^ i •^ « ,♦ ^X J^^^^'i^S^^^" Class Sl_5-04- Book Gjg Copyright N°___ . COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. /^ '^4/'^ Yours very truly, ELLIS J. GRINNELL What I Know About Farming A Record of Thirty-five Years of Practical Experience in Agriculture and Horticulture By ELLIS J. GRINNELL ' * To conduct a farm in a proper manner requires a knowledge of more facts and principles than to conduct a bank successfully. ' Copyright 1913 by E. J. GRINNELL Minneapolis, Minn. )CI.A34367 9 6^' c^^ This book is dedicated to those women of America who, through their intelligent and indispensable co-oper- ation in the work on the farm, are so important a factor in the development of this ennobling industry. CONTENTS CHAPTER I Page Soil and Perseverance - - 21 What Is Soil? - - - - 22 The Essential Elements - - 23 Swamp-Lands and Jack-Pine Lands ----- 24 Natural Forestry an Indicator of Soil ----- Poor Soil Made Good Soil - Page 25 26 Soil Fertility Soil Robbery Crop Rotation Poisoned Soils Seed Sowing Commercial Fertilizers Testing Soils CHAPTER II 28 The Value of Manures 29 Constant Cultivation - - - 29 Lime a Necessity _ . . 30 Manure Spreader - - _ 31 President Taft's Prophecy - 31 A Recent Instance of Scientific 33 Farming - - - _ _ CHAPTER III Things to Know About Fertiliz- ers ------ 41 Manures ----- 41 Analysis of Manure - - - 42 Fresh Manure - - - - 43 Rotted Manure - - - - 43 Poultry Manure - - - - 43 The Value of Lime as a Fer- tilizer - - - - . Soil Preparation - - - - Conservation of Soil Fertility - Data from Experiment Stations Making Straw Pay - - _ CHAPTER IV The Business Farmer - - - 47 Labor-Saving Tools and Meth- Country Life Commissions - 48 ods ---___ Economical Farm Management 48 Keep Farm Accounts - - - Own Your Farm Time Is Money - Three Classes of Farmers Organization Farm Buildings - House Plans Cellar and Cistern Stone Construction Sanitation and Beauty Barn Buildings - Stone Barns Good Ventilation Sheep Barns Machine Shed Corn Crib and Ice House CHAPTER V 53 Give the Children Pleasant Mem- 53 ories ------ 54 Inspire Your Boys and Girls 55 A Fresh Air Outing - - - CHAPTER VI 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 65 67 67 68 How to Build a Silo - - - Capacity and Dimensions of Silo ------ Cost of Filling a Silo - - - How to Protect Buildings from Lightning - - - _ - The Farm Water System - System of Hog Fencing Fence Building - - - - Concrete Walks - - - _ 33 34 36 37 38 39 43 44 45 45 46 49 50 56 57 59 70 74 75 75 76 77 77 78 CONTENTS— Contmu^c^ CHAPTER VII Page Pasture and Meadow - - - Clover and Cow Peas - - - Stock in Pasture - - - - Meadows . - - - - An Eastern Meadow - - - Nurse Crops of Grain - - - Seeding to Clover with Spring Grains - - - - - Cutting Clover - - - - Cutting Timothy . - - The Vegetable Garden Begin Small - - - - - House Planting in ^Nlarch - Manures or Fertilizers The Cold Frame - - - - Hot Be'ds - - - - - Potatoes - - - - - How to Plant - - - - Seed Potatoes Should Be Whole Potato Culture - - - - Potato Diseases - - - - Marketing - - - - - Rhubarb . _ _ - - Radishes - - - - - Lettuce _ _ - - - Endives . - - - - Onions ------ 98 Spinach Asparagus 79 Hay Heating - - - - 80 Manure Spreaders - - - 81 How to Raise Alfalfa - 81 The Best Kinds of Soil 82 Getting the Soil Ready 82 The Weed Question - Selection of Seed . - - Planting the Seed _ . - When to Cut Alfalfa - The Question of Inoculation CHAPTER VIII 89 Tomatoes - - - - - - 89 Beets ------ Sweet Corn ----- Garden Peas - - - - Beans ------ Lima Beans _ - - . Cucumbers - - - - - Cabbage - - - - - Pumpkins - - _ - - Egg Plant - - - - - Melons ------ Celery ------ Storing Celery - - - - Miscellaneous - - - . Wintering of Vegetables in Cold Climates - - - - - Vegetable Pests - - - - Cutworm - - - - - Page 84 83 83 84 90 90 91 92 92 93 94 95 95 96 96 97 97 98 Corn and Small Grains Corn Planting - - - Cultivation - - - - Cultivating Tools Field Corn - - - - Fodder Corn . - - A Home-Made Fodder Cutter Seed Corn - - - - Good Seed - - - - Getting Good Seed - Buying Seed . _ - Testing Seed - _ - Corn Smut - - - - The Corn Worms Why Does Popcorn Pop? - The Oat Field - Rye in Minnesota 85 86 86 87 87 87 87 101 103 104 104 105 106 107 107 108 109 109 110 111 112 113 114 114 - 98 - 99 CHAPTER IX - 116 Cow Peas ----- 126 - 116 Cow Peas Sown for Live Stock 126 - 117 Growing Flax - . . - 127 - 118 Millet ------ 128 - 118 Buckwheat ----- 129 - 119 Barley ------ 129 - 119 Speltz ------ 130 - 120 Sorghum Raising - - - 130 - 121 Wheat Raising - - - - 131 - 121 Rust Resistance - - - - 132 - 121 Seed Grain ----- 133 - 122 The Soil ----- 135 - 123 Seeding to Winter Grain - - 135 - 123 The Hessian Fly - - - - 136 - 124 Miscellaneous - - - - 136 - 124 Quack Grass .''-_. 137 - 125 CONTENTS— Contmued CHAPTER X Page Small Fruit Raising - - - 138 Raspberries ----- 138 Care the First Summer - - 139 Another Method of Planting, etc. ------ 140 Heeling in - - - - - 141 Blackberries - - _ - 141 Strawberry Culture - - - 142 Varieties ----- 142 Planting and Culture - - - 143 Old Strawberry Beds - - - Strawberries the Second Season Currants and Gooseberries - Protect from Worms - - - Grapes ------ Pruning Grapes - - - - Bagging Grapes - - - - Cutting and Layering Grapes - Insecticides - - - - - Page 144 145 146 147 148 149 149 149 150 CHAPTER XI The Orchard - - - - 153 Sites and Soils - - - - 154 Methods of Planting - - - 154 Dynamite in Orchard Planting - 155 Varieties ----- 156 Distance Apart - - - - 156 Transplanting - - - - 157 Propagation - - _ _ 157 Cultivation ----- 158 Mulching for too Early Bloom - 158 Cover Crops - - _ - 159 Pruning Trees - - - - 159 General Directions - - - 160 Apple, Pear, Cherry, Quince - 160 Peaches ----- 161 Plums ------ 162 Pruning Tools - - - - 162 Making Over Old Orchards - 162 How to Top Graft - - - 163 Subsequent Treatment - - 164 Danger from Early Frosts - - 165 Insect Pests and Diseases - - 166 San Jose Scale - - - - 166 Spray Formulas - - - - 167 Other Remedies and Preventior* 168 Blight in Pear and Apple Trccf 169 How to Prune - - - 170 Sun Scald - - - - - 170 Summary ----- 170 Hedge for Fruit Orchard - - 171 Directions for Planting in the Hedge ----- 172 A Golden Willow Hedge for a Fruit Garden - - - - 173 CHAPTER XII Trees and Farm Forestry - Who Plants a Tree (Poem) Farm Forestry - - - Value of Tree Planting Methods of Tree Planting - The Elm Tree - - - Evergreens - - - - Varieties - - - . When to Transplant and How Seedling Evergreens - Plant Away from Windows Sweep up the Snow - Using Tackles - _ _ 176 Planting for Shade and Ornament : 180 176 Mr. Emman's Grove - - - 181 177 Rapidity of Growth of Trees - 182 178 Trees of the Northwest - 182 179 The Care of a Woodlot 183 180 \pt: Trees, Planting of Shrubbery - ER XIII 186 188 To Save Split Trees - - - 192 189 Pruning Trees and Hedges 192 189 Hedges ----- 193 190 Watering Trees - - - - 195 191 Miscellaneous Notes - - - 195 191 The Tree Borer - - - - 196 192 Tree Stories - - _ . 197 COlSiTENTS— Continued CHAPTER XIV The Flower Garden - Soil Preparation - - - Transplanting and Cultivating Watering - - - - Seed Sowing . - - In-Door Seed Sowing - House Plants - - - Alphabetical List of Varieties Hard and Soft Wood Cuttings Cutting - - - - Striking the Cutting - Rose Culture - - - Pruning Roses - - - Winter Protection Rose Hedges - - - Page - 198 When to Plant - - 198 Growing Rose Cuttings - 198 Planting Climbers - 199 Tea Roses - - - - 199 Rose Pests - - 199 Rose Jar - - 200 The Greenhouse - - 200 The Sash Greenhouse - - 206 Comparative Costs - 207 The Roof Pitch - - 207 The Direction of the Sun - 208 The Commonest Blunders - 209 The Question of Width - 209 Heating the Greenhouse - 211 Figuring the Heating - CHAPTER XV Bees ----"" The Essentials - - - - Protect the Hives Shipping Bees - - - - Summary for General Spring Treatment - - - - Safe Wintering - - - - Arranging Hives - - - Pr.ge ■ 211 - 211 • 212 - 212 - 213 - 214 - 214 - 215 - 215 - 216 - 216 - 216 - 217 - 217 - 218 219 Bees in a Cave - - - - 224 219 Uniting Stock . . _ - 224 220 Feeding the Bees - 225 220 Shipping Bees and Honey - - 225 Bee Pests and Diseases - 226 221 Beeswax _ _ . _ - 226 222 Bee Stings - - - - - 227 223 The Life of the Bee - - 228 CHAPTER XVI Poultry Poem— The Hens Lay Every Day ------ Begin with Economy - Building the Poultry House Care of the Interior - Poultry Houses— Octagon Shape Another Way to Build the Hen House - - ■ " " Chicken House No. 3 - Chicken House No. 4 - Chicken House No. 5 - Chicken House No. 6 - A St. Paul, Minn., Chicken House A Crookston, Minn., Chicken House _ - - - - House No. 9 - - - - Ventilation - - - - - The Scratching Room A Cloth Pocket Hen's Nest Laying and Setting - - - 233 Varieties - - 245 Good Winter Layers _ - 246 233 Setting Hens - - 247 234 The Incubator Chick( en - 248 235 The Hen-hatched Ch ick - 249 235 The Feeding of Poultry - 251 237 Crop Rotation for Poultry - 252 The Warm Mash - - 253 237 Various Methods of Feeding - 253 238 Value of Clover and Alfalfa - 254 239 Selling Poultry at a Loss - - 255 239 Geese - - - - - 255 240 Ducks - - - 257 240 Turkeys - - 258 Squab Raising - - 260 240 Diseases of Fowls - - 261 241 Nighthawks - - - 266 242 General Helps - - 267 243 Storing Eggs - - 268 244 Uses of Eggs - - 268 245 Summary - - 269 Stock Breeding - Native Cattle Short Horn Cattle CONTENTS— Confmuet/ CHAPTER XVII Page - 270 Other Types - 271 Beef Cattle for Market - 271 Page ■ 273 ■ 274 CHAPTER XVIII Dairying _ . . Selection and Breeding Care and Feed - Milking _ _ _ Care of Milk Butter Making - 275 275 275 276 276 276 Silo and Silage - - - - 278 Construction of the Silo - - 278 Cost of Silo - - - - 278 The Cow for Small Farm or Citj- ------ 279 Dairy Notes ----- 279 Winter Rations for Milch Cows 277 CHAPTER XIX Horse Department - - - 281 Horse Breeding and Horse Lov- ers - - - - - - 281 The Percheron-Norman - - 281 The American Trotter - - 282 The Father of Trotters - - 282 Prominent Sons of Messenger - 283 Mambrino's Descendants - - 283 Descendants of Bishop's Ham- bletonian ----- 284 Descendants of Other Sons of ^Messenger - - - _ 284 History of Trotting Perform- ances ----- 284 Arabian Horses - - - - 286 Stock Needed on the Farm - 286 The General Purpose Horse - 287 Raising and Breaking Colts - 287 Bitting the Colt and Training to Harness ----- 288 Diseases and Remedies - - 288 How Medicines are Applied - 288 To Protect Horses from Flies - 292 To Thicken the Mane and Tail 292 Frosts and Sprays Facts About Frosts - - - 293 What Is Frost? - - - - 293 Location ----- 293 Factors that Influence Frosts - 293 Protection Against Frosts - - 294 Winter Protection for Shrubbery 294 Frost and Temperature Table - 295 CHAPTER XX - 293 After Frosts. Spray Calendar and Formulas - 297 Sprays for Vegetables - - 297 Sprays for Small Fruits - - 298 Sprays for Orchard - - - 299 Sprays for Forestry - - - 301 Formulas — Fungicide - - - 301 Formulas — Insecticides - - 302 CHAPTER XXI The Woman on the Farm - - 304 The Mission of the Farmer's Wife ----- 304 Will Educate the Children - - 304 Mrs. Burns' Outline - - - 305 A Practical Farmer's Wife - 305 Danish Law as to Loans - - 306 Observe Economy -. - - 306 Have a Soil Survey - - - 306 Sanitarj' Surroundings - - 307 Labor-Saving ^Methods - - 307 Recreation ----- 309 The Most Valuable Crop - - 309 CO'NTE^TS— Continued CHAPTER XXII Early-Day Farming in the East Farming Methods . - - Habits and Diet - - - - Some of the Successful Farmers Early Farm Machinery Squatters ----- Page 312 312 313 314 315 316 Page Making Maple Syrup and Sugar 317 Laying in Stores for the Future 317 Wild Fruit and Game - - - 318 Two Great Inventors - - - 318 The American Farmer of the 20th Century - - - - 319 CHAPTER XXIII Miscellaneous - - - - 321 Miscellaneous Hints - - - 321 Poison Ivy or Oak - - - 322 The Farm Walk and Driveway 322 Greens - _ - - _ 323 Trees and Vines - - - Curing Pork or Bacon - - 324 Pickle for Pork - Dried Beef - Smokehouse For Dyspeptics - A Minnesota Orchard - 324 - 324 - 325 - 325 - 326 323 A New York Thanksgiving at the Farm House - - - 327 List of Illustrations The Author -----___ Frontispiece '- An Ideal Farm House -------- (3i Main Stock Farm, State Experimental Farm, Minnesota - - 65 "^ A Model Sheep Barn, State Experimental Farm, Minnesota - 73 «/ Great Stand of Wheat - - - - - - - -129/' Strawberry-Raspberry -------- j^j (/' Strawberry Bed on a City Lot ----___ i^^ 7.7 51.2 67. 84.7 104.6 126.6 21 28.0 40.3 54.8 71.6 90.6 111.8 135.3 22 29.9 43.0 58.6 76.5 96.8 119.6 144.7 23 31.9 45.9 62.5 81.6 103.3 127.5 154.3 24 33.8 48.7 66.3 86.6 109.6 135.3 163.7 25 35.8 51.6 70.2 89.6 116.1 143.3 173.4 26 37.9 54.7 74.4 97.2 123.0 151.0 183.8 F A R ^I B U I L D I N G S 75 Depth, Ft . 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 27 40.1 t^7j 78.6 102.6 129.8 160.3 194.0 28 42.2 60.8 82.7 108.1 136.8 168.9 204.3 29 44.4 63.9 87.0 113.7 143.9 177.6 214.8 30 46.6 67.2 91.4 119.4 151.1 186.6 225.8 31 48.8 70.3 95.7 124.9 158.2 195.2 236.3 7>2 51.1 73.6 100.2 130.9 165.7 204.6 247.5 2>Z 53.4 77.0 104.8 137.8 173.2 214.1 258.7 34 55.8 80.3 109.3 142.8 180.8 223.6 270.0 35 58.2 83.7 114.0 148.9 188.3 232.2 281.5 36 60.6 86.9 118.3 154.7 196.3 242.0 292.1 Z7 63.1 90.4 123.1 160.8 204.3 251.9 303.9 38 65.5 94.0 127.9 167.0 212.4 261.9 315.9 39 67.9 97.3 132.8 173.5 220.6 272.0 328.1 40 70.3 101.1 137.8 180.0 228.9 280.2 340.4 Cost of Filling a Silo. The cost of filling a silo has been carefully worked out at the Illinois Experiment Station from records kept on nineteen farms. It ranges from forty cents to seventy-six cents per ton, the average being fifty-six cents. The variation was due to distance of hauling and the degree of system by which the work was done. How to Protect Buildings from Lightning. From Garden and Farm Alniaiiae— Doubleday, Page ct Co. The protection of farm buildings from lightning is a different matter from what it used to be considered. Luckily the changes that have come about in our knowledge are such that the expense of pro- viding protection for a set of buildings is much less than it was under the old system. The principal change is the substitution of iron for copper in the conductors. Since copper is so much better a conductor of electricity than iron, it was always supposed to be necessary to use heavy copper cable in lightning conductors. But experiments have proved that iron will serve the purpose just as well and is safer, owing to the fact that there is less danger of setting fire to the building in the momentary heat of the lightning discharge. To equip a farm building with lightning rods, the following ma- terial should be provided. First, a quantity of No. 3 double gal- vanized iron wire. Enough of this should be on hand to provide a cable running the length of the roof of the building and at least two cables running from the ridge of the roof to the ground, one on each side of the building. Also enough to provide for the pieces of upright wire that should project into the air from the ridge of the roof, every six or eight yards. No. 3 wire is approximately one-quarter of an inch in diameter. Second, a supply of heavy galvanized iron staples. Third, connecting tees of the proper size to unite sections of one- quarter inch wire. Fourth, enough aluminum paint to coat the wire and the tees thoroughly. If the flexible iron cable can be secured instead of the solid iron, 76 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING it will be found much easier to handle, since it can be shaped around chimneys or other bends more easily. Also it can be unwound a short distance back and thus made into good points for the sections that project into the air. No attempt should be made to insulate the iron from the building. This is entirely unnecessary. To erect the conductor all that is needed is to run a section of the cable along the ridge of the roof, fastening it in place with staples. At each end and at one or two places along the roof, depending on the length, tees should be inserted in the cable to hold the uprights. If there is a cupola or chimney on the building, one of the uprights should be run along this and project beyond the top of it. If solid iron is used the top of each upright should be filed down to a point. If the flexible cable is used, the wire should be unwound a few inches back from the end. It is not neces- sary that the uprights should project far above the main cable. Two and a half feet is enough. The lower ends of the cables that connect the ridge of the roof with the ground must be so placed as to reach moist earth in the shortest possible distance. The ground connection is best made by coiling the lower end of the vertical cable, giving it several turns and making a coil a foot or more in diameter, and then burying this coil deep enough in the ground to be in moist earth even in dry seasons. The number of vertical conductors necessary will depend on the length of the building. For most buildings one on each side will be enough, but for large barns there should be a vertical conductor on each side every twenty-five or thirty feet. Where the building is covered with tin or other material there is no need of running the cable along the ridge of the roof. All that is necessary is to provide vertical conductors carefully soldered to the middle of the roof and ending in moist earth as already described. All joints should be made tight so that they will not break apart or otherwise come loose. If there is a metallic water pipe running into the building, connections should be made between it and the vertical conductors, provided the lower end of the water pipe runs into moist earth. It is advisable to apply two coats of the aluminum paint, and to repaint the iron every two or three years in order to prevent rust. The Farm Water System. According to the prevailing idea the well of the farm house should never be dug in a ravine or low place, especially if this spot is a few feet lower than the barn or any place which may be a source of foul drainage. Authorities differ as to this, however, modern sanitation claiming that nearly all forms of bacterial or germ life exist in the upper twelve feet of the soil. If the subsoil is a sandy one the water that filters through the subsoil may usually be considered pure. However, the safest way to build any well is to have it water- tight and dig it twelve feet deeper than is necessary to strike water. Fill in the bottom with twelve feet of sand, and this will make a filter for the water which runs down the outside of the walls to find its F A R M B U I L D I N G S 11 passage up through the sand. If your well is dug in gravel it is necessary to dig a much larger hole at first than you need and also to use an octagonal crib with smaller ones inside as you descend in digging to prevent the gravel sliding in. In case the water supply is in the barn the basins should be thoroughly cleaned once every two or three weeks. Then dip out all the water you can and dry well. When installing a barn water system avoid all the crooks and turns possible and use at least a one-inch pipe. It is a good plan to have your own plumbing tools for repairs and construction work of this sort. This will save you time and money, for with the tools it is quite simple to do most of the repairing yourself. The necessary tools include two pipe wrenches, a cutter, a vise and a set of dies. The vise and wrenches are tools in such great demand for general use that they are so much farm capital. System of Hog Farming. A system of hog farming which has been successfully worked out by an Illinois farmer, calls for four equal fields of 20 acres, fenced hog-tight by a five-foot woven wire fence with a barbed wire above it. The fields meet at the center, and here there is a well, a small feed yard for use in winter, and a shed for storing feeding troughs, etc., in the summer. Fifteen brood sows are kept. These raise eight pigs to the litter, once a year. These four fields are so rotated that one is in clover. This field is divided by a temporary wire fence into two parts, one of 12 acres and one of 8 acres. The yearlings, 120 in number, are turned into the twelve acres in early spring to stay there until time for marketing, in August. The cows and pigs go into the eight acre section until August. When the large hogs are sold the tem- porary fence comes down and the mothers and pigs have the run of the whole plot. During summer whatever grain is fed is given them near the shelters. When the ground gets muddy a new place is se- lected. In summer hogs are better off with only a ground floor to the hog-house. Movable houses that can be lifted off the floors are practical. Floors are necessary in winter when all the feeding should be done indoors. Fence Building. Choose your posts carefully when building a fence. Red cedar makes the most "durable post with the exception of cement. The high price of cedar posts makes them almost a prohibitive article in most localities. Cement posts can be made by the farmer or stock- man if sand can be had in the locality. They can be used either for wire or board fences. However, if you have any timber in your neigh- borhood the wooden post will suggest itself at once as the most eco- nomical. The corners are the most important part of any fence. Use large posts, set in holes that are at least four feet deep and three feet square, and anchor well. A combination of barb wire and wire net- ting makes a very good fence. Use the thirty-inch netting, with two wires above and one at the ground to keep the pigs from rooting under. When set the posts should stand at least four and a half feet high, or even five feet if much stock is kept. A good way to 78 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING keep stock from using the gate post for rubbing against is to protect it by a barb wire stapled four feet from ground to gate. Concrete Walks. Permanent walks around the farm house and buildings are not such expensive improvements as many farmers think. Any man of ordinary common sense and attention to details can lay a concrete walk by following a few simple directions. He can lay his own con- crete foundation if he will. The tools needed are a box or a platform of smooth boards for the mortar, hoes and shovels, a spirit level, a trowel such as is used by plasterers, a maul for making foundations firm and an edger for striking off smooth surfaces. One part of cement to five parts of gravel is the formula for the foundation. Guide strips of 1x6 laths must be laid down by exact measurement to keep the walk to straight or regular lines. Mix the cement with the gravel while dry. Work it over and over many times and mix thoroughly before wetting. Then wet slowly while working and put it in place at a depth of about four inches, working fast so that the concrete will not set. As soon as it begins to set put on an inch of top layer made of two parts clean sand and one part cement. Rub this over and over with a trowel to get a smooth, hard finish, and keep it moist several days after it sets, using either wet sand and thick, or wet gunny sacks. For flooring for stables, dairies or other farm buildings, lay parallel guide strips of 2x6 straight scantlings about every three feet and lay the mixture in these belts to the same depth. As such floors should be laid with an eye to being washed, a fall of 1^ inch to every ten feet must be planned for. A cheaper cement can be made of flashed coal tar and sand, but it is more difficult to handle. The results are akin to asphalt. CHAPTER VII Pasture and Meadow STOCK should be allowed as large a run of good pasture as pos- sible and every live farmer expects to give more or less of his land up to pasture. But land suitable for crops ought not to be used for pasture, and modern farming, with the increasing practice of the soiling system, is learning how to utilize the waste farm lands for pasture land. If the soil of the intended pasture is poor it must be rid of weeds by mowing the annuals frequently during the summer and rooting out the perennials. Plow, fertilize heavily, reseed often and occa- sionally apply lime. Use a pasture mixture of a good many different kinds of grasses, as some grasses need plenty of time to reach their best estate and others come along quickly into service. Breaking on new prairie land varies according to the soil and climate. The general method calls for a light breaking of the soil as early as frost is out of the ground. As soon as the sod has rotted, disc and backset. This leaves good land in the best shape for wheat the next year. If the soil is very light and the land scrubby it is best to break deeper — three or four inches — and seed to a light crop of oats or flax. Scrub and brush must be removed before plowing, and be sure that shear and coulter are in good shape all the time. For backsetting, a sulky plow should be used with plenty of horse- power. On Canadian farm lands, cattle are often used for this work, either alone or with horses. Remove all stones, if possible, while breaking, so that you can leave a clear field behind for the backset- ting. Yet this is not generally done, farmers waiting for slack days. This necessitates going over the same ground again. Old highland pasture should be re-seeded with white clover and alsike clover, mixed with Kentucky blue grass and medium red clover, every six to seven years. Sow the seed in the winter, as fol- lows: Two quarts of white clover, two quarts of alsike or Swedish clover, four quarts of Kentucky blue grass and two quarts of red clover, all mixed together. Sow about eight to ten quarts to the acre before the barn yard manure or fertilizer is put upon the land. Spread from the load, fifteen to twenty-five loads of stable or barn- yard manure per acre are sufficient, and this can be put on in the winter after the seed has been sown. The old pasture should be pre- pared by being harrowed about two inches deep late in the fall, before sowing the seed. The fresh dirt, together with the top dressing of manure, will keep the roots from drying out. Pasture thus heavily top dressed in winter with barnyard manure will also produce feed in a long drought, early spring grass, and late fall pasture. The high lands are the best for dairying, and such lands, where the above plan 80 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING is followed, will produce from two to three times the amount of pasture. In covering pastures with manure do so in the fall or early winter, or else very early in the spring. This conserves soil moisture and encourages th^ growth of grass. When such land is plowed for crops the gradual decay of manure and the residue from the sod will bring average soils into better condition and the crop will be in- creased more than by the direct use of manure upon grain land. The action of the grass roots upon the_ soil changes its physical composi- tion, making it darker in color, retaining more moisture and more responsive to sunlight. If the pasture has not produced much feed, sow a mixture to the acre of three pounds of alsike clover, two pounds of medium red and six pounds of timothy. Then top dress for the fall as directed. If your rainfall is not abundant, or if any special season is dry, don't pasture the hay fields too closely in the fall. The meadows go into the winter uncovered, and clover plants are likely to suffer. The next spring the grass will be slower in growth and your yield of hay much less. Some amount of pasturing can be done, but it must be so managed as not to allow close cropping over the whole field. On the whole, it is best not to pasture the first fall after seeding to clover or any grass. Clover and Cow Peas. Blue grass and white clover on permanent pastures are apt to make the soil sod bound, especially on hilly or stony land. To pre- vent this, mulch with the bottoms from the straw stack, or with ma- nure early in the spring. The stock will not feed then, but the field will be ready by August or September, and the output of the pas- ture will be doubled. In the northeastern part of Minnesota clover grows with great luxuriance, and as the line is followed down along the eastern border of the state clover remains a standard paying crop. In other sec- tions of the state, where it has been introduced with some difficulty, repeated crops prove that clover thrives on itself. Success in clover growing seems to depend upon persistence in growing stands year after year. Seed can be cut from alsike clover for two or three successive years, occasionally for a longer period. In some parts of the far west red clover lives many years, producing seed, if allowed to, every year. The small white clover also lives for a long period, producing seed every year. In the central and eastern states clover lasts longer, however, if it does not bear seed, as has been proven over and over again. Where clover cannot be grown to the profit of the land, cow- peas make a tolerably good substitute. But though cowpeas gather nitrogen, their roots are not so long as the clover roots, and there- fore they cannot bring up fertilizing material from the subsoil as the clover does. A deeply penetrating root like that of the mammoth clover enriches the subsoil and aids it in retaining moisture. PASTURE AND M E A D O W 81 For cutting- cowpeas the attachment of a pea harvester to the cutting bar of a mower greatly helps the process. This little tool lifts up any forage lying on the ground so that the mower knife can work from the underside and cut clean. The cost is small and the help great, not only in harvesting more peas, but making the labor of bunching the peas less. Stock In Pasture. All good farmers agree that stock should never be turned out to pasture when there is no grass in the spring. A herd of cattle will do great damage in a few days by tramping the pastures and pack- ing the ground hard, thus destroying the grass roots ; then, as soon as the spring and June rains are over, there is no pasture for the dairy the rest of the season. The best pastures are those that are never plowed — if they are rightly cared for. The pasture should not be harrowed if the grass roots are thin. Sow very late in the fall or in winter up to the first of April. A good mixture to use is from four to six pounds of blue grass, red-top and white clover to the acre, and top-dress with all kinds of farm manure. I have top-dressed pastures with coarse barn-yard manure, and find that 10 acres so treated will produce far more than twenty left without this fertility added. Another reason why stock should not be turned out to pasture until there is a good growth of grass is that with scanty pasturage the stock are kept on their feet all day picking a few spears of grass. The best time for stock to feed is before the dew is off in the morn- ing. If you have not plenty of good spring pasturage, keep on with the winter rations for eight or ten days longer and remember that upland pasture is the best of all. Red-top, blue grass and white clover is the ideal combination for dairy pasturing, but medium red clover, timothy and June grass make also a fair pasture. Meadows. As to meadows, the best place for a permanent meadow is either on land too rocky for general tilling, on hillsides, or in lowlands that are likely to be swampy at times. The best time for preparing meadow land is after the early hay harvest is over, when a light spread of manure is good, and this followed by another during the early winter. If the grass sod is worn out, scratch the surface very early in the spring and re-seed. If you use only one kind of grass, August and September are the best months for sowing. One kind of grass for the permanent meadow is advised by many farmers. Clover, if added, is best sown in the spring. Some lands are more suitable for permanent meadow than a permanent pasture. Drained and well cured marshy and peaty soil often produces red-top, timothy and other kinds of hay in abundance. Such meadow lands should have some grass seed sown on the poorest parts, for instance, alsike clover sown early in March before the frost is out of the ground, and then manured later. These lands usuallv hold a good deal of water. If pastured, the trampings of the ani- mals cut the sod and destroy the grass roots. Yet, by proper treat- 82 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING ment, many such peaty soils can be so cared for as to become valu- able hay lands. Follow the plan of feeding no stock on them, sow seed on the barest spots