1837. BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Ca- RON DE, artist, politician, projector, painter, merchant, and dramatist, was the son of a watchmaker, and born at Paris, in 1732. He was teacher of the harp to the daughters of Louis XV., and by a wealthy marriage, laid the foundation of his immense fortune. His "Eugene," "Mere Coupable," "Ma- nage de Figaro," and "Barbier de Seville," keep possession of the stage in several lan- guages. His "Memoirs" exhibit Beaumar- chais in his true character. He increased his fortune by his contract*© supply the United States with military stores, during the Revo- lutionary war. He died in 1799. BEAUMONT, Francis, and FLETCHER, John, two English dramatic writers of great power, who united their interests and wrote conjointly. Beaumont, born in 1585, died in IGIG; Fletcher, born in 1576, died in 1625, of the plague, in London. They used to fre- quent ale-houses, as Shakspeare is said to have done, for the sake of studying human nature, and were once arrested in a very dramatic manner. They were disputing in an ale-house about the fate of a king in one of their plays, one insisting upon his assas- sination, the other on his preservation. Some of their uninitiated auditors procured their arrest, imagining that a conspiracy against the reigning sovereign was on foot. BECCARIA, C^SAK, Marquis of Bonesana, author of a celebrated treatise on crimes and punishments, born 1720, died November, 1794. BECKET, Thomas A, a celebrated prelate, was born in London, in 1117. He was the son of a merchant who, while a prisoner in the East, is said to have engaged the affec- tions of a Saracen lady; she followed the merchant to London, where he married her. Becket's advancement was rapid : he was a favorite with Henry II., who made him tutor to his son in 1158, and heaped spiritual and temporal honors upon him. He rivaled roy- alty in the splendor of his living. On his election to the see of Canterbury, in 1162, he resigned the office of chancellor, and assuming all the arrogance of a sovereign pontiff, lent himself to oppose the reforma- tion intended by the king among the clergy. Their enormities had disgusted the whole kingdom; and the archbishop screened the most abandoned, under the pretext that they were not amenable to the civil power. After a series of hostilities between the king and Becket, many references to the pope, ex- communications and anathemas, reconcilia- tions and fresh quarrels, on the archbishop's refusal to withdraw his excommunication of some bishops, which was felt to lie very hard upon them, the king, in a fit of passion, re- proached his courtiers for permitting him to be so long and so ignobly tormented. On this, four knights went down to Canterbury, and killed Becket before the altar as he was at the vesper service, December 29th, 1170. The perpetrators of this deed were finally achnitted to penance, but the king was com- pelled to expiate his guilt at the tomb of the archbishop, who was canonized two years after his death. He became a popular saint, and miracles were abundant at his tomb, which was much visited by pilgrims till the reformation. His bones, which had been enshrined in gold, and set with jewels, in 1220, were taken up and burned in the reign of HenrvVTIL, 1539. BECKFORD, William, was the son of Al- derman Beckford, the lord mayor of London BEC HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 111 who bearded George III, on his throne. At nineteen he wrote in French the gorgeous romance of "Vathek." He inherited a princely estate. At Cintra in Portugal he reared a palace for his residence. Abandon- ing this, he built on his estate in Wiltshire, the magnificent Gothic structure of Fonthill Abbey, where he realized those lavish splen- dors which he had imagined in his oriental romance. His last years were spent at Bath, where he died in 1844, in his eighty -fourth year. BEDE, commonly called the Venerable Bede, was born in the neighborhood of Wear- mouth, in the year 672 or 073, and pursued his studies in the monastery of St. Peter, Wearmouth. He died in May, 735. His "EngHsh Ecclesiastical History," his greatest and most popular work, was translated by Alfred the Great. He was modest and mod- erate, and although a monk, wished to have the number of monasteries lessened. Bede led a life of pious and studious retirement, and on the day of his death, he was dictating a translation of the gospel of St. John to his amanuensis. " Master," said the young man, as he raised his eyes, " there is but one more sentence wanting." Bede bade him write rapidljr, and when the scribe said, "It is done," replied, "It is indeed done," and ex- pii'ed a few minutes afterward in the act of prayer. BEDFORD, John, Duke of, the third son of Henry IV. of England. In 1422, he com- manded the English army in France, and the same year was named regent of that king- dom for Henry VI., whom he caused to be crowned at Paris. He defeated the French fleet near Southampton, entered Paris, beat the Duke of Alencon, and made himself mas- ter of France. The greatest stain upon his character, is his cruelty to the Maid of Or- leans, whom he caused to be burnt in the market-place of Rouen, He died at Rouen, in 1435. BEETHOVEN, Ludwig von, was born at Bonn, Dec. 17th, 1770. His musical educa- tion began at the age of five, under his father, w-ho was a tenor singer in the electoral chapel of Cologne. While yet a youth, his success was foretold by Mozart. At one time he enjoyed the instruction of Haydn. The ^st twenty years of his life he was afflicted by severe deafness, which conspired to make him distrustful and taciturn. He made his residence at Vienna. He died March 26th, 1827. His musical compositions are well known and very beautiful. BEGUINES, females who bound themselves to obey the rules of an ecclesiastical order, forming societies for purposes of devotion and charity, living together in beguinages, without taking the monastic vows. They originated in Germany and the Netherlands, in the thir- teenth century, and some of their societies still exist in the Netherlands. Some of these nuns once fell into the error that thej^ could in this life arrive at the highest moral perfec- tion, even to impeccability. BEHRING, Vitus, a Dane by birth, and captain in the Russian navy, who in the year 1728, explored the coasts of Kamtschatka, and proved that Asia was disjoined from America. He died on a desolate island of the Aleutian group, during a voyage of discovery, December 8th, 1741. The strait between Asia and America, has received the nfune of Behring's Straits from him. The uninhabited island on which he died, is called Behring's Island. BELGiE, a collection of German and Celtic tribes, who inhabited the country extending from the Atlantic to the Rhine, and from the Marne and Seine, to the southern mouth of the Rhine, which is united with the Meuse. Caesar has borne witness to the bravery of the Belgians, particularly of those who resided on the northern frontiers of Germany, declar- ing that they were the most valiant of the Gauls. When Csesar invaded Britain he found the south of the island occupied by the Belgse, who had crossed over and driven the original inhabitants into the interior. BELGIUM, the name of that part of the Netherlands which formerly belonged to Aus- trta. It was a part of the kingdom of Holland till 1830, when the Belgians revolted, and it was recognized as a separate kingdom. Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, widower of Princess Charlotte of England, and uncle of Queen Vic- toria, was elected to the crown, which had been refused by Louis Philippe for his son, the Duke of Nemours. The area of the king- dom is nearly 11,400 square miles, and in 1856 its population was 4,530,228. It com- prises the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, BEL m COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF WestFlanders, East Flanders, Hainault, Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur. It is generally a low and level country, and its short sea-coast of forty miles is carefully em- banked against the encroachments of the sea. The principal rivers are the Maas, or Meuse, and the Schelde. It has not such a network of canals as Holland, but there are many, both for draining and for commercial intercourse. The country is everywhere intersected by wide and well-kept main roads, either paved or macadamized, having commonly a double row of lime-trees. Belgium was the first of the continental states to adopt a general sys- tem of railways. Coal and iron are exten- sively mined. The grains are extensively grown, and Belgian flax is of high repute. The heavy Flemish horses are in much demand for draught, and are largely exported. The Flemings were once great weavers in woolens, but the tyranny of Spain drove the artisans away. Still, woolens are an important branch of industry. Linens, cottons, and silks are made. The laces of Brussels and Mechlin are famous. The inhabitants of the northern provinces of Belgium, comprising about two- thirds of the population of the kingdom, are mostly Flemings, speaking the Flemish tongue. Those of the southern provinces are French, speaking on the western side the Picard and on the eastern the Walloon dialect of the French language. The Belgians are mostly Catholics, but freedom is enjoyed by all reli- gious persuasions, and the Catholic and Prot- estant clergy are both supported from the public treasury. The government is a limited constitutional monarchy. There are two leg- islative chambers, both elective. The king may confer titles of nobility, but no peculiar privileges are granted therebj^ since all dis- tinction of orders is expressly repudiated by the constitution. The French language is used in all public affairs. The French decimal system is also adopted for money, weights, and mcasureg. The capital is Brussels (Bruxelles) ; popu- lation 210,400. It is a miniature of Paris, and one of the best built cities in Europe. Its laces and carpets have long been noted. St. Gery, Bishop of Cambray, founded it in the seventh century. In 1695, during its memo- rable bombardment by Marshal Villeroi, four- teen churches and four thousand houses were destroyed. It was taken by Marshal Saxe m 1740, and again by Dumouriez in 1702. Till 1814 it was held by France. The Hotel de Ville of Brussels is the finest of all municipal palaces. Its Gothic tower, three hundred and sixtj'-four feet high, is surmounted bj^ a gilded copper statue of St. Michael, seventeen feet tall, which serves as a weathercock. Antwerp is the great port of Belgium. It is strongly fortified, containing several beau- tiful public buildings, and 90,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures are important, especially its black silks and velvets, and recently its com- merce has been flourishing. Antwerp in the eleventh centurj^ was a small republic- The spirit of its inhabitants raised it to the rank of the first commercial city in Europe. In 1585 it was taken bj^ the Prince of Parma, after a long and memorable siege, and the ex- actions of Spain di-ove its trade to Amsterdam. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Schelde, on which it is situated, was crowded with vessels ; but its harbor was closed by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. This completed the ruin which the siege under the Prince of Parma commenced. When Na- poleon declared the Austrian Netherlands free, he prevented the revival of its commerce by making Antwerp a military depot. In 1814, Carnot gallantly defended the citj' against the English and Saxons. In 1832, the Dutch garrison under General Chasse, held out for a long time against the French and Belgians under Marechal Gerard, but the latter were victorious. Rubens was a native of Antwerp, and here are preserved his finest paintings, as well as many masterpieces of Vandyck and other Flemish painters. Ghent (Gend) the capital of East Flanders, is a handsome city of 103,729 inhabitants, and the seat of thriving manufactures. Its origin dates to the fifth century. Here the third son of Ed- ward III. of England was born, and hence called John of Gaunt. Here also Charles V. of Spain was born. The woolen manufacture was early established here. With wealth and freedom the men of Ghent waxed turbulent, and led on first by Jacques van Artevelde, and afterward by his son Philip, they gave many a proof of their sturdy valor and their strong purses in brunts with the counts of Flanders and the dukes of Burgundy. Its population was once greater than now. P''^" BEL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 113 cification of Ghent, signed Nov. Slh, 157(3. Peace concluded here between Great Britain and the United States, Dec. 2-ith, 1814. Liege, on the Maas, has 76,500 inhabitants. Its staple manufacture is that of fire-arms, and it owes its prosperity to the valuable coal fields adjacent. On account of the number of its churches and convents, it was once termed "the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of women." Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, has a population of 49,457. It was to commemorate the high perfection which t4ie woolen manufacture had reached in Bruges, that Philip the Good in 1430 instituted the order of the Golden Fleece. AVhile under the dominion of the dukes of Burgundy, Bruges became a principal empo- rium of the commerce of Europe, the great centre of the English wool trade, and the con- bach, in 1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. BELISARIUS, general of the armies of the Emperor Justinian. He defeated a superior force of Persians, in the year 530, and in the year after he took Carthage, made prisoner Gelimer, king of the Vandals, and entered Constantinople in triumph. He was next sent against the Goths in Italy, and arriving on the coasts of Sicily, took Catania, Syracuse, Palermo, and other places. He then pro- ceeded to Naples, which he took, and marched to Rome. After this he conquered Vitiges, king of the Goths, sent him to Constantinople, and refused the crown which was ofiered him by the Goths. For his exploits he was re- garded as the savior of the empire, and med- als are extant with this inscription, Belisarius Gloria Eomanorxim^ ' Belisarius, the glory of necting link between the Hanseatic league the Romans.' Having fallen under suspicion and the rich republics of Italy. Then it had of Justinian, he was deprived of his property a population of 200,000. Bruges was famous for its carillons, or chimes, as early as 1300. They are the finest in Europe, and are played by machinery every quarter-hour. BELGRADE ('white city'), an important commercial city of Servia, with 50,000 inhab- itants, situated at the confluence of the Save with the Danube. It is well fortified, com- manding the Danube, and is at present occu- pied by a Turkish garrison. It has been an object for the attainment of which the hostile nations have struggled during the various wars between Austria and Turkey. At dif- ferent times it has been possessed by Greeks, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Servians, and Austrians. The Turks besieged the city in 1456, and a battle was fought between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522, and retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. A siege of it was undertaken in May, 1717, under Prince Eugene. On Aug. 5th of that year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, ap- proached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. It was held by Austria till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichen- 8 BEL and honors, but there is reason to believe that he was subsequently restored to them. Mar- montcl in his romance, adopts a story which is related by no contemporary historian ; that Belisarius was deprived of his eyes by his cruel master, and forced to beg his bread in the streets of Constantinople. Others say that he was imprisoned in a tower, whence he used to let down a bag by a rope, addressing the passengers in the following words : " Give an obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue exalted, but envy crushed." He died in 565. BELKNAP, Jeremy, an American clergy- man, born in June, 1744, educated at Harvard College, and ordained pastor of the church in Dover, N. H., 1767. For some years previous to his death, which took place in 1798, he officiated in a church in Boston. He was an easy and correct writer, and his reputation rests on his " History of New Hampshire," and two volumes of his unfinished " American Biography." He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Historical Society. BELL, Sir Chakles, an eminent surgeon, born at Edinburgh, 1774, died in 1842. He made important discoveries respecting the spinal marrow and the nerves. BELLAMY, Joseph, D.D., an eminent Congregational minister in Bethlem, Conn. He died in 1790, at the age of seventy-one. BELLINGHAM, Richard, deputy -governor and governor of Massachusetts colony for 114 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP twenty-three years, came to America in 1634, ind died in 1 672, aged eighty. He somewhat oHocked the old Puritans by marrying for liis econd wife a lady affianced to another, per- forming the ceremony himself without license. BELLINI, VixcENZio, was born at Catania in Sicily in 1806. He received his musical education from Zingerclli in the conservatorio of Naples, and produced, at the theatre San Carlo, in that city, his opera "Bianco e Fer- dinando," before he was twenty years old. He died of consumption in 1835 at Paris. During his brief life he composed a number of operas, the most of which are yet highly popular: "IlPirata," "La Straniera," "La Sonnambula," " I Capuletti ed i Montecchi," "Norma," "I Puritani," &c. BELLOT, Lieut, a young officer of promise in the French navy, who volunteered in an expedition dispatched by Lady Franklin to search for her husband Sir John, in 1851. He was of much service, and on his return at once entered upon a second task of the same nature. On the 21st of August, 1852, while bearing dispatches to Sir Edward Belcher across the ice, he was overtaken by a storm, borne by a floe out to sea, and drowned. A monument to his memory stands in the yard of Greenwich Hospital. BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and heathen. The responses of the Dodonean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. Pliny tells us that the monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. They were introduced by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in Campagna, about 400 ; first known in France, 550 ; first used in the Greek empire, 864; were introduced into monasteries in the seventh or eighth century. Pope Stephen III. placed three bells in a tower on St. Peter's at Rome. In the churches of Europe they were introduced in 900, and about this time they were used, by order of Pope John IX., as a defense, by ringing them, against thunder and liglitning. They were first introduced into Switzerland 1020. The first tunable set in England were hung up in Croyland Abbey, in Lincolnshire, 960 ; bap- tized in churches, 1020. Bells of the church of Notre Dame at Paris baptized and received the names of Duke and Duchess d' Angouleme, BELOOCHISTAN extends along the coast of the Indian Ocean from the Indus nearly to the Persian Gulf, comprising about 200,000 square miles. It is a rough region, and some of the mountains are of great height. The heat of summer is intense, and water scarce. The desert of Beloochistan is three hundred miles long, and two hundred broad. Among the minerals of this country, are gold, silver. lead, iron, copper, tin, alum, saltpetre, sul- phur, rock salt, &c. Cotton, indigo, grain. assafoetida, and madder are productions of the soil. The natives are divided into three tribes, the Belooches, the Dewars, and Bia hooes. They are Mohammedans, warlike, half-civilized, and pastoral in their habits. Kelat is a place of considerable strength, and has about 20,000 inhabitants. The Khan of Kelat has only a nominal authority over the country. BELZONI, John Baptist, was born at Pa- dua, and educated at Rome, being destined for a monastic life. Having a taste, however, for an active life, he served in the French ar- mies, and went to England in 1803. Here his finances were probably at a low ebb, for he was reduced to exhibit postures at Astley's. From London he afterward went, with his wife, to Egypt, passing through Portugal, Spain, and Malta. Here he succeeded in opening the pyramid of Cheops, which had defied the ingenuity and efforts of the French, that of Cephrenes, and several catacombs near Thebes, one of which is believed to have been the burial place of Psammis, who died 40f» B.C. He exhibited great accuracy and skill in the drawings which he took. In 1816, he accomplished an imdertaking of great diffi- culty, the removal of the enormous bust of Jupiter Memnon, and a sarcojDhagus of ala- baster, from Thebes to Alexandria, whence they were shipped for England. On the 1st of August, 1817, he opened the temple of Ip- sambul, near the second cataract of the Nile, discovering a subterranean chapel in its ruins. He discovered the ruins of the ancient Bere- nice, four day's iourney from the spot where Cailliaud asserted that he had found it. Bel- zoni died on his way to Timbuctoo, Dec. 3d. 1823, at the age of forty-five. In person he was tall and well-proportioned, and his gigan- the Prince de Foix and Duchess de Damas tic stature protected him from attack, even being proxies, Nov. 15th, 1816. | when alone amidst ferocious barbarians. His BEL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 115 wife, who accompanied him to Egypt, dis- played great intrepidity amidst the dangers which they encountered. BEM, Joseph, was a native of Gallicia, and born in 1795. Bred to arms, he entered the army of Napoleon, and served in the divisions of Davoust and Macdonald, and, after peace was concluded, was for a while an oflBcer in the Russian service. During the Polish rev- olution he commanded the artillery. At Os- trolenka he was wounded, but as he lay upon the ground, he directed the movements of his guns. When the cause of Poland was lost, he sought refuge in France, and there and in England tasted the bitter bread of poverty and exile. Upon the breaking out of the revolutions of 1848, he drew his sword in aid of the Hungarians, and as a general in their army brilliantly combated the Austrians. "When Austria and Russia triumphed, Bem fled to Turkey, where he embraced Islamism, and entered the Turkish army under the name of Murad Bey. He died at Aleppo in December, 1850. BENAVIDES, an outlaw and pirate, whose singular perseverance and ferocity rendered him for many years the terror of the southern parts of Chili. Under pretext of establishing a navy, he seized upon English and American vessels that stopped for refreshment near the town of Arauco, the centre of his operations. In 1821, the Chilians fitted out an expedition, and succeeded in breaking up his stronghold, and capturing him. He was condemned and executed, February 23d, 1822. In the early part of his career, he espoused the cause of the Chilians against Spain, but soon deserted them, and having been taken prisoner in the battle of Maypu, 1818, he was sentenced to be shot, and actually sustained the fire of a file of soldiery. He was covered with wounds and believed to be dead, but had his senses left when he was dragged to the field M^here the bodies of criminals were exposed. Here a man who had owed him a grudge, smote the supposed corpse with a sword, and such were the powers of endurance possessed by Benavides, that he did not flinch in the least, or give the slightest sign of vitality, or of the agony he suffered. As soon as it was dark, he crawled away to the house of a friend, and had his wounds dressed. His bravery and fortitude would have honored a better cause, i BENBOW, John, an English admiral, born in 1650. His gallantry in repelling the attack of a Barbary corsair, when in the merchant service, procured him the command of a ship of war, from James II. Being sent by William III. to the West Indies, he relieved the colo- nies, and in a subsequent erfgagement with the French fleet, off Carthagena, Aug. 19th, 1702, a chain-shot carried off one of his legs. He was carried below, but, as soon as his wound was dressed, brought on deck again, and persisted in continuing the action. He was abandoned at this moment, through the cowardice of several captains under his com- mand, who signed a paper expressing their opinion that nothing more could be done, and the whole fleet of the enemy was suffered to escape. Shortly after Benbow's arrival at Jamaica, where he died of his wounds and chagrin in the following October, he received a note from the French admiral, of which the following is a literal translation : "Carthagena, Aug. 22d, 1702. "Sir: I had little hopes, on Monday last, but to have supped in your cabin: yet it pleased God to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly cap- tains who deserted you, hang them up, for by G-d they deserve it. "Du Casse.'' Two of the cowardly captains were tried and shot upon their return to England. BENEDICT, the name of several popes. Of these, Benedict XIV. (Prosper Lamberti- ni) was the most noted. When, on the death of Clement XII., in 1740, the conclave was divided, and the cardinals could not agree, Lambertini said, in his good-natured way, "If you want a saint, take Gotti; if a politi- cian, Aldobrandi ; if a good old man, take me." The humorous manner in which this quaint speech was delivered, operated like magic, and Lambertini became sovereign pontiff. He reformed abuses, introduced good regulations, cultivated letters, encouraged men of learning, and was a patron of the fine arts. He died May 3d, 1758. BENEDICT, St. (480-543), founded the first religious order of the west. Besides per- forming religious duties, the monks of his or- der gave instructions to j^outh, in reading, writing, ciphering, religion, and manual la- bors, including all the mechanic arts. Bene- dict caused the aged monks to copy manu- BEN 116 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP scripts, and thus many literary works of great I the Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the importance were preserved from ruin. From the sixth to the tenth century, almost all the monks in the west were Benedictines. The rules of the order were severe. At an early period the dresg of the brethren of the differ- ent monasteries varied, but after the sixth century, when union was enjoined, the monks of this order all wore black. The Cluniacs were a branch of the Benedictines, proceeding from the convent of Clugny in Burgundy, founded in 910. Their regulations were at first strict, but in the twelfth century, when the order had two thousand monasteries, they declined, from the excess of their luxury. BENEZET, Anthony, was born at St. Quentin, in France, January, 1713. His pa- rents were opulent, and his descent noble. The confiscation of his father's estates, in con- sequence of his having joined the Protestants, in 1715, drove the fjxmily to England, where Anthony was educated. Of his early life little is known, but he was fourteen years of age when he joined the society of Friends. In 1731, he camie to Philadelphia in company with his parents. His first employment was that of instructor in a school at Germantown. About 1750, being struck with the enormities of the slave-trade, he determined to employ all his energies in bettering the condition of the blacks. He established an evening school for them in Philadelphia, and taught them gratuitously. On the subject of negro slavery be published numerous short essays in alma- nacs and newspapers, which he circulated with unwearied assiduity. He printed and distributed at his own expense, many valuable tracts. The circulation of these was not con- fined to America ; in Europe they procured Benezet the notice and correspondence of many eminent men. He undoubtedly gave the first impulse to the measures which resulted in the abolition of the slave-trade in the United States. His philanthropy was unbounded; the whole human race were his brethren. The wrongs inflicted on the aborigines of North America, excited his strong sympathy about the year 1763, and his efforts in their behalf excited the warmest admiration in all high- minded observers of his course. In 1780, he wrote and published a "Short Account of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly called Christian Religion.'' He also published and circulated several tracts against the use of ar- dent spirits. In the spring of 1784, he was taken ill ; after his case was pronounced hope- less, he conversed intelligently with hundreds who came to see him. He died on the 5th of May, at Philadelphia, extensively known and beloved. His naturally strong understanding was improved by extensive reading. His pri- vate habits endeared him to his fi-iends, and his small estate was devoted to the furtherance of his benevolent purposes. BENNINGTON, a town in Vermont. Here a battle was fought, Aug. IGth, 1777, between a detachment of Burgoyne's army, under Lieut. -Col. Baum, and a body of American militia commanded by Gen. Stark. Baum was mortally wounded. Seven hundred of the enemy were captured, and two hundred and seven killed. The loss of the Americans was about one hundred dead, and as many wounded. A good quantity of arms and ammunition fell into the hands of the victors. BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English philoso- phizer upon jurisprudence and morals, born Feb. 6th, 1749. He was entered of Queen's College, Oxford, when only twelve years of age, and was even then known by the name of ' the philosopher.' He attained the ripe age of eighty-four. This eccentric man, who made utility the basis of his philosophy, be- r|ueathed his body to the dissectors, in order to benefit the science of anatomy. BENTLEY, Richard, a celebrated English divine and classical scholar, was born in 1662. His father was a blacksmith, and he received his earliest instruction from his mother, a woman of much talent. He entered St. John's College, Cambridge, at the age of fourteen. He was victorious in a controversy with the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterward Earl of Orrery, relating to the genuineness of the Epistles of Phalaris. Bentley was opposed by a host of wits. Pope, Swift, Garth, Atter- bury, Conyers, Middleton, &c., but he satis- factorily proved that the Epistles were not the production of the tjTant of Agrigentum, who lived more than five centuries b.c. ; but of some late sophists, who borrowed the name of Phalaris. The tyrant Phalaris had a hol- low brazen bull, in which, when hot, he used Quakers," and in 1782, "A Dissertation on ' to place BEN who were unfortunate enough HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 117 to displease him, and whose cries were thus made to resemble the roarings of the animal. Conyers Middleton, whose enmity to Bent- ley arose from the epithet of fiddling Conyers, applied to him while an university student, was suspected of being the author of a pun- ning caricature representing Bentley on the point of being thrust into the brazen bull of Phalaris, and exclaiming, " I had rather be roasted than Boyled." Bentley was presented by the crown to the mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge, worth nearly £1,000 a year; and, in 1701, he was called to the arch- deaconry of Ely. Among the accusations brought against him, as head of the college, he was accused of embezzling money, a charge which occasioned a lawsuit that was termin- ated in the doctor's fiivor near twenty years afterward. He was appointed Regius professor of divinity at Cambridge, in 1716. In 1726, he pubHshed his edition of Terence and Phoe- drus, his notes to which brought on a dispute with Bishop Hare, on the metres of Terence, when Sir Isaac Newton observed that " two dignified clergymen, instead of minding their duty, had fallen out about a play-book." Bentley's edition of "Paradise Lost," with conjectural emendations, his last work, was a decided failure. He died, July 14th, 1742. BENYOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, Count of, was born in 1741, at Werbowa, in Hun- gary. His father was a general, and he himself entered the Austrian service, and served as a lieutenant in the seven years' war till 1758. Having joined the Polish con- federation against Russia, and served with the rank of colonel, commander of cavahy, and quartermaster-general, he was taken by the Russians in 1769, and sent to Kamtschatka. On his voyage thither, he saved the vessel during a storm, and thus, on his arrival, secured a favorable reception from the gov- ernor, Niloif, whose fiimily he instructed in the French and German languages. In May, 1771, he escaped from Kamtschatka, accom- panied by Aphanasia, the governor's daugh- ter, and ninety -six other persons, sailing for Formosa, whence he departed for Macao. Hare he lost many of his companions, and the faithful and unfortunate Aphanasia. Arrived in France, he was commissioned to found a colony in Madagascar, where he arrived in June, 1774. He was not long in gaining the good will of the natives, who appointed him their king. He went to Europe to obtain recognition as an independent prince in Mad- agascar, but was forced by the persecution of the French ministry, to enter the Austrian service. In the battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778, he commanded against the Prussians. In 1784, receiving assistance from private persons in London and America, he set out for Madagascar, and arrived in 1785. Here he commenced hostihties against the French, and the authorities of the Isle of France sent a force against him ; in contending against which he was wounded mortallj-. May 23d, 1786. The fate of Benyowsky's only son was singular: he is said to have been de- voured by the rats of Madagascar. BERANGER, Pierre Jean de, was born in Paris, Aug. 19th, 1780. During the storm of the revolution he dwelt with an aimt at Peronne, and there became apprentice to a printer. This vocation led him to study, and he determined to be a poet, a vocation the adoption of which naturally included poverty. It was such extreme poverty that he thought of suicide. The kind aid of Lucien Bona- parte rescued him from this wretchedness. Beranger was a warm admirer of Napoleon, and deeply deplored his fall. The unequaled political songs of Beranger, for which at times he was incarcerated or mulcted, helped to make the Bourbons unpopular and bring on the overturn of 1830. One of his fines was paid by a national subscription opened by his friend Lafitte, the banker. "Beranger," said Benjamin Constant, "writes sublime odes when he imagines he is onlj^ composing simple songs." He enjoyed the friendship of Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Lamartine, and Dumas. Adversity visited Beranger late in life. His publislier failed, and he was me- naced with losing the eighteen or twent}^ thousand francs he had in the bankrupt's hands, all he had in the world. Lafitte knew veiy well it would be lost time to persuade the poet to accept money. He sent for M. Hector Bossange, the well known publisher, and said to him, as he placed eighteen bank notes of a thousand francs in his hands, " Go and see Be- ranger, M. Bossange. Propose to him to become the publisher of his works for the next three j^ears. Offer to take them at six thousand francs a vear certain, and such a BER 118 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP percentage on all sales over that amount, and give him these eighteen thousand francs. You will paj^ me when you clear thirty -six thou- sand francs yourself." M. Bossange called instantly on Bei-anger and made him these propositions. Beranger accepted them with delight, and expressed warm gratitude to M. Bossange. The latter, embarrassed at re- ceiving thanks not his due, revealed the secret he had been charged to keep inviolate. Ber- anger's manner changed instantly, and he refused to take the money. Foiled in this way, Lafitte took the affairs of the ruined publisher in hand, and managed them so well that the creditors were paid in full, Ber- anger among the rest. When the revolution to which the lyrics of Beranger had aided, happened in July, 1830, he did not salute it with any pteans. « of Van Goyen, who shouted to his pupils. Nevertheless his popularity at this time was unbounded. On the stages of every theatre in France, his bust was crowned by the favor- ite actress. The orchestra would play his an-s, and the audience would sing the words. He fled from all this boisterous popularity, and, what vexed him even more, the annoy- ing visits of office seekers, anxious to procure his recommendation. The last years of his life were spent quietly in Paris, where he died, July 16th, 1857. He had published nothing since 1838. His decease caused all France to mourn. He was buried by the French government the day after his death, and great precautions Avere taken to avoid a popular outbreak at his funeral. BERCHTOLD, Leopold, Count, born in 1758. He was a distinguished philanthro- pist, and spent thirteen years in traveling through Europe, and four in Asia and Africa, to relieve the distresses of humanity. He died July 26th, 1809, on his estate at Buch- lan in Moravia, where he had fitted up an hospital for sick and wounded Austrian sol- diers. BERESFORD, William, Baron, Duke of Elvas, and Marquis of Campo Mayo, a dis- tinguished British general. In 1810 he defeated Soult at Albuera. In 1812, having a command under Wellington, he shared in the dangers and glory of the battles of Vit- toria, Bayonne, and Toulouse. He died in 1854, at the age of eighty -six. BERESINA, a river in the west of Russia, famous for the passage of the French army under Napoleon on the disastrous retreat from Moscow, Nov. 26th and 27th, 1812. The ice with which the morasses on both sides of the river were covered, was not strong enough to bear. The Russian armj^ were threatening the fugitives, whose discipline was lost, and who, despairing of escaping bj- means of the two crowded bridges, trusted themselves to floating masses of ice and were lost. Seventy -five hundred men and five gen- erals, according to the Russian account, were taken, and twice as many more lost their lives. BERGHEM, Nicholas, a ftmious painter, born at Harlem in 1 024, died in 1683. His landscapes and representations of animals are much valued. Once, when pursued by his father, he fled for safety to the workshop '■'■ Berg hem'''' (hide him); and this expres- sion was adopted as his name. BERKELEY, George, Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland, famous for his ideal theory, that there is nothing material, and that objects which are called sensible material objects, are not external, but onlj' impressions made upon the mind by an act of God, according to certain laws of nature, which are invaria- ble. Lord Byron says : " When Bishop Berkeley said there was no mat- ter, And proved it, 'twas no matter what he said." He was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, 1684. In furtherance of his project for converting the American savages to Christianity, by the establishment of a college in the Bermuda Islands, he considerably impaired his fortune. He resided some time in Rhode Island. His estate at ^Newport he gave to Yale College, by which it is still held. Pope, who was much attached to him, says that he had "every virtue under heaven." It was when inspired by his transatlantic scheme that he penned those fine moral verses, the last stan- za of which seems almost prophetic : " Westward the course of empire takes its way ; The first four acts already past, A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; Time's noblest offspring is the last." He died in 1753, expiring without a groan or sigh in the midst of his family, just as he had concluded a commentary on that beau- tiful and consoling portion of Holy Writ, the BER HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 119 fifteenth chapter of the first epistle to the (Jorinthians. BERKELEY, William, governor of Vir- ginia under Charles I. and II. He was a hot royalist, and on the death of Matthews, whom Cromwell had made governor in his stead, being asked by the people to resume the exec- utive, would only do so on condition that Charles II. should be proclaimed king. The consequences of this bold step might have been serious, had not Cromwell's death soon followed. During the latter part of Berkeley's term, the colony was convulsed by Bacon's rebellion, and the governor's severity caused Charles II. to complain that "the old fool shed more blood in that naked country than he had done for the murder of his father." Berkeley died in England in 1677. BERLICHINGEN, Goetz, or Godfrey von, ' with the iron hand,' a brave and honorable knight of the middle ages, who headed the rebellious peasants of Bavaria, against their oppressors. Before this time, having lost his right hand, he had substituted one made of iron. He died July 23d, 1562. BERLIN DECREE, a memorable inter- dict launched by Napoleon against the com- merce of England. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war. The whole world, in fact, was to cease from any communication with Great Britain. It was issued from the palace at Berlin, Nov. 21st, 1806, shortly after the battle of Jena. BERMUDAS, or Sommeks' Islands, a clus- ter of about three hundred small islands in the Atlantic. They were discovered by Juan Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522. In 1609, Sir George Sommers, an Englishman, who was wrecked here, founded the first settlement. Many are so unimportant as to have no name, but the principal islands are St. George, St. David, Cooper, Ireland, Somerset, Long Island, Bird Island, and Nonesuch. The air is healthy and invigorating to invalids, the winter being hardly apparent. The islands, however, are subject to frequent storms. The soil is generally rich and fertile. Ship- building is the principal occupation of the islanders. The whole shore is surrounded by rocks, dry at low water, but covered at high tide. The Bermudas lie about five hundred and thirty miles easterly from Cape Hatteras. They are a British colony, and have a population of 14,000. A small con- vict station is ma-intained here. .During the wars between parliament and the crown, many Englishmen of character and opu- lence sought refuge in the " still vexed Ber- moothes ; " among others the poet Waller, who sang of their beauty in "The Battle of the Summer Islands." BERNADOTTE, Charles John, was born 1764. From a sergeantcy in the French army he rose under Napoleon to the rank of mar- shal of the empire and Prince of Ponte Corvo. In 1810 he was chosen crown-prince of Sweden. Sweden joined the allies against France, and Bernadotte led her forces against his former master. He defeated Ney at Den- newitz in 1813. In 1818 he ascended the Swedish throne, whereon he reigned till his death in 1844. He was succeeded by his son Oscar. Bernadotte had a singular aver- sion to dogs, and could not bear the smell of tobacco. BERNARD, St., Abbot of Clairvaux, born of noble family at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 1091. He was austere, eloquent, and bold, and had the repvitation of being a prophet. He was called a honeyed teacher. Bernard was the principal promoter of the crusade of 1146. Luther says of him, " If there ever has been a pious monk who feared God, it was St. Bernard; whom I hold in much higher esteem than I do all other monks and priests throughout the globe." Bernard died in 1153, and was canonized in 1174. BERNARD, Great St., a mountain of the Alps, 11,006 feet high, between the Swiss Valais and the valley of Aosta, in Piedmont. The two hospices, on the Great and Little St. Bernard were built by Bernard de Men- thon, a pious Savoyard nobleman, in 962. They were under the care of Augustine monks, indefatigable in the discharge of their hospitality to wayfarers. The monks were assisted in their search for lost travelers, by great dogs, of whom many interesting tales are told. Owing to the severity of the weather, the dead bodies in the vault de- cayed so slowly, that their features were frequently recognized by friends, after the lapse of years. The monastery of Great St. BER 120 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP Bernard is the most elevated fixed habita- tion in Europe, and close upon the limits of perpetual snow. After the revolution of 1 847 in Switzerland, the monks were expelled from these hospices, and they are now managed by the government. It was by the pass of the Great St. Bernard that Hannibal crossed the Alps, and that Napoleon led his troops to the plains of Louibardy and the contest of Marengo. Charlemagne and Barbarossa also led armies over the Alps by this pass. In the chapel of the hospice of Great St. Ber- nard, is the monument of General Desaix, who fell at Marengo. He was embalmed by order of the first consul. The sculptor has represented the warrior wounded, and sink- ing from his horse into the arms of his aid. On the stairs of the convent stands the statue of Desaix in marble. BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, born at Naples, in 1598. He has been called another Michael Angelo, on account of his success as a painter, statuary, and architect. He was patronized by several popes, and died, ex- hausted by his labors, November 28th, 1680. He left a fortune of about 3,300,000 fi-ancs to his children. So early did hrs talents shine forth, that at the age of eight years, he executed the head of a child in marble, which was thought a fine production. He was not eighteen years old when he completed his "Apollo and Daphne," a work which he examined at the close of life, and declared that he had made little progress since that time. So true it is that genuine enthusiasm often supplies the place of experience. BERRI, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of, second son of Charles X. of France, born at Versailles, Jan. 24th, 1778. He fled from the revolutionary tempest, but was actively engaged in the scenes at Paris, in 1814, on the return of the Bourbons, and vainly en- deavored to secure the fidelity of the troops in and about Paris, when Napoleon returned from Elba. He was assassinated in 1820, by Louvel, who had long sought to extirpate the house of Bourbon, and met his death with great firmness. He was father of the Duke of Bordeaux, one of the claimants of the French crown. BERRY, ]\Iary, died in 1854, at the ad- vanced age of almost ninety. She and her sister, whose death preceded hers by eighteen months, were known in the literary circles of London, from the time of Dr. Johnson to that of Macaulaj^ They had read Miss Burney's "Evelina" when fresh from the- press, and lived to weep in sympathy with the world over Dickens's pathetic story of Little Nell. The two sisters were left, with their father, the literary executors of Horace Walpole. Both of them had received the offer of the hand of that male gossip. Both had re- jected it. BERSERKER, in Scandinavian mythol- ogy, a descendant of the eight-handed Star- kader and the beautiful Alfhilde. Dis- daining the protection of mail in battle, he obtained his name, which signifies ' the armorless.' In battle, his rage was un- governable. He married the daughter of Swafurlam, whom he had slain, and had twelve sons who equaled him in fierce- ness. BERTHIER, Alexander, Prince of Neuf- chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-constable of France, &c., born at Paris, 1753. At an early age, he served under La Fayette, in America. He was a great favorite of Napo- leon, under whom he acted as chief of his staff, assisting in those great victories which made France master of Italy, Germanj^ and Prussia. At the downfall of Napoleon in 1814, Berthier professed allegiance to the Bourbons, showing more zeal for them than became the favored friend and well paid serv- ant of the fallen emperor. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Berthier left France with the Bourbon princes, and soon ended his life by suicide. BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, born in Savoy, December 9th, 1748, died at Paris, November 6th, 1822, one of the most illustri- ous of chemists. He wrote a valuable work on dyeing, was the first to use in bleaching the decolorizing properties of chlorine gas, and discovered the chlorate of potash, a salt which not only, as an indispensable ingredient in the lucifer match, administers to the con- venience of every one, but enables many a shivering outcast to supply his daily wants. He was aided by the friendship of Napoleon. Upon the restoration he fell into reduced cir- cumstances. BERTRAND, Henri Gratien, count, gen- eral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon, BER HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 121 grand marshal of the palace, &c. He early distinguished himself in the engineer corps. He served near the person of Napoleon, par- ticularly at Austerlitz, where he was the em- peror's aid-de-camp. He and his family shared the last residence of Napoleon, after his fall. He died in 1844, aged seventy -four. BERWICK, James Fitz-James, Duke of, was born in 1670. He distinguished himself as a general in the Bourbon cause in Spain, where he won the battle of Almansa, and captured Barcelona, after a resistance, by the citizens, of fifteen months. He was a natural son of James H. of England, nephew of the great Marlborough, and a marshal of France. He was killed at Phillipsburg, 1734. BESSIERES, John Baptist, Duke of Istria, one of Napoleon's generals, marshal of France, born Aug. 6th, 1768, killed at Rippach, May 1st, 1813. BEZA, Theodore, after Calvin, the most distinguished among the Calvinistic preachers of the sixteenth century, born in 1519. At the age of twenty, he published his Latin poems, collected under the title of "Juvenilia," a work of which he was afterward ashamed. At an early age he was dissipated, but re- formed by marriage, and a dangerous illness. He distinguished himself in the service of the reformed church, and, in 1564, became Cal- vin's successor. Vain were the efforts of his adversaries to gain an advantage over him. His truth and wit were a splendid defense, and at the age of seventy-eight years, his in- tellectual foculties appeared as clear as ever. The pope made him brilliant offers, but he nobly rejected them. He died Oct. 13th, 1605, of old age. He was a great Greek scholar, and his edition of the New Testament was taken as the basis of the English version. BIBLE. The first translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, b}^ or- der of Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Alexandria, 277 B.C., or according to others 284 b.c. From the number of translators this is called the Septuagint. The oldest version of the Old and New Testaments is that in the Vatican, which was written in the fourth or fifth cen- tury. The next in age is the Alexandrian MS. in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., said to have been copied about the same time. The Old Testament was divided into twenty-two books by the Jews, according to the number of let- ters in the Hebrew alphabet. The Christians divided it into thirty -nine. The Hebrew di- vision into chapters was made by the Rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and partly into verses, by x\rch- bishop Langton, who died 1228 ; and the latter division was perfected by Robert Stephens, the eminent French printer, about 1534. The following are curious computations : In the Old Testament. In the New. Total. Books, 39 27 66 Chapters, 929 260 1,189 Verses, 23,214 7,959 31,173 Words, 592,493 181,253 773,746 Letters, 2,728,100 838,380 3,566,480 The Apocrypha has 183 chapters, 6,081 verses, and 125,185 words. The middle chapter, and the least in the Bible, is the 117th Psalm ; the middle verse is the 8th of the 118th Psalm; the middle line is the 2d book of the Chronicles, 4th chapter, and 15th verse. The word 'and' occurs in the Old Testament 35,535 times ; the same word in the New Testament occurs 10,684 times ; the word ' Jehovah ' occurs in the Old Testament 6,855 times. The middle book of the Old Testament is Proverbs ; the middle chapter is the 29th of Job ; the middle verse is in the 2d book of Chronicles, 20th chapter and 13th verse ; the least verse is the 1st book of Chron- icles, 1st chapter, and 1st verse. The middle book of the New Testament is the second epistle to the Thessalonians ; the middle chap- ter is between the 13th and 14th of the Ro- mans; the middle verse is the I7th of the 17th chapter of the Acts; the least verse is the 35th verse of the 11th chapter of the Gos- pel by St. John. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the al- phabet in it. The 19th chapter of the 2d book of Kings, and the 37th chapter of Isaiah, are alike. The book of Esther has 10 chapters, but neither the words Lord nor God in it. The Bible was translated into Saxon in 939. The Vulgate version in Latin was made by St. Jerome, and is that acknowledged by the Roman Catholic church as avithentic : it was first printed in 1462. In 1604, a great con- ference was held at Hampton Court, between BIB 122 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the established and the puritan clergy. The existing English version was condemned. James I. therefore appointed fifty-four men, many of whom were eminent as Hebrew and Greek scholars, to commence a new transla- tion. In IGOT, forty-seven of these met, in six parties, at Oxford, Cambridge, and West- minster, and proceeded to their task, a certain portion of Scripture being assigned to each. Everj- individual of each division, in the first place, translated the portion given to the di- vision, all of which translations were collated ; and when each party had determined on the construction of its part, it was proposed to the other divisions for their examination. When they met together one read the new version, whilst all the rest held in their hands either copies of the original, or some valuable version, and on any one objecting to a passage the reader stopped till it was agreed upon. The result, known as King James's version, was published in 1611, and is that still in use throughout Great Britain and the United States. It is an excellent specimen of the language of the time, and being universally read by all classes of the people, it has con- tributed most essentially to give stability and uniformity to the English tongue. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible made the di- alect of Upper Saxony the language of all Germany. The Holland tongue or Low Dutch, as now spoken, has for its basis the German language in use before this time. The Bible was printed in Spanish, 1478 ; in German, 1522 ; in French, 1535 ; in Swed- ish, 1541 ; in Danish, 1550 ; in Dutch, 1560 ; in Russian, 1581 ; in Hungarian, 1589 ; in Polish, 1596; in modern Greek, 1638; in Turkish, 1666 ; in Irish, 1685 ; in Portuguese, 1748 ; in Manx, 1771 ; in Italian, 1776 ; in Bengalee, 1801; in Tartar, 1813 ; in Persian, 1815; in African, 1816; in Chinese, 1820. A polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, Bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek and Latin languages, was printed in 1657. The books known as the Apocrypha, in an old preface to which it is said, "These books are nej'ther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde," were not in the Jewish canon, but were received as canonical by the Romish church at the council of Trent in 1545. We present a succinct sketch of the history of our English Bible. The English version of the Scriptures now in use, is itself the result of repeated revisions. In the preface to the Bishop's Bible (a.d. 1568) a distinct reference is made to early Saxon versions, and there are still extant, parts of the Bible in Saxon, translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and by J^Ilfric of Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. of the Gospels are still preserved in the libra-' ries of the British Museum, and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. The first complete translation of the Bible was made by Wick- liffe, about a.d. 1380. It existed only in manuscript for many years, but the whole is now in print (New Testament 1731 ; Old Tes- tament, 1848). The work was regarded with grave suspicion ; and a bill was introduced into the House of Lords for suppressing it ; but through the influence of John of Gaunt, this was rejected. In 1408, however, in a convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved that no one should translate any text of Scrip- ture into English, as a book or tract, and that no book of the kind should be read. This resolution led to great persecution, though there is reason to believe, that notwithstand- ing, many manuscripts of Scripture were at that time in extensive circulation throughout England. The first printed edition of the Bible in English, was published by Tyndale, the New Testament in 1526J and the Bible in part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop of London, and Sir Thomas More took great pains to biry up and burn the impression, but with the effect thereby, of enabling the translator to publish a larger and improved edition. On the death of Tyndale (who died a martyr to the truth). Miles Coverdale revised the whole, and dedicated it to Henry VIII., 1535, and in 1537, John Rogers, who had assisted Tyn- dale, and was then residing at Antwerp, re- printed an edition, taken from Tjmdale and Coverdale. This edition was published under the assumed name of Thomas Matthews. A revision of this edition again was published (a.d. 1539) by Richard Taverner. The Great Bible appeared in 1539. It was Coverdale's, revised by the translator, under the sanction of Cranmer. It was printed in large folio. For the edition of 1540, Cranmer wrote a pre- face, and it is hence called Cranmer's Bible. It was published "by authority," and was ordered in 1549 to be read in the churches. BIB HISTORY AND li f (> G P. A P H Y 123 READING THE BIBLE TO THE PEOPLE. During the seven years of the reign of Edward VI., eleven editions of the Scriptures were printed : but no new version or revision was attempted. During the reign of Mary, was pubHshed the Geneva Bible, a.d. 1557-60. Ooverdale and others who had taken refuge in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal an- notations. Archbishop Parker obtained au- thority from Queen Elizabeth, to revise the existing translations, and with the help of va- rious bishops and others, published in 1568 what was called the Bishops' Bible. It con- tains short annotations, and in the smaller editions (from 1589) the text is divided, like the Genevan, into verses. The same text was afterward printed, in 1572, in a larger size, and with various prefaces, under the name of Matthew Parker's Bible. It contin- ued in common use in the churches for forty years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps more read in private. The Rhemish New Testament, and the Douay Old Testament, form the English Bible of the Romanists. The former was printed at Rheims (a.d. 1582), and the latter at Douay (a.d. 1609-10). In 1603, King James resolved on a revision of the translation, and for this purpose appointed fifty-four men of learning and piety. Forty- seven only undertook the work, and in four years (from 1607-11) it was completed. The text as thus prepared and printed in 1611, is the authorized version. The first Bible printed on the continent of America was m native Indian ; the New Tes- tament in 1661, and the Old in 1663; both translated by Rev. John Eliot, and printed at Cambridge, Mass. As the title records, it was " translated into the Indian language, and ordered to be printed by the Commissioners of the United Colonies in New England, at the charge and with the consent of the Cor- poration in England for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Indians in New Eng- land." Printed by Samuel Green and Mar- maduke Johnston. In the emphatic words of Dr. Cotton Mather, this was then "the only Bible that ever was printed in all America from the very foundation of all the world." BIB 124: COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF The second was in German, a quarto edition published at Germantown near Philadelphia, by Christopher Sower, in 1676. The first edition in English was printed by Kneeland and Green, at Boston in 1752, in small quarto. It was published by Henchman, a bookseller ; but to avoid prosecution from those who had a royal patent, the title-page of the English copy, London imprint and all, was reprinted. The next edition was issued by Robert Aitken, of Philadelphia, in 1781-2. He sent a memo- rial to Congress, praying for their patronage. His memorial was referred to a committee, who obtained the opinion of the chaplains of Congress as to the general typographical ac- curacy of his impression; and thereupon a resolution was passed Sept 12th, 1782, rec- ommending this edition of the Bible to the people of the United States. BIDDLE, James, commodore in the navy of the United States, was born in Philadel- phia in 1783. He distinguished himself in the war of 1812, and was an officer on the Wasp when she took the British brig FroHc. March 23d, 1815, Biddle, then in command of the sloop Hornet, met with the British brig- of-war Penguin, off Tristan d'Acunha, and captured her after an action of only twenty- two minutes. He sen-ed as a diplomatist, and signed the commercial treaty with Turkey in 1832. In 1845 he was interim commis- sioner to China in the place of A. H. Everett. He died in 1848. BIDDLE, Nicholas, captain in the United States navy, was born at Philadelphia in 1750, and was a midshipman in the British service. He served in the infant navy of his country during the war for independence, and was very successful, till March 7th, 1778, when, in action in the West Indies with the Yar- mouth, the Randolph, which he commanded, blew up. His crew numbered three hundred and fifteen. But four escaped, and Capt. Bid- die was among the lost BIDDLE, Nicholas, an eminent financier, was born in Philadelphia, Jan. 8th, 1786. His father was a strong patriot during the Revolution. Nicholas graduated at Princeton College in 1801 with high honor, studied law, and accompanied Gen. Armstrong, minister to France, as private secretary in 1804, and was afterward secretary to Mr. Monroe at the court of St. James. Returning from foreign travel, he commenced practice at Philadelphia in 1807, and also engaged in literary occupa- tions, preparing the account of Lewis and Clarke's expedition to the Pacific shore. In 1823 he was chosen president of the United States Bank, and was active in defense of that institution against the hot war that was waged upon it. After its bankruptcy, he retired in 1839 to his estate of Andalusia, on the Dela- ware near Philadelphia, where he died in 1844. BIEVRE, Marquis de, marshal, born in 1747, died in 1789. He was much celebrated for ready repartees and puns. When pre- sented to Louis XV., the following dialogue took place. Louis. Give me a specimen of your wit. B. Give me a subject, sire. Louis. Take me. B. Sire, the king is no subject. BINGEN ; a town in Hesse Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine; population, 5,000. In its vicinity is the famous Mouse Tower, connected with which is the following tale. In a time of great famine. Bishop Hatto played the usurer, to the distress and ruin of many poor people. For this he is said to have met a dreadful punishment. Thousands on thou- sands of mice pouring into his dwelling, com- pelled him to seek refuge in his tower on the Rhine. But here he enjo3"ed but a brief interval of rest. The army of mice swam the river, scaled the rocky precipice, and leaped into the tower, at every cranny, grate, and loop-hole. The bishop attempted to pray, but his utterance failed; he listened to the noise of the mice as they swiftly approached his turret-chamber. At length they gained an entrance, and devoured the prelate, tearing the flesh from his bones, and leaving him a mere skeleton. BIRD, William, 1540-1 023, an admired English musician, the composer of the great canon, " Non Nobis Domine." BIREN, Ernst John von, Duke of Cour- land, born 1687, died 1772. He is said to have been the son of Buhren, a peasant of Courland. He gained the favor of Anna, Duchess of Courland, afterward Empress of Russia, by his beauty and accomplishments, and when his mistress was raised to the throne, was not forgotten by her. While in power, he was fierce, resentful, and am- bitious, and caused the death of thousands. After the death of Anna, a conspiracj^ was formed against him, and he was banished to BIR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 125 Siberia. But he was recalled on the acces- sion of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, to the throne. After another exile of twenty-five years, he was again recalled by Peter III., and, during the reign of Cathe- rine 11., continued to enjoy thg royal favor until his death. BIRMA, or the Birman empire, extends over more than a fourth of the peninsula be- yond the Ganges, having an area of about 184,000 squai-e miles, and a population of four millions. The Birmans of Ava made themselves independent of Pegu, in the six- teenth century, but were reconquered in the eighteenth. The spirit of independence, however, was abroad, and Alompra, one of the leaders of the Birmans, kindled anew the flame of revolt in 1753, and recovered the city of Ava. Various fortunes followed, till Alompra finally made himself master of the city of Pegu. This monarch, whose abilities were devoted to the good of his subjects, died in 1760, at the age of fifty years, leaving his throne to his son Namdogee, who inherited his father's spirit and talent, and died in 1764. Shambuan, his brother, was victorious in a war with China, during which Siam, which he had previously conquered, regained its independence. In 1776, this prince left his empire, greatly extended, to his son Chengenza, who in consequence of excessive debauchery, was dethroned and put to death in 1782. Shembuan Menderagan, the fourth son of Alompra, was placed by the revolution on the throne. In 1783, he subdued Arra- can. A war with Siam, in which he next engaged, resulted, in 1793, in the submis- sion of that kingdom upon certain terms. The refusal of the East India Company to deliver up some Birman refugees, who were robbers, brought on a war with Shembuan, which was soon amicably concluded. Shem- buan's grandson ascended the throne in 1819. In 1826, a war which had broken out between the Burmese and English, ended in a ti-eaty, by which the king of the white elephant and the golden feet (titles of the monarchs of Birmah) ceded to the East In- dia Company large tracts on the western coast of his empire, including Arracan, Mer- guy, Tavay, and Yea. Assam became inde- pendent, and Rangoon was declared a free port. The Birmese also paid a million sterling as indemnit)^ In 1852, further hos- tilities were ended by the British conquest of Pegu. The Birmans are gay, irritable, active, and fond of show. No man is per- mitted to have more than one wife, and capital punishment is extended to confirmed opium eaters and drunkards in general. The bodies of the dead are burned. The com- merce of the Birmese is extensive, and the merchants make use of bars of gold, silver, and lead in the place of coin. The people are fond of amusements, particularly dramatic spectacles. Education is not wholly neg- lected among them, ever}^ one learning arith- metic, reading, and writing. They have uncleanly fashions in eating, gormandizing on reptiles, lizards, iguanas, and snakes. Fried worms and ants are choice dishes. Their faith forbids the killing of animals for food; hence they eat those that die of disease. Thej^ are Buddhists in religion. BIRON, Charlks de Gontaut, Duke of; an intriguing nobleman in the reign of Henry IV. of France, tried on a charge of treason, and beheaded July 31st, 1602. BITHYNIA, an ancient country of Asia Minor, also called Bebrycia. It lay on the Pontus Euxinus, the Thracian Bosphorus, and the Propontis, and was bounded on the south by Phrygia, It was held successively by the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. It afforded for some time an asylum to Hannibal, who was at last delivered up. Nicomedes III., the last king, be- queathed the kingdom to the Romans, b.c. 75. In 1298, the Ottoman Turks founded their empire here ; previous to which, the Seljuks had conquered it in the eleventh centurj^. BLACK HOLE. One hundred and forty- six British gentlemen, merchants and others, in the service of the East India Company, were seized by order of Surajah Dowlah, June 20th, 1756, and thrust into a dungeon at Calcutta, called the Black Hole, in the fort, by his soldiers. These latter saw that the place was too small for such a number, but they feared to awaken the nabob, then asleep, for further orders. One hundred and twenty- three of the sufferers died before morning, having been suffocated by the heat, crushing, and stench of a dungeon only eighteen feel square. BLACK SEA, the Eusine of the ancients, BLA 126 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF an inland sea between Europe and Asia Minor, covering about 170,000 square miles. It is connected with the Sea of Azof by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kcrtsch, and with the Mediterranean through the Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. This sea was navigated early by the Greeks, and well frequented by the Romans. It was also much visited by the Genoese, till it was closed to all nations by the Turks from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The Russians gained admission by treaty in 1774. In 1779, it was partially opened to British and other traders. It was entered by the British and French fleets, Jan. 3d, 1854, at the requisi- tion of the Porte, after the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30th, 1853. BLACKLOCK, Thomas, a poet and cler- gyman, bon. at Annan, in 1721. Although deprived of sight in infancy, he became famoas for his acquirements, and took a high station among the literati of Scotland. He died July, 1791. BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, an inferior English poet and superior physician, born 1650, and died October 8th, 1729. BLACKSTONE, Sir William, an English lawyer of great celebrity, and a writer on the British constitution, was born in London, in 1723, He was the son of a silk mercer, l»ut being left an orphan, was brought up and educated bj^ Mr. Thomas Bigg, hLs uncle, a surgeon. He left Pembroke College, Ox- ford, with a high reputation, and, in 1746, after faithful preparatory study, was admitted to the bar and commenced practice. His progress was slow, owing to his deficiency in elocution ; and he accordingly determined to forsake the practice of the law, and retire to his fellowship at Oxford. In 1759, when several of his legal works had attracted the attention of the public, he resumed practice, and honors and emoluments poured in upon him. In 1761, he was chosen member of parliament from Hindon, made king's coun- sel, and solicitor-general to the queen ; about this time, also, he married. In 1765, the first volume of his "Commentaries on the Laws of England" appeared, and was pro- nounced superior to any work upon the same subject which had before been published. In 1770 he was made one of the justices of common pleas, and he died in his fifty -seventh year, 1780. BLACKSTONE, William, the first white inhabitant of Boston, was a clergyman of the church of England, and had built his cottage among the Indians five years before the arrival of Winthrop in 1630. He did not relish the neighborhood of the Puritans. " I came," said he, "from England because I did not like the lord bishops, but I can not join with you, because I would not be under the lord brethren," and in 1634 he removed to the bank of the Pawtucket or Blackstone River, near Providence, where he died in 1675. BLADENSBURG, Md., six miles north- east of Washington, is memorable for a severe skirmish, Aug. 24th, 1814, between a small force of Americans and a portion of the Brit- ish army marching to destroy the capital. Bladensburg was formerly much resorted to as a dueling ground. Decatur and Barron met here. BLAIR, James, was bom in Scotland, about 1660. In 1683, he was sent out to America, as a missionary, by Dr. Compton, Bishop of London ; and by the same prelate, was ap- pointed in 1685, his commissary in Virginia. It was at the lattei' epoch, that he conceived the plan, and by unwearied exertions, suc- ceeded in founding a college at Williams- burg. The patent for the college was granted by William and Marj', about 1693, and from its founders the institution was named Wil- liam and Mary College. Mr. Blair was first president; and having filled the ministry sixty, and the presidency of the college fifty years, he died in 1743, BLAIR, High, an eloquent divine, was born at Edinburgh in 1718, and made preach- er of the High Church in that city in 1758. Having acquired a high reputation by his lec- tures on composition, he was made professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres at Edinburgh, in 1762. BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch clergyman, author of " The Grave." Born at Edinburgh in 1699, he died in 1746. BLAKE, Robert, one of the most renowned of England's naval heroes, was born at Bridgewater, in August, 1599. At Oxford where he was educated, he was noted for his strictness in religion, and his libcralitj^ in BLA HISTOEY AND BIOGEAPHY. 127 politics. At the outbreak of the civil war he raised one of the first troops, and was among the ablest of the soldiers who fought for the parliament. He held Taunton during a long siege, and successfully defended it against a large body of royalists under Goring. When the war was over, he was put in command of the ships that were sent against Prince Rupert's piratical squadron. The navy was not then the separate branch of defense that it now is. A successful general was thought competent to command a fleet. Blake was fifty years of age, but he adapted himself at once to the element on which he was to sur- pass all his former prowess. War broke out between the English and Dutch in 1652. Desperate naval battles ensued. Once, and once only, was he beaten by Van Tromp, but then the Dutch force was twice the English. He nearly destroyed the Dutch navy in two years, and Holland sued for peace. Cromwell sent him to the Mediter- ranean. He forced Algiers and Tunis to surrender their English captives. He com- pelled the knights of Malta and the Tuscan government to pay "for the seizure of English merchantmen, and made the pope smart for having allowed them to be sold in his ports. When the Spanish war began, he blockaded Cadiz. His last and most daring exploit was at Santa Cruz in TenerifFe in April, 1657. Here he destroyed sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and pro- tected by the castle and forts on the shore. Lord Clarendon said, "It was so miracu- lous, that all who knew the place wondered any sober man, with what courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it ; and the victors could hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had done ; whilst the sur- viving Spaniards thought that they were devils and not men, who had destroyed their ships in such a manner." The terror of Blake's name was so great, that it was used by the Dutch and Spaniards to quell their children. The great admiral sickened upon his return to England, and died in sight of the shores he had so stoutly defended. Cromwell caused him to be buried with fitting pomp in Westminster Abbey, but after the restoration his body was torn from its vault and coflBn, and thrown into a pit in the neighboring church-yard of St. Margaret's BLAKELEY, Johnston, born in Ireland 1781, was a distinguished naval officer in the service of the United States. In 1800 he received a midshipman's warrant, and. in 1813 was appointed to the command of the AVasp. In an action with the Reindeer in 1S14, he took her in nineteen minutes, but was forced to abandon her, as she was so completely cut up. The loss of the Ameri- cans in killed and wounded was- twenty-one ; that of the British sixty-seven. After an engagement with the brig Avon, which was forced to strike, although three other Eng- lish vessels were in sight, the Wasp was spoken by a vessel oft' the Western Isles, since which time she has not been heard of Blakeley left an only daughter, who was edu- cated by the state of North Carolina. BLANCHARD, Francois, one of the ear- liest aeronauts, born at Andelys, in France, in 1738. He showed an early fondness for mechanics, and in his sixteenth year, in- vented a self-moving carriage, which carried him eighteen miles. In his nineteenth year he invented a hydraulic machine, and soon afterward a sort of flying ship. When the Montgolfiers made their discoveries, Blan- chard eagerly made use of them. In 1785, he crossed the channel from Dover to Calais, with Doctor Jefii-ies, a genileman of Boston, Mass. At one time the balloon sank so rap- idly, that although the aeronauts ha4 light- ened the car by throwing over all superfluous articles, even their clothes, they were in danger of losing their lives. HoAvever, the voj^age was finally accomplished in safety, and Blanchard was presented hj the King of France with 12,000 francs, and a pension of 1,200. In the same year he made use of a parachute in London. His forty-sixth ascent was made in the city of New York, 1796. In 1798 he went up from Rouen in a large balloon with sixteen persons. He died in 1809, after having made more than sixty -six aeronautic voyages. Madame Blanchard, after his death, continued to make voyages in the air. In June, 1819, she ascended from Paris, and was thought to be in safety, when her balloon took fire from some fireworks which she carried with her ; she fell from an immense height, and was dashed to pieces in the Rue de Provence. BLENHEIM, a village in Bavaria, on the BLE 128 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP Danube, is celebrated for the important vic- tory obtained there by the allies under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, over the French, commanded by Marshals Tallard and Margin, and the Elector of Bava- ria. In the war of the Spanish succession, Louis XIV., with the Elector of Bavaria for his only ally, was forced to contend against the strength of Holland, England, Austria, Savoy, Portugal, and the German empire. At the battle of Blenheim, which was fought August 13th, 1704, the allied forces amounted to about 52,000, and the French to 50,000, with great advantage of situation ; the latter, however, were completely beaten, with the loss of 27,000 killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter. BLOOD, circulation of, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Ca^salpinus published an account of the general circula- tion, of which he had some confused ideas, and improved it afterward by experiments, 1569 ; but it was fully confirmed by Harvey, 1628. BLOOD, TnoMAS, commonly called Col. Blood, a disbanded officer of Oliver Crom- well's household. With confederates he seized the Duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him as far as Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued. Blood was afterward notorious for his attempt to steal the crown and regalia from the Tower, in the disguise of a clergyman. Charles II. par- doned him, and even bestowed an estate of £500 per annum on him, while poor Edwards, keeper of the regalia, who was severely wounded in defending them, was passed by unnoticed. BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an English poet, born at Honington, in 1766. He was the son of a tailor, and, in 1781, he was sent to London, with his brother, to learn the shoe- making trade. He visited various places of public worship, the theatre, and a debating society, and found his faculties developed in a striking manner. His brother, hearing him one da}' repeat a song which he had com- posed, induced him to oifer it to the editor of the London Magazine^ by whom it was accepted and published. His poem of the "Farmer's Boy," composed in his London garret, was published by Capel Loffl, to v/hom it was first shown. The versification in this, as well as in the other poems of Bloomfield, is easy and correct. He was made by the Duke of Grafton under-sealer for the seal office, but ill health compelled him to relinquish this situation. He after- ward worked at his trade, and engaged in the book-trade, but he became bankrupt. He died in August, 1823. BLUCHER, Gebhaut Lebrecht von, a cel- ebrated Prussian general, who distinguished himself in the wars with France, particularly in 1813, 1814, and 1815, and who, by his timely arrival on the field of AYaterloo, de- cided the victory. The soldiers, in allusion to his promptitude in attack, called him Marshal Forward. He died Sept. 12th, 1819, aged seventy-seven. BLUM, Robert, a martyr for liberty in the German revolution of 1848. An obscure ar- tisan in Cologne, his native city, he attracted the attention of friends of freedom by his contributions to the press, and especially his exposure of the Romish humbug called " The Holy Coat of Treves." In the revolution of 1848 he was foremost for action, and full of fiery eloquence. Mixed up with the out- break in Vienna, he was seized by the Aus- trian government, and shot November 9th, 1848, in the forty-first year of life. BLUMENBACH, Jean Frederick, a cele- brated comparative anatomist, physiologist, and naturalist, born at Gotha, 1752, died at Gottingen, 1840. He was the first to estab- lish the division of the human race into five varieties, the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethio- pian, American, and Malay. His great desire was to prove the unity of the human species. BOADICEA, a British heroine, Queen of the Iceni. Her husband, for the security of his family, had made the Roman emperor co-heir with his daughters. But the Roman officers took possession of her palace, exposed the princesses to the brutality of the soldiers, and scourged the queen in public. Boadicea, urged to revenge by this usage, assembled her countrymen, and, in a masculine har- angue, roused them to madness, by describ- ing her own, her daughters', and her country's injuries. London was stormed, and 70,000 strangers were put to the sword. Suetonuis Paulinus defeated the Britons, and Boadicea poisoned herself in despair, a.d. 60. BOA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 129 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, a famous Italian author, born at Florence or Paris, 1313. His "Decameron" fixed his reputation, and the name of Boccaccio, according to Mazzuchelli, is equivalent to a thousand encomiums. The death of his friend and instructor, Petrarch, was a severe shock to him, and he died not more than a year after, at Certaldo in Tus- cany, Dec. 21st, 1375. BCEOTIA, a state of ancient Greece, lying north of Attica. Thebes, its capital, was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its gran- deur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its heroes and kings. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. From the general character of the inhabitants, the term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a synonym for dullness ; but unjustly, since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epam- inondas, and the accomplished and beautiful Corinna, were natives of Boeotia. The gov- ernment was an oligarchy. Boeotia was frequently at war with Attica and Sparta. By the valor of Epaminondas it became the leading power in Greece, but soon after his death, it fell with its sister states under the rule of Philip of Macedon. BOERHAVE, Hermann, one of the most famous physicians of the eighteenth century, born at Woorhout, near Leyden, December, 1608, died in 1Y38. People came to him from all parts of Europe for advice, and a Chinese mandarin wrote to him with the address, " To Boerhave, the celebrated phy- sician of Europe." His property amounted, at his death, to two million florins. BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Seveiunus, a man whose services, rewards, virtues, and unhappy end have made him famous, was born at Rome or Milan, about a.d. 470. Having received an admirable education and improved himself by travel, he was taken into favor by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, and rapidly raised to the highest offices of the empire. His strict jus- tice and uncompromising integrity acquired for him the hatred of the rapacious and unprincipled Goths ; the king became preju- diced against him, and had him arrested, imprisoned, and executed, a.d. 526 or 527. His most celebx-.ted work, on "The Conso- lations of Philosophy," consisting of prose 9 and verse, was composed by him in prison. Alfred the Great of England translated it for the benefit of his people. BOGOTA, at tho time the Spaniards con- quered South America, was one of the most civilized states of the country, and inhabited by the Muisca Indians. The valley of Bo- gota, famous for its fertility, was filled with Indians who rivaled in civilization the in- habitants of Cuzco. They traced their prosperit}'- to the instructions of Bochica. Gonzalo Ximenes di Quesada efiected their conquest. BOHEMIA, a kingdom now forming a part of the Austrian empire; area 20,013 square miles; population in 1851, 4,409,900. Bo- hemia is surrounded by mountains and cov- ered with forests. All kinds of grain and fruits are exported. The mines yield silver, copper, tin, garnets, and other precious stones, iron, arsenic, alum, antimony, sulphur, &c. The kingdom derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic nation, who settled there about 600 B. c. About the middle of the sixth century it was inhabited by Slavonians, who were governed by their own dukes. Charlemagne made Bohemia tributary, but it did not long remain so. The first king received his title from the Emperor Henry IV., and in 1310 the house of Luxemburg succeeded to the throne. In 1526, Bohemia reverted. to the house of Austria, by whom it has bee^i ever since held. Bohemia produced the first re- formers, among whom were John Huss and Jerome of Prague, but at the present daj^ almost all the people are Catholics. The land is divided into estates of vast magnitude, and the peasantry are held in servitude. It is one of the most manufacturing districts of Austria. Bohemian glass has been noted since the thirteenth century. Many parts of the districts adjoining the northern and eastern ranges of mountains form one continued manufactory of linens, and thousands of humble cabins resound with the noise of the jenny or the loom. With the exception of Prague, the ancient capital, there are no large towns. BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicholas, born at Crosne, near Paris, in 1636. The future satirist was dull and sickly in youth, and described bj^ his father as a good-natured boy, who would never speak ill of anj' one. BOI loO COTTAdE CYCLOPEDIA OF After having studied diligently at the colleges i station between the Persians and Scythians, of Harcourt and Beauvais, he entered upon I with much of the polish of the former, and the career of the law, which he soon relin- 1 little of the ferocity of the latter. Their de- quished for the more congenial pursuit of ' scendants still retain many of the character- belles-lettres. His satire, "Les Adieux a Paris," first displayed his talents. He pub- lished many works, his "Art Poetique" being the most popular. He was opposed by many writers, to confound whom he wrote his unrivaled mock-heroic poem, the "Lutrin." He died of the dropsy in ITII, bequeathing almost all his property to the poor. BOKHARA, a countr}-^ in the interior of Asia, the Sogdiana and Bactria of antiquity. It is the south-eastern part of Independent Tartary, or Turkistan. The city of Bokhara has a population of about 150,000, and is the most commercial town of central Asia. Some centuries ago this and the neighboring city of Samarcand were famous as seats of learn- ing, and were sought by students from all the Mohammedan countries of Asia. Balkh, in the ancient Bactria, is one of the most celebrated cities of the eastern world. An- ciently it was famed for its splendor, ex- tent, and magnificence. Alexander the Great, in his eastern campaign, married the daugh- ter of a Bactrian chief This chief, who defended himself bravely against the Mace- donians, while his family was placed upon a precipitous rock, was named Oxyartes. The garrison of the rocky fortress, when sum- moned to surrender, answeied Alexander contemptuously that if his men were winged, he might intimidate them, but as it was, their position was impregnable. Alexander offered rewards to those who would attempt to ascend the rock, and three hundred of the most expert that volunteered were selected. In the interstices of the rock, and in the ice upon its face, the climbers stuck iron pegs, and ascended the most precipitous parts in the night-time. Some of the first who ventured, fell headlong, but the summit was gained by a determined band. By order of Alexander, the Macedonians shook before the eyes of the barbarians long strips of linen, intimating that they had foimd wings. The garrison immediately surrendered, tacitly proving the correctness of Alexander's favorite maxim, that no place was impregnable to the brave, or secure to the timorous. istics of the Bactrians of former days. Their women were famed for the brilliancy of their dark, shining eyes, the delicate and correct formation of their features, and the richness and transparency of their complexions. Eox- ana, the daughter of Oxyartes, was not only distinguished above those of her nation in beauty, but, with the single exception of the wife of Darius, was the loveliest of Asiatic women. The conduct of Alexander toward his dazzling captive was honorable ; having conceived a warm attachment to her, he mar- ried her, pui'suant to the wishes of his fi-iend Hephfestion, but contrary to the advice of Craterus. The fears of Oxyartes were ban- ished by Alexander's avowal of his attach- ment to his child. He came into the Mace- donian camp, and was received with every mark of attention and respect. Thus ties of friendship bound the Bactrians and Macedo- nians together. Alexander, according to Strabo, founded no fewer than eight cities in Sogdiana and Bactria. The city of Anderab retains still a part of Alexander's name. The Alexandria which the Macedogian mon- arch is said to have founded, was probably either Cabul, or else at no great distance from it. To return to Balk. In 1221 it was taken by Genghis Khan, who put to the sword nearly all its inhabitants. BOLEYN, Anne, second wife of Heniy VIII. of England, was probably born about 1500. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn. Her early years were spent in attendance on Henry's sister, the wife of Louis XII. of France, on whose death she became maid of honor to Queen Catherine. Henry having procured a divorce from the latter, married Anne privately, and when she became a mother publicly acknowledged her as queen. Her child was the famous Eliza- beth. The tyrant conceiving a passion for Jane Seymour, caused Anne to be tried for high treason and infidelity. She suffered on the scaffold, May 19th, 1536, Henry consid- eiing it an act of great clemency to save her from the stake. She was beautiful, gay, and : witty, and in her last moments self-possessed. The Bactrians were a race holding a middle I " She sent her last message to the king," says BOL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 131 Hume, "and acknowledged the obligations which she owed him in' uniformly continuing her advancement. From a private gentle- woman, you have made me, first a marchion- ess, then a queen ; and as you can raise me no higher in this world, you are now sending me to be a saint in heaven." BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Vis- count, was born at Battersea, in 1672, of an ancient and distinguished fanuly. His bril- liant talents, elegant manners, and personal attractions secured him a warm welcome in society; but, unhappily, until his twenty- third year his career was stained with those vices which spring from the impetuous tem- per of youth. His marriage with a beautiful heiress did not produce the happiness which his parents had looked for, and the young couple separated forever after a short connec- tion. The moment he obtained a seat in the House of Commons, he distinguished himself by industry, activity, eloquence, and strong judgment. In 1704 he was made secretary of war, but when the Whigs came into place, he sent in his resignation. The Whig party being prostrated, Bolingbroke received the department of foreign affairs, and concluded the peace of Utrecht. During the height of party contention between the Whigs and To- ries, immediately after the conclusion of peace, a quarrel occurred between Boling- broke and Harley, then lord high treasurer, and Queen Anne, provoked with the latter, dismissed him four days before her death, and made Bolingbroke prime minister. The scene was speedily reversed by the death of Anne. George I. ascended the throne, the Whigs triumphed, and Bolingbroke, learn- ing that his enemies intended to impeach him, fled to Lorraine, and was made secre- tary of state by the Pretender, who, however, becoming displeased with him, deprived him of this dignity and conferred it on the Duke of Ormond. His attainder having been partly reversed, he returned to England in 1723, opposed the ministry for eight years, and again went to France. In France, in 1735, he published his "Letters upon Histo- ry," which, however admirable, were blamed for attacking revealed religion. In 1738, he returned to his country, where he died of a lingering and painful disease in 1751. BOLIVAR, Simon, the most prominent actor in the events which produced the inde- pendence of a large portion of South America, was born in the city of Caraccas, July 24th, 1783, of a distinguished and noble Venezue- lan family. After acquiring the elements of a liberal education in South America, he visited Spain, and spent some time in travel- ing in Europe, chiefly in the south of France. Returning for a while to Madrid, he married, and carried his wife to'his native land, where he thought to enjoy in peace the comforts of domestic life. The death of his wife put an end to his blissful visions, and he again went to Europe, partly to dissipate his grief. On his return, he traveled through the United States, where his love of libertj'- settled into an indelible passion, and we find him actively engaged in promoting the early movement in Caraccas, April, 1810, and receiving a colo- nel's commission from the supreme junta then established. He sided with the patriots of Venezuela, and, after the declaration of inde- pendence, July 5th, 1811, served under Gen- eral Miranda, against a party in Valencia who declared against the principles and meas- ures of the revolutionists. After some ill success in Venezuela, which is attributable to treachery of others rather than a want of talent on his part, Bolivar escaped to Cura(,oa. He could not, however, content himself with being a cold spectator of events in which the lives and fortunes of his countrymen were risked, and accordingly he came to Carthagena in 1812, and entered into the service of the patriots of New Grenada. His expedition against Teneriffe, on the river Magdalena, was successful, he drove the Spaniards before him in his triumphant ad- vance, and entered the city of Ocana in triumph, thus inspiring general confidence in the patriot cause, and attracting the attention of all to it and to himself. He next expelled the Spanish forces fi-om Cucuta, and con- ceived the plan of freeing Venezuela from the Spaniards, a task which he accomplished by the 4th of August, 1813. At the assembly of Caraccas, Jan. 2d, 1814, the power which was vested in the hands of Bolivar as com- mander of the liberating army, was con- firmed. If we carefully trace the military career of Bolivar, we shall find him alter- nately meeting with success, and struggling with reverse ; displaying, both in triumph BOL 132 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF and defeat, the noble daring of a gallant war- rior, the rare talents of a military chieftain, and the unjielding perseverance of a true patriot. At length he had the satisfaction of beholding the arms of the patriots triumph- ant in evei'y quarter, their banners moving onward in pride and splendor, and the pha- lanx of opposition becoming daily more and more feeble. In May, 1826, Bolivar presented to the congress of Upper Peru, which had formed the independent state of Bolivia, the consti- tution, which, at their request, he had pre- pared. Meanwhile a rebellion had broken out in Venezuela, headed by Paez, who con- sidered himself aggrieved, and the fair fruits of liberty, won with many a day of bloody toil, appeared in danger of being lost. It was Bolivar alone who could and did quell this insurrection. The Bolivian code, which, among its prominent features, provided that the executive authority should be vested in the hands of the president for life, was adopted as the constitution of Bolivia, Dec. 9th, 1826, and Bolivar, then absent, was declared its president. If the provisions of the Boli- vian code had alarmed the friends of liberty, what was their terror when they beheld Bolivar, whom they suspected of ambitious designs, placed for life at the head of the government. The Colombian auxiliary army, then in Peru, rapidly revolutionized the government, and induced the Peruvians to renounce the Bolivian code. Strenuous op- position to Bolivar was made in Colombia bj^ the republicans, who imagined that he was ready to emulate the career of Napoleon, although he had repeatedly expressed a wish to retire from the presidency. However, in 1828, a decree, dated Bogota, Aug. 2Tth, gave him the supreme power in Colombia. The authority reposed in him gave the repub- licans no little alarm, but Bolivar did not live long to exercise it. Looking back upon his career, if there appear occasionallj- a desire to exalt himself above his fellows, we nmst grant him that rare union of civil and military abilities, that courage in adver- sity and moderation in prosperity, which were alone capable of achieving the regeneration of his country. He died Dec. 17th, 1830. BOLIVIA, a republic of South America, comprising 374,480 square miles, andcontain- I ing about 1,650,000 inhabitants. It was ori. j ginally called Upper Peru, and belonged to the Spanish vice-ro3'alty of Buenos Ayres. I Its independence of Spain was declared Aug. 6th, 1824, and the following year the name of Bolivia was assumed in honor of General Bol- ivar. Its mountains contain rich silver mines, but they are now little worked. Like its sis- ter republics Bolivia has been sadly distressed by intestine wars. Chuquisaca is the capital ; population 26,000. It was founded by one of Pizarro's officers on the site of an old Peruvian town called Choque Chaka, or 'bridge of gold;' the treasures of the incas having passed through it on their way to Cuzco. A hun- dred years ago Potosi had a hundred thousand dwellers. Its silver mines were then indus- triously worked. Now there are hardly 30,000 inhabitants, half of whom are Peruvian Indians. BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland Isles, in the Baltic. It was bom- barded by the French and English in August, 1854, and the Russians surrendered on tht> 16th. The fortifications were den.olished. BONAPARTE. Charles Buonaparte, a young lawyer of Ajaccio, in Corsica, wedded Letitia Ramolini, one of the most beautiful and accomplished girls of the island. Thir- teen children were the offspring of this union, eight of whom survived to maturity : Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, Jerome, Eliza, Pau- line, and Caroline. The father died early. The mother lived to witness the grandeur of her great son, and to mourn his death in the sea-girt isle which injustice made his prison. She died at Rome, in October, 1832, aged eighty -two. She was a vs^oman of great beau- ty, great courage, and great mind. In her nineteenth year, Aug. 15th, 1769, upon a couch whose tapestry was embroidered with the heroes and battles of the " Iliad," she gave birth to Napoleon, one of the most extraor- dinary characters recorded in history, distin- guished alike for his extraordinary fortunes, his civil talents, and his military genius. Af- ter receiving the rudiments of a classical ed- ucation, he entered the military school at Brienne, where he was distinguished by the gravity of his character, and his sedulous study of the mathematics. Even his sports partook of his graver pursuits. On the oc- currence of a day which was commonly con- BON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 133 sidered a holiday, Bonaparte's instructors con- fined him and his companions to the school grounds. The young engineer constructed a mine with great ingenuity, which in exploding blew down the walls and enabled the juvenile rebels to escape. When he could enlist no young recruits in his mimic armies, Napoleon would use flints as substitutes for soldiers, and marshal them with great care. A boy who distui'bed his array was severely pun- ished by Napoleon. Many years after, when the imperial diadem was on his head. Napo- leon was informed that one of his old school- mates desired an interview. He assured the chamberlain that the emperor would recollect him if he mentioned that there was a deep scar on his forehead. When the emperor was informed of this, he said, "I do not forget how he got that scar. I threw a general at his head at Brienne." At sixteen, he received the commission of second lieutenant in the regiment of Lafere, which he joined at Valence. At twenty he was promoted to a captaincy, and in Decem- ber, 1703, had obtained the command of the artillery train in the attack on Toulon, then occupied by the English. The originality of his plans won the siege for the French. One of the deputies of. the convention wrote to Carnot : " I send you a young man who dis- tinguished himself very much during the siege, and earnestly recommend to you to ad- vance him speedily. If you do not, he will most assuredly advance himself" But with the exception of a brief service the next spring as commandant of the artillery in the army of Italy, he was for some time left inac- tive. Want pinched him. He dreamed of the orient, and thought of oiFering his sword to the grand seignior. " How odd it would be," said he, " were a little Oorsican officer to become king of Jerusalem." Stranger hap- penings than that were to be. Once he was on the brink of suicide, when a timely loan from an old comrade gave him the means of life. In 1795, when some of the sections of Paris rose in insurrection against the national con- vention, the command of the troops was in- trusted to him. His cannon dispersed the mob, the Directory was established, and Na- poleon made military governor of the metrop- olis. He was at that time very thin, although BON distinguished for corpulency in the latter part of his life. On one occasion he gained a blood- less victory over a rabble whose exertions were stimulated by a very fat old woman. "There," cried she, "look at the soldiers! they're the wretches that fatten in idleness while we starve." " Look at her and look at me," said Napoleon, " and tell us which is the fattest." This raised a laugh, and the popu- lace dispersed quietly. On this, as on many other occasions, his knowledge of human na- ture was apparent. The 6th of March, 1796, Napoleon was mar- ried to Josephine Tascher Beauharnais, and just before, through the influence of Barras, their mutual friend, and one of the directory, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Italy. The French lay on the cold slopes of the maritime Alps. Their foes were snug upon the warm plains of Italy. The French soldiers were ragged, hungered, and dispirited. The glowing vigor of their young general gave them new nerve and hope. He led them into Sardinia at once, and defeated the surprised Austrians at Montenotte, the 11th of April. " My patent of nobility," said he afterward to the Emperor of Austria, " dates from the field of Montenotte." He astounded the veteran warriors with whom he coped, by the rapidity of his maneuvres and his defiance of ancient tactics. " War," said he, "is the science of barbarians. He who has the heaviest battalions will conquer." The troops of his foes far outnumbered his own ; he attacked them in detached portions, and conquered them by piecemeal. The bat- tles of Millesimo, Mondovi, and Lodi followed in a month, and he entered Milan in triumph. Sardinia had been cowed into peace. It was after the hot contest of Lodi, that Napoleon's veterans dubbed him with the pet name he never lost, "the little corporal." Napoleon has said, " It was not till after the terrible passage of the bridge of Lodi, that the thought shot across my mind that I might become a decisive actor in the political arena. Then arose, for the first time, the spark of great ambition." More soldiers from Austria: more battles. At Castiglione, Roveredo, Bas- sano. Areola, and Rivoli, the French were victorious, and the stubborn Wurmser at last yielded Mantua. The Austrians were driven from Italy. In ten months, Napoleon, with lu COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 55,000 men, including all recruits, had con- quered five grand armies, composed of over 200,000 highly disciplined Austrian troops, and headed bj such veterans as Beaulieu, Wurmser,_ and Alvinzi. At times it had seemed as if the handful of French must be overwhelmed, but the genius of their leader had brought them through. They had taken a hundred thousand prisoners, and killed and wounded thirty -five thousand men. Napoleon crossed the Carnic Alps, threatened Vienna, defeated a fresh army under the gallant Arch- duke Charles, and forced Austria to the hu- miliating treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17th, 1797. One term of this treaty was the release of Lafiiyette from the dungeon of Olmutz. In Paris, the young conqueror of Italy was received with an enthusiasm that excited the greatest terror and jealousy in the govern- ment. To be rid of his presence they detailed him upon distant and difficult service. In 1798, he took the command of the army des- tined against Egypt, and on his passage from Toulon, captured Malta. He landed at Alex- andria, and after the capture of that city pushed on toward Cairo. The French formed in squares to receive the furious onsets of the Mamelukes. A corps of scientific men, who had been mounted on donkeys, accompanied the expedition. AVhenever a body of Mame- lukes approached, the order, ' ' Form square, savans andasses in the centre, " was greeted with jocund uproar by the soldiery. At the battle waged in sight of the pyramids, Napoleon said to his men, "Soldiers! from those summits forty centuries gaze upon you ! " The gazing centuries saw the rout of the Mamelukes, and the invaders masters of Cairo. Nelson's vic- tory in the Bay of Aboukir cut the expedition off from all supplies and reenforcements, yet in Egypt and Syria Napoleon was everywhere victorious except at Acre ; where, for want of besieging artillery, he was repulsed by Sir Sydney Smith. In October, 1799, the mis- government of France, and the disasters which had befallen the French troops, induced him to return, leaving Kleber in command inEgypt. He was received as a savior by the French nation, and on the 9th of November he de- posed the directory, and was proclaimed first consul of the republic. To England and Austria he made proffers of peace which were rejected. The hosts of tlie confederates threatened an invasion of the republic, and English fleets blockaded her coasts. Napoleon led a rapidlj^ gathered army over the crags of the Great St. Bernard, and descended like an avalanche upon the forces of Marshal Melas. The campaign opened at Montcbello, where Lannes with eight thousand men defeated eighteen thousand Austrians, though the latter were protected by the deadly fire of strong and commanding batteries. " I could hear the bones crash in my division, like glass in a hail-storm," said Lannes. The terrible victory of Marengo followed, on the 14th of June, 1800 : Melas, with his army of 120,000 was now utterh'^ discomfited, by half that immber, and Napoleon was once more master of Italy. An armistice was concluded. The conqueror left Massena in command of the triumphant army, and returned to Paris, where he again sought a fair peace with Aus- tria, and again unsuccessfully. Moreau, who commanded the grand army of the Rhine, ad- vanced and won the field "of Hohenlinden, and chased the fleeing Austrians within thirty miles of Vienna. Another armistice was had, and Feb. 9th, 1801, the peace of Luneville was completed, and the continent thus quieted. About this time many attempts were made to assassinate Napoleon. On Christmas eve, as he was on his way to the opera, the famous ' infernal machine,' a cart laden with gunpow- der and deadly missiles, was fired. He es- caped by an accidental moment of time. Eight persons were killed, and sixty wounded, of whom twenty afterward died. On both sides the way the houses were sadly shattered. Napoleon employed his leisure of peace in developing the resources of France. He planned and executed vast internal improve- ments, commenced the compilation of the civil code, and restored the observances of religion. He formed a great coalition against England, which was broken by the death of Paul, the Czar of Russia. The great antagonist nations paused for a breathing spell, and the peace of Amiens was concluded in March, 1802. About this time the Italian or Cisalpine republic, which he had founded in the north of Italy, chose Napoleon their president ; a few months after, the people of Finance elected him consul for life ; in May, 1804, he assumed the title of Napoleon I., Emperor of the French, and Dec. 2d was crowned at Paris by the BON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 135 pope. In March, 1805, he was declared King of Italy, and in May crowned at Milan. He had previously established his military order of the legion of honor and distributed the crosses which were the distinguishing badges. Of all to whom the cross of the legion of honor was tendered, Laftiyette alone declined it. Napoleon, either from want of true perception of moral greatness, or because the detestable servility of returning emigrants had taught him to think there was no such thing as honor or independence in man, exclaimed, when they told him that Lafayette refused the decoration^ "What, will nothing satisfy that man, but ' the chief command of the national guard of the empire?" Yes, much less abundantly satisfied him ; the quiet possession of the poor remnants of his estate, enjoj^ed without sacri- ficing his principles. England had previously renewed maritime hostilities with France, and in the fall of 1805, a mighty coalition reared itself against the new empire ; England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Afterward Prussia joined them. Five hundred thousand men menaced Napo- leon and France. The emperor broke up the powerful armament he had gathered at Bou- lognefortheinvasion of Great Britain, marched into Germany with his accustomed rapidity, and at Ulm captured 30,000 Austrians. In November, he entered Vienna, and on the 2d of December, gained the battle of Austerlitz, over the Emperors of Russia and Austria, after which he concluded peace with Austria, cre- ated the Electors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg kings, and made his brother Joseph King of Naples, and Louis King of Holland. The next year England, Prussia, and Rus- sia entered into, a new coalition. Napoleon invaded Prussia, and on the 14th of October, gained a decisive victory at Jena and Auer- stadt, by which the whole Prussian monarchy, and Germany to the Baltic, came under his authority. The man of destiny had now filled i- When his mind was deeply engaged, his snuff-box was in constant requisition. He once left his apartment for a few moments, and returned to take his box from the mantle- piece. He thought the snulf felt somewhat strangely, and calling to a dog that was lying near him, administered a pinch. The poor animal soon rolled over in the agonies of death; and Napoleon thenceforth kept his snuff in his waistcoat pockets, which he had sheathed with tin. From the royal palace at Berlin, Napoleon promulgated in retaliation the famous decree by which he proposed to exclude the trade of Britain from all the ports of the continent. In June, 1807, having overrun Poland, he to- tally defeated the Emperor of Russia at Eylau and Friedland, after which an interview took place between them on a raft in the Niemen. followed by the treat}' of Tilsit. In Novcmbei- of that year, he sent an army into Lisbon, tlius annihilating the British supremacy in Portugal, and driving the Portuguese court to the Brazils. On the. 5th of May, 1808, was concluded the treaty by which Charles IV. ceded all his rights in the crown of Spain. Joseph, brother of the emperor, wasproclaimed King of Spain, on the 6th of June. Hence arose the Peninsular war. On the 27th of September, in the same year, Napoleon had an amicable interview with the Emperor of Russia at Erfurt, and they jointlj' proposed peace with England, which was re- jected. On the 29th of October the emperor departed from Paris and placed himself at the head of the army in Spain, the right wing of which pursued Sir John Moore to Corunna, while he marched to Madrid and seated his brother on the Spanish throne. In the mean time, the Austrians took the field ; Napoleon hastened to oppose them, gained successive victories at Eckmuhl and Wagram, and in the latter battle a treaty of peace. On the 16th of December, 1809, he divorced Jose- Europe with the terror of his name, the bare phine, and on the 2d of April, 1810, married mention of which shook the crowned heads of the oldest monarchies of the continent with palsied apprehension. In vain the dagger, the mine, and the bowl had been prepared for him. His star had not yet begun to decline from the zenith. Napoleon was almost mirac ulously preserved from poison. It is well known that he was an inveterate snuff-taker. Maria Louisa, Archduchess of Austria. The 20th of March, 1811, was signalized by the birth of his son, who was crowned King of Rome. In the divorce of Josephine, Napoleon said at St. Helena, he stepped upon an abyss covered with flowers. The amitybetween Napoleon and Alexander cooled, and at last was wholly ruptured. In BON 136 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 1812, Napoleon assembled a great army in Poland, and invaded Russia, and having at the Borodino and at Moskwa gained bloody victories, he entered Moscow on the lith of September. That city became untenable, and the French retreated for winter quarters to- ward Poland, but an early and unusual frost setting in during their march, they lost their horses, were compelled to abandon their ar- tillery, and three-fourths of the army perished or were made prisoners. Napoleon returned to Paris, and Poland and Prussia were occu- pied by the Russians. In April, 1813, Napoleon again took the field against the Prussians, and gained the victories of Lutzen, Bautzen, Wurtzchen, and Dresden; but the Austrians and Bavarians joined the confederacy against him, and he was attacked at Lcipsic by the combined ar- mies of the European nations ; being forced to abandon that city with immense loss, and retreat to Metz, thereby abandoning his Ger- man conquests. In 1814, the confederates having passed the Rhine, penetrated, after various battles, to Paris, which, being sur- rendered by Marshals Marmont and Mortier, Napoleon concluded a treaty with the allies, at Fontainebleau, by which he agreed to retire to the island of Elba, with provision for him- self and family. In March, 1815, Napoleon embarked with (500 of his old guard, and made a sudden de- scent in Provence. On the 10th, he entered Lyons, on the 20th Paris in triumph. His banners flew from steeple to steeple, until they finally waved in the wind from the pinnacles of Notre Dame. He assumed the throne once more, and soon joined the army on the Belgian frontier, where on the 16th of June, he de- feated Blucher at Ligny with a loss of 22,000 men. On the 18th, was fought the bloody battle of Waterloo, in which the French army was completely defeated. When, after the disaster at Waterloo, Na- poleon came back in desperation to Paris, and began to scatter dark hints of dissolving the representatives' chamber, repeating at Paris the catastrophe of Moscow, and thereby en- deavoring to rouse the people of France to one universal and frantic crusade of resistance, Lafayette was the first to denounce the wild suggestion. He proposed a series of resolu- tions, announcing that the independence of the nation was threatened, declaring the chambers a permanent body, and denouncing the instant penalties of high treason against all attempts to dissolve it. The same evening he proposed, in the secret assembly of the council of state, the abdication of Napoleon. The subject was again pressed the following day; but the voluntary act of the emperor anticipated the decision. On the 8th of July, Louis XVIII. returned to Paris, and on the 15th, Napoleon surren- dered himself to the English at Rochefort. He only asked permission to pass the remain- der of his days in England, under an assumed name, and in a private character, but he was conveyed to St. Helena, as a prisoner of state. A few ofiicers of his suite accompanied him. In the island he was treated with indignity and meanness until his death, which was the result of an intestine disorder, and took place May 5th, 1821. In his last moments, he was delirious, and his last words, " Tete cCarmee^'' proved that he fancied himself at the head of his troops, watching the fluctuating current of a battle. He was buried in a little valley ; a simple slab marked the place of his repose ; two weeping-willows waved over it, and an iron railing encircled that spot of ground so dear to millions. Napoleon, in person, was below the middle size ; and, in the latter part of his life, quite corpulent. His straight brown hair fell over a broad high forehead ; his complexion was clear olive, and his features regular and class- ical. An air of subdued melancholy was the prevailing characteristic of his countenance in repose ; but he had the power of dismissing all expression from his features, when he chose to baffle scrutiny. At such times the curious observer might gaze upon his still gray eye and quiet lip without finding any indica- tion of the thoughts which were passing within. Though Napoleon was ambitious, his de- sire was not for mere self-aggrandizement, for he sought the advancement of France. He contended in self-defense and defense of France, against the crowns of Europe, who hated him as the monarch of the people. These wars drenched the sands of Egypt, the snows of Russia, and the plains of Germany, and Italy, and Spain, with the best blood of France and the best of Europe : yet he was BON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 1 T not destitute of the feelings of humanity, and, as he rode over a field heaped with the dead and dying victims of his ambition, his fine eye would fill with tears. But feeling with- out repentance is of no avail. Yet if Napo- leon was lavish of the lives of others, he was no less prodigal of his own, amidst the hot- test fire of the enemy. If he laid his grasp upon nations, — "Their ransom did the general coffers fill." He often pardoned, but he never failed to reward. It was thus that he attached his soldiers to him with indissoluble bonds. A thousand proofs may be given of their attach- ment to their emperor. At Waterloo, one man whose left arm was shattered by a cannon- ball, wrenched it off with the other, and throwing it up in the air, he exclaimed to his comrades, "Vive I'empereur, jusqu' a la mort! " When Napoleon took his final fare- well of France, all wept, but particularly Savary, and a Polish officer who had been exaj^cd from the ranks by Bonaparte. He clung to his master's knees, wrote a letter to Lord Keith, entreated permission to accom- pany him, even in the most menial capacity, which couW not bo admitted. Napoleon was a statesman as well as a war- rior. What he would have accomplished, had he been left to govern Fi-ance in peace, may be judged from the great benefits which he wrought w.hile engaged by almost inces- sant hostilities. The Code Napoleon was an inestimable boon to the jurisprudence of France and Europe ; and throughout the empire, magnificent public edifices, fortifica- tions, harbors, docks, canals, roads, bridges, columns, and schools still speak of the en- ergy with which he improved and embel- lished the land Avhose throne he occupied, and in the hearts of whose people his memory is still warmly enshrined. In 1840, Louis Philippe, after obtaining the consent of England, sent a frigate commanded by his son, the Prince de Joinville, to St. Helena, to convey the remains of Napoleon to France. On the 30th of November, they reached Cherbourg, whence they were con- veyed with great pomp to Paris, and depos- ited beneath the dome of the Hospital des Invalides, on the 15th of December, where they lie beside the bones of Turenne and Vauban. Napoleon Charles Francis Joseph, son of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, was born at Paris, March 20th, 1811. He received the title of King of Rome. The downfall of his illustrious father ehanged his condition and prospects. His grandfather, the Emperor of Austria, was appointed his guardian. He received the title of the Duke of Reichstadt. He died at the palace of Schonbrunn, near Vienna, of consumption, July 22d, 1832. Joseph, the elder brother of Napoleon, was Dorn in 1768. He shared the fortune of his eminent brother, and was of great service to him in a diplomatic capacity. In 1806 Na- poleon placed him upon the throne of Naples. His brief reign was a succession of benefits to a people who had been long degraded by oppressive despotism. He founded civil and military schools, overthrew feudal privileges, suppressed the convents, opened new roads, set the lazzaroni at work, and everywhere animated the abject people with new life and hope. From 1808 to 1818, he wore the crown of Spain, and but for the intervention of the British, and the desolation of war, would have opened a happy path for that unfortunate kingdom. After the fall of Na- poleon, Joseph resided some years at Borden- town, N. J. He died in Europe in 1844. In his later years he bore the title of Comte de Survilliers. LuciEN was born at Ajaccio in 1775. He was president of the council of five hundred, and aided in raising Napoleon to the con- sulship. A partial estrangement occurred between the brothers, and Lucicn exiled him- self to Italy, whence he refused to return and accept a throne. He was a man of high spirit and independence. The pope made him Prince of Canino. When Napoleon was pent up in Elba, a reconciliation was effected between the two brothei's, and Lucien was more devoted to the empire in its decline than he had been in its day of prosperity. He wished to share the emperor's imprison- ment at St. Helena, but it was not permitted. He spent his latter years in the Roman states, and died in 1840. Louis was born in 1778. He shared in Napoleon's Italian campaigns, and accompa- BON lo8 COTTAGE CYCLOPAEDIA OF nied the expedition to Eg3'pt. In 1806 he was placed upon the throne of Holland. The post was reluctantly accepted, but he devoted himself with enthusiasm to the duties it in- volved. The policy maintained by Napoleon against the commerce of (Jreat Britain, would cripple the traffic of Holland. Louis was placed in an embarrassing and humiliating position between the power of his brother and the interests of his people. He abdicated m 1810. Louis was of a melancholy temper- ament, studious and retiring. When Na- poleon was just entering upon his brilliani career, his musing brother became deeply enamored of a beautiful scion of the ancient nobility. Their union was impeded, and Louis forced to wed the daughter of Jose- phine, Hortense, who loved and was beloved by Duroc. They separated after a few years of dejection. The eldest of their children shattered by an early death Napoleon's plan that he should inherit the imperial crown ; the second died in youthful manhood ; the third now sits on the throne of France. Louis, after his abdication, lived gloomily a retired and scholastic life till 18J:6, in which year he died at Leghorn. Jerojie was born at Ajaccio in 1784. In his youth he served in the French navy, and dur- inga visit to America, inone of his cruises, mar- ried Miss Elizabeth Patterson, the daughter of a rich merchant of Baltimore. Napoleon was much annoyed at his idle and dissolute ways. He finally exchanged the sea for land service. In 1807, he obeyed his brother in the repu- diation of his American wife, espoused the daughter of the King of Wurtemberg, and was made King of Westphalia. He was the scapegrace of the Bonaparte family, weak, mean. Napoleon said to him, " If the majesty of kings is imprinted on the countenance, you may safel^^ travel incognito." The fall of the empire deprived Jerome of the crown he wore so ill. He lives to see a second em- pire and another Napoleon on its throne. Mabie Ann Elise, the eldest of Napoleon's sisters, was born Jan. 8th, 1777. In May, 1797, she was married to Felix Bacciochi, a Corsican. Napoleon gave her the grand-duchy of Tuscan)^ with the principalities of Lucca and Tiombino, in whose government she dis- played much energy and ability. Her sway ended in 1814, and she died at Trieste, Aug. «th, 1820. Makie Pauline, the favorite sister of Na- poleon, was born at Ajaccio, Oct. 20th, 1782. After becoming the widow of General Le- clerc, she married Prince Camille Boro-hese with whom she did not live on good terms. She died in 1825. Her whole property amounted to 2,000,000 francs. She was un- commonly beautiful, and Canova represented her as the goddess of beauty, a Venus which almost rivaled the antique. " Cakoline Makie Annonciade, the young- est of Napoleon's sisters, was born March 2Gth, 1782. In January, 1800, she was mar- ried to Murat. She was a very pretty and a very clever woman. When the rule of her husband was overthrown in 1815, by the re- verses of the French and the advance of the Austrian army, and the city of Naples was on the brink of anarchy, she took prompt, wise, and energetic measures for maintaining order. She died BONIFACE, the name of several popes. Boniface I. succeeded Zosimus in 418, and was maintained in the pontifical chair by the Emperor Honorius against his rival Eulalius. He died in 422. Boniface II. succeeded Felix IV. in 530. He was born at Pv.ome, but his father was a Goth. He compelled the bish- ops in a council to allow him to nominate his successor, and according!}' he selected Vigil ; but a second council- disavowed the proceedings of the first. Boniface VI. came to the chair 806, and died of the gout a fort- night after. Boniface VII. assumed the chair after having murdered Benedict VI. and John XIV. He was acknowledged sovereign pon- tiff in 974, and died a few months after. Boniface VIII., after the resignation of Celes- tine, was elected 1294. He commenced his pontificate by imprisoning his predecessor, and laying Denmark under an interdict. He also excommunicated the Colonnas as here- tics, and preached a crusade against them. He excited the princes of Germany to revolt against Albert, and laid France under an interdict. Philip appealed to a general coun- cil and sent his army into Italy, and took the pope prisoner. He died at Rome a few months afterward. BONIFACE, St., first spread Christianity BON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 139 and civiliziition among the Germans. His original name was Winifred, and he was born in England in 680. In 732 he was made archbishop and primate of all Germany. He was killed by barbarians at Dockum, in "West Friesland, in 755. BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate, who received several preferments from Car- dinal Wolsey. Henry VII I. made him one of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to obtain from the pope a divorce from Catha- nne. There he was so insolent that the pontiff threatened to throw him into a cal- dron of boiling lead, and thus compelled him to quit Rome. He persecuted the Protest- ants with great cruelty, and Elizabeth im- prisoned him in the Marshalsea, where he died in 1569. BONEVAL, Claude Alexander, Count de, known also by the name of Achmet Pa- cha, was born m 1672. He was descended from an illustrious family in France, and married the daughter of the Marshal de Biron. He was disgraced, however, by his incessant pursuit of sensual pleasure. He quitted the French army to serve under Prince Eugene ; but having quarreled with the general, he deserted to the service of the Turks, among whom he obtained a military command, and the rank of pacha with three tails. He won a great victory over the imperial army on the banks of the Danube. He died in 1747. BOOKS. The first books were boards, or the inner bark of trees; and bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parchment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vel- lum, were invented by Attalus, King of Pergamus, about 178 e.g., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. found at Herculaneum consist of rolls of papyrus, charred and matted together by the fire, about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient books in the world ; and in profane litera- ture the poems of Homer, though the names of others yet older are preserved. Before the day of printing, books commanded prices only within reach of the wealthy. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. King Alfred gave a large estate for a work on cosmog- raphy, about A.D. 872. A homily was ex- changed for two hundred sheep and five quarters of wheat ; and such books were usually sold for double or treble their weight in gold. The book of St. Cuthbert, the ear- liest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about a.d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth cen- tury. A MS. copy of the Four Gospels, the book on which the Kings of England, from Henry I. to Edward VI., took their corona- tion oath, was bound in oaken boards nearl}' an inch thick, a.d. 1100. Velvet was the covering used in the fourth century, and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early wi the fifteenth century, and was stamped and ornamented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding began to supersede the common boards about 1830. BOONE, Dakiel, a native of Virginia, was one of the first to penetrate the savage wilds of Kentucky, on an expedition to explore which, he departed with five companions, May 1st, 1769. Boone, with John Stewart, was captured by the Indians, not long after their arrival in Kentucky, but soon managed to escape. Their companions had returned home, whither they would have followed them, but for the timely arrival of Squire Boone, Daniel's brother, with refreshments. . Stewart being soon after slain, the two Boones re- mained the onlj^ white men in the wilderness. In 1773, Boone with his own and five other families, a body of forty men, took up the march of emigration from Virginia to Ken- tucky ; but in consequence of the hostility of the Indians, they returned to the settlements on Clinch River. In 1775, Boone built a fort at Salt Spring, on the southern bank of the Kentucky, on the site of Boonesborough. After sustaining several sieges, he was taken by the savages, Feb. 7th, 1778, while hunting with some of his men. The Indians soon learned to respect and value Boone, who was adopted by one of the chiefs of Chillicothe, but the thoughts of his wife and children in- duced our adventurer to attempt an escape. After traveling for four days, taking but one meal, he arrived at Boonesborough, which BOO 140 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF was a hundred and sixty miles from the place of his captivity. On the 8th of August an attack on the fort was commenced by a body of Indians and Canadian French, which con- tinued till the 20th, when the siege was aban- doned. This was the last attempt made upon Boonesborough. From 1782 till 1798, Boone lived alternately in Kentucky and Virginia. In 1798, having obtained from the Spanish government a grant of land in Upper Louisiana, he removed thither with his children and friends, who were also presented with land. He settled on the Missouri, beyond the limits of other set- tlements, and employed himself in the wild life of the forest, hunting and trapping, ■ until 1820, when he expired, aged nearly ninety. life had for a long time been sensible of the approach of death, and had a coffin made out of a favorite cherry-tree, which he brought to a high degree of polish by continual rubljing. BORGIA, C^sAR, son of Pope Alexander VI., an infamous character. On his father's accession to the papacy in 1492, he was in- vested with the purple. Being jealous of his brother Francis, he contrived to have him drowned. Having renounced the cardinal- ship, he was made Duke of Romagna in 1501, and leagued with Louis XII. of France. On the death of his father, he was sent prisoner to Spain, but made his escape, and died fight- ing under the walls of Biano, in 1507. BORNEO, next to Australia, the largest island in, the world, is about 850 miles long, and 700 broad. Lon. 109" to 119° E. ; lat. 7° N. to 4= 20' S. The insalubrity of the climate has restrained Europeans from explor- ing it. Earthquakes and volcanoes are fre- quent in the island. The mountain breezes and the rains moderate the heat, which is ex- cessive. Gold, diamonds, pearl, iron, copper, tin, antimony, and other minerals are found here. The fruits are fine and abundant. The native inhabitants are Malays, Chinese, Bujis or natives of Celebes, and a few descendants of Arabs. The Dutch have permanent settle- ments on the island, and derive their chief profit from gold, pepper, and diamonds. Bor- neo was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. BORODINO. This battle, one of the most sanguinary in the world, was fought Sept. 7th, 1812, between the French and Russians, com- manded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 210,000 men being en- gaged. The retreat of the Russians left Mos- cow open to Napoleon. This is sometimes called the battle of the Moskwa. BOSCAWEN, Edward, a British admiral, particularly distinguished himself at the tak- ing of Porto Bello and the siege of Carthagena. He also signalized himself under Anson, off Cape Finisterre, and at the taking of Madras, Cape Breton, and Louisburg. He died in 1761, having received in succession all the honors of his profession. BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, Bishop of Meaux, born at Dijon, 1627, became one of the most celebrated ecclesiastics of the eight- eenth century. He was pious, severe in doc- trine and practice, eloquent, and learned. He died in 1704. BOSWELL, James, the friend and biogra- pher of Dr. Johnson, was a native of Scotland, and studied at the universities of Glasgow and Utrecht. He was born at Edinburgh, in 1 740, and died in 1705. He was acquainted with many eminent literaiy men, and his introduc- tion to Johnson he calls the most important event of his life. His life of Johnson is accu- rate and minute, abounding with literary an- ecdote and personal detail. It was first pub- lished in 1790, and has since been repeatedly re-printed. BOSWORTH, a small town of Leicester- shire, England, in the vicinity of which is Bosworth Field, memorable for the battle fought here, Aug. 22d, 1485, between Richard III. and the Earl of Richmond, afterward Henry VII., in which the latter was victori- ous, and Richard, after having performed prodigies of valor, and cloven from helm to heel two of Richmond's standard-bearers, thus disproving the tale of his withered arm, was finally slain. The brows of Richmond were encircled on the field of battle with the diadem which was stricken from the casque of Rich- ard. This battle ended the bloody contentions of the rival roses, the red and white badges of York and Lancaster. BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, re- markable in the history of Scotland for his connection with Queen Mary and. his suj - posed share in the murder of Henry Darnley, her husband. When that unfortunate prince was blown up in the house where he slept, suspicion fell strongly on Bothwell and the BOT HISTORY AND BIOGRAFflTT. 141 queen. Bothwell was tried, but nothing could be fixed on him, and he was acquitted. After this he seized Mary near Edinburgh, and car- vied her prisoner to Dunbar Castle, where they were married. During these iniquitous proceedings, Bothwell procured a divorce from his first wife. Mary soon after created him Earl of Orkney. But a confederacy among the lords being formed against him, he retired to the Orkneys, and from thence to Denmark, where he died in 1577, confessing it is said his own guilt, and the queen's innocence of Darnley's murder. BOUDINOT, Elias, was born at Philadel- phia, May 2d, 1740. He became eminent at the bar, was chosen member of the continental congress in 1777, and its president in 1782. For six years he was in the house of repre- sentatives, and for a few years director of the mint. He made munificent donations to the American Bible Society, of which he was the first president. He died in 1821. BOUFFLERS, Marshal de, was born in 1644, and died in 1711. His defense of Na- mur, in 1695, cost the allies 20,000 men. Louis XIV. sent him an order commanding him to surrender, but he concealed it till he had no longer the means of defense. BOUILLE, Francois Claude Amour, Mar- quis de, a French loyalist general, who, among other services, suppressed a dangerous insur- rection at Metz, and assisted Louis XVL in his attempt to escape from France. For his avowal of this transaction, a price was set upon his head, whereupon he took a commis- sion in the Swedish service. He died in 1800, aged sixty-one. BOURBONS. This family ascended the throne of France in the person of Henry IV., 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch, and guaranteed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713, after a long and bloody dis- pute called the war for the Spanish succession. The reigning family of Naples is a branch of the Bourbons of Spain. The Bourbons were expelled from France in 1791, and were re- stored in 1814. The elder branch was ex- pelled in 1830, and Louis Philippe, of the Or- leans line, reigned till 1848, when he also was deposed. BOURBON, Charles, Duke of, or Consta- ble of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, Count of Mont- pensier, and Clara of Gonzaga, born in 1489. BOW At the age of twenty -six, he received the sword of constable from Francis L, and dis- tinguished himself at Marignano, but soon after fell into disgrace. On this, he associated with Charles V., and Henry VIII. of England, against his sovereign. The plot being discov- ered, he fled into Italy, and was bej-ond the territories of France, when Francis sent to demand the sword which he wore as consta- ble, and the badge of his order. In the words of his reply, we may trace the deep anguish of his heart: "The king deprived me of my sword at Valenciennes when he gave the com- mand of the vanguard to D'Alen^on : the badge of my order I left under my pillow at Chantelles." He became commander-in-chief of the imperial troops in Italy, but was killed in the successful assault on Rome, May 2d, 1527. He fell, it is said, by a shot fired by Benvenuto Cellini. He died excommunicated. BOURBON, Isle of, an island about 400 miles east of Madagascar. Its origin is sup- posed to be volcanic. Le Piton de Neige, or the Snowy Spike, is a mountain which rises to the height of about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The isle of Bourbon, which is 48 miles long, and 36 broad, was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1545, and called after his name ; but the French, vvho gained possession of it in 1649, changed its name. After remaining for a time in the hands of the English, it was restored to the French in 1815. After the revolution of 1848, it received the name of Reunion. BOURRIENNE, L. A. Fauvelt de, the schoolmate and secretary of Napoleon, and afterward a partisan of the Bourbons, 1769- 1824. BOWDITCH, Nathaniel, LL.D., born at Salem, Mass., March 26th, 1773, died at Bos- ton, March 16th, 1838. His translation of the "Mecanique Celeste" of Laplace, with the elaborate additions that he made, gave him high rank as a writer in the pure mathe- matics. BOWDOIN, James, governor of Massachu- setts, was born at Boston, in 1727, graduated at Cambridge, 1745, elected member of the general court in 1753, and a member of the council in 1756. In 1778, he was chosen president of the convention which framed the Massachusetts constitution. In 1785, being chosen governor of Massachusetts, he had 142 Cottage cyclopedia of Shay's insurrection to quell. He died at Bos- ton, in 1790. Such was his reputation for learning, that he was honored with the degree of LL.D. by the university of Edinburgh, and admitted member of the royal societies of Dublin, London, and other places. BOAVLES, William Lisle, a writer of ex- cellent sonnets and other more mediocre poetry, enjoys the distinction of having ' de- lighted and inspired' the genius of Coleridge, who while yet a j^outh was a warm admirer of his sonnets. Mr. Bowles was born at King's Sutton in Northamptonshire, Sept. 24th, 1762, was educated at Winchester and Oxford, and was for many years rector of Bremhill in Wiltshire, where he died in his eighty-eighth year. He is chiefly famous for the controversy concerning the poetry of Pope, in which Campbell and Byron were among his antagonists. II is absence of mind was very great, and it is said that when his coachman drove him anj^wliere he had to practice all kinds of cau- tions to keep his master to time and place. The poet once walked out in company with an an- tiquar3% as absent of mind as himself. His servant coming to look for him, and learning this, exclaimed in ludicrous distress, "What! those wandered away together ? then they'll never be found any more ! " His handwriting was one of the Avorst that ever man wrote ; insomuch that frequently he could not read that which he had written the day before ; and the printers had tough work in getting his scrawls into type. At the office where his works were printed, there was one com- positor who had a sort of knack in making out the blind hieroglyphics ; and he was once actually sent for by Mr. Bowles into Wilt- of the island of Hayti, was born in Port au Prince, about 1780. After the death of Le- clerc, he joined the party of Petion, and was finally named by him his successor in tlie presidency. When the revolution broke out in 1820, in the northern part of the island, he was invited to command the insurgents, and upon the union of the northern and southern parts of the island on the death of Christophe, and the revolution in the eastern part, lie became master of the whole island. BOYLE, Charles, fourth Earl of Orrery, generally supposed the inventor of the astro- nomical instrument which bears his title, born 1676, died in 1731. He patronized Rowley, the real inventor of the planetarium, called the orrery. BOYLE, Robert, born at Lismore, in Ire- land, 1627, was seventh son of Richard, the great Earl of Cork. He was one of the first members of the learned society formed in 1645, under the name of the Philosophical College, and afterward continued under the name of the Royal Society. He made nu- merous experiments in various branches of natural philosophy, which led to some im- portant results. But it is chiefly as a pious and benevolent man that he is interesting to us. Having conceived doubts of the authen- ticity of revealed religion, he devoted him- self to a severe course of study, until he was fully convinced of its truth. He endowed public lectures for the defense of Christianity (which are yet delivered), and, at his own expense, printed Irish and Gaelic transla- tions of the Bible. He died in London, in 1691. BOYNE, Battle of the, was fought on the 1st of July, 1690, between AVilliam III., at shire to copy some manuscript written a year | the head of a Protestant army, and James II. or two before, which the author had himself vainly endeavored to decipher. BOYDELL, John, patron of the arts and engraver by profession ; born at Donington, England, Januarj- 19th, 1719 ; came to Lon- don on foot, bound himself an apprentice to an engraver; began to publish 1745-6, and in 1790, had expended in the promotion of the arts in general, and the "Shakespeare Gallery" in particular, £350,000 sterling. He died in London, Dec. I7th, 1804, having nearly reached the age of eight}' -six years. BOYER, Jean Pierre, a mulatto, president at the head of a Catholic and French force. The latter were totally defeated. The Duke of Schomberg, William's ablest general, was shot by mistake by his own soldiers, as he was crossing the Boj^ne. After this battle James re-embarked for France, and William completed the reduction of Ireland, by the capture of Limerick, after a protracted siege. The impetuous imbecility of the unfortunate bigot James II., served only to hasten the ruin which public opinion had so deservedly prepared for himself and his family. It was the Irish who, during the dark fortunes of BOY HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 143 this last of the royal Stuarts, clung to him when all else deserted him. They manned his navy, recruited his army, replenished his coffers, and took their stand around his per- son on their native soil ; and when they saw him the first to fly, they still erected his torn standard, and rallied in his cause, paying the penalty of their generous but misapplied devotion to a bigot and a tyrant, by utter ruin and eternal exile. Yet when James, in his flight from the battle, arrived in Dublin, he had the ingratitude and ungraciousness to reflect upon the cowardice of the Irish. He reached the castle late at night, and was met at its gates by the beautiful Duchess of Tyr- connel, "La Belle Jennings" of Grammont's Memoirs. In return for the sympatfiizing respect wiiich marked her reception, the king is said to have sarcastically complimented her upon the "alertness of her husband's countrymen." The high-spirited beauty re- phed, "In that, however, your majesty has had the advantage of them all." The king, in fact, was among the first to arrive in the capital with the news of his own defeat. BOZZARIS, Marco, one of the gallant de- fenders of liberty in modern Greece, was born in Albania, in 1780, and is said to have been, at an early period of his life, in the French ser- vice. When the Greeks rose to throw off the Ottoman yoke, he ardently espoused the cause of his country, and was chosen stratarch of Western Greece. The Turks having invaded Etolia with a large army, at the head of two hundred and fifty volunteers he made a noc- turnal attack on the enemy's camp, and put great numbers of them to the sword ; but toward the close of the contest he received a mortal wound. His companions in arms, by a desperate eifort, succeeded in bearing him from the field, and he expired at Missolonghi on the following day, August 23d, 1823. BRABANT. North Brabant, in the king- dom of the Netherlands, contains 403,687 in- liabitants, and South Brabant, in Belgium, 711,332. Brabant formed a duchy in the seventh century. For some ages it belonged to the Frankish monarchy, and then was a German fief In 1005, the last duke dying, the duchy devolved on his brother-in-law, Lambert I., Count of Louvain. From him it came to Philip II., Duke of Burgundy, and afterward to the Emperor Charles Y. In the seventeenth century, the republic of Holland took possession of the northern part, which was thence called Dutch Brabant. The other part, belonging to Austria, was seized upon by France in 1746. The peace of Aix-la- Chapelle restored it, but, after falling again into the hands of the French, it was ceded to France by the treaties of Campo Forraio and Luneville, in 1791 and 1801. BRADDOCK, Edward, major-general and commander in the British army, who in 175.5 marched against Fort du Quesne on the Ohio, fell into an ambuscade of Indians and French, was defeated and slain. Washing- ton, who had cautioned him in vain, con- ducted the retreat in a masterly manner. BRADFORD, William, eminent lawyer of Pennsylvania* born in Philadelphia, Sept. 14th, 1755, died August 23d, 1795. Wash- ington appointed him attorney-general of the LTnited States. BRADFORD, William, one of the first printers in EngUsh America, born in 1658, died in 1752. In 1725, the Neio York Ga- zette, the first newspaper published in that city, was commenced by him. He also started the manufacture of paper at Eliza- bethtown, N. J. He was first established at Philadelphia, where his son Andrew contin- ued the American Mercury, the first news- paper of that town, commenced in 1719. BRADFORD, William, grandson of the preceding, was a printer and bookseller in Philadelphia. In 1742, he published the first number of the Pennsylvania Journal, which was continued through the century. The day preceding that on which the stamp-act was to go into force, the Journal appeared in the blackest mourning, with its head sur- mounted by a' skull and cross-bones. In the upper right-hand corner, was a death's head, entitled " An Emblem of the Effects of the Stamp. ! the Fatal Stamp." In the op- posite corner was the quaint announcement, " The Times are Dreadful, Doleful, Dismal, Dolorous, and Dollar-less." On the margin was tlie cry, " Adieu, adieu to the Liberty of the Press." The first page read thus : " Thurs- day, October 31, 1765. Numb. 1195. The Pennsylvania Journal, and Weekly Advertis- er. Expiring : In Hopes of a Resurrection to Life again." " I am sorry to be obliged to ac- quaint my readers that as the Stamp Act is BRA 114 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF feared to be obligatory upon us after the frst of Notemher ensuing (The Fatal To-morrow), the publisher of this paper, unable to bear the Burthen, has thought it expedient to stop awhile, in order to deliberate, whether any methods can be found to elude the chains forged for us, and escape the insupportable slavery, which it is hoped, from the last representation now made against that act, may be effected. Meanwhile I must ear- nestly Request every individual of my sub- scribers, many of whom have been long behind Hand, that they would immediately discharge their respective Arrears, that I may be able not only to support myself dur- ing the Interval, but be better prepared to proceed again with this Paper whenever an opening for that purpose a'J)pears, which I hope will be soon. William Bradford." The sturdy republican fought as major and colonel in the Pennsylvania militia at Tren- ton and Princeton. His constitution broke and his fortune was shattered. He died Sept. 25th, 1791, aged seventy-two. BRADFORD, William, was born in the north of England in 1588. AYhile a youth he was denounced as a separatist. He fled to Holland, and came over in the Mayflower. While with others he was seeking a spot whereat to land, his wife fell overboard and was drowned. He was made governor upon the death of Carver in 1621, and annually elected so long as he lived, except now and then that " by importuning, he got off," as Winslow says, and another filled the place for the nonce. Gov. Bradford died in May, 1657. BRADLEY, James, an eminent English astronomer, born 1692; succeeded Dr. John Keil, as Savillian professor of astronomy, at Oxford, in 1721 ; discovered the aberration of the fixed stars, and mutation of tlie earth's axis ; was appointed astronomer royal, Feb- ruary, 1741-2; died July 13th, 1762. BRADSTREET, Anne, author of the first volume of poems written in America, was the daughter of Dudley, and the wife of Brad- .street, both governors of Massachusetts. She was born in England in 1614, and died in 1672. Her poems were printed at Cambridge in 1640, treating of "the four elements, con- stitutions, .ages of man, seasons of the year, the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman monarchies." Cotton Mather said that "hei poems, eleven times printed, have afforded a plentiful entertainment unto the ingenious, and a monument for her memory beyond the stateliest marbles." BRAGANZA, a town of Portugal, made a duchy in ] 442. It gives its name to the royal house of Portugal, of whom the first was John r\'., Duke of Braganza, who led tho Portuguese people in rendering themselves independent of Spain, in 1640. A branch of the house of Braganza is seated on the throne of Brazil. BRAKE, Tycho, eminent astronomer, borr» in Sweden, December 19th, 1546, died at Prague, October 24th, 1601, aged fifty-five. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers and priests, reputed so ancient that Pythago- ras is said to have received from them his doctrine of metempsychosis, and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. They never eat flesh, and profess to abstain from wine and all carnal enjoyments. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahma, the first person in the Trinity, or Trimurti, of the Hindoos. Brahma is the creator, Vishnu, the preserver, or redeemer, and Siva, the destroyer. Brahma is repre- sented with four heads and four arms. He is gifted with great power, but is himself created by the Eternal One. Some believe that he dies annually, and rises again. He is considered as the lawgiver and teacher of India. BRAINERD, David, a devoted missionary among the Indians in New York, New Jer- sey, and Pennsylvania, was born in Haddam, Conn., in 1718. His labors exhausted his strength, and he died at the house of Rev. Jonathan Edwards, Northampton, Mass., Oct. 10th, 1747. BRANDENBURG, an ancient mark or marquisate of Germany, and now the metro- politan province of Prussia. The Suevi first, and then the Sclavonians, inhabited it. Thte latter barbarians, in the tenth century, were conquered by Henry I., and converted to Christianity. The mark passed through various hands, till in the fifteenth century it came into those of the ancestors of the pres- ent royal family of Prussia. The Elector Frederic William, enlarged it by the annex- BRA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 145 ation of several towns and districts. The old mark, having been ceded to Napoleon, in 1807, formed a part of the kingdom of West- phalia, until 1814, when it was restored to Prussia. BEANDYWINE, a small river taking its rise in Pennsylvania, which, after a course of forty -five miles, flowing through the state of Delaware, joins the Christiana, two miles below Wilmington. The river is known in history for a battle fought in its vicinity, Sept. nth, 1777, between the British and Americans, in which the latter sustained a defeat with a loss of 900 in killed and wounded. Howe had 17,000 effective troops, while Washington's force did not exceed 11,000, many of whom were raw militia. La- fayette was wounded in the leg by a musket ball. BRANT, Joseph, a celebrated Mohawk chief, at the head of the Six Nations during our Revolution, was born on the banks of the Ohio in 1742. His Indian name was Thay- endanegea, ' a bundle of sticks,' or 'strength.' Sir William Johnson had him well educated at Dr. Wheelock's Indian school in Colum- bia, Conn. He attached himself to the royal cause, and throughout the war he was en- gaged in attacks upon the border settlements of New York and Pennsylvania. He was far more humane than the Tory leaders with whom he was associated. After the termina- tion of hostilities, he procured a domain for his tribe in Upper Canada, and devoted him- self to the social and religious betterment of his people. He rendered the Book of Com- mon Prayer, and the Gospel of St. Mark, into the Mohawk tongue. He died Nov. 24th, 1807. BRAXTON, Carter, a signer of the Dec- laration of Independence, was born in New- ington, Va., Sept. 10th, 1736. After grad- uating at William and Mary College, he visited England, where he tarried until 1760. In 1765, he was chosen to a seat in the Vir- ginia house of burgesses. In 1775, he was elected to Congress. He was afterward a rep- resentative in the legislature of Virginia. He was a graceful speaker, and a man of respectable attainments. Pecuniary embar- rassments clouded the last years of his life, and he died Oct. 10th, 1797. BRAY, THE Vicar of. Bray, a quiet vil- 10 lage in Berkshire, England, is famous for its vicar, the Rev. Symond Symonds, who was twice a papist, and twice a protestant, be- tween the years 1533 and 1558, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Being called a turncoat, he said he kept to his principle, that of " living and dying the vicar of Bray." BRAZIL, the empire of, comprehends the eastern portion of South America. Its extent, from north to south, is about 2,600 miles, and from east to west, nearly 2,400 miles. With a territory of 2,300,000 square miles, possess- ing extraordinary wealth and fertility, it is inhabited by but seven and a half millions of people. Brazil contains some of the largest rivers in the world ; the Amazon, Tocantin, and San Francisco being the most prominent. There is much variety of climate, but gener- ally it is healthy ; and the salubrity of the vast elevated plains is unequaled by that of any other region on the face of the globe. The richness of its precious woods, the abun- dance of its streams, the profusion of its dia- monds and gold, and its general healthiness, might in the hands of thrift and enterprise make it the El Dorado of the imagination. In the beds of the rivers are found diamonds, to- pazes, chrysoberyls, other precious stones, and gold. The trees are of every description, adapted to cabinet-work, ship-building, and dyeing ; while coffee, oranges, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and rice are easily raised. Brazil, at the time of its discovery, was inhabited by roving Indians. These Indians are still in some regions in as savage a state as when South America was first discovered. The foreign population consists of Portuguese and Africans. The Indians were first used as slaves, but this order of things has passed away, and their place in servitude is filled by the negroes. Of the 7,600,000 inhabitants, perhaps 2,000,000 are whites. Many of the first men in the country evidently have an admixture of African blood in them. Brazil was discovered, April 24th, 1500, by Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who at first named it Santa Cruz, but Emanuel, the Portuguese sovereign, called it Brazil, from the quantity of red wood which it produced. The Portu- guese at first undervalued this country, and sent thither only criminals, and the refuse of their population, but the Jews, who had been BRA 146 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF DIAMOND WASHING IN BKAZIL. banished to Brazil in 1548, having successfully introduced the culture of the sugar-cane, Thomas de Souza was sent over by the court of Lisbon, and began to find some good points about the country, although it had not yielded the desired gold. After temporary misfor- tunes, the colonists prospered, but the Portu- guese had to contend against France, Spain, and the United Provinces, whose jealousy uras aroused by the accounts they heard of the richness and fertility of the Portuguese possessions. The Dutch met with great suc- of state burthens, and other causes, tended to weaken and distract it. In 1808, the court of Portugal removed here, fleeing from Napo- leon, but in 1821, the king returned to Lis- bon. Dom Pedro, his eldest son, then gov- erned Brazil under the title of prince-regent. The Brazilians declared themselves indepen- dent of Portugal, Oct. 12th, 1822, and Dom Pedro was crowned emperor. In 1831 he ab- dicated in favor of his son Pedro II., then a lad of six years, and returned to Portugal. The empire was governed by a regency till cess in Brazil, but became the friends of the the coronation of the youthful monarch in Portuguese, when the latter shook oflf the Spanish yoke and gained their independence. They still retained the seven provinces they had conquered, and hence arose the division of the country into the Brazils ; but a pecu- niary compensation induced them to resign their claims to the Portuguese. The diamond mines were not discovered till 1728. The prosperity of Brazil has not been what it might be made under an enlightened govern- ment. The conflicting interests of various bodies of its inhabitants, the unequal pressure 1841. The government is a hereditary mon- archy, limited by an elective legislature. The empire is divided into nineteen provinces, each of which manages its local affairs. Each has a president, appointed by the crown, and its provincial assembly, chosen by the people. Brazil has Been the most favored of the South American states in its freedom from anarchy and intestine conflicts. The most cultivated part of the population are the merchants of the maritime ports, the Europeans and Creoles forming the aristocracy of the country. The BRA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 147 inhabitants are Roman Catholics, with the exception of the independent native tribes, in the vast and obscure regions of the interior. Rio Janeiro, situated on a bay which affords it one of the finest, safest, and most roomy harbors in the world, is the capital of the em- pire. An amphitheatre of hills and mountains springing up one behind another, and separ- ated by fertile valleys that enjoy a perpetual spring and yield the choicest fruits and flow- ers, rises round the bay. Rio has a popula- tion of over 200,000, and is a mart of great and increasing commerce. It exports more coffee than all other ports in the world. Ba- hia, or San Salvador, farther north on the coast, was formerly the capital. Of its 160,000 inhabitants the majority are negroes. It too has a capacious harbor and a thriving trade. Pernambuco, a seaport stiU to the north, of increasing trade, has 50,000 inhabitants. BREDA, a fortified town in Dutch Brabant, formerly of immense importance. It has sus- tained several memorable sieges. In 1590, it was taken by Prince Maurice of Nassau, and retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, in 1 025, after a siege often months. The French, during the revolution, gained possession of it, but it was abandoned by them in 1813. Charles II. of England dwelt here during part of his exile. BREMEN, one of the free cities of Germany, stands upon the Weser, fifty miles from the sea. It was conspicuous in the Hanseatic league, and is now the capital of a little re- public, whose territory amounts to 112 square miles, and whose population in 1855 was 88,850. Bremen is a place of great resort for the warehousing and transit of Gferman and foreign goods. It has been a prominent point for the debarcation of German emigrants to America. Bremen first rose into notice in 788. BRENNUS. Several chieftains of ancient Gaul bore this name, which is said to have been a title of dignity and honor. One, hav- ing ravaged Lombardy and Tuscany, marched to Rome, which he surrendered to plunder. The garrison held out in the citadel, which would have been taken at midnight by the foe, but for the noise made by the sacred geese of Juno, that were watchful even w^hile the dogs slept. Brennus was then offered a thou- sand pounds weight of gold to spare the capi- tal, and quit the territories of the republic. He threw into the scale which held the weights, his sword and helmet, haughtily ex- claiming, "Wo to the vanquished." The treaty was ended by the timely arrival of the exiled Camillus, who refused the payment of even a pound of gold as ransom. "Rome," said he proudly, "is to liberate herself with iron and not with gold." He gave battle to the Gauls, and routed them, about 390 b.c. BRESCIA, a province of Austrian Italy. Its manufactures are and have long been ex- tensive, and its soil is remarkable for fertility. From the hands of the Venetians, it fell into those of the French, and finally the Austrians. Under the sway of the Venetian republic, the inhabitants were unruly, although particularly favored by government. The city of Brescia has 40,000 inhabitants. In 1512, it was stormed by Gaston de Foix, after a stubborn resistance by the Venetian garrison. Forty- six thousand Brescians, it is said, perished in the indiscriminate slaughter that followed the entry of the French, to whose lawless rapaci- ty, rampant lust, and ferocious cruelty, the gallantry of Bayard formed but a feeble coun- terpoise. In 1796, as Bonaparte was quitting Brescia, the municipal oflBcers, who accompa- nied him to the gate of the city, said that the Brescians loved liberty more than the rest of the Italians. " Yes," said the general, sarcas- tically, "they love to talk of it to their women." This slur nevertheless, Brescia re- volted against the Austrians in 1849, and was bombarded and stormed by Hajmau. BRESL AU, capital of the Prussian province of Silesia, is situated at the junction of the Ohlau and Oder ; population, 110,000. The architectural beauty of the city has been cel- ebrated. Its commerce is considerable. Here the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians, Nov. 22d, 1757. Breslau was besieged and taken by the French in 1807 and in 1813. BREST, anciently Brivates Portus, is one of the chief naval stations of France. Its fine hai'bor was constructed by Cardinal Richelieu, in 1631. It is well fortified, its dock-yards and magazines command admiration, and it is considered impregnable. It contains 48,225 inhabitants. It was attacked in 1694 by a British fleet and army, which were repulsed with a loss of 1,300 men and their commander. Lord Berkeley. BRE 148 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded between England and France, May 8th, 1360. England retained Gasconry and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, and Rovergne, and re- nounced her claims to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy. England was to receive three million crowns, and to release King John of France, who had long been a captive in London. BREWSTER, William, born in England in 1550, came over in the Mayflower, and as ruling elder preached at Plymouth till his death in 1644. BRIDGES were so early and general, and the expedients for their construction so vari- ous, that their origin can not be traced. They were first of wood. In China there are an- cient bridges of great magnitude, built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats that Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4,Y70 feet in length, was built in a.d. 103. The Devil's Bridge in the Swiss canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to ac- count for it. At SchafFhausen an extraordi- nary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there four hundred feet wide. There was a pier midway in the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it : a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him ; yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. The first stone bridge in England.was built at Bow near Stratford, A.D. 1087. The finest suspension bridge in Great Britain is that erected by Mr. Telford (1818-1825) over the Mcnai straits, which is one hundred feet above the level of spring tides, with five hundred and sixty feet between the points of suspension. This was considered one of the most surprising works of modern times ; but it has been thrown in the shade by the Britannia Tubular Bridge, by which the railway from Chester to Holyhead crosses the strait. About a mile south of the suspen- sion bridge is a rock called the Britannia rock, near the centre of the strait, the surface of which is about ten feet above low water level. Without this rock the tubular bridge would not have been feasible, and from it therefore BRI HISTORY AND BIOGEAPHY. 