early in spring and dress heavily with ma- nure in the winter or fall. This will help to bring out the new grass roots. Don't cut these too closely, as a few inches of stubble will hold the snow and protect the grass. If you can get a second crop late in the summer, mow it and let it lay on the meadow and rot. An Eastern Meadow. One hay grower in the East,, who had the reputation of growing more hay to the acre than any man in the East — Mr. George Clark, of Connecticut, says that he prepared his soil so thoroughly that it was worked at least fifty times over before any seed was sown, work- ing very deeply at first, and afterward more lightly until every par- ticle was broken. Then the seed was sown lengthwise and crosswise twice, using fourteen quarts of timothy and the same of red-top to the acre. By thus going over and over the soil the plant food was made available at once and the soil so pulverized that seed would get lodgment immediately. This sowing brought Mr. Clark seven and three-fourths tons of hay to the acre, with two cuttings. If expensive clover seed is sown upon such a prepared soil none will be wasted in sowing. Timothy and clover may be sown on winter grain as soon as it comes oiT in the spring. After sowing put on a little drag and if the grain is drilled in, drag lengthwise of the drill enough to loosen the dirt and cover the seed. Use six to eight pounds of medium red clover seed per acre and six or seven pounds of timothy. If alsike clover is added the proportions might be changed to^four pounds of clover, three pounds of alsike and seven or eight pounds of timothy. If medium red clover alone is used, sow from eight to twelve quarts per acre, and the same of the mammoth clover. Alsike clover should always be sown with other grass seed and clover for hay or pasture. Sow the same number of pounds of seed in the spring seeding and drag the seed in. The best way to sow clover and timothy seed is always to sow it with a drill. Nurse Crops of Grain. When grass seed is sown with grain, especially spring grain, the quantity of grain should be from a third to one-half less where clover and other grasses are used. A thick seeding of grain is injurious to the young grass. If the weather is dry and hot in harvest time, often- times the grass is lost after the grain is cut. A thin sowing of grain is the best for a good stand of clover and for all kinds of grasses. In mild climates clover and other grasses can be sown in the latter part of August and up to September 20th with a nurse crop if the ground is plowed and put in first-class shape. Make a compact seed bed by fall harrowing this early fall plowing. No stock should be put on this and with this firm seed bed there will be no trouble from the freezing and loosening of the soil. PASTURE AND ALE A DOW 83 Another good method is to seed on clean corn stubble without plowing-. A first-class seed bed may be made on this by disking or shovel plowing, after which clover can be sown with a nurse crop. If the intention is to do this, the greatest possible amount of stubble and aftergrowth should be left as winter protection. Remember that one acre of clover plowed under represents, in the soil fertility gained thus, ten tons of stable manure. The best time to sow crimson clover, which is to be turned under the following spring, is from late June to September. For sowing June clover about four quarts of clover seed to one of alsike clover and two of timothy makes a good mixture. If oats or barley are used with the clover, do not use too much. Barley or wheat are better than oats as they do not shade the ground so much, nor take up so much water. Seeding to Clover With Spring Grains, Such As Oats, Wheat, Barley, Etc. In the latter part of the June of 1906, the writer seeded a piece of sandy land for Hon. J. M. Hackney, of Hamline, Minn. The land had not been tilled for years and the vegetation on it consisted of weeds and native grass. These were all plowed under and the whole thoroughly harrowed. Seed was then mixed as follows : One bushel of oats, eight quarts of medium clover and six quarts of timothy seed. The mistake is usually made of putting in too much grain seed, there- by choking out or weakening the cover crops. In the above case, the summer following the hay crop was of the best. I presume that 95% of the losses are due to the use of too much seed grain. Often it comes up so densely that the young grasses are shaded and their vital- ity weakened so that when the grain is harvested and the grasses are exposed to the sun and dry winds they will perish. In seeding for hay or pasture a mixture of the varieties of clover and timothy is very good. The clovers improve the texture and fer- tility of the soil and also make excellent ha}^ besides being a fine pas- ture for honey bees. Cutting Clover. There are various opinions about cutting clover, but I prefer to cut when clover is in full bloom. It should be cut in the forenoon and raked up in the winrows and bunched or cocked the same afternoon. The natural moisture of clover or hay will not spoil it, but the water from rains and heavy dews does. All sorts of grasses should be cut and cured the same way for bright, sweet hay. If hay is fit to buy you can tell by tasting it. If not sweet don't buy it. The best hay for all kinds of stock is medium red clover. After an experience of thirty years in curing clover I find that clover hay should not be cured in the swath in the sun. The leaves are all lost and the more it is handled the poorer the hay is. The farmer who raises clover and corn successfully is the successful farmer. He will have plenty of the best fodder for his stock and his soil getting richer every year. I have often heard it said that a ration of clover hay with 84 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING four quarts of oats would keep a horse in far better condition than eight quarts of oats and timothy hay. Hay should be stored in the barn thoroughly wilted, but with no water in it. A small quantity of water in a large hay mow will de- preciate the value of the whole mow for both feeding and market. The natural hay moisture never spoils it, however. Clover should not be left out in the field, for one rain on it de- preciates the feeding quality greatly. If it looks like rain, put it in the barn, even if quite damp. Sprinkle a little salt on it, and the hay will come out all right. If you have no salt handy, mix in good, fresh straw with it. More clover hay is spoiled by drying in the field than in any other way, for the leaves which are thus lost are the best part. The second cutting is good feed for hogs, mixed with roots and a little corn. But as clover hay contains a large per cent of protein, horses should not be heavily fed with it, especially when the hay is first ready for use. All stock eat it greedily and it must be used with caution. Cutting Timothy. Timothy should be cut as soon as the blow is ofif, and this should not dry in the swath. In good weather, when raked into winrows, it will dry and cure very fast. Stack as soon as possible and avoid a rain. One ton of early cut hay is worth two cut later for dairy pur- poses. Timothy is best cut before it blooms for cow fodder. In gen- eral, no hay should be left to lie in the sun. Oats cut green make good feed for the dairy cows. Cut just after the oats berry is past the milk form and just before the straw begins to turn yellow, and stack under cover as soon as possible. The hay caps now in use made of ducking are invaluable for rain or wind protection. With a few hun- dred of these caps a big crop of hay can be handled without any risk of damage from dew or rains. It must be remembered that the aroma from grass makes a part of its feeding value. When new mown hay lies and bleaches in the strong sunlight, the loss of color is accompanied by a loss of this aroma. Gathering it into cocks or bundles checks the loss of color and smell, and keeps the natural moisture in the hay. The hay "sweats" in the cock or barn, and this is just what it should do. Hay Heating. If you suspect that your hay is heating, which is generally made known by a certain peculiar smell, put a thermometer in any handy tube and push it down into the middle of the stack. If the record on the thermometer is at all doubtful pull the hay apart and let in the air. As this condition is supposed to come from too much mois- ture, the salt sprinkling method mentioned before, one pound of salt to one hundred pounds of hay, should be used on every load of hay that has to be hurried to cover before it is quite dry. Scatter on with care that too much is not given. Straw laid in layers between green hay is also recommended. Stock do not object to this at all, but eat the straw apparently with as much relish as if it were hay. PASTURE AND MEADOW 85 Manure Spreaders. In spreading manure over meadows the use of a manure spreader does away with the need of any after attention. Summer manuring not only doubles the crop of grass, but it makes a second cutting of hay for the fall. Whether you manure broadcast from the wagon or by the spreader, do it as soon as the first hay harvest is off the fields. Spread the well rotted manure in moderate thickness, seeing to it that the poorest patches of stubble get attention first, if there is not enough fertilizer to cover the whole field. If you spread from the wagon go over afterwards with the harrow or brush in order to cover more evenly. The field will produce thicker sod, weeds will be crowded out, and the value of your meadow doubled in yield and dur- ability. In general, it may be said that the farmer will do well if instead of summer fallowing, he will raise more cultivated crops for fodder, and keep more live stock to increase the fertility. Forty acres seeded to brome grass for pasture, and maintained for four years, then plow- ed and cultivated to grain will yield two bushels where one grew before. Seed another forty in another part of the land and repeat the process. You will soon get returns from your live stock that will not mean a corresponding loss of soil fertility, as is the case where only grain growing is carried on. Many farmers who are short on pas- ture and long on stock will get rapid results by sowing together oats, medium red clover and alsike, 1^ bushels oats, 6 quarts clover and 5 pounds alsike per acre. For loose, dry soils, this method is excellent. The following is a group of four mixtures for humid climates hav- ing severe winters and is taken from a Canadian farm paper: (A) Medium Red Clover 3 lbs, Kentucky Blue Grass 1 8 lbs. Orchard Grass 8 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. (B) Medium Red Clover 2 lbs. White Clover 2 lbs. Meadow Fescue 5 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 8 lbs. (C) For High, Rather Thin Soils. Mammoth Red Clover 3 lbs. Kentucky Blue Grass 8 lbs. Orchard Grass 8 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. (D) For Low, Wet Lands. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. Red Top 6 lbs. Timothy 4 lbs. All the components of Mixture (A) start very early in the spring, and the clover and brome grass will remain green and continue to grow during quite dry weather. 86 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING The following article on alfalfa was originally prepared for the "Garden and Farm Almanac," but by permission of the publishers of the Almanac, Doubleday, Page & Co., it is included here. How to Raise Alfalfa. One of the most frequent questions asked by correspondents of experiment stations throughout the country is how to raise alfalfa. The failures or partial failures that many farmers have experi- enced in their first attempts with this crop have deterred many from undertaking its cultivation. This is unfortunate, for alfalfa is one of the most valuable crops that has ever been introduced on American farms. As a matter of fact, the cultivation of alfalfa is not especially diffi- cult. It does require a certain amount of care in the preparation of a seedbed in getting- the crop started, etc., but these are no more than are required for any other crop. The difference lies in the fact that alfalfa is new to most farms and farmers, and many others have not become acquainted with its peculiarities. As to its value in most systems of farming there is no longer the slightest doubt. Its roots penetrate to great depths in the soil, thus serving the triple purpose of drawing on the deeper soil moisture, of gathering plant food from considerable depths and leaving parts of the same at the surface, and, finally, of opening up the soil to the depth of several feet. The tops constitute one of the most valuable forage crops that we know, and, finally, the whole plant belongs to the group that gathers a large part of its nitrogen from the air, storing it up in nodules on the roots. The Best Kinds of Soil. The popular impression that alfalfa can be grown only on rare and peculiarly suited types of soil is wrong. It will thrive on any good, well-drained soil. In an investigation conducted by the Indiana Experiment Station, it was found that out of 83 plantings on different farms in clay soils, 68 were successful ; out of 188 plantings in loam, 167 were successful, and out of 17 plantings in sandy soil, 69 were successful. In other words, the kind of soil is not one of the most important factors in getting a good catch of alfalfa. It ivS important, however, that the soil shall be well drained. Where ground water stands within three or four feet of the surface the crop will not thrive. Such soils may often be tile drained, and after the lapse of sufficient time will become well fitted for alfalfa, but until this time it is idle to try to induce the crop to grow in such ground. A fact that is not always sufficiently well recognized is the need of this plant for large amounts of proper plant food. Any crop that makes the tremendous root system and growth of top characteristic of alfalfa must have abundant food with which to carry on its process of manufacture. Therefore a soil from which the plant food has been largely removed by wasteful farming will not prove suitable for alfalfa. There needs to be a plentiful supply of humus in the ground. PASTUREAND MEADOW 87 Getting the Soil Ready. The first thing to do is to determine with certainty that the field which it is proposed to plant to alfalfa is not acid or sour. Most farmers will readily recognize a sour condition of the soil from the character of the weed growth. It may further be tested with blue litmus paper, which will be turned more or less red on contact with moist soils that are acid in character. If the soil is acid and the field is otherwise suitable as regards drainage and soil fertility, the chances are that an application of lime will correct the acidity and place the field in a receptive condition. Lime may be applied in the form of ground limestone or in other forms. Usually ground limestone is best. The application of lime should be made a considerable time prior to the proposed planting of the alfalfa, so that the cultivation before planting will thoroughly mix the lime with the soil. The preparation of the seedbed should be thorough, as indeed it should be for most other crops. It is just as important that the surface of the soil be fine and mellow as it is that the soil be well drained. A light top-dressing of stable manure is one of the best means of maintaining a fine mellow condition of surface soil. The Weed Question. It is essential that the ground be reasonably free froni weed seeds. The best way to secure this condition is to keep a hoed crop in the field for one or two seasons before seeding it down to alfalfa. It should be cultivated frequently during the spring and early sum- mer until the time for seeding is at hand. These cultivations will destroy most of the weed seeds that germinate and will leave the surface soil reasonably free of weeds or viable weed seed. Selection of the Seed. Alfalfa seed is small and all too frequently is adulterated. These adulterations can readily be detected by a small hand lens, such as can be bought in optical stores for fifty cents to a dollar. Samples of the seed should be looked over carefully and a rough determination made of the amount of dirt and weed seeds present. If these are considerable, the seed should be returned and a different supply bought. Planting the Seed, Alfalfa may be sown broadcast or may be drilled in. The latter is the better way, since it invariably gives more uniform results. The amount of seed to be used will run approximately twenty pounds to the acre. Successful planting may be made at any time during the late spring and early summer. This will depend on the amount of other farm work, the rainfall, and the condition of the field that is to be planted. The difficulty with planting in late summer is the pos- sible occurrence of droughts which will prevent securing a good stand. The difficulty with planting too early is the possible smoth- ering out of the alfalfa by weeds. 88 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING When to Cut Alfalfa. The young plants should not be mowed so long- as they do not start to bloom. Many farmers have followed the practice of clip- ping the young plants and some have seemed to get good results, but the safer plan is to allow them to grow until they give signs of blooming. As cold weather comes on, the tops of alfalfa will die down and these will protect the roots and crowns over winter. The Question of Inoculation. If alfalfa is to be grown in a field where it has never been before, it is wise to inoculate the soil. This is done because there must be certain species of bacteria in the ground in order that the alfalfa may properly gather nitrogen from the air and store it in the nodules on the roots. These bacteria may be present already in the soil, but it is far safer to introduce them artificially. This can readily be done in most cases by securing soil from a field in which alfalfa has been growing and scattering this over the new field. At least two hundred pounds of soil per acre should be used. This soil should be kept from too long exposure to bright sun- light and should be harrowed in just as soon as it is scattered over the new field. Otherwise many of the bacteria will be killed by the action of the sun. CHAPTER VIII ike Vegetatle Garden TO know how to cook well and economically is of even more importance to the farmer's wife and daughters than to the city woman. For the farmer and his family there are no handy restaurants or department store cafe, where if the home cooking is bad, the family can get a taste of something better. The iarm table is too apt to fall into a round of fat meats and the coarser root vegetables. In fact, on most farm tables the potato is the only vegetable. It takes time and labor to have a good vegetable garden. Time and labor are costly assets in the farm life. Yet, from that very fact, it is the duty of the women of the household to use every means to develop and increase the working power of the farmer's labor day. A good day's work is best done on a well-fed stomach. That means a diet where fresh fruits and vegetables in the summer time are as much a staple as flour and meat. For this reason a good vegetable garden is a prime need on a farm, whether for market or home use. The beginner in kitchen gardening is apt to be rather conserva- tive as to space, which is wise. A little garden well tilled is much better than a big one, half cultivated and harvested. Besides, the ordi- nary family cannot make good use of very large crops of the more tender vegetables. Begin Small. In order to benefit by the rules set down here begin on a small scale, therefore. A plot of 100 by 150 feet will give, with the right management, and a succession of crops, all the vegetables needed for the farmer's table. An acre will not only supply the vegetables and fruits for the farmer's table, but will leave a surplus for the market. However, if you want to get the best results from your farming, let the women of the family manage as large a vegetable garden as you can spare, and see that they get the needed help in the heavy work at the right time, even if it does sometimes appear inconveni- ent. Choose a good sunny plot for your garden and don't stint it too much as to size. The farmer who starts a vegetable garden has the advantage of tools, manures and mulching at hand. His only ex- pense therefore will be for his seeds. Select a sandy loam, if possible, plow in the fall, cultivate often and drag sufficiently to keep out the weeds until you are ready for spring planting. A garden free of weeds to start with is so much easier to tend. Get seeds from a reliable seedsman and as soon as you can work the ground plant onions, pars- nips, a few radishes and beets, carrots, lettuce and some early peas. The tenderer vegetables may escape the early frosts. If they do, you 90 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING will be that much better off as to early vegetables. If they do get killed, work the ground over well and replant. In two weeks plant a few more radishes, lettuce, beets and peas for summer use. If you want sweet corn, plant that quite early and make three plantings 8 or 10 days apart. Cucumbers planted after June 1st are not so liable to attacks from the striped bug. Plant winter beets about the same time. House Planting in March. In general plant as much as possible with the idea of rotation, so that your vegetables will furnish your table for the whole summer. Your tomatoes, cabbage and cauliflower sow in the house in March or in hot-beds. As soon as the second leaves show up well, trans- plant to a cold frame four inches apart each way. See that they have plenty of moisture and keep covered on very cool nights. Wet thoroughly before transplanting to the open ground and leave the plants with dirt on them four inches by four inches and three inches deep. Put in holes dug large enough so that they will receive this lump of dirt without breaking and plant a little deeper than in the cold frame. Plant toward evening and in the morning clip off with shears some of the outside leaves of the cabbage and cauliflower, but do not touch the tomatoes. Leave a few plants in the cold frame to fill out with, if needed. If you follow these direc- tions carefully, have prepared your seed bed thoroughly in the fall and have bought your seeds from a good seed house, you will have very few failures in your garden. Even if the season be a dry one, faithful cultivation will make up for a great many of Nature's short- comings. The great advantage of starting the more tender vegetables in- doors is that better results are secured, as a rule. The plants are stockier, you can save the strongest plants and thin out the weaklings, and you can often benefit these strong plants by two transplantings before setting out in the open. In this case the second transplanting should be when they have grown three or four leaves. The best plants to start indoors are tomatoes, peppers, egg-plant, the last two of which are very tender, and need to be kept warm day and night; all varieties of cabbage take a long time to grow, as does celery, and need an early start. Vegetables should not be crowded, and no second crop planting should be between the rows until the first crop is matured and har- vested. The soil should be refertilized and cultivated before the sec- ond planting; if crowded they become weak and feeble, therefore give plenty of room for an abundant growth. Manures or Fertilizers. Any reliable dealer will give you a good general "garden fer- tilizer," and if you want to get quick results, these are most valuable. But there is nothing to equal the staying power of stable manures. As a restorer of worn-out soils this has no equal in applied fertilizers. Manures combined with clover crops, turned in deeply for a couple THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 91 of years, must be used in order to get the best results from com- mercial fertilizers. The latter on poor or worn-out soils, are like whips to a tired horse. You may get a spurt of activity, but the horse is that much worse ofif later on. Feed up a starved soil first before you begin the practice of hurrying it along. Every dollar of the commercial fer- tilizer will pay its full value then. Manure not only gives plant food, but organic matter, "humus," as well as needed bacteria. It acts me- chanically upon soil and holds moisture. Fertilizers are just food. In using garden fertilizers do not stint them. For some soils 1,000 lbs. per acre will be ample, but others will need a ton. Put about half on by sowing broadcast after plowing and before harrowing, and the rest when the drill is used. Don't let it come in contact with the seeds or roots at that period. This rule is for large market gardens. Smaller ones will suggest hand methods for distribution of the fer- tilizer. The fall is the best time to apply an added mulch of manure to the hardy perennials. Asparagus and rhubarb especially require it, because it gives the needed stir-up to nature's forces in the spring, when early garden vegetables need to be helped along. In April, nitrate of soda applied before a rain will hurry up the new growth. In June and July some more of any quick acting commercial fertilizer may be given. The nitrate of soda applied at intervals of about three weeks, may be apportioned in quantities of about one ounce to three gallons of water if the season is a dry one. But if wet scatter the nitrate on the ground — an ounce to a square yard and rake well into the surface. In winters that are open, with freezes and thaws, the value of a mulch of manure in the garden is very evident. It not only protects the plants from being lifted out of their winter beds by the breaking up of the earth in the sudden changes of temperature, but it is adding food to the soil. The Cold Frame. The question of climate must always be considered in open ground planting or in early seed growing indoors. Fine seed plants need generally continued warmth, and in a Minnesota climate, for instance, warm nights are not likely until the last of May or the first week of June. In northern climates, some plants always need forwarding, by means of the seed bed, or cold frame, in order to get early results. A seed bed must be made for permanence, as it can be used all through the summer. A southern exposure in a dry plot is very necessary, and a thoroughly made frame of one-inch planks, from four and a half to six feet wide and any length desired should be constructed. This should be about 18 inches high at the rear, but only about half as high in front. The corner stakes should be from two ft. to 2 ft. 3 in. in length. Set in the ground with rear planks about six or seven inches above ground, and front ones only two or three inches above. It needs about two or three inches of slope for drainage and sunlight. 92 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Get the best quality of soil, prepare it thoroughly, so that it will be free from lumps and well pulverized. The following- plants may be sown three inches apart in hot-bed: Cabbage, Cauliflower, En- dive, Celery, Kale, Parsley, Kohlrabi, Head Lettuce, Egg-plant, Leek, Peppers. A table for the time it takes common vegetables to show above ground follows, also the probable time of edible use. Radishes — From three to six days after planting. One month to 45 days. Lettuce — From six to eight days. One month to 3 months. Endive — From five to ten days. About 45 days. Peas— Six to ten days. 40, 50 to 80 days. Beans — Five to ten days. 50 days. Celery — Twelve days to twenty. 170 days before using. Cabbage — One week to ten days. About 100 days. Cauliflower — One week. About 125 days. Corn — Seven to eight days. From 55 to 90 days. Onions — One week to ten days. From 100 to 160 days. Turnips — Four to eight days. From 60 to 70 days. Parsnips — Ten to twenty days. About 140 days. For each hundred miles north or south of your own latitude allow about six days' difference in time of planting. In the latitude of New York City such quick growing vegetables as radishes, lettuce, corn salad, endive, and spinach could be grown from September plant- ings, but not in Minnesota. Hot Beds. A hotbed for early seed growing is excellent. Have a good frame which can be covered by a couple of storm windows. Set it up in a warm, protected place, where the rays of the sun will fall directly on the glass, not obliquely, during most of the day. A high board fence, the south side of any building near the house, or a shelter belt of evergreens will make a good protection. Potatoes. Potatoes make one of the most profitable crops that can be raised. In the northwest especially, the potato crop is coming to be one of great importance. Because of the excellent quality of the potatoes grown in this locality they have a wide reputation. A clover or alfalfa sod is the best kind of ground on which to grow potatoes, A grass sod comes next. A rich corn stubble is good. In more southern localities ground that has grown cowpeas or soy beans previously should produce good crops. A heavy dress- ing of manure — 20 loads to each acre — put on evenly by a manure spreader, is not too much for some soils if you want big yields. But there are many localities where good crops can be grown without manure. Plow the land in the spring or fall reasonably deep so as to bury all sod — making the seed bed deep enough so that seed may be planted four inches deep on the turned sod. Winter rye, grown as a catch crop between two crops of potatoes THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 93 and then plowed under is specially good as a fertilizer and pre- ventive of scab. Canada field peas are good. You can grow both in a single season if necessary. Or, try a crop of corn raised on the grass sod soil and plowed under after well manuring. Potatoes thrive well after such land treatment and are fine in size, brighter colored and free from scab. Another method that has been tried successfully for building up potato land is to dress good sod land with acid phosphate and muriate of potash before plowing for corn. Rye follows this to be plowed under in the spring. Dress with same fertilizers again and sow to cow peas, which can be used for forage. Harrow and sow rye in the second fall. In the next year prepare for the potato crop after plowing under the rye. For very thin soil this is sure to produce results. Potatoes require a large amount of potash for their best develop- ment, but they also require a goodly supply of nitrogen and phos- phoric acid. Many growers attempt to grow potatoes with wood ashes, potash salts and other fertilizers rich in principally potash, but this is a poor policy unless it is known that the land is well sup- plied with the other essential forms of fertility. If straw has previously been spread 4 to 6 inches deep on the ground and plowed under in the fall your year's straw will return you from $4 to $6 per ton. Horse stable manure with plenty of straw in it is good. Too solid manure is apt to make scabby potatoes. If the intention is to apply stable manure to the potato land the stock should be heavily bedded with straw or leaves. How to Plant. In planting potatoes, if you have not a planter, mark one way with a light marker and the other with a light plow. Then drop the seed potatoes, take the drag and cover by crossing the furrows. If once does not cover them deep enough, lap the drag. Cultivate as soon as the potatoes come in sight, throwing deep, about three inches, at first, but later, when the potatoes are a few inches high, cultivate lightly. The cultivator will do the hilling. For a small plot of ground plant the potatoes for drills from 2^ ft. to 3 ft. apart, the last being best for most varieties. Drop the seed about 15 in. apart in the row. The number of eyes left to each cut seed depends on whether early or late tubers are being used. Usually more eyes are left in the late seed than in the early. Then harrow twice, if possible, before the seed comes up. The harrow should run across the rows the first time to level the land. On very loose soils, the weeder must then be used. A one-horse weeder is the best to manage. Cultivate the soil towards the plants. The sooner the dirt is around them the better. If the ground is very dry put the weeder to work in .two or three days after planting. No seed potatoes should be left for sun and wind to dry up, but constant cultivation should be practiced. Set the cultivator teeth so that the dirt will be thrown toward the plants the first time of using it and continue this through the season. If you use this method the center of the potato hill becomes the lowest and 94 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING holds all local showers. At the last working hill to from 4 to 6 in. above the level. I have cultivated, in the light, sandy soil of Anoka Co., Minn., as an experiment, on the Wittig farm, two potato plots, one by the deep cultivation and hilling method, and the other by shallow and level culture. The first method yielded one-half bushel of potatoes from six hills. The second required twenty-two hills in order to fill a ten-quart pail. The quality of the potatoes was also greatly in- creased in value by the hilling on light soils. On heavy soils, however, do not hill. Level culture is better. On such soils hilling after the plants are ten inches high causes the growth of additional tuber-bearing stems to develop, which makes the plants produce two distinct crops, both of which will be of inferior size potatoes. Seed Potatoes Should Be Whole. Seed potatoes, for a good crop, should be the middle size of the last year's crop. If cut, cut once in two the long way of the potato. Plant soon after cutting. Potatoes yield much better when the seed is planted immediately after cutting. I have proved this by actual ex- periments on the same soil with the same cultivation. Potatoes planted at once after cutting not only came up several days before the others but made a stronger growth and yielded a larger crop of perfect potatoes. Potatoes intended for seed should not be left in a dark place until late in the spring, to sprout and grow together. Spread out the seed potatoes thinly in a dry and light room. Too much of the growth principle goes to waste by letting potatoes sprout. Very small potatoes are not good as seed. You may get a fair crop from them, but you are far more likely to have a poor one, espe- cially where you plant small seed year after year. The size of a hen's egg is the best size for seed. And I may add that this size, planted whole, especially in a dry spring, will be pretty sure to give you ex- cellent results. Whole potatoes used for seed and put in dry ground do not shrink. Only about one-fourth of whole seed ever grows to maturity. A very good plan, and one that is practiced here very little, if at all, is this one of planting whole potatoes the size of a hen's egg, or larger, instead of slicing up big ones. The writer traveled over a sec- tion of northern Minnesota, where it was said to be excellent for pro- ducing potatoes. Of 20 or 30 fields visited a very large per cent had failed to produce — in some about one-tenth of the hills had failed. This condition was undoubtedly due, in part, if not wholly, to the fact that sliced potatoes or cut seed had been used. These were placed un- doubtedly in the dry, sandy soil, then after planting, no rain came to wet the ground, and the cut pieces dried up, so that the vitality was lost. To guard against this condition whole potatoes should be planted. Potatoes the size of a hen's egg are best. This system is used gen- erally in New York by the most successful growers. Medium pota- THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 95 toes of the size of large hen's eggs can thus be planted in dry soil and not lose their vitality. A second reason for planting whole pota- toes has to do with the eyes. About one-third the eyes on a potato do not mature — the stronger eyes take the substance from the weaker ones — thus, when a whole potato is put in, one is sure that some of the eyes will mature. Then it stands to reason that there will be more sprouts and these will be hardier, and it has been proved by actual experience that about 3 times as many potatoes are secured in this manner. These are more uniform in size and demand the best market price. In the case of sliced seed the potatoes resulting are few and overgrown, often being hollow. A field of clover plowed under makes an excellent seed bed, or 40 loads of coarse barnyard manure to the acre, plowed under, will be equivalent. Potato Culture. A good way to treat potatoes to keep down weeds is to put on straw, after planting, so that weeds cannot come through. Fine straw that cattle have pounded to pieces laid on so that a shovel plow can still run between the hills and turn straw and some dirt on the hills, is said to be a good method. Turnips make good fertilizer for potato land, even if only used for harvesting. Plowed under they are splendid in returns, and can be grown after the crop of early potatoes is dug. No matter how strong your early potato plants look, don't fail to spray them with the Bordeaux mixture about three times every months from the time growth is well established until the first or middle of September, according to latitude. This is the only safe way to ensure against the potato blight. A power potato digger is a great help to the commercial potato grower. By digging for his neighbors he can soon pay for its cost. An excellent authority on potato growing is T. B. Torrey's "A B C of Potato Culture." Bulletin No. 118 of the Minnesota College of Agriculture gives good advice and a great many comparative tables as to potato experiments and studies in 1909. Potato Diseases. For blight in potatoes Bordeaux mixture is the specific as a preventive. But it must be used in time, for if blight once gets a hold, all the spraying you may give the plants will do no good. The potato plants should be spra3^ed with the Bordeaux when they are but six inches high and be sprayed thereafter at intervals of every ten days until from five to seven applications have been given. When the potato bugs put in their appearance the Paris green can be added to the Bordeaux mixture as though the latter was mere water, and a combination spray will be had that will both prevent the diseases and kill the beetles. One ounce of the Paris green will be sufficient to add to every six to eight gallons of the Bordeaux. The expense of spraying is hardly worth mentioning when com- pared to saving a crop worth one to two hundred dollars per acre. 96 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING A good way of treating potatoes to prevent them from sprouting and therefore shriveling is given by an Eastern potato grower. Be- fore the potatoes are stored soak them for one hour in a solution of one pint sulphuric acid to twenty-five gallons of water. Mix the solu- tion thoroughly before immersing the tubers. After removing them from the bath allow them to become thoroughly dried and then store them away in barrels or large boxes. Tubers thus treated retain all of their edible qualities but are useless for planting purposes. Aside from killing the sprouting portions of the potatoes the solution kills the decay germs, and potatoes thus treated are not liable to rot in storage. One pint of commercial formalin to thirty gallons of water is a good solution in which to soak seed potatoes as a preventive of scab. A corrosive sublimate mixture is sometimes used, but great care must be exercised with this. Soak with the formalin for two hours before planting. Use a barrel or tub for container. Draw the water through a bung hole and use it again. You can use two barrels to advantage by filling one while the other is soaking. If potatoes already have scab, cut them after they are treated, but spread in the sun before cutting. Marketing. Dig potatoes in dry weather, if possible. If you can manage to harvest them before the fall rains set in, they will come out of the ground very clean and be of more market value. Any farmer who does not thoroughly acquaint himself with the conditions of his own market and the best way of disposing of his garden crops deserves not to have the good steady customers that can be found in all market towns, whether for wholesale or retail trade. Well sorted potatoes, all small, rough and bruised potatoes being discarded for market purposes, will greatly add to the potato profit. Care in the sorting and handling of the potato crop will bring returns three or four times as large per acre as can be had from other western crops. Yet they ought to bring much more than they do. Another point : when you exhibit at fairs be sure to name your prod- ucts wherever varieties are called for. Then when potatoes are likely to be low at wholesale, look out for family trade, rather than to sell in the open market. Rhubarb. Rhubarb plants should be set from two to four feet apart and in rows 6 feet apart. The best method of propagation is to divide old roots. The second year, if set in good rich soil, the stalks can be used somewhat. The third year the crop will be full. By not coming to blossom, rhubarb can be had all summer, but it does better if given a period of rest. Barrels without heads can be set over plants in order to obtain long, tender stalks. If glass is put on top of these the rhubarb will be improved in flavor. Where rhubarb is to be forced for commercial use in the spring the clumps should be lifted late in the fall, set close together on the ground to freeze, and covered with enough litter of straw to keep THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 97 them dry. When frozen solid, remove to the cellar and pack in sand until February. The Victoria is a good variety of rhubarb and a very large, early and a vigorous grower. Radishes. Radishes need a light soil and plenty of v\rater. Given the right quality of seed, and frequent watering, radishes will be ready for the table in four or five weeks after sowing. They are best in rows a foot apart and not so closely sown that they will need thinning. In frames or greenhouses, four inches is thought enough space between rows. The scarlet turnip radish grows very rapidly. If new seed is put in when radishes are pulled a succession of radishes can easily be had on a very small plot. In such a system, though, cultivate well and keep the ground active. Put seed in about one-half inch deep. Keep the earth well fertilized. Lettuce. Lettuce growing, for any one who lives near city markets, is not much favored in these days of excellent and cheap hothouse lettuce, but for the farmer's wife, the summer lettuce bed should be started in the latter part of March, in the house. Transplant to a partially shaded situation as soon as the ground is warm enough. Sub-irriga- tion for lettuce is now more and more used by market gardeners, but many people claim that more lettuce is produced by surface watering. If the lettuce earth-louse attacks your plants try bisulphide of carbon poured in holes six inches deep and one foot apart between the rows of lettuce, one tablespoonful to each hole. Fill the holes im- mediately with soil. This will kill the insects, but you had better dig up the lettuce bed, as it will be of no special value afterwards and try a crop of something else — almost anything but celery. The Big Boston lettuce is a good variety for fall use, and may be sown about the last of July. If the cool weather reddens the leaves cover the plants with a thin sprinkling of straw or salt during cold nights or days. When sowing lettuce, do not sow the seed too thickly, nor too deep. One-half inch apart and about the same depth is a good rule. Cultivate as soon as the rows can be seen above ground, with either the small garden tool sold for that purpose or with an ordinary large tined kitchen fork. Cultivate lightly at first, merely scatching the surface at a little distance from the plants. Every three or four days is often enough for cultivation, but as the plants develop, get closer to the stem and deeper into the soil. Water freely when the sdil is dry. In order to prevent the bitter taste of lettuce late in the season, keep the bed, as I have said, well shaded. Some lettuce growers erect burlap frames as covers for small beds of lettuce for family use. This method keeps the leaves tender and crisp, and almost as well bleached as the inside of head lettuce, while often superior in flavor. 98 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Endive, Endive is a salad plant which is growing in favor more and more. The curly endive is probably the most tender variety. Sown in April, it will be ready for the table about June 1st. A succession of sow- ings every two weeks until June or July, will give salad for fall use. The cultivation of endive is about as for lettuce. Sow in drills or in rows and thin to about a foot apart. The plants thinned out can be used. Pick the leaves off the plants left when four inches in length. If cut off, other leaves will grow. If it is desired to blanch it, draw the leaves together and tie about a month before it will be wanted for the table. Onions. Multiplier onions never grow large and their place is better filled by the perennial onions. These are often ready for table use as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Plant in the fall. The old plants left in the ground produce a new crop in the spring. They can stand very thick in the row. Chives, which have a small leaf like grass, to be eaten, are also perennial. If you get good seed you will not fail to grow chives. For a flavoring herb in soups they are popular, and also in summer salads. The stock is increased by dividing the bulbs. If you wish to try okra or gumbo, get the dwarf varieties for the north. They are early, and the pods, which are excellent for stew- ing when young, mature earlier. As a rule, however, okra does better in the southern states or the middle central. It is easily grown in the right temperatures. Whenever it is desired to keep the young onion sets producing beyond June be sure to use the seed producers first, or else pinch out the seed stalks. Onion sets should be planted three to four inches apart in rows one foot apart and three inches deep. The best way is to make a furrow of this depth and cover each set with the rake, firming well over each. Onions do not keep well through the winter. The Red Globe are the best keepers. Spinach. One of the great advantages of a spinach bed is the succession of crops that can be had. By the use of liquid manure a quick growth is secured, and eight or ten plantings can be made between April and September. As the chief value of spinach is in its youth and tenderness, a large plot is not necessary for the home garden. After the early spinach of May and June six plantings can still be made for fall and winter use. Sow twice in July, August and September. As the season advances, seed should be sown much thinner. In fall the plants spread and are ranker in growth. Late spinach can be left in the garden until after the early frosts, which always improves its flavor. Where spinach is capable of being wintered, hoeing must be kept up weekly until hard frost prevent. The New Zealand varieties are excellent as standards. The prickly spinach has a great reputation for flavor and early THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 99 growth ; and it is the early "greens" which seem to be the most desired. Spinach, on the other hand, can be sown as late as October in some latitudes for spring use. The winter thick leaved is good. Mulch heavily with straw, leaves or salt hay. Early spinach should be cut just as soon as it is large enough to be properly prepared for the table. The plants go to seed before fully grown in June. Asparagus. If economy is to be observed very closely in the home garden, it is better to start the asparagus bed from seed. This means that you do not expect to get results for about four years, as an asparagus bed needs about a year of thorough preparation, and then about three years of growth after sowing seed before any cuttings of value can be had. If you decide upon the seeding process fertilize the plot for the bed early in the preceding spring, spading in at least six inches of well rotted manure. During the summer rake often and repeat the process of spading over at least once and then rake again until the surface is smooth and the eartb thoroughly cultivated for at least a foot or more in depth. Seed with clover and leave until the next year when another fertilizing with rotted manure, about half as much as before, spread over and spaded in will give you the rich mellow soil needed for asparagus. A very large plot of ground is not required for family use. One thirty feet by ten feet will be ample, but the deep cultivation before- hand is a prime need, as no further cultivation of any depth can be given. A dressing of common salt once a year is said to give a better flavor to the stalks, as asparagus is a salt water plant. Sow the seed in drills. The plant can be lifted the next year and transplanted into furrows about two feet apart and eighteen inches between plants. Some authorities require four feet apart in furrows, but this is for commercial planting, where fine stalks are desired. If one wants to get asparagus sooner, buy plants from two to three years old. They are usually very cheap. Do not transplant in the fall. The spring is the safe time, unless you want to risk winter killing. If the asparagus plot is wanted for early spring use, it can be treated late in the summer or some cover crop put on in the fall beside clover. After the bed is once started keep up its fertility by manuring heavily after the cuttings have been made, and keeping this on as a mulch. Commercial fertilizers, which will act quickly, are needed in the spring. The first planting of asparagus plants should come up in about ten days in any normal season. If you don't get good results from plants the first season replant freshly next spring, but keep up your fertilizing process. Care taken at the outset will give you an asparagus bed which will last a generation, with proper cultivation from year to year. Plant seedlings in rows foiir feet apart, and have three feet between the plants. Set from six to eight inches deep. Plow and harrow the plot each year about the middle of June, when cutting usually stops. In the fall cover deep with well rotted manure to the depth of several inches. 100 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING If you plan to raise asparagus for market purposes, don't count on less than five acres. Prepare the land in the season before, if you propose to start with the plants. Spread a heavy four-inch dressing of rotted manure over the plot in the late spring. Plow and harrow. Seed to rye. The next spring put on a second layer of manure. Plow dressing and cover crop under together, and then furrow as directed before. For commercial purposes three feet each way is the nearest that roots should be set for fine "grass," and four feet is better. Professor S. B. Green, late horticulturist of the Minnesota School of Agriculture, advised applying manure in June just after cutting ceases and working it well into the ground. It is a common prac- tice to mulch asparagus with manure in the fall and work this in in the spring. But many gardeners in the west claim that this protec- tion is not needed, as the depth of soil over the crowns is sufficient protection and the manure on the surface holds the frost and retards the starting into growth. The bulletin of the United States Bureau of Agriculture also recommends using manure heavily immediately after the cutting season, say in June, as that is the season when the roots are storing up food for next season's growth and forming new buds. It prefers, however, leaving the manure on the ground as a mulch to keep down weeds and to keep the ground moist. In New Jersey and some other eastern states a dififerent method of raising is sometimes used. For small families John I. Sipp recom- mends an area nine by twenty-seven feet. In this case plant five rows lengthwise the bed, placing the first row fourteen inches from either side of the margins and the rows twenty inches apart. The plants in the row should be placed eighteen inches apart, giving about twenty plants to the row or 100 plants to the bed. The season before setting out the plants, if the area can be spared from other garden vegetables, spade into the soil about the last of June a six-inch layer of rotted manure, working over the upper strata of earth during the spading operation to the depth of fifteen inches. During the next six weeks rake over the surface of the bed at weekly intervals, and about the middle of August give the bed another good spading and rake the surface down smooth. Then seed the area to crimson clover. Nothing more need be done to the bed until early next spring, when a four-inch layer of rotted manure should be spread over the clover and the bed spaded. The plants should then be set. From that time on the fertility of the bed can be maintained by summer manuring, fall mulching with manure and spring applications of quick acting fertilizers. Should the area be planted to other crops at that time, wait until after they have been gathered, then proceed as directed above. If the crops are not all off until late September or early October, substi- tute rye as a cover crop for the crimson clover. Asparagus can be forced in the cellar for winter, but as the best clumps must be used and are worthless afterward, practical com- mercial gardeners do not advise it. In the field, the work is usually done by a trench between two rows, at least two feet deep, and filled with green manure. Over rows and trench a cold frame is built and THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 101 this is banked with green manure. When this process is an early one, the frame must be covered on cold nights. In cutting off asparagus tops, which should be done in late Sep- tember, cut a few inches above the surface, and burn the tops at a distance. This is a great help in disposing of insect trouble or dis- ease. If two year plants are bought for small plots, they can be cut a little the next spring. But just as much care must be taken as for commercial purposes in getting the bed ready, and the plants must be set at least six inches deep. Cover about three inches at first ar^d the shallow and frequent cultivation that must be given will soon fill up the trench. The best varieties of asparagus are Conover's Colossal, Columbia, Mammoth White, Palmetto, and Burr's Mammoth. This last is a standard market variety and very large, tender and early. Tomatoes. The great commercial value of a tomato crop lies in the growing of early varieties, which will possess the qualities of color and flavor of the late types. Selection of seeds counts greatly here. Choose any good, early variety, and by careful cultivation and seed selec- tion a few years will be pretty sure to evolve a fruit evenly ripened, with smooth skin, firm flesh, and early maturity. No better tomato can be recommended for the home garden than the Earlianna. In any ordinary season it begins to ripen by the last week of July. Get good plants, do not have the soil too rich or too poor, transplant carefully and cultivate thoroughly and if you do not have prolific bearing it will be one of those mistakes of nature for which no man can account. Sometimes these plants run all to vine. Cut back all the leading stems then, and this will often help bearing. Very dry weather will always reduce the early tomato yield, and will cause the underneath leaves to dry up badly. Start the plants under glass in March, says a Minnesota gar- dener. "When plants are two inches high, transplant into flats, thumb pots or plant boxes, and later transplant again, giving more room. Never crowd the plants, but keep them short and stocky. Plants already in bloom or with fruit set, if in wooden plant boxes or in pots, may be transplanted to open ground without disturbing their roots, and will continue to bloom and fruit without check. Set these sorts six feet apart each way in warm, mellow soil of fair fertility as soon as danger from belated frosts is past. For main crop, the plants can be started somewhat later, in hotbed or cold frame, once transplanted to keep them stocky, and then set in open ground, in fairly good warm soil, five feet apart each way. A very ornamental show can be made in the home garden by training tomato plants to stakes, poles or trellis. Applications of superphosphate, or of- some good complete (vegetable) fertilizer often have a very happy effect on tomatoes in hastening maturity and increasing the yield." Select an open, unshaded spot, where the soil is a retentive, sandy loam. Wood ashes are an excellent fertilizer for tomatoes as they are rich in potash. Be sure, however, that the other essentials of soil 102 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING fertility are not lacking. Train your tomatoes by the pole method if the gardener has only limited ground. The crop is extended over both ends of the season and both quantity and quality are improved by training the vines to climb. The foliage not being so thick they ripen earlier, snails do not eat the fruit, and it can be gathered much easier. Cultivation by the hoe can be frequent, also. The poles are driven on the north side and are from six to eight feet long. A crowbar is recommended to help out the labor of placing these. They are driven in about 18 inches deep and 3 feet apart and well pressed in by earth. All side shoots are kept pruned off after the plants are a foot high, and the top runners only are retained. These are tied, one on each side, to the pole by soft strips of cloth or binding twine. Tie at regular spaces as the plant grows ; about every six inches, or once a week, if the yield seems likely to be heavy. In the fall pull up the dead plants at the roots and leave them on the poles to dry. If many tomatoes are unripened when frost comes, the vines may be pulled and hung in the cellar. Or, if you have a good, ariy barn loft, spread the larger ones on the floor, and they will ripen gradually in a moderate temperature. Green tomatoes put under the hotbed sashes will often ripen. Piled along the south side .of the house and covered with old sacking at night they will keep until Christmas in some latitudes. No matter what the method of growing tomatoes, do not cut off the leaves on the main stems very freely until the fruit is well formed. Cutting off the leaves too early is a loss of material for plant food and therefore to the production of fruit. Keep the soil about the roots moist, but not too wet. Don't water the foliage. When plants are in bloom, in order to insure thorough polleniz- ing, either strike the poles sharply each day about noon, or brush the flowers lightly with a soft brush. Where tomatoes are grown in the hill, the fruit will ripen quicker and more evenly if the vines are pulled open to the sunlight. If you follow the stem method, don't try it on the dwarf species of tomato. Almost any of the other popular varieties will do well, if you are sure to get good plants — whether from your own transplanting, or from a nursery. If tomato seed from one's own patch is to be saved select the first fruits to ripen for this purpose. The ground cherry or husk tomato may be grown by the same methods as the ordinary tomato. Bordeaux mixture will tend to keep the blight and rot away from the tomatoes if the plants are sprayed every ten days until the fruit begins to color. If the tomato worm or the potato bug is trouble- some add a little Paris green to the Bordeaux. Hand picking is also good. The variety of tomato to be raised is a matter of some import- ance. Livingston's Perfection and Dwarf Champion are especial favorites. The owner of a large truck farm says that he always raises Mammoth Ponderosa, no matter what variety he may grow for the market, as they have fewer seeds and are more meaty. More pounds of fruit per plant will be obtained than from any other kind. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 103 Raise some plants of Golden Sunrise, a large yellow tomato, as the two colors look very attractive when sliced together on the same plate. At Crystal Springs, Mississippi, there has been for a long time, a system of tomato culture, of which I give the following detailed account. The tomatoes are set three or three and one-half feet apart. When the first sucker (branch) is two inches long, it is pinched out, as are all suckers that appear afterward. The pole method is then followed, requiring from three to four tyings until the tomato reaches about four feet from the ground. Then the bud is pinched out. This gives a plant with a dozen or more very big leaves, and five or six clusters of great, perfect fruit. By this way it is claimed that there is no danger of the tomatoes rotting or mildewing. They ripen earlier than by any other method of stalking and can endure dry weather better, as well as be cultivated easier. The vine can be trained to two stalks, if a bushier plant is wanted. The writer has proved by experience that the following method is successful : Having decided on the location of the bed, set up planks one foot wide and excavate inside the enclosure to 2i/2-foot depth. Then fill this in with two feet, when trod down close, of fresh horse stable man- ure. Wet this very thoroughly and place about 6 inches of rich soil over it. It is now ready for planting and the plants should be placed 4 feet apart each way. These can be set three weeks earlier than those planted in open ground. The bed should then be wet twice a week after being planted. If the evening air gets down to freezing point have 2x4's or any con- venient pieces of wood ready so that canvas can be stretched across the bed and protect the plants. No glass need be used at all, as the heat evolved from the fresh manure will make the plants grow when seeds placed in ordinary cold ground lie dormant. 4 The writer has also found that the faster a tomato is grown the more meaty it is and the less seeds it has. Also the tomato is more uniform in size. These ripen some 4 weeks ahead of those planted by the old method and all are ripened before early frost. Beets. Garden beets thrive in loam. A rich, sandy loam, planted at the rate of about five pounds to the acre, in drills twelve to eighteen inches apart, and the seed covered to a depth of about one inch, will generally give good returns. Thin the rows to four or five inches apart when beets are well up. You can plant every four or five weeks during the spring, if a succession of young beets, or .beet tops for greens, is wanted. Sugar beets will do very well for winter use. If only a few rows of beets are needed two ounces of beet seed will be plenty, sowing about 100 feet to row. Do not sow until all danger of frost is over. If they are to be cultivated by horse, leave 30 inches for cultivation, and sow in a double drill 6 inches between. 