149 the bridge fitly takes its name. On this rock is built a tower two hundred feet above high water (commenced in May, 18-46), on which rest two lines of tubes or hollow girders, the ends resting on abutments on each shore, each tube being more than a quarter of a mile in length. The height of the tube within is thirty feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to twenty -three feet at the abutments. The lift- ing of the tubes to their places from their po- sition afloat on the water, is regarded as the most gigantic operation ever successfully per- formed. They were raised by Brahmah hy- draulic presses, into which the water was in- jected by powerful steam-engines. A locomo- tive first passed through these grand corridors of iron in March, 1850. Robert Stephenson is the engineer of whose skill this bridge is the monument. A similar bridge over the St. Lawrence at Montreal, called the Victoria bridge, two miles in length, is in construction, to be completed in 1860. The greatest and oldest suspension bridge in the world, is said to be in China, near Kingtung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. One of the finest suspension bridges in the world crosses the Niagara River, about two miles and a half below the falls, by a single span of eight hundred and thirty -four feet, at a height of two hundred and thirty feet above the water. Three railways and a carriage road pass the river by this structure. Nature also has thrown wonderful bridges of rock across mountainous chasms. Of these, those of Icononzo, over fissures in the Cordilleras on the road from Bogota to Quito, the stupen- dous limestone arch over Cedar Creek in Vir- ginia, and one with a span of a hundred and ninety -five feet in Carter county, Kentucky, are remarkable. The famous bridge by which the army of Xerxes crossed the Hellespont, (480 B.C.), was formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of almost seven hundred. They were moored fast by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast-bound rafters, over these a layer of boughs, and on the latter earth was thrown. On each side was a fence to prevent the horses and beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea in their passage from shore to shore. It is said that this won- derful work was completed in one week. BRIENNE, a town in the French depart- %ient of the Aube, at the academy of which Napoleon learned the first principles of the military art. Here on the 1st and 2d of February, the allied Russians and Prussians were defeated severely by the French. This was among the last of Napoleon's victories. BRIGALIER, Abbe, lived during the reign of Louis XIL The superstitions of his time are displayed by some passages in his life. He was almoner to Mademoiselle de Montauban, and spent 30,000 crowns to be- come an adept in the magic art, without accomplishing his end. Being with the court at Compiegne, a lady who had purchased a piece of red silk, instead of green, begged the abbe to change it to the color she wished. Rather than lose his reputation as a magician, Brigalier bought a piece of green silk and gave it to the lady, who was astonished at his success, and forthwith circulated the tale. By various tricks of legerdemain, he main- tained his credit as a sorcerer, so that the Archbishop of Paris gravely commanded him to desist from his unhallowed occupations. BRINDLEY, James, was born in Derby- shire, 1716, and reared as a clodhopper till his seventeenth year, without the advantages of even the most ordinary education. An apprenticeship to a millwright brought out his inventive faculties, and the untutored rustic be- came an ingenious mechanician and successful civil engineer. About 1757 he was consulted by the Duke of Bridgewater as to the prac- ticability of constructing a canal from Worsley to Manchester, a distance of twenty-nine miles. Had a man of inferior genius or less dauntless courage undertaken this work, very probably a failure would have ensued, and the develop- ment of British inland navigation might have been deferred for some years longer. When the canal was completed as far as Barton, where the Irwell is navigable for large ves- sels, Brindley proposed to carry it over the river by an aqueduct thirty-nine feet above the water ! This project was ridiculed by the practical men of the day. One much re- spected individual would not discount the Duke of Bridgewater's bill for five hundred pounds, and when the dimensions of the aqueduct were communicated to him, he BRI 150 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP exclaimed, "I have often heard of castles in the air, but never before was shown where any of them were to be erected." The canal was completed in 1761, and in less than fifty years, application had been made to parliament for one hundred and sixty-five acts for making canals in Great Britain at an expense of thirteen million pounds. Many of these great channelings were engineered by Brindley. He died in 1772, the victim of intense application to his profession. He is said to have answered a committee of the House of Commons, when asked for what object rivers were created, " To feed naviga- ble canals." Brindley could neither read nor write until late in life, and then but poorly. BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, Jean Pierke, a prominent character in the history of the French revolution, whose writings tended greatly to bring monarchical power into dis- repute. He was the son of a pastry-cook, and was born in 1754. At the age of thirty, he was imprisoned in the Bastile, for a work which treated of prohibited subjects. After numerous changes of action and residence, which the nature of his works and the fluc- tuating state of his popularity rendered ne- cessary, having been engaged for some time in England, some time with the Duke of Or- leans, and some time in America, he was at last guillotined with his friends, by the fac- tion of Robespierre, in 1793. He was the leader of the Girondists, and editor of the Moniteiir. BRITANNICUS. Tiberius Claudius Ger- manicus was called, after the return of his father, the Emperor Claudius, from Britain, Britannicus. His mother was the infamous Messalina. By the intrigues of Agrippina, the second wife of Claudius, he was poisoned, after havmg been excluded from the succes- sion, A.D. 55. BROOKS, John, a revolutionary oflBcer and eminent physician, born in Medford, Mass., 1752. His father was a farmer. After completing his professional studies, he joined with ardor the army, and was among the first to fight for the freedom of America. On the retreat of the British from Lexington, the company which he commanded had no small share in contributing to the annoyances of that humiliating flight. Brooks enjoyed the confidence and esteem of Washington, and had a colonel's commission when the army was disbanded. He retired to the practice of his profession. The rank of major-general of militia was conferred upon him, and he showed, in the insurrection of 1780, that he had forgotten none of his former vigor and address. He was governor of Massachusetts from 1816 to 1823, and died, highly respected and esteemed, March, 1825. BROWN, Chakles Brockden, born in Philadelphia, in 1771, was originally destined for the law, but the delicacy of his constitu- tion and his natural timidity prevented his pursuing a legal career. He was the author of several novels, which possess a fascinating power, although their scenes are generally painful and unnatural. "Arthur Mervj'^n" and "Edgar Huntley" are perhaps the best. Brown edited several periodicals, and his literary labors greatly impaired his health, and hastened the progress of the consumption of which he died in 1809. BROWN, Jacob, was born in Pennsylva- nia in 1775. In 1812 he entered the service of his country as a militia officer. So greatly did he shine in the defense of Ogdensburg and Sackett's Harbor, that in 1814 he was made brigadier, and soon after a major-gen- eral in the regular army. He commanded at the bfittles of Chippewa and Niagara. At the close of the war the only major-generals retained were Jackson and Brown. He died at Washing-ton in 1828. BROWN, William, a native of Ireland, who came to the United States at the age of fourteen, in 1798, and was for a long time engaged at sea in the merchant service. After being captured by the English, he found himself, in 1814, at Buenos Ayres, in the command of a British merchant ship. He joined the republican navy, and gained great fame by his various daring exploits. BROWNE, Maximilian Ulysses, Count, an Irish exile, finally field-marshal of Austria. Between 1745 and 1757 he ran a career of glory. He died of wounds received at the battle of Prague, 1757. BROWNE," Sir Thomas, a quaint, les^rned, and eloquent author, was born at London 1605, educated at Winchester and Oxford, and took his medical degree at Leyden. His BRO STORY AND BIOGRAPHY 151 principal works are "Religio Medici," Treat- ise on Vulgar Errors," and "Urn Burial." He died in 1682. BRUCE, James, a native of Scotland, born 1730, distinguished himself by his travels in Africa. Fie died in 1794 His veracity has •been often doubted, but his accounts have been confirmed by more recent travelers. He penetrated to the sources of the Abyssinian branch of the Nile. BRUCE, Robert, was the gi'andson of the competitor of Baliol for the crown of Scot- land. It was left for him to accomplish the deliverance of his country, which Wallace had so nobly attempted. In his youth he had acted upon apparently no regular plan ; and although he had at times served against Ed- ward, when the Scottish forces were able to make a successful resistance, he soon made submission after their defeat, and thus avoided drawing down upon himself the implacable resentment of Edward. He appeared to have stifled his pretensions to the crown ; but immediately after the death of Wallace he determined at once to assert his own rights and his country's independence. Arriving at Dumfries, from England, in February, 1300, he had a quarrel with Comyn of Badenoch, and stabbed him in the church of the Minor- ites, because he opposed his views. He now claimed the crown ; and resentment of the treachery of Edward, and of the death of Wallace, procured him numerous followers. He was accordingly crowned King of Scot- land, at Scone, on the 27th of March, the same year. An army sent by Edward soon arrived at Perth ; and in a battle fought on the 19th of June, Bruce was defeated. He took refuge at Aberdeen, and afterward went toward Argyle, and was so hard pressed by the English and their adherents, that he re- tired to the island of Rathlin on the north-west of Ireland, and was supposed to be dead ; but early in the next spring, he again displayed his banner in the west of Scotland, and gained many advantages aver the English, of which the victory at Loudon Hill was the most re- markable; whilst his brother, Sir Edward, and Sir James Douglas, were equally active and successful. Bruce came north in the end of the same year, and on account of the unfavorable state of his health, which had been injured by unceasing hardships and pri- vations, he remained some time inactive. On the 22d of May, 1308, he gained the battle of Inverary, over the Earl of Buchan and Sir John Mowbray, which was the commencement of a career of success which established him as King of Scotland. The whole of the fortresses of the kingdom were recovered excepting Stirling, which was beleaguered by his brother Edward, who entered into a treaty with the governor, by -which it was agreed it should be surrendered if not relieved before the 24th of June, 1314. This led to the attempt of Edward II. to relieve it by a pow- erful army, and brought on the battle of Bannockburn. Bruce's army consisted of thirty thousand veterans, distinguished by their valor, the skill of their leaders, and an- imated by every x^iotive which can promote heroic enterprise. He drew them .up with a hill on his right flank, and a morass on his left, to prevent being surrounded by the numerous army of Edward. Having a rivu- let in front, he commanded deep pits to be dug along its banks, and sharp stakes to be planted in them, and caused the whole to be carefully covered with turf. The English arrived in the evening, when Bruce was riding in the front of his army. Sir Henry Bohun, who rode up to charge him with his spear, was brought to the ground by his battle-axe. Early next morning the action commenced. Sir Robert Keith, at the head of the men-at- arms, destroyed the English archers. The English horse, under the Earl of Gloucester, rushing on to the charge, fell into the pits Bruce had prepared for them. Sir James Douglas, who commanded the Scottish cav- alry, gave them no time to rally, but pushed them off the field. Whilst the infantry con- tinued the fight, discouraged by these unfav- orable events, they were thrown into a panic by the appearance of what they supposed another army advancing to surround them. This was a number of wagoners and sumpter boys, whom King Robert had collected and supplied with military standards, which gave them the appearance of an army at a distance. The stratagem was decisive, and an universal rout' and immense slaughter ensued. This great and decisive battle secured the inde- pendence of Scotland, and fixed Bruce on the throne. He afterward invaded England, and laid waste the northern counties. He also BRU 152 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF led an expedition into Ireland, in support of his brother Edward, who had been crowned king of that country, in the course of which he gained several victories. Peace was at last concluded between England and Scotland, at Northampton, in 1328, and on the 7th of June, 1329, Robert died, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and was buried in the ab- bey of Dumferniline. His grand-daughter was the wife of Robert II., the first king of the house of Stuart, and from the issue of that marriage the present royal family is descended. BRUMMELL, George Bryan, best known as Beau Brummell, was born in June, 1778, and educated at Eton and Oxford. He be- came the leader of English fashion ; by no means a mere dandy, but the best-dressed gentleman of the day. Neckcloths were his greatest victories. At his beck they were starched. He was fastidious in tying them. "These," solemnly said his valet, bearing forth a pile of crumpled linen, " these are our failures." So arbitrary was the king of fashion's power, that he could snub the Prince of Wales, who aspired to be the first gentle- man in Europe. Coolness sprang up in the intimacy of the two, and the prince cut the beau. Brummell had full revenge, when he asked in St. James's street, just as George was stepping off, "Alvanley, pray who is your fat friend?" But the contest was unequal. Beau B. ran through his fortune, and had no nation to furnish the sinews of war. One day he wrote thus to Scrope Davies : "My Dear Scrope : Lend me two hundred pounds ; the banks are shut, and all my mo- ney is in the three per cents. It shall be repaid to-morrow morning. "Yours, George Brummell." The answer was prompt. " My Dear George : 'Tis very unfortunate ; but all my money is in the three per cents. " Yours, S. Da vies." That night Mr. Brummell ran away to Calais. England and his creditors saw him no more. In France he dragged out a mis- erable existence, sinking from the admired of fashion to the shabby genteel; thence still lower ; till at last he died at Caen in beggary and imbecility March 29th, 1840. BRUNSWICK, the duchy of, lies in the north-west of Germany, between Hanover and Prussia, comprising 1,52-4 square miles, and in 1857, 269,915 people. Brunswick, its capital, has 42,000 inhabitants, and was for- merly one of the Hanse Towns. The house of Brunswick was founded by Henry the Lion, who married Maud, daughter of Henry II. of England. The younger ranch of this family came into possession of Hanover, and has given sovereigns to England since the commencement of the eighteenth century. Charles Frederick William, Duke of Bruns- wick, fell upon the battle field of Jena, 1806, and the duchy was in the power of Napoleon till 1813. The three elder sons were blind, and yielded their rights in favor of Frederick AYilliam, who was born in 1771. He joined the war against France in 1806, and con- tinued, throughout his life, the determined enemy of Napoleon. His Black Brunswlck- ers, so called from their dress and equipments being entirely black, held out upon the con- tinent as long as resistance was of any avail, and finally their duke retired to England. In 1815, he again appeared in arras, and fell at Quatre-bras, commanding Wellington's van-guard, on the 16th of June. His death was atoned for by the bravery of his black hussars. BRUTUS, Li-cius Junius, a celebrated Ro- man. He was the son of Marcus Junius by a daughter of Tarquin the Elder, "When his father and brothers were beheaded b}' Tar- quin, Brutus saved himself by feigning idiocy, whence his surname, signifying ' the brute,' was given him. He continued this appear- ance until Lucretia killed herself in conse- quence of the violence of Sextus Tarquin. This was the time for Brutus to rouse the Roman people to action, and display the energy of his mind. By his exertions the Tarquins were expelled and the monarchy changed to a republic. The consulship was instituted, and Brutus and CoUatinus, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first to hold that dignity. When his sons joined in the conspiracy to restore the Tarquins, Bru- tus, convinced of their guilt, ordered their execution, that this example might confirm the liberty of Rome. The same year he was slain at the head of his troops, fighting against Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who also BRU HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 153 fell in the encounter. This took place, b. c. 509. Brutus was mourned by the whole Roman people. BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, was lineally descended from the above, whose republican principles he seemed to inherit. In the civil wars he joined Pompey, although the latter was his father's murderer, only because he looked upon him as just and patriotic in his claims. After the battle of Pharsalia, Caesar not only spared Brutus, but made him one of his friends. He, however, forgot the favor when CjBsar displayed his ambition and tyranny, and conspired to stab Cci3sar in the senate-house. Brutus was forced to re- tire into Greece by the excitement created by Antony. Here he gained many friends, but was soon pursued by Antony, accompan- ied by the young Octavius. A battle was fought at Philippi. Brutus, who commanded the right wing of the republican army, de- feated the enemy ; but Cassius, on the left, was overpowered, and Brutus found himself surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He, however, made his escape, and soon after fell upon his sword, e.g. 42. It is said that, previous to this battle, a spectral figure twice the size of life, appeared to Brutus, and warned him of his fote. BUCCANEERS. These French and Eng- lish freebooters of America acquired great no- toriety. After the assassination of Henry IV. of France, many Frenchmen settled in St. Christopher, an island of the Antilles. Be- ing driven from this place in 1630, they sought refuge on the western coast of St. Domingo, and the neighboring island of Toi'- tugas. Their wild and solitary life possessed a certain charm which induced many Eng- lishmen to join them, and their numbers at length became considerable. They were hardy and enterprising, and, deprived of the softening influence of female society, nour- ished a spirit of reckless ferocity. They did not, however, display at first those stern fea- tures which afterward characterized them, but were comparatively peaceful and indus- trious. Those who were settled at St. Do- mingo, used to hunt the wild cattle of the island, whose hides they sold to the crews that landed on their coast. They were accus- tomed to honcnner (that is, to smoke) the flesh of these animals before large fires, and thence received the name of boucaneers, or buccaneers. Increasing in strength and spirit, they defied the attempts of the Span- iards to subdue them, and soon made them- selves formidable by their predatory excur- sions. The Spaniards resolved to extirpate the wild cattle, and thus induce the buccaneers to become farmers for support, or else to join their more lawless comrades on the island of Tortugas. The buccaneers nourished a deep-seated hatred of the Spaniards, and it was their vessels which were most frequently attacked by the pirates. Sailing from the American ports, laden with the most precious productions of the New World, the size and strength of the galleons formed no adequate protection against the numbers and intrepid- ity of the buccaneers, who attacked them in boats, ill equipped it is true, but manned by crews of iron nerve and unquailing resolution. The spirit of the Spaniards became crushed by the repeated successes of the buccaneers, and before long they did not even attempt to defend themselves. Thus when Laurent, a fmious buccaneer, found himself in a small vessel, with a few guns, and two Spanish ships each of sixty guns along-side, the des- peration and fury of his resistance so over- awed the Spanish officers, that they permitted him to escape, although they had him com- pletely in their power. The leaders of the buccaneers were chosen for superior daring, but enjoyed but few priv- ileges save that of being foremost in danger. In dividing the spoils, all had an equal share, or, if any exception was made, it was in favor of those who had receiveci very severe wounds in combat. The captain had no larger share than any of his followers, unless he happened to have displayed extraordinary skill and valor. Previous to dividing the booty, each was obliged to swear that he had kept back no part of the prize, and perjury, which was of rare occurrence, was punished by the exile of the offender to a desert island. The share of those who had fallen was appropriated to relieve the necessities of their relations, or as gifts to the church, in case there were no surviving friends or relatives. The buc- caneers were scrupulous in observing the outward rites of religion, and offered up* prayers for the success of each enterprise BUC 154 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF before embarking in it. So formidable were the oijerations of the buccaneers, that they greatly diminished the trade between Spain and America. The baleful effects of the climate, and the nature of their occupation, graduallj^ diminished their numbers, till they were at length extirpated by the French and English governments. From them originated the French settlements on the western part of St. Domingo, although their piracies were ended in the commencement of the eighteenth century. Several of their leaders acquired a reputa- tion for daring and enterprise which has preserved their names from oblivion. One ' ing the Indians to forsake the Spaniards and league against them with the buccaneers. BUCHANAN, Geokge, the famous Latin poet and historian of Scotland, born 1506, died 1582. BUCHANAN, Claudius, an eminent mis- sionary to the East Indies, born near Glas- gow, March 12th, 1706, died Feb. 9th, 1815. BUENA VISTA, a mountain pass between San Luis and Saltillo in Mexico. Here, Feb. 23d, 1847, the Mexicans attacked the Amer- icans. Santa Anna sent Taylor a summons to surrender at discretion. Old "Rough and Ready" immediately replied, " dechning to accede to the request." Santa Anna's force of the most noted of these was Montbar, the was the flower of the Mexican army, and son of a gentleman of Languedoc, who earlj^ imbibed a hatred for the Spaniards. While at school, performing the part of a French- man in a di-ama, in his combat with a fellow- student, who represented a Spaniard, he so far forgot the reality of his situation, in the illusion of the moment, that he would have slain his antagonist but for the intervention of the more cool-headed spectators. At an early age Montbar embarked for America, and was highly delighted when one day a Spanish galleon hove in sight. Long before tho vessels met, Montbar had completed his preparations for the combat, and, with an unsheathed sword beneath his arm, was pac- ing the deck, in all the hot hurry of untried valor. The moment the vessels closed, call- ing to the boarders, he sprang on the deck of the galleon, and carried all before him by the impetuosity of his attack. While his com- rades were busy in estimating and dividing the booty, he was sternly gazing on the stif- fened bodies of the first victims of his hatred, like an eagle hovering over the slain. Ar- rived at St. Domingo, the buccaneers who came on board to trade, complained that the Spaniards, during their absence in the chase, destroyed their settlements. " Make me your leader," cried Montbar, "and I will teach these spoilers that there exists a power greater than theirs. I seek for no emolu- ments: the joys of battle are enough for me." Struck with his appearance and im- petuosity, they chose him their leader, and •had no reason to repent having done so, for he unweariedly pursued the Spaniards with invariable success,, and succeeded in induc- 20,000 strong. Taylor only had 4,500 men, of whom 4,000 were untried v.olunteers. The complete success of Taylor struck terror and dismay into the hearts of the Mexican nation. The American loss was 267 killed, 456 wound- ed, and 23 missing: that of the Mexicans exceeded 1,500. BUENOS AYRES, formerly a Spanish province, and afterward a part of the Argen- tine Confederation, is now a republic by itself. The area is roughly estimated at 60,000 square miles ; the population probably does not exceed 350,000. The western and north- ern parts of the country are rough, but large portions are extremely level; in the south, for instance, the pampas (immense plains) are more than 1200 miles long, and 500 broad, filled with wild cattle, and the abode of Indians hardly less wild. The fertility of a large proportion of the soil is surprising, although agriculture is neglected for the rearing of cattle. Among the mineral pro- ductions are gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. Hides, tallow, and beef are exported in great quantities. The only town of much importance is the capital, Buenos Ayres, which was founded in 1535, and contains a population of 120,000. A few of the public buildings may well be called magnificent, but generally architecture is in a low state in Buenos Ayres, chiefly from the scarcity of good building material, chalk and brick forming but a very inferior substitute. In 1826, it was made the seat of government of the LTnited Provinces of La Plata. In 1806, it was captured by the English, who were shortly afterward attacked by surprise, and BUE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 155 suffered great loss. The reinforcements which came over the following year, were received into the city with apparent submission, but then attacked with vigor, and compelled to conclude a truce, after suffering immense loss. The trade of the city is very considerable. BUFFON, George Louis Le Clekc, Comte de, a flimous French naturalist, born at Montbard in Burgundy, in 1707, died at Paris, April 16th, 1788. His "Natural History" continues to be read with pleasure, and at the time of its appearance differed from all previous works, which were merely masses of technical description, with no interesting general views and details. BULL. A papal bull is an apostolical re- script or edict, of ancient use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; on the other, the name of the pope, and j'ear of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the Emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal, and was made the fundamental law of the German empire at the diet of Nuremberg, 1356. j ning of June 16th, Col. Prescott received orders to fortify Bunker Hill, but Gen. Put- nam, who had the command of the expedition, finding Breed's Hill more suitable, the re- quisite fortifications were rapidly thrown up on that height. The British were uncon- scious of the enterprise until morning, when their ships-of-war, floating batteries, and the guns of Oopp's Hill, opened a severe fire on the Americans. At one o'clock, the troops under Howe landed in Charlestown, and were soon after reinforced which swelled their number to about 5,000 men, with six field- pieces. The British troops were well equip- ped and officered, possessed all the advan- tages of strict discipline, and were by no means distrustful of*the issue of the contest. The American army, on the other hand, hav- ing been hastily called together, was composed of men who had few ideas of military com- binations, and whose weapons were generally fowling-pieces without bayonets, but who were all animated by one spirit. Theii" lead- ers were beloved and respected b}' them, and were men of tried truth and nerve ; Putnam, Stark, Pomeroy, WaiTen, and Prescott, men whose names yet call a glow into the bosom of Papal bulls denouncing Queen Elizabeth and every patriot. The provincial troops amount- her abettors, and consigning them to hell- fire, accompanied the boastful Spanish ai'- mada, 1588. BULL BAITING, a sport of Spain and Portugal, somewhat equivalent in those coun- tries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- ment at Stamford in England so early as 1209. Bull running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374 Among the sports of 'Merrie Eng- land' were the "Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ; " and near the Clinic, London, was the Paris, or bear garden, so celebrated in the time of Queen Bess for the exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260, and abolished there, "except for jd/ot^s and 2)atriotiG purposes," in 1784. There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by ten thousand spectators, Sunday, June 14th, 1840. BUNKER HILL. This memorable battle was fought June 17th, 1775. On the eve- ed to perhaps 2,000 men, with two field- pieces. " Don't fire, " said Putnam to his men, "till you can see the whites of their eyes." The British approached unmolested till within close gun-shot, when the tremendous fire of the provincials drove them back with great slaughter. In the second attack, Charles- town was set on fire and burned to the ground, adding its raging flames to the other horrors of the battle scene. As the ammunition of the Americans was nearly exhausted, the third attack carried the redoubt, although the provincials resisted the British with the butt- ends of their muskets, and slowly retreated from the hill. The Americans lost 115 killed (among them General Warren), 305 wounded, and 30 were made prisoners. The British lost 1,054 in killed and wounded. As the Americans retreated across Bunk- er's Hill, Gen. Putnam used every exertion to rally them. He commanded, begged, cursed and swore like a madman. " Halt ! Make a stand here ! " he cried ; "we can check them yet. In God's name form, and give them one shot more." It is said that for the torrent of BUN 156 COTTAOE CYCLOPEDIA OF profanity in which the brave old general in- dulged at this time, he made a confession, after the war, before the church of which he was a member. ' ' It was almost enough to make an angel swear," he said, "to see the cowards refuse to secure a victory so nearly won."_ But the undisciplined j^eomanry were desti- tute of ammunition ; thrice had they repulsed a force superior in strength and skill ; and whatever victory the British had gained was more humiliating than defeat . A lofty monument now stands upon the site of the redoubt. BUNYAN, JonN, the son of a tinker, born at Elston, in 1028. At an eai-ly age he was dissipated, and served as a soldier in the par- liamentary arm3\ Reflection and reformation, however, brought out the bright points of his character. He became a member of a society of Anabaptists, and finally their teacher. As a dissenter he was imprisoned in Bedford jail, after severe engagements at Stillwater and Saratoga, was forced to surrender, with his whole army, to General Gates, in 1777. Afterward he sat in parliament, and in 1781 he warmly advocated the discontinuance of hostilities, BURGUNDIANS, a tribe of Germans, a branch of the Vandals, who occupied a part of France, in the fifth century, which has since been called Burgundy. It was long an inde- pendent state, but was attached to France in the latter part of the fifteenth century, on the death of Charles the Bold. The independent dukes of Burgundy rendered their name illus- trious, and many of them were distinguished for their bravery and other high qualities. BURIAL. This was the earliest mode of disposing of dead bodies, and the first idea of it is s^iid to have been formed ft-om observing a live bird covering a dead one with leaves. The antiquity of the custom of burning the twelve years, and the occupation of his mind i dead rises as high as the Theban war ; it was during his long confinement, was the compo- sition of his unrivaled "Pilgrim's Progress," that wonderful religious allegory, bearing the impress of a strong mind and an ardent imag- ination. Bunyan died in 1088. Robert, his last male descendant in a direct line, died at Lincoln, England, Nov. 27th, 1855, aged eighty. BURCKHARDT, John Loris, famous for his travels in Africa, born at Lausanne in 1784. His country being oppressed by France, he went to London in 1800, and was engaged i ornaments, bj'- the African association to explore Africa from the north. To fiicilitate his progress in Nubia and other parts of the country, he as- sumed the character of a Syrian Turk, and so thoroughly acquainted with the manners and religion of the East was he, that he underwent an examination by two learned jurists, and was pronounced by them a learned and true Mussulman. He died at Cairo, October 15th, 1817, and was buried in the Mussulman cem- etery with great splendor. BURGOYNE, John, the natural son of Lord Bingly, a general in the English army, and also an agreeable dramatist. He entered the armjr at an early age, and, in 1702, had the command of a body of troops sent to Portugal for the defense of that kingdom against the Spaniards. He distinguished himself in the American war by taking Ticonderoga, but practiced among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer abounds with descriptions of such ob- sequies. It was very general about 1225 b.c. ; it was revived by Sylla for fear the relics of the dead in graves should be violated by ene- mies, and was not in disuse till the time of Macrobius. Among the most ancient sepul- chres were those circular mounds yet discern- ible in various countries, and in Britain called barrows. Several of these near Stonehenge having been opened, curious remains of Celtic such as beads, buckles, and brooches, in amber, wood, and gold, were found. Places of burial were consecrated under Pope Calixtus I. in 210; the first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. "VYoolen shrouds were used in England, 1000. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow precincts of a place reputed sacred ; much less of amassing them in the bosoms of their ftmes and temples, as has been the habit in European countries. The mortuaries of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from the towns ; those of the latter generally near the highways, whence came the necessity for inscriptions on the tombs ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens, and in fields, and among rocks and BUR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 157 mountdns. The practice of inhuming in chui'chyards and within religious edifices was introduced by the Romish clergy, who pre- tended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privi- leges from interment in consecrated ground. It is now the custom to bury the dead in cemeteries. One of the most celebrated of these is Pere la Chaise. It takes its name from a French Jesuit, the confessor of Louis XIV. He died in 1709, and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by this beautiful cemetery. The burying places of the Turks are handsome and agree- able, which is owing chiefly to the fine shrub- bery and plants carefully placed over the dead. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of departed friends. The Romans strewed roses upon their tombs ; the Greeks, amaranth and myrtle. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and throw sweet basil upon them. In Asia Minor and Turkey in Europe, the tombs are also adorned either with paim-leaves, boughs of myrtle, or cypi-esses planted at the head and foot. Be- tween some of the tombs is put a chest of or- namental stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cultivated by women who assemble in groups for that duty. The Athe- nian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar, because of the aromatic and incorruptible na- ture of that wood. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold. Glass coffins have been found in England, and the earliest record of wooden coffins there is in the burial of King Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a.d. 542. BURKE, Edmund, a statesman and great political writer, was born at Dublin, January 1st, 1730. He was contemporary with Pitt and Fox. After finishing his education at Trinity College, Dublin, he entered his name at the Middle Temple as a law student, but devoted himself to literature. His political career commenced by his accompanying Ham- ilton, secretary of the lord-lieutenant of Ire- laud, to Dublin, and on his return he was made private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham. On the fall of the Rockingham ministry, he wrote a pamphlet on the subject, and became an active member of the opposi- tion, being chosen for Bristol, in 1774, without expense. His speeches in the senate eclipsed even the reputation of his writings, and were delivered with a vehemence which it was dif- ficult to resist. He was strenuous for the conciliation of the American colonies. On the return of the Rockingham admuiistration, Mr. Burke for a short time filled the office of paymaster-general, but he resigned the post, upon the succession of Lord Shelburnc to the premiership. The leading features of his subsequent political life, in which he held no office, are his impeachment of Warren Has- tings ; his oj^position to the limited regency in 1788; his prediction of the effects of the French revolution, and his separation from Mr. Fox upon those sentiments. This was his last great political act, all his subsequent ones being to establish and defend it. On this subject he published several pamphlets, the merit of which obtained him a pension. and many severe reflections from his oppo- nents, to which he rephed m "A Letter to a Noble Lord," replete with sarcastic irony. He died July 8th, 1797. Mr. Burke had a commanding oratory, to enhance which he spared no incidental act of gesticulation and manner. On one occasion, he is said to have drawn forth and brandished a dagger to give a greater effect to his words. BURNS, Robert, the greatest of Scottish bards, was the son of a gardener, and was born near the town of Ayr, January 25th, 1759. He had some instruction and was fond of reading. His poetical talent was first dis- played in some amatory verses, and his con- versational talents caused him to be sought for by convivial parties, which tended to fix his habits of dissipation. The publication of his poems procured him a sum of money larger than he anticipated, and a high Uterary reputation. He was enabled to take a farm near Dumfries, and at the same time procured the office of exciseman. He married the early object of his affections, the " bonnie Jean " of whom he has written so tenderly in the most musical of his verses. She survived the poet who had immortalized her name, and died in the year 1834. Burns might have pros- pered and enjoyed a long life, had he but lis- tened to the advice and remonstrances of his friends, and forsaken those ruinous indulgen- ces that produced or at least hastened his BUR 158 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF BIRTH-PLACE OP ROBERT BURNS. death, which took place July 21st, 1796. Burns was emphatically the poet of truth and of nature. His most beautiful poems were composed in the spirit of truth, and glow with the fire of real feeling and passion. Full of affectionate and sad remembrances, he com- posed the verses " To Mary in Heaven," com- mencing ; " My Mary, dear departed shade, Where is thy blissful place of rest ? Sees't thou thy lover lowly laid, Hear'st thou the groans that rend his breast?" In this he celebrates their last meeting. The Mary of Burns was a peasant-girl, whose acquhements merely enabled her to read her Bible and psalm-book, and who walked bare- footed to their try sting-place, and yet she in- spired the most enthusiastic attachment in a man whose intellect cast a glory upon the hills, and woods, and streams of his native land, and a halo round the objects of his love, which will endure as long as the human breast is warmed with the glow of social and patri- otic feeling. BURR, Aaeon, was born in Newark, N. J., February 5th, 1 75 6. His father was the pious president of Princeton College, and his mother the daugliter of that devout divine, Jonathan Edwards. But death robbed him early of their care, and his life was in deep contrast to such parentage. Brilliant talents he dis- played in his youthful collegiate career, and bravery in the ardor with which he threw himself into the patriotic cause. He was a volunteer in Arnold's expedition against Que- bec, and fought close by Montgomery when that brave man fell. He reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Ill health forced him to leave the army in 1779. He was soon fore- most at the bar of New York, and from 1791 to 1797 was a member of the United States Senate. In 1800, he was a candidate for the presidency against Jefferson. The choice dc' volved upon the House of Representatives. On the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson was elected president, and Burr vice-president. The mur- der of Alexander Hamilton by Burr in a duel in 1 804, brought great hatred upon the latter. In 1807 Burr was tried for treason, being ac- cused of an attempt to rear an empire in the south-west, but he was acquitted. His public life was at an end, and he lived in comparative obscurity till his death, Sept. 14th, 1836. BURROWS, William, born October 6th, BUR HISTORY AND BIOGEAPHY. 159 1785, a gallant officer in the United States the slough opposite his house, he said to them, navy, who fell a victim in the moment of glory, Sept. 6th, 1813, commanding the Enterprise, which engaged the British brig Boxer; he received a mortal wound early in the action, and when the sword of the enemy was pre- sented to him, he exclaimed, " I am satisfied ; I die content ;" and soon after expired. The action lasted forty -five minutes. BUSACO, a mountain ridge in Portugal, celebrated for the repulse of the French under Massena, by the English under Lord Welling- ton, Sept. 27th, 1810. BUTLER, Richard, an officer of the Rev- olutionary war, colonel of Morgan's rifle corps, shared at Saratoga, and many other places, the renown of that admirable body. After a life of honor. General Butler fell, in the defeat of St. Clair's army, by the Indians, Nov. ith, • 179L BUTLER, Thomas, brother of Richard, and a brave officer, joined the army in 1776, was at Brandy wine, served through the war, and was very severely wounded in the war with the Indians, at the battle where his brother fell. His latter years were imbittered by dis- putes with Genei-al Wilkinson, which were closed by death, Sept. 7th, 1805, aged fifty- one. He would not yield to the general order which required officers and soldiers to cut the hair close to the head. BUTIiER, Samuel, an English poet, the son of a farmer, born in Stresham, Worcester- shire, in 1612. His pungent satire of " Hudi- bras," in which the weak points of the Puri- tans are happily exposed, brought the author into notice, but did not better his circumstan- ces, and ho died poor in 1680. BYLES, Mather, D.D., a clergyman of Boston, born in 1706. He was for some time pastor of the Hollis Street Church, but was removed from his pulpit in consequence of his Tory principles. His political opinions subjected him to a temporary imprisonment on board a guard-ship. He was however re- leased, but a guard put over him in his own house. The guard was removed, and then replaced in consequence of further complaint against him. Finally, the presence of the sentinel was dispensed with. It was on this occasion, that the witty doctor remarked that he had been " guarded, regarded, and disre- garded." When two selectmen stuck fast in BYR " Gentlemen, 1 have several times complained of this nuisance, and am therefore pleased to see you stirring in the matter." Byles cor- responded with Pope, Lansdowne, and AVatts, and possessed some poetical talent. His es- says and poems were collected, and published in a volume. He died in Boston, July 5th, 1788. BYNG, George, an English admiral, born in 1663. He became rear-admiral in 1703. In 1706, he relieved Barcelona, besieged by the Duke of Anjou ; and in 1708, frustrated the efforts of the French to assist the Preten- der by an invasion. In 1718, he defeated the Spanish fleet off Sicily. For these, and other services, he received many offices and honors, and was made Viscount Torrington. He died in 1733. BYNG, John, an English admiral, son of the preceding, served under his father in many expeditions, and, although esteemed an able seaman and a brave man, was ruined by par- tisan animosity. Failing in his attempts to relieve Minorca, in 1755, he was tried by a court-martial, and, although recommended to mercy, shot in 1757. After party fury had subsided, and his conduct had been dispas sionately examined, his intentions were al- lowed to ha'we been good, his courage indis- putable, and his death the consequence of rancorous misrepresentation from personal dislike. His conduct in his last moments con- firmed no part of the evidence against him ; it was cool, determined, dignified, and resigned. Immediate posterity honored him as a British admiral ; his connections, as a man of honor.; and it was obtained from among the secrets of ministerial intrigue, that he was the victim of ministerial cowardice, undeserving of the dis- grace of an execution, and obedient to orders which the men in office had not the courage to avow. BYRON, George Gordon, Lord, one of the most celebrated English poets of modern days, was born in London, Jan. 22d, 1788. Admiral Byron, the great voyager, was his grandfather. His mother was a Scotch heir- ess, only daughter of George Gordon, Esq., of Aberdeenshire, and his father was Captain Byron, or, as he was popularly termed, for his reckless profligacy, 'Mad Jack Byron of the Guards.' The parents of the poet lived 160 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP unhappily together, and the heai'tlobs liber- tine who transmitted so many failings to his son, squididered the property of the woman he had married for her wealth, and reduced her to comparative poverty. Economy in- duced Mrs. Bj^ron to take up her residence at Aberdeen in 1790, where her son was placed at school. Her management of young Byron was anything but judicious, and in her fits of passion, she even reproached him with the lameness of one of his feet, a de- formity which although trilling was severely felt by the sensitive poet, and even engen- dered many of his misanthropic views. It was rarely that he alluded to it in a jesting way. In his youth, however, he was ac- quainted with a child who had a similar de- fect, and used to say to his nurse, in the Scotch dialect which he had acquired, " See the twa laddies wi' the twa club feet ganging up the high street." His ramifies a:nong the Highlands of Scotland had a strong effect upon his imagination, and probably kindled the spark which afterward brightened to a flame. In one of his poems he says : " Long have I roamed through lands which are not mine. Adored the Alps, and loved the Appenine, Revered Parnassus, and beheld the steep Jove's Ida and Olympus crown the deep ; But 't was not all long ages' yore, nor all Their nature held me in their thrilling thrall; The infant rapture still survived the boy. And Loeh-iui-gar with Ida looked o'er Troy, Mixed Celtic memories with the Phrygian mount. And Highland linns with Castalie's clear fount. Foi'give me. Homer's universal shade ! Forgive nie, Phoebus ! that my fancy strayed ; The North and nature taught me to adore Your scenes sublime, from those beloved before." To this passage the following note is append- ed by the author : " When very young, about eight years of age, after an attack of the scarlet fever at Aberdeen, I was removed by medical advice into the Highlands. Here I passed occasionally some summers, and from this period I date my love of mountainous countries. I can never forget the effect, a few years afterward in England, of the only thing I had long seen, even in miniature, of a mountain, in the Malvern Hills. After I returned to Cheltenham, I used to watch them every afternoon at sunset, with a sen- sation which I can not describe. This was boyish enough ; but T was then on1v thirteen years of age, and it was in the holidays.' In the year 1798, on the death of his grand-uncle, he succeeded to a baronial es- tate and title, and became a chancery ward under the guardianship of the Earl of Carl- isle, against whom he soon conceived a dis- like. Placed at Harrow, he had to encounter all the temjitations and annoyances insepara- ble fi-om jiublic education. School-boys are not famous for feeling, and the lameness of Byron was perpetually called to mind by the rudest practical sarcasms. He would often wake and find his lame foot plunged in a pail of water. Through Harrow, he fairly fought his way. "I had," said he, in one of his conversations with Captain Medwin, " a spirit that ill brooked the restraints of school dis- cipline ; for I had been encouraged by ser- vants in all my violence of temper, and was used to command. Ever3rthing like a task was repugnant to my nature, and I came away a very indifferent classic, and read in nothing that was useful. That subordination which is the soul of all discipline, I sub- mitted to with difficulty ; yet I did submit to it; and I have always retained a sense of Drvn-y's kindness, which enabled me to bear it and fagging too. The Duke of Dorset was my fag. I was not a very hard task -master. There were times at which, if I had not consid- ered it as a school, I should have been happy at Harrow. There is one spot I should like to see again: I was particularly delighted with the view from the chvuch-yard, and used to sit for hours on the stile leading into the fields ; even then I formed a wish to be ' buried there." " There were two things that strike me at this moment, that I did at Har- row. I fought Lord Calthorpe for writing atheist under my name ; and prevented the school-room from being burnt during a re- bellion, by pointing out to the boys the names of their fatliers and grandfathers on the walls." In October, 1805, the young lord entered Cambridge university, where he was little distinguished for application, and showed no great respect for academic honors. He even evinced his contempt for them by keeping a young bear in his room, which he said he was training for a fellowship. In his twen- tieth year he took up his abode at Newstead Abbey, a fine old building, which he proceed- .■d immediately to repair. His " Hours of BYR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 161 Idleness " now appeared, a collection of poems written during his minority, which was at- tacked by the Edinburgh Eeview with a degree of malignity and violence that pro- voked the youthful bard to vindicate his reputation in a satire entitled " English Bards and Scotch Eeviewers." This severe and sweeping philippic appeared a few days after he had taken his seat in the House of Lords, and gained the favor of the public in a short time. He soon after went abroad, traveling through Portugal, Spain, and Greece. The scenes through which he passed are finely described in "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage." In the east he swam from Sestos to Abydos, and prided himself greatly on this daring feat. He returned to England in 1811, after an absence of two years. He hastened to Newstead, but arrived too late to close the eyes of his mother. About this period, the acquaintance between him- self and Thomas Moore commenced, an ac- quaintance which afterward ripened into the warmest friendship. On the 29th of Febru- ary, 1812, appeared the two first cantos of " Childe Harold," and the success and sale of the work was instantaneous. The hero, a proud but melancholy wanderer, satiated with sensual pleasure, was at once recognized as a delineation of the noble author, notwith- standing his decisive denial. The " Giaour," the "Bride of Abydos," and the " Corsair," poems in all of which the author displayed his unrivaled talents, and accurate knowledge of eastern customs and manners, followed at short intervals. Of one of these, twenty thousand copies were sold in one day. On the 2d of January, 1815, Byron married Miss Milbanke, daughter of Sir Ealph Milbanke. The marriage was unhappy, and after various quarrels, and much distress, the parties separated. Ada, the daughter of unhappy parents, was taken from Byron, who, in 1816, left England forever. He gave in con- versation the following melancholy account of his situation immediately before leaving England: "In addition to all my other mor- tifications, my affairs were irretrievably in- volved, and almost so as to make me what they wished. I was compelled to part with Newstead, which I never could have ventured to sell in my mother's lifetime. As it is I shall never forgive myself for having done 11 so ; tliough I am told that the estate would not now bring half so much as I got for it. This does not at all reconcile me to having parted fi-om the old abbey. I did not make up my mind to this step but from the last necessity. I had my wife's portion to repay, and was determined to add £10,000 more of my own to it, which I did. I always hat^'d being in debt, and do not owe a guinea. The moment I put my affairs in train, and in little more than eighteen months after my mar- riage, I left England, an involuntary exile, intending it should be forever." After his residence in Italy, where his dramas and many other poems were written, and where he was alternately dissolute and temperate, the revolution in Greece engaged his attention, and he determined to embark his person and fortune in the cause of liberty. He was received in Greece with enthusiasm, and proceeded to Missolonghi, where his re- ception was most gratifying to his feelings. He immediately formed a brigade of five hundred Suliotes. He was aware of the dis- sensions existing among the Greeks, but was confident of their ultimate success. He was urged to go to Zante, on account of the un- healthiness of Missolonghi. " I can not quit Greece," he wrote to a friend, " while there is a chance of my being even of (supposed) utility. There is a stake worth millions such as I am, and while I can stand at all, I must stand by the cause. While I say this, I am aware of the difficulties, dissensions, and defects of the Greeks themselves ; but allow- ance must be made for them by all reasona- ble people." On the 9th of April, while riding on horse- back, he was overtaken by a rain-storm, and the feverish cold he took was the precm-sor of a fatal malady. He died April 1 9th, 1 824 ; his last thoughts, as his words indicated, were with his wife and child. His funeral was solemnized in Missolonghi, and his death publicly mourned in Greece. His body was conveyed to England, and interred at Huck- nall church, near Newstead Abbey. The ex- terior of the coffin bore the following inscrip- tion: "George Gordon Noel Byron, Lord Byron of Rochdale; born in London, Jan. 22d, 1788. Died at Missolonghi, in Western Greece, April 19th, 1824." Most of Lord Byron's vices sprang from BYR 162 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF his freedom from all control at an age when he most stood in need of friendly advice and friendly restraint, to guard him from those evils which beset young men, and particu- larly young men of rank, in the outset of their career. Yet his reckless gallantry, and laxity of morals, did not efface fine traits of feeling, benevolence, and a respect for virtue. His attachment to his daughter Ada was sin- cere and lasting; and he often spoke of his wife with affection and respect. Medwin says that his absent daughter occupied much of his thoughts. "He opened his writing desk, and showed me some hair, which he told me was his child's. During our ride and drive this evening, he declined our usual amusement of pistol-firing, without assigning a cause. He hardly spoke a word during the first half-hour, and it was evident that some- thing weighed heavily on his mind. There was a sacredness in his melancholy that I dared not interrupt. At length he said: " This is Ada's birth-day, and might have been the happiest day of my life ; as it is ! '' He stopped, seemingly ashamed of having betrayed his feelings. He tried in vain to rally his spirits by turning the con- versation ; but he created a laugh in which he could not join, and soon relapsed into his former reverie. It lasted till we came within a mile of the Argive gate. There our silence was all at once interrupted by shrieks that seemed to proceed from a cottage by the side of the road. We pulled up our horses, to inquire of a contadino standing at the little garden-wicket. He told us that a widow had just lost her only child, and that the sounds proceeded from the wailings of some women over the corpse. Lord Byron was much affected, and his superstition, acted upon by a sadness that seemed to be presentiment, led him to augur some disaster. "I shall not be happy," said he, " till I hear that my daughter is well. I have a great horror of anniversaries ; people only laugh at it, who have never kept a register of them. I always write to my sister on Ada's birthday. I did so last year ; and, what was very remarkable, my letter reached her on my v\'edding-day, and her answer reached me at Ravenna on my birthday. Several extraordinary things have happened to me on my birthday; so they did to Napoleon; and a more won- derful circumstance still occurred to Marie Antoinette." That Lord Byron should have joined to his religious skepticism some super- stitious weaknesses, will surprise man}^ ; yet it should seem no incompatibility. There is little or no connection between reason and sentiment, and all imaginative persons are liable to this disease : for superstition is the malady of man himself, only as he is an imagmative anmial. BjTon once consulted a conjurer, more out of sport than curiosit}'. He was told that two years would be fatal to him, his twenty-seventh and his thirty- seventh. In the first he married, in the second he died. BYZANTIUM, named fi-om Byzas its founder, was situated on the site of the pres- ent city of Constantinople. It was founded by a Greek colony, b.c. 667. Philip of Mace- don laid siege to it. One dark night his soldiers had almost gained the town, when a light shone suddenly from the north, and revealed to the inhabitants their danger. The thankful Byzantines built an altar to Diana, and assumed the crescent as the em- blem of their city. When the Turks con- quered Constantinople, they adopted it as their own device. From the Thracians, Scythians, and Gauls, and under the Roman emperors Severus and Gallienus, Byzantium suffered severely. During the reign of Con- stantine the Great, it was rebuilt and made the capital of the empire. The Byzantine empire is a name given to the Eastern Roman empire. BYZ HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 163 CABOT, Sebastian, a celebrated navigator, son of John Cabot, was born at Bristol, in 1467. He was the discoverer of Florida. He visited the eastern side of the island of New- foundland. John Cabot and his son Sebas- tian discovered, on the 24th of June, 1497, the shores of Newfoundland. The neighbor- ing island received the name of St. John, because it was discovered upon the festival of that saint. After having sailed in the English service, Sebastian went to Spain in 1526, where he was furnished with vessels with which he ascended the river La Plata. He made other voyages also in Spanish ves- sels. He returned to England, however, and was graced with various dignities, and in- trusted with the direction of the Merchants' Company, formed for the purpose of making discoveries. He superintended Willoughby's expedition in 1553, and an act of Edward VI., dated 1549, grants him a pension of £166, a considerable sum if we consider the value of money at that period. He is sup- posed to have died in 1557. CADE, John, a native of Ireland, who, having been compelled to fly to France, re- turned to England in 1450, assumed the pop- ular name of John Mortimer, and raised a formidable force in Kent, at the head of which he placed himself. He promised to lay down his arms, if the grievances of which he com- plained were redressed; but losing his au- thority over his followers they committed various outrages which were resented by the well-disposed part of the community. The rebels were defeated, a price was set on Cade's head, and he was killed by one Iden, a gen- tleman of Sussex, 1451. CADMUS. This name belongs to several characters of mythology and history. One, a Phoenician, brought a colony of his coun- trymen to Greece, and introduced letters there, b.c. 1550. CADOUDAL, George, a Chouan chief, who with Gen. Pichegru, was concerned in a conspiracy to take the life of Bonaparte when first consul. He was brought over to France in a British government vessel, but was seized by the police, tried, condemned, and executed June 24th, 1804, aged thirty-five years. CADWALLADER, John, a distinguished military officer, born in Philadelphia. He commanded the Pennsylvania troops in the winter of 1777, and enjoyed the confidence of General Washington. At the battles of Prince- ton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon- mouth, he served as a volunteer or acted in his command, and died in 1786. CAESAR, Caius Julius, descended from the illustrious family of Julia, which traced its origin to .^Eneas and Venus, "was born 100 B.C. In his infancy he witnessed the civil wars of Sylla and his maternal uncle, Marius. When Ca3sar had arrived at man's estate, Sylla, then at the height of power, could not excuse his crime in being the nephew of Ma- rius, and the son-in-law of Cinna. He was proscribed, and his sentence was revoked only by means of the earnest solicitations of the vestals, and the credit of his family. Sylla is said to have declared, in yielding to their urgency, that they would one day repent having saved the life of a young man in whom he beheld the spirit of more than one Marius. Young Cassar commenced his mil- itary career in Asia. Returning to Rome after the death of Sylla, he gained applause and popularity by his' eloquence, an art in which Appollonius of Rhodes was his instruc- tor. While absent from Rome, pursuing his studies, he learned that Mithridates had at- tacked the provinces of the allies of Rome, and accordingly, leaving Rhodes for the con- tinent, he assembled troops and led them against the kmg of Pontus. On his return to Rome, finding Pompey at the head of the senate and the repubhc, and fearing that his connection with the partisans of Marius might prove disadvantageous to him, he joined the Pompeian party. The oifice of military tribune, and afterward that of questor, were conferred upon Caesar. Upon pronouncing the funeral eulogium on his aunt Julia, while enjoying the latter dignity, he produced the images of Marius, which had not seen the light since the dictatorship of C^S 164 COTTA(iE CYCLOPEDIA OF Sylla. When promoted to the dignity of gedile, he caused the statues and trophies of Marias to be replaced. At this period he was accused of aiming at the supreme power, but the people, whose tastes he flattered, vaunted his devotion and courage, and the zeal with which he had discharged his official duties ; and the multitude did not forget the magniticent spectacles for which they were indebted to him, and the ample arrange- ments which he had made for the accommo- dation of the spectators at the public shows. When the conspiracy of Cataline was discov- ered, C^sar had the hardihood to recommend the conspirators to mercy, and sustained his opinion with a warmth which gave rise to a suspicion that he was hot altogether a stran- ger to the plot. So strongly did the tide of indignation set against him, that the knights who composed the guard on that day, waited only for a sign from Cicero to kill him ; but the latter, fearing that it would be impossi- ble to substantiate his guilt, saved him from their furj'. Caesar, while engaged in ambi- tious schemes, mingled in the dissipation of the day, and concealed under the exterior of a man of pleasure the traits of a determined foe to liberty. On the death of Metellus, Caesar obtained the office ot'jnmtifex maximus, although two powerful men were his competitors. He had so plunged himself in debt by his heavy brib- ery, that on the day of the election, seeing his mother in tears, he embraced her, and said, " To-day you will see me a high-priest or an exile." Shortly after this, Clodius having been accused of attempting to corrupt the fidelity of Cesar's wife, he divorced her, and said, "The wife of Caesar must not even be suspected." He was then praetor ; after- ward the government of Spain fell to his lot. A sajdng of his at this time proved that he then entertained the most ambitious ideas. At a poor village in the Alps, some of his friends asked if, in that miserable place, power, and rank occasioned discussion. "I had rather," said he to them, "be the first even in this place, than the second in Rome!" He was by no means idle in his government, but made many conquests, while he did not neglect his private interests, for he extorted money enough to pay his enormous debts, C and enable him to purchase a vast number of creatures. To obtain the consulate, he reconciled Cras- sus and Pompey, and made use of both, form- ing with them the first triumvirate. Al- though he had a colleague, he governed with absolute authority. Bibulus, who was asso- ciated with him, and vainly opposed his wishes, wittily declared that the Romans were not under the consulate of Ca3sar and Bibu- lus, but under the consulate of Julius and Caesar. Caesar gained popularity by procur- ing the distribution of the lands of Campania. Shortly after the union of Pompey with Julia, the daughter of Caesar, the latter ob- tained the government of the Gauls and Illy- ria for five years, with the command of four legions. He triumphed over the Gauls, the Helvetians, the brave Belgians, and others, carried his arms beyond the Rhine, and raised the Roman eagles in hitherto uncon- quered Britain. During the ten years of the Gallic war, Caesar is said to have possessed himself of eight hundred towns, and to have triumphed in arms over three million men. In the midst of his victories, he was mindful of his own interests, and robbed even altars and temples to increase his wealth. He is said to have quoted with approbation this sentence of Euripides, "Violate justice only for the sake of ruling." The soldiers were gained by liberal presents, and it seemed as if the army was the depositary of the im- mense wealth which Ciesar was accumulat- ing. Thus the troops were the soldiers of Ca3sar, and not of the republic. Rome had become venal ; everything was for sale, and Caesar was the purchaser of everything. Crassus had been slain in a campaign against the Parthians, and Julia, the link that bound Cfesar and Pompey together, as the daughter of one and the wife of the other, was no more. The predominant party in the senate was favorable to Pompey, and the in- creasing p*ower of the conqueror of Gaul was jealously seen. Although the term of Caj- sar's command had not yet expired, the senate sent him a decree, the purport of which was, that if in a limited time Cassar did not relinquish his command, he should be treated as the, enemy of the commonwealth. Three tribunes of Caesar's party, among them Mark HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 165 Antony, having been expelled from the sen- ' Caasar was completely victorious. He pur- ate for opposing this decree, fled to the camp sued Pompey to Egypt, but was indignant of Caesar in the garb of slaves. War was practically declared. The senate commanded ti\e consuls to look to the safety of the repub- lic, and Caesar ordered his troops to advance to tlio Rubicon, a small river separating Cis- alpine Gaul from Italy. The republic, which both parties invoked, was no more than a name ; Cassar and Pompey were both heads of factions, that sought to elevate themselves above the laws. Learning the decree of the senate, Cicsar marched directly to the Rubi- con. There, the risks he was about to incur, and the evils he was about to bring upon his country, held his mind in suspense for a long time; but, after having reflected upon the hate and animosity of his enemies, and upon his own strength, he dashed forward, ex- claiming, "The die is cast." His soldiers followed him. Arrived at Rimini, the terror of his arms spread to Rome, where disorder prevailed. Conflicting opinions distracted the city, and all energy seemed sunk in the consideration of the greatness of the danger, and the insufficiency of the means of defense. Pompey left Rome, with the consuls, prin- cipal senators, &c., and from Capua went to Dyrrachium, to which last place he escaped under cover of night, leaving the whole of Italy in the power of Caesar. The latter, sending his lieutenants to take possession of Sardinia and Sicily, advanced to Rome. The only act of violence which he committed, was the seizure of the public treasure deposited in the temple of Saturn. Pompey's party had idly imagined that the removal of the key was a sufficient safeguard. The tribune Me- tellus opposed the passage of Caesar, who threatened him with death, sternly adding, " This is an act easier for me to do than to name." The tribune retired, and Csesar took out all the treasure, even ■ the most sacred deposits. Having subdued Pompey's lieu- tenants in Spain, Cajsar was named dicta- tor. He then went to Greece for the purpose of crushing Pompey. Crossing the sea in a mere fishing-boat, he was exposed to great danger, and animated the pilot by the memo- rable exclamation, " Fear nothing ! you caj-ry Caesar and his fortunes ! " The fate of Pom- pey and of the republic was decided by the battle of Pharsalia, fought 48 b.c, in which when the head of his unfortunate rival was brought him by his assassins. While he was in Alexandria, detained by the charms of Cleopatra, and the differences existing between the members of the family of Ptolemy, he witnessed the breaking out of a sedition which shortly became an open war, and called for the exertion of all his energy. After remaining some months in Egypt, he marched against Pharnaces, king of Pontus, whom he defeated with a celerity well expressed in his own words, " Veni, ridi, vici;" "I came, I saw, I conquered." There still remained to be conquered some formidable enemies ; Scipio, Labienus, Cato, and Juba, the king of Mauritania, had pow- erful armies in Africa. After a campaign in which Caesar displayed all his skill, Africa no longer sheltered a Roman opposed to him, except Cato, who shut himself up in Utica, and preferred death to submission. Caesar, who admired elevation of soul, envied Cato the glory of his death, and wept for his fate, as he had shed tears at that of Pompey. The conqueror, after having subjected Africa, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage, returned to Italy, where he was received with the acclamations of the senate and Roman peo- ple. Four triumphs were decreed to him. His liberality was felt by the people, for whose amusements he prepared festivals and shows. The two sons of Pompey mustered a strong force in Spain, but were attacked in the plains of Munda, by Cajsar, and signally de- feated. So obstinate was the battle, that Cfesar himself declared that he fought less for victory than life, but from the moment that both were secure, everything w^s in his power. He re-entered Rome the master of the world. The triumph which he then obtained for having vanquished Romans ex- cited secret murmurs among the people and senators, but no one dared to utter a com- plaint in public. The senate decreed him extraordinary honors and unlimited author- ity. He was declared consul for ten years, and perpetual dictator ; they gave him the titles of emperor, and father of his country. His person was declared sacred and inviolable. He had the privilege of being present at C/ES 166 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF spectacles in a golden chair, with a crown of laurel upon his head. The decree of the senate provided that, even after his death, this chair and the crown of gold should be conspicuously placed at all spectacles in honor of his memory. There was now but one thing wanting, the title of king. He is said to have deliberated whether he should take it. He preserved the republican forms in the midst of an absolute government, and showed himself as able to maintain power, as to gain it. " His clemency," says Montesquieu, " was insulting. It was considered that he did not pardon, but disdained to punish." Having by victory obtained the highest power, he wished to enjoy it as if it had been transmit- ted to him, and sought too soon to banish the inquietudes which almost invariably trouble a power of recent growth. " I had rather," said he, " die at once, than live alwaj^s in fear." He sent away his Spanish guard, contrary to the advice of his best friends, and trusting too readily the assertions of his flat- terers, who declared, that after having put an end to the civil wars, the republic was more interested than he was, in his safety. His death was caused by this want of caution. He had formed a plan for conquering the Parthians, and was on the eve of departing for Asia. His partisans, to reconcile the Ro- mans to his assumption of the title of king, circulated a report that the books of the Sibyls declared, that the Parthians could only be subjugated by the Romans when their leader was a king. The rumor gave the ene- mies of Caesar a pretext for seeking his death. A conspiracy was formed against him, at the head of which were Brutus and Cassius, whom he had made prastors. The assassin- ation was to take place on the ides of March, the day on which Caesar, according to report, was to assume the royal title. The conspir- acy was not so secret as to prevent the circu- lation of some reports with regard to it, but Ca3sar refused to take any precaution. Moved, however, by the tears and entreaties of his wife Calphurnia, he had made up his mind to remain at home, when Decimus Bru- tus, by representing to him the importance of presenting himself at the senate-house, changed his resolution. As he was leaving his house, a certain Artemidorus placed in his hand a paper, containing an exposure of the whole plot Being unable to read this and other letters from the pressure of the crowd about him, Caesar gave them to his secretaries. He had no sooner entered the eenate-house, than he was surrounded by the conspirators. Cimber, under pretext of re- spect, seized the skirt of his robe, a signal which Casca responded to by stabbing Cajsar in the shoulder. The weapon was caught by the intrepid victim, who exclaimed, "Wretch! what art thou doing?" Caesar, though repeatedly wounded, defended him- self against his assassins, until Brutus struck him, when, fixing his ej^es upon him, he mournfully exclaimed, " And thou, too, Bru- tus?" Then, folding his head in his mantle, he fell, pierced with thirty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue, March 15th, 44 B.C. He was then fifty -six years old. The body of Caesar, abandoned by all, was car- ried home by three slaves. When his will was read from the tribune by Antony, the people made the air ring with their cries of grief and anger. The funeral ceremonies were distinguished by uncommon magnifi- cence. The senate, who dared not defend him in his hour of need, placed him among the gods, and ordered that his laws should be immutable. The results of this assassination were de- plorable, for jealousy, ambition, and personal anger armed the greater part of the murder- ers, and but few among them were animated by a love of liberty. Caesar, with many faults and foibles, possessed many fine traits, and was fitted by nature to command. His erudition was considerable, and his " Com- nientai'ies " are models of good writing. He has been pronounced the greatest man that Rome ever beheld. Clement, generous, and magnanimous, he was also insatiably ambi- tious. He was an orator, statesman, and scholar, as well as a successful general. CAILLIE, Rene, a native of France, cele- brated for his travels in Africa. He won the prize offered by the geographical society of Paris to the man who should first reach Tim- buctoo (1827-8) ; and, besides other rewards, was presented with the cross of the legion of hopoT. CALAIS, a seaport of France, in the British Channel, opposite to Dover. It is strongly fortified, and contains about 13,000 inhabit- CAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 167 ants. In 1346, Edward III. of England, after his great victory of Cressy, laid siege to it, and concerted his measures so well, that his adversaries could not throw succors into the place. Nearly two thousand of tlie wretched inhabitants, who had been sent out of the place to lessen the consumption of provisions, came to the camp of the besiegers. Edward gave each of them a hearty meal and two shil- lings, and provided for their future safety. Calais was obliged to surrender to the Eng- lish, after holding out a year, and remained in their possession until 1558, when it was in- vested and attacked by the Duke of Guise, and, after a siege of eight days, was obliged to capitulate. During the operations of Fran- cis I. and the Duke of Bourbon against the Emperor Charles V., a congress was held at Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIII., of England, which proved unsuccessful. Ca- lais was the last possession of England, in France, and its loss deeply mortified Queen Mary. " When I am dead," she said, " Calais will be found written on my heart." CALDERON. Don Pedko Calderon db la Bakca Henao y Riano, a Spanish poet and di-amatist, born at Madi'id, 1600, and died 1681. He served in a military capacity, but afterward embraced the clerical profession. He was the author of three hundred plays. CALHUUX, John Caldwell, was born at Long Cane, in Abbeville district, S. C, March 18th, 1782, of Irish parentage. He was edu- cated at Yale College and the law school in Litchfield, Conn. In 1811, he entered the lower house of Congress, whence in 1817 Mon- roe called him to the head of the department of war. In 1825, he was chosen vice-presi- dent. From 1831 to 1843 he represented his native state in the federal senate. In the lat- ter year he was appointed secretary of state by Mr. Tyler, and in 1845 returned to the senate, in which he continued till his death, March 31st, 1850. Mr. Calhoun was one of the ablest statesmen and most forcible orators that have mingled in the public counsels of the country. CALIFORNIA. This state on the shores of the Pacific, is a portion of the territory ob- tained from Mexico. It has an area of 188, 982 square miles, and the population in 1860 was 379,994. It is traversed by two great ranges of mountains, the Sierra Nevada and the Coast range, having between them the splendid val- ley of the Sacramento and the Joaquin ; on the eastern side wide sandy plains, and on the western the narrow slip of coast. Its most important rivers are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin. California has a dry and a wet season ; the first lasting fi-om about the middle of May to September or October ; the wet season setting in early in November, and lasting till May. To its dry season it owes its name, which is from the Spanish caliente fornalla, ' hot furnace.' In the great interior valley, the soil is of great fertility, and one day the state will be as rich in its agriculture CAL 168 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF as in its mines. The country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1542, but they did not colonize it till 1768. Up to the great discov- ery of gold it was a scantily peopled tract. Sir Francis Drake, who visited it in 1578, re' ceived such reports of the existence of gold from the natives that he declared it to be his conviction that there was "no part of this country wherein there is not some special likelihood of gold." Yet little or no search seems to have been made for the precious metal. The shining scales of virgin gold were accidentally discovered in September, 1847, upon the estate of Captain Sutter. It soon became knowTi, and emigration flowed toward the golden country from all Christendom. The scene was unparalleled in history. Towns and cities sprang up as if by magic. The fa- ble of the Argonauts was revived and im- proved upon. The colonists formed them- selves into a sovereign state, and California was received into the Union in September, 1850. Society was for a time very unsettled, but the disorders which bad men introduced culminated and met with a terrible and de- cisive check in the Vigilance Committee of San Francisco during 1856, and the law- abiding Anglo Saxon character has since been creditably mamtained, California con- tained in 1860, 34,919 Chinese, attracted by the gold mining ; they are industrious and despised, and continue their heathen worship. San Francisco, the largest city of Califor- nia, is said to have been a Spanish mission settlement in 1776. In 1845 it had only 150 inhabitants. In 1852 it had 34,776, of whom only 5,245 were women. In 1860 it had 56,802. The city has repeatedly suffered from sweeping conflagrations, but it has of late been built of more enduring materials. Sacramento is the capital. It was founded 1849, and in 1852 had more than 10,000 in habitants. CALIGULA, Caius Cesar Auoustus Ger- MANicus, a Roman emperor, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and bom a.d. 12. He received its surname from the califfce (half boots) which he wore. His life, with a single exception, presented only a series of acts of horrible cruelty, disgusting absurdity, and daring impiety. The reputation of his father at first disposed the Romans to think favora- bly of the son, but after a few hollow displays of clemency and liberality, he showed himself in his true light, and, even while a boy, com- mitted incest. He married and repudiated several wives, the last of whom, Csesonia, re- tained a firm hold upon his affections. His mm'ders were numerous, and rendered memo- rable by the rank of the victims and the rela- tion which they bore to him. It was Caligula who wished that the people of Rome had but one head, that he might sever it at a blow. If the cruelties of the tyrant call forth our in- dignation, his unmanly follies excite our con- tempt. His treatment of his horse Incitatus exhibited the ridiculous part of his character. This animal had a gorgeous stable, a house to entertain visitors, and frequently dined at the emperor's table, when he was presented with wine and gilded oats. His master even med- itated