104 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING For very early table beets, to be pulled when small and very tender, have drills from 16 to 20 inches apart and sow the seed about one inch deep. Quicker results, of course, will be had from seed sown in the house, and the plants set out about a month later. You can thin as needed so that plants will stand six or eight inches apart but for early beet greens and young beets they can be closer. Nitrate of soda well worked in will help you to get quick results. One hun- dred pounds per acre is a good proportion. Sugar beets for stock feeding should be sown about the middle of May on good, rich soil. Keep free from weeds and cultivate thor- oughly. Twelve or fifteen pounds of seed to the acre are not too much. Too much moisture is not good for the sugar beet crop, unless where planted on high, well drained land. Plenty of sunshine and warm weather are necessary for the ripening of any sugar producing plant. Yields of sugar beets are not infrequent of 1,500 to 2,000 bushels per acre. Sugar beet tops make especially good spring greens. Growing sugar beets requires a large amount of skill and experi- ence as well as good, rich, mellow soil. Manure well in the fall, plow under early in the spring. Plant from about May 20 to June 20. Cul- tivate often, every three days is not too often and every two days is better. Leave from three to six inches apart in the rows, and row three feet apart for horse cultivation. If the summer is dry at the end, keep up cultivation until very late in the season. Sweet Corn. Sweet corn can be planted like peas, in a succession of plant- ings. For an early crop try Peep o' Day, next Golden Bantam, then Country Gentleman. For a late crop, Stowell's Evergreen, which is recommended by the Department of Agriculture. If these are all planted at the same time in different plots they will come along in succession. But a little difference of a few days will be better. Sow in rich ground three feet apart, as soon as the corn plant- ing time comes in your locality. Put in seed two inches deep and about six to eight inches apart. You can put it in thicker, thinning out to a foot apart later. If the corn is planted in hills, put about six seeds in the hill, and keep three feet apart. Cultivate much and often, until well started. Then thin to four stalks in the hill. Corn must be cultivated often, however, until the end of yield, though not very deeply at the last. The ears of late sweet corn may be kept in fair condition for some time after frost comes by cutting and shocking the stalks, and protecting the shock from drying. As fast as the ears are gathered, however, before frost comes cut the sweet corn stalks. This gives the other stalks in hill or the row more chance to mature. Garden Peas. There are some fifty varieties of garden peas and these have sev- eral classes : the dwarf, extra early wrinkled, extra early round, and the later, main crop variety. The extra early, for a northwestern THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 105 climate is uncertain ; the dwarf is usually reliable, but the large Tele- phone peas for a late spring climate are always to be chosen. A rich, sandy, loam soil for peas is fine, though a clay soil may be used to advantage, except that the crop will be later. When planting have open furrows three or four inches deep and three feet apart, scatter the seed peas in, cover with the hoe, or the plow, according to convenience, and cultivate like corn or beans. The tall kinds will need support and may be planted in double rows. The very dwarf peas may be planted a foot apart, need no brush or sup- port, but must have the very best soil they can get for good returns. If a continuous supply is wanted for the garden, plant every ten days or two weeks during the spring months, beginning as soon as the ground can be worked. If gathered very young, the pods can be used like snap beans. In northern climates it is not best to plant garden peas in the fall. Fertilize the ground for peas thoroughly with rotted manure in the fall and plow or spade the dressing under. In the spring you can plant very early by raking or harrowing. In the far south peas are grown during the entire winter. Beans. Some gardeners say that they can grow good crops of beans on poor land, but this is a mistake. You can raise fairly good crops of beans on almost any reasonably porous soil, with a fair amount of fertility. But the best soil for beans is a sandy loam. If the soil is a too black loam too much straw is the result. Do not plant too early, but begin about May 1 and continue on until June 10. Beans cannot withstand frost well, and corn-planting time is the best for dropping them. In fact, a little after the corn- planting, is apt to help rather than harm, but not so late that the autumn frosts will get them. Plow the ground in the autumn or else early in the spring. Turned over sod — clover, timothy, or blue-grass — makes an ideal bean soil. Work it over on the top occasionally to germinate and kill weeds and keep the ground moist. In overturned sod there is much less likelihood of weeds, and the decayed plant food holds moisture. Plant the seed with a bean drill or an ordinary grain drill from 28 to 30 inches apart, and about 2 inches deep. From 6 to 8 quarts of seed per acre is a good allowance. Cultivate with a slant-toothed light harrow, as soon as the beans show. If you can, use this a second time. The rest of the cleaning may be done by a cultivator. After bloom, do not touch. The best machine for harvesting large crops is the bean harvester, which cuts the stalk off just above the surface of the ground. Do the work in the forenoon, and the beans can be thrown in heaps later. Thresh beans with a thresher made for this purpose. Or the ordinary grain separator may be used if some of the teeth are re- moved. Twenty bushels per acre is considered a good crop, and thirty- five bushels a larsre one. 106 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Bean straw and unsalable beans make good sheep fodder. The greatest bean-raising section lies in Central New York. There I have seen clover-sod turned over in the fall of one year, after two crops that cut about four tons of good hay to the acre. The next year this was plowed and fertilized, with twenty-five loads of manure per acre and from two to four hundred pounds of phosphate drilled in with the seed bean. In this way, from thirty-five to forty bushels of beans per acre is a frequent return. Bean elevators are very numerous in Monroe and Genesee counties along the railroads. Thousands of women are employed here sorting beans. Five cents per pound for all the poor beans pays them at least $1.00 per day. These are sold to the farmers for stock purposes. Bean stubble makes good land for fall and winter wheat. Eight to twelve quarts of medium red clover seed, when it is not mixed with other grass seed, sowed on this land the following spring will give two crops of hay averaging from 3^/^ to 4 tons per acre. Rows of beans should be far enough apart to be cultivated when they are ripening to get perfect beans. A heavy clay soil is not favor- able for bean culture. The bean does not take much value from the soil, and it can therefore be used to advantage with other garden crops, or it can be planted at intervals of about ten days until you have two or three plantings. Should the first planting be lost from frost, the second one will be likely to be all right. Replant the one lost, and continue to plant for all the first half of summer. Dry beans, such as kidney, or marrow, may be planted in the cornfield along the hills after the corn is up and has been cultivated once or twice. Lima Beans. Lima beans need a good soil and a sunny spot. Plant when the ground is warm, in rows four feet apart and six inches space in the row. If you plant in hills, put three or four beans in hills three feet apart. A top-dressing of poultry manure, wood ashes, fertilizer or compost around the plants will greatly hasten growth and improve quality of yield. If lima beans are planted in a too heavy soil, how- ever, and the season is very wet, they are likely to rot. In that case the best thing to do is to replant at once. Plant with the eye of each bean downward. The dwarf limas are a good variety, because much easier to take care of. Among these Burpee's bush lima is a standard. The pole limas will be helped along by applying liquid manure once a week until the pods begin to set. After that apply once every two weeks. Tie the vines to the poles about every ten days, if they don't twine well, and cultivate often. If you want lima beans for seed, select those that mature first at the bottom of the poles, even if the pods do not hold four or more beans. Earliness is a greater requisite for seed purposes than the size of the pods. Choose seed from the heaviest bearing vines, also. Keep watch of pole limas to see that the lateral shoots are kept prop- erly tied. The varieties of lima beans do not make much difiference THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 107 in the time of maturity, but pinch off the tops as they reach the upper end of the poles. This will increase the number of laterals and help the blossoms to develop. The first of August is about as early as lima beans may be expected. Wax beans or string beans should be gathered clean as soon as fit for use. This keeps the plants bearing longer. They also may be planted again and again until six weeks before frost is due. Cultivate and hoe very often, but only when the vines are perfectly dry. In hoeing draw the soil up towards the plants. Anthracnose, or rust, on wax beans, is apt to be found more in damp seasons. The spores remain in the soil so that it is often best to select new ground for wax bean growing. Cucumbers. The gardener who wants to have success with cucumbers should get Farmers' Bulletin No. 254 on "Cucumbers." For very early cucumbers the hotbed is necessary. Sow in March or April 1. Trans- plant to a moist, rich loam, in hills four by six feet apart. Several plants, at least ten, can go in a hill, but thin out to about four when they throw out runners. Cultivate well and gather before they ripen with a sharp knife, whether you need them or not. They can be plant- ed in succession. For pickles, from June until the middle of July is the 'season. The Bordeaux mixture is usually needed for the cucum- ber beetle. Put it on the vines with the sprayer in proportion of three ounces to the gallon. Cucumbers rarely do well on old land. One large grower whom I know tells me that he clears up every year three acres of his land so that he may have fresh ground. On this he puts a large quantity of fertilizer, and cultivates thoroughly, harrowing both ways. By hilling up and using poultry droppings on each hill, he gets large yields for the factory, and has realized handsome profits. Two hundred bushels of cucumbers can be grown on an acre of land. Another cucumber grower gives this advice : In light soil do not put cucumber seed in hills. Make a hollow about fourteen or six- teen inches in diameter and space the land in six-foot marking so the plants will absorb rain where, if planted in hills, the water would run off and away from the roots. The quantity of cucumbers mer- chantable depends upon the number of times the fruit is picked, which should be often. Cabbage. Farmers' Bujletin No. 433 should be read by every cabbage grower, whether for small or large plots. Cabbage needs a very rich soil. In fact you can hardly get too rich a home for ^our cabbage plants. For outdoor seed sowing from April 15 to May 1 is the usual time. Plant for fall and winter cabbage from the first to the tenth of July. If you are growing for commercial cabbage raising, and your soil is poor, a dressing of sixty tons of manure per acre is advised, and this should be well rotted. Turn this under in very narrow fur- rows, in order to break up the soil fine. Harrow several times and set 108 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING plants in rows two and one-half feet apart and two feet apart in the row. Brussels sprouts and, cauliflower are grown exactly like cabbage. The small moth which attacks cabbages can be coaxed away from the cabbage by growing millet around the cabbage patch. A cabbage crop planted where the hay crop has been poor, and has been cut early, will often prepare the soil well for the next year's corn, as well as give you a late cabbage harvest that will go far to make up for the loss in forage crop. Cabbages are as good as roots for feeding stock and may be left out till very cold weather is near. To keep cabbage through the early winter, standing in the ground, the gardener usually pulls the cabbage enough to break the main roots, when they begin to burst. This will stop the growth. Then either plow or dig in dry land a trench two feet deep and eight- een inches in width. Scatter six inches of loose straw in the trench. Then place the cabbages in the trenches heads down. Leave all leaves and roots on, and bury the first layer thoroughly in a heavy covering of straw — with dirt over this, then more straw and more dirt. This will keep your cabbage fresh and free from frost even in zero weather. The same method can be used for potatoes, mangel- wurtzels, beets, turnips, carrots and all kinds of root vegetables. Dig the pit a little deeper, fill with vegetables in a layer, put on straw two or three feet thick, follow with dirt, then eighteen inches of straw, then dirt thickly and heavy covering of stable manure. This keeps the crop for the spring market. Pumpkins. Pumpkins can be planted with corn, putting a seed in every sec- ond hill of every other row. However, other and easier methods are often followed. Pumpkins as stock food for hogs are excellent. They are great helps in securing a balanced ration, and are a splendid cholera preventive. By carefully selecting the seeds as to size, quality and thickness, planting with horse planter, well mixing seeds and corn together in the planter and giving only such attention to the cultivation of the pumpkin as the corn field gets, a fine yield of prize pumpkins can be had with less work than by hand planting. It should be remembered, though, that some horse planters will not plant pumpkin seeds. Keep the best of the pumpkins for seed, dry them well, and use for next season's planting selecting only the best seed. Pumpkins can be left out in the field until freezing weather. Then haul to the hay mow the best and soundest and keep for late feeding. The others, even if frozen in the field, will be eaten by the hogs, after cutting up by the ax. Hogs never tire of them. Many farmers object to the planting of pumpkins with corn. They think they are a damage to the corn crop, and always advise either planting pumpkins by themselves or raising them in the potato field. If this last way is adopted put in the seed every sixth row. skipping from ten to twelve hills. This method does not injure the potato crop at all. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 109 If pumpkins are planted in hills by themselves, plant eight feet apart each way, and cultivate well. They are much sweeter. Egg Plant. The culture and general treatment of egg plant are about the same as for tomato plants, though they are not so easy to grow. Plant the seed in a hotbed or in the kitchen in early March ; or small plants may be bought in the cities at this time. Set out in a deep loam soil, which has been thoroughly plowed and is well drained, when the plants are from six to eight inches high. Set two feet apart each way and water freely until the plants are well set. About fifteen plants are enough for a good sized family. Cultivate often and thoroughly. You can begin to use egg plant when it is only half grown, and it can hang on the plants for some time without losing its food value after ripening. However, in growing for market, in order to be pretty certain that egg plant will prosper, after the early sown seed has developed its first leaves, transplant to pots before setting out in open ground. Or, if you buy your plants be sure to buy in pots and not in boxes. Grow in hills of sandy loam, well fertilized with market fertilizer mixed with compost. Cultivate very often, but do not keep the ground moist. A dry soil is best. The hills should be about three feet apart for the standard variety, about two for the dwarf kind. Each vine should yield three or four fruits. After these are set pick ofif any further blossoms and nip off the end of the vine. For mar- ket use the dwarf black comes earliest. The white is a good variety for home gardening. Seeds can be planted outside the first week in May, if kept from chilling in a warm and even temperature. Melons. The muskmelon season is apt to be a short one in all sections north of the late and early frost belts. This fruit must be up and growing well by the last of May in order to escape fall frosts. Select a light soil for your crop, if possible. The hills must be specially prepared in heavy soil. Make holes five feet apart, one foot deep and about a foot and a half each way. Fill in the bottom with about six shovelfuls of soil and manure (poultry manure is specially recom- mended), well mixed together. Press this down hard with the feet and add a layer of about two inches of pulverized soil. Sow the seeds on this ; cover with about an inch more of soil Use plenty of seed — fifty is not too many. Thin to about eight or ten, after the second pair of leaves come. After they start to vine, you will not be troubled so much by the insects that attack the plants just as they appear, and you can pull out all but three or four of the strong plants. Don't try to raise pumpkins and muskmelons at the same time, as the pollen mixes. If the season is a late one, liquid manure each week and removing all the fruits that set, over the first half- dozen of each hill may help in forcing growth. Pinching the ends of the vines after they reach three feet is also good. A light applica- 110 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING tion of bone meal worked into the hills will help greatly. This is true of other vines also. Watermelons always succeed best when the season is hot and dry. Look out for cut worms in time and try air slacked lime around the plants. Sometimes a little worm that develops from the striped squash bug eats the roots of the vines. For these the lime is good. For the cut worms try wrapping the young stems with heavy paper stuck down about two inches into the soil. Celery. No better or more complete directions for growing celery can be given for beginners in celery raising than those found in one of the Bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and written by W. R. Beattie. Mr. Beattie says that, "for early celery, throughout the northern states, a planting should be made in the house during January or February, but for the main crop the seed may be sown in a frame or hotbed, or in the open ground six weeks or two months later. In the latitude of Washington, D. C, good celery can be grown from seed sown as late as the middle of May, and to the southward still later. "For plants from which the main crop is to be planted, sow the seeds in a cold frame or in the open ground. Several methods are in vogue for starting celery plants in the open ground, and the one selected should depend entirely upon the scale on which the crop is to be grown. One plan is to sow the seed broadcast in a bed about three feet wide, and of any desired length, from which the plants may be transplanted to another similar bed, and again to the open field, or they may be thinned and allowed to remain in the seed bed until the time for setting in the open ground where they are to mature. Another method is to sow in drills, 10 or 12 inches apart, and cover very lightly by sifting soil, or by passing a roller along the drill after the seed has been dropped. When the seedlings are well started they may be thinned out and allowed to remain until planted in the field. Plants grown in this manner require very little attention, as they can be worked by means of a wheel hoe or other hand cultivator. "The method now in use by most large growers is to prepare a tract of land by pulverizing with horse tools and then raking by hand, after which the seed is sown broadcast by means of a wheel- barrow grass-seed drill. The soil is sometimes pressed down with a plank after the seeds are scattered, but some growers maintain that there is a decided advantage in leaving the soil slightly uneven, as the seeds fall into the shaded places and are protected from the direct rays of the sun. The seed will become sufficiently covered by rains or watering. Should more than 20 per cent of the seed usually sown germinate, it will be necessary to thin out to prevent overcrowding, with its attendant injury. To prevent the surface of the soil becom- ing too dry, it may be necessary to partially shade the young plants during the warm days of early summer, but the shading should never be so dense as to cause them to become 'drawn.' THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 111 "Cultivation should begin just as soon as the newly set plants recover from the shock of transplanting and continue in the form of level tillage until early September. At that time the 'handling' opera- tion may begin, which consists in drawing the loose earth up to the plants with a hand hoe or throwing it up about the plants with a celery hiller or shovel cultivator. This causes the plants to grow more upright and facilitates the work of blanching. "If a very rich soil is had, and means of applying water is con- venient, a portion of the celery crop should be grown by the 'new method.' This consists in setting the plants six inches apart in rows ten inches distant. The plants soon occupy the entire area, while the tops cover the stalks to such an extent as to shut out the light sufficiently to blanch them without the aid of boards or soil, as is necessary when the crop is grown by the old method. Soils not rich and moist are unsuited for the new method, but those in a high state of cultivation and with facilities for watering will yield stalks as good, if not better, than those grown in the usual way. "There are a number of ways to bleach celery, but the easiest method to follow is bleaching with boards. Anything that will ex- clude the light from the stalks will cause them to crisp and whiten. Heavy paper wrapped about the stalks or a tile pipe placed over each plant is as satisfactory a method as any in the home garden where only a few plants are raised. Celery bleached by banking earth up about the stalks is by far the best, but usually it is better to sacrifice quality for the extra labor incurred. When celery has reached its full size or nearly so it should be growing in an upright direction from the earth that has been pulled toward the stalks during the past few weeks. To whiten the plants and fit them for the table two ten-inch-wide boards should be set upright, one either side of the row and running lengthwise with it close to the stalks. By passing a wire about both boards at intervals of every ten feet or so the boards will be held in position. If there are any open spaces between the earth and the boards, soil should be banked up sufficiently to ex- clude all light. The tops of the plants ought to be left sticking out between the boards and enough space left to allow the plants to con- tinue their growth. It requires the stalks from ten days to three weeks to bleach." Storing Celery. November is a good time to dig the table celery for storage. Celery intended for this purpose need not be bleached. Draw the earth up against the plants so that they will keep upright. When the nightly freezeups come dig your trench so deep that the tops will be covered, and about a foot wide. Put the plants close together in this, slanting a little from the perpendicular, and having the soil loose at the bottom. Put them in rows and throw a good amount of earth over each row of roots before putting in the next row. Cover trench with a layer of boards crosswise, leaves over this and soil upon the leaves as cold weather advances. When you have from eight inches to a foot of soil above, cover the soil with long manure. Green va- 112 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING rieties of celery will keep until late in the winter or early spring, if in perfect condition when stored. The white stalked sort will keep two months or so. Celery for late fall use, in a moderate climate, can be left out in the garden until almost New Year's, if well banked with boards or earth. In fact, as a general rule, leave the celery in the ground, in a dry soil, until you get temperatures of 12 degrees below freezing. In a damp soil from three to four degrees. To take it up, plow a furrow from each side of row and loosen with spading fork if quan- tity is large ; if small, use spading fork only. It may be stored in boxes in one corner of a cave or in cellar in trenches. In whichever way, a little dirt or sand around the roots to keep them moist is plenty. Give plenty of fresh air and light occasionally if wanted for family use, but if for market keep in dark, warm place and it will bleach out faster. When celery begins to rot in the trenches, look it over care- fully and use up the decaying stalks as rapidly as possible. The sound ones can be retrenched if there is~ienough to make that desirable. Nitrate of soda applied at the rate of about 150 pounds per acre is excellent for celery growth. Use it at least twice, at about a three weeks' interval, after plants are well started. Sprinkle lightly along one side of each row and cultivate well afterward. But in cul- tivating celery be careful not to disturb the roots of the plants dur- ing their early growth. Shallow and frequent cultivation is best. Miscellaneous. Salsify, or oyster plant, can be grown with good success, as it is very hardy and is improved by freezing. It should be planted in rows sown thickly, in loose, mellow soil, and covered not more than three-quarters of an inch. The fleshy, tap root is the edible portion. If it sends off shoots from the root the ground is not right. Cultivate well and keep ground moist and rich. It will grow until late in the fall, and unless winters are very severe, can be left out through the winter sending up good stalks the next spring. If very far north the roots can be pitted. Parsnips need a deep, rich soil, well pulverized. Sow in rows about 18 inches apart and about an inch deep or a little less. Weed carefully as they appear and cultivate often until about three inches high. Then thin to six inches apart. Parsnips need constant cultiva- tion. They are improved by freezing, and can be left in the ground through the winter, after taking out what is needed for the winter.' Or they can be stored in pits. Carrots for early crops, short rooted, should be sown in April or May in drills a foot apart. A rather light soil will do fairly well for carrots, but it must be warm and fertile. Thin to about two inches. For a main crop of the longer rooted variety, sow in succession from May to July 1st and row from 16 to 20 inches apart, thinning to from 2 to 4 inches. Water cress must be grown in running water, or in a pond with inlet and outlet. Seed can be sown in July or August by drawing THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 113 out the water from the bed where they are to be sown. Sow at right angles to the course of the water, and six or eight inches deep. Scat- ter seeds in the bottom, and do not turn water over them again until they have begun to grow. When cuttings or old plants are used they should be planted in the bottom of the bed a few inches apart previous to allowing the water to flood the beds. The cuttings should be tied to stakes and the stakes stuck into the bed. This method is followed in the At- lantic states. A simpler method, which has met with success in the West, is to sow the seed in cool, moist soil in the early spring, or if a shal- low, slow running stream or ditch is near, the seed may be sown within the same near the bank. When sown in a location of this kind it grows luxuriantly for years. Sow parsley seed in shallow drills in the early spring as a border for your vegetable plot. If later in the season, and it is wanted for winter use, sow in good soil in a box, in rows about six inches apart, and cover one-half inch deep. Keep moist, and when the plants ap- pear about two inches high, thin to two inches apart. This box can be kept out until late in the fall, and when in the house should be kept in a sunny window. Sprinkle frequently to keep away plant lice. Wintering of Vegetables in Cold Climates. There is a tremendous loss by growers of vegetables during the winter, either because of the lack of knowledge of how to keep them or because of carelessness. It is a well known fact that at certain sea- sons certain classes of produce are a drug on the market and prices are correspondingly low. Now if it were possible to preserve these until late winter or early spring a surprisingly good price can often be secured. This very thing can be done, and done as successfully here as it can be back east, by following out the instructions given below. Choose a location where no surface water collects, preferably a mound or side hill and let this be protected, if possible, from the bleak winds. Now dig a pit 3 or 4 ft. in depth by 6 to 8 ft. in width, and make it long enough to accommodate the vegetables which are laid in to within 6 inches of the top soil. These are then covered by 6 inches of hay or straw. Over this, but not resting on the vegetables, planks or poles are placed to provide the air chamber, and these in turn are covered with more hay or straw to a depth of 4 ft. and ex- tending out about 6 ft. on all sides. Next, 12 or 18 inches of dirt are placed on this straw and the whole rounded ofif to shed any water in case of thaws in winter. On top of this, as an extra precaution, are placed 3 or 4 ft. of horse stable litterings, packed very close. All kinds of vegetables can be kept from freezing when taken care of in this fashion and they will be as fresh in the spring as they were in the fall, and will bring far higher prices. If it is thought necessary, a covering of tar paper or "ruberoid" can be placed on top of the planks before the second covering of straw is put on. 114 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Vegetable Pests — The Cutworm or Grub. There are two kinds or species of these cutworms. One is dark in color. The other is a yellowish white. The dark colored one does his work by cutting- the plant off just above the ground. They will often cut a number of plants in a very short time. Sometimes they can be found concealed in the dirt near the plant they have destroyed. The light colored ones do their work in the ground, sometimes about an inch or more under the ground. They cut or eat plants the same season until the plants are quite large. As a general thing they are found by removing the dirt from the plants they have lately cut off. I have known of farmers in the East going over their corn fields and digging the worms out from under the hills of corn. Sometimes there would be from two to six or eight in a hill. This course would insure a good crop of corn. Wood ashes and land plaster put on corn before it comes up is a good preventive. Salt is good, sown from five to six bushels to the acre before the crop is put in, if you want to keep the worms from garden plants. When planting cabbage, tomatoes, or plants of this order, put a piece of paper loose around the stalk of the plant. Let it go down in the ground an inch or two, and above the ground the same number of inches or more. This will keep off the cutworm and prevent any serious harm. Crows are worth their weight in gold to the farmer. They pick up and eat off worms and grubs. One of the best farmers that I know shelled corn on his cornfield, after planting, for the crows. He would sow a few quarts over the field, and if they were liable to eat this up before the planted corn got too big to pull, he would shell and sow more corn for the crows. While the crows were feeding on this corn they were picking up thousands of worms that destroyed crops. Every bushel of corn that this man sowed on his cornfield for the crows, was worth five dollars per bushel in the long run. Laws for the protection of crows would be a safeguard for the farmer. It would be better for all of the people if there were more crows and birds in the country. In gardens where the cutworms are very bad, a good method is to place blocks and chips of wood around among the vegetables. In the morning these may be turned over and large numbers of worms killed. They would rather hide under such things than dig down into the ground. They evidently detest work as well as some men. Probably the best remedy is the use of poisoned grasses, cab- bage leaves or clover. Make a Paris green or London purple solu- tion, say a tablespoonful to a bucket of water. Saturate the grasses and in the evening scatter the poisoned material between the rows. The worms will eat this and die. Always use the necessary precautions in handling poison. One part of Paris green to twenty parts of wheat shorts, spread on the surface of the ground and covered with bunches of green THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 115 clover or other grass will also kill cutworms. Plowing the garden in the fall is also recommended to get rid of these pests. For cabbage worms, one ounce of Paris green or London purple to six pounds of flour, dusted on the plants when wet with dew is a good preventive for young plants. Pyrethrum powder, dry, is recommended after they begin to head. The ordinary flour used for domestic purposes can be made effective here. Hot water at 150 degrees has also been recommended, used as a spray. Slacked lime is also