elevating him to the consulship. Cali- gula appeared in public in the attributes of various divinities, male as well as female, and claimed homage as a Venus and a Mars. Among his absurdities may be reckoned the bridge of boats built from Baioe to Puteoli ; his expedition against Britain, when the sol- diers gathered cockle-shells for spoils, and lastly, his design of decimating the German army for a revolt. To this last act the world owed its deliverance from the monster, who was murdered by Choerea and Cornelius Sa- binus, military tribunes, a.d. 41, after a reign of four years. CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, an eminent French statesman, born at £)ouai in 1734, succeeded to the management of an empty treasury in 1783, and skillfully met the claims upon it, without adding to the burthens of the people. He advised the abo- lition of the pecuniary exemptions enjoyed by the nobility, clergy, and magistracy. He was, however, obliged to retire from the ven- geance of those bodies. He died in 1802. CALVERT, George, Lord Baltimore, founder of Maryland, was of Flemish descent, born at Kipling, in Yorkshire, England, 1582, and educated at Oxford; in 1619, he was made by Charles I. one of the principal sec- retaries of state; resigned that office, 1624; made Baron of Baltimore, 1625; obtained a patent for Maryland, June 20th, 1632, and died at London the same year. CALVIN, John, a leader of the Reforma- tion in the sixteenth century, was born at CAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 169 Noyon, in Picardy, July 15th, 1509, and was destined for the church at an early age, being presented with a benefice in the cathedral of his native place when he was but twelve years old. His progress was rapid, but it was not long before he received the seeds of the new doctrines. In 1533, he was involved in a persecution with his friend Michael Cop, who had defended the reformed doctrines in a public discourse. Obliged to quit France, he repaired to Bale, in 1534, where he com- posed his famous " Institutes of Christianity." He was induced to wTite this by the persecu- tions of Protestants, which disgraced the reign of Francis I. of France. Although received in different places with marks of respect, Calvin found the warmest welcome and the safest asylum in Geneva. After some agitation, the new doctrine was generally re- ceived at Geneva. On the refusal of Calvin and Farel to comply with the decrees of the council of Lausanne, the magistrates com- pelled them to leave the city in 1538. At Strasburg, Calvin's reception was favorable, but he turned a longing look upon Geneva. He was finally invited to return, and he gained a great ascendency over the Genevese. The rigor of Calvin was excessive. Thus, a magistrate was deprived of his ofQce, and im- prisoned for two months, because "his habits were irregular, and he had leagued with the enemies of Calvin." James Gruet was be- headed, for having written "impious letters and libertine verses," and for having "labored to destroy ecclesiastical regulations." Geneva, in becoming the metropolis of the reformed worship, became the centre of a prodigious book-trade, and the city of all Europe in which the arts and sciences were cultivated with the greatest success. Calvin died in Geneva, May 27th, 1564, in the fifty -fifth year of his age. His constitu- tion was weak, and throughout life he had suffered much from disease. In 1539 he married a widow, by whom he had one son, who died young. She died in 1549, and he never married again. He was sombre and austere in his manners, of a melancholy dispo- sition. He never knew the sweets of friend- ship, and his sole joy, if joy it was, was in ruling, and beholding the triumph of his opinions. Calvin never had any other title in the church of Geneva, than that of pastor. His temper, according to his ovra confession, was impatient and opposed to all contradic- tion. Thus the tone of his polemical wri- tings is almost always harsh and insulting. As a theologian, Calvin gained the highest rank among the men of his century, by his profound knowledge, by his tact, and, as he himself boasted, by his art in pressing an argument. As a writer he merits high praise. His mode of worship, bare and stern, appeared, in the eyes of many, to have ele- vated religion above all sublunary things, by stripping it of every object which had an attraction for the senses. CALYPSO, a daughter of Atlas, who dwelt upon the island of Ogygia, where Ulysses was shipwi-ecked. He refused to marry the goddess, although immortality was the prom- ised reward, preferring to revisit Ithaca and again behold his wife. He remained seven years on the island, and grief at his depart- ure destroyed the enamored goddess. CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, was Duke of Parma, prince and arch-chancellor of the French empire, dignities which he en- joyed during the ascendency of Napoleon, of whom he was a colleague in the consulate in 1799. His plan of a civil code, drawn up in 1796, was the basis of the celebrated Code Napoleon. He left France on the downfall of the emperor, and died in Paris, March 8th, 1824, aged seven tj^-one. CAMBRAY, a strongly fortified town of the French department of the North, containing 20,000 inhabitants, celebrated in diplomatic history for several important treaties nego- tiated there. Its manufactures are extensive, one of the principal articles being cambric, which takes its name from this town. The town was taken by Charles V. in 1544; by the Spaniards in 1596 ; and by Louis XIV. in person, in 1677. In August, 1793, it was unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians, when the republican genera), Dcclay, replied to the imperial summons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do that, but his sol- diers knew how to fight ; " and in the cam- paign of 1815 it was taken by the British, and made the head-quarters of the allied armies. CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, baron, general, commander of the legion of honor, and distinguished for his personal CAM 170 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP bravery, was born Dec. 26th, ITTO. He commanded the small band which Napoleon led from Elba. At Waterloo, he was severely wounded, and taken prisoner. In that battle he commanded the old guard, and when he heard the British demand for capitulation, he answered nobly, "The guard dies, but does not surrender." He died in 1842. CAMBYSES, a king of Persia, and son of Cyrus the Great, ascended the throne B.C. 530. He conquered and devastated Egy^pt. Offended at the superstitions of the Egyp- tians, he killed their god Apis, whose flesh was eaten by his soldiers, and plundered their temples. On mounting his horse at a subse- party and personal prejudices more than once involved him in persecution. In the siege of Falerii, the schoolmaster of the town, who had the children of the senators under his care, led them out of the city under prftext of recreation, carried them to the Roman camp, and surrendered them to the Roman general, telling him that he might now pro^ pose to the besieged what terms he chose, since the treasures they valued most were in his hands. Camillus, indignant at this treach- ery, answered that the Romans warred with men, not with boys ; and that, in the conduct of hostilities, integrity, as well as courage, should be prized. He ordered the school- quent period, his sword gave him a fatal I master to be stripped, and, with his hands wound in the thigh, the place where he had injured the bull, and the Egyptians looked upon this event as the retributive vengeance of the gods. He was dissolute, and destitute of moral principles. In his fits of intoxica- tion, his brutality was feared even by those who had the gi-eatest claims upon his for- bearance. In a fit of drunken rage he gave his wife a kick which killed her. His throne was usurped by one of the Magi, who as- sumed the name of Smerdis, a brother of the king, who had been secretly murdered on account of a dream which prognosticated to the tyrant future troubles, and warned him to save himself by the death of his brother. CAMDEN, in South Carolina, was the scene of two contests in the Revolution, in both of which the British were victors. The first was fought between Gen. Gates and Lord Cornwallis, Aug. 16th, 1V80; the second between Gen. Greene and Lord Rawdon, April 25th, 1781. The British evacuated and burned Camden, May 13 th, 1781. In the first of these battles the brave Baron de Kalb fell, pierced with seven wounds. CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, an illustrious Roman, who obtained four triumphs and five times filled the office of dictator, but, being prosecuted on a charge of peculation, went into voluntary banishment. While he was absent, Brennus, at the head of an army of Gauls, took Rome, and besieged the senate in the capitol. Camillus, forgetting his wrongs, hastened to the relief of his country, defeated the barbarians, and was created dictator. He died b.c. 365, of the plague. He was generally honored and respected, although bound behind his back, to be delivered to the boys to be lashed back to the town. The Ealerians, before obstinate in their resistance, struck with this noble act, delivered them- selves up to the Romans, convinced that it would be better to have such men for friends than foes. CAMOENS, Luis de, the most celebrated of Portuguese poets, was born in Lisbon, in 1517. His father was of a noble family, and his mother of the illustrious house of Sa. Camoens studied at Coimbra, where his in- structors valued no literature but that which was written in imitation of the ancients. But the genius of Camoens was animated by the history of his country and the manners of his age ; and his lyric poems belong, like the works of Dante, of Petrarch, Ariosto, and Tasso, to that literature which was renewed by Christianity, and to the spirit of chivalry, rather than to a purely classical style of writing. For this reason, the numerous par- tisans of the classic school did not applaud the performances of Camoens in the early part of his career. On the completion of his studies, he returned to Lisbon, where he became warmly attached to Catharine d'At- tayde, a lady of the court. Ardent passions are often united to great genius, and the life of Camoens was alternately consumed by his feelings and his genius. He was exiled to Santarem on account of the quarrels which his attachment to Catha- rine brought upon him. There, in his seclu- sion, he composed detached poems, which distinctly portray the state of his feelings at the time of their composition. The hope- CAM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 171 lessness of his situation led him to embark as a soldier in the Portuguese fleet sent against Morocco. In the midst of battles he composed poems, the glories and the dangers of war kindling his poetic spirit, and his poetic imagination in turn urging him on- ward to exploits. He lost his right eye by an aiTow before Ceuta. On his return to Lisbon, he hoped that his wounds would en- title him to some favor, even if his talents were despised ; but, although he had a double claim upon the notice of government, he en- countered unexpected obstacles. Justly in- dignant at this neglect, he embarked for the Indies in 1553, and like Scipio bade farewell to his country, declaring that even his ashes should not repose there. He landed at Goa, the principal Portuguese establishment in India ; here his imagination was excited by the exploits of his country- men in this part of the world, and, great as were his inducements to complain of them, he thought to consecrate their glory in an epic. But, incensed at the abuses which were committed by the government, he composed so severe a satire upon the subject, that the enraged viceroy of Goa banished him to Macao, where he lived several years, sur- rounded by the most glorious scenes which the fairy regions of the east can boast. Here he composed his "Lusiad." The expedition of Vasco da Gama to the Indies is the sub- ject of this work, which is sustained by the skill of Camoens in mingling details of Por- tuguese history with the splendors of poetry, and Christian piety with pagan fable. Camoens, on being recalled from his ban- ishment, was shipwrecked at the mouth of the river Mecon, in Cochin China, and saved himself by swimming with one hand, while in the other he held the leaves of his immor- tal poem, the only treasure that he saved, above the reach of the greedy waves. Ca- moens was persecuted by a new viceroy at Goa, and imprisoned for debty-btrt-gome of his friends becoming security for him^'^re. embarked for Lisbon in 1569, sixteen years after having quitted Europe. The young king Sebastian took an interest in Camoens, accepted the dedication of his epic poem, and, on the eve of departing on his unfortu- nate expedition against the Moors in Africa, felt more than any one else the genius of the CAM poet, who like himself gloried in dangers when they led the way to fame. But Sebas- tian was killed in the battle of Alcazar, in 1578 ; the royal line became extinct, and Portugal lost her independence. The unfor- tunate Camoens was reduced by this event to such extremes, that, during the night, a slave, whom he had brought from India, begged in the streets to obtain food for his master. In this wretched state, he still com- posed lyric poems, and the finest of his de- tached pieces are those which contain com- plaints of his misfortunes. How brilliant was that genius which could extort inspiration from the very cjdamities which finally extin- guished it. This hero of Portuguese literature, the only one whose glory belongs alike to his nation and to Europe, died in a hospital in 1579, aged sixty-two years. After his death, a monument was erected to his memory, and thousands, who would have denied succoi while he was living, crowded to do homage to his inanimate remains. CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born in Glas- gow, July 27th, 1777. At the age of twenty- two, " The Pleasures of Hope " gained him instant fame as a poet ; it went through four editions at Edinburgh in a year. It is a curious fact that the first fourteen lines were the last that were written. Campbell's friend and critic, Dr. Anderson, had always urged the want of a good beginning, and, when the poem was on its way to the printer, again pressed the necessity of starting with a picture complete in itself Campbell all along admitted the justice of the criticism, but never could please himself wdth what he did. The last remark of Dr. Anderson's roused the full swing of his genius within him, and he retm-ned the next day to the delighted doctor, with that fine comparison between the beauty of remote objects in a landscape, and those ideal scenes of happi- ness which imaginative minds promise to themselves with all the certainty of hope ful- filled. Anderson was more than pleased, and the new comparison was made the opening of the new poem.* " At summer eve, when Heaven's ethereal bow Spans witli bright arch the ghtteriug hills below, Why to yon moimtain turns the musing eye, Whose sunbright summit mingles with the sky? Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear Jlore sweet than all the landscape smiling near ? 172 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 'T is distance lends enchantment to the view, And robes the mountain in its azure hue. Tims, with dehght we hnger to survey The promised joys of Ufe's unmeasured way; Thus from afar, each dim-discovered scene More pleasing seems than all the past hath been ; And every form that Fancy can repair From dark oblivion, glows divinely there." The poem had put some money in the poet's pocket, and he gratified an early long- ing in a visit to Germany. At Hamburgh, the sight of the many Irish exiles inspired him to that touching lament, "The Exiles of Erin." During this journej^ also, he wrote ■" The Mariners of England." On his road from Munich to Linz, he witnessed from the w&lls of a convent the bloody field of Hohen- linden, and saw the triumphant French cav- alry, under Moreau, enter the nearest town, wiping their bloody swords on their horses' manes. His Ija-ic has enshrined the conflict forever. "John Ley den," h-ajs Sir Walter Scott, "introduced me to Tom Campbell. They afterward quarreled. When I repeated * Hohenlinden ' to Leyden, he said, ' Dash it, man, tell the fellow I hate him ; but, dash him, he has written the finest verses that have been published these fifty years.' I did mine errand as faithfully as one of Homer's messengers, and had for ans\yer, ' Tell Ley- den that I detest him ; but I know the value of his critical approbation.'" Scott knew "Hohenlinden" by heart; and when Sir Walter dined at Murray's in 1809, he repeated at the table, as Wilkie tells us, Campbell's poem of " Lochiel." He had it by heart after hearing it once, and once reading it. Campbell sustained his reputation by " Gertrude of AVyoming " in 1809. His life was passed in litei-ary labor, but his other pro- ductions were inferior. He was extremely sensitive to criticism. "I often wonder," said Sir Walter Scott in 182(3, "how Tom Campbell, with so much real genius, has not maintained a greater figure in the public eye than he has done of late. The author not only of ' The Pleasures of Hope,' but ' Ho- henhnden,' 'Lochiel,' &c., should have been at the very top of the tree. Somehow he wants audacity, fears the public, and what is worse, fears the shadow of his own reputa- tion." * * * "What a pity it is," said Sir Walter to Washington Irving, "that Camp- bell does not write more and oftener, and give full sweep to his genius ! He has wings that would bear him to the skies, and he does, now and then, spread them grandly, but folds them up again, and resumes his perch, *as if he was afraid to launch away. The fact is, Campbell is in a manner a bugbear to himself ; the brightness of his early success is a detriment to all his further efibrts. He is afraid of the shadow that his own fame casts before him." In 1827, he was elected lord-rector of his own mother university at Glasgow, by the free and unanimous choice of the students, and was justly proud of his election. "It was a deep snow," writes Allan Cunningham, "when he reached the college-green; the students were drawn up in parties, pelting one another: the poet ran into the ranks, threw several snowballs with unerring aim, then summoning the scholars around him in the hall, delivered a speech replete with phi- losophy and eloquence. It is needless to say how this was welcomed." AVhen his year had expired, he was unanimously re-elected, the students presenting him at the same time with a handsome silver punch-bowl, described by the poet in his will as one of the great ewels of his property. Campbell was passionately fond of chil- dren. This once led to a ludicrous circum- stance. He saw a fine child, about four years old, one day walking with her nurse in the park ; and on his return home he could not rest for thinking of his child sweetheart, as he called her, and actually sent an adver- tisement to the Morning Chronicle, mak- ing inquiries after his juvenile fascinator, giving his own address, and stating his age to be sixty -two ! The incident illustrates the intensity of his affections, as well as the live- liness of his fancy ; for, alas ! the poet had then no home-object to dwell upon, to con- centrate his hopes and his admiration. His wife had long been dead, and his only son was a helpless imbecile. Several hoaxes were played off on the susceptible poet in conse- quence of this singular advertisement. One letter directed him to the house of an old maid, by whom he was received very cava- lierly. He told his story, but " the wretch," as he used to say with a sort of peevish humor, " had never heard either of him or his poetry ! " In his last years the poet him- CAM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 173 self sank into a state of comparative mental and bodily feebleness. He died at Boulogne, and was buried in the poet's corner at West- minster Abbey. Campbell told a story with much humor.> At a meeting of authors he once proposed Napoleon's health because he had murdered a publisher, Palm! He liked "Gertrude" the best of his poems, and once said, "I never like to see my name before " The Pleasures of Hope ; " why, I can not tell you, unless it was that, when young, I was always greeted among my friends as Mr. Campbell, author of ' The Pleasures of Hope.' Good morning to you, Mr. Campbell, author of 'The Pleasures of Hope.' When I got married, I was married as the author of ' The Pleasures of Hope ; ' and when I became a father, my son was the son of the author of ' The Pleasures of Hope.'" The phrase followed him out of life, for the in- scription on his coffin was : " Thomas Campbell, LL.D. Author of the 'Pleasures of Hope.' Died June 15, 1844. Aged 67." CAMPO-FORMIO, a village of Udine in Friuli, a province of Venice, belonging to the Austrians, famous for the treaty signed here Oct. 17th, 1797, by which the Emperor of Austria ceded to the French republic the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, and con- sented to tiieir remaining in possession of the islands of Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, and all the islands in the Adriatic, together with the Venetian territories in Albania. He also acknowledged the Cisalpine republic as an independent state ; ceded to it the countries in Lombardy which had formerly belonged to Austria, and consented that it should pos- sess Bergamo, Brescia, and other Venetian territories, together with the duchies of Man- tua and Modena, the principalities of Carrara and Massa, and the cities of Romagna, Fer- rara, and Bologna, belonging to the pope. France yielded up to Austria, Istria, Dalma- tia, the city of Venice, with a large portion of the dominions of that republic, and the Venetian islands in the Adriatic, lying to the north-east of the Gulf of Lodrino. CANADA, a country in North America, belonging to the British, and divided since the year 1791 into Canada East, or Lower Canada, and Canada West, or Upper Canada. The population of Canada is 2,506,755, and its extent 349,821 square miles. Of late years it has received a large immigration from Great Britain. In Canada East there were 890,261 inhabitants, by the census of 1851, of whom the greater portion were French Canadians, the remainder being Eng- lish, Scotch, Irish, and Americans. It is divided into thirty-six counties. Seignior- ies, or grants of the French govei'nment, and townships, or grants of the English, are the minor subdivisions. A governor-general, whose residence is at Quebec, is at the head of the British American government. The houses of the Canadians are generally low, and built of stone, with little finish. Edu- cation is generally at a low ebb among them, although Quebec and Montreal sustain some highly reputable seminaries. The commerce of the province has gi'adually increased under the fostering spirit of the British gov- ernment. The fur trade, of which Montreal is the depot, is considerable, and timber, pot and pearl ashes, grain, &c., are exported in great quantities. Grass, wheat, barley, rye, &c., are the principal productions of the soil. The majestic St. Lawrence is the main river of the Canadas, but there are also others of great importance. The French Canadians possess the charac- teristics which distinguish the volatile inhab- itants of France. The passionate vivacity, the eagerness in pursuit of pleasure, the levity, and, it must be added, laxity of prin- ciple, exhibit the connection between the parent stock and the transplanted race. Their amusements in winter consist of sleigh- ing expeditions, in which the spirited little Canadian horses prove their worth, varied by dancing, and social gayeties. Where the females are distinguished for their temper- ance, the men are unfortunately addicted to the use of spirituous liquors, and can scarcely be persuaded to abandon them in winter, alleging the severity of the weather, which frequently depresses the mercury in the ther- mometer to forty degrees below zero, as an excuse. Canada West is settled for the most part by emigrants and the descendants of emi- grants from Great Britain and Ireland. Pop- ulation (1851), 999,847. It contains forty-two counties, divided into numerous townships. CAN 174 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP A large proportion of the emigrants to Can- ada now settle in this province, induced by the very great fertility of the soil, and the value and abundance of the timber. The forests increase in extent as they spread to the regions of the north. In these wooded districts, vast sheets of water expand in sol- itary splendor, haunted only by the beasts of prey, or Indians hardly less wild. The es- tablished religion of the Canadas is that of the Church of England, but a large portion of the inhabitants are Catholics. The Brit- ish constitution forms the basis of that of British America. The French, at a very early period, seemed to be aware of the importance of the discov- ery of Canada by Cabot, and the cod-fishery began to employ their men as early as the commencement of the sixteenth century. In the early part of that century a Frenchman is said to have made a chart of the entrance of the St. Lawrence. In 1524, Francis I. of France sent four ships, under Verazzani, a Florentine, to prosecute discoveries in this country. In 1535, James Cartier, of St. Ma- loes, sailed up the St. Lawrence, formed alliances with the natives, took possession of the territory, built a fort, and wintered in the country. Henry IV. appointed the Marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general of Canada and the neighboring countries. In 1608, the city of Quebec was founded, and from that period the establishment of a permanent French colony commenced. In 1629, an English expedition took possession of Quebec, but it was surrendered again to the French by the treaty of St. Germain. This expedition was headed by Sir David Keith. In 1690, a bold attempt was made, but without success, to subject Canada to the English crown. The attempt was renewed in 1711, but equally in vain. Canada continued in the occupation of the French till the breaking out of the war between France and England in 1756. In 1759 the British government formed the pro- ject of attempting its conquest, and the Eng- lish took possession of Quebec after a gallant resistance on the part of the French ; in which the English general Wolfe, and Mont- calm the French commander, both per- ished. The latter, on being told that his wound was mortal, nobly exclaimed, "Then T shall not live to see the city surrendered to the British ! " The whole province of Can- ada was soon after subdued by the English, and was confirmed to Great Britain by the treaty of 1763. In 1775, Canada was in- vaded by a body of continental troops, led by Montgomery ; Montreal was taken, but the gallant general perished in the unsuc- cessful attempt upon Quebec. During our last war with Great Britain, Upper Canada became the theatre of a sanguinary struggle. During 1837 and 1838 insurrections broke out against the government, and some small Ijattles were fought. From 1791 till 1840, liie two provinces had distinct governments. In the latter year they were united. The act of union provides for the appointment of a legislative council by the crown, and an assembly chosen by the people. The royal governor of Canada is governor-general of British North America. Quebec and Toronto, which were the capitals of the separate prov- inces, were made joint seats of government. In 1858, Ottawa, formerly called Bytown, a thriving town in Canada West, on the Ot- tawa River, was designated by the crown as the capital of the united provinces. The population of Ottawa was 14,669 in 1861. It is the centre of a great lumber trade. Quebec, stands on a promontorj', on the north-west side of the St. Lawrence, 400 miles from its mouth, containing about 51,000 inhabitants. It is divided into two parts, the Upper and the Lower Town. The Upper Town is built on a bold precipice of naked rock, rising to the height of 345 feet. Que- bec, for an American city, is certainly a peculiar town : a military town, most com- pactly and permanently built, stone its sole material ; environed, as to its important parts, by walls and gates, and defended by numer- ous heavy cannon; garrisoned by troops, having the arms, the costume, the music, the discipline of Europe, foreign in language, features, and origin, from most of those whom they are sent to defend ; founded upon a rock, and its higher parts overlooking a great extent of country ; between three and four hundred miles from the ocean, in the midst of a great continent, and yet displaying fleets of foreign merchantmen in its fine capacious bay, and showing all the bustle of a crowded seaport; its streets narrow, populous, and winding up and down almost mountain de- CAN .H18TO[iY 4N0 BIOGRAPHY. 175 .— ^-. u=4^.^^^. PEAK OF TENERIFFE. clivities ; situated in the latitude of the finest parts of Europe, exhibiting in its environs the. beauty of a European capital, and yet, in winter, smarting with the cold of Siberia ; governed' by people of different language and habits from the mass of the population, op- posed in religion, and yet leavin* that popu- lation without taxes, and in the full enjoyment of every privilege, civil and religious. Its siege and capture in 1759, by Gen. Wolfe, was fatal both to the English and French commanders. In 1776, General Montgomery and Arnold attempted to take Quebec by storm, but Montgomery fell, and Arnold was compelled to retreat. Toronto, on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, has an excellent harbor, and is the centre of trade for a broad back country ; population in 1861, 44.821. Montreal, on an island in the St. Lawrence, 180 miles above Quebec, and 200 below Lake Ontario, is at the head of ship navigation. The streets are regular, the houses are built of gray stone, and present a singular appearance from being covered with tin. Montreal Col lege is a very flourish'ng institution. Popu .ulation 90,323. CANALS. The fira regular chain of arti ficial water intercommunication, of which history has transmitted to us the record, was that between the Nile and the Red Sea. This canal route was examined w^ith great care by the French engineers, and several portions found in 1798 in such a state of preservation as only to demand cleansing. The system of modern canal improvement may be stated to have commenced in Italy, at Viterbo, 1481, when sluices with double doors were invented, and first used on a large scale, near Milan, by Leonardo da Vinci. The canals of the delta of the Rhine com- menced, it is true, in the dark ages, but it was not before the end of the fifteenth cen- tury, that they were planned and constructed with scientific regularity of design. The most stupendous canal in the world is one in China, which passes over two thousand miles, and to forty-one cities; it was com- menced in the tenth century. The Erie canal in New York, three hundred and thirty miles in length, was begun in 1817. The Bridgewater canal, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the Duke of Bridgewater, in 1758. Brindley was the architect. [See Brindley.] CANARIES, a group of seven islands in CAN 17G COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP the Atlantic, off the coast of Africa, belong- ing to Spain. Teneriffe is the largest and most important. The Peak rises 11,94G feet above the sea. These are supposed to be the Fortunate Isles of the ancients. In 1330 a French ship, di'iven among them by stress of weather, made them known to the modern world. They were seized by the Spaniards, who planted the vine, which still flourishes, about 1420. The canary-bird is a native of these isles. It was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, a large island in the Mediterranean, lying about eighty miles south of the Morea. The climate is mild, and the soil productive, capable, as was proved in ancient times, of supporting 1,200,000 inhabitants, a population which Turkish tyranny and indolence have dimin- ished to 159,000. It was, in mythological accounts, the kingdom of Saturn. After becoming a republic, and a pirate isle, it was conquered by the Romans, and then by the Saracens in 823. In 962, the Greeks re- gained possession of it. It was sold to the Venetians in 1204, and was fiercely contended for by the troops of the Porte and the re- public. Hither the Christian chivalry of Europe rushed to display their valor against the infidels, and the capital was only surren- dered after a siege of twenty-five years, Sept. 27th, 1669. Candia continued in the hands of the Turks, until its cession to Mehemet Ali in 1830. In 1840 it was restored to the sultan. The wild goat of Crete is the sup- posed origin of all the domestic varieties. CANNyE, a city on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the Aufidus, where the Romans were defeated by the Carthaginians, under Hannibal, May 21st, 216 B.C. Hannibal had 10,000 horse and 40,000 foot, while the Ro- man troops, headed by ^milius Paulus and Terentius Varro, amounted to 87,000 men. The opponents of Hannibal had two to one against him in infantry, while Hannibal had five to one against them in cavalry. The light-horse and slingers began to skirmish, after whom Hasdrubal charged the troops of horse that were led by Jimilius, and broke their ranks. The last blow that ended all resistance was given by the same hand that aimed the first. Hasdrubal, having cut in pieces all the Roman horse that opposed him, fell back upon the rear, and came up to the Numidians, with whom he joined and made a charge upon Varro. The Romans whom they charged appeared incapable of resist- ance, and were completely routed. Livy says that 40,000 foot and above 2,700 horse were slain ; Polj'bius accounts the loss much greater. The prisoners taken amounted to 3,000 foot and 300 horse, according to Livy ; according to others, to 8,000. Hannibal col- lected the rings, the badges of the follen Ro- man knights, and sent many bushels of them to Carthage, as tokens of his triumph. He lost 4,000 Gauls, 1,500 Spaniards and Africans, and 200 horse. Had he pursued his victory and marched forthwith to Rome, instead of quartering his troops in the seductive Capua, he might probably have ended the war ; but he did not trust his own good fortune to such a length. Varro, the consul whose impru- dence brought on the defeat, saved himself by flight, while his brave colleague, ^Emilius, perished on the field of battle. CANNING, Geokge, a brilliant English statesman, born April 11th, 1770. His Hfe was spent on the political arena, and he suc- ceeded Lord Liverpool as premier in February, 1827; but worn by his toils, both in body and mind, he died August 8th, 1827. CANOVA, Antonio, the most celebrated and successful sculptor of the nineteenth cen- tury, was Ij^rn in the Venetian territory, at Possagno, Nov. 1st, 1757, and from his twelfth year devoted himself to the art in which he became so celebrated. When quite young he modeled the figure of a lion in butter with exquisite skill. This was placed upon the table of the seigneur of the place, Falieri, whose attention it attracted. The ingenious artist was sought for, found, and placed with a statuary. At seventeen, his statue of Euryd- ice was sculptured, and highly praised. In 1779 he went to Rome under the patronage of the Venetian senate. His works are nu- merous, and his subjects various ; the female figures being the most perfect and beautiful. Canova had a method of finishing his statues, by applying to the marble a peculiar prepara- tion, which destroyed the glare and glitter of the stone, and imparted to it the soft and mellow lustre of wax. Modest, moral, and amiable, Canova was free from professional jealousy, and liberally patronized young art- " CAN HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 177 ists of merit, removing many of the obstacles which oppose the early steps of devotees to the fine arts. He was created Marquis of Is- chia, with a large pension, by Pope Pius VII., who was by no means backward in acknowl- edging his merit. The amiable artist died at Venice, Oct. 13th, 1822, leaving behind him many monuments of his talents, industry, goodness, and liberality. A writer, speaking of the comparative merits of the Medicean and the Canova Venus, says, "I am by no means convinced of the great superiority of the an- cient over the modern work. It is certain the general attitude and aspect are copied in the latter, which deprives the artist of a great share of the merit of originality ; but if we were to regard the works alone, without any reference to their formation, I am not sure that the palm would not be given to Canova. As a friend of mine, no mean judge, said to me, ' If they were both dug out of the earth now, and nobody knew anything about either, the Canova statue would be preferred.' " CANUTE, the Great, King of Denmark and England, succeeded his father Sweyn in the former kingdom, about the year 1015. He commenced his reign by an expedition against England, but hearing that the King of Norway had invaded Denmark, he was obliged to make a precipitate retm-n. Having repulsed the invader, he resumed his enterprise, and land- ing on the southern coast, committed dreadful ravages ; but Edmund Ironsides opposed him with such bravery, that Canute agreed to di- vide the kingdom with him. On the murder of Edmund by EtU'ic in 1017, Canute obtained the whole kingdom in an assembly of the states, and put to death Edric, and several of the English nobility who had basely deserted their sovereign. He likewise levied heavy taxes on the people, and particularly on the inhabitants of London. The King of Sweden having attacked Denmark, he went thither and slew the Swedish monarch in battle. Canute built churches, made a pilgrimage to Rome, cherished the interests of learning, and distinguished himself by his piety. Canute's reproof of his courtiers is well known. These flatterers having assured him he had power over all things, he seated himself upon the sea-shore, and commanded the waves not to approach his feet. The elenjent advanced with its usual rapidity, and Canute, rising. 12 said to his courtiers in a tone of great solem- nity : " He alone can rule the waves, who has said to them. Thus fiir shall ye go, and no farther." Canute died at Shaftesbury, 1036. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The Cape, nearly at the southern extremity of Africa, long in the hands of the Dutch, was found, on the conquest by the English, in the year 1795, to be 550 English miles in length, and 233 in breadth. This flourishing colony was origin- ally founded by the Dutch. Van Riebeck, surgeon of one of the Dutch company's ships, having touched at the Cape, was struck with the extent of the bay, capable of containing jnore than one hundred vessels ; its situation, half-way between Europe and India ; and the nature of the soil, which seemed proper for every kind of cultivation. On his return, he communicated his ideas to the company, who approved of his plan and gave him full powers to carry it into execution. Van Riebeck ac- cordingly embarked with four vessels, and, after arriving at the Cape, purchased from the inhabitants land for an establishment, for which he gave them merchandise, to be se- lected at theii own choice, to the value of 50,000 florins, 1651. The possession of this region was for a long time a source of contest between the Dutch and English. It was taken by the Enghsh in 1797, and, after having been surrendered to the Dutch in 1802, was again occupied by the former in 1806, and has since remained in their possession. Cape Town is resorted to by ships bound to the Indian Ocean, for supplies of water and provision. The Hottentots, or Bushmen, are a degraded race, but instead of endeavoring to better their condition, the Europeans have contributed to prolong, and in fact consolidate, their evil habits, furnishing them with spirituous li- quors, the agency of which insures their de- struction, or reduces them to an abject state which is far worse than death itself. The cruelty practiced on the natives by the Dutch almost exceeds belief. When a party of Dutch vvished to settle in any spot, they pro- ceeded to clear it by the death of the natives, with as much coolness as an American squat- ter would exhibit, in hewing down the forest- trees to open a place for the erection of his log-house, or in picking off with his rifle a few of the wild animals which threatened to be troublesome. The Dutch manner of proceed- CAP 178 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP Ing was summary. Having selected the hut of some poor wretch as an object of destruc- tion, they first set fire to it. Let us imagine the dismay and horror of a poor family at finding flames breaking forth around, above them, in every direction. Rushing forth, the wretched owners of the miserable dwelling would implore pity from their cruel enemies. The Dutch boors would be too much engaged in loading their pieces and discharging them upon the males, to heed the cries of the fe- males, who, with their childi-en, were gener- ally saved. The indifference with which the boors regarded the death of the Bushmen, is strikingly illustrated in the following-anecdote. A boor, presenting himself at the secretary's office at Cape Town, after having traversed a lonely tract, was asked if he had not found the Bushmen troublesome ? " Not very," re- plied he, with great coolness, "I only shot four." In 1848, the population was 200,546. Cape Town, the capital of the British possessions in this region, was the first settlement of the Dutch. CAPE VERDE ISLANDS, a group of islands, in the Atlantic, opposite to and 390 miles from Cape Verde, belonging to Portugal. Their number has been variously stated from ten to fourteen. The air is unwholesome, but some portion of the soil is fertile. Rain is unfrequent, and the drought has been so se- vere that numbers of the inhabitants have perished fi-om the consequent famine. The salt manufactured at Mayo, a small island, is exchanged for flour, and this trade is chiefly carried on by means of American vessels. The inhabitants, who are mostly negroes, numbered 86,738 in 1850. These isles were known to the ancients as the Gorgades, but were not visited by the moderns till 1446. CAPET. The family name of a royal race, thirty -six members of which have reigned in France, and eighty-two in other European states. The word signifies 'broad-head,' or perhaps 'broad-hat,' and was first given to Hugo, son of Hugo the Great, Duke of France and Count of Paris, by his adnerents, in the tenth century. He seized the tnrone on the death of Louis V., the Indolent, the last of the Carlovingian race,' a.d. 987. Louis had reigned but one year, and was poisoned by h'j queen, who loved him not. CAR CAPO D'ISTRIA, John, Count of, a native of Greece, was born at Corfu, in 1780. He entered the diplomatic service of Russia, was intrusted with several important missions, and assisted to manage the intrigues by which that power fomented the disaffection of the Greeks toward the Turks. In 1827, he was elected president of the Greek republic. In this responsible station, his talents appear to have been of a high order, although the weak- ness of the state, and the disorders which reigned throughout Greece, embarrassed his abilities. He was assassinated in 1831, his leaning toward Russian policy gaining him enemies. CAPPADOCIA, a province of Asia, once of great importance as an independent kingdom, at times, although nominally dependent upon Persia, whose satraps governed it. The Pon- tus Euxinus lay upon the north, Armenia on the east, Cilicia and Syria on the south, and Lycaonia on the west. It was divided into Cappadocia Magna, and Cappadocia Minor, afterward Cappadocia Proper, and Pontus. The kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 B.C. The peoi^le are said to have been addict- ed to every vice that man is capable of com- mitting. They worshiped the sun. Arche- laus, the last king, bequeathed the country to the Romans, a.d. 17. CAPRI, the ancient Capre^e, a beautiful rocky island in the Gulf of Naples, whose in- habitants are 6,000 in number. Besides being valuable on account of its oil and wine, it is enriched by quails, which come hither in great numbers from Africa, and are caught with ease. The charms of this island induced Ti- berius to select it for his retreat when he chose to retire from ^he active admmistration of government, and give himself up to the most revolting debauchery, occasionally re- minding his subjects of his existence by or- dering the execution of Rome's best citizens. CAPUCHIN FRIARS, a sort of Francis- cans, to whom this name was given from their wearing a great capiichon, or cowl, an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. They were founded by Matthew Baschi, about 1525. Al- though the rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are marked for their extreme poverty and privations. CARABOBO, a province of Venezuela, in HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 179 South America. The famous battle of Cara- bobo, which decided the independence of Ven- ezuehx, was fought between BoHvar and La Torre, the Spanish general, June 24th, 1821. CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, the eldest son of the Emperor Severus, born a.d. 188, and associated with his father in the government at the age of thirteen years. Af- ter his father's death, he assassinated his brother Geta, who shared the throne with him, in 212. Caracalla received the surname of Alemannicus, for basely murdering a tribe of the Germans whom he pretended to assist. He visited Egypt, and displayed every where the greatest cruelty. He was finally assassin- ated at Edessa, a.d. 217, by Macrinus, the praetorian prefect CARACTACUS, king of the Silures, a Brit- ish tribe of Wales, who, being taken prisoner by the Romans, was led before the Emperor Claudius, a.d. 52. He was unawed by the power and splendor which surrounded him, but was surprised, as he told the emperor, that the possessors of so much wealth and grandeur could envy him his humble cottage. The magnanimity of his bearing, and the can- dor and moderation of his remarks, so moved the emperor, that he gave orders to have the captive monarch set at liberty. This was the only good action performed by Claudius that is extant. CARBONARI ('colliers'), the name of a secret political society of Italy which existed for many years, but the origin of which is doubtful. The Carbonari were sworn foes of oppression, "Hatred to tyrants!" being the initiatory oath. The places where they met were called 1iuts ; the interior the coZZi'ery, and the exterior the luood. Tolerance in religious matters was secured by their principles. In 1820, when Italy was disturbed by plots, 650,000 new members were admitted, in the month of March. In that year the society was suppressed by the Austrian government ; though there is reason to think it yet exists. CARDINALS were originally the parish priests at Rome ; title began to be used, 308 ; college of, founded by Pope Pascal L, 817; did not elect the popes till 1160; wore the red hat, to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, 1243 ; the cardinals set fire to the conclave, and sep- arated, and a vacancy in the papal chair for two years, 1314 ; Cardinal Carassa was hanged by order of Pius IV., 1560 ; as was Cardinal Poll, under Leo X. ; the title of eminence first given them by Pope Urban VIIL, about 1630. Paul IL gave them the scarlet habit, 1464. The cardinals are now ecclesiastical princes in the Church of Rome. They are the council of the pope, and constitute the conclave or sacred college. CAREY, William, D.D. of the English Baptist mission at Serampore, was born Aug. 17th, 1761. He was the son of a poor man, and commenced business in life as a shoe- maker. By industiy and application he ac- quainted himself with Hebrew and various other languages. In 1793, he left England for India. He translated the Scriptures into Bengalee, and into all the principal languages of northern Hindostan, and compiled also a volummous Bengalee dictionary. He died in 1834. CARLOS, commonly known as Don Carlos, son of Philip I. of Spain by his first wife, Mary of Portugal, was born at Valladolid, Jan. 8th, 1544. Four days after, his mother died in the midst of preparations for the cel- ebration of the birth of the prince. Carlos was naturally feeble, and had one leg shorts than the other. The excessive indulgence with which he was treated in youth, fostered his strong passions, and rendered him vindic- tive and obstinate. In 1560, Philip caused the states, assembled at Toledo, solemnly to recognize Don Carlos as heir to the crown. ' A headlong fall down the staircase of the palace of the Cardinal Ximenes at Alcald, in 1562, nearly deprived the young prince of life. His skull was fractured, and trepanning was necessary. Of course a royal prince of Spain could not be restored without a mira- cle, and the credit of Carlos's recovery was divided between the bones of a holy friar and the image of Our Lady of Atocha. These sanctified instrumentalities did not work a radical cure, for the brain of their patient had received a permanent injury. Writers vary greatly in the portraits which they draw of Don Carlos. According to some, he was" born with those qualities which adorn a hero, with a love of glory joined to high courage, a proud disdain of opposition, and a desire of extended power. According CAR 180 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF to others, his actions were those of a mad- man, whom accident and opposition irritate, but address or submission calms. It is cer- tain that after this accident he displayed much eccentricity of conduct, and gave him- self to reckless gratification of his passions. One night, as he was traversing the streets of Madrid, some one accidentally threw a little water on his head. Instantly stopping, Don Carlos ordered his attendants to set fire to the house, and cut the throats of its inmates. They parted, as if to execute his commands, but returning immediately, assured him that it was impossible to obey him, because the holy sacrament was on the point of being administered to a sick person in the offensive dwelling. This reply pacified the prince. Cardinal Epinosa, president of the council of Castile, and afterward grand-inquisitor, banished a comedian najjied Cisneros fi-om the place, where he was to have performed that nigl^t for the prince's diversion. It was probably by Philip's order. Carlos, meeting the cardinal, seized him roughly by the col- lar, and, laying his hand on his poniard, ex- claimed, "You scurvy priest, do you dare to prevent Cisneros from playing before me? By the life of my father, I will kill you ! " The trembling prelate, throwing himself upon his knees, was too happy to escape with his life from the hands of the infuriated prince. An mifortunate money-lender, one Grim- aldo, after having supplied the prince with some money he liad asked, added in the usual high-flown style of Castilian politeness, that all that he had was at his disposal. Carlos took him at his word, and instantly demand- ed a hundred thousand ducats. In vain Grimaldo protested that he had only used a form of speech current in all good society. The best bargain he could make was to be let off with sixty thousand, to be furnished within twenty-four hours. A shoemaker having made a pair of boots much too tight for the prince, the latter ordered them to be cut to pieces and stewed. "Villain!" exclaimed he, to the terrified tradesman, "thou must eat these or die!" In vain the unfortunate man represented the cruelty of the sentence, and the trivial nature of his offense. He was not permitted to de- part until he had eaten up his boots. Don Alonzo de Cordova, brother of the Marquis of Las Nevas, having failed to repair instantly to the prince's chamber, at the summons of his bell, the furious prince seized him by the waist, and, but for the cries of the sufferer, which procured the assistance of servants, would have dashed the chamber- lain through the window into the moat. Yet Carlos at other times behaved in a most genei'ous manner, and he obtained the affections of those members of the royal family who approached him most nearly. One of these, romance has closely linked with his unfortunate fate. In 1559, a mar- riage had been proposed between Don Carlos and Isabella, daughter of Henry II. and Catharine de Medici of France. Philip judged proper to substitute himself for his son. It has been said that Carlos loved Isabella, that their passion was mutual, and that he never forgave his father for having deprived him of his bride. Carlos may have cherished such a senti- ment, no doubt, but that Isabella loved the sallow and sickly boy is hardly probable. She was kind to him, and always befriended him, but it was the kindness of an amiable woman and a relative. She appears to have possessed a complete control over him, so that his conduct in her presence was never extravagant. Philip served Carlos a second trick of this kind. He was led, in 1565, to hope for a union with the Archduchess Anne, his cousin, and daughter of the Emperor Maximilian, but Philip shortly afterward opposed the match, and, on the death of Don Carlos, married the lady himself Thus he successively de- prived his son of two females, whose attrac- tions might have bound him to domestic life, and softened the wilder and more obdurate portions of his character. In 1653, Philip, who had no heir but Don Carlos, whom he doubtless judged incapable of governing, sent for his nephews, the Arch- dukes Rodolphus and Ernest, whom he re- ceived in person, for the purpose of securing the succession to them. The following year, Don Carlos, who was discontented, and at variance with his father, projected his escape from Spain under the pretext of going to the relief of Malta, then besieged by the troops of Solyman. He collected fifty thousand ducats, and was on the eve of departing. CAR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 181 when a forged letter of the viceroy of Naples, urging his stay in Spain, induced him to change his resolution. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the various projects of Don Car- los for securing fame and distinction in other countries, all of which were crossed by his stern parent, who regarded him with a jeal- ous eye, and punished several of his confi- dants and friends. enough to kill a man at one blow. De Thou, the historian who relates this, says, "fhis prince desired the book, after having read in the annals of Spain that an imprisoned arch- bishop had made a leather cover to a brick of the size of his breviary, and used it to kill his jailer, whom he struck dead." De Foix told the historian that he made the prince a book, composed of ten tablets of a blue stone. Philip appeared to repose implicit confi- 1 covered with plates of steel, concealed under dence in the Duke of Alva, Ruy Gomez de | plates of gilt, and this, book, six inches by Sylva, and Espinosa. Don Carlos had invincible repugnance to these men, either from jealousy of tlie confidence they enjoyed, or from considering them as authorized and privileged spies upon his conduct. He could not bear to dwell upon the thought that the Duke of" Alya had obtained the government of Flanders, which he had solicited for himself. When Alva came to pay his respects to him previous to his departure for the Nether- lands, the prince fiercely said, "You are not to go to Flanders ; I will go there myself." Alva endeavored to pacify him, saying that it was too dangerous a mission for the heir to four, weighed more than fourteen pounds. He said also that Don Carlos, wishing to be alone in his chamber, employed him to make him a machine, with which by means of pul- leys he could fasten and unfasten his door without rising from his bed. The prince had always under his pillow two di-awn swords, a brace of loaded pistols, and at the bedside, half a dozen arquebusses and an arm-chest. These precautions and preparations alarmed Philip. Don Carlos was often heard mutter- ing against the conduct of his father. He went about frequently repeating that there was a man with whom he had quarreled. At Christmas time the throne ; that he was going to quiet the j whom he desired to kill troubles of the country, and prepare it for i it was the custom of the royal family to take the coming of the king, when the prince ; the sacrament together in public ; and to pre- could accompany his father, if his presence ' pare himself for this sacred ceremony, Carlofc went to confession. He confessed that h^ was meditatin^urdcr, without revealing his intended victim. The confession being re- vealed to Philip, he exclaimed, "I am the man whose life ho seeks ! but I will take care to prevent the execution of his designs." The dark surmise of the fjxther was con- treason. Fortunately, being much the strong- ! firmed. Don Carlos's confessor refuse'd him er of the two, he grappled with Carlos and absolution. Several learned divines were got held him tight, while the latter exhausted I together to give their opinions on the ca°e. his strength in ineffectual efforts to escape. | One of the number, wishing to draw from But no sooner was the prince released than j Carlos the name of his enemy, told him that this intelligence might possibly have some in- could be spared in Castile. But this expla- nation only served to irritate Carlos the more ; and, drawing his dagger, he turned suddenly on the duke, exclaiming, ' You shall not go ; if you do, I will kill you.' A struggle en- sued ; an awkward one for Alva, as to injure the heir-apparent might be construed into he turned again, with the fury of a madman on the duke, who again closed with him, when the noise of the fray brought in one of the chamberlains from an adjoining room ; and Carlos, extricating himself from the iron grasp of his adversary, withdrew to his own apartment. "I'll kill you" seems to have been his favorite threat. Louis do Foix, a French en- gineer, the celebrated architect who built the Escurial, is said to have been commanded by Don Carlos to make him a book heavy fluence on their judgment. The prince replied that " his father was the person, and that he wished to have his life ! " What more palpa- ble proof oP insanity could be put on record! At the same time that he was brooding over this assassination, he was also projecting schemes to fly from the palace and his father. Both designs were of course revealed to the king, who now took prompt measures for his arrest. De Foix was ordered to arrest the action of the pulleys which closed the door of CAR 182 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the prince's chamber. This was done private- ly, 'and with so much skill that the prince nev- er perceived it. He slept soundly on the night of the 18th of January, 1568, when the Count of Lerma first entered his apartment, silently removed all separate weapons, and sat down upon the chest which contained theremainder. The king then entered, preceded by Ruy Go- mez de Sylva, the Duke of Feria, several other noblemen, and guards, Don Carlos being still buried in sleep. Being awaked, and seeing his father, he exclaimed, "I am lost," and mingled prayers for death with loud cries and menaces. Philip coldly replied that his life was not in danger ; ordered him to rise ; re- moved his attendants, seized a casket filled with papers, which was under the bed, charged those whom he intrusted with the care of the prince not to lose sight of him, and to prevent his writing or communicating with any one, and withdrew. Out of that room Don Carlos never again passed. The windows were barred up, the door secured, a guard of twelve halberdiers were constantly stationed in the jjassages leading to it, and night and day there were noblemen appointed to keep watch over the prisoner himself. All com- munication with the outer world was cut off. Jie was as one buried alive. ~ The guards dressed him in black. They removed the bed itself, leaving only a small trundle-bed in its place. The confinement soon told upon liis health ; and the unhappy prisoner seems to have hastened his end by his own wild behavior. At one time he would abstain from food for days together ; then he would eat enormously. He would also deluge the floor with water; then walk about half-naked with bare feet on the cold pavement. He caused a warming-pan filled with ice and snow to be introduced several times in a night into his bed. But Mr. Pres- cott tells us that for this last practice he might have pleaded the medical authorities of his time, and that it was only the hydropathic treatment of that day. He caused a large fire to be built, under pretense of cold, and threw himself into it, to perish in the flames. It required the utmost exertions of his guards to save him. He endeavored to choke himself by swallowing a large diamond which he wore about him. Philip is said to have discovered in the cask- C et which was found concealed under the bed of Don Carlos, communications with the reb- els of the Netherlands. The excessive pre- cautions which PhiHp took to justifj-- his con- duct, have disposed posterity to judge favor- ably of Don Carlos. It is certain that many of the most influential grandees of Spain vainly petitioned for his liberation. Some historians are of opinion that Carlos was condemned to death by the inquisition, that the sentence was secretly executed, that the prince partook of some poisoned broth, and died a few hours afterward. Some be- lieve that his veins were opened in the bath, others that he was strangled ; while Ferreras, and the Spanish historians in general, declare that he died of a malignant fever, occasioned by an improper regimen and by violent fits of passion ; that he received the last sacra- ments with piety, and wished to have the blessing of his father. It is difficult to deter- mine the manner or date ofthe prince's death, but we incline to refer it to the 24th of Jul}', 1568. The same year Isabella died, aged twenty -three, but her death was natural and had no connection with the fate of Don Carlos. We do not know how much faith to repose in the Spanish historians who defend the mem- ory of Philip as the protector of religion, and represent his son as a languid member of the church, a partisan of the revolted Calvinists of the Netherlands, and, above all, a determ- ined opponent of the inquisition. Whether or not Philip adopted any measures to hasten the death of his son, beyond the close confine- ment we have mentioned, it is clear that he sternly intended that Don Carlos should not survive him. CARLSBAD, an aristocratic watering-place in Europe, is in Bohemk. The arrival of dis- tinguished strangers is heralded by trumpet- ers stationed on a tall tower near the market- place ; the tone and length of the blasts de- pending on the character of the equipag9. The popular spirit manifested throughout Eu- rope against despotic governments, induced the congress of Carlsbad, Aug. 1st, 1819; whereat the great continental powers decreed mea,surgs to repress the rage for free institu- tions, and denounced liberal opinions and the liberty of the press. I CARMELITES, or White Friars, one of I the four mendicant orders, and bound by AR HISTOEY AND BIOGRAPHY. 183 austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They daim their descent in uninterrupted succession from the prophet Elijah, and take their name fi'om Mt. Caniiel, on which mountain they have a mon- astery, built, they say, on the spot where the Tishbite and his pupil Elisha had their abode. CARNOT, Lazakb Nicolas Marguerite, born in Burgundy, 1753. He was distin- guished for his mathematical abilities, and in the revolution commenced his career as cap- tain of a corps of engineers. He voted for the death of the king. Carnot distingpished him- self in a military and civil capacity, but was obliged to leave Paris, June 18th, 1799; be- ing soon after recalled, he was made, in April, 1800, minister of war. He was a firm repub- lican, opposed the ambitious views of Napo- leon, and equally so the attempts of the royal- ists. He died at Magdeburg, August 3d, 1823. Carnot was a man of integrity and talents, brave, learned, and patriotic, and honored by all parties. CAROLINE, wife of George IV. of England, was born in May, 1768. She was the daugh- ter of the Duke of Brunswick, and in 1795 became the bride of the Prince of Wales. Her daughter, the Princess Charlotte, died at an early age, regretted by all. The prince aban- doned Caroline, and, in order to procure her ruin, accused her of infidelity. The trial of the unhappy queen reflects disgrace upon the profligate prince. She refused the offers which were made to induce her to quit Eng- land with the empty name of queen, and as- serted her rights with dignity and firmness. She finally succumbed under the persecution of her enemies, and died Aug. 7th, 1821. CARRIER, John Baptist, born in 1756, originally an obscure attorney, rose to infa- mous notoriety in the French revolution. Un- der his direction, the greatest cruelties were perpetrated, and 15,000 individuals perished in little more than a month. He was finally apprehended and condemned to death by the revolutionary tribunal, Dec. 16th, 1794. CARROLL, Charles, of Carrollton, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, survived all his associates in that momentous act. He was a native of Annapolis, Md., and was born Sept. 20th, 1737. His parents were of Irish descent and of the Roman Catholic religion, and he was sent to France to be ed- ucated in that faith. After studying civil law in France, he repaired to England to acquire a knowledge of the common law. He returned to his native land in 1765, a finished scholar, and soon distinguished himself by able politi- cal writing and active opposition to the arbi- trary aggressions of the British ministry. He was elected to the congress of 1776, and placed his name to the Declaration of Independence. He was possessed of a large estate, and as he advanced to Sign the immortal document, a member sportively remarked, "There goes half a million at the dash of a pen." But his wealth vanished from his view, when he looked upon the interests of his country. He retired from Congress in 1778, and was thereafter a member of the state legislature till 1789, when he entered the first federal congress as senator from his native state. In the senate he remained till 1792. His latter days were spent amid honoring friends and in the tranquil enjojanent of study and literature. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last on earth of those who signed the charter of our liber- ties, died Nov. 14th, 1832, at the ripe age of ninety-four. CARTER, Elizabeth, an English literary lady, daughter of a clergyman of Kent, born in 1717. She was acquainted with Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, SpanisR, Portuguese, Hebrew, and Arabic. In 1749, her translation of Epictetus was commenced. She died in 1806, having enjoyed a high literary reputation, and the esteem of all who knew her. CARTHAGE, the rival of Rome, and long the mistress of Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia, was a colony of the Tyrians, and one of the latest Phoenician settlements on the African coast of the Mediterranean. The precise time of its foundation is unknown ; yet most wri- ters agree that it was built by Dido about 869 B.C., or according to others 72 or 93 years before the foundation of Rome. The tradi- tion is that Dido was a Tyrian princess, who fled to Africa to avoid the persecutions of her brother Pygmalion. She outwitted the na- tives in making purchase of a piece of land whereon to build her citadel. They agreed for a certain sum to give her as much land as she could encompass with a bull's hide (byrsa). When the money was paid, the artful princess cut the hide into narrow CAR ISi COTTAGE CYCI. OTEDIA OF thongs, with which she found herself able to inclose a very large space. The citadel which she subsequently erected on this spot, was called, in memory of the transaction, Byrsa. Carthage flourished for several centuries, attaining the zenith of its glory under Han- nibal and Ilamilcar. At one time the city contained 700,000 inhabitants. Its power excited the jealousy of the Romans. The latter, proud and strong, determined on the conquest and ruin of their wealthy rivals. The three famous wars between Rome and Carthage are known as the Punic wars. They brought forth all the energies of the hostile parties. The Carthaginians confided in their inexhaustible wealth and the superiority of their navy the Romans in their superior hardihood and energy. The Romans were ultimately victorious, and, above all others of their leaders, Scipio acquired the greatest renown. For his successes and his struggles in Africa, he obtained the name of Africanus. Tt must not be supposed that the Carthagin- ians tamely submitted to the Roman arms : on the contrary, even to the last, they de- fended their city against the invaders, with unequaled bravery. Gold and silver vessels were surrendered by the luxurious Africans to procure the means of carrying on the war ; and the women, with patriotic devotion, cut off their fine long hair, and twisted it into bow strings. All their exertions were un- availing. The skill and bravery of the Ro- I mans, who fought under the eye and example of Scipio, prevailed, and in the third Punic war, Carthage was totally demolished, b.c. 146. The siege was wondrous for its horrors, for the desperate resistance of the Carthagin- ians, and the self-devotedncss of their women. As the Roman troops drove the Carthagin- ians before them in every quarter, a few firm heroines, among whom was the wife of As- drubal, the Carthaginian general, with her children, endeavored to maintain their posi- tion in the temple in which they had sought refuge. Finding it impossible to defend this, the wife of Asdrubal determined to set fire to it and perish. She dressed herself accord- ingly in a splendid garb, and having fired the building, first stabbed her children and then plunged into the flames. The city was thirty- six miles in circumference, and when it was C fired by the Romans, it burned incessantly for seventeen days. Thousands perished in the conflagration, rather than jield, so that out of the great population, only fifty thou- sand surrendered themselves to Scipio and were saved. Cajsar planted a small colony on the ruins of Carthage, and Augustus sent thither three thousand men. Adrian, after the example of his imperial predecessors, re- built a portion of it, and gave it the name of Adrianopolis. This new Carthage was con- quered from the Romans by the arms of Genseric, A.d. 439, was for more than a century the seat of the Vandal empire in Africa, fell into the hands of the Saracens in 697, and was utterly destroj^ed. The riches and commerce of the Carthagin- ians were immense, and their naval power, at one time, supreme. They bqj-e the charac- ter of a fiiithless and treacherous people, and the proverb Punica fides (Carthaginian faith), is well known. Their religion was gloomy and cruel. Human victims were offered to the gods to appease their -m-ath : these sac- rifices were usually their own children, whose mothers, unmoved by their cries and agonies, gave them to the glowing, red-hot Moloch. Captives also were thus immolated. Crim- inals were executed by crucifixion, to which other aggravated tortures were frequently added. The government was oligarchical, and centered in the city, which ruled all the other territory. The boundaries coincided nearly with those of the present state of Tunis. CARTHUSIANS, a religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who in 1084 retired from the world to Chartreuse in the moun- tains of Dauphiny. Their austere rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order. The monks could neither leave their cells nor speak, without express leave ; and their clothing was two hair-cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is named, and whose monks in these degenerate days are famous for a generous liqueur they have the secret of com- pounding. Bruno the founder died in 1101, aged seventy-four. CARUS, Marcus Aurelk^s, a Roman em- peror, was born at Narbonne, about the year \R HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 230. lie rose to a military command by his virtues, and was elected emperor in 283. CARVER, John, the first governor of Plymouth colony, died from a sun-stroke, April 3d, 1621. He was of Mr. Robinson's flock, who went from England to Leyden. CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Canter- bury, Ct., in 1732. He served in the expe- dition against Canada, and on the conclusion of peace in 1763, attempted to explore the territory acquired by Gt. Britain, beyond the Mississippi. He hoped to reach the Pacific in the latitude of the great lakes, and open a shorter route to the East Indies. Failing of this, y«t he explored the borders of Lake Su- perior, then comparatively unknown. He went to England, but was obliged to deliver up his maps and papers to the plantation office. He died in want at Boston in 1780. CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish prelate, the apostle of the Indians. His life was passed in laboring to improve the natives of the New World, and he received the grate- ful title of protector of the Indians. He came to Hispaniola in 1502, returned to Spain in 1551, and died at Madrid in 1566, aged 92. CASHMERE, the most extensive of the alpine valleys of the Himalaya range is 75 miles in length by 40 in breadth, and lies imbedded in high mountains. The costly shawls of Cashmere, which can be woven of no other wool than that of Thibet, were first brought to England in 1666. CASIMIR, the name of several kings of Poland. Casimir III., called the Great, suc- ceeded Ladislaus in 1333. He united to his warlike qualities, the virtues of a great mon- arch, and from his devotion to their welfare, was called the peasants' king. He was killed by a fall from his horse, in 1370, aged 61. CASS, Lewis, born in Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782, was educated at Exeter Academy from his tenth year. Removing with his parents to Wilmington, Del., he became a teacher. Seeking his fortune in the West, he crossed the Alleghanies on foot, when 17 years old, and settling in Marietta, 0., stud- ied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802, became member of the legislature in 1806, and marshall of the State 1807-11.