a remedy. Young tomato plants have one enemy that, if left to do its work unchecked, will soon sap all the vitality from the plant. This is a tiny black beetle often wrongly called a fly. It does not trouble the plants while they are in the house, but as soon as set out of doors, even while they are in boxes before being transplanted to the open ground, the beetles appear in great numbers, and in a few days will work great havoc. When the pea vines are wet with dew dust with powdered helle- bore for worms. A few worms can be picked ofif. Snails that attack tomatoes can often be trapped by leaving slices of beets, turnips or like root vegetables among the plants at night. An early morning's visit will insure finding many of the pests on the slices. Orange peel used in the same way is said to be even better, as a snail will keep on feeding on this after light comes instead of going to its hole. The borer of the squash, pumpkin and other vines is best fought by catching the moths, which fly only by daytime. They are about an inch long, of a peculiar tint of olive green, and may be found after sundown on the upper side of the leaves near their base. A good way to cheat the borer is to allow the vines to form new joint roots by covering the joints with soil. Keep looking for the borers also at the ground near the base of the plant, and dig out with a knife. CHAPTER IX Corn ana Small Grains Corn Planting. LAND intended for corn planting should be fall plowed and then must be surface worked very early in the following season to prevent the formation of lumps and crusts. Deep plowing comes a little later, followed by double harrowing and plank- ing or rolling in order to produce a level surface. Plant about the mid- dle of May, and use the drill method with the horse planter, if you are willing to cultivate often, in fact, almost constantly at first. If not, then the hill plan takes less attention, but also returns less yield. Row north and south. If the field has been made ready, as it should be, be- fore planting, use the smoothing harrow afterward. If it is lumpy, cultivate both ways. Then harrow every three or four days until the corn is up. Sometimes, in the case of heavy rains, the field will need cultivation oftener. After the corn shows, the weeder, used at least every week, twice a week is better, follows. After that the surface cultivator. If rain brings up the weeds too fast, the shovel cultivator may be used until the corn is six inches high. Sow in season, therefore, upon your well prepared seed-bed only the best and tested seed which you know to be well suited to your locality. Northern grown seed corn, potatoes and fruit trees are the only seeds and plants to use in the North. Southern seed corn can be used, though it will not ripen the first few seasons. But by selection of the ripest ears each fall a very good and adaptable corn can be grown in time. When hardy seed, however, can be had right at hand, why not use that? Then, by eternal vigilance, cultivation and selec- tion improve this each year. This is the only way to get bumper crops. Corn with less than about fifteen per cent, of moisture does not germinate while in storage. The corn crop in 1908 was 2,668,651,000 bushels on about one hundred millions of acres. This means an average per acre of only about twenty-six bushels. The distance for planting corn in any particular soil should be fully decided on before adjusting the planter, and after planting and adjusting for accurate and regular planting do not plan for thinning out later. This work must be done by hand, and for large fields this is too expensive as to labor. If the seed has been properly tested it should show a germination of 95 per cent. Given seed of this quality and proper planting the stand of corn will be all that is desired in any ordinary corn-growing weather. If the season is very unfavorable to growth after planting in the most careful manner it may be best to CORN AND SMALL GRAINS 117 replant again, instead of trying to fill in vacant spots by hand planting. The soil for corn should be rich in plant food. A good fertilizer is ordinary barn yard or stable manure and potash. I would recom- mend using about four loads of manure and 100 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. Scatter this broadcast and harrow it in. I believe this is the best method. The planting should be done as soon as the danger from late spring frosts is past and the weather settled. Plant as early as pos- sible in May. Do this for several reasons : First. To conserve the spring moisture ; corn uses water enough to cover the land it is grown on 10 inches in depth. Second. Should the crop be a failure due to frost, drouth, poor seed, or worm-eaten seed, it may be replanted and come out all right. Third. For early planting the corn will mature and ripen before the early frost in the fall. When planting in hills to be rowed both ways, plant in rows from 4 to 6 feet apart, and plant from 4 to 6 feet apart in the rows. This mode of planting will cause the stock to bear a greater number of ears and will be much larger in size of ears and kernels, and the small ears called nubbins will entirely disappear. Also this method of planting will supply more moisture and sun, and therefore the corn will ripen more evenly. There should be in every hill from three to four good stalks in order to secure a large and paying crop. Cultivation. This method of planting makes cultivation easier and also the moisture is retained in case of drouth. The cultivation should begin in about three days after the planting and be continued until the ears on the stalks are all set. For the first cultivation use a weeder ma- chine, then a cultivator. In the rainy season it will take from 12 to 24 hours usually for the weather to settle and the water to run into the ground, then begin the cultivating. This will form the reservoirs for holding the moisture during a continued drouth, and the only way to hold the moisture is continued cultivation throughout the entire sea- son. The last deep cultivation should be from three to five inches deep, so as to hold the rain fall. Do not allow any weeds in your corn fields, as they are great rob- bers of plant food and moisture. If farmers plant and care for corn after this method it will revolu- tionize the corn growing of the country. Potatoes should be cultivated in the same manner, and the cul- tivation should continue until they ripen or until very late in the autumn. One suggestion as to corn breeding that should be made is not to put too much stress on the regular rows of corn in an ear at the expense of utility. Large yields of sound corn are what the practical farmers wants for stock feeding. Let the specialist attend to the mat- ter of regular kernels. But the man who is working for commercial 118 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING returns needs to put his efforts into getting rid of rank stalks and growing his seed corn on special patches where he can develop good points. Corn breeding is needful, but don't go off on a tangent about it. Cultivating Tools. For shallow working in fields of growing corn, when the plants are a foot high, the combined implements which can be quickly changed to four, six and eight shovels and have surface working at- tachments and blades are the best. The set of ten small shovels is good also. All these are now sold at a reasonable price. By the use of these, working the soil two or three inches deep, cultivation late in the season can be done to satisfaction. Any cultivation which gives the outside roots air and sunshine is always needed for corn. Never hill up corn but work with the cultivator as close to the stalk as pos- sible without tearing the stalk until corn is at least two feet high. Then throw up a little dirt to keep down weeds and cultivate as level as possible after that. Care must be exercised on early cultivation that the roots of the corn be not hurt or pruned off. It has been proved that if the roots are cut off to a depth of 3 inches and 6 inches from the hill that the crop is damaged 6 bushels to an acre — if cut 4 inches from the hill the damage done reaches 18 bushels. Any method of cultivation which does this should be changed. A weeder is an essential on a farm. For the cornfield it should be put in as soon as the corn shows above the crust of the earth. Use it on sowed grain as soon as it is up from three to four inches. One farmer tried it successfully May 6 on oats just well above ground, which had been sown on fall-plowed land. Run the weeder first across the drill rows and then the same way that the grain was sown. Set just deep enough to stir the surface of the ground without disturbing the grain roots. By going over twice the entire surface of the soil is stirred. Field Corn. Field corn should be planted from two and a half to four feet apart and four spears in a hill is a great plenty. Work as soon as the hills can be seen. Stir the dirt with a weeder when the corn is very small. The more stirring up of the soil the faster the corn will grow. Do not hill too much nor put in too much seed. Level and flat cultiva- tion is the best for corn. Cut as soon as thoroughly glazed and shock in good sized shocks. But if it is to be put in the silo it should be cut as soon as it com- mences to glaze and put directly into the silo. Silo corn should be rowed north and south, and planted about twice as thick as for husk- ing. The land should be heavily fertilized ; twenty or twenty-five loads of manure to the acre on good land, but poor land will need forty loads per acre. Plant the ordinary field corn from the middle of May to the middle of June. Four days after planting use the weeder and continue its use until the corn is three or four inches high. Then cultivate thoroughly. For silo twenty-five feet in diameter and forty feet high, two hun- CORN AND SMALL GRAINS 119 dred tons will be needed. The large evergreen corn is good for silage. The silo preserves both the stalk and the ear, and the ensilage settles in about twelve days. For labor reckon one man and four horses to cut the corn, six or eight men with teams and wagons to haul, one man to feed the machine and one in the silo. Sweet or field corn intended for fodder can also be stacked in the fall by sprinkling into a load of corn a quart of salt or more. Then add one-half a load of good dry straw to the top of the load of corn. Smetimes it is better to lay the butts of the corn or corn fodder all one way. The top of the bundle is not so apt to heat. In the middle, where the ear is, there is the most danger from heating. It is very important to cut corn at just the proper time, if both the stover and the grain are to be used for stock food. For stacking cut shortly after the kernels are well dented and the leaves begin to dry, but do not let the ears get ripe. For silage the kernels must also be well dented and just beyond the glazing stage. At this time the stover is at its greatest food value and yield. But left until the grain is per- fectly ripe the stover value decreases. Fodder Corn. All fodder corn for daily rations should be planted in drills from 3 to 4 feet apart. The rows should run parallel north and south and be well cultivated. By exposing the growing corn to the sun as much as possible there will be more nutriment for the dairy cows. Sixteen quarts of seed per acre should be enough for this method. Fodder corn will grow almost anywhere in the northwestern states. From six to eight tons of cured fodder per acre can be raised where only one and a half or one ton of timothy or prairie hay will grow. Common field corn gives the best results and grows the best. Plant from about May 20 to the middle of June in single or double rows at the rate of about twelve quarts per acre. A common grain shoe drill or corn planter with drilling attachment for planting can be used. Harrow after the corn is planted, and even when six inches high, with a light harrow or weeder. After the corn is up, however, the harrowing should be done in the middle of the day when the stalks are tough. Harrowing in the morning is likely to break off some of the stalks. Cut before frost or, if frost catches it, a day or two after. If left longer after frost it will become dry, lose many of the leaves and a large portion of its nutrient value go back into the roots. Corn fodder is equal to the best of hay if it is cut in the proper time and cured. A Home-Made Fodder Cutter. No one will question the value of cut fodder for sto'ck, and espe- cially for horses, although many farmers will not use it because of the labor involved in preparing it. The home-made cutter will do quite as good work as the more expensive machines and it really does not take much time to prepare quite a lot of fodder. To make this machine, two boards, each one foot wide and five feet long are re- 120 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING quired. Nail these together in V-shape, then make the legs of pieces three feet long, nailing a strip across each, as shown, to keep them from spreading. Have the blacksmith make a cutting blade ; it may- be formed from an old scythe, arranging it so that a place is reserved for the handle and that the cutting portion is about two and one-half feet. Bolt a piece of iron at one end to one leg six inches below the box and bolt one end of the scythe to the other end of the iron, ar- ranging them so that both will work easily. Lay a strip of iron against the top of the other leg, with space for the scythe to work in easily. The downward slanting motion of the scythe when in use will cut the fodder readily if the blade is kept sharp, as it should be. Seed Corn. We predict that next spring will find a large per cent of the farm- ers without good seed corn. We say "good seed corn," for the late ripening followed by early frosts has very materially reduced the avail- able supply to select from ; and added to this the extreme lateness of fall work will prevent a great deal of this being gathered and dried out, before freezing weather. This means weakened vitality, and much that will not germinate next spring, and a poor stand will proba- bly follow. There has never, since corn has been grown in Minne- sota, been a better stand than during the past summer. There was no other cause for this than the extremely early ripening of last year, which rendered the corn mature, well ripened, and thoroughly dried, long before the setting in of freezing weather. It is a well established fact that any amount of freezing will not injure the germinating quali- ties of thoroughly dry corn. If the freezing and thawing of late autumn comes as usual, the average seed corn will contain too much moisture for its germ to withstand the destructive effects of freezing and thawing, and as a consequence we shall have no end of fields next year that will show a very poor stand. The only alternative seems to he to follow the practice of the old corn raisers, and select the seed at once, put it in the chamber over the kitchen, and give it as much sunlight and air as possible, or better yet, hang it up on the kitchen ceiling for a time ; this may be an annoyance and inconvenience to the good housewife, but it means a good stand of corn next year and no matter how rich the land or how good cultivation is given, a good crop of corn cannot be raised without a good stand. A very convenient plan of hanging up corn is to tie it with bind- ing twine. Any active boy can string up several bushels per hour. It is done by simply making loops very close together and drawing them up to hold the ears. It can then be hung up in a dry place, and a good stand of corn for next spring is assured, and the vexation of trying to find good seed corn will be avoided, and $1.50 or $2.00 per bushel for seed will be saved. The modern farmer pays more attention each year to the use of high grade seed of the best varieties. In many states they recognize the great need for improvement in this respect by seed growers' asso- ciations. The agricultural colleges are also teaching us a great deal in this respect. The farmer himself can do a great deal toward rais- CORNANDSMALLGRAINS 121 ing his own seed-standard by the careful selection of the best kernels from his products. Seeds vary from year to year, just as the children of a family do. Continued selection, therefore, is very necessary if the farmer wants to be sure of good crops. Cut out the tips and butts of the seed corn ears. Corn taken from the middle of the ear germinates and grows faster, and will give a better yield than that grown from the grains at either end of the ear. Good Seed. A writer for an agricultural journal has the following to say about seed corn : "There has been a great deal said in regard to good seed and vari- ous ways have been devised as to how to secure the best, so I will give my way. When the crop is about right to go in the shock I go through my field, and from good thrifty stalks, I take the best ears and husk and hang in an open shed or building until thoroughly dry, when I put away in a bin or in boxes. "Still, I have had good results by leaving it hang from fall until planting time. Last spring I got a good stand the first planting, while most of my neighbors planted from two to three times. "Another point. Some seven years ago, I sent to a seed company in Wisconsin for an early dent white corn, which proved to be the best investment I ever made, as it more than filled my expectations, but after planting a few years, it had considerable smut. I went to work to eradicate it in the following way, which proved a success. When in the field picking seed as stated above, I would not take an ear that was close to a smutty one, but far enough away so that I thought it had not had any pollen from a stalk that had a smutty ear on. And now my corn is almost entirely free from smut. I use the same plan in regard to barren stalks with good results. I hope this may be of benefit to some brother farmers." Getting Good Seed. The agricultural stations are especially insistent upon the selec- tion of seed corn early. Go down the rows as the corn stands in the field, and select from the best stalks the ears of the best form that show a thorough ripeness. Slight frosts do not injure thoroughly ripened corn, so that the farmer need not hurry up the process of selection before the corn is well matured. Do not dry corn in the sunlight but store it in a dry place upon racks where it will get plenty of air. If necessary use artificial heat to dry before real cold weather sets in. Corn thus selected and properly tested will add millions of dollars each year to the yields of the corn-growing states. The Iowa agricultural station declares that every bad ear planted of seed corn means a loss of $6.50, and that $5.00 will buy a bushel" of properly tested seed corn. Buying Seed. Why also do farmers wait until nearly sowing time before buying seed. A system of wholesale buying on a co-operative plan put into 122 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING action some months before the seed is needed, will save several dol- lars on the seed bill. Timothy bought in large quantities is of much better grade. All pasture grasses and orchard grass, red top, blue grass, sorghum cane seed, dwarf Essex rape seed, cow peas and soy- beans can be had early. See that the seed you buy is clean, as well as bright and dry, and don't experiment with new varieties. Pay a few cents more a bushel for the best seed. You will get that back in many fold from your yield, other things being equal. And, let me add, that the farmer who buys the best seed usually has other things equal in his farming. Let the agricultural colleges do the experiment- ing and the farmer stick to the standard varieties of corn. Testing the seed corn, says this same authority, is neither hard nor tiresome. It is done in the winter or early spring, when there is plenty of time. The hours spent in testing seed will do more toward getting a full crop than weeks of hard work in the field later in the season, for, no matter how careful the cultivation or how favorable the season, a full crop is not possible if the stand is poor or the vitality low. It is the plants from the kernels with low vitality that are first affected by the drouth, by the heat or the weeds. These plants are responsible for more failures and poor crops than anything else. A careful germination test shows just what the vitality of each ear is. It shows more clearly than anything else what next year's crop will be. Record yields are not possible unless seed corn is planted that will produce plants with strong root systems as well as strong stalks. A glance at properly tested seed corn shows both the sprouts and the roots, and no seed should be planted that has not proven in advance that it is capable of producing a good ear of corn. Testing Seed. The farmer need not depend upon the agricultural college, how- ever, for testing his seed. He can give the seed at home such con- ditions of heat and moisture as nature gives for outdoor growth. Fill only a small box with earth such as you use for potting plants, count a number of seeds to be tested, and put in the box of earth giving only enough water to keep moist, and keeping the box in a warm but not too dry place. Covering the box with a piece of paper or cloth will hasten germination. Take the sample to be tested from the mass of seed to be used, and this will test as to general planting. If a suffi- cient number of these seeds sprout and grow up with vigor, the seed selected for use will be right for profitable culture. Another common method of testing a small number of seeds is to use moistened cloth or blotting paper; fold and lay on a plate, plac- ing seeds within the fold, so as to keep moist; then invert another plate over the whole, keeping seeds warm and moist. Any kind of seed may be tested in this way, and it is very interesting to watch the experiment. It has been figured that an increase of ten bushels of corn to the acre would add fifty millions of dollars yearly to the income of the Iowa farmers. Iowa devotes ten millions of acres to corn and the CORNANDSMALLGRAINS 123 average price is 50 cents a bushel. See what that would mean. Be- sides adding new wealth to the country, the product would be im- proved in quality. Other things being equal, these results could be accomplished by the use of only tested seed for planting. The farmer who puts great care upon the preparation of his land for the seed bed and the selection of the best time for planting can no longer lay the blame for a bad harvest upon poor seed, because tested seed can be obtained now by any one. Corn Smut. Smut in corn is a plant that grows from spores instead of seeds. Wet seasons and low lands are more likely to develop smut than the opposite conditions. But if the disease has once started, dry weather following will not stop it. If smut in seed corn is suspected immerse the corn for a short time in a solution of one pound of copper sulphate to one gallon of water. Rotation of crops, however, is one of the best methods of reducing the smut infection. By this plan corn can be planted on land likely to be free from the spores. The great danger from smut is not so much in its injurious efifect upon live stock as in its effect upon the profits of the yield from the corn field. The spores are easily carried in the air or maintain their life through the stomach of an animal. For such and other reasons they distribute themselves rapidly, and smut corn is not therefore, a good diet for stock. Yet a little smut in corn is not of special harm where the yield is large. If you have a yield of 150 to 200 bushels per acre your seed corn will be all right, saved from this big crop. Save the best ears, and either hang up the braided ears to dry, or husk clean and spread out on the floor of any dry building. Good seed can be had from both methods. The Corn Worms. According to Prof. Wheeler, of the South Dakota Experiment Station, the corn worm, the corn-ear worm, and the cotton boll worm are one and the same. The worm varies in color according to what it feeds on, the mature insect being a medium sized moth, which lays its eggs at twilight upon any part of the plant. Corn, pumpkins, melons, red peppers, beans, peas, gladiolas, geraniums and some other plants are sometimes attacked by it, but its work on corn in the Northwest is serious, as it not only eats the young corn stalks, but later enters the ears and eats the silk. The color of the pest will vary from light green to black. Sometimes it is spotted or striped. The only sure cure is, apart from fall plowing, to destroy the eggs, to practice rotation of crops, using crops which the worm will not feed on. Kansas farmers usually raise from 70 to 80 bushels of corn per acre, and their methods are worth studying. Great care is taken in the selection of seed grown in that latitude. The ground is plowed deeply, from six to eight inches, and disked carefully until the soil is pulverized to the fine, mellow surface needed to conserve moisture. If the ground is rough or soddy a harrow must be used. Plant to a depth of three or four inches, first marking with a common corn row marker, using for the planting a one-horse corn drill having an attach- 124 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING ment which can be operated by the driver. Harrow twice, cultivating both ways. Several cultivations must follow this, the first one being very deep, the second time not quite so deep, with the third quite shal- low and farther from the corn. Later cultivating is shallow and only to prevent the formation of a crust on the surface through which mois- ture escapes. After the corn has been stacked or shocked and wild grass has grown turn sheep into the field. They do no serious harm to the corn and will eat the weeds and wild grass very close. A one horse tool is best for large corn plants, and frequent sur- face cultivation with this during the silking and tasseling period is as imperative for a perfect harvest as is deep cultivation earlier. One bushel of seed corn will plant from five to eight acres. If you use "scrub" corn for planting you will probably get about one- fifth as much return in ears to every 100 stalks as you will with "pedi- greed" corn. Why Does Popcorn Pop? Why is it that popcorn pops better than a variety of field corn? Corn contains in its core, or center part, a trace of volatile oil and some water. Heat causes this oil to expand in a gaseous form. The outer coating of the kernel is tough enough to bear the process of the expanding oil for a moment, until it suddenly bursts, turning the partly cooked kernel of corn inside out. The reasons that ordinary field corn does not pop so well as that variety of corn known as popcorn, are as follows : First, the popcorn variety contains more of the volatile oil ; second, its outer coat or crust is tougher and will bear more pressure before it bursts ; third, ordi- nary field corn is porous. The outer coating has many minute cracks and openings that allow the volatile oil to escape without bursting the kernel ; fourth, the popcorn kernel being much smaller than the ordi- nary kernel, it is better cooked by the same amount of heat, and in popping open its contents are flufify and tender, whereas, the ordinary corn being imperfectly cooked does not behave so well. However, the ordinary corn of the yellow variety will often pop out quite satis- factorily, but is greatly inferior to the regular popcorn. Popcorn is not a very easily digested food, but with ordinary good digestion constitutes a very toothsome and wholesome tidbit. It was the staple food of our predecessors, the American Indians. Given a few handfuls of parched corn and a little jerk of venison, he was able to endure many days of weary march and fatigue. The Oat Field. Not enough attention is given to the oat crop. Especially is this true in the matter of fanning seed oats to secure good seed and in the selection of the best soil for sowing the seed. Oats will grow on a wide range of soil, but a clayey loam which is well drained is the very best. Plow this in the fall if possible, disk harrow both ways, and follow with several harrowings with the disk harrow. Last year's corn land makes a good spot for oats, granted that it has been as heavily fertilized with manure as corn land should be. CORNANDSMALLGRAINS 125 If the plowing must be done in spring, get about this as early as the soil can be worked. A field green cropped for winter makes excellent oat land for spring. If barnyard manures are put on oat land in the spring they must be well rotted and harrowed in rather than plowed. If commercial fertilizers are needed, 200 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre, sowed broadcast a month after the seed has been planted will greatly increase yields, if the soil is in good state. Some of the best varieties of spring oats, as tested at experiment stations, have been found to be Silvermine, Texas Rust Proof and New White Sensation. These each yielded over twenty-five bushels per acre. Early sowing is most important for any variety, as the later the sowing the poorer the yield. Oats need the cool of the spring, and the crop should be all in by a week after the soil can be worked. From two to three bushels of seed per acre are needed, according to the capacity of the soil. Drill the seed in about an inch deep. The value of oats as a forage crop or for haying purposes will be greatly increased by sowing one-half bushel peas per acre to two bushels of oats. This combination ranks with corn well and has the advantage of a much earlier harvest. Cut oats for a fodder crop when the tops are just getting brown. At that stage stock will eat tops and straw clean, as the early cutting retains the sap in the sheaves. Rye In Minnesota. Bulletin No. 120, of the Minnesota Experiment Station, gives much attention to "Rye Growing in Minnesota," — a state where the yield per acre of rye is larger than that of other states. Although the acreage of land given to rye growing is smaller than in any other state. The dry, sandy loam of Minnesota furnishes an ideal soil for rye culture, which is at its worst on wet, heavy land. The seed bed must be well prepared by the middle of September for poor soil. On ordinarily fertile lands, the last of September will do for sowing. If your area is very rich the early part of October will be the best time. Allow some variations in this for climates where early cold weather sets in by November. The rye plants must be of a good height before that season, and therefore on light, poor soils early fall seeding is needed. About one bushel of seed per acre is a good allowance for such soils. An average field will need about one and one-half bushels, but a rich soil can take good care of two bushels per acre. Plow the ground early in September, unless it has been so treat- ed during the previous season that the soil is open and tolerably fine. In that case a few good harrowings will get the earth in condition for seeding. Rotted stable manure broadcasted before harrowing will be the best fertilizer. Rye yields often 30 bushels per acre, but the average yield is not half that amount. Fall sown wheat and rye make the best early green food for the stock. Two plantings of each of these in the fall, one about the first of September and another about a month later, sown generously, will 126 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING bring" a succession of soiling crops early in the spring. Three bushels of seed per acre should be used for this purpose, and the soil made as rich as possible. All kinds of stock take kindly to rye in the spring, but it is apt to give an unpleasant flavor to milk, if dairy cows are fed heavily on it. Cow-Peas. The cow-pea, both as a forage crop and a soil improver, is useful. This, though a southern plant, is grown now successfully in northern localities, provided the earliest varieties are planted when the ground is warm. Cow-pea hay contains about ten per cent protein, thus al- most equaling wheat bran in that respect. The cow-pea, however, for some varieties, needs about five months of summer weather to mature. Therefore, in the northwest, it is not wise to plant the late maturing varieties, although they make more than the early kind. In the south this pea is often sown broadcast with the growing corn just before the last cultivation. Do not plant, anyway, till the ground is warm for cow-peas "take cold" easily. Sometimes, where clover does not do well, cow-peas make a good substitute as fertilizing agencies, though they do not send out such deep roots, and therefore do not bring up so much potash and phosphorus from the subsoil. Peas, disked in, and oats or barley sown just before they come up on the same land will make an excellent soiling crop, and if used for that purpose, where Avild oats are on the land, they will be ready for cutting before the wild oats are ripe. It would be best to sow oats rather than barley for this purpose. Plow the peas under about four inches and sow oats broadcast, about one bushel each in pro- portion. The pea canning industry now furnishes, as a by-product to the factories, pea vines as stock food. Pea-vine hay is considered better than clover hay, and whether hauled away from the factories by the farmers, or made into silage by the factories the hay has become quite valuable in some sections. If pea vines are to be cured for hay they must be spread on sod land. If put up in stacks they must be thoroughly tramped, when decay will not affect the interior of the stack. Where possible pea vines are fed to stock in the fresh state. Cow-Peas Sown for Live Stock, Peas and oats sown for live stock ration should be mixed in the seed proportion of about two parts peas to one part of oats, as almost any good prairie land will grow oats more readily than peas. This amount, it must be remembered, will vary with the kind of soil. On a stifif clay soil oats will not lodge so much and the crop can be cut with a binder. A year or two of trial will soon show what proportions to use. If you are growing for young pigs and brood sows, it is possible to let the young pigs do the harvesting for you, after they have become used to the food. Try a few days of cutting and feeding the peas at first. This will be likely to prevent the pigs from any danger of overeating when they are turned in the field, and CORNANDS MALL GRAINS 127 they will eat clean as they go — without tramping down the crop. Begin the feeding when the peas are about fit for the table. One acre should be enough for about 20 or 25 pigs if they are only fed during the growing season and for this purpose sow as early in the spring as possible in well harrowed ground. Two bushels to the acre, sown broadcast, and plowed under as deep as five inches, can be put in about two weeks or a little less before the oats are sown. Harrow after oats are sown. For small patches of peas a movable wire fence is good, especially when two crops are planted. This is always advis- able, as peas for feeding in this way are best not matured, being of too heating a nature. While feeding peas to young pigs let the pigs have plenty of salt and water and skim milk if possible. Growing Flax. The importance of the flax-seed crop in our future industries is becoming more and more an established fact. It is not quite twenty years — in 1895, in fact — since experiments were made in this coun- try in breeding flax. Using the ordinary flax for foundation stock, two classes were bred, one for seed and the other for fiber. Since then new varieties have been grown, which have increased the plant over 50 per cent in height and seed value. As to the crops grown, the Dakotas and Minnesota still hold the banner, North Dakota hav- ing reported exceptional yields of as high as thirty-five bushels per acre, with eighteen to twenty bushels per acre several years in suc- cession. These, however, must not be taken as any ground for aver- ages. But they show why the culture of flax is becoming more popu- lar and why so many farmers in the Dakotas, and more in Minnesota, have been going into the sowing of several sections of land to flax raising. From five to sixteen bushels per acre in dry seasons, but thirty bushels in a good season, prove that tillage will do much for this crop. The fact that the only linen factory in the country is now being established at Beloit, Wisconsin, and that it expects to draw upon the flax raising districts of the northwest for the supply of flax to what will become a large industry is strong evidence of how much progress the culture of flax is making. Many farmers advocate mixing wheat and flax for seed, in the proportion of two parts of wheat and one part flax, five pecks to the acre. Or one bushel of wheat may be put in with the drill, per acre, and cross seeded with twelve to sixteen quarts of flax. Flax should be sowed much more shallow than wheat to secure the best results. The mixture of grains is believed to greatly improve the quality of the wheat, and thus more disease resisting. Barley and flax together are also grown with more or less success. Some of the grass seeds sown with flax as a nurse crop, have given good returns, using about 20 quarts of flax seed per acre. The best yields of flax often come from very early seeding when used with clover and timothy in this way. It is a mistake to sow flax about corn planting time, or later. For raising a paying crop of flax seed, land should be very rich. A rotation of clover on manure dressed land, then pasture plowed in and flax sown in the following spring after another light top dressing 128 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING of manure in the fall, will give good prospects for a commercial flax crop. Do not repeat the flax sowing again until after another rota- tion of corn, oats and clover. Otherwise the soil will furnish you chiefly flax wilt. Sod land usually makes the best crop of flax. Treat the seed, however, even on broken prairie land, with the formaline solution in order to kill any germs of flax wilt. If these go into the soil with the seed, the new land will be infected and the probable destruction of any future crops of flax on that ground will be the result. A new field sown to flax, however, with no resultant flax wilt, can be sown to other grains in rotation with profit, and then used for flax again, provided good tillage has been observed in the interim. Flax takes about as much from the soil as do corn or wheat. The general testimony as to flax straw for winter feed for cattle seems to be favorable. In a few cases where what seemed to be bad results had followed, careful inquiry has shown that foul weeds or mustard had become mixed with the straw. Stock fed on flax straw must have plenty of water, or the toughness of the straw will cause indi- gestion. Flax straw grown on old soil or mixed with pigeon grass usually does well as a feed for cattle. However, caution is a good practice in using flax straw for fodder for valuable stock. Flax matures early, and can follow wheat, oats and barley in the order of sowing in the northwest. Its high price and the evidences that it will remain high make it of more and more value each year. Millet. Millet grows best in warm weather, and does better when plant- ed after corn planting, and usually while it is dry, though a low, moist soil is needed, yet not too moist. I have known millet to be sown, in favorable seasons, as late as the end of June. The middle of June is a good time to get in the crop in dry weather. If the crop is in- tended for dairy cows, sow the German millet in the proportion of about one-half a bushel of seed to the acre if the soil is good. More seed will be needed on poorer soil, or for sheep fodder. Millet should never be fed as the only food. Cut millet for cattle and sheep when some of the heads are be- ginning to ripen. For horses Hungarian millet is said to be better, and this should be cut two or three days later than that for cows. Millet should be cured as clover hay is, in the winrow, so that the bright green color of the hay will be presered. Hog millet is fine as a food for hogs. Siberian millet is an excellent variety, and grows under favorable conditions, to the height of four feet. Sow the seed broadcast on a fertile and well prepared soil about the middle of June. Harrow very lightly, and by the middle of Sep- tember the seed will be ripe. Do not allow any variety of millet to get too ripe before cutting if it is intended for cow feed or for sheep. For pigs, let the grain mature. In feeding millet, a proportion of one-third millet and two-thirds bran or ground oats is best for milch cows. Never put much corn with millet as the two grains are very much alike in their constitu- ents. What is called hog millet takes just about the same amount CORNANDSMALLGRAINS 129 of fertility from land in cropping, as does corn, but corn always has, as a soil agency, the advantage of the extra cultivation that the land receives. Good varieties of millet may also be found in the German and Japanese. At the Virginia experiment station recently, Hungarian millet yielded 3.85 tons per acre, while the German and Japanese returned respectively, 2.80 and 2.42 tons per acre. Buckwheat. In a northwestern climate buckwheat must be sown in June, but in milder latitudes sowing in early July will insure a harvest before the fall grains are sown. Buckwheat is tender to frost, and needs, at least, two and a half months to mature. It does not demand a very rich soil, which is doubtless the reason why yields are reported in the same locality of such varying amounts — from 15 to 40 bushels. For the best fertilizer to add to a poor field where buckwheat is to be sown, unleached wood ashes, twenty to twenty-five bushels to the acre, broadcasted, will add the lime and potash plant food that this grain needs for heavy yields. On such a prepared soil it will pay to broadcast and well harrow in three pecks per acre of seed. It takes some weeks for the ripening of grain ; for heavy yields, how- ever, it is best to cut soon after the first seeds have ripened. A half bushel of seed per acre will do on the average soil, for June sowing. In this, though, as in every other grain, it costs as much to seed, grow and harvest a thin crop as a fat one. Therefore try the fertilizing and heavy seeding. Late seedings of buckwheat do best when sowed with a drill. Barley. Barley, which costs somewhat less than oats, is not so satisfac- tory a ration for constantly working horses as is oats. Barley should be fed whole, and will do very well for horses only at a moderate amount of labor. The best barley demands a special kind of sandy loam soil with some clay, and a practically rainless climate, at least during the harvest season. If grown on a soil similar to that of Min- nesota, it can be harvested as a fairly good barley for malting pur- poses, by cutting at that first point of ripeness where it is not yet quite ripe, and a little of the green shade mixes with the yellow in the heads. Shock as soon as cut, in shocks long enough to admit of two sheaves, meeting in the center at the butt ends of the sheaves, being spread out over the shock below. These two cap sheaves, if spread out well at the side, and left to hang over a little at the ends will protect from both dews and too hot suns. These cap sheaves should not be mixed with the others when the shock is drawn, as the heads will be too brown for market prices. Barley and rape mixed in proportions of one bushel of barley and three pounds of rape seed to the acre make an excellent pig pas- ture if pigs are turned into it when the crop is well started, and the rape is young. A second tender growth can be had later on, when the rape grows too strong, by mowing a part of the field. The barley that is not eaten will also often seed again and come up in early fall 130 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING for a second pasture. Sow plenty in the spring and you can then cut back, thus insuring plenty of pasture even in a dry season. Barley and oats make an especially good early swine pasture on brush land broken in the fall. Speltz. Speltz (emmer), which is a species of wheat in the chaff, is a good yielder and stands dry weather well. The stock like it and thrive on it, and it is especially good for growing animals. Equal parts of speltz, oats and barley ground and fed together make an excellent feeding ration with about five per cent of flax seed added before grinding. Some clover hay once a day and a few ears of corn are necessary at each feeding. In sowing speltz seed it should be remembered that the hulled seed does not germinate so readily as the unhulled. On good soil — a black loam with clay subsoil — two bushels of speltz seed to the acre should give a full yield of good grain from forty to fifty bushels. Mix with oats and a little barley. It matures in about the same time as oats, and makes a good stand, not being molested by chinch bugs. Speltz will grow fairly well on light soils, but yields often forty bushels per acre and occasionally from fifty to sixty on rich and thoroughly cultivated land. Sorghum Raising. The question of raising sorghum for cattle is one that has been much discussed of late years. There is no doubt but that for fall feeding — from September first until hard freezing sets in — sorghum is greatly liked by cattle. They eat it up clean, and I have found it better than corn fodder at that time. But to grow sorghum success- fully requires a very thoroughly prepared soil. Given this, and the right cultivation by a judicious use of the harrow after the seed has been sown — taking care not to kill the plants by too late harrowing — fine crops of sorghum can be raised. The Wisconsin Experiment Station says, recently, that no crop which it has grown has furnished "as much food to the acre for dairy cows as sorghum, and no crop had given more satisfaction while it was being fed." Prepare the land for sorghum in the fall previously, and work it over several times on the surface in the spring in order to help to clean the seed-bed. When growing for dairy food put it in with a grain drill, and sow from one to one and one-half bushels per acre. Cut with a mower and throw up in small piles within two or three days after cutting. Leave in shock till cured and then stock under cover. If the sorghum is planted in rows like corn, a common corn binder can be used in cutting. Sorghum may be fed after freezing, but if frozen too hard it is not so good for feeding. If thawed it loses some of its food values. Cut the plants at any time desired for hay from the time they come into bloom until the seed is in the dough stage. The Minnesota am- ber variety is a good one for the north, but there are several excellent sorts. The second growth of sugar-cane is apt to be poisonous to cattle, or if stunted by dry weather unfavorable results from feeding CORNAND SMALL GRAINS 131 may follow. Sorphum is quite likely to sour in a silo, though there are farmers who are able to use it for ensilage. Sorghum has many points of profit in its favor as a fodder. Its yield is large, its flavor is much relished by cattle and horses, it grows in dry weather better than corn, there is no waste in its use and any climate where there is not more than three months of frost will grow the plant. The objections to its culture are the expense of seed and the heavy nature of the plant as to handling in harvest time. It also needs close attention in the early growing season. An acre of sor- ghum requires from fifty to eighty pounds of seed, which can be put in with the grain drill. One acre will furnish enough fodder for a large amount of stock. Home grown seed is much more reliable as to results than that on the market. This can be secured from well ripened cane placed in shocks to cure, and the tops not separated from the stalks until cold weather. The seed can be easily threshed out and cleaned then and stored in dry boxes or barrels where it will not heat. Wheat Raising. Raising wheat is a good business when the yield is from 30 to 40 bushels per acre. That this can be realized, under proper condi- tions of fertility, is shown again and again by the many instances of accidental good harvests from plots of land specially fertilized. I knew a farmer in one of the Dakotas who harvested from 98 acres of a 100-acre piece of wheat a yield of only eight bushels ner acre. From the other two acres he threshed 80 bushels. The two acres had been hog pasture, and had been plowed and tilled in the previous fall. The 98 acres had been sowed to wheat for four successive years with no manuring. In those four years of only growing wheat the farmer had been robbing his land every year of about $300 worth of fertility, granted that the eight bushel per acre yield had been uniform through the four years. This statement is based upon figures from agricultural stations showing that : "Fifty bushels of wheat in the grain contains twelve pounds of phosphorus, valued at $1.44. The straw, 2j% tons, contains four pounds of phosphorus, valued at 48 cents. In addition the wheat crop contains $14.40 worth of nitrogen and $2.88 worth of potassium, or a total of $19.20 worth of fertility taken from the soil. These elements are taken in varying quantities. If the grain is fed to animals, one- quarter of the phosphorus which it contains is, on the average, sold in the animal product. If these products are butter and cream, a thousand pounds would contain only about 30 cents worth of nitro- gen, potash and phosphoric acid. The skim milk from which this butter came would contain about $8 worth of nitrogen, 84 cents worth of phosphorus, and 72 cents worth of potash. In the case of wheat, practically none of the grain is fed to stock, and under present con- ditions the farmer buys back very little of the bran and shorts, which contain large quantities of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. "It is to the interest of the agriculture of the state as well as to 132 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING the millers and the railroads that the price of these by-products and the transportation rates for them should be so adjusted that they will remain in the state. In addition to the sale of shorts, bran and other grain by-products, we are shipping to Europe large quantities of phosphates from our phosphate mines. Hopkins truly says that we are selling for the paltry sum of five million dollars what will be worth a billion dollars to the next generation. We cannot empha- size too strongly the importance of conserving our phosphate sup- plies for our own soils, which are in many cases quite deficient in this element. We must soon follow the practice of European farmers and add more of this element to our soils than we take out in crops." From 8 to 20 bushels per acre of No. 2 wheat is considered an average yield now in farming, since more modern methods of crop rotation prevail. But the idea of heavy fertilizing on wheat lands is still far from a prevalent one. Fifty bushels of No. 1 wheat per acre might be raised by 50 loads of well rotted manure to the acre, and this would mean smaller farms but more systematic and easier man- aged farming. Forty acres sowed to wheat would return more than 150 acres under the old style, and when the season was over there would still be stored up fertility for other crops. Clover the wheat then and turn the stock into it — all but dairy cattle — which should not feed on new seed clover alone. Save all of the straw from the wheat field, and bed the stock plentifully with it. Apply this long manure to the clover field — 20 or 25 loads to the acre, plow it under and plant corn the next year. The next crop may be wheat again, with clover and timothy sowed with it ; or oats and barley may be seeded early in the spring with the Mammoth red clover and timothy. By this way of farming two crops of the best clover hay may be cut in one summer, and a corresponding increase of stock be put upon the farm to increase the fertilizing agencies for another season. But the wheat farmer of today must also know how to be as scientific in breeding his grain as he is in breeding his stock. The improved varieties of field crops of today have become improved through two very opposite influences ; heredity and variation. The wise farmer for the tomorrow of farming in this country is the one who knows that he must strike the balance between these two agencies by the most careful environment if he wants the scales to tip toward an im- proved variation and remain there. By scientific selection and train- ing the No. 1 Minnesota has been developed, but if continual inbreed- ing, selection and cultivation did not maintain this wheat to its level. No. 1 Minnesota would quickly drop to standard. The seed of No. 1 wheat is by no means all No. 1. Rust Resistance. However, the northwestern and, in fact, all the wheat growing states, have made marked progress in this direction of scientific wheat growing in the past six years. In the one feature of rust-resistance in wheat much has been accomplished. Less than a decade ago the alarm over the prevalence of rust in our grain fields led to rapid and close attention in our agricultural colleges to the development of a CORNANDSMALLGRAINS 133 wheat that could turn aside the rust disease. In this they have so far been moderately successful, and still better results will follow. In a recent address Dean Woods, of the Minnesota State Agricultural Col- lege, said : "Ultimately we will have a rust-resistant variety of blue stem wheat secured by combining by hybridization the rust-resistant quality of the durum wheat with the berry of the blue stem. From the work already done, it appears that this may ultimately be accom- plished." There is no other known cure for rust, except to breed rust resist- ing varieties of both wheat and oats. Weather conditions develop rust, but the character of the stand of grain makes considerable dif- ference in the seriousness with which rust will attack it. It is almost certain that the spores of the black rust usually live over winter on the straw of the wheat plant. Seed Grain, The old idea that new seed should be got from some distant place for wheat culture each year, because wheat grown on the same farm year after year would degenerate, is fast vanishing. Every farmer should set aside a separate plot of his most fertile area, and sow it each year to wheat, or any other grain desired, with the purpose of raising his own seed grain. In buying, a new variety of seed from a colder climate or higher altitude is desirable. Wheat grown farther south and in a warmer climate will usually not mature, but will need a longer season, while if the seed comes from farther north it will always come earlier and be ready to harvest sooner and will be of better quality. Seed wheat growers should use formaldehyde, in any case. A solution of 1 lb. of this in 40 gallons of water should be sprinkled on the wheat, in quantity sufficient to moisten it. Either shovel over until dry, or sow while still wet, opening the seeder to sow several quarts per acre more of the swollen seed. These directions are given by the Minne- sota Experiment Station, and the process costs a few cents per acre. On this seed area, if good wheat is wanted in return for the sea- son's labors and expense, well cleaned seed must be sown. Where one hundred bushels of seed are needed, take one hundred and seven- ty bushels of wheat and clean them again and again until you have the one hundred bushels of good plump seed demanded that every seed shall mean a vigorous plant. For a less area, take in proportion. If the ground is strong and rich in plant food stiff-strawed wheat should be sown and generally such a variety needs a little heavier or thicker planting, as it will not stool so well. Well-matured seed, however, does not, of necessity, mean the largest seed, although only well-matured, cleaned and even, sample- like seed should be used — free from noxious seeds and, if possible, grown expressly for sowing purposes. Any farmer who can establish a reputation for growing such seed grain of superior value, especially of the new varieties that are above the average in yield or quality, can command a high price for such grain, not only among his neigh- bors, but in the market. 134 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING "The total yield of a field of grain depends not only upon the quality of each plant, but upon its ability to multiply in a numerical ratio," says a trained agriculturist. Try, in any season, good or poor, the experiment of sowing the average seed and the best seed, on dif- ferent plots of your land ; give these plots exactly the same treatment as to tillage, and harvesting, and see if the difference in yield does not prove the commercial wisdom of the purchase of the best seed. If the season is unfavorable, the plants from good seed have a resist- ing power that will count much in the last of the season ; while the "average seed" will be grown at a decided loss. If the season is fav- orable a difference of several bushels per acre will result. To quote from J. J. Hill's address to the graduate students of the Minnesota State Agricultural College in 1909: "The yield of wheat in Minne- sota in 1908 averaged 12.8 bushels per acre, from soil once as rich as any in the world. I will not compare this with the yield of other countries, nor with states like Washington and Oregon, where they raise an average of 23 or 24 bushels to the acre, though that would not be unfair, but with the average of the whole United States, slov- enly and wasteful as its agriculture is. The average yield of the acreage sown to spring wheat in this country in 1908 was 13.2 bushels per acre. With our natural advantages we might easily have doubled that. We might certainly have equalled the average of 15.5 obtained in Iowa or the 17.5 in Wisconsin. If we had, it would have put many millions in our pockets. But if we had raised the average in Minne- sota even the little four-tenths of a bushel necessary to lift it to the low national level, it would have added over $2,000,000 to the wealth of the state. If we had done as well as our neighbor state on the east, we should have been gainers by over $20,000,000. "The average for oats in Minnesota last year was 22 bushels, and in the United States 25 bushels. Wisconsin produced 31.1 bushels, more than 40 per cent above us. Again the difference between the national average and that of this state represented a cash value of nearly three and a half million dollars. In few other states do pota- toes grow in such abundance and of so fine quality. The average product per acre in the nation, about what other countries would con- sider a partial crop failure, was 85.7 bushels last year. Minnesota's average was 76 bushels. The difference amounts to more than three- quarters of a million dollars. Taking these three crops only, with whose care our farmers are well acquainted and which respond read- ily to ordinary cultivation, and having as a standard the small average of the country as a whole, Minnesota's loss in 1908 was over six and a quarter million dollars. If comparison were made with what might have been done by the best farm methods, the figures would almost pass belief. A dollar lost by neglect is lost just as much as if it were taken away by force. Yet were anyone to propose a tax of six or seven million dollars annually on the farmers of the state it would rightly provoke them to fierce resistance." As a last argument let me say that a recent report from the Ne- braska Experiment Station says the difference in yield there between CORNANDS^IALLGRAINS 135 heavy seed wheat and the "average seed" was 6.5 bushels per acre. Blow away your shriveled seed! Don't sow it again. The Soil. Wheat needs a fertile soil of well drained clay loam for its best returns. But lighter soils, if made fertile and highly tilled, will give large yields. The best fertilizer is well rotted stable manure broad- casted either before or after plowing. If strawy or coarse manure is used, it should be on the crop preceding the wheat. For a commercial fertilizer, any good one compounded of nitrogen and phosphoric acid will be best, as wheat takes large quantities of both from the soil. In cold climates fall plowing is always advised for wheat. The soil is frost-bound all winter, and this freezing aids greatly in breaking up the hard lumps of earth thrown up by the plow, and thus pulveriz- ing the soil for the harrowing to follow. If fall plowing, in some sea- sons, seems to make the ground too hard, apply the disking process. Whatever the process is, the soil for wheat raising must be in good, well fined condition for early sowing in spring with three or four inches of pulverized earth on top. On very light soils rolling may be done before and after seeding. From one to one and a half bushels of seed per acre will be needed, according to the soil fertility and the time of sowing. For early sowing of winter wheat not quite so much seed will be needed, even on rich land, as the plantlets will be stooled before cold weather. For late seeding add a couple of pecks more per acre. If the seed is broadcasted, however, and not drilled in, two bushels per acre may be needed. If any aid to yield is needed in the spring, nitrate of soda (200 pounds per acre) can be used. Wheat should be cut as soon as the straw has turned yellow. Never leave it until it is dead ripe, as such wheat has too much bran. For a thin bran harvest, cut early. In the rainy seasons that are apt to come in September in some parts of the Northwest, it is often wise to cut all the small grains a little early. Such grain will cure in the bundle or shock fully as well as upon the root. Cutting on the green side of the ripe stage, anyway, is always better than on the over-ripe side. Large crops per acre can also be harvested with more speed, because the har- vester is cutting more bushels which is another argument for enrich- ing the soil. Have plenty of binders, and keep them all in good con- dition for work, by saving and protecting the older machines. Seeding To Winter Grain in the Northwest. All this seeding should be done in the first of September, so as to give the grain two months of growing weather before hard freezing sets in. If the seed bed was well prepared the grain will 'make a strong growth and make a good, vigorous start in the spring. Also the blades will mat down over the roots and furnish a lodging place for the snow and prevent it from blowing ofif, thus ensuring a good win- ter covering. Early sown grain stools or produces a number of branches from 136 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING one seed that bear heads of grain. Late sown grain, on the other hand, never stools very much, and consequently reduces the total crop, thus making early sown grain the most profitable. The Hessian Fly. The Minnesota Experiment Station has issued a bulletin (No. 84) giving the following directions for fighting the Hessian fly: "1. Burn the stubble when, from any reason, shallow plowing is unavoidable, or when plowing is to be delayed in the spring until after emergence of flies. If the stubble is left long it will burn easier. Some farmers are willing to go to the trouble of spreading straw from thrashing over the stubble, thus insuring the burning and at the same time getting rid of some 'flax seeds' which may have lodged on the surface of the straw pile at the time of threshing. It is well, however, to remember that repeated burnings, from the standpoint of our chemists, are not good for the soil. "2. Fall plowing of the stubble in such a way that the straw is completely turned under. In this connection we should not over- look the fact, made evident from the findings of 1903, that volunteer wheat, wherever found in the fall, may contain 'flax seed.' "3. All screenings and litter about the threshing machine should be cleaned up and either fed immediately or burned, leaving no litter from the threshing on the field. There is no absolute need of burn- ing the straw pile. The flies emerging from 'flax seeds' in the center of the pile will never reach the surface. "4. Since the fly lays its eggs as a rule near the locality where it emerges from the 'flax seed,' it is best not to plant wheat on the same ground two years in succession where rotation is possible. Va- rieties of wheat that produce a stout stalk are the least affected by this pest, and varieties of wheat should be selected and the soil han- dled to that end, remembering that a rank growth does not mean strong straw, but the contrary. "5. Co-operation is absolutely necessary, for, however careful one man may be. if his