— Vol- unteering to repel Indian aggressions, he was elected Col. of the 3d Reg. 0. Vols., and entered the service of the U. S. at the begin- 185 ning of the war of 1812. Reaching Detroit with the advance force, he urged the immedi- ate invasion of Canada, was the author of the proclamation of that event, and the first to land on the enemy's shore, winning the first battle, that of Tarontoc. He rose in the regular army to the rank of Brig. Gen., and was Maj. Gen. of Ohio Vols. He was Gov. of Michigan Territory 1813-31, Sec. of War in Gen. Jackson's Cabinet, 1831-6, Min- ister to France 1836-42, and U. S. Senator 1845^8. In May, 1848, he received the Democratic nomination for the presidency, but was defeated by Gen. Taylor. He was re-elected U. S. Senator in 1849, and became Sec. of State in Pres. Buchanan's Cabinet in 1857. His various trusts he discharged with marked ability. His writings, speeches and state papers would fill several volumes. He had great abilities, with remarkable pru- dence and judgment. It is said that he never even tasted of spirituous liquors. He died June 17, 1866, aged 84 years. CASSANDER, one of the generals of Alex- ander the Great. After his death, Cassander murdered Roxana and her son, seized Mace- don for his share of the empire, and founded a new kingdom. He died 298 b. c. CASSANDRA (Alexandria). According to the ancients, she received the gift of proph- ecy from Apollo, who loved her, but as she refused to fulfill the conditions upon which the knowledge was imparted, the offended deity deprived her predictions of the power of commanding belief. Thus, when she foretold the fall of Troy, her words were discredited. Troy was taken, Cassandra dishonored at the altar by Ajax, and then dragged away as the slave and companion of Agamemnon with whom she was slain by Clytemnestra. CASSINI DE THURY, C^sar Francois, director of the royal observatory after his father James, was born at Paris, June 17th, 1714. He died Sept. 4th, 1784, and was succeeded by his son, Count John Dominic, with whom ended this family of astronomers, who had been at the head of the royal observ- atory in Paris since its foundation in 1670. CASSIUS, LoNGiNus Caius, was the friend' of Brutus, and opposed to the interests of Caesar, to whom, however, he surrendered after the battle of Pharsalia. When he per- ceived that Cgesar aimed at supreme power, CAS 186 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF he conspired against him. " The lean and hungry Cassius," as Shakspeare calls him, was among the first to strike the master of the jvorld with his dagger. He married the sister of Brutus, and in the distribution of the provinces, obtained Africa as his share. He was defeated with Brutus at Philippi, b.c. 42, and ordered his frecdman to run him through the body. CASTIGLIONE, one of the most brilliant victories of the French arms under Gen. Bo- naparte, fought in Italy against the main body of AiiStrians conunanded by Wurmscr. The battle lasted from the 2d to the 6th of July, 179G. The Austrian loss in this obsti- nate conflict was seventy field-pieces, between 12,000 and 15,000 prisoners, and 6,000 killed and wounded. CASTLEREAGH. Robert Stewart, Bar- on Castlereagh, and Marquis of Londonderry, was born in Ireland, June 18th, 1769. He was a prominent statesman of the Tory partj^ and represented En^and at the congresses of Vienna in 1814 and 1815. He was a man of fine person, and an industrious minister, but as an orator he signally failed. He mixed his metaphors sadly. Here is one of them which Moore versified : "The level of obedience slopes Upward and downward, as tlie stream Of hydra faction kicks the beam." Lord Castlereagh, in a fit of excitement re- sulting from over-exertion, cut his throat, Aug. 12th, 1822. CATALINE, Lucius Sergius, a celebrated Roman, descended from a noble family. When he had squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, and had been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin of his country, and con- spired with many high-born Romans as dis- solute as himself, to murder the senate, plun- der the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whose eloquence at this crisis will never be forgotten. Cataline, after he had declared his intentions in full senate, and attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, fled to Gaul, where his friends were raising a powerful army to support him. The remaining con- spirators were punished. Petreius, at the head of the consular rebels in Etruria, Jan. 5th, b.c. 62, in a hotly contested battle which cost Cataline his life. The crimes of this man were of the blackest dye, murder and licentiousness marking ever}^ stage of his career. CATHARINE of Arragon, youngest daugh- ter of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Arragon and Castile, was born in 1483. In 1501 she was married to Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII., and after his death to his brother, aftei'ward Henry VIII. By him she had several children, who died 3'oung, with the exception of Mary, afterward Queen of England. Henry repudiated her in 1533, on pi'ctense of religious scruples grounfled on her marriage to his brother. She maintained her rights with dignity, and died at Kimbol- ton Castle, in 1536. CATHARINE, the only daughter of Lo- renzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino, and wife of Henry, Duke of Orleans, afterward Henry II. of France, was born in 1519. She was the mother of three successive kings of France, and one queen of Navarre. In 1559, she became a widow, and her son Francis succeeded to the throne, during whose reign her influence was supplanted by the Guises. On the accession of her second son, Charles IX., in his eleventh year, she acquired the regency, and brought eternal infamy on her name by the horrible treachery to the Hugue- nots, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day. She died in 1589. She was very ex- travagant, seemingly incapable of setting bounds to her expenditures. When upbraid- ed with her prodigality she would exclaim, " One must live ! " Her talents were as com- manding as were her vices odious. CATHARINE L and IL of Russia. [See Romanoff.] CATO, Marcus Fortius, commonly called the Censor, was born at Tusculum, 232 b.c. He distinguished himself in the army at the age of seventeen, and was remarkable for his temperance and abstinence. In Sicily and Africa, as military tribune and quaestor, he was noted for the fidelity with which he dis- charged his duties. The censors were two magistrates whose duty was to survey and rate, and correct the manners of the people. Their power was also extended over private families, and they restrained extravagance, troops, defeated the | The office was established 443 B.C., and abol- CAT HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 187 ished by the emperors. When Cato was made a censor, he opposed Valerius Flaccus, his col- league, in his attempt to repeal the Oppian law, which was once passed for the suppression of luxury. He conducted the war in further Spain with great success, and took no part of the spoils to his own share. On his arrival at Rome he was honored with a triumph. As consul he manifested his dislike to luxury, in whatever shape it was presented. He also distinguished himself by his hatred to Car- thage, always concluding his speeches in the senate with the expression, " Preterea censeo Cartliaginem esse delendam'''' (Besides I think it necessary to destroy Carthage). He died B.C. 147. In his old age he gave himself up to scholastic enjoyments. CATO, Makcus Fortius, surnamed Uticen- sis from the place of his death (Utica), was the great-grandson'of the preceding, and born about 95 B.C. The virtues he displayed in his early childhood seemed to prognosticate his future greatness. At the age of fourteen, he earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword to stab the tyrant Sylla. He served in the army against the insurgent gladiator Sparta- cus, and though his services entitled him to the office of tribune, he never applied for it till he saw it in danger of being filled unworthily. He was very jealous of the safety and liberty of the republic, and watched carefully over the conduct of Pompey, whose power and influ- ence were great. In the conspiracy of Cata- line he supported Cicero, and was instru- mental in procuring the capital punishment of the conspirators. When the provinces of Gaul were decreed for five years to Caesar, Cato observed to the senators that they had introduced a tyrant into the capitol. Being sent to Cyprus against Ptolemy, by the influ- ence of his enemies, who hoped to injure his reputation, his prudence extricated him from every danger. That prince submitted to him, and, after a successful campaign, Cato was received at Rome with the most distin- guished honors, which he, however, modestly declined. He strenuously opposed the first triumvirate between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, and foretold to the Roman people all the misfortunes that soon after followed. After repeated applications he was made prgetor, but unsuccessfully applied for the office of consul. When Caesar had passed the Rubicon, Cato advised the Roman senate to deliver the care of the republic into the hands of Pompey, and when his advice had been complied with, followed him with his son to Dyrrachium, where after some incon- siderable success there, he was intrusted with the care of the ammunition, and the command of fifteen cohorts. After the battle of Phar- salia, Cato took command of the fleet, and when he heard of Pompey's death on the coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of Libya, to join himself to Scipio. He, how- ever, refused to take the command in Africa, but when he heard of Scipio's defeat, fortified himself in Utica. Cassar approached the city, but Cato disdained to flj' , and strength- ening his resolution bj'' reading Plato's trea- tise on the immortality of the soul, gave himself the fatal womid, Feb. 5th, b.c. 45. Csesar, on hearing of his fate, exclaimed, "I envy thee thy death, since thou couldst be- grudge me the pleasure of saving thy life." The suicide of Cato was termed the era destructive of the liberties of Rome. The patriot and philosopher considered fi-eedom as that which alone sustains the name and dignity of man, and would not survive the independence of his country. Yet by this rash act of suicide, as Montesquieu has said, Cato carried his patriotism to the highest degree of political fi-enzy, leaving aside all moral considerations ; for Cato dead could be of no use to his country ; while had he pre- served his life, his counsels might have mod- erated CiBsar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public affairs. CAUCASUS, a chain of mountains inhab- ited by a great number of tribes, and of vast extent, lying between the Black and Caspian seas, and covering 127,140 square miles, being about seven hundred miles long, and, at the widest, a hundred and fifty miles broad. According to the ancients, Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultm-es. As great perfection of form and an ancient origin were attributed to the inhabitants of this region, the highest rank in ethnological classification has been termed the Caucasian race. CAULAINCOURT, Armand Augustine Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, an eminent min- ister of the French empire under Bonaparte, died m 1827 at the age of fifty-four. CAU 188 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF CAVAIGNAC, Eugene, was born in Paris, Dec. 15th, 1802. After ca regular course of study at the Polytechnic school, he entered the arinj'', and in 1830 was sent to Africa for refusing to fire upon the inhabitants of Metz, in case of an insurrection. He distinguished himself greatly in 1836 by holding the cita- del of Tlemcen with a small body of troops, against repeated assaults by the Arabs under Abd-el-Kader. From this period he was actively and creditably engaged in the Al- gerine war, and rose so rapidly in the service, that in 1847, he was a general of brigade, succeeding Lamoricicre in the command of the province of Oran, and in February, 1848, was appointed by the provisional government, general of division and governor-general of Algeria. During the few weeks he held this office he showed adiiiinistrative abilities of a high order. Having been elected a member of the national assembly, he left Algiers and arrived in Paris just after the disturbances of the loth of May, 18-48. He was immedi- ately appointed minister of war and put in command of the troops, which, in anticipa- tion of the impending insurrection, were rapidly concentrating in Paris. By the mid- tic opposition. He resolutely removed from office the Socialists, the "ilontagne" and the Red Republicans of every shade or sect. A large mihtary force was retained in Paris, and every preparation made to prevent further insurrections. The national workshops were suppressed, but a provision of 3,000,000 francs was made for the poor. In the election for president, Cavaignac was the leading candidate against Louis Napoleon. He retired into private life without a mur- mur, after an administration reflecting great credit upon his integrity and his civil and mil- itary ability. For several years afterward he was less in public life, but he was deemed, on account of his staunch republicanism, so for- midable an opponent to the autocratic? schemes of Louis Napoleon, that after the cou^i (Tetat of December, 1851, he was one of the num- ber selected for arrest. He was released on condition of leaving the countr}', and spent several years in Brussels. Within a year or two before his death he was permitted to return to France. At the elections in 1857, Gen. Cavaignac was one of the few successful republican candidates, being chosen to reprc sent one of the constituencies of Paris in the die of June 75,000 troops of the line were at j legislature of the empire. His course was hand to support the 190,000 national guards I looked forward to with much interest. But already on the ground. On the 22d of June the disaffected began to throw up barricades, and in twenty-four hours one of the most formidable insurrections ever organized in Paris was in full progress. In this emer- gency, Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator, acted with coolness and sagacity. Instead of spreading his troops over the city to prevent the erection of barricades, as ad- vised by some, he concentrated them at points where the insurgents were strongest, and bringing them into action in large masses was enabled to overwhelm all opposition. The contest lasted four days, with immense destruction to life and property, and resulted in the total defeat of the rebels. Cavaignac, true to his republican principles, immediately resigned his dictatorship ; but his services be- ing deemed too valuable to be lost to the coun- try, he was appointed president of the council, with power to nominate his ministry. He chose it from among the more reasonable and moderate of the pure republicans, afterward admitting several members of the old dynas the 28th of October, 1857, while out shooting, he died suddenly from aneurism of the heart. CAVE, Edward, a bookseller at St. John's Gate in London, who in 1731 founded the Gentleman^ s Magazine^ the first periodical of the sort in England, was born in lOiJl, and died in 1754. CAVENDISH, William, the first Duke of Devonshire, was born in 1640. He distin- guished himself in the House of Commons against the court, and was a witness m favor of Lord Russell, with whom he offered to exchange clothes to enable him to effect his escape. In 1084 he succeeded to the title of Earl of Devonshire, and about the same time was fined £'30,000 and imprisoned for assaulting Col. Culpepper, who had insulted him, and whom he di-agged hy the nose from the presence chamber. He gave bond for the payment of the fine, which, however, he saved by the arrival of the Prince of Orange. In 1689, he was made a privy counselor, and at the coronation of William he served as CAV HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 189 lord high steward. He was rewarded with the title of Duke of Devonshire, and during the king's absence, after the death of the queen, was appointed ,one of the regency. He died in 1T07. CAXTON, William, the first English l^rinter, was born in the county of Kent, in the latter part of the reign of Henry IV., was apprenticed to a worthy London mercer, and dwelt in Holland a score and a half of years, as agent for English merchants. There he )>ecame acquainted with the new mystery of planting. Under the patronage of Lady Mar- garet, sister of Edward IV., and bride of the Duke of Burgundy, Caxton translated a French book, titled "The Recuyell of the Historeys of Troy e," and printed it at Ghent in 14T] . This was the first book ever printed in the English language. In a note the printer said of the work: It "is not wretton with penne and ynke as other books ben to thende that all men may have them att ones, for all the bookes of this stoiye named The Recule of the Historys of Troye then emprynted as yc here see, were begonne in con day and fynyshed in oon day." A few years later he established a printing-oflSce at "Westminster, and in 1474 produced "The Game of Chess," the first book printed in Britain. Caxton wrote or translated about sixty different books, all of which passed through his own press, before his death in 1491 . CECIL, "William, Lord Burleigh, a cele- brated English statesman, born in 1521. He was dismissed from the office which he held under Henry VIII., upon the accession of Mavj, but was the chief counselor of Elizabeth. After being privy counselor, secretary of state, and master of the court of wards, he was chosen chancellor of Cambridge, and raised to the peerage. He died in 1598. As a minister, Burleigh was noted for wariness, application, sagacity, calmness, and a degree of closeness which sometimes degenerated into hypocrisy. CECIL, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, son of the preceding, on account of his deformity and weak constitution, received the rudiments of his education at home. In 1588 he served in the fleet against the Armada, and in 1591 was knighted, and sworn of the privy council. In 1596 he was appointed secretary of state, to the great disgust of the Earl of Essex. The year following he was ambassador in France, and in 1599 succeeded his ftxther in the court of wards. He kept up a secret correspond- ence with James of Scotland, whom he pro- claimed on the death of Elizabeth, in conse- quence of which he became the favorite of that monarch. On the death of Lord Dorset, in 1608, he became lord high treasurer, discharg- ing the duties of the office with fidelity, and dying from excessive exertion in 1612, aged forty-nine. CECROPS, a native of Sais, in Egypt, came to Attica 1556 B.C., founded the city of Ath- ens, instructed the uncivilized Greeks, intro- duced the worship of Minerva, and laid the foundation of the future prosperity of Greece. He died after a reign of fifty years. CELEBES, an island in the East Indian seas, separated from Borneo by the Strait of Macassar, having an area of 70,000 square miles, and containing several separate states. The fruits and flowers of this island are abun- dant, and numbers of wild animals are found here. The Dutch, who possess a part of the island, obtain here gold, ivopy, sandal wood, rice, cotton, camphor, ginger, long pepper, and pearls. The population is estimated at between two and three millions. CELLINI, Benvenuto, united the talents and skill of a sculptor, engraver, and gold- smith. He was born in Florence in 1500, and enriched his native city with his works. Wild, fiery, and impetuous, although honest, he was fi'equently involved in quarrels in which he entirely disregarded the rank and strength of his opponents. At the siege of Rome, in 1527, according to his own account, he killed the Constable of Bourbon. Although he behaved with gallantry during the siege, he was accused of secreting the Roman crown jewels, and imprisoned. Francis I., having procured his release, invited him to the French court, but Florence was not to be forgotten by the sculptor, and thither he returned, and died Feb. 13th, 1570. CELSUS, Augustus Cornelius, a celebrated physician and medical writer of Rome, who flourished about a.d. 37. CELTJ5, one of the ancient nations of Gal- lia, whose country extended from Brittany to the Alps and Rhine. Their government was aristocratical, and their aptitude for warUke pursuits great. CEL 190 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP CELTIBERTA, an ancient country in the north-cast of Spain, along the Iberus. The Celtiberians were completely subdued by the Romans in the Sertorian war. CENTAURS, an ancient people of Thessaly, about Mount Pelion. As little was known with regard to their actual history, they formed the favorite theme of writers of fable and traditionary talcs, being represented as half horse and half man, and being, according to some, the offspring of an intermixture of the human and brute races, or, according to others, the chikh-en of Txion and the Cloud. They were probably young men who, having learned to break and ride horses, hunted the wild bulls that ravaged the neighborhood of Mount Pelion, during the reign of Ixion. Hence thej^ were called Centaurs. In fables, Hercules, Theseus, and Pirithous are said to have contended against them. CENTRAL AMERICA, the central portion of the long isthmus that unites North and South America, has an area of about 150,000 square miles. Under the Spanish rule it formed the kingdom of Guatemala^ For a short time after the revolt fi-om Spain it was united to the Mexican empire of Iturbide. In 1821 its independence was declared, and after some sanguinary struggles, a federal re- public was established. This has since been dissolved, and the country is now divided into the distinct republics of Guatemala, San Sal- vador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras ; under wliich heads further mention will be found. The country is mountainous, contain- ing numerous volcanic summits, the soil fer- tile, and the products various. The original inhabitants were the Toltecas Indians from Mexico, whom it was found no easy task by the Spaniards to expel. These people, like the Mexicans, had made considerable advan- ces in the arts, as their buildings of various descriptions proved. CERRO GORDO, a mountain pass on the road from Vera Cruz to Mexico. It was stormed by Scott's army, April 18th, 1847, and the Mexicans under Santa x\nna driven from their strong position. There were 12,000 of the Mexicans, horse and foot, besides pow- erful batteries of artillery. Three thousand, including five generals, surrendered as pris- oners of war ; Santa Anna fled by a defile on a baggage mule ; the remnant of his army, leaving over a thousand killed and wounded on the field of battle, scampered off on the road, and were pursued as far as Jalapa. This brilliant victoiy, which destroyed the Mexican army, cost Scott 63 killed and 368 wounded, out of a total force of 8,500. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel de, was born of a noble family, at Alcala de He- nares, in New Castile, in 1547. He early cul- tivated poetry, and preserved throughout his life a strong inclination for the mvises. In 1569, Cervantes, in the flower of his age, went to seek in Italy glory or fortune. He first entered the service of Cardinal Acquaviva, in the capacity of page. The war between the Turks and the Venetians offered him a field more worthy of his birth and courage. He was enrolled beneath the banners of the Duke of Paliano, Mark Antony Colonna, general of the naval foree sent to succor the island of Cyprus. This expedition was unfortunate; but, in the following year, the victory of Le- panto established the naval honor of Chris- tendom, and in this engagement, whose glory he shared, the left hand of Cervantes was maimed for life. In 1575 he was taken bj'^ a corsair and carried to Algiers, where he suf- fered the evils of slavery for six years. The tale of " The Captive," inserted in his novel of" Don Quixote," describes vividly the scenes through which he passed. His marriage fol- lowed close upon the publication of " Galatea," in 1584. This novel celebrates his mistress Catharine Salazer y Palacios. His pen then became the only support of Cervantes. The gloomy reign of Philip II., and that of his successor Philip III., were unfavorable to the efforts of genius, but while the latter of these monarchs filled the throne, the inimitable novel of " Don Quixote " made its appearance. The first part appeared at Madrid in 1605, and the second in 1615. The other works of Cervantes are forgotten in the contemplation of this. One day, as Philip lit. was standing in a balcony of his palace at IMadrid, he ob- served a student reading on the banks of the river Manzanares, who seemed to be repeat- edly interrupted in his occupation by the ex- cess of his delight, striking his forehead and showing other tokens of the extraordinary amusement his book afforded him. " Either that fellow is mad," said the king, " or he is reading ' Don Quixote.' " Inquiry proved CER HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 191 Philip. right in his conjecture, for the student was reading Cervantes' matchless tale of chivalry. The history of the knight of La Mancha still excites the interest of people of all coun- tries, of all ranks, and of all ages. Who de- lights not to recall his principal adventures, the attack on the windmills, the affair of the puppet's, the affray with the wine-skins, the vigil of arms, the scene of his studies ? This celebrated work was written in prison, Cer- vantes having become obnoxious to the au- thorities of La Mancha, who procured his im- prisonment by the employment of one of the thousand arts known to the civil functionaries of Spain. He revenged himself by making his hero a townsman of his judges, and in choosing their country for the theatre of his exploits. Cervantes died at Madrid, on the 23d of April, 1616, in his sixty-ninth year. It is a coincidence worth noting, that on the same day, Shakespeare expired. He was in- terred pursuant to his own directions, in the church of the fraternity of the Trinity in that city. His intimate friends mourned for the virtuous citizen and tne man of worth. The wits of his day, who had decried his talents, did not consider his loss an irreparable one, and were far enough from believing that Spain would one day have only the romance of "Don Quixote" to oppose to the master- works of other nations. CEVENNES, a chain of mountains in the south of France, forming a branch of the Alps; the highest summits are 6,500 feet high. Their fastnesses afforded an asylum to the Huguenots in the religious wars of France. CEYLOX, an island off the Coromandel coast of Hindostan. It is a little less in size than Ireland. The climate is generally healthy, the soil fertile, and the variety of its productions surprising. In the bosom of the earth are found precious metals ; the rocks are enriched with valuable gems, and the tropi- cal fruits grow wild here. Ceylon yields the chief supply of cinnamon to the world. Among the ancients the elephants of Ceylon were noted for their size and beauty. They ofTtcn make predatory incursions in troops, and do great injury to the crops. In the recesses of the forests are also found leopards, jackals, monkeys, hyenas, bears, and rac- coons; The number of inhabitants exceeds 1,500,000. The Cingalese, who form a portion, are divided into castes like the Hindoos, and profess the religion of Buddha. "Ceylon," says Bishop Heber, "might be one of the happiest, as it is one of the loveliest, spots in the universe, if some of the old Dutch laws were done awaj^ ; among which, in my judg- ment, the most obnoxious are the monopoly of cinnamon, and the compulsory labor of the peasants on the high roads, and other species of corvees.^^ These restraints have since been removed by the British. The natives of Ceylon claim that their island was the seat of Paradise. Ceylon was known to the Greeks and Ro- mans. The Arabs called it Serendib. There is a tradition that St. Thomas, the apostle, preached the gospel here, but it is more gen- erally believed that Nestorian missionaries accompanying Persian merchants were the first to introduce Christianity. Churches were founded here about the middle of the sixth century, but none were existing when the Portuguese discovered the island in 1505. Xavier .^oon after made many Catholic con- verts. The Portuguese so exasperated the natives, that the Cingalese took part with the Dutch, who succeeded in expelling them in 1656. The Dutch, being regarded in the light of benefactors, were rewarded with lav- ish grants of territory, but repaid kindness by ingratitude, and bloody wars arose, in which the Europeans were invariably victorious. In 1795, the English took possession of this island, which was formally ceded to them in 1802, and completely subjected in 1815. CILERONEA, an old city of Boeotia, where were fought two battles of note in ancient history. In the first, Aug. 2d, e.g. 338, Philip of Macedon defeated the United armies of Athens and Thebes, thus mastering the lib- erties of Greece. In the second, b.c. 86, Archclaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians slain. Chseronea was the birthplace of Plutarch. CHAISE, Francis de la, a French Jesuit, and confessor to Louis XIV. of France, from 1675, to his death, 1709. It is supposed with every rational probability that Father de la Chaise instigated the revocation of the edict of Nantz. The beautiful cemetery of Pere la CHA .92 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Chaise at Paris occupies the site of his house and grounds. CIIALD^EA, an. ancient country of Asia, near tlie junction of the Tigris and Eu- phrates ; it was the southerly part of Baby- lonia, and was extremely fertile. The Chal- deans were, an Asiatic tribe originally, and possessed great astronomical knowledge. It was tliey who founded the mighty empires of Babylon anu' Assyria. The knowledge of which they boasted was eventually confined to the priests, who added to their sciences the arts of prophecy, magic, &c. CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., foremost among the divines and preachers of Scotland, was born March 17th, 1780, at Anstruther in Fife. From the country parish of Kilmany the fame of his eloquence and zeal was bruited abroad, and in 1815 he was transferred to Glasgow. Crowds thronged the Tron church, not only on the Sabbath, but on week days. A series of Thursday discourses on astrono- my, displaying, amid the glow of blazing eloquence, the sublime poetry and religion of the heavens, were published about the same time as the " Tales of My Landlord." The sermons rivaled even the rapid sale of the magic pages of Scott. In 1827, Dr. Chalmers was appointed to the chair of divinity in the university of Edinburgh. His reputation as a divine was enhanced by the works of his pen. He headed the secession of 1843 from New York after a perilous journey, and, after being closely examined by Sir Henry Clinton, was admitted to serve under him. He foiled in the attempt to accomplish his object, and went to Virginia with the royal troops. Escaping, he rejoined his friends, after many hardships. "When Washington took com- mand of the arm}^, during the administra- tion of President Adams, it was his intention to bring Champe into the field at the head of a companj'-, but he learned to his grief that the gallant fellow had died in Kentucky. CHAMPLAIN, a lake of the United States, lying between New York and Vermont, 130 miles long, and from 1 to 15 miles broad. The river Chambly, or Sorelle, forms the out- let by which its waters are discharged into the St. Lawrence. The lake takes its name from Samuel de Cbamplain, a French naval officer who founded Quebec and Montreal in Canada, of which he was governor-general, in the seventeenth century. 0> its waters, near Plattsburg, a naval engagement was fought the 11th of September, 1814, in which Macdonough, the commander of an American fleet, gained a complete victory over the British. [See Plattsburg.] CHAMPOLLION, J. F., a French archteol- ogist, who did more than any other man of science toward explaining the hieroglyphics of Egypt. His death in 1832, at the age of forty-one, in the midst of his triumphant the established church of Scotland, and was researches, was regretted as an almost irre- one of the founders of the Free Church. His health was undermined by his great labors, and he died in 1847. CHAMBERS, Ephraim, the first person in England who undertook a work in the form now known as a cyclopoedia, or encyclopcedia. His dictionary published in 1728, in two folio volumes, was the origin of what is now termed Rees' Cyclopoedia. He was born about 1C80, and died May 15th, 1740. CHAMPE, John, a native of Loudon coun- ty, Va. At the age of twenty-four, in the year 1776, he entered the Revolutionary army with the rank of sergeant-major, in Lee's cavalry. His reputation for resolution and address was such, that he was selected to attempt the seizure of Arnold, that the execu- tion of the traitor might save the life of Andre. His orders were given him, he left the American camp as a deserter, ai-rived at parable loss. CHANNING, William Ellerv, an eminent Unitarian divine, was a native of Newport, R. L, April 7th, 1780. He died in 1842. CHANTREY, Sir Francis, was born at Norton in Derbyshire, April 7th, 1781, and was apprenticed to a wood carver. His own force and talent raised him to good success among modern sculptors. He was knighted by the queen in 1837. He died Nov. 25th, 1841. CHAPULTEPEC, a castle commanding one of the approaches to the city of Mexico. It was stormed bj- the American army, Sept. 12th, 1847, and two days after, Scott entered the citj' in triumph. CHARLEMAGNE (a compound word sig- nifying Charles the Great), King of France, Emperor of the West, was born in 742, at the chateau of Saltzburg, in L^^pper Bavaria. CHA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 193 He was the grandson of Charles Martel, and the son of Queen Bertrade and Pepin the Short, on the death of whom, in 768, he was crowned king, sharing France with Carloman, his younger brother ; but the conditions of the partition were frequently changed without ever giving mutual satisfaction, and the no- bles, who had long sought to weaken the royal authority, would without doubt have profited by the animosity which existed be- tween these two princes, if the death of Carloman, which took place in 771, had not given Charlemagne an opportunity of becom- ing sole king of France by refusing to share the rule with his nephews. Their mother fled with them to Italy, and found a protector in Desiderius, King of the Lombards. They fell into the hands of Charlemagne, on the taking of Verona, and of their future fate, history says nothing. If Pepin had need of courage, activity, and extreme prudence to found a new dominion, Charlemagne found it necessary to enchain the minds of men by fear and admiration, for the means employed to effect usurpation had enfeebled the sover- eign power. The people of Aquitania were the first who tried to aim at independence. Charlemagne marched against them with a small force, but he relied upon Carloman, his brother, to whom a part of Aquitania belonged, and who in consequence was compelled to unite with him. Carloman found him at the appointed spot, at the head of his troops, but fearing to fall before the power of his brother. Carlo- man hastily retraced his steps. Abandoned thus unexpectedly, in a manner which could not foil to encourage the rebels, Charlemagne did not hesitate for a moment : without con- sidering the number of his followers, or that of his enemies, he pursued his way, gained a brilliant victory (770), arranged the affiiirs of Aquitania with a promptitude and fore- sight which displayed the energy of a great man and the skill of a politician, and dis- ments, and they were divided into many tribes, whom it was difficult to unite in the same interest. Charlemagne began to wage war upon them in 772, and did not complete their subjugation until 804; so obstinately did they resist, for thirty-two years, the con- queror, who, sometimes indulgent to impru- dence, and often severe to cruelty, as eager to convert as to conquer them, was in reality master of their country only when he had reduced it to a desert. The two most cele- brated chiefs of the Saxons were Witikind and Alboin, who finally embraced Christian- ity in 783. The cruelties of Charlemagne to the Saxons, resembled despair ; and his indulgence to them proved that, pressed by other affairs, he was willing to make any concession which could bring him off with honor. While he was fighting on the banks of the Weser, Pope Adrian implored his succors against Desiderius, King of the Lombards, who sought to possess himself of Ravenna, and urged the pope to crown the sons of Car- loman, in order to display Charlemagne in the light of an usurper of the throne of his nephews, and thus stir up a large portion of France against him. Flying to the scene of action with the rapidity which the danger rendered necessary, Charlemagne seized the person of Desiderius, sent him to end his days in a monastery, and caused himself to be crowned King of Lombardy, in 774. Thus ended that kingdom, which shortly after- ward took its ancient name of Italy, but preserved the laws it had received from the Lombards. Charlemagne passed into Spain in 778, be- sieged and took Pampeluna, and made him- self master of the country of Barcelona ; but his troops, on their return, were defeated in the pass of Roncesvalles, by a part of the Saracens, and the mountain Gascons, the un- ruly tributaries of Charlemagne, who were so intractable, that more than thirty years concerted the tributary princes of France, afterward, strong forces were required to op- who thought to profit by the youth 'of the pose them. At this battle fell the famous monarch. When Charlemagne found himself sole master of France, he formed the project of subjugating the Saxons. These people. who were still pagans, occupied a large por- tion of Germany ; like all barbarous nations, they preferred plunder to fixed establish- 13 Roland, his nephew, whose fate has been celebrated by romance writers and poets. The disaffection of the inhabitants of Aqui- tania having induced Charlemagne to give them a separate monarch, he chose the young- est of his sons, well known as Louis the Mild, CHA 194 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 778. At the same time the continual eiForts of the Lombards and Greeks to reconquer Italy, and the want of fidelity in his nobles, made him feel the necessity of rallying them about the throne, and he gave them for a king, Pepin, the second of his sons; the eldest, who bore the name of Charles, re- mained with him to assist him in his expedi- tions. He had another son, Pepin, whose mother he had repudiated. This son, hav- ing been convicted of taking part in a conspiracy against him, was devoted to the monastic life. On his return from Spain, Charlemagne found himself obliged to march against the Saxons, and each year renewed the necessity of a warlike expedition. He caused 4,500 of them to be put to death ; a ferocious revenge which only served to prolong and invigorate their resistance. Thence he went to Eome to have his two sons, Pepin and Louis, crowned by the pope, thus confirming the people in the belief that the head of religion could alone render the royal power legitimate and sacred. The year 790, the twenty-seventh of his reign, was the first which he passed without taking up arms, and this peace lasted only until the spring of the following year. Char- lemagne had formed the project of re-estab- lishing the empire of the west. Irene, who reigned as empress at Constantinople, in order to prevent the dismemberment of the empire, proposed to Charlemagne to unite their children, which would have placed Eu- rope under one government. Her proposal was accepted, but ambition impelled Irene to dethrone her son in order to seize the power herself, and she offered her hand to Charle- magne. This singular union, which ambi- tion alone could suggest and carry into effect, would have presented a new spectacle to the world, had not the empress been hurled from her throne. Charlemagne was crowned em- peror of the west, by Pope Leo III., in the year 800 ; and, although his journey to Rome had no other object, he affected to be much surprised at the honors which were heaped upon him. He was declared Csesar and Au- gustus ; the ornaments of the ancient Roman emperors were decreed to him ; all the con- secrated forms were followed; nothing was forgotten but the fact that it was impossible that an empire should subsist, the power of which was shared by the children of the de- ceased monarch. Charlemagne, after having made one of his sons a monk, had the mis- fortune to lose, in 810, Pepin, whom he had created King of Italy; the year following Charles, the eldest, followed his brother to the grave ; there only remained, of his legiti- mate children, Louis, King of Aquitania, whom he associated \mui him in the empire in 813, his great age and his infirmities mak- ing him feel that he was approaching the termination of his career. He died the 28th of January, 814, in the seventy-first year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign. By his will, made in 806, confirmed by the French lords assembled at Thionville, and signed by Pope Leo, Charlemagne divided his estates among his three sons. He left his subjects the power of choosing a successor, after the death of the princes, provided he was of the blood royal. He provided that they should not have recourse to the trial by battle, in the case of dispute, but to that of the cross. This judgment consisted, in doubtful circumstances, in conducting to the church two men, who stood upright with their elevated arms crossed, during the cele- bration of divine service, and the victory was gained by the party whose champion remained motionless the longest. Charlemagne was buried at Aix-la-Cha- pelle. His body is said to have been disposed in the following manner. He was seated upon a throne of gold, clad in his imperial habits. He had a crown upon his head, and was girt with his sword. He held a chalice in his hand, the book of the Evangelists upon his knees, his sceptre and gold buckler at his feet. The sepulchre was filled with pieces of gold, perfumed and sealed, and above, a su- perb triumphal arch was raised, with this epitaph : " Here rests the body of Charles, the great and orthodox emperor, who gloriously enlarged the kingdom of the French, and governed it happily for forty-seven years." Charlemagne was a friend of letters and of learned men. He was marked by his plainness and frugality of costume. He was the tallest and the strongest man of his time. Force he used to conquer, but he instituted wholesome laws to govern. CHARLES I. and II., of England. [See Stuaet, House of.] CHA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 195 CHARLES GUSTAVUS, son of John Cas- imir, Count Palatine of the Rhine, ascended the throne of Sweden on the abdication of his cousin Christina in 1654. He obtained over the Poles the famous victory of Warsaw, besides taking a number of important places. The Poles, caUing to their assistance Mus- covy, England, and Denmark, obliged Sweden to conclude a peace ; but the war breaking out again, Charles took Cronenburgh, and laid seige to Copenhagen ; his navy having been defeated, he was obliged to return home, and died in 1660. CHARLES XT of Sweden, son of the preceding, was born in 1655. On his acces- sion a peace was concluded with Denmark, but in 1674, in the war with that power, he lost several places, which were restored at the peace of Nimeguen. He married the sister of the King of Denmark, and died in 1697. In his reign the arts and sciences began to flourish in Sweden. % CHARLES THE TWELFTH. CHARLES Xn. of Sweden, son and suc- cessor of the preceding, was born in 1682. He came to the throne at the age of fifteen, and at his coronation snatched the crown from the hands of the Archbishop of Upsal, and placed it on his own head. He was well educated, and very fond of bodily exercises. The commencement of his reign gave no splendid proof of genius or talent. On the formation of a confederacy against him by Russia, Denmark, and Poland, he seemed to arouse from his slumber. He gave the cast- ing voice in the council for the most vigorous measures, and immediately prepared to carry them into effect. He renounced at once even limited enjoyments, and bent all his energies to support the character he had marked out for himself Of the confederated powers, he attacked each in turn, beginning with Den- mark, which produced a peace with that power. Nov. 30th, 1700, he obtained a brill- iant victory over the Russians at Narva; although his force consisted of only 8,000 men, he attacked them in their intrenchments, slew 30,000 and took 20,000 prisoners. His next enterprise was against Poland, and after several battles he dethroned Augustus, and placed Stanislaus upon the throne. He re- turned to the invasion of Russia, and obtained some signal advantages over Peter the Great, but at length experienced a terrible defeat at Pultowa, July 8th, 1709. Almost all his troops were either slain or taken prisoners ; he himself was wounded in the leg, and car- ried oflF on a litter. Charles sought an asylum in Turkey, where he was hospitably received by the grand seignior, who provided for him a residence at Bender. He availed himself of his asylum to persuade the grand seignior to enter into a war with Russia, and employ- ed much money, much time, and many men- aces to induce it. His conduct was at length so violent, that he was ordered to leave the Turkish territories. He refused to obey. CHA 196 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF The sultan directed that he should be forced away ; but Charles, with his retinue, resisted the attack of the janizaries, till superiority of numbers obliged him to tiike shelter in his house, which he defended with great spirit, and did not yield till the premises were in fiaihes. He then sallied out, sword in hand, but being entangled by his long spurs, he fell and was taken prisoner. After having been confined as a prisoner six months, he finally set out on his return to his own dominions. In 1716, he invaded Norway, but after penetra- ting to Christiana, was obliged to return to Sweden. He resumed the attack in the win- ter of 1718, but was killed by a cannon-shot at the siege of Frederickshall, Dec. 11th, aged thirty -six years, haying reigned twenty- one. Charles was liberal, active, and firm, but rash, obstinate, and cruel. At the battle also defeated his rival, Conradin, Duke of Suabia, and took him and the Duke of Aus- tria prisoners. Charles brought infamy on his name, by causing his royal captives to be put to death, at Naples, on a public scafibld. After this he laid Tunis under tribute, and quelled the Ghibellines. In 1276, he gained the title of King of Jerusalem, and meditated an expedition against Constantinople. But his arbitrary conduct occasioned a general insurrection in Sicily, where 8,000 of the French were massacred on Easter Monday, 1282. This massacre is known by the name of the " Sicilian vespers," the bell for evening prayers being the signal of revolt. The Sicilians chose Peter of Arragon for their king. Charles died in 1285. CHARLES MARTEL, son of Pepin Heris- tel, and mayor of the palace under Chilperic of Narva, he had several horses shot under 1 and Thierry IV., kings of France. He gained him, and as he was mounting upon a fresh one, he said, "These people 'find me exer- cise." When he was besieged at Stralsund, a bomb fell into the house while he was dic- iiting to his secretary, who immediately dropped his pen, and started up in a fright. " What is the matter ? " said the king, calmly. " The bomb ! the bomb ! sire," said the agita- ted secretary. " Well, sir," resumed Charles, " what has the bomb to do with what I was dictating to you ? Go on." When struck by the ball that caused his death, he instinc- tively grasped his sword-hilt, as if seeking for revenge. Charles was exceedingly tem- perate, abjuring wine, and living fi-equently upon the coarsest bread. No woman ever exerted any influence over him. His dress consisted of an old cloak, a blue coat with brass buttons, a plain waistcoat and breeches of leather, high boots with spurs, and long leather gloves. His wild career of war gained him the name of ' the machnan of the north.' CHARLES T , King of Sicily dnd Naples, born in 1220, was the son of Louis VIII. of France. Having married the daughter of the Count of Provence, he thereby became his successor, and added to his dominions the counties of Anjou and !Maine. He was taken prisoner with his brother Louis, in Egypt, in 1248. On his return he defeated Manfred, the usurper of the Sicilian crown, and as- sumed the title of Kmg of Napl many victories, the principal of which was over the Saracen general, Abdalrahman, in 732. On the death of Thierry, in 737, no successor was appointed, and Charles con- ducted the government. He died in 741, and left his dominions between his sons Carloman and Pepin; the latter of whom became the- first king of the Carlovingian race, which name was taken from the founder, Charles Martel. CHARLES IV., Emperor of Germany, was the son of John of Luxemburg, and grandson of the Emperor Henry VII. He ascended the throne in 1347. In his reign the golden bull was given at the diet of Nu- remberg, 1356, which established the Ger- manic constitution. Charles died in 1378. He was a learned man and a great i)atron of letters. CHARLES v.. Emperor of Germany, and King of Spain (in the latter capacity, Charles I.), was born at Ghent, in 1500. He suc- ceeded to the kingdom of Spain in 1516, and to the empire on the death of Maximilian in 1519. Francis I. of France disputed witli him the latter title, and their rivalry occa- sioned a violent war in 1521. Charles was joined by Henry VIII. of England, and after several important actions, took Francis pris- oner at the battle of Pavia. A peace having been concluded in 1529, Charles turned his arms against Africa, where he defeated Bar- He j barossa, entered Tunis, and re-established CHA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 197 Muley Hassan on the throne. Soon after this he renewed hostiUties against France, rav- aging Champagne and Picardy, till he was at length obliged to retire, and peace was restored in 1538. In 154:1 he attempted the conquest of Algiers, but his fleet was dis- persed by a storm, and the emperor was obliged to return in disgrace. He again leagued with England against France, but Fortune was not so favorable to him as she had formerly been, and he was glad to enter mto a treaty in 1545. The Protestant princes of Germany confederated against him, and obtained liberty of conscience for those of their religion. In 1556, he resigned the crown to his son Philip, and retired into a monastery in Estremadura, where he passed the remainder of his days in religious exer- cises, mechanical pursuits, and gardening. He died in 1558. He encouraged artists, and once picked up a pencil which Titian had dropped, and presented it to him, saying, that Titian was worthy of being served by an emperor. CHARLES THE Bold, Duke of Burgundy, the son of Philip the Good, was born in 1433. There were constant wars between him and Louis XL of France, who instigated Charles's subjects, the Liegois, to revolt against him. Charles siezed on Guelderland and Zutphen, and afterward invaded Switzerland, but his army was put to rout and his baggage taken by the Swiss. He collected another army, but was again defeated, and slain while besieging Nancy, in 1477. As he was that day putting on his helmet, the golden lion which formed the crest, fell to the ground, and he exclaimed, '■'■Ecce magnum signum Dei ! " (Behold the great sign of God !) CHARLES IX., of France, son of Henry II., and Catharine de Medici, was born in 1550, and succeeded to the throne in loGO ; his mother conducted the government ; but she so abused her trust that the Huguenots revolted, and a civil war ensued, in which the insurgents were unsuccessful. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's ensued. It is said that Charles repented of this horrid crime on his death-bed, in 1574. CHARLES X. of France and Navarre, as- cended the throne which had been filled by his brothers, the unfortunate Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., in September, 1824. He bore for some time the title of Count of Artois, and afterward that of Monsieur. He was fond of expensive pleasures, and distinguished for his mild manners. Charles was crowned at Rheims, being anointed with the holy oil, which it was absurdly pretended had been brought from heaven by a dove. He swore to maintain the charter, but he had not been long seated on the throne, before he began to play those fantastic tricks which seem to be- long peculiarly to the province of legitimacy. The press, that vast moral engine at which tyrants tremble, became obnoxious to the monarch, and a censorship was established in 1 827. The king showed himself rather favor- ably disposed to the Greeks, which produced him a temporary popularity. The ministr}^ of Prince Polignac, however, caused great in- dignation, on account of the arbitrary tone of the measures adopted ; and the unwarrantable prosecution of the liberal press hastened the revolution of 1800, when the Parisians over- came the roj^al troops, and the French legis- lature exiled Charles X., imprisoned the min- isters for life, and seated Louis Philippe on the throne. Charles was born Oct. 9th, 1757. He died at Gratz in Hungary, Nov. Gth, 1836. CHARLES EMMANUEL L, Dukeof Savoy, surnamed the Great, was born in 1562. Though of a weak constitution, he was of an enterprising spirit, and, taking advantage of the internal commotions of France in the reign of Henry III., he seized part of Dau- phiny and Provence ; and on the death of that monarch, he aspired to the crown, but was disappointed. A war broke out, and the French troops took possession of part of Sa- voy. By the mediation of the pope, however, peace was concluded. The duke made a treacherous attempt to seize Geneva, but his troops were repulsed, and the prisoners that were taken were hung up by the Genevans as robbers. On the death of Francis, Duke of Mantua, in 1613, this restless prince laid claim to the succession, but was obliged to relin- quish it. The French persuaded him to turn his arms against Genoa, and he gained some advantages, but the interference of Spain ef- fected a peace. He aspired to the imperial crown, and made an attempt on the duchy of Montserrat. which involved him in a war with France and Spain. He died in 1680, it is sup- posed of grief for the loss of Pignerol. CHA ins COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF CHARLESTON, a city and seaport of South Carolina, had in 1860, 40,578 inhabi- tants, being about 2,400 less than in 1850. It is the natural commercial emporium of South Carolina, and of much of North Caro- lina and Georgia also. It stands at the head of a bay on the point between the mouths of Cooper and Ashley rivers, seven miles from the sea. It has long been a wealthy commercial city. Fort Moultrie, on Sulli- van's Island, was assaulted June 28, 1776, by sea and land by the British, who w^ere se- verely defeated. May 12, 1780, Gen. Lin- coln with his army of over 5,000 men capitu- lated to Sir Henry Clinton after a month's siege. The British evacuated the place Apr. 14, 1783. Charleston was a principal center of the secession roovement, and the scene of the first rebel hostilities against the United States, by the bombardment of Fort Sumter, April 12, 1801, resulting in its surrender to the rebels the next day. Soon after the harbor was blockaded, and sea and land forces were kept actively employed against the phxce during the whole of the war. It was not however taken until Sherman's north- ward march caused its evacuation April 18, 1865, when the Union troops entered it. About a third of it had been destroyed. CHARLOTTE AUGUSTA, daughter of Queen Caroline and George IV. of England, a beautiful, amiable, and accomplished lady, became, at the age of twenty, the wife of Prince Leopold of Coburg (afterward King of Belgium), May 2d, 1816. Nov. 5th, 1817, the unfortunate princess, in becoming the mother of a child that did not survive her, lost her life. The physician who had attended her, shot himself The princess was beloved by the English nation, and her death deeply lamented. CHARON, in mythology, the son of Erebus and Nox. He was the ferryman of hell, being- supposed to carry the dead across the waves of Acheron, Cocytus, and the Styx, receiving an obolus in pay. This coin was placed in the mouth of the dead, as, without it, it Avas thought that the deceased would be con- demned to long and restless wanderings on the dreary banks of Acheron. Charon was represented as an old man, of a forbidding aspect, dressed in rags. --^i^^ -^1 « THE CHARTER OAK. CHARTER OAK, a stately tree in a cavity of whose trunk the royal charter of Connecti- cut was hidden by Capt. Wadsworth, when demanded by Andross, Oct. 31st, 1687. The story is that the debate of the assembly upon obeying Sir Edmund's demand was prolonged until evening ; when suddenly the lights were extinguished, the parchment snatched from the table, and borne oft' to its hiding-place. This oak was an ancient forest-monarch at the first settlement of Hartford. The cavity in which the charter was put gradually closed, but in time the heart of the tree rotted away, leaving a larger opening. Before dawn, Aug. CHA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 199 21st, 1850, the revered tree was prostrated by the wind, and only a ragged stump left stand- ing. With a touch of sentiment strange for this prosaic age, the bells of the city were knelled for an hour at twilight. CHARYBDIS, the rapacious daughter of Neptune and Terra, whom Jupiter changed into a whirlpool. The whirlpool whose origin was thus related in mythology, was on the coast of Sicily, opposite the formidable rock called Scylla on the Italian shore. It was very dangerous to mariners, and proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. No whirlpool is now found that corresponds to the descrip- tion of the ancients. The words, IncicUt in Scyllam qui vult vitare CharyMim^ became proverbial, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil we often fall into a greater. CHASE, Samuel, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Somerset coun- ty, Maryland, April mh, 1841. His father was an Episcopal missionary and personally superintended his education. Having ac- quired eminence and popularity as a lawyer in Annapolis, and by his resistance to the stamp act, he was elected to the continental Congress in 1774, and in 1776 undertook a mission to Canada to excite opposition to the mother country. He was a delegate to Con- gress, 1774-78 and 1784-85. In 1783, he went to England as agent of the state of Mary- land to recover property intrusted to the Bank of England, and while there formed the ac- quaintance of Pitt, Fox, and Burke. In 1791, he was made chief-justice of the general court of Maryland. Washington appointed him as- sociate justice of the supreme court of the United States, vice John Blair of Virginia, who had resigned. He was impeached by the house of representatives in 1804, for al- leged misdemeanors in political trials, but ac- quitted in his trial before the senate, which, after long attracting public attention, ended March 5th, 1804. He died at the age of sev- enty, June 19th, 1811. He was a man of in- tegrity, boldness, and decision. While on the bench in Maryland, in 1794, nobody being willing to assist in the arrest of the ringlead- ers in a riot, "Summon me," cried Judge Chase; "I'll be the posse comitatus;" and he was as good as his word. CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste, Vicorate de, was born in Brittany of an an- cient family, in 1769. During the terrors of the French revolution, he resided chiefly in England, paying, however, a visit to the Uni- ted States, and roaming into the backwoods. When Bonaparte had restored order he re- turned to France, and in 1802 gained great fame bj'' his " Genius of Christianity." In 1806 he set out on those oriental journey ings recorded in his " Itinerary from Paris to Je- rusalem." Under the Bourbons he took part in public life and honors. These he aban- doned when Louis Philippe was crowned, oc- cupying himself thenceforth in literary labors, and dying in 1848. CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, was the son of Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconock, in Cornwall, and born Nov. 15th, 1708. On quitting the university at Oxford he went into the army as cornet, but soon left the military life, and, in 1735, obtained a seat in parlia- ment for Old Sarum. His eloquence was first displayed on the Spanish convention, in 1738, and, in a short time. Sir Robert Walpole found him the most powerful opponent he had ever encountered. The dowager Duchess of Marl- borough left Mr. Pitt a legacy of £10,000 for his conduct at this period. In 1746, he was made vice treasurer of Ireland, and the same year paymaster-general of the army. In 1 755, he resigned his places ; but the year following, he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department. In this post, however, he did not remain long, on account of some difference with the king ; but such was his popularity, that his majesty found it necessary to recall him. In 1757, he became prime minister, in which situation he gave a new turn to affairs, and by the vigor of his meas- ures, subverted the power of France in Eu- rope, Asia, and America. In the midst of his glory, George II. died, and Mr. Pitt resigned the helm to Lord Bute ; when his lady was created a peeress, and he himself rewarded with a pension. His acceptance of a coronet in 1766, when he returned to the ministry, hurt his popularity, for the people had loved to call him ' the great commoner.' The witty Lord Chesterfield called it a "fall up-stairs," and said, "Everybody is puzzled to account for this step. Such an event was, I believe, never heard or read of, to withdraw, in the fullness of his power and in the utmost grati- fication of his ambition, from the House of OHA 200 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Commons (which procured him his power, and which could alone insure it to him), and to go into that hospital of incurables, the House of Lords, is a measure so unaccounta- ble, that nothing but proof positive could make me believe it ; but so it is." Mr. Pitt took the title of Earl of Chatham, and the sinecure office of the privy seal in the new cabinet, which place he resigned two or three years afterward. During the war of our rev- olution, he opposed the ministers, and their scheme of taxation ; and in a speech on the subject of the independence of the colonies, April 7th, 1778, he exerted himself so ener- getically, as to foil exhausted into the arms of those around him. He died on the 11th of the following month. A public funeral and monument wore voted by parliament ; an an- nuity of £4,000 was annexed to the earldom of Chatham, and his debts were discharged. CHATTERTON, Thomas, a youth whose precocious talents and sad fate have excited great interest, was born at Bristol, in 1752, of poor parents. In his twelfth year he wrote a poem of some merit, and at the age of sixteen successfully imitated the style of an- tique English writers, and introduced to the world as works of great antiquity, the fruits of his own mind. The reception he met with in London, led him to form extrav- agant hopes, which were, however, never realized, for the wretchedness of his situation induced him to commit suicide by poison at the age of eighteen in 1770. The poems which he wrote at fifteen he ascribed to a monk of the fifteenth century, named Thomas Rowlej'. For precocious talent this marvel- ous boy is without a peer in English litera- ture. CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of Eng- lish poetry, was born in London, in 1828. He was high in favor with Edward HI., and married Philippa, the sister of Lady Catha- arinc Swynford, afterward the wife of John of Gaunt. This prince was Chaucer's steady patron. He filled several responsible offices, and was sent abroad as ambassador. His for- tunes varied with those of the party to which he was attached, but he finally lived in pleas- ant retirement at "Woodstock, and completed the " Canterbury Tales." He owned a house in London, in the garden of the convent of Westminster, where the chapel of Henry VII. now stands. Here he died, Oct. 25th, 1400, and was interred in the neighboring abbey, the first of the illustrious line of poets whose ashes have there been laid to rest. CHAUNCY, Charles, was the grandson of the erudite and excellent president of Har- vard University, where he was educated. He was born Jan. 1st, 1705, and was or- dained pastor of the first church in Boston, in 1727. He died in his eighty -third year, Feb. 10th, 1787. His learning, independ- ence, and patriotism were constantly and clearly displayed. The works which he has left behind bear incontrovertible proof of his talents. He was the particular friend of Dr. Cooper of Boston, and an anecdote which regards the two gentlemen, is worthy of pre- servation. It must be kept in mind that Dr. Chauncy was habitually absent, like many literary men, and that Dr. Cooper was famous for inviting brother clergymen to officiate for him ; so much so, that it was currently re- ported that he used to walk out upon Boston neck evety Saturday afternoon, and invite the first gentleman with o, black coat whom he saw coming into town, to preach for him. A negro servant of Dr. Chauncy was in want of a coat, but as he had high ideas of his own importance, he wished, if possible, to obtain a new garment, instead of being habited in the dark, discarded vestments of his worthy master. After having, one morn- ing, brought the usual supply of wood into Dr. Chauncy's study, he remained standing, and the doctor, although rather busj^ was not long in noticing him. "AVell, Sambo, what do you want?" " Want a coat, sar. De old one so patched to pieces, I 'fraid to go nowheres." "Very well. Sambo, go to Mrs. Chauncy, and tell her to give you one of mine." The doctor resumed his studies, but Sambo retained his position. His master observing him a second time, but forgetting what had just passed between them, again asked, "What do you want, Sambo?" "0! just a coat, sar. Old coat full of holes." "Very well; go to Mrs. Chauncy, and she will give you one of mine." A second time the doctor resumed his book, but finding the black still stationary, he be- gan to recall what had passed, and exclaimed, CHA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 201 Well, sir, why don't with some asperity, you go ? " "'Cause T 'fraid, Massa Chauncy." "Afraid? of what?" "\^hy, sar, I 'fraid to wear a black coat, 'cause — no — no— it won't do — I can't tell you, sar." "I insist upon it." " Well, then, if I must — sir, 'fraid, 'cause — oh no! massa, you'll be so angry." " I wish I had my cane here ! " exclaimed the doctor. Sambo, finding, from his impatient glance at the tongs, that there was a possibility of seizing a substitute, cried out, " Oh ! sar ! nebber mind de cane, I'll tell you why I 'fraid to wear one of your coats — I 'fraid if I had annoder black coat — that Dr will ask me to preach for him ! " of Berzclius, Licbig, Dumas, Laurent, Hof- mann, &c., during the last thirty years. CHERBOURG, a French seaport on the Channel, containing 24,212 inhabitants. In 1418, it was taken by Henry V. of England, and near it took place the famous naval battle of La Hogue, between the French and Eng- lish, May 19th, 1692. Cherbourg is remark- able for its vast breakwater, and its extensive basin and docks, constructed by the French government. CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- hope, fourth Earl of, born in London, in 1694. After studying in his youth with as- siduity, at Cambridge and Leyden, he entered public life in 1715, soon after the accession of George I. He distinguished himself in the Cooper lower house of parliament as a brilliant and effective debater, which reputation he sus- The doctor burst into laughter. " Go, go, tained in the House of Lords, after the death Sambo, and ask Mrs. Chauncy to buy a coat of his father. Till 1748, when deafness com- of whatever color you fancy ! " Sambo hastened off, grinning with delight, to get a scarlet coat, and Dr. Chauncy ran to Dr. Cooper to tell him of the whole affair. CHEMISTRY was introduced into Europe, about 1150, by the Spanish Moors, who had learned it and distillation from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chi- nese also claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The first chemical students in Europe were the alchemists ; but chemistiy could not be said to exist as a science till the seventeenth century ; during which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon, and the researches of Hooke, Mayow and Boyle. In the early part of the eighteenth century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the foundation of pneumatic chemistry, and Boerhaave com- bined the study of chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, Stahl, &c. In 1772, Priestley published his researches on air, and then commenced a new era. He was ably seconded by Lavoisier, Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The nine- teenth century opened with the brilliant discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic chemistry has been very greatly advanced by the labors pelled him to retire, he took an active part in public life. He displayed great diplomatic skill in two foreign embassies, and his lord- lieutenancy in Ireland, in 1745, though last- ing only a few months, has been always men- tioned with high praise. After a sickly and melancholy old age, he died March 24th, 1773. The only writings of this accom- plished personage that are at all remembered, are his "Letters" to his natural son, remark- able for their ease of style and their worldly knowledge, but deficient in the loftier points of morality. They were not intended for publication. The character of Lord Ches- terfield has been much misrepresented and misunderstood. He was unequaled in his time for the solidity and variety of his attain- ments, for the brilliancy of his wit, for the graces of his conversation, and for the polish of his style. His embassy to Holland marked his skill, his dexterity, and his address as an able negociater; and his administration of Ireland indicated his integrity, his vigilance, and his sound policy as a statesman and a pol- itician. In the House of Lords his speeches were more admired and extolled than anj'' others of the day. Horace Walpole had heard his own father, had heard Pitt, Pul- teney, Wyndham, and Carteret; yet in 1743, he declared that the finest speech he had ever listened to was one from Chesterfield. Dr. Johnson called him a lord among wits, CHE 202 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF and a wit among lords. When Lord Ches- terfield arrived in Ireland, all the Catholic places of worship were closed. A Mr. Fitz- gerald saying mass in the obscure garret of a condemned house, an immense crowd had assembled, and the floor giving way, the offi- ciating priest, with manyof his flock, were buried in the ruins, and the greater number were maimed and wounded. Lord Chester- field, horror struck at the event, ordered that all the chapels in the capital should be opened. A zealous Protestant thinking to pay his court to the lord lieutenant, came to inform him that one of his coachmen was a Roman Catholic, and went privately to mass. "Does he, indeed ? " said his lordship ; " then I shall take care that he never drives me there ! " The Bishop of Waterford related that the vice-treasm-er, Mr. Gardiner, a man of good character and considerable fortune, waited upon Lord Chesterfield one moi-ning, and in a great fright told him that he was assured upon good authority that the people in the province of Connaught were actually rising ; upon which the viceroy looked at his watch, and with great composure answered him, " It is nine o'clock and time for them to rise; I believe, therefore, that your news is true." Lord Chesterfield preserved a Catholic popu- lation in the most perfect peace and obedience, during the whole of that rebellion which in Episcopal England and Presbyterian Scot- land, had nearly restored the Stuarts to the throne they had forfeited by their blind and bigoted attachment to papal institutions. CHILI, a republic on the western shore of South America, which has an area of 180,000 square miles. The eastern part of Chili is mountainous, and many volcanic sum- mits here elevate themselves from the lofty chain of the Andes. Innumerable small and rapid rivers iiTigate the rich soil, and the climate is remarkable for its healthiness. The mineral and vegetable productions are valuable and abundant. Exclusive of the independent Indians, the population has been estimated at 1,200,000. The Roman Catholic is the established religion. Pedro de Valdivia who was sent thither by Pizarro, overcame the opposition of the abo- rigines, and founded several cities in the north and south, but the Araucanians defeat- ed the Spaniards, and having taken their leader prisoner, put him to death. It was many years before the Spaniards were per- mitted by the Indians and Dutch to enjoy quiet possession of Chili. In 1809, a revolu- tionary movement took place, and the party which espoused the cause of independence was at first successful; but in 181-i nearly the whole country was subdued by a Spanish army from Peru. Chili remained under the control of the roy;iIists until 1817, when General San Martin, with a body of troops from Buenos Ayres, entered the countrj', and being joined by the people generally, de- feated the royalists in several engagements. The independence of the country was finally achieved at the battle of Maypu, April 5th, 1817. The government has since experienced many changes, but Chili has been perhaps less disturbed than any of its sister republics. Santiago, the capital of the republic, has 50,000 inhabitants. Valparaiso, the princi- pal port and centre of commerce, has 30,000. The southern part of Chili is inhabited by the Araucanians, a powerful aboriginal nation over whom the republic has only a nominal authority. They maintained their independ- ence through many contests with the Span- iards. They subsist by cultivating the land and raising cattle. A Toqui (hereditary noble) is at the head of government, and he strictlj' maintained the neutrality of his people during the South American struggle for independence. Among the many in- teresting customs of this people, we may mention that they amuse themselves with a species of chess and backgammon, both of which they knew previous to the arrival ot the Spaniards. CHILLINGWORTH, William, a celebra- ted English divine and Protestant polemic. He was born at Oxford, 1G02, and died in 1644, having been appointed chancellor of Salisbury, in July, 1638. CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a phrase often encountered in English political history. It is an estate of the crown in Buckingham- shire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats ; for by accepting an office under the crown, a mem- ber becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his constituents. This custom has existed time immemorial. CHI HISTOEY AND BIOGRAPHY. 203 CHINESE LADY OF RANK. CHINA is a vast country of Asia, bounded on the north by Chinese Tartary, from which the famous Chinese wall separates it ; on the east by the Eastern Sea ; on the south by the Chinese Sea and Further India ; and on the west by an extensive and sandy desert, and long ridges of mountains, which divide it from Western Tartary and Thibet. Inclusive of the tributary countries, and those states which have voluntarily placed themsalves under the protection of China, the population is estimated at 853,000,000 inhabitants, which are scattered over a sur- face of about 5,250,000 square miles. The subjected countries are Mantchouria, Mon- golia, and Tourfan ; the protected ones, Thi- bet, Bootan, Corea, and Loo-choo. China Proper is divided into eighteen provinces. The Yang-tse-kiang and the Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River, are the two principal rivers of China. The former is more than 3,000 miles long, the latter about 2,500. The face of the country is greatly diversified ; the northern and western parts being the most broken. A distinguishing feature of the climate is the unusual excess in which heat and cold prevail in some parts of the empire at oppo- site seasons of the year ; as well as the low average of the thermometer in comparison with the latitude. The soil is diligently tilled, rice being the prevalent crop. But the production of most importance to 'outside barbarians,' is tea, which is the universal beverage throughout China, while enough is grown to supply other countries with a hun- dred million pounds each year. The commerce is very extensive ; the prin- cipal articles of export being tea, silk, nan- kins, porcelain, and the valuable vegetable productions of the east. The imperial canal CHI 204 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF and the Chinese wall are nionuuients of Chinese skill and industry. The religion of China is Buddhism, or the religion of Fo. The language of the Chinese is peculiar, its ciiaracters being symbols of ideas, instead of sounds. The Chinese are, to a certain degree, well educated, but revengeful, timid, vain, and deceitful. Polygamy is permitted, and the condition of females wretched in the extreme. Poor parents are permitted to drown their female children, and this is done without remorse. The Chinese is, on the whole, by far the best native government of Asia. It is better, far, than any of the Mohammedan despo- tisms ; it is better than any government that the Hindoos e^ver possessed, and it is far pre- ferable to the theocracies of the Birmans, Siamese, and other Chinese nations. The absence of a powerful and influential priest- hood, and of an hereditary and privileged aristocracj", as well as of petty principalities with delegated and hereditary authorit}^, may be stated as among the leading causes of the prosperity of the Chinese empire. The government of China is patriarchal; the emperor has the title of " Holy Son of Heaven, sole Governor of the earth, and Great Father of his people." But it is patriarchal on the largest scale of which there is any record, for the family consists of more than three hundred million members. China may be considered as a huge school-house, the master having the birch constantly in his hand, frequently using it, and delegating his authority to thousands of ushers, who are equally liberal in its application. But the rod, although the chief, is not the only instrument of government. There is the canqtie^ or wooden ruif, a kind of portable stocks or pillory, very convenient to the executors of the law, but exceedingly inconvenient to the wearer, who can neither sleep nor lie down for it. Then there is imprisonment in cages ; furthermore decapitation, not however very frequent ; and in extreme cases their crucifixion, or as it is technically called, the death by painful and slow means. The grand panacea, however, after all, is the rod. The general application of this vigorous instrument of administra. tion, is by no means confined to China, but embraces the other countries of the east, from Japan to Bengal, including nearly one- third the human race. There the rod, under its various appellations of bamboo, cane, cudgel, or birch, is actively at work from morning till night, and afterward from night till morning. The grand patriarch canes his first ministers ; the prime minister canes his secretary of state ; the secretaries of state admonish the lords of the treasury, by bela- boring their backs ; these enforce their orders to the first lord of the admiralty by applying what is equal to the cat o' nine tails. Gen- erals cane field-officers, and field-officers the captains and subalterns. Of course the com- mon soldiers of the celestial empire are caned by everybody. The husbands cane their wives, and the wives cane their children. The Chinese and their neighbors may be truly described as well-flogged nations. Whatever may be the actual antiquity of the Chinese nation, no doubt seems now to exist that they very early knew the art of printing, the composition of gunpowder, and the properties of the magnetic compass, which have been considered by European nations three of the most important discov- eries of modern times. To these may be added two very remarkable manufactures, of which they were unquestionably the first inventors, and in which they yet excel, those of silk and porcelain. Their mode of print- ing differs from ours, but its effect in multi- plying and cheapening books is the same, and it was practiced hy them as far back as the tenth century. Gunpowder they did not use in fire-arms, but for fireworks, of which they are extremely fond, and with which they have amused themselves from a very remote date. The empire is very ancient, and is said by the Chinese to have existed forty-one thou- sand years before the Christian era. We give a list of the dynasties which have sat upon the throne in more modern times. The Hia dynasty, 2207 to 1767 B.C. The Shang dynasty, 1767 to 1122 u.c?. The Chow dynasty, 1122 to 256 b.c. The Tsin dynasty, 256 to 257 B.C. The Hang dynastj^, 207 B.C. to 220 a.d. From 220 to 280, China was divided into three kingdoms, the Shohang dynasty, 220 to 263 ; that of the Goei in the north, 220 to 265, and that of the El in the south, 220 to 280. CHI HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 205 GREAT AVALL OF CHINA. The Tsin dynasty, 265 to 4-20. The U-ta dynasties, 420 to 589. The Sui dynasty, 589 to 617. The Tang dynastj-, 617 to 907. The Hehu-u-ta dynasty, 907 to 960. The Song dynasty, 960 to 1279. The Mogul Khans, 1279 to 1368. The Ming dynasty 1368 to 1614. The Ta-tsing dynasty : Shun-tchi, 1644 to 1669. Kang-hi, 1669 to 1693. Yong-tching,1693 to 1733. Kien-long, 1736 to 179G. Kia-king, 1796 to 1821. Taou-kwang, 1821 to 1850. Szo-hing, or Yih-Chu, 1850, With the Chow dynasty, during whose reign Confucius lived, authentic history may be said to commence. During the reign of Ching the first empe- ror of the fourth dynasty, B.C. 256, the great wall was built. Elated with his own exploits, he formed the design of making posterity believe that he was the first emperor that filled the Chinese throne, and for this pur- pose ordered all the historical books, which contained the fundamental records and laws of the ancient governments, to be burned, ajid four hundred of the learned to be put to death, for having attempted to save some of the proscribed volumes. In the thirteenth century the Chinese called in the aid of the Mongols to beat off the east- ern Tartars. These fierce allies soon subdued CHI 206 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF not only the Tartars, but the people whom they caine to defend, and seized the mastery. Kublai Khan (he who ' in Xanadu a stately pleasure dome decreed ') was a monarch of eminent talents, and endeared himself to the Chinese by his equity and virtues. In less than a century his successors so degenerated that the Chinese regained the ascendency. Some of the expelled Mongols found refuge among the Tartars, and from these united strains came the race known as the Mantchous, who in 1G44 expelled the last Chinese dynas- ty, and founded a permanent Tartar dominion, which is yet in poM^er. "When China was sundered into two or three states, the northern portion was called by the neighboring nations Cathay, vinder which name it became known to the Russians and Mongols; whilst the inhabitants of India called the southern part Chin, under which name the Portuguese and other Europeans became acquainted with it. Not till the seventeenth century was it discovered that Cathay was China. The Chinese are passionately addicted to the use of opium. The government formerly prohibited its importation, and in attempts to enforce this restriction came in collision with the British, whose merchants were largely engaged in the contraband traflSc. Hostilities commenced in 1839, and continued till Aug. 29th, 1842. By the treaty of peace, the Chi- nese were to pay $21,000,000; the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ning-po, and Shanghai were thrown open to the British ; and the island of Ilong-kong was ceded to the British crown; a great inroad being thus made Tipon the exclusiveness which the Chi- nese had so rigorously observed. As to the insurrection that broke out in 1851, conflicting accounts are given. The in- surgents gained ground steadily, capturing the important cities of Nanking, Amoy, Shanghai, and besieged Canton ; but victory afterward passed to the imperialists, and many of the towns held by the rebels were retaken. The following is one version of the nature of this outbreak. Taou-Kwang, the last empe- ror, during the latter years of his reign became somewhat liberal in his views, and favored the introduction of European arts. His son and successor, a rash and narrow-minded prince, quickly forsook this wise policy and adopted reactionary measures. An insurrection broke out in consequence, in the southern province of Quang-si, August, 1850, which quickly be- came of alarming importance. At first the insurgents proposed only to expel the Tartar dynasty. In March, 1851, a leader arose among them, first by the name of Tien-teh, 'celestial virtue,' but afterward assuming other names. He is said to be a native of Quang-si, of obscure origin, who obtained some education at Canton, and also became acquainted with the principles of Christianity from a native convert, and from the missionary Roberts. He announced himself as the re- storer of the worship of the true God, Shang- ti, and had derived many of his dogmas from the Scriptures. He declared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, ■ and demanded universal submission. In addition to the dangers thus besetting the peace of China, new disturbances with England broke out in 1857, and a war com- menced, but the attention of the British was diverted by the serious crisis in India. Peking, the capital of the empire, has a population of 2,000,000. The principal streets vary from 140 to 200 feet in width, but the buildings do not correspond, few of the houses being above one story. Nanking was the capital before the time of the Mongols, and had 4,000,000 inhabitants, now dwindled to 300,000. It is one of the principal seats of Chinese learning, and is noted for the porce- lain tower attached to one of its pagodas. Canton is a place of much commercial impor- tance, from having formerly been the only port open to American and European vessels. It has a million of inhabitants. The surround- ing scenery is charming, and the eastern hills present a most noble prospect. The houses, with the exception of those of the mandarins and wealthy merchants, are low ; the streets long, narrow, and well-paved, spanned, here and there, by triumphal arches, and shaded at the sides by continuous ranges of piazzas. But the main charm of the city consists in its beautiful pleasure gardens, which are studded with fish-pools. The exports are tea, India ink, varnish, porcelain, rhubarb, silk, nan- CHI HISTORY AND BIOGEAPHY. 207 keen, &c. The climate of Canton is consid- ered healthy, although the heat of summer and the warmth of winter are great. CHIPPEWA, a town in Upper Canada, on a river of the same name, two miles north-west of Niagara Falls, where the British troops un- der Gen. Riall were signally defeated by the Americans under Gen. Brown, July 5th, 1814. On the 25th of the same month, a second action ensued, in which the British were successful, though Riall was wounded and captured. CHIVALRY. The institution and spirit of chivalry, forming a prominent and important feature of history, has been regarded by wri- ters and men of erudition in various points of view, and while some have condemned it as altogether injurious and absurd, others have dignified it with the title of sublime. There have been found men of modern days, and those the fortunate possessors of more than common abilities, who could sigh over the degeneracy of the times, and lament that the age of chivalry is gone. But if the material and least worthy part of it has passed away, its spirit still remains, still invites men to high and honorable deeds, and is indeed imperish- able and immortal. The vows of knighthood, the ceremonials of installation, the pomp and ceremony of knightly feats, — these have gone ; but the devotion of the patriot, the ardor of the warrior, the warmth of the lover, the fi- delity of the friend, the loyalty and truth of the man of honor, do not sleep in the graves of Charlemagne, Roland, and Bayard. In seeking for the origin of chivalry, we are led back to the feudal ages, and the con- sideration of the condition of the Germanic tribes, when its peculiar spirit first began to display itself. The tribes were composed not of superiors and inferiors, but of masters and slaves ; of men whose birthright was ease and honor, and of others who inherited ceaseless toil. By the noble-born, labor of any kind was considered degrading, and the profession of arms alone worthy of being followed ; so that the lords of the soil were a race of inde- pendent warriors, whose thirst for fame was a continual excitement. The different feudal sovereigns were nominally subject to a legiti- mate prince, and were bound to follow his banner into battle, at the head of their vas- sals, and to respond to his call by bringing, at a moment's warning, an armed force to his support. Still, when removed from the pres- ence of his sovereign, the feudal lord was a petty despot, whose vassals felt that he pos- sessed absolute power of life and death over them. Unlimited authority gave rise to various abuses, and it was well that chivalry, with its high tone of honor and morality, sprang up in ages of general darkness, fraud, and oppression. The commencement of chivalry may be ascribed to the beginning of the tenth century. To the feudal system it owed its origm, and with that it died out. From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, it had a great influence in refining the maimers of most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his profes- sion, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted himself to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practice courtesy, and in every peril to vin- dicate his honor and character. Great enter- prises contributed to bind numbers of knights together, and led to the formation of various societies and orders ; and when these military adventurers were not leagued together in any of the holy wars, a reciprocity of principle and an identity of religion held them in a common chain. Animated by a love of jus- tice, a veneration for the fair sex, a high- minded regard for truth, a thirst for military glory, and a contempt for danger, the knights went forth to brave peril, to rescue the unfor- tunate, and to crush the oppressor. Numer- ous individuals set forth with no fixed purpose but that of discovering some wrong and right- ing it. These wandering champions were called knights errant, and their exploits were sung in camp and court by the minstrels, whose lays immortalized the sons of chivalry. Ch ivalry degenerated, but not rapidly. After the lapse of many years from its foundation, the number of its ceremonials increased ; its pageantry was disgraced by frippery and folly; its vows were unobserved ; a devotion to the sex was succeeded by boundless licentious- ness; and the wandering spirit of knight- errantry was displaced by an affectation of eccentricity. In the fourteenth century the honors of knighthood were restricted to the nobility, and then arose the various forms and ceremonies, which at length concealed the CHI 208 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP original design of chivalrj^, and brought on a premature decline. The knightl}' education of a j'outh generally commenced with liis twelfth year ; when he was sent to the court of some noble pattern of chivalry, to learn dancing, riding, the use of his weapon, itc, and where his chief duty was assiduous attention to the ladies in the quality of page. According to his progress in years and accomplishments, he became squire to some knight ; and when he fairly merited the distinction, he was himself knight- ed. This honor was not conferred upon a youth before his twenty -first year, unless high birth, or extraordinary valor and address, seemed to warrant the setting aside of the asual regulation. Sometimes the honor was won by many a field of bloody toil, with many drops of sweat and gore ; and not unfrequent- I3' one daring achievement, artfully planned, gallantly carried into execution, procured the wished-for spurs and the anticipated accolade. The ceremony of conferring knighthood was often performed on the field of battle where the honor had been earned ; often it required and received the most imposing preparations and ceremonies. The youn g candidate gr.cn-d- ed his arms for a night, and this was called the vigil of arms. In the morning he bathed ill water, which was the emblem of the truth and purity he swore to preserve sacred. Clad ni spotless garments, he kneeled before the altar of the nearest church, and, having pre- .sented his sword to the officiating priest, re- ceived it again with the benediction of the reverend man. After taking the oath of alle- giance, he knelt before his sovereign, who gave him the accolade, or blow ujjon the neck, with the flat of his sword, saluted the young war- rior, and said, " In the name of God and St. Michael [or, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost], I dub thee a knight. Be loyal, brave, and fortunate." It was customary for two knights of the same age and congenial tempers to form a friendship, and this brotherhood in arms last- ed generally until one of the two was laid in the grave. The courtesy of chivalry softened the asperity of war, gave charms to victory, and assuaged to the vanquished the pain of a defeat. All that ingenuity could plan, and wealth produce, to give splendor to knight- hood, was displayed in the age of chivalry. Magnificent tournaments were held, where even kings entered the lists and contended for the prize of valor befoi'e the e3'es of thou- sands of spectators, among whom beautiful ladies appeared the most deeply interested. In fact, knights often contended about the charms of their lady-loves, and wore their fo- vors in their helmets. If the ladies of Rome attended gladiatorial shows in throngs, we can not wonder that the beauties of the age of chivalry looked forward to a tournament with great impatience, and eagerlj^ strove for the honor of filling the post of temporary queen and distributor of the prizes. Chivalry exerted a powerful influence on poetry, and formed the subject of the poems of the troubadours of the south of France, as well as supplied themes for the poetical con- troversies of the knights, which were decided at the Cours iV Amour (courts of love), first established in Provence. Even after chivalry had died away, its influence was not unfelt by poetry, which retained the tone it had impart- ed for many centuries. The songs of the troubadours were divided into amatory songs, duets, pastorals, serenades, ballads, poetical colloquies, &c. In the romances of chivalry we behold paladins and peers, sorcerers, fair- ies, winged and intelligent horses, invisible or invulnerable men, magicians who are interest- ed in the birth and education of knights, en- chanted palaces ; in a word, the creation of a new world w^hich leaves our vulgar planet for beneath it. Paladins never without arms, in a country bristling with fortresses, find their delight and honor in punishing injustice and defending weakness. The chivalric romances may be divided into three classes : those of the Round Table ; tliose of Charlemagne ; and lastly those of Amadis, which belong to a later century. It will sufiScc to speak of the form- er. The romances of the Round Table recount talcs of the cup from which Jesus Christ drank with Joseph of Arimathea. This cup had performed such prodigies, that we are not as- tonished that those valorous knights of the Round Table, Lancelot, Perceval, and Perce- forest, are united with the determination to recover it. These jrreux chevaliers are the perpetual heroes of these romances. Lancelot is attached to Guinevre, the wife of King Ar- thur, and his marvelous exploits excite the admiration of contemporaries. Three centn- CHI HISTOEY AND BIOGRAPHY. 209 ries after, lords and ladies were still delighted at the recital of "the very elegant, delicious, mellifluous, and very pleasant historic of the very noble and very victorious Perceforest." Amidst many pages of wearisome insipidity, we find some happy descriptions and situa- tions detailed, and graphic portraits of feudal men and manners. The absurdities of chivalry afforded scope for the satirical and comic powers of Cer- vantes, and the adventures of the unfortu- nate Don Quixote are read with an interest which few works of a similar character in- spire. Every feature of chivalry is happily burlesqued, and the Knight of La Mancna goes through all the ceremonials with a ludi- crous gravity which is perfectly irresistible. The pertinacity with which the knights maintained the pi-e-eminence of the ladies of their affections is finely satirized in the elec- tion which Don Quixote makes of a hideous country wench, whose charms he celebrates after the most approved fashion and with unceasing devotion. Few ladies of chivalric romance have attained a degree of reputation comparable to that of the immortal Dulcinea del Toboso. [See Knighthood, Tourna- ments.] CHOLERA. The severe epidemic which, under the name of Cholera, Asiatic Cholera, Malignant Cholera, or Cholera Asphyxia, has within a few years afflicted many parts of the world, is reputed to have originated in Aug- ust, 1817, at Jessore, the capital of a district in Bengal, lying to the north-east of Calcutta. In the following September, it invaded Calcutta; soon after, many other cities of Hindostan ; and in a short time it extended its ravages into various other countries of Asia. It has been estimated that during four- teen years from its commencement at Jessore, it. carried off no less than eighteen millions of the inhabitants of Hindostan ; and its ravages are said to have been still greater in China. In 1830, it invaded European Russia, and afterward Poland, Hungary, Germany, Austria, and other countries of Europe. In 1831, in October, it broke out at Sunderland in England; in February, 1832, in London ; in Paris, near the last of March ; at Quebec and Montreal in June ; and at New York in July. The mortality was very great, and the steady march of its ravages from the east to the west, created a general panic. Since then, medical men have become better versed in its causes and its treatment, but it has raged at times with much severity. It was very fatal to the allied French and English army at Varna in 1854. CHRISTINA, Queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, was born in 1626, and died April 19th, 1689. She succeeded to the throne in 1633, and in 1654 resigned it to her cousin Charles Gustavus. She was remark- able for acts and habits foreign to her sex ; namely, learning, murder, and apostasy. Her conduct was so flagrant, that she found it difiicult to procure an asylum in any state, after having been excluded from her own. She died at Rome. CHRISTIANS. The name of Christians was first applied to the followers of Jesus at Antioch, about the middle of the first century. CHRISTOPHE, Henki, King of Hayti, was born Oct. 6th, 1767. In early life he was a slave and passed from the hands of one master to another, being successively a cook and an overseer. The French were conquered by the exertions of Dessalines andChristophe, the latter of whom was general-in-chief of the army during the short-lived imperial government of the former. In 1806, an insur- rection broke out in Hayti, in which Dessa- lines, the emperor, was killed by the negroes ; whom he had provoked by his cruelty and oppression. His successor, Christophe, as- sumed the humbler title of chief of the gov- ernment, and in that capacity opened the commerce of his dominion to neutral nations, by a proclamation distinguished for its lib- eral spirit and enhghtened views. In 1811 Christophe changed the republic into a mon- archy, and proclaimed himself King of Hayti. A short time before his coronation he created a nobility consisting of princes, dukes, counts, and barons, to give a greater splendor to the ceremony. He created a legion of honor, called the order of St. Henri, and altered the name of his capital from Cape Fran(,-,ois to Cape Henri. His troops, at this time, amounted to about 10,000 men, all negroes ; and his fleet consisted of one frigate, nine sloops of war, and a number of schooners. In October, 1820, Christophe, hearing that his troops had 14 OHR 210 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP abandoned him, shot himself through the head, and the opposite party immediately proclaimed a republican government. CHRYSOSTOM, John, one of the fathers of the church, an eloquent and pious man, born at Antioch, 351 ; was Bishop of Con- stantinople ; died in exile, 407. CHURCH, Benjamin, a native of Duxbury, Mass., was born in 1639, and distinguished himself by his address and daring in the In- dian wars. His services during King Philip's war were great, and he commanded the party that killed the sachem of Mount Hope, in offices of edile and pr«3tor, and stood for the consulship, at a time when Catahne was making the most vigorous efforts to oppose him. Cataline, with many dissolute and des- perate Romans, had conspired against his country, and planned the murder of Cicero himself. The plot being discovered, chiefly by the efforts of Cicero, he commanded Cata- line to leave the city, and the desperate traitor marched forth to meet the 20,000 men that were assembled to support his cause. The rebels were defeated, and the conspirators cap- itally punished. After this memorable deliv- August, 1676. He died in his seventy-eighth erance, Cicero received the thanks of the year, Jan. 17th, 1718. A descendant, of tlie ; people, with the title of father of his country and second founder of Rome. The vehemence with which he attacked Clodius, proved injurious to him ; and when same name, was the first traitor in our Revo- lution. He was a talented phj^sician iu Boston. For a while he was the zealous coadjutor of Warren and his fellow-patriots. He was detected in treasonable correspond- ence with Gov. Gage, and imprisoned. His health failing, he was released in 1776, and lost at sea on his way to the West Indies. his enemy was made tribune, Cicero was ban- ished from Rome, though 20,000 young men were ready to attest his innocence. After an absence of sixteen months, during which he had been favorably received wherever he pre- CHURCHILL, Charles, an English poet, sented himself, he was recalled, and entered born 1731, died in 1764. His political satires Rome to the universal satisfaction. When were received with great applause, and his ' he was sent with the power of proconsul to "Prophecy of Famine," a severe satire upon Cilicia, his integrity and prudence made him the Scots, was read with eagerness, and pro- j successful against the enemy, and on his cured notoriety for its author. Though at first ' return he was honored with a triumph, which, a clergyman, the close of his life was marked 1 however, the factions prevented him from by gross debaucheries. | enjoying. CHURUBUSCO, one of the brilliant victo- | During the civil wars between Cresar and ries won by the Americans under Scott, in \ Pompey, he joined the latter, and followjed the advance upon the city of Mexico. The j him to Greece. When victory had declared battle was fought Aug. 20th, 1847. Santa Anna's strongly posted force numbered 30,000; the assailants were not a fourth as many. The American loss in killed and wounded was 1,000; that of the Mexicans was 10,000, one-fourth of whom were pris- oners. CIBBER, CoLLEV, an English actor and dramatist, was born in London in 1671, and died in 1757. His comedy of " The Careless Husband" received the approbation of even the bitter Pope. He was made poet-laureate in 1730. CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated orator, born at Arpinum 100 b.c, was the son of a Roman knight. In Sicily he exer- cised the quasstorship with equity and moder- ation, and freed the Sicilians from the tyranny and avarice of Verres. He discharged the in favor of Cfesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, Cicero went to Brundusium, and was recon- ciled to the conqueror, who treated him with great humanity. From this time, Cicero retired into the country, and seldom visited Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, Cicero recommended a general amnesty, and was strongly in favor of having the provinces decreed to Brutus and Oassius ; but finding the interest of the republicans decrease, and Antony come into power, he retired to Athens. He soon after returned, but lived in perpetual fear of assassination. The en- mity of Antony finally proved fatal to him, when Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus, to destroy all causes of quarrel, and each to dispatch his enemies, produced their lists of proscription. Cicero was among the pro- scribed. He fled, but was pursued, and put CIO HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 211 to death, in his sixty-fourth year, b.c. 43. Cicei'o was a sincere patriot, and was unques- tionably one of tlie briglitest ornaments of the age in which he lived. His eloquence was winning, and his pen had the power of his tongue. His orations and philosophical wo.-ks are models of style. He possessed a sparkling wit CID. Don RoDRiGo Diaz, Count of Bivar, surnamed the Cid (a Moorish word signifying lord), one of the most renowned knights of Spain, was born in 1026. He signalized himself against the Moors, winning the es- teem of his countrymen, who bestowed upon him the title of Campeador (incomparable). On the accession of Sancho to the throne of Castile, the knight of Bivar accompanied him to the siege of Zamora, whence he brought back the troops and the dead body of the warrior monarch, who fell by treachery. Al- fonso, the brother of Sancho, was then placed on the throne, after swearing that he had no participation in the murder of Sancho. The Cid's last exploit was the capture of Sagun- tum, and he died at Valencia, 1099. He was buried at Castile, and near him lies interred his beloved and faithful charger, Babieca. CILICIA, an ancient country of Asia Minor, .south of Mount Taurus, and between Pam- phylia and Syria, the coast of which was inhabited by a piratical race. The Macedo- nians and Syrians successively held it, and it was reduced by Pompey to the Roman rule. OIMBRI, an ancient tribe of the Germans, the first of that people with whom the Greeks became acquainted. Their origin is doubt- ful ; they were warlike, and made themselves formidable to the Romans. OIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades, famous for his debaucheries in his youtli, and the reformation of his morals when he ar- rived at years of discretion. He behaved with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himself popular by his munifi- cence and valor. He defeated the Persian fleet at Cyprus, took two hundred ships, and totally routed their land-army near the river Euryraedon in Pamphylia, on the same day, 4T0 B.C. Cimon afterward lost his popularity, and was banished by the Athenians, who onciled Lacedjeraon and his country. He was afterward appointed to carry on the war against Persia, gave battle to the enemy on the coast of Asia, and totally destroyed their fleet. He died as he was besieging the town of Citium, in Cyprus, B.C. 449, in the fifty - first year of his age. CINCINNATI, Society of the, founded in 1783, by the oflicers of the Revolutionary army when about disbanding. Gen. Wash- ington was the first president-general, and continued such till his death. His successors were as follows : 1800, Gen. Alexander Ham- ilton; 1804, Gen. Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, S. C. ; 1826, Gen. Thomas Pinckney; Col. Aaron Ogden, N. J. ; 1838, Gen. Mor- gan Lewis, N. Y. ; 1844, Maj. Popham, N. 1^. ; 1848, Gen. Dearborn, Mass. CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, a cele- brated Roman. Having been informed, as he ploughed his field, that the senate had chosen him dictator, he left his farm with regret, and repaired to the assistance of his countrymen, whom he found hard pressed by the Volsci and ^qui. He conquered the enemy and returned to Rome in triumph ; and, sixteen days after his appointment, laid down his office, and returned to his agricultural em- ployments. In his eightieth year he was again summoned, against Praeneste, as dicta- tor, and after a successful campaign, resigned the unlimited power which had been re- in him. He flourished about 460 years b.c. CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman consul who leagued with Marius to deluge Rome with blood. He was stoned to death, B.C. 84. CINQUE PORTS. They were originally the five (cinque) ports of Hastings, Hythe, Romney, Sandwich, and Dover, which, ac- cording to the regulations of William the Conqueror, were bound, at specified notice, to furnish and man a certain number of ships of war. Winchelsea and Rye were afterward added. These towns were, to use the language of the time, compelled to "find the service they owed." They stood to the crown in the same relation that the holders of great estates did, only that they were to do their services on shipboard. If a resident declared war against the Lacedemonians; I of either of the Cinque Ports served as a but having been recalled from his exile, ree- ' soldier, he was released from his naval obli- CTN 212 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF gations. The number of galleys these ports were required to furnish, was tifty-two. The lord warden appears to have had a general charge of them and their naval concerns. In time the institution became obsolete, but the wardenship was found a comfortable place for public men who had small means of living, or, with ample means, had yet greater avarice. Lord North filled it ; so did William Pitt ; and also the Duke of Wellington, it being one of the many ofiices possessed by him at the time of his death. It was while residing at Walmer Castle, a place held l)y him in virtue of the wardenship, that he died, and, if medical authority can be believed, in consequence of his residence there, the bleak air from the British Channel and the Ger- man Ocean being too rude for the soldier of more than fourscore and three years. The post of warden has become a complete sine- cure, almost a scandalous one; and it was said to have been an understood thing among men of all parties in England, that it should be abolished upon the death of the great Wellington ; instead of this it was bestowed upon some one of the titled barnacles that cluster to Britannia's ship of state. CIRCASSIA, a country of Asia, lying be- tween the Black and Caspian Sea, on the northern slope of the Caucasus. The Cir- cassians are Mohammedans. They are a warlike race. The females are celebrated for their beauty, are sold by their parents, and are esteemed the brightest ornaments of an eastern seraglio. The Russians are nominal masters of Cir- cassia, but for the past twenty years the bold mountaineers have carried on a war of inde- pendence with great success under the lead of the chief Schamyl. CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. The circumnav- igation of the earth, at the time it was first achieved, was among the greatest and most daring of human enterprises. The first was Magellan, or rather by his fleet, as he was himself slain on the vogage, 1519; Groalva, 1537 ; Alvaradi, 1537; Men- dana, 1567; Sir Francis Drake, 1577; Cav- endish, 1586; Lemaire, 1615; Quiros, 1625; Tasman, 1642 ; Cowley, 1683 ; Dampier, 1689 ; Cooke, 1708 ; Clipperton and Sherlock, 1719 ; Anson, 1740; Byron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776 ; his last voyage con- tinued by King, 1779; Portlocke, 1788; Bougainville, 1766 ; La Peyrouse, 1782 ; D'Entrecasteux, 1791. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. This name was given by Bonaparte to a republic which received its constitution in 1797, and which finally included a territory of more than 16,337 square miles, inhabited by three and a half millions of inhabitants. It included, among other districts, Austrian Lombardy, the Mantua and Venetian Provinces, Berga- mo, Brescia, Crema, Verona, Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the principality of Massa and Carrara, Bologna, Fcrrara, Messola, and Romagna. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805. CISTERCIANS, an order of monkhood founded by Robert, a Benedictine, Abbot of Citeaux in France, 1092. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Eu- rope in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most austere. CITATE. The Russian general Gortscha- koff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks under Omar Pacha, Jan. 6th, 1854. The fighting con- tinued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajona, having lost 1,500 killed and 2,000 wounded. The loss of the Turks was 338 killed and 700 wounded. CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong for- tress of Spain was invested by the French, under Massena, June 11th, 1810, and yielded to them July 10th. It remained in their possession until it was stormed by the Brit- ish, commanded by Lord Wellington, Jan. 19th, 1812. The loss of the British and Portuguese amounted to about 1,000 killed and wounded ; the loss of the garrison was the same, besides 1,700 prisoners. CLAPPERTON, Hugh, an officer in the English navy, born at Annan, in Scotland, in 1788. Having served with distinction, he joined Oudney and Denham, in their expedi- tion to Africa. After acquiring a vast fund of information in regard to the interior of Africa, he returned to England, but, died in CLA HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 213 the vicinity of Soccatoo, while on a second expedition of discovery, April 13th, 182T. Richard Lander was his servant. CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, Earl of, lord high chancellor of England, was born 1608, and educated at Oxford. He became chancellor of exchequer and member of the privy council under Charles I., and was loaded with honors by Charles H. Having, how- ever, lost the royal favor, he was deprived of his oflBces, threatened with impeachment, and compelled to fly to France, where he died, at Rouen, in 1674. His daughter Anne was the first wife of the Duke of York, afterward James H. His "History of the Rebellion " (as the royalists termed the civil war), is much esteemed for the descriptions of the author's eminenf contemporaries. CLARK, Abraham, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 15th, 1726. He was a self-taught, energetic man ; in 1776 was elected to a seat in Congress ; was ever an active public man ; and died in 1794, from a stroke of the sun. CLARK, Adam, LL.D., F.S.A., &c., a dis- tinguished Methodist preacher and divine, a man of great talents and extensive learning, particularly in the oriental languages and biblical literature, and author of a well known and learned commentary on the Scriptures, and various other publications. He was born I in 1760, in the county of Londonderry, in Ireland, his father being of an English family, and his mother a Scotchwoman. By invita- tion of John Wesley, he became a pupil in Kingswood school, then recently established, and was sent out by Mr. Wesley, an itinerant preacher, in 1782, at the early age of nine- teen. He was greatly admired as a preacher : at first his youth attracted great numbers of hearers; but afterward the extent of his resources, from the gifts of nature and the fruits of study, commanded attention wher- ever he went ; and hardly any man ever drew so large congregations, or of so mixed a character. To his great talents and learning he united the virtues of the humble Christian ; was greatly respected by all denominations ; and though catholic in his feelings, he was strongly attached to the body of Christians with which he was connected. He died Au- gust 26th, 1832, at Bayswater, near London, of the cholera. CLARKE, George Rogers, an American ofiicer, who was engaged against the Indians, throughout the Revolutionary war, on the frontiers of Virginia. In 1778, he was ap- pointed to command a force for the pi'otec- tion of Illinois. He built Fort Jefferson on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, and in 1781, received a general's commission. He died in 1818, near Louisville, Kentucky, aged seventy-six. The following anecdote is re- lated of him in an authentic work. The Indians came in to the treaty of Fort Washington in the most friendly manner, except the Shawnees, conceited and warlike, the first in at a battle, the last at a treaty. Three hundred of their finest warriors set off in all then- paint and feathers, and filled the council-house. Their number and de- meanor, so unusual at an occasion of this sort, was altogether unexpected and sus- picious. The United States stockade mus- tered seventy men. In the centre of the hall, at a little table, sat the commissary- general, Clarke, the indefatigable scourge of these very wanderers. General Richard But- ler, and Mr. Parsons. On the part of the Indians, an old council-sachem and a war- chief took the lead. The latter, a tail, raw- boned fellow, with an impudent and villain- I ous look, made a boisterous and threatening speech, which operated effectually on the passions of the Indians, who set up a pro- digious whoop at every pause. He concluded by presenting a black and white wampum, to signify they were prepared for either event, peace or war. Clarke exhibited the same unaltered and careless countenance he had shown during the whole scene, his head leaning on his left hand, and his elbow resting on the table. He raised his little cane, and pushed the sacred wampum off the table, with very little ceremony. Every Indian, at the same time, started from his seat with one of those sudden, simultaneous, and peculiarly savage sounds, which startle and disconcert the stoutest heart, and can neither be de- scribed nor forgotten. At this juncture, Clarke arose. The scrutinizing eye cowered at his glance. He stamped his foot on the prostrate and insulted symbol, and ordered CLA 214 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF them to leave the hall. They did so appa- rently involuntarily. They were heard all that night, debating in the bushes near the fort. The raw-boned chief was for war, the old sachem for peace. The latter prevailed, and the next morning thej^ came back and sued for peace. CLARKE, Sa.mdel, a distinguished divine, metaphysician, and scholar, was born at Norwich, England, Oct. 11th, 1075, and died May 17th, 1729. Sir James Mackintosh said of hmi, that he was "eminent at once as a divine, a mathematician, a metaphysical phi- losopher, and a philologer ; and, as the inter- preter of Homer and Caesar, the scholar of Newton, and the antagonist of Leibnitz, approved himself not unworthy of corre- spondence with the highest order of human spirits." CLARKSON, Thomas, was born at Wis- beach, in Cambridgeshire, March 28th, 1700, and graduated at vSt. John's, Cambridge, with high honors of scholarship. With untiring benevolence he sought the abolition of the slave-trade, and his life may be said to have passed in labors for its extinction. He had the pleasure of seeing it declared illegal by the British parliament in 1807. Mr. Clark- son was a member of the society of Friends. He died in September, 1840. CLAUDE, Gelee, commonly called Claude Lorraine, from the jjrovince of his birth, wa;^ born in the year 1600. His parents were very poor, and as Claude showed no disposi- tion to learn to read or write, he was placed with a pastry-cook. The cooks of Lorraine were celebrated, and found good employment abroad. Young Claude wandered to Rome with some of them. There he engaged him- self to Agostino Tassi, a good landscape painter, as an ordinary domestic. He both prepared his master's meals, and ground his colors for him ; but he acquired at the same time the rudiments of the art. From this menial capacity his application brought him to be known as one of the greatest of land- scape ixainters. He died at Rome in 1082. Claude was extremely slow and careful in his execution. He often painted for a week or a fortnight on one part of a picture, without showing any progress. With the human figure or animals he had great difficulty, and in such parts of his pictures generally pro cured the aid of his friends. His chief excellence is in aerial perspective, and the management of light generally. His studies are said to have been made from the banks of the Tiber, and tlie magnificent prospects afforded by the Campagua di Roma. Here he might be seen at early dawn, in the brill- iancy of noon-day, and at the set of sun, marking the different effects produced by the rays of the sun upon the surrounding objects, or taking in, with an attentive and practiced eye, the dreamy hues which the vapoiy haze cast upon the various parts of the land- scape as they slowly receded from his sight. All these have been traced upon his canvas with a fidelity and beauty which few have been able to equal and none to excel. But the great charm of liis pictures is the exqui- site poetry interwoven in them. In his pic- tures of morning, the rising sun dissipates the dews, and the fields and verdure brighten at the approach of day ; his evening skies expand a glowing splendor over the horizon ; and vegetation, oppressed by a sultry aridity, sinks under the heat of his noon-day suns. It was his custom to preserve in a book the drawings of the paintings executed by him. Six of these registers, termed by him Libri di Verita, were found after his decease. This curious collection was sold by one of his nephews for two hundred scudi, to a French- man, who took them to Paris and offered them to the king. The purchase being de- clined, they were afterward bought by the Duke of Devonshire, and now adorn the mag- nificent mansion at Chatsworth. CLAUDIUS I., Emperor of Rome, the son of Drusus, and the successor of the infamous Caligula. He made some conquests in Britain, and built several noble structures in Rome. He was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who wished to place her son, Nero, on the throne, A.D. 54. He was then sixty-three years of age. CLAY, Henry, was born in Virginia, in the neighborhood of a region known as the Slashes (whence his sobriquet of ' the mill boy of the slashes'), the 12th of April, 1777. • The straitened circumstances of his father, who was a clergyman,^ permitted him but the humble education of a district school. At an early age he acted as copyist for the clerk of the court of chancery at Richmond. CLA HISTORY AND BlOGRAPI'y. 215 When nineteen, he commenced the studj^ of law, and such were his assiduity in study and the brilliancy of his progress, that he was admitted to the bar within one year. In 1799, he removed to Lexington, Kentucky. He became an active politician as well as a popular lawyer. When a convention was called for the revision of the constitution of Kentucky, he incurred much unpopularity by his efforts and the succeeding congress, till in 1814 he was appointed one of the commissioners to negotiate at Ghent a treaty of peace with Great Britain. He returned from Europe in 1815, having proved himself no less skillful as a diplomatist than he was eloquent as an oratoi- and able as a debater. He was re- elected to Congress from 1815 to 1821 (being speaker of the house during that time), for the election of delegates in favor of the i and in 1823. He became known as a de- emancipation of the slaves. His opposition I cided advocate of a protective tariff", and took to the alien and sedition laws restored him to i an active part in the passage of the Missouri (\wor, and in 1803 he was elected by a large i compromise. In 1824, he received thirty- majority to the legislature. Such was the I seven electoral votes for the presidency. His repute he gained, that in 1806 he was chosen competitors, Jackson, Adams, and Crawford, [Inited States senator to fill a vacancy caused each received a larger number of votes, and by the resignation of Gen. Adair. After the there being no choice by the electors, their expirationof the brief term (March 3d, 1807), names were balloted upon by the house of he returned to Lexington, Avas again chosen representatives, and Mr. Adams was chosen. to the legislature, and served as speaker of the assembly two sessions. In 1809 he was appointed to fill another vacancy in the United States senate, and served from Jan. 4th, 1810, till March 3d, 1811. In 1811 he was elected representative in Congress from Kentucky, and was chosen speaker of the house ; the duties of which arduous office he discharged with great ability through that The friends of Mr. Clay, by his advice, sup- ported Mr. Adams. Upon the accession of the new president, Mr. Clay was made sec- retary of state. In the heat of partisan animosity the charge was engendered that his appointment was the result of corruption, and the payment in the bargain by which the adherents of Clay voted for Mr. Adams. Time has proved this to be malicious calumny. CLA 216 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF In 1831, Clay was elected United States senator from Kentucky, and in 1832 was an unsuccessful competitor with Jackson for the presidency. He was re-elected to the senate in 1836, and served until his resignation in 1842, In 1844, he was nominated by the Whigs for the presidency, but was defeated by Mr. Polk. He returned to the senate in 1849, and was active in supporting the com- promise measures of 1850. His health now began to decline, and after a voyage to the West Indies for its restoration, he came back to Washington, where he departed from life, June 29th, 1852, at the age of seventy-five years. It was the remark of a distinguished sena- tor, that Mr. Claj^'s eloquence was absolutely intangible to delineation ; that the most la- bored description could not embrace it ; and that to be understood, it must be seen and felt. He was an orator by nature. His eagle eye burned with patriotic ardor, or flashed indignation and defiance upon his foes, or was suffused with tears of commiseration or of pity ; and it was because lie felt, that he made others feel. A gentleman, after hearing one of his magnificent efforts in the senate, thus described him: "Everj^ muscle of the orator's face was at work. His whole body seemed agitated, as if each part was instinct with a separate life; and his small white hand, with its blue veins apparently dis- tended almost to bursting, moved gracefully, but with all the energy of rapid and ve- hement gesture. The appearance of the speaker seemed that of a pure intellect, wrought up to its mightiest energies, and brightly shining through the thin and trans- parent vail of flesh that invested it." The particulars of the duel between Mr. Clay and Randolph of Roanoke may be inter- esting to the reader. The eccentric descend- ant of Pocahontas appeared on the ground in a huge morning gown. This garment had such a vast circumference that the precise whereabouts of the lean senator was a matter of very vague conjecture. The parties ex- changed shots, and the ball of Mr. Clay hit the centre of the visible object, but the body of Mr. Randolph was untouched. The latter had fired in the air. Immediately after the exchange of shots, he walked up to Mr. Clay, parted the folds of his gown, pointed to the hole where the bullet had punctured his coat, and exclaimed in the shrillest tones of his piercing voice, "Mr. Clay, you owe me a coat — you owe me a coat ! " To which Mr. Clay replied, with slow and solemn emphasis, pointing directly at Randolph's heart, "Mr. Randolph, I thank God that I am no deeper in your debt ! " CLAYTON, John, an eminent botanist, author of " The Flora Vuginica," was born in England, about 1G85 ; came with his father to America, and in 1722, became clerk of the county of Gloucester, Virginia, which ofiQce he held fifty-one years, to his death, 1773. CLAYTON, John MmoLETON, was born in Sussex county, Delaware, July 24th, 1796. He was a learned lawyer and eloquent advo- cate, represented Delawai'e several terms in the federal senate, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President Taylor. He died at Dover, Del., Nov. 9th, 1856. CLEMENT. This name has been borne by several popes. Clement XIV. suppressed the order of the Jesuits, and gave many proofs of great liberality in religious matters. He is best known by his real name, Ganganelli. He died in 1775. CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, killed in a battle fought with Epaminondas at Leuctra, b.c. 371. There were two others of the name. CLEOMENES. This name was borne by three kings of Sparta. The first delivered Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidoe, but killed himself in a fit of insanity, B.C. 491. The reign of the second was distinguished for nothing but an uninterrupted tranquillity. Cleomenes III. was the son and successor of Leonidas, and began to reign e.g. 230. Engaging in a war with the Achaians, he was defeated, and obliged to fly into Egypt, where he destroyed himself in prison, b.c. 219. CLEOPATRA, Queen of Egypt, and one of the most famous and fascinating female sovereigns of antiquity, was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and the sister and wife of Ptolemy Dionysius, who deprived her of her share in the kingdom, and drove her to seek protection of the Romans. She exerted all the influence of her beauty to win the heart and gain the favor of Csesar, and she was successful. Ptolemy was defeated and drown- ed. He left the throne to his sister, who CLE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 217 removed her younger brother by poison. Cleopatra visited Rome during the lifetime of Csesar, but was forced to quit it by the clamors of the populace. After the battle of Philippi, she was summoned by Antony to appear before him to answer to the charge brought against her of having assisted Brutus. When she made her appearance before An- tony, the charms of her person and mind ensnared him, and made him forget the at- tractions of his wife. At the battle of Actium she fled, and her paramour was defeated. He afterward committed suicide, and died in her arms. Cleopatra, to avoid gracing the tri- umph of Augustus, applied an asp to her breast, and died of the wound, b.c. 30, She was a woman of great talents, but of a most ambitious and extravagant spirit. In a con- vivial contest with Antony, to see which of them could expend the most money on an entertainment, she snatched one of her pearl ornaments, valued at $50,000, and dissolving it in a cup of vinegar, swallowed the con- tents. Few scenes of antiquity can have sur- passed the splendor of her appointments, when she floated over the waves of the river Cydnus, to meet Antony. She came to judg- ment, but she came in the pride of beauty and anticipated triumph. Her galley glowed with gold; odors filled its silken sails, and the loveliest girls of Egypt performed the part of mariners. Beneath an awning on the deck lay the queen, in the slight drapery with which painters and sculptors sometimes invest the goddess of beauty. Silver oars struck the water to the dulcet sound of music, and beneath and about them sported the fair representatives of marine deities. CLERFAYT, Francis Sebastian Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of, an Austrian gen- eral. In 1792, he commanded the Austrian troops against France, and after taking Long- wy and Stenay, retired into the Low Coun- tries. Here he lost the famous battle of Jemappes ; but his retreat across the Rhine was a masterpiece of skill. Under the com- mand of the prince of Coburg, he gained considerable advantages at Altenhaven, Quie- vrain, Hansen, and Farmars, and decided the victory of Nerwinden. With General Pich- egru he disputed every foot of ground, till the inferiority of his forces obliged him to abandon the country. In 1795, he took the command of the army of Mayence, forced the French camp, and took a number of pris- oners. He was following the victory with ardor, when he received at Manheim an order to desist. On this, he gave in his resig- nation, and retired to Vienna, where he died in 1798. CLERKE, Edward, an able English naval commander, the companion, friend, and suc- cessor of Captain James Cook, died on the coast of Kamschatka, August 22d, 1779, aged thirty-nine. CLIFFORD, George, the third Earl of Cumberland, a nobleman distinguished by his naval enterprises in the reign of Elizabeth. He did great damage to the Spanish settle- ments and trade. He died in 1605. CLINTON, Charles, Col., was born in the county of Longford, Ireland, 1690; came to America, 1729 ; died Nov. 19th, 1773. CLINTON, De Witt, the son of Gen. James Clinton, was born in Orange county, N. Y., in 1769. He studied law, and was elected successively member of the state legislature, of the senate of the union, and mayor of New York. In 1817, he was chosen governor of New York, on which occasion his previous opponents gave him their votes, from a sense of his merit; he was re-elected in 1820. Clinton was one of the prime movers of the great canal scheme, and having satisfied him- self that there was no danger of that being defeated, in 1822 he declined again entering the elective lists. Having been deprived of his seat in the board of canal commissioners, by the animosity of his political opponents, a revolution in public feeling took place which enabled his friends in 1824 to elect him governor over Colonel Young, by an overwhelming majority. In 1826, he was again elected, but died Feb. 11th, 1828. CLINTON, George, son of Col. Charles Clinton (above), was born in Ulster coimty, N. Y., July 15th, 1739. In the old French war, and the war of independence, he dis- played great gallantry. Having studied law, he was admitted to practice in due time, and was chosen governor of New York, in 1777, and he continued in ofiice eighteen years, and then declined re-election. He was again elected governor in 1801, and three years CLl 218 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF after was chosen vice-presi'lont of the TTnited States, holding the office till the time of his death in 1812. CLINTON, Sir Henry, was a son of George Chnton (governor of New York in 1T43), and grandson of the Eail of Lincoln. He served on the continent during the 'seven years' war,' and came to America with Gen. Howe in the spring of 1775, bearing the commission of a major-general. In 1778, he succeeded Sir William Howe in the supreme command, which he retained till 1782. He was appointed governor of Gibraltar, in 1795, and died Dec. 22d, the same year. CLINTON, James, another son of Col. CLI Charles Clinton, was born in Ulster county, N. Y., Aug. 9th, 1736. His education was ex- cellent, and he served with distinction in the English and French war of 1756, and in the Revolutionary war as brigadier-general. After the close of the war, he became a sen- ator of the United States. lie died Dec. 22d, 1812. CLIVE, Robert, Baron of Plassey, was born in Shropshire, September 29th, 1725. Bold and reckless in his youth, he was sent as a scapegrace to Madras in his eighteenth year. His friends had procured him a clerk- ship in the company service. Mercantile drudgery he so utterly disrelished that twice HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 219 he tried suicide by snapping a loaded pistol at his head. Each time the pistol hung fire. A friend who entered the room soon after- ward fired the weapon out the window. Startled at his preservation, Clive sprang up, crying with an oath, "I must be reserved for something great," and abandoned his design. War endangered the British possessions, and Clive found more congenial employment in the field, where he became eminent for his successes. He assisted in the Tanjore war in 1747, and in 1751 took Arcot by a coup de main, and relieved Trichinopoly. He afterward took Fort AYilliam in Bengal, de- feated Surajah Dowlah, and placed JaflBer Ali Cawn upon the throne. The victory of Plas- sey, June 23d, 1757, where with little more than 3,000 men he defeated Surajah Dowlah at the head of 70,000, laid the foundation of was one of the projectors of the bank estab- lished for the sole purpose of conveying rations to the army. Perceiving the good effects of a national bank, in 1780, when elected a second time to Congress, he stren- uously advocated its establishment. In 1784 he filled a seat in the legislature of Pennsyl- vania, and as a member of the convention, he assisted in framing the present federal constitution. He was also a member of the first federal congress. "When, in 1791, the famous bill imposing a duty on spirits dis- tilled within the United States, was passed, Clymer was pLiced at the head of the Penn- sylvania excise, and rendered efflcient service in putting down the whiskey insurrection. He was engaged, with others, to negotiate a treaty with the Cherokee Indians in 1796. He was afterward appointed president of the British power and empire in India. Honors academy of fine arts, and of the Philadelphia were heaped upon him in consequence of these achievements, and he was made presi- dent of Bengal. An attempt to weed out tlie gross abuses in Indj,a won him many foes, and on his final return home in 1707 he was the mark for much obloquy. The ver- dict passed by parliament, in refusing to vote tliat he had abused his power, and resolving bank. He died Jan. 23d, 1813. CLYTEMNESTRA, daughter of Tyndarus, King of Sparta, by Heda, and twin-sister of Helen. In the absence of her husband Aga- menmon, at the siege of Troy, ^gisthus made his court to her, and publicly lived with her. Her infidelity reached the ears of Agamemnon, but he was prevented from car- Uiat "Lord Clive has rendered great and { rying his schemes of vengeance into execu- meritorious services to his country," could not heal the wounds in his haughty spirit. He died by his own hand, November 22d, 1774. CLOVIS, King of the Franks, born 4C5, succeeded his father Childeric in 481. He embraced Christianity and was publicly bap- tized. He was the founder of the French monarchy, drove out the Romans, defeated the Goths, subdued several provinces, and fixed the royal residence at Paris. He died tion, being murdered by the traitress and her paramour on his return home. After this crime, Clymnestra publicly married Jilgis- thus, who ascended the throne of Argos. She was killed by her son Orestes. COBBETT, William (1762-1835), a self- taught man, and pov/erful political writer in England. COCHIN-CHINA, called also Anam, a country of Farther India, composed of Cam- bodia, Cochin-China Proper, and Tonquin, is in 511. The Salique law was published by | 1,000 miles long, and from 70 to 220 miles Clovis. When he was first told of the suf- Inroad. The government is a hereditary mili- ferings of Christ, he exclaimed, "Oh! had I tary despotism. The inhabitants are hardy, been there with my valiant Gauls, how I ; but treacherous, and the country is fertile, would have avenged him ! " | Little attention is paid to religion, although CLYMER, George, one of the signers of that of Fo is professed by the lower orders. the Declaration of Independence, was bor at Philadelphia, in 1739. He became a mer- chant under the auspices of his uncle and guardian, but he preferred science and liter- ture to business. He was chosen to Congress in 1776, and was several years a talented and patriotic delegate in that body. Mr. Clymer COD The commerce of the country is mcreasmg. A portion of the country was conquered and colonized by the Chinese b.c. 214, but the Chinese yoke was afterward thrown ofif. CODRUS, the son of Melanthus, and last king of Athens, who, learning that the oracle had assured the Heraclidae that their good 220 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF fortune depended on sparing his life, rushed into the midst of the hostile array in dis- guise, and was slain, 1070 b.c. COFFEE. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. Some ascribe it to the prior of a monastery, who, being told by a goat- herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then wake at night and sport upon the hills, became curi- ous to prove its virtues. He accordingly tried it upon his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and found that it checked their slumbers. Coffee came into great re- pute in Arabia Felix about 1454, passed thence to Egypt and Syria, and thence in 1511 to Constantinople, where coffee houses were opened in 1554. It was first brought into England by Nathaniel Canopus, a Cre- tan, who made it his common beverage, at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. The coffee- tree was conveyed from Mocha to Holland, in 1616 ; carried to the "West Indies in the year 1726; first cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718; its culture encouraged in the British plantations, 1732. Some affirm this tree to have been originally a native of Arabia Felix, and certain it is that the finest specimens are from the neighborhood of Mocha. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b.c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished com- merce : their money was of gold and silver. The most ancient coins known are Macedoni- an, of the fifth century b.c. Money was coined at Rome in the time of Servius Tullius, about 573 b.c. Rude scraps of copper had previously been used. Brass money only was in use there down to 269 b.c. (when Fa- bius Pictor coined silver), a token of little in- tercourse with the East, where both gold and silver had been in use long before. Iron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Julius Caesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his image on the Roman coins. In the more simple days of 'the Roman people, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon their mone}'' : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had received di- vine honors. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. The names of various pieces now obsolete, are met with in Shakspeare and other old English authors. The angel was a gold coin, so called from bearing the figure of an angel, valued at Gs. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in 1562. It is said the coin was so named and stamped, in memory of the tradition that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chancing one day to pass through the slave-mart at Rome, and seeing a group of beautiful youth set up for sale, he inquired about their origin, and finding they were English, he cried, '■^ Xon Angli, sedAn- geli forent, si esse^it CJiristiani;" that is, " They would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." Edward IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and the dragon, the original of George and the dragon. The angelot was a gold coin, half the angel in value, struck at Paris when that city was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. It had its name from the figure of an angel supporting the escutcheon of the arms of England and France. " Let it be but twenty nobles," plead the Hostess of East- cheap when fat Falstaff was wheedling a loan from her. The noble was first struck in the reign of Edward III., and being stamped with a rose, was sometimes called a rose noble. Its value was 6s. 8d. Master Slender, too, complains that swaggering Pistol picked his purse of seven groats in mill-sixpences. The groat (meaning great coin) was so called be- cause up to 1351 it was the largest silver piece. Its value was 4:d. Milled sixpences and shil- lings were first made in the reign of Elizabeth, The guinea was so called from having been at first coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, 1 673. They were then valued at 30s. The original pieces bore the figure of an ele- phant. In 1717, their value was fixed at 21s. by act of parliament. None have been coined since 1816. The ancient silver penny was the first silver coin struck in England, and the only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. Until the reign of Edward I., it was stamped with a cross, so deeply indented that it might be easily parted into two for half pence, and into four for farthings (fourthings ) ; whence those names. COKE, Sir Edward, was born at Mileham in the county of Norfolk, Feb. 1st, 1552. He COK HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 221 was a diligent student, from three in the morn- ing till nine at night, caring for no knowledge not convertible to cash, and when called to the bar in 1578, brimful of law, and fortified by his hard discipline of study, he rose rap- idly in his profession. ' Before he was thirty years old, the desperate money-seeker had made himself master of manor upon manor, and laid the foundation of the enormous pos- sessions which at length alarmed the crown, lest they should prove too magnificent for a subject. In 1592 he was appointed solicitor- general, and in 1594 attorney-general, tri- umphing over Bacon, who was an aspirant for that place. His perversions of criminal law, as lawyer for the crown, are notorious ; his brutality toward Essex, Raleigh, and the ac- complices in the plot of Guy Faux, rendered him infamous. He was a man of haughty manners, severe spirit, and irritable temper. The stand which he made in the name of the people against the encroachments of the crown, was productive of great benefits ; but it was a soiled instrument by which they were se- cured. Upon the death of Elizabeth, James I. knighted him, and continued him in oflBce. In 1606 he was made chief-justice of the court of common pleas, "fatigued, if not sati- ated with amassing money at the bar." He was stubborn for the rights of his oflSce, and came in direct collision with the pedantic pre- sumption of the king. In 1613 he was made chief-justice of the king's bench ; a change which he little liked ; for though the rank was higher, the gains were much less, and in con- sequence of it, his hated rival, Bacon, who had come to be solicitor-general, was promoted to the attorney-generalship. Coke contmued to display independence in his new seat, but stopped short of any act that might deprive him of the reversion of the chancellorship, to which his great acquirements and reputation well entitled him. Bacon was active in op- posing this, and urged the king to his dis- missal from his post as chief-justice, which was effected in 1616. He heard his sentence with dejection and tears. We must not forget this weakness, when we reflect upon his ab- ject submission to royalty during his days of dependence, and as we approach the more stormy times when the spirit of vengeance in- cited him to grapple with kingly power in the temper of a rebel. COK As Coke fell, Bacon rose. While the former was sheddmg tears for dismissal, the latter was intoxicated with joy for elevation to the chancellorship. Coke was afterward partially restored to royal favor, through influence gained by the marriage of his daughter with Sir John Villiers, eldest bi-other of the power- ful Duke of Buckingham. The marriage was an unhappy one ; Sir John was old enough to be his wife's father; and before long she eloped with a paramour, traveling abroad in man's attire, and dying young. But it served the ends of her parent, who was restored to the privy council, though he got no judicial promotion. In his seventieth year he was chosen to parliament. Failing to obtain the office of lord treasurer, he placed himself at the head of the Puritans, who had been re- turned to the house in great numbers. His hate was gratified by procuring the impeach- ment of Bacon, for taking bribes as chancellor. He maintained the stand he had taken for the liberties of the people, after the accession of Charles I., till 1628, when his famous Petition of Right was carried ; shortly after which he retired from public life. He died in Septem- ber, 163-t, in the eighty-third year of his age and in the full possession of his faculties. For a profound knowledge of the common law he was unrivaled. His celebrated "Institute," which grew out of a commentary upon "Lit- tleton's Treatise on Tenures," has made him the great oracle of English law. Though so devoted to money-getting, as a judge he was above suspicion of corruption. His services for public liberty were great : to him England is gi-eatly indebted for the movement which, beginning on the 30th of January, 1621, ended on that very day eight and twenty years with the decapitation of Charles I. ; but it is unde- niable that the nation's difficulties would have waited some time longer for solution, had not Coke been inoculated with an opposition to despotism by the sudden application of the royal lancet, whose sharp edge his judicious self-love would never have provoked. He owed much of his success in early life to his marriages. His first wife, who brought him fortune, bore him ten children and died. His memorandum-book feelingly describes her virtues ; yet within four months the dis- consolate widower had mated again, his sec- ond wife bringing him both wealth and valu- 222 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF able connection, and Bacon, her cousin, having been a rival suitor for her hand. COLBERT, Jean Baptiste, an eminent financial minister of Louis XIV. He was born at Rheiras in 1617, and died in 1683, neglected by the monarch whose power his wise policy had so much helped to develope. GOLDEN, Cadavallader, mathematician and philosopher, born at Dense, in Scotland, Feb. 17th, 1688; came to America, 1708, and settled in New York. From 1760 till his death he was lieutenant-governor of the province. He died Sept. 28th, 1776, the day of the conflagration of New York. COLE, Thomas, a distinguished painter, was born in England, during a visit of his parents there, and brought while a child to this country. From humble beginnings he rose to a high rank as a landscape and im- aginative artist. He painted his best produc- tions after returning from a visit to Italy, fixed his abode at Catskill amid the magnifi- cent scenery of the Hudson, and died there nuich lamented in 1847 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, was a na- tive of Devonshire, being born on the 20th of October, 1772, at Ottery St. Mary, of which place his father was vicar. He was educated at Christ's Hospital in London, where he had Charles Lamb for a schoolmate. He describes himself as being, from eight to fourteen, "a plaj^lcss day-dreamer, a Z^e^Zwo librorum,''^ and such he was forever. At fourteen he had a stock of erudition that might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of ignorance of which a schoolboy would have been ashamed. He had no ambition, his fiither was dead, and he thought of appren- ticing himself to a shoemaker near the school. Head-master Bowyer interposed; Coleridge became deputy-Grecian, or head scholar, and obtained a presentation from Christ's Hospi- tal to Jesus' College, Cambridge, where he remained from 1791 to 1703. Then creditors obnoxious to him, and a love of the French revolution obnoxious to the ruling powers at Cambridge, led him to London and to enlist in the light-dragoons. On his arrival at the quarters of the regiment, the general of the district inspected the recruits, and looking hard at Coleridge, with a military air, in- quired, "What's your name, sir?" " Com- berbach." "What do you come here for. sir ? " as if very doubtful whether he had any business there. "Sir," said Coleridge, "for what most other persons come — to be made a soldier." " Do you think," said the gen- eral, " you can run a Frenchman through the body?" "I don't know," replied Coleridge, "as I never tried; but I'll let a Frenchman run me through the body before I'll run away." "That will do," said the general, and Coleridge was turned into the ranks. "Comberbach" made a poor dragoon, stick- ing in the awkward squad. He was the scribe for his comrades, and they cared for his horse and accoutrements. A Latin sen- tence that he wrote under his saddle on the stable wall, "Eheu! quam infortunii miser- rimum est fuisse felicem," awoke his cap- tain's curiosity. He was discovered, dis- charged, and restored to his friends. He became acquainted with Southey and Lloyd, and the trio occupied themselves at Bristol in planning a scheme for social per- fection in the United States, the realization of which was prevented by a very prosaic social imperfection, the want of funds. They tried a better scheme, and married three sisters Fricker of Bristol. Coleridge was at this time an ardent republican and a strong Unitarian. Later in life, both his political faith and his religious were changed. He had become acquainted with Wordsworth, and went to reside at Stowej^ in whose vicin- ity his new acquaintance was then dwelling. There he wrote some of his most beautiful poetry, "Ode on the Departing Year," the first part of " Christabel," the "Ancient Mariner," &c. In 1798, the munificence of the Messrs. Wedgewood enabled him to dwell and study fourteen months in Germany. On his return he went to reside with Southey and AVordsworth in the lake district. He won a precarious subsistence by literature. His habits were desultory, and he was under the thralldom of opium, to whose fascinations he had been driven by illness. For the last nineteen years of his life he found an asylum and relief from the drug, with his friend Mr. Gillman, surgeon, at Highgate. There, friends clustered about him, eager listeners to the rich strains of poetr}'- and philosophy that were born upon his lips. He died July 25th, 1834. COLIGNY, Gaspard de, admiral of France, COL HISTOEY AND BIOGRAPHY. 223 born in 1516. He served with distinction under the gallant Francis I. and Henry II., by both of whom he was honored and re- warded. He was chief of the Calvinists against the Guises, to whom he continued formidable even after repeated defeats. Co- ligny was the first who fell in the atrocious massacre of St. Bartholomew's day, in 1572. His head was sent by Catharine of Medicis to the pope. COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbert, Baron, an English admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon- Tyne, in 1748. In 1761 he entered the naval service, in which he passed through all the regular steps of promotion, till he was made post-captain, 1794. He bore a part with Nelson, in the action off Cape St. Vin- cent, Feb. 14th, 1797. In 1804 he was made vice-admiral of the blue, and served with Oornwallis in the tedious but important blockade of Brest. At length, after many and various services, Collingwood became second to Nelson in the battle of Trafalgar. On this occasion, his ship, the Royal Sove- reign, commenced the fight in such a manner as to draw from Nelson the expression, "Look at that noble fellow ! observe the style in which he carries his ship into action ! " By the loss of Nelson, the command devolved upon Collingwood at a critical period, and how well he secured by his prudence what had been so gloriously won, needs not here be related. He was now advanced to be vice- admiral of the red, confirmed in the command of the Mediterranean fleet, and created a peer of Great Britain, by the title of Baron Collingwood. He died oif Minorca, March 7th, 1810 ; and his body was carried to Eng- land, and interred in St Paul's. COLLINS, William, an interesting Eng- lish poet, was the son of a hatter of Chiches- ter, where he was born on Christmas day, 1720. After completing his college course, he published his Oriental Eclogues, and went to London in 1744. His ill fortunes having driven him to the bottle and nervous imbe- cility, he died in 1756. COLLOT D'HERBOIS, Jean Marie, an actor who was hissed from the stage, made himself infamous during the French revolu- tion by conducting the massacres at Lyons. He was banished to Cayenne after the fall of Robespierre, where in 1796 he died in horri- I ble yet fitting torment from drinking a bottle of brandy while ill with the yellow fever. COLMAN, George, a dramatic writer, was born at Florence, where his father was Eng- lish envoy, in 1733. He was a fine scholar and good comic dramatist His death took place in 1794. His son, George Colman the younger, born Oct. 21st, 1762, was also the author of many comedies and farces, abound- ing in witty and ludicrous delineations of character, interspersed with bursts of tender- ness and feeling. He died Oct. 26th, 1836. COLUMBIA, District of. This tract, originally ten miles square, was ceded by Maryland and Virginia, to be occupied as the seat of the federal government. In 1846, the portion on the right bank of the Potomac, including the city of Alexandria, was retro- ceded to Virginia, so that the territory is now only half the original extent The population in 1850 was 51,687. The government of the district is vested in Congress, the inhabitants having no voice in federal affairs. Washing- ton, the capital of the United States, is situ- ated on the left bank of the Potomac, and contained in 1850 40,000 inhabitants. Its natural situation is pleasant and healthy, and it is laid out on a plan, which, when com- pleted, will render it one of the handsomest and most commodious cities in the world. The scale of this plan has given Washington the name of the ' city of magnificent distan- ces.' Among the public edifices of the city are the capitol, the president's house, the general post-olfice, buildings for the execu- tive departments, and the Smithsonian In- stitute. Washington became the seat of government in 1800. The city was founded by laying the corner-stone of the capitol, Sept 18th, 1798. Washington was taken by the British under Gen. Ross, and the public buildings destroyed by a general conflagra- tion, Aug. 24th, 1814. Part of the capitol, and the congressional library, were consumed by fire, Dec. 24th, 1851. COLUMBUS, Christopher, was a native of Genoa, born about 1435, of poor parents, who educated him with care. At the age of fourteen he went to sea, having evinced an early attachment to a sailor's life. Against the Mohammedans and Venetians he fought with great bravery and skill. Having con- ceived the design of a western passage to COL 224 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP CAPITOL AT WAh India, he for a long time sought for patronage without avail ; but after struggling eighteen years, was at length aided by Ferdinand and Isabella, and sailed with three small vessels, the Pinta, Nina, and Pinzon, August 3d, 1492. Land was discovered on the 11th of October, which proved to be the island of Guanahani, named by Columbus, St. Salva- dor. Cuba was discovered on the 28th of October. Columbus was the first to announce his own discovery, and was received in Spain with signal favor. He was created a gran- dee of the realm, and loaded with other honors. Sept. 25th, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz, on his second voyage, with a flojct of seventeen sail. He built a town called Isa- bella on Hispaniola, but encountered many obstacles and difficulties in his new voyage of discovery. Meanwhile, that envy which never fails to pursue true merit stirred up clamors against Columbus, which were stifled, however, by his return to Spain in 1496, with valuable treasures. In 1498 he departed on his third voyage. Arrived in the new world, he found his enemies still exasperated against him, and they scrupled not to repre- sent him to his sovereigns as endeavoring to make himself independent. Their stories were believed. Don Francisco de Bobadilla, was sent out by the court, and invested tem- porarily with the chief power, being permit- ted to use his own judgment in quelling the disturbances of the colonies. This person scrupled not to arrest Columbus and put him in irons, from which he would not suffer him- self to be freed, when he was carried on board the vessel, which was to bear him to Spain. "No," said he, when the attendants offered to remove them ; " the truth must be apparent, and my patrons are too noble, too generous, to overlook me. Then, if fortune again smiles upon me, these will serve as affecting memorials of sorrow past : I will not part with them, and I even wish that, when I am no more, they may be suspended over my sepulchre." In irons, he and his two brothers returned to Spain. There the honor and fidelity of Columbus became apparent, and he was nominally reinstated in his dig- nities. But the disposition of the sovereigns toward him was altared. Though Bobadilla was recalled, Columbus in vain supplicated to be restored to his government; he was put off by vague promises, and the post finally given to Don Nicholas Ovando, a prac- tical as Avell as accomplished man. Thus, after three momentous voyages, and the ac- quisition of much fame, he found himself displaced ; thwarted in a point in which he conceived his honor concerned, and his hard-earned authority torn from his possess- ion. Columbus now sought only to obtain the fulfillment of the royal promises with regard to the furtherance of his expedition, imagining that the continent he had discov- ered was Asia, and hoping to find a way to the East Indies by the isthmus of Darien. With four small caravels, the largest being but of seventy tons burthen, he set out on his fourth voyage of discovery. Leaving COL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 225 Cadiz on the 9th of May, 1502, he reached Mar- tmique June 15th. Having touched at Cuba, he pursued a south-westerly course, until he reached Guanaja, an island on the coast of Honduras, whose inhabitants had attained a pretty high degree of civilization. Their persons were covered with cotton garments, dyed with a variety of bright and pleasing colors. He mentions a curious occurrence as taking place here. He had been presented, among other animals, with a peccary, or American pig, and one of those monkeys with prehensile tails, indigenous to America. The peccary being thrown in the way of the monkey, the latter, by a dexterous use of its tail, confined the jaws of the pig in such a manner as to expose it helplessly to the action of the monkey's claws. " This appeared to me so strange," Columbus writes to his patrons, " that I thought fit to write it down for the information of your majesties." The admiral, in his endeavors to discover a strait leading to the Pacific Ocean, encoun- tered great hardships and fatigues, which had a baneful influence upon his health, and was finally shipwrecked. Ovando was himself averse to succoring Columbus, after a mes- senger had acquainted him with the peril of his situation ; but the people of Hispaniola were so well disposed towaixl the admiral, that, for the sake of maintaining his own reputation, he was forced to send him relief Columbus, arrived at St. Domingo, met with a reception such as to banish, for a brief space, the re- membrance of his sutFerings ; but his bodily weakness could not be disguised. When sufficiently recovered, he set sail for Spain, arriving there on the 7th day of November, 1504. The services of this distinguished man were mdeed important. In his third voyage he had discovered the continent of America ; in his last, had received intelligence of the im- mense wealth of Mexico, which was destined to increase, to an enormous extent, the reve- nue of Spain. Columbus vainly looked for the reward of his services ; he had stipulated that certain dignities and an income should be his, but he found himself in hopeless indi- gence. His kind patroness, the queen, was no more, and her husband, stern and selfish, disregarded the claims of the enterprising navigator. He evaded the request of Colum- 15 bus to be restored to the vice-royalty of which he had been deprived, and repeated disappointments, in connexion with his bod- ily infirmities, hastened the death of the latter, which took place at Valladolidj on the 20th of May, 1506. His remains were after- ward removed to the cathedral of Havana in Cuba. Columbus was a man of great and inventive genius. The operations of his mind were energetic, but irregular; bursting forth, at times, with that irresistible force which char- acterizes intellects of such an order. His ambition was lofty and noble, inspiring him with high thoughts, and an anxiety to distin- guish himself by great achievements. He aimed at dignity and wealth in the same ele- vated spirit with which he sought renown ; they were to rise from the territories he should discover, and be commensurate in importance. The vast gains that he anticipated from his dis- coveries, he intended to appropriate to princely purposes ; to institutions for the relief of the poor of his native city, to the foundation of churches, and above all, to crusades for the recovery of the holy sepulchre. He was tena- cious of his rank and privileges, not from a mere vulgar love of titles, but because he prized them as testimonials and trophies of his illustrious deeds. Every question of com- promise concerning them he repulsed with disdain. "These things," said he, nobly, " concern my honoi'." In his testament, he enjoined on his son Diego, and whoever after him should inherit his estates, whatever other titles might be granted by the king, always to sign himself simply "The Admi- ral," by way of perpetuating in the family the source of its real greatness. He was naturally irritable and impetuous, and keenly sensible to injury and injustice; yet the quickness of his temper was counteracted by the benevolence and generosity of his heart. The magnanimity of his nature shone forth through all the troubles of his stormy career. COMETS. The first comet that was dis- covered and described accurately was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mith- ri dates, 135 B.C., two large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days to- gether, whose splendor eclipsed that of the noonday sun, and which occupied forty-five degrees, or a fourth part of the heavens. The COM 226 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF appearance of comets was supposed to be the forerunner of wars, famine, pestilence, the deaths of great men, earthquakes, inunda- tions, and other calamities. The splendid comet of 1456 was believed by Pope Calix- tus to be at once the sign and instrument of divine wrath, and the affrighted pontiff or- dered public prayers to be raised in every town, and the bells to be tolled at the noon of each day, to warn the people to supplicate the divine mercy. He at the same time ex- communicated both the comet and the Turks, whose arms had lately proved victorious over the Christians. In more modern times cer- tain natural effects have been vulgarly at- tributed to the influence of comets ; such as tempests, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, cold or hot seasons, floods, the dysentery, the plague, the cholera, and other disorders. Much alarm has also prevailed at times from fear that a comet might jostle the earth into destruction. Tycho Brahe was the first to rationally explain the phenomena of comets, about 1577. Newton discovered that their orbits are ellipses. A most brilliant comet, moving with immense swiftness, appeared in 1769 ; it passed within two million miles of the earth. Behind its nucleus a vast stream of light, thirty-six millions of miles in length, stretched across the heavens, a prodigious luminous arch. A comet still more brilliant appeared in 1811, and was visible to the naked eye all the autumn. Herschel com- puted the length of its tail at a hundred millions of miles ! Halley was the first to fix the identity of comets, and predict their periodical return. He demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was that which was seen in 1456, 1531, and 1607. The revolution of Halley's comet is accomplished in about seventy-six years; it appeared in 1759 and 1835. The comet of 1G80, which terrified the world by its near approach, is supposed to have a period of five hundred and seventy- five years, and to be the same that appeared in 1106, in 531, and in 44 b.c. COMMODUS ANTONINUS, Lucius ^uus AuRELius, Emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius, was born a.d. 161. At sixteen years of age he was associated with his father in the government, and in 180 ascended the throne. He surpassed in profligacy and cru- elty all his wicked predecessors. He maimed and disemboweled his subjects for pleasure. From his great strength, he bore a striking resemblance to the statues of Hercules, in the di-ess of whom he appeared. He debauched his own sisters, and mixed with the vilest and most degraded of the human race. Having exhausted the treasury by his extravagance, he replenished it by imposing enormous taxes on the people. Habited like a slave, he ckove his own chariot, and fought as a gladiator, 735 times. He was poisoned by his favorite mis- tress, Martia, in 192. COMPASS, Mariner's. The date of one of the greatest of human discoveries is uncertain, and there are as great discrepancies in the accounts of its origin. Some have supposed it to have been known to the Chinese in the remotest ages. Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, is said to have discovered it a.d. 1260. By others it is claimed it was in use in Europe as early as 1180. Roger Bacon (1294) is said to have kjiown the polarity of the loadstone ; it was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and it is mentioned in a French poem of 1150. Until the time of Flavio Gioja, a Neapolitan mariner, the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small splinters, in a vessel of water; he suspended it on a point, as we now have it. Columbus noticed the variation of the compass, in 1492 ; the dip of the needic was discovered in 1576. COMTE, AuGUSTE, a celebrated French thinker, and the founder of the Positive phi- losophy, was born in 1797, and died in 1857. CONCORD, a village of Massachusetts, twenty miles north-west of Boston. At Con- cord and Lexington the first armed resistance was made to the troops of Great Britain, April 19th, 1775. [See Lexington.] CONDE, Louis DE Bourbon, Prince of, was the son of Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Ven- dome, and was born in 1530. He signalized himself at the battle of St. Quintin, and be- ' came leader of the discontented Huguenots. He was wounded at the battle of Dreux, in 1562, and slain in that of Jarnac, in 1569. CONDE, Louis, Prince of, commonly called the Great, was born at Paris in 1621. At the age of twenty -two he gained the battle of Ro- croi against the Spaniards, and captured Thi- onville and other places. He next entered Germany, where he gained innumerable lau- rels. Being recalled thence, he was sent into CON HISTORY AiXD BIOGRAPHY. '22"; Catalonia, but failed in his attempt to take Lerida. In 1648, he defeated the Imperialists in Flanders with prodigious slaughter. In the civil war Conde at first adhered to the court, but afterward opposed it without suc- cess. He refused to accede to the peace, and entered into the service of the Spaniards in the Low Countries, where his military ex- ploits were uncommonly splendid. At the peace of the Pyrenees, in 1G59, he obtained his pardon, and served his country with his wonted activity and success. He contended with the Prince of Orange in the Netherlands, and was wounded in the memorable passage of the Rhine. The conquest of Franche Compte was also chiefly owing to him. After the death of Turenne, he carried on the war against Germany with advantage. He died in 1G87 at Fontainebleau. CONDILLAC, EtienneBonnetde, a French metaphysician, died in 1780, aged sixty-five. CONDORCET, Marie Jean Antoine, Mar- quis de Caritat, an eloquent man, a good mathematician, an earnest political writer among the Girondins, and a victim of the reign of terror. Born in Picardy in 1743, in 1794 he poisoned himself in prison to avoid the guillotine. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE. In 1806, Napoleon, determined that there should not exist, on the continent, any power capable of opposing his designs, contrived to dismem- ber the German empire, and induce the em- peror to abandon his title of Emperor of Ger- many. In pui'suance of these views, a new union was formed by several of the German princes, under the name of the Confederation of the Rhine. The Kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, the Elector of Baden, the Duke of Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt, and others, published at Ratisbon a declara- tion, that as the Germanic constitution then existing could afibrd no guarantee for the public tranquillity, the contracting parties had agreed, that their states should be forever separated from the Germanic body, and united by a particular confederation, under the title of "The Confederate States," of which the Emperor of the French was constituted the head and protector. The treaty of confeder- ation was projected and drawn up at Paris, and ratified at Munich, on the 25th of July, 1806 : it contained forty articles relative to the territories which each of the contracting parties was to possess, and other important particulars. Every continental war, in which either France or any of the confederate states should be engaged, was to be common to all ; the contingent to be fm-nished by each of the members, was determined in the followin;;- proportion; France, 200,000 men, Bavaria 30,000, Wirtemberg 12,000, Baden 8,000, Berg 5,000, Darmstadt 4,000, Nassau and the other states 4,000. By this confederation, the Germanic body was completely dissolved, and a very considerable part of its members ranged themselves under the banners of France. Francis II., in consequence of this organization, resigned his title of Emperor of Germany, and took that of Emperor of Aus- tria. Thus was dissolved the German, or as it was styled in diplomatic language, the Holy Roman Empu-e, 1006 years after Charlemagne received the imperial title and crown from the hands of the pope. [See Germany.] CONFUCIUS, the celebrated Chinese phi- losopher, lived about 550 e.g. CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, in Lower Guinea, which is under the sway of the Por- tuguese. It is rich and fertile. It was dis- covered in 1484 by Diego Cam, a Portuguese. The native government is despotic. CONGRESS, Continental. The first met in Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774; Oct. 8th, resolve to support Massachusetts. Second congress assembled May 10th, 1775, in Phil- adelphia; June 7th, style the colonies "The Twelve United Colonies," Georgia not having yet acceded to the Union; June 22d, 1775, appoint eight major-generals ; May 5th, 1776, declare the authority of England abolished ; July 4th, declare independence ; Dec. 12th, 1776, adjourn from Philadelphia to meet at Baltimore ; 30th, resolve to send commission- ers to Prussia, Austria, Spain, &c. ; Sept. 18th, 1777, on the approach of the British army toward Philadelphia, adjourn to meet in Lan- caster, whence they again adjourn on the 30th of the same month to meet in Little York ; meet again in Philadelphia, July 2d, 1778. Sept. 14th, 1778, appoint Benjamin Franklin minister to France, the first regularly consti- tuted ambassador from the United States, the former foreign agents being styled commis- sioners ; Oct. 4th, 1782, resolve against a sep- arate peace; June 26th, 1783, adjourn to CON 228 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Princeton, and thence to Annapolis, where they meet November 20 th ; Nov. 1st, 1784, meet at Trenton, N. J.; Jan. 11th, 1785. at New York, which continued to be the place of meeting till the adoption of the federal con- stitution. From 1781 to 1788, Congress met aimuaily on the first Monday in November, pursuant to the articles of confederation. A-^ril 1st, 1789, Congress first assembled un- di'r the federal constitution ; Sept. 22d, 1790, pass an act to remove to Washington city in 1800. CONGREVE, William, a celebrated Eng- lish dramatist and poet, born in 1672, died in 1729. His plays are replete with wit and glitter, but are blemished bya lack of morality. The dramatist was an intimate friend of the Duchess of Marlborough (daughter of the great duke), and left her the bulk of his for- tune, about £10,000. She honored him with a stately funeral, and converted the bequest into a superb diamond necklace, which she wore in his honor. It is said that she had a statue of him in ivorj^ moved by clockwoi'k, and placed daily at her table ; that she had a wax doll made in imitation of him, and that the feet of this doll were regularly blistered and anointed by the doctors, as poor Con- greve's feet had been when he suffered from the gout. femiiri. CONNECTICUT, one of the New England states, has an area of 4,674 square miles. Population in 1860, 4601,47. The surface is for the most part hilly, but nowhere moun- tainous. The state is well watered, mostly by small streams, which are sources of important power for manufactures. The Connecticut, which passes through nearly the centre of the state from north to south, is navigable as far as Hartford. The Thames in the east, and the Housatonic in the west, are the other largest streams. The soil is generally productive, but not highly fertile, and in general is more suited for grazing than tillage. Along the river valleys, however, fine rich meadows lie. Connecticut does better in manufactur- ing than in agriculture. Her clocks, her pistols, her rifles, her axes, her gimpowder, and lier rubber goods find a market through- out the world ; while along her streams, and in her busy villages, are myriads of estab- lishments, in which other ingenious wares and fabrics are wrought by mdustrious and prosperous artisans. The present constitution was adopted in 1818, till which time the charter granted by Charles XL, in 1662, was the basis of the government. All state oflBcers, and the members of both branches of the legislature^ are elected annually by the people. The legislature convenes at Hartford and New Haven in alternate Mays. Every Avhite male citizen, who has gained a settlement in the state, attained the age of twenty-one years, resided in the town six months, has a good moral character, and can read the constitution of the state, shall, upon taking the oath pre- scribed, be an elector. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of errors and a superior court. The CON HISTORY AND BlOCxRAPHY. 219 former consists of a chief-justice and two i independence came. Only one of the thir- associates ; the latter has six judges ; all chosen by the legislature for terms of eight years. This commonwealth ha.s long been eminent for the attention given to education. The school fund, arising from lands originally held by the state in Ohio, had in March, 1858, a capital of $2,046,397.32. To the revenue from this source, the towns add largely by taxation. A normal school for the instruc- tion of teachers, and a reform school for juvenile delinquents, are maintained by the state. Yale College at New Haven is among the best and most ancient universities of the country. The American Asylum for the Deaf find Dumb at Hartford, was the first institu- tion of the kind on this continent. The towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield were settled in 1635 and 1636 by emigrants from the Massachusetts colony. It was in the following year that the Pequots were extirpated. The emigrants had at first considered themselves under the jurisdiction of the parent colony at Boston Bay, but on the 14th of January, 1639, the planters con- vened at Hartford, and decided for a distinct commonwealth. The instrument adopted upon this occasion is the earliest precedent of a written constitution, proceeding from a people, and in their name establishing and defining a government, and is the germ of the free representative plan which now dis- tinguishes our country in the eyes of the world. So wisely did Ludlow, Haynes and Hooker lay the foundations, that the people of Connecticut have found no necessity for any fundamental change in the polity which the fathers ordained. The colony of New Haven had been founded in 1638 by Eaton, Hopkms, Davenport, and others. By the charter granted by Charles H. in 1662, the two colonies of Hartford and New Haven were united. This was the instrument after- ward hidden in the Charter Oak from the clutch of Andros. Curiously enough for a document coming from a Stuart, it sanctioned the democracy which the quiet independence of the colonists had framed for themselves a quarter of a century before. The common- wealth suffered under King Philip's war, sus- tained its due burden in the wars against the teen colonies contributed a larger quota of men to the patriot army during that struggle. Her venerable governor during this crisis, the patriotic Trumbull, the original ' Brother Jonathan,' was one of Washington's chief supports. Irving .says: " There could be no surer reliance for aid in time of danger than the patriotism of Governor Trumbull; nor were there men more ready to obey a sudden appeal to arms than the yeomanry of Con- necticut ; however much their hearts might subsequently yearn toward the farms and firesides they had so promptly abandoned. No portion of the Union was more severely ta.iked, throughout the Revolution, for mili- tary service ; and Washington avowed, when the great struggle was over, that ' if all the states had done their duty as well as the little state of Connecticut, the war would have been ended long ago.'" Connecticut is divided into eight counties. The city of Hartford is on the west bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its mouth. It is a handsome town, [jrosperous in its trade and manufactures, and has a pop- ulation of 25,000. New Haven, the sister capital, is at the head of a small bay opening upon Long Island Sound, and has 30,000 inhabitants. The many and noble trees that adorn its ways have gained it the name of the Elm City. Other prominent towns of Con- necticut are Norwich, New London, Bridge- port, and Middletown. CONSPIRACIES AND Insurrections, the most reiiiarkable in ancient or modern his- tory. A conspiracy was formed against the infant republic of Rome, to restore the ban- ished Sextus Tarquin, and the regal govern- ment, in which the two sons of Junius Brutus, the first consul, being concerned, were pub- licly condemned and put to death by their father, 507 b.c. Another by the Tarquin faction against the Roman senators ; Publius and Marcus discover it ; the other conspira- tors are put to death, 496 b.c. Of Cataline and his associates, to murder the consuls and senate, and to burn the city of Rome, detected by Cicero, 63 b.c An insurrection in Spain cost the fives of 30,000 Spaniards, and double that number of Moors, a.d. 1500. At Malta, to destroy the knights, for which 125 slaves French in America, and yet grew, in strength and wealth, and numbers, till the contest for I suffered death, Jmie 26th, 1749._ At Lisbo CON 230 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF by several of the nobility, who shot the king, 1758. At St. Domingo and the other French West India Islands, where near 10,000 ne- groes were slain, and 400 whites, and 550 plantations destroyed, 1704. Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Cadoudal against Bonaparte, Feb. 15th, 1804. Of the Prince of Asturias against his father, 1807. Of the inhabitants of Madrid against the French, in which many persons were killed, 1808. In Paris, for which the conspirators, three ex-generals and eleven officers were executed, October 30th, 1812. At Travencore, to massacre the European officers at an entertainment, 1812. At Lisbon to overturn the Portuguese gov- ernment. May, 1817. Conspiracies and insurrections in England. Of the barons against Henry III. for cancel- ing Magna Charta, 1258. Of the Duke of Exeter and others, against the life of Henry IV., discovered by dropping a paper acci- dentally, 1400. Of Richard, Duke of Glou- cester, against his nephews, Edward V. and his brother, whom he caused to be murdered, ■ 1483. Of the Earl of Suffolk and others against Henry VII., 1506. Insurrection of the London apprentices, 1515. Against Queen Elizabeth, by Dr. Story, 1571 ; by Anthony Babington and others, in behalf ryf Mary of Scotland, 1586 ; by Lopez, a Jew, and others, 1593; by Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master, employed by the Spaniards to kill the queen, 1594; ofWalpole, a Jesuit, who engaged one Squire to poison the queen's saddle, 1598 ; all the conspirators were exe- cuted. Against James I., by the Marchioness de Verneuil, his mistress, and others, 1004. The Gunpowder plot discovered, Nov. 5th, 1605. Of Sindercomb and others to assassin- ate Oliver Cromwell ; discovered by his as- sociates ; Sindercomb was condemned, and poisoned himself the day before he was to have been executed, 1656. An insurrection of the Puritans, 1657. An insurrection of the fifth-monarchy men against Charles II., 1060. A conspiracy of Blood and his asso- ciates, who seized the Duke of Ormond, wounded him, and would have hanged him if he had not escaped ; they afterward stole the crown, 1670 and 1671. The pretended l^lot of the French, Spanish, and English Jesuits, countenanced by the pope, to assassi- nate Charles II., discovered by Dr. Tongue and the infamous Titus Oates, 1678; another to assassinate him at the Kye-house farm, near Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, in his waj' from Newmarket, called the Rye-house plot, 1683. Of Lord Preston, the Bishop of Ely, and others to restore King James, 1691. Of Granvil, a French chevalier and his associates, to assassinate King William in Flanders, 1692. A conspiracy by the Earl of Ayles- bury and others, to kill the king near Rich- mond, as he came from hunting, discovered by Pendergrass, called the Assassination plot, 1696. Of Simon Eraser, Lord Lovat, in favor of the Pretender, against Queen Anne, 1703. Of the Marquis Guiscard, 1710. To assassi- nate George I. by James Sheppard, an enthu- siastic youth, who had been taught to consider the king as an usurper, 1718. Of Layer and others to bring in the Pretender, 1722. Of Col. Despard and his associates to assassinate George III. and overturn the government, 1802. Of Robert Emmet in Dublin, 1803. Of Thistlewood and a gang of desperate pol- iticians, commonly called the Cato Street con- spiracy, 1820. (For Southern Rebelmon, see the Chro- nology, end of this work.) CONSTANTINE the Great, son of the Emperor Constantius Chlorus, by Helena, was born at York, about the year 274. On the death of his father, in 300, he was pro- claimed emperor by the army. He defeated the Franks, after which he crossed the Rhine, and committed great ravages in Belgium. Constantine married Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, in 300. His father-in-law, taking advantage of his absence from Aries, where he held his court, seized the treasury, and assumed the miperial title, but being taken prisoner by Constantine, strangled himself. A war now broke out between Constantine and Maxentius, the son of Maximian ; the former reduced Italy, and defeated Maxen- tius, who was drowned in the Tiber. At this period the era of Constantine's conversion to Christianity is fixed. As he was riding at the head of his troops, an immense cross of exceeding brightness is said to have appeared above the horizon, bearing the inscription, "In this conquer." Constantino was no longer an infidel. He now entered Rome in triumph, and received from the senate the title of Augustus, in conjmiction with Licin- CON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 231 ius and Maximin, the former of whom mar- ried his sister, Constantia. A civil war shortly broke out between Licinius and Max- imin, in which the latter was slain. Licin- ius then formed a conspiracy against Con- stantine, which being discovered, war ensued between them, in which Constantine was successful, and peace was concluded. A sec- ond war broke out in 323, and terminated in the defeat of Licinius, and his resignation of the imperial dignity. Not long afterward he was strangled. Constantine now began to show his regard for the religion he had adopted, by destroying the heathen temples, building numerous churches, and journeying to Jerusalem to visit the Holy Land, where he erected a magnificent church at Bethle- hem. With this zeal for religion he blended coui'age and justice. He conquered the Goths, founded Constantinople, removing the seat of empire thither, and performed many actions that entitle him to the name of Great. I>ut he sullied his character by putting to death his son Crispus. He died in 337. CONSTANTINOPLE, called by the Turks Stamboul, is situated on the European side of the Bosphorus. Its circuit, including the suburbs, is about thirty-five miles, and the number of inhabitants, by the most moder- ate computation, 630,000 Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Turks. It was built upon the ruins of the ancient Byzantium by Constan- tine the Great. It became afterward the capital of the Greek empire; and, having escaped the destructive rage of the barbarous nations, it was the greatest as well as the most beautiful city in Europe, and the only one, during the Gothic ages, in Avhich there remained any image of the ancient elegance in manners and arts. It derived great advan- tages from its being the rendezvous of the crusaders; and, being then in the zenith of its glory, the European writers, in that age, speak of it with astonishment. During the third crusade, a revolution happened at Con- stantinople, which divided the eastern empire for fifty-eight years. Alexius Angelus, sur- named the tyrant, having dethroned Isaac II., placed himself upon the throne of Con- stantinople, in 119.5 ; and Alexius, the son of Isaac, applied to the French and Venetians, who passed that way to the Holy AVars, to assist him in the recovery of his father's em- pire. They accordingly, in 1203, reduced Constantinople, after a siege of eight days, and replaced Isaac on the throne. The next year, Alexius Dacus Murzoufle assassinated the emperor, whom the crusaders had re-es- tablished, and seized the crown. On hearing this, the French returned, attacked the city, reduced it in three days, deposed Murzoufle, and chose Baldwin, Count of Flanders, em- peror. He had four successors, the last of whom, Baldwin II., was deposed in 1262, by Michael Paleologus. In the mean time Theodore Las- caris, who had been charged by the clergy to take arms against the tyrant Murzoufle, find- ing Constantinople in the power of the French, retired with his wife and family to Nice, where, in 1204, he was crowned emperor, and formed a small empire out of that of Constan- tinople. He had but three successors, the last of whom, John Ducas, was deprived of his sight in 1255 by order of Michael Paleo- logus, his preceptor, who usurped the throne in 1259, and in 1262 made himself master of Constantinople, so that the empire was re- united. It continued till 1453, when Con- stantinople was taken by Mohammed II., sul- tan of the Ottoman Turks ; since which it has remained the seat of their empire. Constantinople is at this day one of the finest cities in the world, from its situation and port. It is frequently called the Porte by way of eminence. The city has met with many disasters from convulsions, earthquakes, and the plague. CONSTITUTION, the English, which owes its foundation to the era of the con- quest, has been made the model of most of the constitutions enjoyed by republican states. The Bill of Rights, which was the basis of the English constitution, was passed in the time of the revolution, and contained the following provisions : 1. The pretended power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws by regal authority, without the con- sent of parliament, is illegal. 2. That the pretended power of dispensing with laws, or the execution of laws by regal authority, as it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal. 3. That the commission for erecting the late court of commissioners for ecclesias- tical causes, and all other commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and perni- CON 232 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF cious. 4. That levying money for, or to the use of the crown, by pretense of prerogative, vpithout grant of parliament, for longer time, or in all other manner than the same is, and shall be granted, is illegal. 5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and that all commitments and prosecutions for such petitioning, are illegal. 6. That the rais- ing or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of parliament, is against law. 7. That the subjects which are Protestants, may have arms for their defense, suitable for their con- ditions, and as allowed by law. 8. That election of members of parliament ought to be free. 9. That freedom of speech, and debates or proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of parliament. 10, That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and un- usual punishments inflicted. 11. That ju- rors ought to be duly empanneled and returned; and that jurors which pass upon men in trials for high treason, ought to be freeholders. 12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons, before conviction, are illegal and void. 13. And that for the redress of all griev- ances, and for the amending, strengthening, and preserving of laws, parliaments ought to be held Irequently. The English constitution comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which it is pre- sumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term gov- ernment in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times, and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. — Lord BoUngTtrol-e. The king of Eng- land is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the law. — Sheridan. The beautiful pile of the British constitution is the work of ages ; the produc- tion of a happy concurrence and succession of circumstances, growing by degrees, and accommodating itself, in accordance with its growth, to the tempers and manners, the customs and character of the British people. — Montesquieu. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, as 2)ro2wscd to the convention held at Philadelphia^ 17th September, 17S7, and since ratijied ly the several states with amendments. We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect vmion, establish justice, insure domestic ti'anquillity, provide for the conunon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article I. Section 1. All legislative pow- ers herein granted shall be vested in a con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of representatives. Sec. 2. The house of representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the quali- fications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty- five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in M'hich he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to ser- vice for a term of years, and excluding In- dians not taxed, three-fifths of all other per- sons. The acliual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative. When vacancies happen in the representa- tion from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. CON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 233 The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other oiHcers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. 3. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six 3^ears ; and each senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- tion of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ;. and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legisla- ture of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an in- habitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The senate shall choose their other ofiicers, and also a president ^jw tem2wre, in the ab- sence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is cried, the chief justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States : but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- ment, trial, judgment and punishment, accord- ing to law. Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of holding flections for senators and representa- tives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the congress may at any time by law make or alter such regula- tions, except as to the places of choosing senators. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a dilferent day. Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, antl a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend- ance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disor- derly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its pro- ceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of con- gress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- spective houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appoint- ed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been cre- ated, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United CON 234 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF States, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of representatives ; but the senate may propose or concur with amend- ments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the ob- jections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsidera- tion two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- proved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases_ the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill, shall be entered on tlic journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress by their adjourn- ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the senate and house of representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjoui-nment) shall be presented to the president of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be ap- proved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. 8. The congress shall have power — To lay and collect taxes, duties, hnposts and ex- cises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; bvit all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the Uni- ted States ; To borrow money on the credit of the Uni- ted States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes ; To establish an uniform rule of naturaliza- tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bank- ruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counter- feiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; To establish post-ofBces and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and use- ful arts, by securing for limited times to au- thors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the su- preme court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appro- priation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and reg- ulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insur- rections and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and dis- ciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the serv- ice of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia ac- cording to the discipline prescribed by con- gress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of par- ticular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places piirchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build- ings ; — and To make all laws which shall be necessarj' CON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 235 and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or oflScer thereof. Sec, 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not ex- ceeding ten dollars for eacli person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enu- meration herein before directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- ported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regula- tion of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the congress. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into anj^ agree- ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless. ac- tually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. Article II. Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, to- gether with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of sen- ators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the congress : but no sen- ator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote hy 'ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not he an inhabitant of the same state xcith themselves. And they shall make a list but in consequence of appropriations made by ! of all the2iersons voted for, and of the number law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sec. 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and imposts. of votes for each ; which list they shall- sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, di- rected to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the j)resident, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of representa- tives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for president ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the repre- sentation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall CON 236 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF he necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest nuniber of votes of the electors shall he the vice-jyresident. But if there should remain two or more xcho have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them ly hallot the vice-president.] [See 12th Amend- men t. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; wliich day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty -five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In the case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, resignation, or in- ability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devoh e on the vice-president ; and the congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resig- nation, or inability, both of the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as president; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elect- ed, and he shall not receive within that pe- riod any other emolument fi'om the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his of- fice, he shall take the following oath or affirm- ation : — "I do solemnly swear [or affirm] that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of relating to the duties of their respective offi- ces, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for otFenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the ad- vice and consent of the senate, to make trea- ties, provided two-thirds of thcsenatorspresent concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public min- isters and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law : but the congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the re- cess of the senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occa- sions, convene both houses, or either of them ; and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the UnitedStates. Sec. 4. The president, vice-president and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Article HI. Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, shall \)e vested in one my ability, preserve, protect and defend the supreme court, and in such inferior courts as constitution of the United States." Sec. 2. The president shall be commander- in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject the congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the su- preme and inferior court, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a com- pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to CON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 237 all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, ;ind consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime .jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two or more states ; — \hetween a state and citizens of another Iff ate] ; — between citizens of different states, — between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and be- tween a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said i'limcs shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the con- gress may by law have directed. Sec. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be con- victed of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. Article IV. Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the eflect thereof Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with trea- son, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the congress into this union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the juris- diction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislature of the states concerned as well as of the congress. The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property be- longing to the United States ; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be convened) against domestic violence. Article V. The congress, whenever two- thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitu- tion, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this consti- tution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by con- ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro- posed by the congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first arti- CON 238 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP cle ; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. Article VI. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution, as under the confederation. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursu- ance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound therebj^, anything in the con- stitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judi- cial oflBcers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article VII. The ratification of the con- ventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitution be- tween the states so ratifying the same. Amendments. Article the first. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Article the second. A well-regulated mili- tia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to ivcep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Article the third. No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article the fourth. The right of the peo- ple to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon proba- ble cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article the fifth. No person shall beheld to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against him- self, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or prop- erty, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Article the sixth. In all criminal prosecu- tions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- sory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Article the seventh. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Article the eighth. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article the ninth. The enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article the tenth. The powers not dele- gated to the United States by the constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. Article tlie eleventh. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state. CON HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 239 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Article tlie twelfth. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot, for president and vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- ernment of the United States, directed to the president of the senate ; — The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certi- ficates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for president, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no per- son have such majority, then from the per- sons having the highest numbers not ex- ceeding three on the list of those voted for as president, the house of representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or mem- bers from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of representa- tives shall not choose a president whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next follow- ing, then the vice-president shall act as pres- ident, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the president. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice- president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the vice-president: a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a major- ity of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the oflBce of president shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. Article the Thirteenth^ Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crmie, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist in the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to en- force this by appropriate legislation. CONSULS. These officials were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year. At first they were both patricians, but in the year 588 B. c. the people obtained the privilege of choosing one from their own number, and sometimes both were plebeians. A consular government was set up in France, Nov. 9th, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le- brun were made consuls. Bonaparte was created first consul for life. May 6th, 1802. CONTI, Armand de Bourbon first an ec- clesiastic, then a soldier, opposed his brother the great Conde. After being successively governor of Guienne, general of the armies in Catalonia, and governor of Languedoc, he died in 1066. CONTRERAS. In this engagement, fought early in the morning of the 20th of August, 184:7, a part of Scott's army commanded by Gen. Persifer F. Smith, stormed Gen. Valen- cia's intrenched camp. More than a thousand prisoners were captured, and some fifteen hundred Mexicans killed and wounded. The American loss in killed, wounded and miss- ing was about one hundred. The battle of Cherubusco was fought later in the same day. COOK, James, a famous English navigator, born in Yorkshire, in 1728, early went to sea. He was employed in several important ser- vices, and explored the South Sea Islands in 1769. From New Zealand he sailed to New Holland, New Guinea, andBatavia, returning home in 1771. His next voyage to the southern hemisphere was commenced in 1772, in two ships, the Resolution and Ad- venture. On this voyage Cook discovered the island of New Georgia, and returning, July 80th, 1775, was well received and rewarded for his services. In July, 1776, he sailed to determine the long agitated ques- I tion of a northwest passage to the Pacific COO 240 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Ocean, but the attempt was abandoned as impracticable, and the Kesolution and Discov- ery anchored at the Sandwich Islands, on their return, Nov. 26th, 1778. Their reception was at first favorable, but when Cook went on shore to seize the king of Owhyhee, with the intention of keeping him as a hostage, till one of the English boats stolen by the sava- ges was restored, he was attacked by the natives, one of whom felled him by a club, and then dispatched him with a dagger. This event occurred on the 14th of February, 1779. COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, an eminent English surgeon, born in 1768, died in 1841. COOPER, James Fenimore, a distinguished American novelist, died at Cooperstown, N. Y., Sept. 14th, 1851. He was born at Bur- lington, N. J., Sept. 15th, 1789; his father being a judge of some distinction, and a large landholder in Otsego county. After grad- uating at Yale College, he entered the navy as a midshipman in 1805. In 1810, he left the service, married, soon settled at Coopers- town, and commenced his brilliant career in fiction, publishing the series of tales of early American life which won him such enviable distinction. In 1826, he visited Europe, everywhere meeting with a most cordial reception. During his stay of several years abroad, he wrote several of his best sea stories. Some of his later works, after his return home, embodied political opinions and strictures upon the faults of American life and character, which subjected him for some years to a warm and bitter hostility. COPERNICUS, Nicolas, the illustrious astronomer, was born at Thorn in Prussia, Feb. 'l9th, 1473. Till his time the Ptolemaic theory, which made the earth the centre of the planetary system and of the universe, had been implicitly believed. Contrary teaching was afterward denounced as not only a heresy in science but in religion, and a contempt of Scripture. The astronomical studies of Co- pernicus convinced him of the earth's annual motion and the sun's immobility as the centre of our solar system. Dreading the prejudices of the world, he long delayed the publication of his theory. A printed copy of the work in which he embodied it was only placed in his hands a few hours before his death, which occurred May 22d, 1543. COPLEY, John Singletox, a self-taught painter, a native of Boston, where he was born in 1738. He went to England in 1776, where he met with great encouragement, and died in London in 1815. The painting of the death of Lord Chatham in the House of Lords, after his immortal speech in favor of America, was one of his best performances. His son, Joiix Singleton Copley, born in Boston, May 21st, 1772, was raised to the peerage as Lord Lj-nd- hurst upon his appointment as lord chancellor in 1827, and occupied an eminent position among the statesmen of his adopted country. CORDAY, Charlotte, one of those rare characters in history who by an utter sacrifice of self have gained a world's admiration, was born in 1768. The blood of Corneille, the great dramatist, coursed in her veins. She was educated in a convent, and seems to have formed her naturally enthusiastic mind upon the classic models of antiquitj^ Her assassin- ation of Marat, one of the atrocious triumvi- rate, is one of the most startling passages in the bloody drama of the French revolution. Not aware that he was but the tool of Danton and Robespierre, to him she ascribed the woes of the republic, and on him she resolved to avenge her ill-fated country. She left home secretly, and proceeded to Paris, where she calmly remained near Marat's dwelling two days, before she attempted to execute her bloody intent. With difficulty she obtained admittance to Marat (who stood in great fear of assassination), on the evening of July 13th, 1793 ; having previously written him in a note that she was from the seat of rebellion, and would ''put it in his power to do France a great service." Marat was in a bath ; a soiled handkerchief was bound around his head, in- creasing his natural hideousness; a coarse covering was thrown across the bath ; a board placed transversely supported his papers. Entering into conversation with Charlotte, he penned with ferocious joy the fresh list of vic- tims with which she pretended to supply him ; crying, with a malignant smile, "Before a week they shall have perished on the guillo- tine." " These words," Charlotte said after- ward, "sealed his fate." Drawing from be- neath the handkerchief that covered her bosom the knife she had hidden there, with desperate determination she plunged it to the hilt in the monster's heart. One loud, dying shriek for COR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 241 help he gave, and then sank back dead in the bath. She left the closet, and sat down calmly in the next apartment. The household of Marat rushed to the fatal spot; the tumult spread; a crowd gathered, who gazed with wonder upon the murderess, as she stood be- fore them with still disordered garments, flushed cheeks, and her long dark disheveled hair, loosely bound by a broad green ribbon, falling around her ; so calm, so serenely lovely, that those who most abhorred the deed she had wrought, gazed upon her with involuntary admiration. She submissively surrendered herself to arrest. Her self-possession, sincer- ity, and maidenly modesty at the trial, which immediately ensued, were marvelous in the midst of the tumult that agitated Paris. At the very commencement of the prosecution, "All these details of form are needless," she said. "It was I who killed Marat." "I killed one man to save a hundred thousand." " I was a repviblican before the revolution ; I never wanted energy. I mean by energy the feeling of those who are willing to forget their own interest for the sake of their coun- try." She was condemned. A heavy storm broke forth as the car of the doomed, on which she sat clothed in a red smock as a murderess, went from the prison to the guillotine. An immense crowd lined every street through which she passed. Hootings and execrations at first were her portion ; but as her pure and serene beauty dawned on the throngs ; as the exquisite loveliness of her countenance, and the sculptural beauty of her figure, became more fully revealed, — pity and admiration su- perseded every other feeling. Her bearing was so gracefully calm and dignified as to rouse sympathy in the hearts of those who detested not only her crime, but the cause for which it had been committed. Many men of every party uncovered their heads and bowed as the cart passed before them, and one young man cried out for the erection of a monument to her memory, that should bear the inscrip- tion, " Greater than Brutus." CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. Francis ; clothed in coarse gray cloth, with a small ccm-\ and cloak of the same stuff, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, whence their name, which was first given to them by St. Louis of France, 1227. CORINTH, a famous city of ancient Greece, 16 situated on the isthmus of the same name. It was founded B.C. 1520. Corinthus, son of P6lops, gave his name to the city. The in- habitants were once famed for their power, wealth, intelligence, and voluptuousness. They founded Syracuse in Sicily, which the}" afterward delivered from oppression. Corinth was destroyed, by the Roman consul Mum- mius, 146 B.C. The consul, who M'as no judge of the fine arts, assured the soldiers who had charge of the incomparable paintings sent from Corinth to Rome, that if they injured them, he should make them furnish new ones. Julius Csesar attempted to restore the city to its former importance. The government, at first monarchical, was changed 757 B.C., and it became the head of the Achajan league. In 1453 it fell into the hands of the Turks. Co- rinth is now a small town of 2,000 inhabitants. CORIOLANUS, the surname of Caius Mar- cius, given him for his victory over Corioli. After having served his country faithfully, and received many wounds in her service, he was refused the consulship; indignant at the ingratitude of his countrymen, who ban- ished him, he joined the Volsci, a warlike na- tion hostile to the Romans. Coriolanus ter- rified the Romans by approaching their capital at the head of a powerful army of Volscians. The offended Roman refused to listen to pro- posals made in the hope of inducing him to withdraw, and pitched his camp -within five miles of the city. His enmity against his country would have been fatal, had not his wife, Volumnia, and his mother, Veturia, aided by the presence of his children, prevailed upon him to withdraw his army. Coriolanus, in yielding to his mother, and raising her from her suppliant posture, pronounced a sentence which was prophetic of his fate: "Oh! my mother, you have saved Rome, but you have destro3red your son." The Volscians, indig- nant at the treachery of Coriolanus, put him to death, B.C. 488. CORNEILLE, Pierre, a French author who flourished in the time of Louis XIV., and was the founder of French tragedy. CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder, mother of the Gracchi, a Roman matron who lived about 130 B.C. A lady of Campania having shov.^n her jewels to Corne- lia, in paying a visit to the latter requested to see her jewels in return. At that moment COR 242 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF her boys entered the room, and the noble Cor- nelia, pointing them out to her visitors, ex- claimed, " These are my jewels ! " At her death the Romans, mindful of her worth, erected a monument to her memory. CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis of, born in 1738, entered the English army at an early age, and rose rapidly. He commanded the British army in the South during the Revolu- tion, and was finally captured at Yorktown. In 1786, he was made governor-general of In- dia, where he reduced Tippoo Saib. From 1798 to 1801 he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and was of eminent service in restoring quiet to that distracted country. In 1805, he was once more made governor-general of India, but died at Ghazepore, soon after his arrival out, Oct. 5th of that year. CORREGGIO. Antonio Allegri, com- monly called Correggio from his birth-place, a small town in Modena, was born in the winter of 1493-4. In 1519, we find him a master of established reputation at Parma. His frescoes in the churches of Parma are his greatest works, but he likewise produced many cele- brated paintings in oil. His proverbial grace — apparent, not only in his undulating forms and soft transitions, but in the action and ex- pression of his figures — is a distinctive char- acteristic of his works ; and he is still unri- valed in a certain harmony which results from delicate gradations of light and shade. He died of a fever at Correggio, March 5th, 1534. CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean, north of Sardinia. Its area is 3,377 square miles, and the population in 1851 was 226,253. It is mountainous, but the numerous valleys are extremely fertile. The Corsicans know not how to develope the resources of their island. They are in an almost barbarous state, recklessly brave, revengeful, fond of freedom, and indolent. Corsica has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Goths, the Saracens, the Franks, the Pope, the Pisanese, the Genoese, the French, and the English, falling into the hands of the last in 1794.' The English, however, did not long retain possession of the island, and it was again restored to France. Ajaccio is the chief town and port. CORTEZ, Fernando, the conqueror of Mexico, was born in 1485, in Estremadura. F*^ came to the West Indies in high hopes. and Velasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him the command of an expedition designed for the reduction of Mexico, which consisted of ten ships, six hundred men, ten small field- pieces, and eighteen horses. With this small armament he accomplished his enterprise, in 1519, and added the empire of Mexico to that of Spain. He took Montezuma prisoner, although received with hospitality, and the unfortunate king was killed by his own sub- jects in an attack on the Spaniards. The conduct of the conquerors so exasperated the Indians that they compelled Cortez to quit the city with great loss, but he regained it after some hard fighting. On the capture of Guatimozin, son of Montezuma, the city surrendered, and the empire of Mexico was at an end. A commission arrived to deprive Cortez of his command, and he returned to Spain in 1528 to procure redress. He died in obscurity, in 1554. CORUNNA, a seaport in the north-west of Spain. Sir John Moore's army, amounting to about 15,000, had just accomplished a safe retreat hither when they were attacked by Soult with 20,000 troops, Jan 16th, 1809. The French were repulsed, but the loss of the British was immense. Their illustrious commander was struck by a cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder with part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang- ing by the flesh, and died in the arms of vic- tory. In the evening his corpse, wrapped in a cloak, was interred by the oflBcers of his staff, and the remnant of the army hastily embarked. COSSACKS, the name of several warlike tribes that inhabit the south-western prov- inces of Russia, and form an effective portion of the Russian cavalry. Their horses are small but hardy, and will travel for a who'le campaign from fifty to seventy miles a day. They fight in little bands, and their arms are long lances, bows and arrows, sabres, and pistols or guns. The chief is called a hetman. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH. The following are among the most memorable ecclesiastical councils of ancient days. Of the apostles at Jerusalem, a.d. 50. Aries in France, 314; the western bishops met to sup- press the Donatists; three fathers of the English church were present. Nice, 325; the first CEcumenical or General Nicene-; COU HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 243 Constantine the Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius were condemned for heresy; this council composed the Nicene creed. Tyre, 335, when the doctrine of Athanasius was canvassed. Constantinople, 337, when the Arian heresy gained ground. Rome, 342 ; concerning Athanasius ; it lasted eighteen months. Sardis, 34:7. Rimini, 359; four hundred fathers attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith. Constantinople, the second general, 381 ; Pope Damasius presided. Ephesus, the third, 431 ; Pope Celestine presided. Chalcedon, the fourth, 451 ; Pope Leo pre- sided, and Marcian and his empress attended. Constantinople, the fifth, 553 ; and the sixth in 680. Authority of the six general coun- cils re-established by Theodosius, 715. Nice, second Nicene and seventh general, 787. Constantinople, eighth, 869. Clermont in France, 1094 ; convened by Urban II. to au- thorize the first crusade ; Philip I. of France was excommunicated. The Lateran councils were so called because held in the basilica of the Lateran at Rome. First Lateran, ninth general, 1122 ; the right of investitures set- tled by treaty between Pope Calixtus II. and the Emperor Henry V. Second Lateran, tenth general, 1139; Innocent II. presided; the preservation of the temporal ties of eccle- siastics was the principal subject, and occa- sioned the attendance of one thousand fathers. Third Lateran, eleventh general, 1179 ; held against schismatics. Fourth Lateran, twelfth general, 1215 ; four hundred bishops and a thousand abbots attended. Lyons, thirteenth general, under Innocent IV. 1245. Lyons, fourteenth general, under Gregory X., 1274. Vienne, in Dauphiny, fifteenth general, 1311 ; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Aragon attended; the order of knight- templars was suppressed. Pisa, sixteenth general, 1409; Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected. Con- stance, seventeenth general, 1414; Martin V. elected pope, John XXIIL being deposed. This council condemned Jerome of Prague and John Huss to be burned alive, a sentence executed upon the latter July 6th, 1415, and on the other the 6th of May following, in a suburb of Constance called Paradise ! Huss, under a safe-conduct from the Emperor Sigis- mund, had complied with a summons from the council to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations, and was treacher- ously cast into prison. Jerome hastened to Constance to defend him, was himself loaded with chains, and finally shared the fate of his friend. Basle, eighteenth general, 1431. Fifth Lateran, nineteenth general, begun by Julius IL, 1512, and continued under Leo X., till 1517, for the suppression of the prag- matic sanction of France against the council of Pisa. Trent, the twentieth and last general council styled oecumenical, 1545 ; it was held to condemn the doctrines of Luther, Zuing- lius, and Calvin ; it continued with intervals till 1563. COURTRAI, anciently Cortoriacum, a town of Belgium, twenty-two miles south-west of Ghent, famous for the battle fought in its vicinity, in 1302, between the Flemings and Fi'ench. The latter were* defeated with great loss, and, from the fact that four thousand gilt spurs were found upon the field, the en- gagement was called the Battle of the Spurs. COWLEY, Abraham, an English poet, the son of a grocer, born in 1618, died in 1667. He was an easy writer, and patronized by royalty. COWPENS, S. C. Here, Jan. 17th, 1781, a British force led by Tarleton was brilliantly defeated by the Americans under Gen. Daniel Morgan. This was an important check to the plans of Cornwallis. COWPER, William, the poet, son of the Rev. Dr. Cowper, was born at Berkhamstead, Herts, Nov. 15th, 1731. His education was acquired at a public school, where girlish timidity and delicacy subjected him to con- stant agony from the tyranny and roughness of his school-fellows. He studied law, and obtained the place of clerk of the House of Lords; but when the time approached for him to enter upon the duties of his office, his terror at presenting himself before the peer- age, not only induced him to relinquish the place, but produced a fit of sickness. About this time his religious fears brought on a temporary derangement. He led the life of a despondent recluse, at Olney, now and then afflicted by a recurrence of his insanity, j which in his last years settled into a constant I shadow of religious agony and terror. His COW 244 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP death took place April 25th, 1800. Of all his poems the humorous ballad of "John Giipin," and " The Task," are the best. CRABBE, George, a popular British poet, was born Dec. 24th, 1754, at Aldborough in Suffolk. He was intended for a surgeon, and actually opened a shop, to which he confined himself for some time, although barely making his expenses. In 1778 he went to London as a literary adventurer, but was for a long time unsuccessful. When a prison was in near view, and ruin appeared to threaten him, he conceived the idea of writing to Edmund Burke, for assistance and advice. That great man at once became his friend and patron, urged him to persevere, and induced him to study divinity and take orders. Thenceforth his circumstances were comfortable. He married the object of his early affections, devoted himself to literature, and received the applause due to a genius of the highest order, and continued to use his pen till his death in 1832. Crabbe excelled in descrip- tions of humble life, and his poems are marked by a sombre strength and pathos. Byron called him, "Nature's sternest painter, but her best." CRANMER, TnoMAS, Archbishop of Can- terbury, who aided the progress of the refor- mation in England, was yet the slave of the king, and never permitted conscience to interfere with the wishes of the crowned tyrant. He joined the partisans of Lady Jane Grey, and was accordingly sent to the Tower on the accession of Mary. Hav- ing been accused of blasphemy, perjury, in- continence, and heresy, he was burnt at Oxford, March 21st, 1556. Cranmer was born in 1489. He was at once a divine and a statesman. In his character of divine he was perfectly ready to go as far in the way of change as any Swiss or Scottish reformer. In his character of statesman he was desirous to preserve that organization which had, during many ages, admirably served the purposes of the bishops of Rome, and might be expected now to serve equally well the purposes of the English kings and of their ministers. His temper and his understanding eminently fitted him to act as mediator. Saintly in his pro- fessions, unscrupulous in his dealings, zealous for nothing, bold in speculation, a coward and a time-server in action, a placable enemy and a lukewarm friend, he was in every way qualified to arrange the terms of the coalition between the religious and the worldly ene- mies of popery. He was more courageous at the stake than he had been in life. The night before martyrdom his enemies seduced him by hope of life to sign a written recan- tation. When the tire was lit about him, he thrust his right hand, with which he had signed, into the flame before it could reach his body, sometimes saying, " This unworthy hand!" and then, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius, a Roman con- sul, distinguished for some gallant actions, and active in crushing the gladiatorial revolt which was headed by Spartacus. He was slain b}" the Parthians, b.c. 53. He was the colleague of Cajsar and Pompey in the first triumvirate, b.c. 60. CRAWFORD, TnoMAS, an eminent sculp- tor, was born in New York, N. Y., March 22d, 1814. From an early age he manifested a remarkable fondness for art, which his father lost no opportunity of encouraging. His tendency being manifestly toward the plastic arts, in 1834, at twenty years of age, he was sent to Italy, where he was so fortu- nate as to gain admittance into the studio of Thorwaldsen, to whose instruction and friend- ship he became indebted for much of his subsequent success. The purity of form and severe classicism of this eminent master are reflected in many of his pupil's works. After a few years of study, Crawford established his studio in Rome, and soon received abund- ant employment. A malignant tumor in his eye caused his death, Oct. 7th, 1857. CREBILLON, the elder, French tragic poet, died 1762, aged eighty-eight. CRESSY, or CRECY, a town of France ten miles north of Abbeville, where was fought a famous battle between the French under Philip and the English, in which the latter, led by Edward III. and his son the brave Black Prince, were completely victorious, August 26th, 1346. Over 30,000 French were slain, while the loss of the English waa very small. The crest of John, the Bohemian king (who fell fighting for the French), three ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien, " I serve," CRE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 245 was adopted by the Black Prince, and has ever since been borne by the heir to the English ci'own. CRICHTON, James, a Scotch gentleman, born in 1550, of a good family, who, from his proficiency in the arts and sciences, particu- larly music and manly exercises, was styled the Admirable. He traveled in France and Italy, and in Mantua, having pleased the duke, was appointed preceptor to his son. During the carnival of 1583, Crichton, while playing upon his guitar, was attacked in the streets by a masked band, against which he defended himself with his accustomed spirit, until he recognized his pupil in the leader. Throwing himself upon his knees, he presented his sword to the young noble- man, who stabbed his preceptor to the heart. The motives which impelled him are un- known. CRTLLON, Louis de Balbe, surnamed the Fearless, a celebrated French commander, born of a noble family, in Provence, in 1541. He was the friend of Henry IV. He distin- guished himself at the siege of Calais, and against the Huguenots and the Turks. "Hang thyself, brave Crillon; we have fought at Arques, and thou wast absent," was Henry's laconic announcement of one of his most brilliant victories to his favored friend. In 1592, he successfully defended Villeboeuf with an inferior force against Marshal Villars, and when called upon to surrender, gallantly answered, "Crillon is within, and Villars without." The assailants were unsuccessful. One day, hearing a sermon in which the suf- ferings of Christ were forcibly described, he seized the handle of his sword and cried, "Where wert thou, Crillon?" He died in 1616. CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, famed for his immense wealth. Being defeated by Cyrus, B.C. 548, he was conducted to the stake, but saved his life by repeating, in the hearing of Cyrus, the saying of Solon, that no man could be pronounced happy till his death. CROMWELL, Oliver, was born of a good family at Huntingdon, April 25th, 1599, and received a careful education. The excesses in which he indulged on quitting the univer- sity, were ended at his marriage with Eliz- abeth Bouchier, daughter of a baronet of Essex, at the age of twenty-one. He was chosen to a seat in parliament in 1628, and again in 1640. He wlis a strong opponent of the measui'es of the court. In 1642, when hostilities were determined upon, Cromwell raised a troop of horse, and seized the plate of the university at Cambridge to defray the expenses of the war. He soon acquired the rank of colonel, and the superior courage of his troops, procured for them at Marston Moor the name of ironsides. He also distin- guished himself at the battle of Newbury, 1643. He had now gained so great an in- fluence, that when the famous self-denying ordinance was passed, by which all mem- bers of either house of parliament were ex- cluded from command in the army, Crom- well was particularly excepted. He was constituted lieutenant-general, and by his skill and courage the battle of Naseby was won in 1645, followed by a sei'ies of suc- cesses which decided the fate of the roy- alists. The parliamentary troops had been at first far inferior to the high-spirited cavaliers. But the army which grew up under the rigid discipline of Cromwell, was irresistible. The stubborn courage of the English was, by the system of Cromwell, at once regulated and stimulated. Other leaders have maintained order as strict ; other leaders have inspired their followers with a zeal as ardent ; but in his camp alone the most rigid discipline was found in company with the fiercest enthu- siasm. His troops moved to victory with the precision of machines, while burning with the wildest fanaticism of crusaders. From the time when the army was remodeled to the time when it was disbanded, it never found, either in the British islands or on the conti- nent, an enemy who could stand its onset. In England, Scotland, Ireland, Flanders, the Puritan warriors, often surrounded by diflS- culties, sometimes contending against three- fold odds, not only never failed to conquer, but never failed to destroy and break in pieces whatever force was opposed to them. They at length came to regard the day of bat- tle as a day of certain triumph, and marched against the most renowned battalions of Eu- rope with disdainful confidence. Turenne was startled by the shout of stern exultation with which his English allies advanced to the CRO 246 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF combat, and expressed the delight of a true soldier when he learned that it was ever the fashion of Cromwell's pikcmen to rejoice greatly when they beheld the enemy ; and the banished cavaliers felt an emotion of national pride when they saw a brigade of their coun- trymen, outnumbered by foes and abandoned by allies, drive before it in headlong route the finest infantry of Spain, and force a pas- sage into a counterscarp which had just been pronounced impregnable by the ablest of the marshals of France. But that which chiefly distinguished the army of Cromwell from other armies was the austere morality and the fear of God which pervaded all ranks. It is acknowledged by the most zealous royalists that, in that singular camp, no oath was heard, no drunkenness or gambling was seen, and that, during the long dominion of the soldiery, the property of the peaceable citizen and the honor of woman were held sacred. If outrages were committed, they were out- rages of a very diiferent kind from those of which a victorious army is generally guilty. No servant girl complained of the rough gal- lantry of the red-coats ; not an ounce of plate was taken from the shops of the goldsmiths ; but a Pelagian sermon, or a window on which the Virgin and Child were painted, produced in the Puritan ranks an excitement which it required the utmost exertions of the officers to quell. One of Cromwell's chief difficulties was to restrain his pikemen and dragoons from invading by main force the pulpits of ministers whose discourses, to use the lan- guage of that time, were not savory ; and too many cathedrals still bear the marks of the hatred with which those stern spirits regarded every vestige of popery. — Macavlay. Charles I. w\as betrayed by the Scotch, and brought to the scaffold. For this step Crom- well should not alone be held responsible. He acquiesced in what he could not have prevented, had he desired a quieter result. England was declared a commonwealth. Ireland and Scotland raised the standard of the second Charles. Cromwell, in 1649, went to Ireland, which he subdued, and leav- ing Ireton as deputy, returned to England in 1650. Against the Scots, he gained the battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3d, 1 650, and that day twelve- month, defeated the royal forces at Worcester. The Rump parliament a,nd the army came in collision. Armed men cleared the house, and the victorious general was declared lord high protector of the commonwealth, Dec. 12th, 1653, by the Barebones parliament. Opposed as he was by both royalists and republicans, he could be safe only by being absolute. The government, in form' a re- public, was • in truth a military despotism, moderated by the wisdom, the sober-minded- ness, and the magnanimity of the protector. The laws were violated only when demanded for the safety of his person or government. The cavalier who refrained from disturbance was unmolested. Justice M'as administered with exactness and purity not before known. Never, since the reformation, had there been so little religious persecution. Cromwell's foreign policy extorted the ungracious approbation of those who most detested him. England had been of scarcely more weight in European politics than Yen- ice or Saxony. She at once became the most formidable power in the world, dictated terms of peace to Holland, avenged the common injuries of Christendom on the pirates of Barbary, vanquished the Spaniards by sea and land, seized one of the finest West India islands, and acquired on the Flemish coast a fortress which consoled the national pride for the loss of Calais. She was su- preme on the ocean. She was the head of the Protestant interest. All the Protestant churches scattered over Roman Catholic kingdoms acknowledged CromAvell as their guardian. The pope himself was forced to preach humanity and moderation to popish princes ; for a voice which seldom threatened in vain had declared that, unless fevor were shown to the people of God, English guns should be heard in the castle of vSaint Angelo. The protector had thus conquered peace at home and triumph abroad. The death of his favorite daughter smote him sorely ; he became depressed in spirits, was seized with a slow fever, and died, Sept. 3d, 1658. This best and greatest ruler that England has ever had was buried with more than regal pomp in Westminster Abbey. In mean revenge, after the restoration, his body was torn from its sanctuary and exposed upon the gallows at Tyburn, CRO HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 247 CROMWELL, KiCHAKD, succeeded his fa- ther as protector of England, was soon deposed by the army, and lived a quiet life as a coun- tr}' gentleman. CROMWELL, Thomas, Earl of Essex, son of a blacksmith at Putney, in Surrey, was born about the year 1490. Early in life he became clerk to the English factory at Ant- werp, which he left to serve in Italy, where he fought beneath the banners of the Consta- ble of Bourbon. Returning home, he was taken into the service of Cardinal Wolsej^, who procured him a seat in the House of Commons. When Wolsey fell, Cromwell be- came a servant of the king, was raised to the office of chancellor of the exchequer, and in 1534: made secretary of state and master of the rolls. About this time he was also elected chancellor of Cambridge. The next year he was appointed visitor-general of the monaste- ries. In 1530 he was made lord keeper of the privy -seal, and the same year advanced to the peerage by the title of Lord Cromwell ; and the papal supremacy being abolished, he was nominated the king's vicar-general in the convocation. In 1537 he was appointed chief- justice itinerant of all the forests beyond Trent, elected knight of the garter, and made dean of Wells. To these honors was added the grant of many manors after the dissolution of the monasteries, and in 1539 he was cre- ated Earl of Essex. Soon after, his fortune declined as fast as it had risen. His ruin was hastened by the marriage which he projected between Henry and Anne of Cleves, and he was sent to the Tower, where he was deserted by all his friends except Cranmer, who, how- ever, could not save him from the scaffold, and he suffered death with fortitude, July 28th, 1540. CRUDEN, Alexander, author of a well- known biblical concordance, was born in Ab- erdeen, May 31st, 1701. He was exceedingly eccentric, and at times insane. He was found dead in his chamber in the attitude of prayer, Nov. 1st, 1770. CRUSADES, the name given to the expe- ditions fitted out by the Christian warriors of Europe, for the recovery of the Holy Land, from the end of the eleventh to the end of the thirteenth century. The crusaders derived their name from the badge of the cross which was wrought upon their mantles and appeared in various parts of their equipments. The age was one in which the people were pecul- iarly adapted to the reception of enthusiastic religious impulses. The Christians could not bear to think that the places which they held so dear, and which the history of their religion hallowed, should be desecrated by the pres- ence of infidels, and rendered dangerous to those pilgrims whom reverence called to Pal- estine. The church called upon the chivalry of Europe, and the knights responded to the summons. The rise of the crusades is immediately at- tributable to the enthusiasm of a wandering pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, who, having experienced the tyrannical exactions imposed on the visitors of the holy sepulchre, repre- sented them to Urban II. in such lively colors, that the prelate selected him as the instrument of a grand design which he had formed to overthrow the Mohammedan power, and Peter, armed with the holy commission, went from province to province, to kindle up that enthu- siasm by which he was himself consuming. When the feelings of the people and the po- tentates appeared ripe for some wild project, Urban held a council in the open fields at Pi- acenza, and proposed his scheme, which was warmly applauded, but not as warmly em- braced. Another council was therefore held at Clermont, graced by the presence of am- bassadors from all nations, and the result was as favorable as he could have anticipated. The pope held out to the crusaders the promise of spiritual pardon, and imposed on them only the penance of plunder for their sins. Thus excited, the enthusiasm became general ; no- blemen sold their estates for outfits ; the meanest lords of the manors set forth at their own expense ; the poor gentlemen followed them as esquires ; and above 80,000 collected under the banners of the cross. Godfrey of Boulogne was at the head of 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, splendidly armed, were under the command of many lords, who were joined by Hugh, brother to Philip I; of France, Ray- mond of Toulouse, Bohemond, King of Sicily, and others of equal and less note. A propo- sal was made to the pope to put himself at their head, but he refused. This refusal, however, did not damp their ardor. Confiding in their cause, their numbers, and their equipments, they traversed Germany CRU 248 COTTAGE. CYCLOPEDIA OF and Hungary, took Nice, Antioch, and Edessa, and arrived at Jerusalem. The city was taken by storm, after five weeks' siege, July 15th, 1099. The numerous inhabitants and garri- son were put to the sword. Neither aa-ms defended the valiant nor submission the timid ; no age or sex was spared; infants on the breast were pierced by the same blow with their mothers who implored for mercy. Even a multitude to the number of ten thousand, who had surrendered themselves prisoners, and were promised quarter, were butchered in cold blood by these ferocious conquerors. The streets of Jerusalem were covered with corpses ; and the triumphant warriors, after every enemy was subdued or slaughtered, im- mediately turned themselves in humiliation toward the holy sepulchre ! They threw away their weapons still streaming with blood ; they advanced, with bowed heads, and naked feet and hands, to that sacred monument ; they sung anthems to their Saviour, who had there purchased their salvation by his death and agony ; and their devotion so overcame their fury, that they dissolved in tears, and bore the appearance of every soft and tender sen- timent. So inconsistent is human nature with itself! and so easily does superstition ally, both with the most heroic courage and with the fiercest barbarity ! Godfrey of Boulogne, not M'ithout opposition from the priests, was elected King of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. In 1102, an immense army which departed for the Holy Land, was defeated, and no fewer than 200,000 men lost to Europe by the en- terprise. The capture of Baldwin and the loss of Edessa occasioned a new crusade in 1147. France again gave the impulse to the relig- ious excitement. Pope Eugenius IH. induced St. Bernard of Clairvaux to act the part of Peter the Hermit, and the consequence was that Louis the Young, accompanied by his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, departed for the Holy Land, and Conrad IH., in whose hands the red cross was placed, led a large army into Asia. Both of them, however, were unsuc- cessful. The unfortunate issue of the second crusade was precipitated by the dissensions of the Christians, and the uncommon abilities of Sa- ladin, who, advancing at the head of an army that placed implicit confidence in the courage and skill of their leader, animated by a relig- ious fury no less absorbing than that which filled the breast of the crusaders, threw him- self upon Jerusalem, which, unable to hold out against him, once more echoed to the shouts of Saracen conquerors, as they again erected their crescent on the ramparts of the city. The Christians lost all their possessions but Antioch, Tripoli, Joppa, and Tyre. The leaders of the third crusade (1189) were Frederick I. of Germany, surnamed Barbaros- sa, the chivalric Philip Augustus of France, and the lion-hearted Richard L of England. Barbarossa was ultimately unsuccessful, but the monarchs of France and England took possession of Ptolemais or Acre. Philip Au- gustus, from motives of jealousy, left the field to Richard, who proved himself a worthy rival of Saladin, and the two commanders performed wonderful feats of arms which were the ad- miration of both armies. The fourth c^'usade was conducted by Andrew H. of Hungary, and the fifth by Frederick IL of Germany. The results of these ought to have shown that the Christians could not hope to gain permanent possession of the country. In 1270 St. Louis, King of France, undertook the sixth and last crusade, which, though well conceived, and vigorously carried on, was unsuccessful. In this last crusade no fewer than 150,000 persons perished: add to this the numbers that died in former expedi- tions, and it will be seen that the east was the tomb of above two millions of Europeans; and several countries were depopulated and impoverished by the crusades. Yet the holy wars were not without good. They created an intimate connection and a constant inter- course between the nations of Europe, which, as it was favorable to commercial enterprise, increased the wealth, improved the arts, and contributed to establish the civilization of the Christian world. CUBA, subject to Spain, is the largest of the West Indies. Its area is 42,383 square miles, and its population exceeds a million, of whom about one-half are slaves. The island is rich and fertile, producing sugar, coffee, and tobacco abundantly. Havana, the capital of Cuba, is on the northern coast of the island ; population, composed of whites, mulattois, and negroes, 150,000. The streets of the city are dirty, but the strongly fortified harbor is one of the finest in the world. The public CUB HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 249 edifices of the city, particularly the Catholic churches, are very splendid. The commerce of Havana is extensive and increasing. It was founded in 1511, by Diego Velasquez, and has been twice taken by the English, but was restored to Spain in 1763. The bones of Columbus repose in the cathedral of Havana. Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492. In 1511 it was conquered by the Spaniards, and as little gain was anticipated from mines, the natives were cruelly exterminated. In 1762 a powerful expedition for the conquest of the island was fitted out by the British, and Havana capitulated in August. The plunder obtained by the British was immense. By the treaty of 1763, Cuba was restored to the Spaniards. An expedition headed by Lo- pez, to wrest Cuba from Spanish dominion, landed on the island May 17th, 1850, and ended in defeat and disaster. Lopez made a second attempt in August, 1851. His party was taken, fifty of them shot, and he himself garrotted at Havana. CULLODEN MUIR, a heath in Scotland, where the Duke of Cumberland defeated the young Pretender, after an obstinate resistance, on the 16th of April, 1746. Prince Charles sought safety in flight among the Highland wilds. The duke's troops practiced great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenseless inhabitants near the field of battle. The defeat quenched the hopes of the house of Stuart forever. CUMBERLAND, William Augustus, Duke of, second son of George II., was born in 1721. He was wounded at the battle of Det- tingen, but refused the assistance of a surgeon until the latter had finished dressing the wound of a poor soldier who had been shot at the same time with himself He com- manded the British army at the battles of Fontenoy and Val, which were lost through the cowardice of the Dutch troops. In 1746 he defeated the Pretender at Culloden, but disgraced his character by his cruel treatment of the vanquished. He died in 1765. CUMBERLAND, Richard, an English dramatist and miscellaneous author, son of the Bishop of Clonfert, was born in 1732, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He died in London, May 7th, 1811. His fame rests altogether on his comic dramas. He was extremely sensitive, self-conceited, and jealous, and Sheridan, considering him as fair game, held him up to ridicule as Sir Fret- ful Plagiary in "The Critic." He was much annoyed at the success of the "School for Scandal," and it was only for fear of exciting ridicule by refusing to witness it, that he carried two of his children to sec the play. Cumberland sat behind them, the picture of jealousy and envy. When they laughed at any witticisms, in common with the audience, Cumberland would gravely extend a finger and thumb, inflict a severe pinch, and say, " What are you laughing at, my dears ? • I don't see anything to laugh at." CUNNERSDORF, a village on the Oder, at no great distance from Frankfort, where Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked the Russian and Austrian army of 90,000 in their camp, and at first gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and retrieved a complete victory. The Prussians lost two hundred guns, and 20,000 men in killed and wounded, Aug. 12th, 1759. CURIUS DENTATUS, Marcus Annius, a Roman consul, famous for his fortitude and frugality. He gained several victories, and defeated Pyrrhus, B.C. 272. The Samnite ambassadors found him cooking some vege- tables for his dinner in an earthen pot, yet he indignantly refused the vessels of gold with which they attempted to bribe him. CURRAN, John Philpott, was born of humble parents, near Cork, in 1750. He was called to the bar in 1775. In his boyhood he had been afiiicted like Demosthenes, and his nickname at school was "stuttering Jack Curran." This impediment, like Demos- thenes, he overcame, and became famous for his forensic and parliamentary oratory. He entered the Irish parliament about 1785. His eloquence shone in his conversation as well, and was rivaled by his wit and sarcasm. Byron said that Curran spoke more poetry than any man had ever written. This admira- tion the Irishman did not fully reciprocate. He constantly objected to Byron's moody egotism as the great drawback on his poetry. "Any subject," said Curran, "but that eter- nal one of self I weary of knowing once a month the state of any man's hopes or fears, rights or wrongs. I would as soon read a register of the weather, the barometer up so CUR 250 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF many inches to day, and down so many inches to-morrow. I feel skepticism all over me at the sight of agonies on paper, things that come as regular and notorious as the full of the moon. The truth is, his lordship weeps for the press, and wipes his eyes with the public." In the Irish parliament, when once merci- lessly exposing the corruption of the place- men, Curran spoke of the immaculate virtue of "those saints on the pension list; they toil not, neither do they spin, but they are arrayed like Solomon in his glory." At another time he used this strong figure con- cerning those whose path to power had lain through treachery to Ireland : " Those found- lings of fortune, overwhelmed in the torrent of corruption at an early period, lay at the bottom like drowned bodies, while soundness ■or sanity remained in them ; but at length becoming buoyant by putrefaction, they rose as they rotted, and floated to the surface of the polluted stream, where they were drifted along, the objects of terror, and contagion, and abomination." Of his wit many tales are related. Lundy Foot, a celebrated tobacconist, set up a car- riage, and asked Curran for a Latin motto. " Quid rides," said Curran. Being told that a very stingy and slovenly barrister had started for the continent with a shirt and a guinea, " He'll not change either till he comes back," said Curran. He was cross-examin- ing a witness : "My lord, my lord," cried the fellow to the judge, " I can't answer yon little gentleman, he's putting me in such a dol- drum." "A doldrum! Mr. Curran, what does he mean by a doldrum ! " exclaimed Lord Avonmore. "Oh, my lord, it's a very common complaint with persons of this sort : it's merely a confusion of the head arising from the corruption of the heart." Once when he was arguing for the defense in a state trial, the judge shook his head in doubt or denial at one of his points. " I see, gen- tlemen," said Curran to the jury, "I seethe motion of his lordship's head. Common ob- servers might imagine it implied a difference of opinion ; but they would be mistaken : it is merely accidental. Believe me, gentlemen, if you remain here many days, you will your- selves perceive that when his lordship shakes his head, there is nothing in it." Curran died in London in 1817. CURTIUS, Marcus, a noble Roman youth, of whom it is related, that when a pestilential chasm opened in the Roman forum, 302 u. c, and the oracle declared that it could only be closed when the most precious thing in Rome was thrown into it, Curtius, saying that arms and courage were mvaluable, assumed his military dress, and mounting an armed horse, sprang into the abyss, which closed over him forever. CUSHING, TnoMAs, a patriotic American, born in 1725. He early obtained a seat in the general court of Massachusetts, and was chosen speaker of the house of representatives. The supposed extent of his influence induced Doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet " Taxation no Tyrannjr," to remark, " One object of the Americans is said to be, to adorn the brows of Mr. Cushing with a diadem." Mr. C. was a member of the two first continental con- gresses, and of the council of Massachusetts, and was created judge of the court of com- mon pleas, and of probate in the county of Suffolk. Having been honored with the post of lieutenant-governor of his native state, he died in 1788. CUTLER, Timothy, a talented American divine, some time president of Yale College. He became rector of Christ Church, in Bos- ton, and died in his eighty -second j'ear, Aug. 17th, 1765. CUVIER, George Leopold Christian Frederic Dago^ert, Baron of, a celebrated French naturalist, born at Montbeliard, Aug. 25th, 1769. His researches are well known to the generality of readers. He died at Paris, May 13th, 1832. CYCLADES, in ancient geography a name given to certain islands in the iEgean Sea, particularly those that surround Delos as with a circle. They werp subjected by Mil- tiades, but revolted during the Persian inva- sion. CYPRUS, an island in the Mediterranean, famed among the ancients for its uncommon fertility and the mildness of its climate. It now contains 140,000 wretched inhabitants. Venus was worshiped here, and the ancient Cyprians were much given to love and pleas- ure. Its original colonists are unknown. The Egyptians took it in 550 e.g., and the Romans, 58 B.C.. It was occupied for some CYP HISTOEY AND- BIOGRAPHY. 