neighbor is not equally so the latter's fields will afiford a supply of this pest for the former. Since this pest issues from the 'flax seed' early in May, a stubble field left for corn land and not plowed up to the 10th of May or later has probably dis- charged its quota of flies, ready for mischief, before plowing." Miscellaneous. For rotation of crops a farm should be divided into at least four fields, and fenced around each field. A few acres of clover enclosed with woven wire fence are needed for pigs and sheep, if the farm is chiefly a stock farm. By this method of fencing the after-feed can be utilized by stock to great profit and economy. A fence made of two barb wires, with posts grown on the farmer's own woodlot, set a couple of rods apart will cost about twenty cents per rod, or per- haps a little more. Ordinary stock will be turned by such a fence. A good staple puller for fences that need repair can be made from the head of an old monkey wrench, heated at the blacksmith shop and forged into a slightly hooked point, making it small enough to enter the staple. Strike this with the hammer until the staple starts. CORN AND SMALL GRAINS 137 Quack-Grass. The best way to kill out quack grass in large fields is to destroy it by the cultivation of some other plant. Corn and potatoes grown on quack-grass sod are most effective for this purpose. After harvest- ing the season's crops plough up the quack-grass sod in the fall. Be sure to turn all the grass under and then drag the same way it was ploughed. In the winter put on a heavy coat of barnyard manure. Plant this ground to corn or potatoes the following spring, cultivate well, plough and drag again in the fall. Repeat this process two years at least, three years are better, if you want to get a sure result. Frost and sun are sure death to quack-grass roots. After raising these three crops of corn or potatoes sow wheat, oats or barley — with eight quarts of medium red clover seed to the acre. Harvest one crop of grain and then a second crop of clover. The next season use for pasture. The next, after more manuring in the previous fall, plow for corn or potatoes again. Quack-grass will be as scarce as hen's teeth by that time. Never allow quack-grass to get ripe. Cut it in full blossom. One acre will seed a large farm. At the Minnesota Experiment Station small spots of quack-grass are killed out by smothering with tar paper. Mow the quack-grass first and then remove it. Cover the spots completely with tar paper, lapping this several inches and binding the seams by a few shovels of dirt. This method kills the grass in about two months, and the paper can then be taken up and used in other places. For quack-grass around trees, telephone posts, etc., I have found heavy applications of coal ashes good. Scatter these about six inches from the base of the tree and circle out about eighteen inches in width. Hand digging for small spots is usually effective where crops like potatoes or corn are cultivated. To destroy foul weeds the best way is to summer fallow and plant corn the following year. For wild oats, plow immediately after harvest, making shallow furrows. Plow in spring very deep and im- mediately sow to barley, which will mature before the oats grow. Harvest this shallow plow and sow another crop of barley. Some farmers sow to fall rye, following by barley next year, and then corn. Hand pulling for what spears of wild oats remain is then practiced. Canada thistles are best eradicated by marking off the thistle patch to itself, and carefully keeping that spot separate from any seeding operations. Then plow, and keep on plowing every time the thistle plant appears. Fortunately the thistle has nearly disappeared from the country, owing to the more thorough cultivation farm lands have been getting of late by rotation of crops. For a home-made cart to attach to the farm harrow, buy a second hand road cart, or a new one which will not cost more than a dozen of dollars, and attach it to the evener. This will bring the wheels up pretty close to the harrow where you can ride on a good comfortable seat on wheels that are high enough to be easy and thus the horses will save the man. The thinking man can introduce a large number of these labor saving devices on the fajm, which will help make farm- ing a pleasure instead of a burden. CHAPTER X Small Fruit Raising THE writer has had a large practice and training in growing all kinds of small fruit, and has found that fruit-raising near large bodies of water is likely to be more certain as to results. I know this by my own experience in Western New York. There is more moisture and less frost in spring and fall ; and near the Great Lakes, especially, more rainfall. Most of the fruit of Michigan is produced in orchards near Lake Michigan. The grape belt of New York lies in the proximity of Lake Erie and Cayuga Lake. The same thing is noticed in Minnesota, where the abundance of lakes, large and small, furnishes an excellent opportunity for fruit growing. For small fruits, as well as for gardens, a soil where a light, sandy loam predominates is best. This is especially good at harvest- ing time, as after rains it dries ofif quickly. A clay loam, with clay subsoil, is good for raspberries. If you can, it is well with sandy soil to add some good black dirt to the sand. A covering of from four to six inches of this soil with the same proportion of well rotted stable manure ploughed in thoroughly before covering, will insure you a good garden, whether for fruit or vegetables. Raspberries. Yet even in alkali soil farmers have made a success of rasp- berry raising by freely manuring. I have even seen raspberries raised on the open prairie, without any wind break, by well covering with old hay and straw. In the spring the hay was tramped into the ground and if this was not sufficient, to smother the weeds, the farm- er put on straw enough to cover the ground all over. This acted as a mulch in dry weather, and in wet weather kept the berries clean. Generally speaking, however, the best way to raise raspberries for the home or market is to plant in the spring, if possible, six feet each way, and cultivate lightly both ways with horses. This does away with the backaching hand work. The berries are larger and sweeter because they get more sun when grown in hills six feet apart. They are also brighter colored and more even in size, bring- ing higher prices than those grown in thick rows. No sun can shine on these last, and in wet weather they amount to nothing. Red raspberries and blackberries may safely be set in the fall if the canes are cut to the ground. Prepare the ground thoroughly by deep plowing, as it will be almost impossible to do anything but surface cultivation after the plants are set, on account of the lack of deep roots with bush fruits. Harrow well and then go over the ground marking ofif rows six feet apart. Short rows are best as they take less time in picking, where much labor must be hired. Row north or south, or east and v/est. SMALLFRUITRAISING 139 according to the direction of your strongest winds. If you set six feet apart, about 1,200 plants will be needed for an acre. If you still stick to hand cultivation, and many raspberry growers adhere to the three-foot apart space in the row, twenty-four hundred and twenty plants will be needed for an acre. Let one person go along the row making the holes for the plants, and another follow with a pail of water holding as many plants as it will. Never expose the roots to the air. In setting plants, spread the fine roots as much as possible, but do not cover the crown deeper than from two to three inches or the plant may die. Firm the earth well around the roots, and then cultivate at least every ten days, once a week is better. From early spring to late August cultiva- tion must go on, and an excellent way to insure such cultivation is to plant hoed crops between the plants. One woman raspberry grower on a large scale, sold enough early peas and turnips the first year from her plantation to pay for the berry plants. If, on the other hand, the soil is light and needs humus a cover crop can be sown between the rows in August. But raspberries, especially red raspberries, do not require a very rich soil. Tillage, and the annual mulch of well rotted manure, will keep the soil in good shape if it is only deep and well drained to start with. Blackcap raspberries can stand a richer soil, and more frequent fertilizing. Blackcaps have been known, with high culture, to yield 10,000 quarts per acre. Where blackcap raspberries grow on cultivated ground, the rows need to be six feet apart and at least four feet in the row. Mulch these every fall also. Protect them on the north. Set out new rows and plow up the old ones after five or six years. Cut out all the old dead wood in the spring and again after picking in August or by September 10, and cut the new canes back about 30 inches. I never turn down the canes or cover them, but if one wishes to do this for winter covering loosen the dirt around the roots with a fork-spade, when the bushes will then bend down without breaking the young canes. Care the First Summer. "The Garden and Farm Almanac" says that "The first season is a very critical time in the growth of the small fruit garden. Do not neglect it. The most important thing to look after is the till- age. Use the cultivator and hoe frequently and thoroughly. Keep the entire surface of the garden stirred, not simply to kill the weeds, but more particularly to make a mulch of dry soil which will keep the soil water from escaping by evaporation. A mulch of straw may sometimes be desirable in later years, but the first year the mulch should be made of well-tilled soil. Be especially careful to stir the soil after a heavy rain when a crust has formed. Whenever you find the surface soil crusted, you may know that much valuable moisture is escaping; break it up with the cultivator. On very small areas a stirring of the surface with an iron rake, every three or four days, will keep up the best kind of a mulch and the 140 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING weeds cannot grow. Be particularly attentive to the strawberry bed. Allow no weeds to get a start there the first season ; then it will not be difficult to keep down the weeds during subsequent seasons. Til- lage should not be kept up much after the middle of August, as it will cause the plants to grow late, and so be more liable to winter killing. Let the weeds grow in the fall as they will ; they protect the soil during- the winter. "When the raspberry and blackberry shoots are a foot and a half high, pinch off the ends, so as to get branched canes. Look out for currant worms. When the first worms appear, others are almost sure to follow. Pick them off. Spray the leaves with hellebore — one ounce in three gallons of water. Usually it will not be neces- sary to stake or trellis the brambles the first season. "If you desire to increase your planting of raspberries another year 'tip' some of your plants. When the canes bend down, and long whitish ends appear, cover these firmly in the ground three or four inches deep. In the spring the tips will have rooted and can be cut off and transplanted." All work of cultivation should be done before blooming. The ground must be well covered with a litter of hay or straw before that time also. After the fruit is picked, cultivate again and mulch heavily with barnyard manure well mixed with straw, both for win- ter protection and to enrich the soil for the next year. In very dry weather it may be necessary to cultivate deep and in such seasons it may be better to cultivate between blooming and ripening, in order that the soil may retain its moisture. But hand cultivation will be best. Keep the soil between free from weeds and grass. Do not use shavings or sawdust for mulching. Remove the winter covering in the spring at two different times. If the spring is warm and early take off a portion in March, the rest in April. The difficulty of any deep cultivation near raspberry roots is caused by the surface growth of the roots — for this reason mulching is very beneficial. Another Method of Planting and Caring for Black Raspberries and Red Raspberries. They should be planted seven feet apart and six or seven feet in the row. As soon as they are planted in gardens or fields there should be a flat trellis built over them. It should be two by two and one-half feet high and three feet in width. The posts should be driven in the ground eighteen inches deep. The trellises can be made of wire or slats two inches in width. They should be four inches apart, so as to give the young sprouts or canes plenty of room to come through the trellises and bend over. Cut all of the old canes as soon as the berries are ripe and gathered, for the canes that produced the present season's crop are of no further use after the berries have all been gathered, and should be cut out of the clumps at the surface of the ground. Cut back the young canes about six inches, the middle of August, and leave them on the trel- lises to winter. When the weather becomes cold and freezing, cover them with straw or coarse horse stable littering, or hay. In H C ^ CO « P< SMALLFRUITRAISING 141 the spring this covering should be put around the roots of the rasp- berries for mulching. They should be kept heavily mulched the year around. In the spring, as the ground will permit, work the soil mellow. Another and more thorough method for covering raspberries with earth is to loosen the soil on one side of each bush with a spad- ing fork. Then set the spading fork firmly in the ground on the other side of the bush and push over toward the soil with the top of the fork. This rolls the roots over and avoids breaking the stalks. Then hold the branches down by the fork, pushed into the earth over them, and shovel the dirt on. A deep covering of dirt is not neces- sary, but enough is needed to provide against the washing of late fall rains, as these may remove enough soil to expose some of the main stem. Heeling In, When raspberry plants are two years old, leave on the largest and strongest looking sprouts without pruning until quite late in the fall. By these I mean those that start between the rows after the fruit is gathered. Before frost comes dig these out, select all that have a T root and "heel them in." "Heeling in" means digging a deep trench between the rows and packing in these plants closely, leaving only an inch or two of the cane above ground. This gives you plants to replace others or to sell. Prunings of new wood may also be set out for cuttings. These should be set immediately after cutting, and be about 6 inches long. Set in rows wide enough for cultivating, six inches apart. Firm the soil well and cover well with leaves and lit- ter before winter sets in. Raspberries are a very perishable crop and must be handled rap- idly in marketing. If grown in a large way where other fruit crops are grown in order to not to put all your profits in one crop — they may be a valuable asset in the year's business. Too much rain at the last or too much sun at the beginning of the season, are bad for raspberry results. So much depends upon the weather with this fruit that its growers must not reckon on it too certainly. Raspberries are also subject to two or three bad diseases that are difficult to master completely. Blackberries. Blackberries are planted and cultivated the same as raspberries. They need a richer soil, and plants should be set 8 feet apart each way, requiring 680 plants to the acre. This gives excellent chance for the cultivation this bush fruit needs, and makes harvesting the ber- ries much easier. They can, however, be planted as hedge rows with plants 4 feet apart in 8 foot rows. This method requires 1,361 plants to the acre. Some fruit will mature the first year after planting, but a full crop does not come until the third season. A well managed black- berry plantation will bear well for twenty years, but for the best results renew the area about every 8 years. An average yield is about 3,000 quarts to the acre. Heavy fertilizing and high pressure cultiva- tion, however, in favorable years, it is reported, have yielded 8,000 142 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING quarts on some plantations. Good varieties of blackberries are Aga- wam and Snyder. Prune the blackberry canes back to fifteen inch stubs where the laterals have grown before the berries begin to ripen. About five new shoots to the hill are sufficient, cut out the rest, and later on, after harvest, remove all the canes that bore. Remember that many varieties of blackberries turn black several days before they mature fully and in order to get the richest flavor from the fruit it is necessary to leave the berries on the bush until they come ofif easily. For transportation this may not be always advisable but it certainly is in the home garden. In South Dakota the dewberry, a species of trailing blackberry, is said to produce a fruit that equals the bush blackberry if properly cultivated, protected through the winter and trained on trellises. Strawberry Culture. The difficulties in strawberry growing are not so many as with raspberries. The yield is heavier and the cost of growing as compared to yield is smaller. Strawberries are more generally in demand for all tastes, and they are less likely to be attacked by disease. They are what might be called a profitable venture for beginners and furnish an occupation in the growing that is likely to be agreeable. Still there is a great deal to be learned yet as to strawberry raising, al- though it has been said that any one can grow strawberries who can grow corn or garden vegetables. As to soil, strawberries can be grown in any soil that is not naturally heavy and wet. Soil that has a sandy clay loam is preferable to all other kinds. One of the most essential things in strawberry cul- ture is a deep, rich bed. Select well drained soil and work it very finely by spading or plowing at least six or seven inches deep. Then work in a large amount of well rotted stable manure. Plow or spade this into the soil and work the bed until it is fine and mellow. Air- slacked lime is an excellent fertilizer, when spaded into the soil with the barn-yard manure. From one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of lime is sufficient for a bed twenty-four (24) feet square if well worked into the soil. If the ground is dry and the weather warm, the bed should be well watered twenty-four hours before the planting. Varieties. In selecting varieties care should be taken to get the staminate sort with perfect blossoms by which means the imperfect varieties are fertilized. Some kinds of strawberries have blossoms which are imperfect; other varieties have perfect flowers. These last are called staminate, the former pistillate flowered varieties. The staminate varieties marked (S), fertilize themselves. The pistillate, marked (P), must be planted near perfect flowering kinds, in order that the flowers may be fertilized. The pistillate varieties are the most prolific bearers. Always get varieties suited to your own locality. SMALL FRUIT RAISING 143 One of the strongest growers is the Senator Dunlap (S). It is large in size, has a delicious flavor and is one of the finest market ber- ries. Crescent (P) is a large, productive, and strong grower, also a good shipper. The Bubach (P) is a good variety for home use and a near mar- ket. Many other varieties might be mentioned such as the Brandy- wine, McKinley, and the Marshall and Gladstone. These are all very good varieties to raise. Most plants do best by setting every other plant in the same row, 1 perfect, 1 pistillate. Not long ago "The Farmer's Voice" published the following list of strawberries fur- nished to that periodical by J. H. Hale. Being a well specialized yet completely arranged list it seems wise to reprint here for the con- venience of strawberry raisers. Earliest — Climax, Palmer, Excelsior, Fairfield, Parson's Beauty. Latest — Midnight, Lester, Lovett, Arnot, Gandy and President. Largest — Maximum, Mammoth, Midnight, Bubach, Mead, Auto, President, Morgan, Nick Ohmer, Sharpless Improved, Uncle Jim, Brandywine, Challenge, Climax, Glen Mary, Lady Garrison. Great Yielders — Climax, Glen Mary, Mead, Parson's Beauty, Auto, Sample, Splendid, Haverland, Bubach, Dunlap, Excelsior, Ar- not, Clyde, Kansas. Best Formed Berries — Mead, Climax, Pride of Cumberland, Splendid, Warfield, Clyde. Highest Flavored — Auto, Mead, Pennell, Palmer, Nick Ohmer, Brandywine. For Light Sandy Soil — Splendid, Dunlap, Fairfield, Mead, Haver- land, Excelsior. For Heavy Clay Lands — Arnot, Nick Ohmer, President, Sharp- less Improved. Deep Red All Through — Challenge, Mammoth, Parson's Beauty, Warfield, Nick Ohmer, Glen Mary, Uncle Jim, Brandywine, Kansas, Mead, Pride of Cumberland. Firm for Long Shipment — Pride of Cumberland, Warfield, Uncle Jim, Arnot, Challenge, Dunlap, Gandy, Lester, Lovett. The Old Wild Strawberry Flavor — Palmer, Pennell. Planting and Culture. When selecting the ground for a new strawberry bed, choose a plot Vv^here strawberries have not been raised recently. The plants for this new bed should not be taken from last year's bed until they have started a new growth in the spring, as they are more apt to take root quicker and make a much better growth the first season. Al- ways set the last year's growth of plants when planting a new bed. You can tell the difference between the old plants and the young plants by the roots. The roots of the old ones are black in color, while those of the young plants from last year's growth are a light color, almost white. For large fields set the plants in rows three and one-half feet apart, and eighteen inches in the row. For garden culture, they can 144 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING be set eighteen inches in the row, and in rows twenty-four inches apart. After planting press the soil down close around the roots. If the weather continues warm and dry, give the plants a light sprinkling of water for the first two evenings, after that, twice a week is sufficient. Then from twelve to sixteen hours after the watering, cultivate and keep the ground mellow and loose and free from weeds. Cut olT all runners as fast as they grow. The blossoms on the first year's planting should be cut oiT as soon as they begin to appear. If left to mature, the plant will be in- jured, the second year's crop will be short, and the berries also will be very much smaller. With proper care a bed may be made to pro- duce three crops of line berries. In the home garden, irrigation may often be practiced to advan- tage. Strawberries, above all other fruits, delight in an abundance of water. Good tillage provides water ; but it may sometimes be ex- pedient to supplement tillage with irrigation. Surface sprinkling, unless prolonged, is usually worse than useless. Let the water soak down several feet in one place before directing it to another place. Irrigate deeply, or not at all. This applies to the watering of lawns as well as to the irrigating of gardens. In tilling strawberries, always run the cultivator or rake through the same way each time. When a row is matted over two feet wide stretch a line and chop ofT and hoe up all the outsiders. Keep the row at this width by frequent uprootings ; let all the strength of the soil go into the plants which have already set. Keep up tillage in the space between the matted rows. If you find an occasional plant which looks sickly and shriveled, dig it up and kill the fat, white grub which is eating its roots. This is the worm which becomes the June beetle. Do not mulch the strawberry bed too early when the frosty nights come. Cultivate as long as possible, but when the ground is frozen hard, in the late fall, they must be covered with a mulch of straw, hay, or any horse barn litter. Do not cover more than an inch or two. Forest leaves make an excellent covering with a few light brush placed over them to prevent the wind and rains from scattering them abroad. That portion of the bed directly around the plants may be mulched heavily, but not the crowns of the plants. It is a good plan before this last mulching and when the berries are all harvested to cut or mow the beds with a grass scythe, having the stubble about two inches high. Pull out all grass and weeds, also removing all rubbish from the bed and burn. Early in the fall place a thick covering of rotted barn yard manure between the rows and spade it into the soil putting a very light dressing among the plants. This will not only keep the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying or baking ; and thus lengthen the fruiting season. This should be done every year. Old Strawberry Beds. Old strawberry beds must not become overrun with weeds in the early fall, nor should the runners be allowed to set too closely. Eight or nine inches apart in the row, when matted, is a safe distance for ^ Wl^Wfl v-m^ ■./f;i-:;V^^^*> iff J > 1 'i ^Vi°^ .'*'i> ?^ I C'l: 1 i>\ i^^ ->t i^t*^ ''•'1 !^*.tv:f ^'^^ ,4^^ '^1 ^^'■^-m.^'S^ SMALLFRUITRAISING 145 a good crop next season. There is one danger in using straw for mulching. This comes from the weed seeds in the grain and when the bed is to be a permanent one this is an item to be considered. But old straw is the least likely to contain seeds of much vitality. In put- ting this on distribute evenly so that the plants will not be smothered. If there is frost beneath the mulching there is no danger of this, but if snow does not come early, it is necessary to protect so as to avoid alternate thawing and freezing. In the spring as soon as warm enough but before removing the mulching, go through the rows and raise the mulching lightly with a hay fork just enough to give the plants a lit- tle air. This will prevent the plants from turning yellow. Later in the spring, or as soon as the buds on the trees come out and the grass shows, remove one-thtird of the winter mulching from all plants that have been covered. If the weather continues warm and hard freezing is over with, one week later remove all the win- ter covering remaining. On a cloudy day, or in the evening, is the best time to do this, but be sure you do not uncover too soon. In case of late and untimely frosts, the following directions for protecting strawberry plants in small gardens will be of use to the farmer's wife : Take strips of cheesecloth about a foot wide and the length of the rows ; if the vines spread to a width in the row of more than a foot, increase the width of the strips. Hem across the ends, and at each corner secure pegs about a foot in length, pointed at one end. On evenings when frost seems imminent, cover the rows with these stripes ; drive or push the pegs into the ground at the end of the rows, until the cheesecloth is about four or five inches above the plants; then unroll the strips, stretching them to the opposite ends of the rows and fasten them down with the other pegs. In this way the plants are sheltered, the covering does not come in contact with them, one does not have to bother with newspapers that have to be weighted down and the strips are readily rolled up and put out of the way when not needed. Strawberries the Second Season. The best time to plant strawberries in the northwestern states, to secure a crop the next season, is the first week in August. To prepare the bed for the summer setting of strawberry plants, the ground should be heavily top dressed some weeks before using with the best of well rotted manure. This fertilizer should be thoroughly spaded into the soil, and all chunks of dirt broken up. When the soil for the bed is worked fine and mellow turn on the hose and give the bed a good soaking. Wait 24 hours for the water to settle into the ground. If the sun is very hot set the plants in the evening after sun- set, pressing the dirt around the roots with the hands. Twenty-four hours after planting give the strawberry bed a light sprinkling of water all over, but never when the sun is shining. Water this new bed every 24 hours for the first week after planting, the second week every third evening, and once a week thereafter until plenty of rain comes, always after sunset. Be sure to select your plants for this 146 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING August bed from the first runners that set in summer. If the layers are purchased from a near nursery or garden dig at once after a rain, and transplant directly to the new ground with a ball of earth about the roots. Commence to cultivate the plants soon after planting them. Keep the soil loose and the bed free from weeds. In winter the bed should be covered with leaves, straw, or hay, two or three inches deep all over the bed. This should be done when the ground begins to freeze in November. No water should be allowed to stand on the bed where it will freeze and thaw. This means death to the plant. Strawberry plants must not be allowed to bear berries the first season. Currants and Gooseberries. One important point to remember in fruit growing is that fruit grown in the sun is worth twice as much as fruit grown in the shade. When shade fruit is exposed to the open air it perishes much sooner than a fruit that grows and ripens in the sun and it always has a poor, flat flavor. This is especially true of gooseberries and currants. Plant these in rows eight feet apart, running north and south, so as to let in the sun on the fruit. The plants should be six feet in the rows. Mulch heavily with horse stable manure, littering, or other coarse lit- ter of straw or poor hay. In a hot, dry season this will hold moisture and protect the roots greatly. Prune every year in the spring before the sap starts — about the last of February or the first of March. Leave from three to five of the most vigorous and upright shoots, but any old wood that shows signs of disease or that persists in sprawling on the ground should be cut out. Currants and gooseberries may be made to grow in bushes of a single tree-like stem in a warm climate. Weed out thoroughly grass and weeds. The lower the bush fruit of these sorts is cut down in fall, and the nearer the bushes are to the ground the better for them in cold climates and below zero weather, though currant and gooseberry bushes are sufficiently hardy to stand during the winter without injury. A mulch of barnyard litter about the roots will be of value in protecting them from drought and frost. Coal ashes are almost worthless as a fertilizer, but they may sometimes be used to good advantage as a mulch for currant and gooseberry bushes. Wood ashes, however, are an excellent fertilizer and should be carefully saved. Currants should be pruned so as to leave four to six canes in a bush, and all the young new sprouts that have grown from the roots should be cut out, about the 15th of June. If this is done the currants will be one-third larger and the bushes will grow twice as fast. However, if you want young branches to plant, leave some of the best young branches on the mother bush and cut them from it in the spring. Plant them in the garden in rows about four feet apart, and about one foot apart in the row. Plant from four to five inches in the ground, leaving two or three buds above ground. Cultivate well SMALLFRUITRAISING 147 the first season, and the next season transplant to rows eight feet apart, running north and south, and seven feet apart in the row. Gooseberries should be planted and treated the same as currants. Gooseberry bushes that are crowding each other may be trans- planted early in the fall season better than in the spring. Soak the soil well about the plants that are to be removed before shifting them and keep as much soil around the roots as possible. After the plants are set, firm the soil well around the roots, and cut away old wood and any new branches that do not look vigorous. Mulch heavily, and if the soil is rich, while you will not have fruit the next season, you will have thrifty instead of weak looking bushes. You can also bank the gooseberry bushes with earth, leaving the terminal branches to show through the banking. These will make roots during the summer. Divide them in the spring and plant in in three or four ye^rs, and produce a crop of late fruit of unusual size and good quantity and quality. A novelty in the line of currants is called the Chautauqua Climb- ing Currant, and