251 time by the Arabs on the decline of the Ro- man empire. They were, however, driven from it during the crusades, and the title of King of Cyprus was for some time held by Richard I. of England. In 1480, it fell into the hands of the Venetians, from whom it was wrested, in 1571, by the Turks, CYRUS. Concerning this monarch there are two distinct and irreconcilable accounts, those of Herodotus and Xenophon. The latter, in his " Cyropedia," has rather given us the picture of what a monarch should be, than of what a monarch was, and the account of Herodotus is generally adhered to in historical narratives. Cyrus, King of Per- sia, was the son of Cambyses and Maudane, the daughter of Astyages, the last monarch of Media. From a belief that he was fated to dethrone his grandfother, he was exposed as soon as born; but was preserved by a shepherdess, who educated him as her own son. As he was playing with his equals in years, he was elected a king in one of their sports, and he exercised his power with such independent spirit, that he ordered' one of his companions to be whipped severely for diso- bedience. The father of the boy, who was a nobleman, complained to the king of the ill treatment which his son had received from a shepherd's boy. Astyages ordered Cyrus before him, and discovered that he was Mau- dane's son, from whom he had so much to apprehend. He therefore treated him with suspicious coldness ; and ^yrus, unable to bear his tyranny, escaped from his confine- ment and began to levy troops to dethrone his grandfather. He was assisted and en- couraged by the ministers of Astyages, who were displeased with his oppression. Cyrus marched against and defeated Astyages in a battle fought b.c. 5 GO. From this victory the empire of Media became tributary to the Per- sians. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against Croesus, King of Lydia, whom he conquered b.c. 548. He invaded the kmgdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon by turning the course of the Euphrates, and marching his troops through the bed of the river under the walls, while the people were celebrating a grand festival. He afterward led his troops against Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetge, a Scyth- ian nation, but was defeated in a bloody battle, B.C. 529. The victorious queen, who had lost her son in a previous encounter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood ; crying, " Satisfy thyself with the blood for which thou hast thirsted." CYRUS, the Younger, was the son of Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes. On the death of his father, he attempted the life of his brother, to obtain the throne, -but was pardoned through the intercession of his mother, Parysatis. He then obtained the governorship of Lydia, whence he marched against his brother. The war ended with the death of Cyrus, B.C. 400. Several thou- sand Greeks accompanied Cyrus in his ex- pedition, and their retreat, led by Xenophon, and by him described, is a memorable chap- ter of ancient history. CYTHERA, the ancient name of an island in the Ionian sea, now Cerigo, containing a population of 8,000. Venus was wor- shiped here, and here was one of her most splendid temples; hence she was called Cytherea. CYT 252 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP D. DACIER, Anna Lefevre (the wife of An- drew Dacier), was born in France in 1651. She was celebrated for her learning and beauty. She edited and translated several of the ancient classics, and distinguished her- self by her defense of Homer in answer to Lamotte. She died in 1720. DAEDALUS, an artist and machinist of Athens, who lived three generations before the Trojan war. He was the builder of the Cretan labyrinth. Being imprisoned with his son, Icarus, he is said to have invented wings cemented with wax, by which they soared high in the air. Icarus, neglecting the instructions of his father, fell into the sea, which was named from him the Icarian. His father reached Sicily, and founded a town there. DAGUERRE, L. J. M., an artist of France, eminent for the discovery of the process for taking pictures upon metal plates, through the action of light. He was born in 1789, and died July 10th, 1851. DAHOMY, a fertile kingdom of western Africa, the people of which are ferocious. The king's sleeping-chamber is paved with the skulls, and ornamented with the jaw- bones, of his vanquished enemies. DALE, Richard, a commodore in the American navy, was born in Virginia in 1756. He served on board the Bon Homme Richard under Paul Jones, and was the first to spring to the deck of the Serapis in the bloody en- gagement which resulted in her capture. He died at Philadelphia, Feb. 24th, 1826. D'ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond, a distin- guished mathematician and astronomer, born at Paris in 1717, died in 1783. He wtis the son of Madame de Tencin and the poet Des- touches, who exposed him while an infant. At ten years of age, the principal of the school in which he received his early educa- tion, declared that his pupil had learned all that he could teach him. He undertook to write the mathematical part of the " Diction- naire Encyclopedique," and contributed many admirable articles to it, which, however, in- volved him in the attacks made upon the work He refused the brilliant offers of Fred- eric XL of Prussia, and Catherine of Rus- sia, tempting him to settle in their respective capitals. DALLAS, Alexander James, a native of Jamaica, an able lawyer, who came to this country, in 1783, and held various responsi- ble oflBces under our government, being made secretary of the treasury in 1814. In 1815, he assumed the duties of secretary of war, and on hii^i devolved the task of reducing the army. He died Jan. 16th, 1817, aged fifty- seven. DAMIENS, Robert Francois, a crazy fa- natic, who stabbed Louis XV., at Versailles, on the 5th of January, 1757. He had long meditated the deed, and took opium to pre- pare himself After the most cruel tortures, he was broken on the wheel, March 28th, 1757. DAMON and PYTHIAS, two Syracusans, who were" devotedly attached to each other. Dionysius condemned Pythias to death, but allowed him to absent himself in order to arrange his affairs, on condition that Damon should remain as hostage. The appointed time having expired, Damon was led to the scaffold, and the executioner was about to raise his axe, when Pythias arrived, breath- less with haste, threw himself into the arms of his friend, and embraced him tenderly. Dionysius, moved by the scene, in common with the people, restored both the friends to the enjoyment of life and liberty, 387 b.c. DAMPIER, William, an English circum- navigator, born in 1652, known for his adventures in both hemispheres. DANDOLO, Henry, a doge of Venice, filled that highest office in the gift of the republic in 1192, being then eighty -four years old. Neither his age nor his defective vision pre- vented him from discharging his duties with honor. Joining the fourth crusade, he was the first to spring on shore with the standard of St. Mark, at the storming of Constantino- ple. He died at the age of ninety-seven. There were several other doges of this family. DANTE. The city of Florence ranks next to Athens in its classic associations. There DAN HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 253 certainly is no city so modern, yet so linked to the past. Time seems here almost to have spared the footprints of the great men whose fame has defied him. In the rooms of Mi- chael Angelo, his staff leans in the corner, his unfinished sketches lie upon the table. One may press the same stairs which John Milton ascended when he visited Galileo. Among the great names associated with this city, there is one other, before which every man bows who has been touched by the tragedy of life, — Alighieri Durante, better known as Dante, who in Italian literature is the Homer and the Shakspeare. Dante was born in 1265. He was provided by his early widowed mother with the best education which could be obtained in that age. It was a custom in Florence to celebrate the return of spring by May-day festivities ; and it was probably upon one of these occasions, at her father's house, that he was inspired with the beauty of Beatrice Portinari. He tells us that she was so beautiful that all the citizens crowded to see her when she walked in the city, and so pure that they bent down their eyes in her presence. She became the wife of another person, and died in 1290, when Dante was in his twenty -fifth year. He was married the year after, but he never forgot her. At the time of the troubles between the Bianchi and Neri, two factions of the Guelphs in Florence, Dante espoused the ctuse of the former. The latter gained the mastery. He was banished in 1302, and his property confiscated. He went from place to place, restless and un- happy, loathing a state of dependence, yet unable to retrieve his fortune. He died at Ravena, Sept. 14th, 1321. The fame of his "Divina Commedia" is imperishable, and the Florentines, who had persecuted him during his lifetime, paid him the highest honors at his death. His characters were those of his own period, with whose history the public were acquainted, and whose fami- lies and descendants were alive, and fre- quently in the enjoyment of wealth and power. But the position in which he placed them, threw an interest round their story, stronger than could have been produced by the adventures of any individual, however illus- trious, of a more remote date. The terror and pity, and in some cases the vengeance, of the Italians were awakened, when the shadowy forms of their contemporaries were made to pass in review before them, stripped of those external advantages which while living had rendered them respected, and had cast a veil over their crimes. The cruel husband shrunk from the picture of his murdered wife, herself condemned to perdition, yet prophesying that for him was destined the lowest pit in hell. The son beheld his father plunged in eternal woe, yet continuing to feel a tender interest in his welfare. The ti'eacherous assassin, who still occupied his place among the nobles of the land, trembled at seeing himself rep- resented as in hell, while, according to the bold sujiposition of the poet, a demon ani- mated his bod3^ The ' mighty mantle ' itself was no protection to the wearer : Pope Nich- olas III., plunged headforemost in the flames, was represented as waiting there for the arrival of his guilty successors. The effect was indescribable. Some, unable to endure the contempt of their countrymen, condemned themselves to voluntaiy exile ; some, struck with terror and despair, died broken-hearted ; and others fell victims to the private ven- geance of the poet's friends. DANTON, George Jacques, a foremost actor in the French revolution, was born at Arcis-sur-Aube, October 28th, 1759. After the assassination of Marat and the fall of the Girondins, Danton and Robespierre came in conflict, and the former was guillotined, April 5 th, 1794. He combined some of the greatest and most odious qualities. He has been called the colossus of the revolution, "head of gold, bosom of flesh, loins of brass, feet of clay," and characterized as a " gigan- tic mass of valor, ostentation, fury, affection, and wild revolutionary force and manhood." DARDxiNELLES, are the fortifications on the European and Asiatic sides of the Helles- pont, which is hence called the ' Strait of the Dardanelles.' DARIUS. The name of several sovereigns of Persia, of whom the first is the most cele- brated. Darius I., a noble satrap of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, and conspired with six other noblemen, to destroy Smerdis, the usurper of the Persiiir. crown. After the death of the usurper, it was agreed among the conspirators that he whose horse first neighed should be appointed king. In con- sequence of this singular resolution, the DAR 254 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF groom of Darius led his master's horse -with a mare to the place near which the seven noblemen were to pass. On the morrow before sunrise, when they proceeded all to- gether, the horse of Darius neighed, and he was saluted by his companions king, b.c. 522. He soon showed himself fit to grace the throne. He took Babylon, and conquered Thrace ; was defeated by the Scythians, but favored by fortune in his campaign against the Indians. The burning of Sardis, which was a Grecian colony, incensed the Athenians, and a war was kindled between them and the Persians, in which the latter were un- successful. Undismayed at the disaster at Marathon and his immense losses, Darius resolved to lead his troops to Greece in person, but died in the midst of his warlike prepara- tions, B.C. 485. Darius II., or Darius Nothus, reigned 423-404 b.c. Darius III., surnamed Codomanus, the son of Arsanes and Sysi- gambis, was descended from Darius Nothus. He was no sooner seated on the throne than Alexander of Macedon invaded his kingdom. The Persians were defeated in the battles of the Granicus and Issus ; in the last of which, Darius, leaving his wife, children, and mother, fled in disguise on the horse of his armor- bearer, and was saved by the darkness of the night. Being again defeated in the battle of Arbela, Darius in despair fled to Media, where he was killed by Bessus, the perfidious governor of Bactria, and was found by the Macedonians in his chariot, ejjpiring of his wounds, B.C. 331. For this murder Bessus Buffered a horrible death. Four trees having been with great exertion bent down to the ground, he was bound upon them, a limb tied to each. The trees being loosed flew back with great violence, rending his body in pieces. DARKE, William, usually called Major Darke, a brave veteran officer, born in Phila- delphia county, 1736, served in the war of 1755-63 ; again in the Revolutionary war, and finally in the Indian war, under Gen. St. Clair, and died November 20th, 1801. DARLING, Grace. Off the coast of North- umberland in England, there lies a group of small islets or rocks, some of which can be seen only at low water; they are called the Fame Islands. Their aspect is wild and des- olate in no common degree. Composed of rock, with a slight covering of herbage, and in many places ending in sheer precipices, they are the residence of little else thaji wild fowl. Between the smaller islets the sea makes with great force, and many a ship in times past has laid her bones upon the pitiless rocks which every ebb tide exposes to view. Upon Longstone, one of the outer cluster known as the Staples, there stands a light- house, which at one time was kept by William Darling, a worthy and intelligent man, of quiet manners, with resources of mind and character sufllcient to turn to profitable use the many lonely hours which his position nec- essarily entailed upon him. He had a numer- ous family of children ; among them a daugh- ter Grace, who had reached the age of twenty- two years when the incident occurred which has made her name so famous. She had passed most of her life upon the little island of Longstone, and is described as having been of a retiring and somewhat reserved disposi- tion. In personal appearance, she was about the middle size, of a fair complexion and pleasing countenance, with nothing masculine in her aspect, but gentle and feminine, and, as might be supposed, with a winning expres- sion of benevolence in her face. Her smile was particularly sweet. She had a good un- derstanding, and had been respectably edu- cated. On Wednesday evenftg, Sept. 5th, 1838, the steamer Forfarshire, of about three hun- dred tons' burden, under the command of Captain John Humble, sailed from Hull for Dundee in Scotland. She had a valuable cargo of bale goods and sheet iron ; and her company, including twenty-two cabin and nineteen steerage passengers, comprised sixty- three persons. On the evening of the next day, when in the neighborhood of the Fame Islands, she encountered a severe storm of wind, attended with a heavy rain and a dense fog. She leaked to such a degree that the fires could not be kept burning, and her en- gines soon ceased to work. She became wholly unmanageable, and drifting violently, at the mercy of the winds and waves, struck on one of the reefs of Longstone Island, about four o'clock on Friday morning. As too often happens in such fearful emer- gencies, the master lost his self-possession, order and discipline ceased, and nothing but DAR HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, 255 self-preservation was thought of. A portion of the crew, including the first mate, lowered one of the boats and left the ship. With them was a single cabin passenger, who threw himself into the boat by means of a rope. These men were picked up, after some hours, and carried into the port of Shields. The scene on board was fearful : men paralyzed by despair ; women wringing their hands and shrieking with anguish ; and among them the helpless and bewildered master, whose wife, clinging to him, frantically besought the pro- tection he could no longer give. The vessel struck aft the paddle boxes ; and not above three minutes after the passengers (most of whom had been below, and many of them in their berths) had rushed upon the deck, a second shock broke her into two pieces. The after part, with most of the passengers and the captain and his wife, was swept away through a tremendous current, and the thirty- five or forty wretches perished in the waves. The fore part, on which were five of the crew and four passengers, stuck fast to the rock. These few survivors remained in their dreadful situation till daybreak, with a fearful sea run- ning around them, and expecting every mo- ment to be swept into the deep. With what anxious eyes did they wait for the morning light ! and yet what could mortal help avail them even then? Craggy and dangerous rocky islets lay betwee'n them and the nearest land, and around these rocks a sea was raging - in which no boat was likely to live. But, through the providence of God, a deliverance was in store for them ; a deliverance wrought by the strong heart of an heroic girl. As soon as day broke on the morning of the 7th, they were descried from the Longstone light, by the Darlings, at nearly a mile's distance. None of the family were at home, except Mr. and Mrs. Darling and Grace. Although the wind had somewhat abated, the sea (never calm among these jagged rocks) was still fiercely raging ; and to have braved its perils would have done the highest honor to the strong muscles and well-tried nerves of the stoutest man. But what shall be said of the errand of mercy having been undertaken and accomplished mainly through a female heart and arm ! Mr. Darling was reluctant to ex- pose himself to what seemed certain destruc- tion; but the earnest entreaties of his daugh- ter determined him to make the attempt. At her solicitation the boat was launched, with the mother's assistance; and father and daughter entered it, each taking an oar. It is worthy of notice that Grace never had oc- casion to assist in the boat previous to the wreck of the Forfarshire, others of the family being always at hand. ~ It was only by the exertion of great mus- cular 6itrength, as well as by the utmost cool- ness and resolution, that the father and daugh- tt;r rowed the boat up to the rock. And when there, a greater danger arose from the diffi- culty of so managing it as to prevent its being dashed to pieces upon the sharp ridge which had proved fatal to the steamer. With much difiiculty and danger, the father scrambled upon the rock, and the boat was left for a while to the unaided strength and skill of the daughter. However, the nine sufferers were safely rescued. The delight with which the boat was first seen was converted into amaze- ment when they perceived that it was guided and impelled by an old man and a slight young woman. Owing to the violence of the storm, the rescued persons were obliged to remain at the lighthouse of the Darlings from Friday morning till Sunday, during which time Grace was most assiduous in her kind attentions to the sufferers, giving up her bed to one of them, a poor woman who had seen her two children perish in her arms, while on the wreck. This heroic deed of Grace Darling's shot a thrill of sympathy and admiration through all Great Britain, and indeed through all Christendom. The Humane Society sent her a flattering vote of thanks and a piece of plate, and a considerable sum of money was raised for her from the voluntary contributions of an admiring public. The lonely lighthouse be- came the centre of attraction to thousands of curious and sympathizing travelers ; and Grace was pursued, questioned, and stared at to an extent that became a serious annoyance to her gentle and retiring spirit. But in all this hot blaze of admiration, and in her im- proved fortunes, she preserved unimpaired the simplicity and modesty of her nature. Her head was not in the least turned by the world- wide fame she had earned, or by the flattering caresses of the wealthy, the fashionable, and the distinguished, which were lavished upon her. The meekness with which she bore her DAR 256 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP honors equaled the courage which had won them. She resumed her former way of hfe, and her accustomed duties, as quietly as if nothing had happened. Several advantageous offers of marriage were made to her, but she declined them all ; usually alleging her deter- mination not to leave her parents while they lived. She was not destined long to enjoy the ap- plause she had earned, or the more substantial tokens of regard which had been bestowed upon her. She began to show symptoms of consumption toward the close of the year 1841 ; and although all the means of restora- tion which the most affectionate care and the best medical advice could suggest were re- sorted to, she gradually declined, and breathed her last, in calm submission to the will of God, Oct. 20th, 1842. Her funeral was very numerously attended, and a monument has been erected to her memory in Bamborough church-yard, where she was bmued. DARNLEY, Henry Stuart, Earl of, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, came to an untimely death ; his house being blown up in the night, Feb. 10th, 15G7. He was the fa- ther of James I. of England. [See Stuarts.] DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician and poet, born in 1731, at Elton, was the author of the "Botanic Garden" and other works. He died in 1802. DAUN, Leopold, Count, marshal of the German empire, and during the seven years' war the most successful opponent of Fred- erick the Great, died in 1706, aged sixty-one. DAVENANT, Sir William, an English poet of the seventeenth century, the author of "Gondibert," a heroic poem, and a the- atrical writer and manager under Charles H. He was born in 1605, and died in 1668. He succeeded Ben Jonson as poet-laureate. Scandal hinted that he was the natural son of Shakspeare. DAVID, Jacques Louis, a French painter, born at Paris in 1750, died at Brussels in 1825. David, though an uncompromising democrat, voting for the death of Louis XYL, was the favorite painter of Napoleon ; he was exiled on the emperor's fall. Among his finest works are "Paris and Helen," the "Rape of the Sabine Women," and "Napo- leon crossing the Alps." His best perform- ances in portrait-painting are the numerous likenesses of his imperial patron. The orig- inal sketch for one of these, which indeed was never afterward finished, was taken during the last few hours of unlimited power possessed by Napoleon in Paris. The greater part of the preceding day and night had been spent in arranging the final operations of the campaign which terminated in the battle of Waterloo. When now past midnight, instead of retiring to repose, the emperor sent for David, to whom he had promised to sit, and who was in waiting in an apartment of the Tuileries. "My friend," said Napoleon to the artist, "there are yet some hours till four, when we are finally to review the de- fenses of the capital ; in the mean time, do your utmost, while I read these dispatches." But exhausted nature could hold out no longer ; the paper dropped from the nerveless hand, and Napoleon sank to sleep. In this attitude the painter has represented him: the pale and lofty forehead, the care-worn fea- tures, the relaxed expression, the very accom- paniments, bear an impress inexpressibly tender and melancholy. With the dawn Napoleon awoke, and springing to his feet was about to address David, when a taper just expiring in its socket arrested his eye. Foltling his arms on his breast, a usual pos- ture of thought with him, he contemplated its dying struggles, when, with the last gleam, the rays of the morning sun penetrated through the half-closed window-curtains. "Were I superstitious," said Napoleon, a faint smile playing about his beautiful mouth, * "the first object on which my sight has rested this day might be deemed ominous ; but," pointing to the rising sun, " the augury is doubtful : at least the prayer of the Gre- cian hero will be recorded : we shall perish in light." DAYIDSON, LucRETiA Maria, displayed great talents for composition at the age of four years. She died of incessant applica- tion, August 27th, 1825. She was born at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, September 27th, 1808. She was a beautiful girl, and her poetic genius was of a high order. DAYIDSON, William, a native of Lan- caster county, Pennsylvania, was born in 1746, and in 1750, removed by his parents to Mecklenburg, N. C. At the opening of the Revolution, he entered the army, in which DAY HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 257 he rose to the rank of brigadier-general, and fell defending the passage of the Catawba River at Cowan's Ford, against Ijord Corn- wallis, Feb. 1st, 1781. DAVIE, William Richardson, a distin- guished character in the American Revolu- tion. He reached the rank of general, and was afterward governor of North Carolina, and envoy to France. He was born in Eng- land, 1756, and died at Camden, S. C, in 1820. He was a member of the convention that framed the federal constitution. DAVIES, Samuel, a distinguished Ameri- can divine, president of Nassau Hall (now Princeton College), born in Delaware, Nov. 3d, 1724, died in 17G2. DAVIS, John, an Enghsh navigator, who gave his name to the straits at the entrance of Baffin's Bay, which he entered in endeav- oring to discover the north-west passage in 1585. He afterward made two more voyages for the same purpose, and five to the East Indies in the Dutch service. He was killed by Japanese pirates on the coast of Malacca in 1605. DAVOUST, Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstadt and Prince of Eckmuhl, marshal and peer of France, born in 1770, died in 1823. He studied with Bonaparte, and served under him in his most brilliant cam- paigns. He only submitted to Louis XVII. when the hopes of Napoleon were irretrieva- bly destroyed. DAVY, Sir Humphrey, a distinguished English chemist, born in 1779, at Penzance, Cornwall, died at Geneva, May 29th, 1829. His experiments on the nature of explosive gas, to which his attention was directed by the frequent accidents occurring to mines from fire damps, resulted in the invention of the safety-lamp. Other important discov- eries were made by this distinguished man. DAY, John, the first printer who intro- duced the Greek and Saxon characters into England, died in 1584. Stephen Day was the first printer in New England, about 1638. DEAD SEA, the ancient Laeus Asphaltites^ a piece of water in Palestine, 180 miles in circuit, which occupies the space whereon the condemned cities of the vale of Siddim stood. The following account of it is from the pen of a traveler. " After the pilgrims had bathed in the Jordan, we left them and turned 17 down to the south, in company with three or four other English travelers, and a guard from the governor, to visit the Dead Sea. We rode across plains of ban-en sand for an hour and a half, when we stood upon the banks of this memorable lake. Without any reference to what others have said, I can testify to the following facts. The water is perfectly clear and transparent. The taste is bitter, and salt far beyond that of the ocean. It acts upon the tongue and mouth like alum, and smarts in the eye like camphor, and produces a burning pricking sensation over the whole body. It stiffened the hair of the head much like pomatum. The water has a much greater specific gravity than the human body, and hence, no efforts cause us to sink below the surface; and standing, perpendicularly, you would not descend lower than the arms. Although there was evidence in the sands thrown upon the beach, that in great storms there were waves, yet there appeared to be some foundation for the reports of its immo- bility. Notwithstanding there was a consid- erable breeze, the water lay perfectly lifeless. Historians say that large quantities of bitu- men were gathered from the surface of this lake ; and is it not quite possible, to say the least, that it formerly existed in such quanti- ties as to spread over the whole face of the sea, and thus effectually prevent the wind from interrupting its death-like quietude? Modern travelers state that there is very little of this substance now to be found, and cer- tainly we saw nothing like it. We saw no fish or living animals in the water, though birds were flying over it in variovis directions unharmed. We all noticed an unnatural gloom hanging, not merely over the sea, but also over the whole plain below Jericho. This is mentioned also by ancient historians. It had the appearance of the Indian summer of the valley. Like a vast funeral pall let down from heaven, it completely shuts out all prospect, at a short distance down the sea." DEANE, Silas, was a native of Groton, Conn. He was a member of the first con- gress, 1774. In June, 1776, he was sent to France as agent for the colonies, and the ensuing autumn was associated with Frank- lin and Lee as commissioner. His manage- ment was unsatisfactory, and he was recalled at the close of 1777. He was charged with DEA 258 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP using his official position for purposes of private gain. Returning to Europe after peace came, he died at Deal, England, in 1789, in great destitution. DExVRBURN, Henry, was born at Hamp- ton, N. H., 1751. He served with distinction through the Revolution. At the battle of Monmouth, Washington noticing his efficien- cy, sent to inquire what troops he com- manded. " Full-blooded Yankees from New Hampshire," was the answer. From 1801 to 1809, Gen. Dearborn was secretary of war. As the senior major-general he commanded the army in 1812 and 1813. From 1822 to 1824, he was minister to Portugal. He died in 1829. DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval commander, born in Maryland, January 5th, 1779. Soon after his entrance into the navy (1798), he received a first-lieutenancy, and for his gallant conduct in recovering the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, was promoted to the rank of captain. He suc- cessively commanded the Constitution, the Congress, the Chesapeake, and the United States. With the latter he captured the Macedonian, October 25th, 1812. In the war with Algiers in 1815, Decatur terrified the regency into submission in forty-eight hours ; was equally successful at Tripoli ; and procured the renunciation of tribute, and an agreement on the part of the Barbary powers, to regard captives as prisoners of war, and not slaves. Decatur was killed in a duel by Commodore Barron, March 22d, 1820. DECIUS, the name of a Roman consul who devoted himself to death in battle to save his country, B.C. 340. Also a Roman empe- ror of this name, who reigned from a.d. 249 till December, 251. He persecuted the Christians. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. At an early period in the contest between the mother country and her colonies, sagacious men saw that complete emancipation of the latter from the royal rule must come. Many of the patriots did not anticipate this, but the progress of events brought about the mea- sure which men like Patrick Henry, Benja- min Franklin, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Paine, Timothy Dwight, had long foreseen and desired. North Carolina wa' the first colony that formally instructed her delegates to sustain such a measure, in April, 1776. Indeed, in Mecklenburg county, a year pre- vious, the lovers of liberty had declared them- selves independent of the crown, and framed a republican government. The lead of North Carolina was followed by Massachusetts, Virginia, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and New Jersey. Maryland positively forbade her delegates to vote for independence. The delegates of the other colonies were left to act as they thought best. Virginia had taken a step in advance of her sisters: she had desired her delegates to propose a declaration of independence. Ac- cordingly, on the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee moved the resolution, " That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that all political connection be- tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." John Adams seconded it. This bold and concise resolve made great inroad upon the doubt and delay and hesitation which had clung about the subject in the minds of many. A com- mittee wa, , selected to draught a declaration ; it consisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Frankhn of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New York. Mr. Lee had been summoned away by the illness of his wife, and hence Mr. Jefferson was put upon the committee in his stead. To Mr. Jefferson was assigned the writing of the document, and his draught, after a few slight emendations by Adams and Franklin, was unanimously adopted by the committee. It met more criticism and altera- tion in Congress, to which body it was re- ported on the 1st of July. Mr. Lee's resolu- tion was adopted on the 2d, and the declara- tion on the 4th. In the subjoined copy of the Declaration of Independence, those portions in italic are the passages of the original draught which were omitted or changed by Congress, and the sub- stitutions follow within brackets. "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in general Con- gress assembled. "When, in the course of human events, it DEO HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 259 becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. " We hold these truths to be self-evident ; that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with inlierent and inalienahle [certain unalienable] rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure the serights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- ing their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of gov- ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abol- ish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dic- tate, that governments, long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, 'begun at a distingidslied period, and pursuing invaria- bly the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such gov- ernment, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to ex- punge [alter] their former systems of govern- ment. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of unremitting [re- peated] injuries and usurpations; among ■which a.p2-)ears no solitary fact to contradict the uniform tenor of the rest; hut all have, [having] in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world ; foi' the truth of tehich we pledge a faith yet unsullied hy falsehood. " He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good " He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pre.ssing importance, unless suspended in then operation till his assent should be obtained ; and when so sus- pended, he has neglected utterly [utterly neglected] to attend to them. " He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. " He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. "He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly and continually, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. " He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise, the state remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsions within. "He has endeavored to prevent the popula- tion of these states ; for that purpose ob- structing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encour- age their migration hither ; and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. ^'Ee has suffered the ndministration of justice totally to cease in some of these states, [He has obstructed the administration of justice by] refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powere. " He has made our judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. "He has created a multitude of new oflHces ly a self-assumed poioer, and sent hither swarms of oflBcers to harass our people and eat out their substance. " He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies and ships oficar, without the consent of our legislatures. DEC 2(30 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF " He has affected to render the mihtary inde- pendent of, and superior to, the civil power. " He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : "For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; "For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states ; " For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; "For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; " For depriving us [in many cases] of the benefits of trial by jury ; " For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses ; " For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introduc- ing the same absolute rule into these states [colonies] ; "For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering funda- mentally the forms of our governments ; " For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. " He has abdicated government here, with- ilmwing his governors, and [by] declaring us out of his allegiance and protection, and waging war against us. " He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large ar- mies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy [scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally] unworthy the head of a civilized nation. "He has constrained others [our fellow- citizens], taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and breth- ren, or to fell themselves by their hands. [He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and] he has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the mer- ciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions of existence ; he has excited treasonable insurrections of our fellow-citizens with the allurements of forfeiture and confiscation of our 'property. "J?e has waged cruel war against human nature itself molating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people, who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. This piratical toarfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the waif are of the Christian Mng of Great Britain. Determined to keep open a marJcet where men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for supptressing every legislative attem])t to prohibit or to restrain this execrable commerce. And that this as- semblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished dye, he is now exciting those very 2)eop)le to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which He has de- prived them by murdering the peopile upon whom He obtruded them: thus paying off former crimes committed against the liber- ties of one people icith crimes which he urges them to commit against the lives of another. " In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a people who mean to be free [free people]. Future ages will scarce believe that the hardiness of one man adventured, within the short compass of twelve years only, to build a foundation, so broad and undis- guised, for tyranny over a j)eople fostered and fix-ed in principles of freedom. " Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend a [an unwarrantable] jurisdiction over these our states [us]. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here, no one of which could warrant so strange a preten- sion ; that these were effected at the expense DEO HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 261 ■of OUT own hlood and treasure, unassisted ty the wealth or strength of Oreo.t Britain; that ill constituting, indeed, our several forms of government, we had adopted one common Mng, thereby laying a, foundation for perpetual league and amity with them; hut that submission to their parliament was no part of our constitution, nor ever in idea, if history may he credited ; and "We [have] appealed to fheir native justice and magnanimity, as well as to [and vre have conjured them \)j\ the ties of our common kindred, to disavow tliese usurpations which were lilcely to [would inevitably] interrupt our connection and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity; andichen occasions have heen given tliem, by the regular course of their laics, of removing from their councils the disturbers of our harmony, tliey have, by their free election, rc-estahlislied them in poicer. At this very time, too, they are per- mitting their chief magistrate to send over, not only soldiers of our common blood, hut Scotch and foreign mercenaries to invade and destroy us. These facts have given the last stab to agonizing affection, and manly spirit bids lis to renounce forever these unfeeling brethren. We must endeavor to forget our former love for them. [We must therefore acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war; in peace, friends. ] " We might have been a free and great sisted between us and the parliament or people of Great Britain ; and finally, we do assert the colonies to he free and independent states; [colonies, solemnly publish and de- clare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- nection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ;] and thatj as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, [with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Prov- idence,] we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." The Declaration was signed by John Han- cock, president of Congress, on the day of its adoption. It was suitably engrossed on parchment, and on the 2d of August the delegates set their names to it. The signers were as follows; New Hampshire, Josiah Bartlett, William AVhipple, ]\iatthew Thorn- ton. Massachusetts, John Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island, Stephen Hop- kins, William EUcry. Connecticut, Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Wil- liams, Oliver Wolcott. New York, William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey, Richard Stock- ton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, people together; but a communication o/" ! John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania, grandeur and of freedom., it seems, is below \ Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin their dignity. Be it so, since they will have \ Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, it. The road to haptpiness and to glory is James Smith, George Taylor, James AVilson, open to lis too ; we will climb it apart from George Ross. Delaware, Caesar Rodney, them, and acquiesce in tlie necessity ichich denounces our eternal separation. "We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten- tentions, do, in the name, and by the author- ity, of the good people of these states, reject and renounce all allegiance and subjection to the Ungs of Great Britain, and all others who may hereafter claim by, through, or tinder them; we utterly dissolve all political connection which may heretofore have suT)- George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland, Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca, Charles Carroll of Carrolton. Virginia, George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison," Thomas Nel- son, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Brax- ton, North Carolina, William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina, Ed- ward Rutledge, Thomas Hay ward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Geor- gia, Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Sketches of these patriotic and brave men will be found in their appropriate places DEC 262 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF The declaration thus put forth was made good through an arduous struggle and des- perate endurance, and a prosperous people reverently look to the 4th of July, 1776, as the birthday of their freedom and happiness. DEFOE, Daniel, the father of the English novel, born at London in IGGl, was intended to be a Presbyterian minister, but turned aside to commercial enterprises, in which he was unsuccessful. He becaiye a vigorous political pamphleteer, offended the ruling powers, and reaped a plentiful crop of fines, pillory, and prison. Dear-bought experience led him to abandon politics, and in 1709 there came forth "Robinson Crusoe," that freshest and most fascinating of romances. This was followed by various other fictions, some almost as vivid, till his life closed in 1731. There is a curious instance of the wonderful air of truth with which he could invest his fictions. For a heavy theological book he wrote an elaborate puflT, entitled, "A true Eelation of the Appa- rition of one Mrs. Veal,, the next day after her Death, to one Mrs. Bargrave, at Canterbury, the Eighth of September, 1705, which Appa- rition recommends the perusal of Drelincourt's Book of Consolations against tlxe Fears of Death." The circumstantial account was widely credited, and the ghostly recommend- ation worked off a large edition of a volume otherwise wholly unsalable. DEJANIRA, daughter of .linens, king of Calydon, an iEtolian city, was the wife of Hercules, and the innocent cause of his death. The centaur Nessus, whom Hercules killed for insulting Dejanira, in dying, gave her a tunic dipped in his blood, which he said would restore to her the atiections of her husband if he put it on. When she considered herself in danger from his inconstancy, she sent Hercules the garment, which he no sooner put on than a mortal poison penetrated to his vitals, and he died in agon3^ DE KALB, Baron, was a native of Alsace. He had served forty-two years in the French sei'vice when he came to America with La- fayette in the spring of 1777. Congress at once gave the silver-haired and vigorous vet- eran a major-general's commission. His ex- perience was of much service to the Americans. In the battle of Camden, Aug. 16th, 1780, while trying to rally his scattered troops, he fell pierced with eleven wounds. DELAWARE has the bay of the same name and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Marjiand on the south and west, and Pennsylvania on (he north. Having a length from north to south of ninety-two miles, and varying in width between ten and thirty-six miles, its area is 2,120 square miles. It is thus the smallest state in the Union with the exception of Rliodc Island, and in point of population it falls behind that state. The population of Delaware in 1860was 112,216; of whom 19,829 were free colored persons, and 1,798 slaves. The surface is very level, in the south marshy, and in the north slightly undulating. The Brandywine is a fine mill-stream. The com- merce of Delaware is inconsiderable. Agri- DEL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 263 culture IS the chief occupation of the inhabit- ants, and grain and flour are the principal ex- ports, A canal navigable for steamers and ships crosses the state, connecting the Chesa- peake and Delaware Bays. It was completed in 1829 at a cost of $2,250,000. Delaware was first settled by the Swedes and Fins, in 1627. The Dutch gained posses- sion of it, but the English in 1664 became the masters of it. It was granted to Wiliiam Penn, and it formed a part of Pennsylvania till 1776, though from 1701 with a distinct legislative assembly. It was generally styled the Three Lower Counties upon Delaware. The name ' Delaware ' was given to the bay and river in honor of Lord De La Ware, who was governor of Virginia in 1611. The general assembly of Delaware consists of a senate of nine members, and a house of twenty-one representatives. Its sessions and the general elections are biennial. The gov- ernor is elected for four years, and is not eli- gible for a second term. The right of suffrage is granted to every white male citizen of the age of twenty -two or more, who has resided within the state one year, and paid a county tax ; and every white male citizen under twenty-two and over twenty -one, who has re- sided in the state a year, can vote without payment of such tax. The state is divided into three counties, which are subdivided into hundreds. Judicial power is vested in four judges (one of whom is chief-justice, theothers associate law judges, residents of separate counties) and a chancellor, all appointed by the governor, and holding office during good behavior. The chief-justice and two associates constitute the superior court. No associate judge can sit within his own county. Such inferior courts as are needed may be estab- lished by the general assembly. The whole bench, including the chancellor, form a court and airy streets cross at right angles; the houses are generally brick. The flouring mills of Wilmington are among the largest in the country ; gunpowder is extensively made ; and the valuable water-power of the Brandywine moves the busy machinery of many other thriving manufactories. New- castle, five miles from Wilmington, and once the capital, has nearly 2,000 inhabitants. Lewiston is a small village, near Cape Henlo- pen, opposite which a breakwater has been built by the general government at a cost of httle less than $2,250,000. DELHI, an ancient city of Hindostan, on the river Jumna. It contains many splendid edifices. It was taken by the Mohammedans in 1193. Once it was the great capital of the Mogul empire, and so late as 1700 it had a million inhabitants. It is now in decay. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he conquered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by the French, got possession of the place, but they were afterward expelled by Gen. Lake. In 1857, the Sepoy rebels made Delhi their headquarters. A small force of British besieged it. After standing their ground for months before an overwhelming array of native forces, the Europeans assaulted the city, although containing at least twice their number of enemies, and after a stout re- sistance, carried it on the 20th of September. DELOS, the smallest island of the Cyclades. was famed in ancient times for the number and skill of its artists, and for the splendid temple and oracle of Apollo. It was the birth- place of Apollo and his sister Diana, according to fable, being raised as an asylum to their mother, Latona, when she was pursued from place to place by the implacable Juno. DELPHI, the seat of a famous oracle of Apollo, situated in Phocis, on the southern of error and appeal and the powers of a court [ side of Parnassus. The fount of inspiration of chancery are vested in the latter magistrate ! was said to be a chasm from which issued an together with the residentjudge of the county. Among religious sects, the Presbyterians and Methodists are the most numerous ; there are also many Episcopalians and Baptists, some Roman Catholics, and a few Quakers. Dover (pop. 4,200) is the capital, but Wil- mington is the most important town. Its population in 1860, was 21,508. The broad intoxicating vapor. A temple was built over this, and the tripod of the priestess (sometimes called the Pythoness from Pythius, the sur- name of Apollo) was placed where she could breathe the ascending vapor. She was agita- ted with extreme fury ; she howled and vowed, her eyes sparkled, and she gave every evi- dence of being possessed by a spirit. The DEL 264 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF Pythian games were celebrated in the vicinity of Delphi, which is now the village of Castri. [See JiiSOP, Oracles.] DELUGE, the flood or inundation of waters by which God destroyed mankind and animals ^n the time of Noah, and in which, as St. Pe- ter says, only eight persons were saved. Ac- cording to the received chronology, this great event was threatened in the year of the world 1536. It began Dec. Vth, 1656, and continued three hundi-ed and seventy -seven days. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6th, 1657, and Noah left the ark Dec. 18th following. The year corresponds with that of 23-48 b.c. Almost all savage nations, even those sunk the deepest in barbarism, have a tradition of an universal deluge. A traveler among the Indians of the north-west coast of America heard of it from one of the savages, and asked him how long ago it occurred ? The savage scooped up from the floor of his cabin a hand- ful of sand, and promptly replied, "As many moons ago as there are grains of sand in this heap." The Araucanians in Chili preserve the tradition of a universal deluge from which a few persons Avere saved upon the top of a mountain having three peaks, called Thegtheg, or ' thundering mountain,' which floated upon the waves. The Aztecs supposed that a uni- versal deluge occurred, in which all mankind except one man and one woman were changed into fishes. This lucky pair were saved in the hollow of a tree. Their childi-en were all born mute, were taught speech by a dove, and each learned a different language. In 1524, alarm was spread quite widely in Eu- rope by the prediction that another general deluge was at hand, and arks were everywhere built for refuge against the fluvial calamity ; but the appointed time happened to be un- commonly dry and fine. DEMETRIUS, surnamed Soter, son of Se- leucus Philopatcr, the son of Antiochus the Great, King of Syria. IIis father gave him as a hostage to the Romans. After the death of Seleucus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the deceased monarch's brother, usurped the kingdom of Syria, and was succeeded by his son Anti- ochus Eupater. This usurpation displeased Demetrius, who was detained at Rome; he therefore procured his liberty on pretense of going to hunt, and fled to Syria, where the troops received him as their lawful sovereign, B. c. 1 62. He put to death Eupater and Lysias, and established himself on his throne by cru- elty and oppression. Alexander Balas, the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, laid claim to the crown of Syria, and slew Demetrius in battle in the twelfth year of his reign. DEMETRIUS, a Macedonian, son of Antigo- nus and Stratonica, surnamed from his suc- cesses, Pohorcetes, or the ' destroyer of towns.' At the age of twenty-two, he was sent by his father against Ptolemy, who had invaded Syria. He was defeated near Gaza, but soon repaired his loss by a victory over one of the generals of the enemy. He afterward sailed with a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships to Athens, and restored the Athenians to liberty, by freeing them from the power of Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelled the garrison which was stationed there under Demetrius Phale- reus. After this successful expedition, he besieged and took Munychia, and defeated Cassander at Thermopylae. This uncommon success raised the jealousy of the successors of Alexander ; and Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus, united to destroy Antigonus and his son. Their hostile armies met at Ipsus, B.C. 391. Antigonus was killed in the battle ; and Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to Ephesus. His ill success raised him many enemies ; the fickle Athenians, who had lately adored him as a god, refused to admit him into their city. He soon after ravaged the territories of Lysimachus, and reconciled him- self to Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens now labored under tyranny ; and Demetrius relieved it and pardoned its inhabitants. The loss of his Asiatic possessions recalled him from Greece, and he established himself on the throne of Macedonia, 294 b.c. Here he was continually at war with the neighboring states ; and the superior power of his adversaries obliged him to leave Macedonia, after he had filled the throne seven years. He passed into Asia and attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with various success ; but famine and pesti- lence destroyed the greatest part of his ai'my, and he retired to the court of Seleucus for support and assistance. He met with a kind reception, but hostilities between them soon began ; and after he had gained some advan- tages over his son-in-law, Demetrius was to- tally forsaken by his troops in battle, and be- DEM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 265 came an easy prey to the enemy. Though he was kept in confinement by his son-in-law, yet he hved like a prince, and passed his time in hunting, and in every laborious exercise. His son Antigonus offered Seleucus all his possessions, and even his person, to procure his father's liberty ; but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius died in the fifty -fourth year of his age, b.c. 284. DEMOCRITUS, a philosopher of Abdera, who was born about 494 b.c. He is com- monly called the laughing philosopher, be- cause he is said to have been in the habit of amusing himself with the follies of mankind, while Horaclitus (the weeping philosopher) wept at them. He placed the chief good in a tranquil mind. DEMOSTHENES, an Athenian orator, son of a sword-cutler, born about 381 b.c, famous to have risen to the highest reputation by per- severance in overcoming the apparently insur- mountable obstacles which opposed him. He was the determined opponent of Philip of Macedon, continually urging the Athenians to resist him. The orations which he delivered on these occasions were termed Philippics, a name since applied to all invective declama- tion. He was banished from Athens, and suddenly died 319 B.C. DENHAM, Dixon, lieutenant-colonel in the British army, associated with Captain Clap- perton and Doctor Oudney, in exploring Cen- tral Africa. Socn after being appointed lieu- tenant-governor of Sierra Leone, he died in 1828, at the age of forty -two. DENHAM, Sir John, author of "Cooper's Hill" and other poems, born in Dublin 1615, died in 1668. DENMARK (the land or mark of the Dane), also called the Danske Stat (the States of Den- mark), is in form a slender peninsula, with an area of 21,900 square miles, and a population of 2,005,024 in I860.. Its colonial possessions are the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and the "West Indian isles of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John's. The surface of Den- mark presents an almost uniform plain, eleva- ted only a few feet above the level of the sea, but occasionally relieved by small groups of hills, whose wooded summits break the mo- notony of the landscape, and with the numer- ous small lakes and inlets from the sea give the country a very pleasing appearance. Den- DEN mark is an agricultural country, and in gen- eral the soil is well suited to tillage. The cli- mate is temperate. Among the vegetable pro- ductions are wheat, rye, oats, barley, beans, pease, and potatoes. The commercial exports are principally grain, horses, cattle, beef, pork, butter, and cheese. The herring and other fisheries form an important branch of industry. The Lutheran is the predominant religion, but every other is tolerated. Much attention is paid to education. By law every child be- tween the ages of seven and fourteen must at- tend some school ; and free schools are pro- vided for all whose parents are unable to pay tuition. The press is under rather stiict cen- sorship. The government was formerly an absolute hereditary monarchy ; in 1848 a con- stitution somewhat limiting the royal power, was promulgated. Another constitution was granted in 1854. As Duke of Holstein and Lauenburg, the king is a member of the Ger- manic confederation. The capital of the kingdom is Copenhagen {Kjolenliami, 'merchants' haven'), which had a population of 129,695 in 1850. It stands on the east coast of the island of Zealand, and has a good harbor, and an extensive commerce, although formerly but a poor fishing village. It was threatened by Charles XII., who, how- ever, gave up the idea of capturing it. The city has suffered severely from several confla- grations. In April, 1801, it was bombarded by the British under Lord Nelson. The Dan- ish fleet was taken, and a flag of truce alone saved the city from destruction. It was again attacked in 1807 by the English under Admi- ral Gambler, and Lord Cathcart. After severe firing, which commenced on the 2d of Septem- ber, a capitulation was settled on the 8th, and the citadel, dock-yards, batteries, vessels, and naval stores were taken possession of by the British. Altona (population 33,000) is the second city in the kingdom. Its suburbs and those of Hamburg are only separated by a fleld. Though not so active as its neighbor, its commerce is yet important. The early history of Denmark is obscure and uninteresting, containing merely the ad- ventures of predatory warriors, whose pre- eminence consisted in ferocity and courage. During the eighth and ninth centuries they established their dominion in parts of England, which they scourged by their invasions until 266 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF the middle of the eleventh century ; a band of them under Rollo planted themselves in Normandy ; they colonized the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and Iceland, and pushed their set- tlements as far south as Spain, Italy, and Sicily. Canute the Great, vrho sat on the Danish throne in the early j^ears of the eleventh cen- tury, possessed himself of the whole of Eng- land, a part of Scotland, and all Norway. To this monarch Denmark was indebted for laws, internal organization, an era of might, and the ordination of Christianity as the religion of the countiy. His successors were of weaker mettle, till the time of Margaret, the daughter of Waldemar, often called the Semiramis of the north, who in 1397 united in her own person, the crowns of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. This union, however, did not con- tinue longer than the beginning of the six- teenth century, when Christian II. was obliged to renounce all claims to Sweden. Christian II. was nicknamed the Wicked. The crown was transferred to Frederick, Duke of Schles- wig and Holstein ; whence these duchies be- came united with the kingdom. During the wars of the French revolution Denmark re- mained neutral ; but on contesting the right of search as to her mercantile shipping, in- sisted upon by England, which led her into a defensive alliance with Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, she sacrificed her colonies in the East and West Indies, and suffered severely off Copenhagen in 1801, as we have already men- tioned. Her colonies were restored to her by the treaty of peace that followed. In the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, were secret articles, providing that the Danish navy should be de- livered to Napoleon, to aid him in his threat- ened descent upon England. This occasioned a fresh rupture vcith England, and a second attack upon Copenhagen. By the treaty of Kiel in 1814, Denmark accepted Pomerania from Sweden in exchange for Norway. Pom- erania, the next year, she turned over to Prussia for the duchy of Lauenburg and a large sum of money. In 1845, she sold her African and East Indian colonies to England. The Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, peopled mostly by Germans, after long quar- reling, revolted from Denmark in 1849, and were compelled to submit by the interposi- tion of Prussia and Austria. A similar diffi- culty arose in 18G4, from an attempt to fuse the Duchies thoroughly with Denmark ; and Austria and Prussia now interfered on the other side, and easily forced Denmark to give up the Duchies. KINGS OF DENMARK. Gormo, the old. Harsild II., suniamed Blue-tooth. Suenon, or Sweyn, surnamed the Forked- beard. Canute II., the Great, King of Denmark, England, and Norway. Canute III., his sou, the Hardicanute of England. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. Suenon, or Sweyu II. [Interregnum.] Haj-ald, called the Shnple. Canute IV. Olaus IV., the Hungry. Eric III., styled the Good. [Interregnum.] Nicholas I., killed at Sleswick. Eric IV., surnamed Harelbot. Erick V. the Lamb. \ Suenon, or Sweyn III., bolioadcd. 1 Canute V., until 11.54. Waldemar, styled the Great. Canute VI., surnamed the Pious. Waldemar II., the Victorious. Eric VI. Abel ; assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed in an expedition against the Vri- sons. Christopher I., poisoned. Eric VII. Eric VIIL Christopher II. [Interregnum.] Waldemar III. Olaus V. Margaret, styled the Semiramis of the North, Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Margaret, and Eric IX. (Eric XIII. of Sweden), jointly. Eric IX. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both crowns. [Interregnum.] Christopher III., King of Sweden. Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, elected King of Scandinavia, which compre- hended Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; succeeded by his son. John, succeeded by his son. Christian II., called the Cruel, and the Nero of the North ; among other enor- mous crimes he caused all the Swedish nobility to be massacred ; dethroned for his tyranny in 1 523 ; died in a dungeon, 1559. [In this reign Sweden succeeded in sundering itself from the crown of Denmark.] . Frederick,' Duke of Holstein, uncle to Christian II. ; a liberal ruler. 88.3. 935. 985. 1042. 1047. 1073. 1077. 1080. 1086. 1095. 1103. 1105. 1135. 1137. 1147. 1157. 1182. 1202. 1241. 1250. 1252. 1259. 1280. 1230. 1334. 1340. 1876. 1387. 1397. 1412, 1438, 1440, 1448, 1481 1613 DEN HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 267 1534. Christian III., son of Frederick ; estab- lislicd the Lutheran faith; esteemed tlie 'Fatlier of his People.' 1559. Fredcriclc II., son of Christian III. 1588. Christian IV., son of Frodericlc II. ; chosen head of the Protestant league against the emperor. 1648. Frederick III.; changed the government from an elective to an hereditary mon- archy, vested in his own family. 1670. Christian v., son of Frederick III.; suc- ceeded by his son. 1699. Frederick IV.; leagued with the Czar Peter and Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. IISO. Christian VI., his son. 1746. Frederick V., his son. 1766. Christian VII., son of the preceding; mar- ried Caroline Matilda, sister of George III., of England. In a spasm of jeal- ousy, 1772, he banished his wife to Zell (where she died), and put to death his ministers Brandt and Strueusee. 1784. [Regency.] The Crown-Prince Frederick declared regent in consequence of the insanity of Ids father. 1808. Frederick VI., previously regent. 1S39. Christian VIII , his son. 1848. Frederick VII, his son, born October 6th, 18(18; died Nov. 1.5, 1863. 1863. Christian IX., his son, born April 8, 1816, became King, Nov. 16, 1863. DANNEWITZ, Battle of. In this con- flict a remarkable victory was obtained by Marshal Bernadotte, then Crown-Prince of Sweden, over Marshal Ney, Sept. 6 th, 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 16,000. DENNIE, Joseph, born at Boston, in 1768, and educated at Harvard College, possessed brilliant genius, which he evinced in several papers that he edited, the Portfolio among others. He wanted industry and discretion, and died in 1812, of disease produced by irregularity and anxiety. D'EON, the Chevalier. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in a diplo- matic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time the minister of Louis XV. in London, was proved to be a woman, on a trial in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, in 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years : yet at his death, in London, 1800, it was manifest, by the dissec- tion of liis body, and other undoubted evi- dence, that he was a male. DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, Louis Charles Antoine, a French general, was born of a noble family at St. Hilaire de Agat, in Bre- tagne, in 1768. He served under Pichegru and Moreau, and commanded, under Bona- parte in Upper Egypt, a division of troops destined to pursue and keep in awe the Mam- elukes, whom he attacked and put to flight near the pyramids of Saccara, in Upper Egypt. At the battle of Marengo, the splendid suc- cess of which was the result of the opportune arrival of his columns on the field, he was killed, June 14th, 1800. His last words were, "Tell the first consul that my only regret in dying is that I perish before having done enough to live in the recollection of posteritj^" When Napoleon heard of his death, he cried, " Victory at such a price is dear." At night Bourrienne said to Napoleon, " What a glo- rious day!" "Yes," was the sad reply, " very glorious, could I this evening but have embraced Desaix upon the field of battle." On the same day that the fatal bullet pierced the heart of Desaix, an assassin in Egypt plunged a dagger into the bosom of Kleber. At St. Helena Napoleon said, " Of all my generals, Desaix and Kleber had the greatest talent. In particular Desaix, as Kleber loved glory only as the means of acquiring wealth and pleasure ; Desaix loved glory for itself. To him riches and luxury were of no value. He was a little black man, an inch shorter than myself, always badly dressed, sometimes even ragged, and despising alike comfort and convenience. Wrapped in a cloak, he slept under a gun as contciit.illy as in a palace. Frank and honest in all his ways, the Arabs called him the just sultan. Nature intended him to figure as a consummate general. De- saix and Kleber wer.e irreparable losses to France." DESCARTES, Rene, born at La Haye, in Touraine, in 1596, and died at Stockholm in 1650. As a soldier, mathematician, and ori- ginal philosopher, he greatly distinguished himself DESIEZE, Raymond, the talented advocate who defended the unfortunate Louis XVL On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was loaded with honors, 1750-1828. DESMOULINS, Bexoit Camille, a French revolutionist, who was condemned to death by the revolutionary tribunal in April, 1794, at the age of thirty -three. DESSAIX, Joseph Marie, Count, a native of Savoy, whei'e he was born in 1764, and distinguished for his military services in the DES 268 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP French army. At the siege of Toulon, he bore a part. He was appointed by Napoleon general of division, and grand officer of the legion of honor. He died in 1825. DESSALINES, Jean Jacques, Emperor of Hayti, was originally a slave. After the French had been expelled from the island in 1803, Dessalines was appointed governor- general, but assumed the title and state of emperor ; and having been guilty of many at- rocities, he was killed by a soldier, Oct. 17th, 180G. DETTINGEN, Battle of, between the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army, 52,000 strong, commanded by George H. and the Earl of Stair, and the French army, 60,000 strong, under Marshal Noailles and the Due de Grammont, June IGtli, 1743. The French were defeated. DE WITT, John, grand-pensionary of Hol- land, a famous statesman, was born in 1625. He imbibed from his father a hatred for the house of Orange. Accordingly, in the war be- tween England and Holland, he attempted to abolish the stadtholdership, and succeeded in separating that office from that of captain- general. He was forced, however, to make some concessions, and beheld, with mortifica- tion, William of Orange procure the post of commander-in-chief. De Witt resigned his employments when William was chosen stadt- holder, to the joy of all, and, being thrown into prison, was murdered by the populace, who broke in upon him, August 20th, 1672. When De Witt was once asked how it hap- pened that he got through so much business and of such varied kind, for he was not only a great statesman and a minister, but also a most eminent mathematician and literary man ; his answer was that it was by two rules which he always observed: to do one thing only at a time, and never to put off till to-morrow what he could do to-day. These were his golden rules. DEXTER, Samuel, a distinguished orator, lawyer, and statesman, was born at Boston, Mass., in 1761, and was educated at Harvard College. He studied law, but was soon chosen to the state legislature, and thence transferred to Congress where his ability and patriotism were properly appreciated. Under President Adams he was at first secretary of war, and then of the treasury. Declining the public offices which were afterward offered him, he employed himself in the lucrative and honorable profession of the law, being intrusted with cases of the utmost importance. He died at Athens, N. Y., in 1816. DIAMONDS were first polished and cut at Bruges, 1489. Diamond mines were discov- ered in Brazil, 1728 ; those at Coulour in the East Indies, 1640; those at Golconda, in 1584. A diamond wos sent from Brazil for the court of Portugal, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, and was valued at £224,- 000,000; it is not very brilliant, and its true value is only £400,000. Governor Pitt's weighed 126 carats, and 106 after cutting, and sold for £125,000, to the king of France. That which belonged to Aurung Zebe weighed 793 carats, in a rough state, and when cut 279 carats, worth £779,244. The Grand Duke of Tuscany's weighed 139 carats. The celebrated diamond called the Koh-i-noor, or 'Mountain of Light,' was found in the mines of Golconda in 1550. Precisely three centu- ries after, it was brought to England. Its original weight was nearly eight hundred carats. Unskillful cutting reduced it to two hundred and seventy-nine. Its value has been estimated at two millions sterling. DIANA, in mj^thology the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and twin sister of Apollo, born at Delos. She was the goddess of hunt- ing, chastitj', and marriage, though she re- mained unmarried. She is supposed to have been the Isis of the Egyptians. DICKENSON, John, was born in Mary- land, Nov. 13th, 1732. He was bred to the law in Philadelphia and at the Temple in London. He was an earnest advocate of the rights of the colonies. He had been a mem- ber of the stamp-act congress of 1765, and he represented Pennsylvania in the earlier continental congresses. Opposed to political separation from Great Britain, as too prema- ture, he yet would not vote against his brother patriots, and on the memorable 4th of July he was absent from his seat. Independ- ence once declared, he defended it both by word and sword. He helped to frame the federal constitution, and was its warm friend. He died at Wilmington, Del., Feb. 14th, 1808. DIDO, the founder of the city of Carthage, also called Elisa, was a daughter of Belus, DID HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 269 monarch of Tyre, and married Sichaeus, or Sicharbas, her uncle, a priest of Hercules. Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, murdered the husband of Dido, for the sake of his wealth, and with a number of Tyrians the unhappy queen set sail to found a colony in some distant land. A storm drove them upon the African shore, where Dido built her citadel, 869 b.c, and soon had the satisfaction of finding the colony in a thriving condition. The persecutions of Jarbas, the Mauritanian king, who wished to marry her, proved fatal to her, for having vowed to her husband never to wed a second time, she ascended a funeral pile, and perished in the flames. For this action she was called Dido, or 'valiant woman.' Her connection with ^neas was an invention of Virgil, for they were not even contemporaries. DIEMEN, Anthony van, governor-general of the Dutch East India settlements, born in 1593. He went to the Indies as a clerk, but rose with great rapidity. His adminis- tration was judicious and successful. He died in 1045. [See Van Diemen's Land. DIGBY, Sir Kenelm (son of Sir Everard Digby, who was condemned and executed for his participation in the gunpowder plot), was born at Gothurst, in Buckinghamshire, in 1G03. He was educated at Oxford, and was originally a Protestant, but was converted to the Romish religion in 1636. He was one of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber to Charles I., commissioner of the navy, and governor of the Trinity-house. He fought against the Venetians at Scuderoon. He was the author of several philosophical treatises. DIOCLETIAN, a famous Roman emperor, born of an obscure family of Dalmatia, first a common soldier, then general, and pro- claimed emperor, 284 a.d. He made Maxi- man a comrade, his colleague, and created two subordinate emperors, Galerius and Con stantius, with the title of Caesars. Some of the acts of his reign are meritorious, but he disgraced himself by a persecution of the Christians. After a reign of twenty-one years, he voluntarily and publicly abdicated the throne at Nicomedia, May 1st, a.d. 305, and his colleague shortly after followed his example. He found sufficient pleasure in the cultivation of his little garden, and died in 313. DIODATI, John, a Protestant divine, pro- fessor of theology at Geneva, where he died in 1649. DIODORUS SICULUS (Diodorus the Si- cilian), a Greek historian of the time of Julius Csesar and Augustus. DIOGENES (born at Sinope in Pontus, 413 B.C.) was a famous Cynic philosopher, one of that sect that sternly opposed luxury and immorality, discarding all superfluities. Diogenes humorously ridiculed the follies of human nature, and made even the objects of his satire laugh at his practical jests and lessons. He perambulated the streets of Athens in the garb and manner of a sturdy beggar, and slept in a tub. He was rigidly temperate, and despised the forms of polite society. While at Corinth Alexander the Great paid him a visit, but was astonished at the indifferent air of the philosopher. He made an offer of service, but Diogenes re-" plied, " I only want you to stand out of my sunshine." His independence made such an impression on the Macedonian that he cried, "If I were not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes." He once carried a lantern about Athens at mid-day, and being asked why he was doing so, answered, " I am looking for a man." Being asked what was the most dangerous animal? he answered, "Among wild ones, the slanderer; among tame, the flatterer." Plato having described man as a two-legged animal without feathers, and received applause for the definition, Diogenes plucked a live fowl, and carrying it to the Academy, exclaimed, " Here is Plato's man!" He died at a great age, 324 b.c. Had this itinerant philosopher lived in these degenei'ate days, he would have become ob- noxious to the police as a vagrant, and found it extremely diflicult to avoid the stocks, the work-house, or the treadmill ! DIOMEDES, a king of Bistones, who is fabled to have fed his horses upon human flesh, and to have therefore been killed by Hercules. DIOMEDES, a Grecian hero, king of Argos, who led his subjects to the siege of Troy. After the war he went to Italy, where he is said to have lived to a good old age. DION, of Syracuse, was related to Dio- nysius, and often gave him advice. The tyrant banished him to Greece, where he DIO 270 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP raised troops, and entering the harbor of Syracuse with only two ships, reduced it in three days. The tyrant fled, and Dion re- tained the power in his own hands, but was murdered by a false friend, Calippus of Athens, b.c. 354. DIONYSIUS I., or the Elder, from the rank of a common soldier raised himself to the throne of Syracuse. He was inimical to the Carthaginians, and fought against them ■with various success. His tyranny and cru- elty rendered him so odious to his subjects, that he lived in constant dread of assassina- tion, and never permitted even his wife and children to enter his presence until their gar- ments had been searched for concealed weap- ons. He is said to have built a subterraneous cave, called the ear of Dionysius, because it was built in the form of a human ear, con- centrated the sound of voices within it, and conveyed them distinctly to his hearing. The artists employed upon the work were killed for fear of their disclosing the secrets of its construction, and the use to which it was applied. Dionysius was constantly betraying his unhappiness. When one of his flatterers, Damocles, was discoursing on his magnifi- cence, riches, and power, Dionysius said to him, "These things seem to delight you; make a trial of my place, by way of experi- ment." Damocles was instantly arrayed in the imperial purple, and surrounded by the king's guards, while every knee was bent to do him homage. In the midst of this show, Dionysius ordered a naked sword to be hung from the ceiling by a horse-hair, directly over the royal throne, where Damocles was sitting at a feast. From that moment the courtier- king lost his appetite, his joy vanished, and he begged to be restored to the security of his former condition. Dionysius thus tacitly acknowledged that his happiness was poisoned by a dread of the punishment which was due to his iniquity and cruelty. He died of poison administered at the instigation of his son, B.C. 368. He was very vain, and im- agined that he possessed literary talents of a high order, although his poetical effusions were lamentable failures. DIONYSIUS, the Younger, was the son of Dionysius I. By the advice of Dion, Plato was invited to court, and the philosopher endeavored to instill into the tyrant's minu some of those precepts which were his own guide through life. The king neglected his advice, and, after suffering for frankness, Plato quitted him in disgust. Driven from the throne he had disgraced, b.c. 857, he again returned to it after an absence of ten years, but lost it a second time, and finallj^ went to Corinth, where to support himself he kept a school, that, as Cicero observes, he might still be a tyi-ant. AVe can readily imagine the sufferings of the wretched urchins upon the interior and exterior of whose heads the ex-king labored. His pupils, we are told, were few, nor can we wonder that the peda- gogue was so poorly patronized. DIONYSIUS, one of the judges of the Areopagus at Athens, was converted to Christianity by the apostle Paul, and was the first Bishop of Athens. He was the author of some polemical writings, and suffered martyrdom. DISCOVERIES, in modern times. 861. Faroe Islands — discovered about this time by a Norwegian vessel. 871. Iceland — discovered by some Norwe- gian chiefs w^ho were compelled to leave their native country. According to some accounts, it had been visited before this, by a Scandi- navian pirate, Naddodd. 980. Greenland — discovered by the Ice- landers about this period. The first colony established there was destroj'ed by a pesti- lence in the fourteenth century, and hj the accumulation of ice which prevented all com- munication between Iceland and Greenland. 1000. Winenland — a part of the continent of America, from Labrador as far south as Rhode Island, is supposed to have been dis- covered by the Icelanders. It was called Winenland, or Vinland, from the abundance of a species of vine found there. The Ice- landic chronicles are full and minute respect- ing this discovery. 1330. Canary /^Zcs— discovered by a French ship driven among them by stress of weather, having been known to the ancients. 1344. Madeira— Tha discovery of this group is attributed to an Englishman, Robert Macham ; it was revisited in 1419 by Juan Gonzales, and Tristan Vaz, Portuguese. 1364. Guinea — ^the coast of, discovered by some seamen of Dieppe, about this period. DIS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 271 1434. Cape Bojador — doubled for the first time by the Portuguese. 1439. Azores — discovered by V