is said to grow to the height of some twelve feet rows where cultivation is possible. Protect from Worms. Spray the currants and gooseberries just as soon as the blos- soms disappear, and thus destroy the first crop of worms which are quite sure to be followed by a destructive second crop a little later in the season. The currant worm usually begins the season's work on the gooseberry bushes which come into leaf very early in the spring. Spray them soon and often for this green worm is the greatest enemy of the currant and gooseberry, and will soon strip them of their leaves. A mild poison, applied when it cannot harm the fruit, will destroy them. The worms hatch early and are so small at first that great injury may be done before the enemy is noticed. It is well to spray the bushes before you notice the worms, as the proverbial ounce of prevention is worth a great deal in this case. Paris green or white powdered hellebore are both effective. If you have 100 bushes to dust, get 15 cents worth of hellebore and mix it with double its bulk of white flour. Put it into a cheescloth sack and dust the bushes by shaking it over them after sundown or very early in the morning, while the dew is on. Be sure to treat all parts of the bush alike. If there is no rain for a day or two, one good application will destroy all the worms. But if a shower hap- pens to wash off the poison before the worms have had time to eat it, it must be applied again. Paris green is used the same way, except that it is a stronger poi- son and must be diluted. One tablespoon of poison to. a quart of flour is strong enough. Many prefer to use the poison with water and apply it with a sprinkler. If used with water, allow two table- spoons of the hellebore and one of Paris green to a pail of water. Of course, in this form the poison may be applied at any time of day. Watch the bushes carefully and if another hatch of worms ap- 148 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING pears later, use the hellebore, for it is dangerous to use Paris green when the fruit is so nearly ripe. After the currants are all picked don't stop using the Paris green solution for the rest of the season. The currant worm has several broods a year, and they keep on working at the foliage until late in the year. Unless you try the ounce of prevention now you are likely to have no crop worth mentioning another season. Grapes. There is an increasing demand for home-grown grapes, and if a vineyard of an acre or two could be planted and tilled on every farm it would be a paying occupation. Grape vines are best planted in the spring, but they can be successfully started in the fall if the planting is done early and the vines carefully protected during their first win- ter. Grapes need a rich, strong soil and an abundance of moisture. Select a spot that has good surface drainage with a southern ex- posure. The ground should be thoroughly spaded up and prepared before planting, and cultivated and mulched often to keep the soil loose and mellow. Plant in rows 12 feet apart and 8 feet in the row, running north and south. This width allows of horse cultivation. Good varieties to plant are Campbell's Early Concord, Moore's Early, Worden, Janesville, Delaware, Agawam and Pocklington. Grape vines should be trained, if possible, on trellises. These trellises are best when made of coarse galvanized iron fence wire. Set the posts, which should be seven feet long, three feet in the ground, leaving four feet above. Set them four feet apart and screw small hooks into the posts. Straight wire, looped at both ends is fastened oyer the hooks and stretched from post to post. By this method the trellis of wire can be separated from the standards and laid down with the grape vine undisturbed. Cut back in the fall to two or three buds and cover up with leaves, hay or straw, six or eight inches deep. When the ground commences to freeze for winter, place brush or sticks on the covering to keep the wind from blowing it away. Dirt can be used where there is neither hay, leaves or straw. Uncover in the spring as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Three canes to one root are sufficient to insure fine grapes. New canes need attention right through the spring in order to keep them from becoming too tangled. Remove shoots that interfere with training, and if there are canes that have no fruit on them, or but a poor promise of fruit, remove these, unless you need them for next season's wood. Two clusters near the base of the cane are enough to save. Pinch ofif the tips of the canes beyond these, after they have reached two or three buds of growth ; except, as before, if you wish to keep for next season. When the present season's growth becomes firm layers can be made by bending down one or two of the lower shoots on each vine to a shallow trench made in the soil and placing a shovelful of earth over the cane where it comes in contact with the soil. The end of SMALLFRUITRAISING 149 the layered cane should be supported by a stake. A few incisions should be made in the cane where it touches the earth. Pruning Grapes. December is the best time to prune grape vines in a mild cli- mate. In almost any climate, in fact, the weather is colder in Febru- ary than in December. In March it is also apt to be severe occasion- ally, and later than that, the vines are likely to "bleed," if cut back as much as they ought to be. Grape vines ought to be cut back enough so that only a few eyes remain on a part of the new growth. If too much new growth is left on, some of the fruiting growth of the next year will be inferior and small. If the canes remaining are thriilty, the very few buds left will be ample for a good season fol- lowing the December cutting. It is also much easier to mulch largely after all the unnecessary growth is cut away. You are also saved a good deal of superfluous work if spraying is needed in early spring, or lye washing. Plow between the rows first, running the furrow as close to the vines as possible. Then prune, burn the refuse, and mulch with barnyard ma- nure. Use wood and coal ashes if you must, together, to kill out the grass. But if you can get your ashes separated use coal ashes alone. As to special varieties, your locality must determine, for you cannot raise California grapes in Minnesota. In our climate cover the vines with earth after the cutting and mulching, and then mulch with ma- nure or straw again if the vines are very exposed. In general it is safe to follow the rule for pruning that enough old wood must be left upon the plants to support the wood to be retained of the past season's development. The canes which will produce the grape crop next fall are those which develop from the dormant buds on this season's wood and from 25 to 40 are enough of these buds to retain. Remember, in pruning, that wood which has borne fruit once never bears again. The large canes are the same as the body to a fruit tree. It is the young wood that bears fruit. Bagging Grapes. When the grape berries are about as big as small peas they can be bagged. This process of inclosing the clusters in manila paper bags is not only a great preventive against insects and birds, but it keeps the fruit at a uniform temperature, so that it ripens earlier. Slit the bags in the center to about two inches and down the sides. These flaps are lapped over the cane above the cluster, with the leaf opposite the cluster protruding through the central slit. When arranged it is kept in place by pinning the flaps together. Grapes need abundant moisture at the roots. All farm stock lost by sickness or accidents should be buried near the grape vine trellises. Cutting and Layering. Grape cuttings are generally made in the autumn. They should consist of the firm, well ripe, new wood and be from 10 to 12 inches 150 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING long. Tie in small bundles. These bundles should be set in the ground or packed in boxes of sand in a cellar where a temperature of about 45 or 50 can be had ; set with the top end up and let them remain until spring. If wintered out in the ground they must be heavily mulched. In the spring the bundles should be placed in the greenhouse or hotbed for a few days, turned bottom up with three to five inches of soil over the butt end. The soil should be kept moist around them. They should remain in this position until they begin to show signs of growth. This will appear first at the butt end in the shape of a little ridge known as the callous, and it is from this ridge that the roots mostly develop. As soon as the little callous is well formed the cuttings should be planted, with all but the one upper bud under the surface of the soil, and thoroughly cultivated through the summer. Growing grapes from layers should be done early in the spring, using the new growth of the preceding year for this purpose. For laying down the original canes, dig a trench four inches deep, place the cane in the trench and cover it. Pack the soil very firm over the same. If thoroughly cultivated throughout the summer, it will be well rooted by autumn, and can be cut off from the parent vine and set out as a new plant. For mild climates cuttings of grapes may be made of the ripened wood in the late summer and planted directly in the ground. Cut first above a bud and have the cuttings of about three joints. Select a well drained and sheltered spot and plant the cuttings in rows three feet apart and six inches apart in the row. Plant so that the upper bud is just even with the soil surface and press the soil down firmly with the feet. As cold weather comes on cover these with at least six inches of leaves or straw. This must be taken oflf early in the spring and the bed cultivated through the summer. In the next fall the plants can be removed to their permanent places. Currants and gooseberries can be treated similarly. Insecticides. Conkey's Fly Knocker: An instant relief from the attacks of flies and other troublesome insects on horses and cattle. Flies not only carry disease germs from one animal to others, but sometimes drive cows and horses into a frenzy by their incessant attacks. Fly Knocker will drive pests away from the barn or other places where it is used. It may be applied very easily and at small expense by using the Excelsior Single Tube Sprayer. Fir Tree Oil Soap: A popular insecticide for use on trees and plants, both in the house and garden. Properly applied it is sure death to mealy bug, red spider, black and green aphis, caterpillar, worms, scale, thrip, blight and slugs. It is also valuable as a remedy for skin disease on animals and for destroying fleas and other insects. This soap is a saponification of Fir Tree Oil with other ingredients prepared in a special way, which produces a more effective and much cheaper article than the simple oil. One ounce makes one gallon of liquid. SMALL FRUIT RAISING 151 Formaldehyde: The loss to the farmers of the United States from Smut and other fungous diseases of wheat, barley, oats and other grains amounts to millions of dollars every year. The spores or seed of the fungus are on the seed grain which you plant ; when the grain sprouts and grows the fungus grows, too ; it follows up through the stalk into the blade and into the ear, and the result is blighted plant, smut grains and a diseased yield of inferior quality. The same holds true of Scab which has proved such a blight to the Irish potato crop. Can you afiford to use it? The price of a bushel of wheat ex- pended for Formaldehyde will add several bushels to the next harvest. It takes as much land and labor to raise a light crop as a heavy one. Tobacco Dust: For green and black aphis, fleas, beetles, etc. Splendid fertilizer and preventive for insects in the ground and around roots. Sulpho-Tobacco, Plant and Animal Soap. A sure, immediate and convenient exterminator of all insect life and vermin on plants, shrubbery, vines, small fruits and trees. Non-poisonous and absolutely safe to handle. It will not injure the tenderest growth. A powerful fertilizer, reviving plants wilted from the ravages of insects. For domestic purposes, it is valuable as an exterminator of moths, cockroaches, carpet bugs, etc. Dissolve about two ounces of soap to a gallon of warm or cold water. Apply liquid, when cold, with atomizer or common sprinkler. The most famous florists and growers constantly and extensively use Sulpho-Tobacco Plant and Animal Soap, with gratifying results. Stomach Poisons — For Chewing Insects. Paris Green. — Use 5 ounces to 50 gallons of water. Always add 1 pound of fresh burned lime. In small quantities use 1 heaping tea- spoonful to 3 gallons of water. Lead Arsenate. — Use 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water. In small quantities use 1 tablespoonful to 1 gallon of water. Lead arsenate sticks better than paris green and is more effective. Poisoned Bait. — Mix dry 1 peck of bran and 3 tablespoonfuls of paris green. Moisten the bran with sweetened water. Don't get it too wet. Distribute this in small amounts through your garden for cut-worms. Hellebore. — Mix 1 part hellebore with 3 parts flour, and keep in closed vessel over night. This may be used on vegetables or fruits that are about ready for the table. Hellebore may be steeped in water, 1 ounce to 1 quart of water, and sprayed on. Contact Poisons — For Sucking Insects. Lime Sulphur. — Slake 20 pounds of fresh burned lime. Add 15 pounds of sulphur. Boil in 25 gallons of water for one hour. Dilute to make 50 gallons. This is a winter spray only. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve 1 pound of hard soap in 2 gallons of hot water. Remove from fire and add 4 gallons of kerosene. At 152 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING once churn violently, until a creamy emulsion is formed. Dilute this with water so as to have 10 per cent, of kerosene oil in your spray for summer use, or 15 per cent, for winter use. Tobacco Water. — Cover tobacco stems with hot water. Allow to stand over night. Dilute the resulting liquor with 3 parts of water. Pyrethrum. — Mix with 3 parts of flour and keep in closed vessel for several hours. Soap Solution. — Use 1 pound of soap to 8 gallons of water. This will be found excellent for plant lice, scale on house plants, or for any of the soft-bodied insects. Whale Oil Soap. — For winter use dissolve 2 pounds in 1 gallon of water. For summer use dissolve 1 pound in 4 gallons of water. Bordeaux Mixture For Garden Plants. The copper sulphate of bordeaux mixture is dissolved by crush- ing it in a burlap bag and then hanging the bag and its contents in about three gallons of water several hours before the mixture is made. Of course this mixture is not to be advised for ornamental leaved plants, as spots follow for several weeks after use. Pick off from such all spotted and scarred leaves and burn them when blight and rust appear. This helps to keep down the spread of the disease. Often, by keeping the soil well cultivated and the plants very dry except for cultivation, you can cure the trouble without the mixture, especially if dry sulphur is sprinkled or blown on the leaves. Tobacco Thrip. — Experiments show that the common rose leaf insecticide, which is made of tobacco, will not destroy insects on the tobacco plant. These insects are accustomed to partaking of the plant, and no decoction made from it will have any material effect on them. It used to be thought that the insecticide was an effective remedy, especially for thrips. But several simple methods of over- coming the bothersome thrip may be followed with excellent success. One is to keep the ground perfectly clear of all catch crops between crops of tobacco. It has been found that the thrip will pass this period successfully on any of the common small grains and on many of the weeds. By keeping the field free from all of these its increase can be prevented. Another simple method is to keep a border of ten or fifteen feet on all sides of the field free from vegetation. This bor- der, however, may be planted to corn with nearly as satisfactory results. CHAPTER XI Xne Orchara THE writer has had a large experience and has come into con- tact with hundreds of people who have consulted him and asked for advice in regard to farming and fruit-raising. He finds about one in every hundred who thoroughly understands these two very important branches of industry. This is especially true of fruit-growing, for many intending or actual fruit growers seem to think that orchards will be a commercial success without any care save Nature's bounty. The future of fruit culture it is difficult to estimate just now, as so much depends upon how successfully the cold storage business is to be controlled. The danger from over-production of apple rais- ing, which is such a bugbear to so many people, need not deter any man from going into the business of apple culture. Fruit raising of all sorts is a money-getting occupation, if the fruit raiser can keep out of the hands of the speculators and so manage his crop that he sells on an advancing market. Small fruits must be sold at once, but the apple yield, of some sorts, is a product which can often be held back until late midwinter at a decided gain to the apple farmer. The demand for fruit in- creases every year, with a supply far behind it. There is hardly a farm in this country where fruit of some sort cannot be grown by an intelligent and industrious worker. Find out what sort of fruit is suited to your locality, or your own soil and then begin by trying its culture on some plot of your ground. By this method of going slowly at first you can give your fruit plot a fair chance without that anxiety that comes from putting all your eggs in one basket. Prof. H. J. Eustace gives some interesting figures on the mature orchards of western New York. One orchard of 11 acres, near Roch- ester, produced fruit in 1902 that sold for $3,588; in 1903, $4,400; in 1904, $1,944; in 1905, $3,681; in 1906, $2,627; and 1907, $4,200. A neighbor's orchard of mature trees brought in 1905, $4,278; in 1906, $4,464, and in 1907, $7,892. Another of 25 acres brought in 1905, $9,582; in 1906, $4,733, and in 1907, $11,080. The testimony of another eastern farmer is that "if every dis- couraged farmer of the present day who is in the temperate grain belt, would try planting ten acres of his best land to an apple orchard, in ten years he would be making daily trips to the ban-k to deposit dollars, instead of trying to borrow them. Each year's growth of the trees will also be adding hundreds of dollars to the value of the farm. The cost of the investment is small, and hardly any man is too old to try the constant, but not severe, labor of fruit raising." These are optimistic, but very probable views. 154 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Sites and Soils. Wherever practical, anticipate your planting of an orchard, of any sort, by two or three years, practicing a rotation of crops. Deep plowing cannot be done in bearing orchards, and the soil must be thoroughly prepared before you put in the spade to set your trees. Lime soils are a great help in fruit raising. In general a porous clay loam, tending toward sand, is the best, such a soil as maples, elms and lindens do well on. As to location, a hillside is a capital place, though plenty of good orchards on level land are found all over the States. Plants liable to be injured by sudden climatic changes ought never to be planted on a south or west slope, as the chances of frost upon a too early blooming must not be risked. This is very true of peaches and strawberries, which are early bloomers. On the other hand, high colored fruits ought not to have a northern or eastern slope. Steep hillsides are hard to cultivate ; therefore I rec- ommend a slight slope with a dififerent exposure for different varieties of fruit. For a stiff, heavy clay, green manure well spaded in will do a great deal to lighten the soil. You cannot work in the mulch too thoroughly and the rough ground should be cultivated again and again, until the soil is thoroughly pulverized. Don't work on such a soil when it is wet, and, if possible, let the broken ground go in the rough through the winter. Frost will powder it up better than hand cultivation often. For a sandy soil and small orchard, get a few loads of good soil to mix in with the sand ; thus treated a light sandy loam makes a good orchard soil. Four to six inches of good soil mixed with the same proportion of stable manure and thoroughly and deeply plowed in will insure a fine orchard. Corn is a good crop to plant when preparing orchard land. Deep plowing, turning under green manures, and the growing of such a crop insures the thorough preparation and after tillage which must be done in order to make your orchard a profitably bearing one. Methods of Planting. Apple orchards begin to bear in from three to seven years of the time of setting out. Apples and pears can both be planted in the fall. Get strong two-year-old trees for fall planting, however. Peaches and almost all stone fruits should be planted in the spring, as it is quite certain that a cold winter will kill most fall set stone fruit. But hardy fruits should be planted in the fall, and among these the cherry should be listed, as for some reason, spring plant- ing fails with this fruit. Get strong two-year-old stock of cherry trees and set in the fall as soon as the trees have dropped foliage. Sweet cherries need a great deal of room and must be planted twenty- five to thirty feet apart. These do not need so rich a soil as the sour cherry, which needs a heavy loam. Sour cherries can be set from sixteen to eighteen feet apart. In setting out apple and other fruit trees, dig holes three feet deep and three feet across. Fill in the bottom with fourteen inches THEORCHARD 155 of well rotted manure with two quarts of salt mixed through it. This helps to hold moisture. Tread down hard and firm and add six inches of good black soil. Set the tree on this. Fill in around the roots well with mellow, rich earth and to the top of the pit. Mulch above with coarse stable littering or straw — anything that the wind cannot blow away. Lime is a good fertilizer mixed with manure and well spaded in, as has been said previously. Directly after planting apply a thick mulching of well-rotted ma- nure. Small trees need this four feet in diameter. Four to ten inch trees need six to eight feet in diameter. One load of this dressing will be needed for a tree eight to ten inches in diameter or for four three- inch trees. It should be applied from six to eight inches in depth. Spade this mulching well into the ground the second day after plant- ing. Cultivate with a fork spade every ten days thereafter, but use great care not to disturb the roots of such newly set stock. Continue this through the fall as long as the ground can be turned, and begin again early in the spring, when the soil is full of moisture. This con- serves the water in the soil and prevents later dryness. When the first dressing has been well spaded in a second one should be given to retain moisture during the summer. Through any season of mulching, it must be well worked into the soil. In mulching see that the dressing circles out as far as the outside branches extend. Hoed crops in an old orchard do no harm, if well cultivated. In fact, some orchardists plant squashes and cultivate with two horses where the orchard is a large one. Dynamite In Orchard Planting. One of the most modern methods of orchard cultivation is that of the use of dynamite. In a recent issue of an eastern paper was an article showing the good results from planting trees with dynamite in an 800-acre orchard owned by the Missouri Valley Orchard Com- pany, near Neely, Kan. The methods w^ere practical and not danger- ous. With a two-inch auger a hole thirty inches deep is bored in the spot where a tree is to be planted. The depth of the hole depends largely upon the nature of the soil. The object is to penetrate into the "hardpan," a clay-like substance impervious to water and impene- trable to tree roots. Half a stick of especially adapted dynamite of comparatively low strength then is tamped into the hole and shot. The low power dynamite not only is less dangerous to handle, but instead of tearing a large "pocket" in the ground, as the higher power kind does, it merely loosens the ground downward through the "hardpan" and around it for a radius of eight or ten feet. The soil is barely lifted by the explosion. The ground now is ready for planting the tree. The "hardpan" has been broken so the moisture from below can nourish the roots of the young tfee — a great advantage in dry weather — and the soil above the "hardpan" has been loosened more thoroughly than would have been possible with any amount of plowing or digging. The cost for each tree planted in this manner averages about three cents. Tests, it is said, show that trees planted with dynamite 156 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING make an advancement of about two years in growth and fruiting over those planted by the old method. Varieties. Plant trees adapted to your own locality, eastern grown for the East and western jfor the West. Occasionally try a new variety ; but a variety not adapted to the climate in which it is to grow is likely to be short lived with small yields, and difficult to grow at the best. An eastern apple grower has given me the following list as likely to secure the best results for eastern sections : Summer varieties, Oldenburg, Gravenstein and Red Astrachan ; fall varieties, Maiden Blush, Fall Pippin, Wealthy and Northern Spy ; winter varieties, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, York Im- perial, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Tompkins King, Stark and Ben Davis. Of these he recommends the Baldwin and the Rhode Island Greening as the best. In the Northwest, however, for a commercial orchard, a practical fruit grower gives this plan, which I copy verbatim, for setting out an acre of trees : In the spring run 6 rows parallel with the front of the orchard, 15 feet apart, then 6 more rows, 20 feet apart, and 10 transverse rows, 20 feet apart. On one side take 6 rows for plums, on the other, 6 rows for crabs ; the 6 rows in the rear being for standard apples. Of plums plant DeSota, 4; Weaver, 2; Rollingstone, 3; Cheney, 3; Aitkin, 3; Wolf, 3; Wyant, 4; Forest Garden, 2; Surprise, 6; making 5 rows in front, with 6 in each row. Of crabs, plant Martha, 4; Minnesota, 2; Whitney, 4; Gideon's No. 5, 2; Virginia, 3; Lyman's Prolific, 3; Early Strawberry, 2; Florence, 4; Darit, 2, and Compass cherry, 4; making 5 more rows of 6 each. That will leave six rows across the rear of the orchard for apples. In these plant Longfield, 3; Malinda, 3; in first row; Northwestern Greening, 6; Duchess of Borovinka, 6; Wealthy, 12; Okabena, 6; Patten's Green- ing, 3; Peerless, 3; McMahon, 2; Wolf River, 2; Blushed Calville, 2 ; Hibernal, 3 ; Charlamoff, 3 ; Yellow Transparent, 2 ; Repka Ma- lenka, 2 ; Anisim, 2. Distance Apart. As regard the distance apart of these trees, I think, from my own experience, that different fruit trees require diflferent distances ; and I incline to the latest method of thirty to forty feet apart, for apples each way according to variety ; dwarf apples, ten to fourteen feet ; pears, twenty to twenty-eight feet ; dwarf pears, ten to fourteen feet ; sweet cherries, twenty-five to thirty feet ; sour cherries, eighteen to twenty feet ; quinces, ten to fourteen feet. In a small home garden the minimum distance may be used. For this purpose the varieties of dwarf trees are best. If set in the fall ten feet apart, or in any of the unoccupied places about the grounds and outbuildings, the amateur fruit grower can get a liberal training in fruit raising of the hardier sorts, and at the same time beautify his THEORCHARD 157 homestead. If such trees are set in a favorable location, with rich soil, and well watered and cultivated, they will grow four times as fast as in an orchard, and in the satisfaction of learning how to make fruit raising pay they will prove invaluable to the doubting Thomases of this business. But they must be treated right and never neglected, in order to give a fair trial. Transplanting. Rainy days are the best for transplanting trees and vines. But I have transplanted in June and July in exposed places with good results, by mulching heavily with straw or hay from five to six inches deep and about four feet in diameter around vines and shrub- bery, and watering every eighth evening. I have transplanted three year old grape vines, canes nine to twelve feet long and in full leaf in the middle of July, when no trimming or cane cutting could be done. Two-inch elm and linden trees in full leaf were also transplanted the eighth of June. These all lived and made good growth. Great care must be taken to shade shrubbery and vines through the day, how- ever, for from two to three weeks after late transplanting. This sun- shade must not lie on the plants, but be lifted to leave an air space of from two to four feet. The same method of protection by a cov- ering which leaves an ample air chamber will often preserve flower beds and shrubs in bloom after frosts until late in the fall. Propagation. As a general rule, the seeds of fruit are of little or no value in the production of new plants, unless the seedling trees are budded or grafted. This is especially true of seedlings from peach tree pits. Cions for grafting are best cut in October or November, according to the locality. Cut them to three or four bud lengths, tie the varie- ties in bundles, label, and bury in boxes of sand until time for spring use. If one wishes to get nursery plants, a few dollars will get enough apple trees to plant an acre. If these are set out with the care directed here, and all the hardy ones planted in the fall when farmers have the most time for this detail work, they will, in a few years, get ten times as much profit from one acre as they could from corn or potatoes. But if any one insists upon experimenting with seeds, plant apple seeds in sandy soil, in the fall, in a well drained plot, where ice will not form. Mulch with leaves heavily, putting fence brush above. Remove the brush in the spring. The seedling usually needs no protection. If, as a further experiment, you wish to plant the peach pits, dig up the soil deeply in a fertile portion of the grounds and plant the pits singly three inches deep in the fall. Next spring the seedlings will appear and if the trees stand far enough apart they can grow unmolested until bearing begins, requiring only to be pruned, cul- tivated and fertilized annually. If it is not convenient to plant the pits in the fall they may be held over until next spring in a box of damp earth. 158 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING As a rule, Winesaps, Spitzenbergs, and Bellflowers are sterile when planted alone; likewise Susquehanna peaches and Kiefer, Bart- lett and Angouleme pears. But Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, Ben Davis and Fallwater apples, Lawrence and Seckel pears and green gage plums do not need fertilizing. Certain fruit trees are sterile when isolated. For this reason bee-keeping is a valuable factor in fruit raising, as the bee distributes the pollen of the blos- som. It must be remembered, however, that scarcely one fruit blos- som in ten sets fruit, even in the most favorable conditions, and where the trees are of the most productive varieties. Cultivation. Cultivating and fertilizing next become the two most necessary- labors. Haul on the orchard land from fifteen to twenty-five loads of barnyard manure, spread it all over the ground, and plow it into the soil late in the fall or very early in the spring. Cultivate once a week until the fruit is harvested. The writer tried this in the summer of 1910, when there was scarcely any rain. He found that there was plenty of moisture, even more at the end of the three months than when he began mulching. For any one to become a scientific fruit grower, he must under- stand this fact of conservation of moisture. In caring for our or- chards in the past, we have put ofif too long the cultivation of them after heavy or excessive rains. The best horticulturists now agree that cultivation of the orchard should be begun, in all kinds of fruit orchards, from 12 to 24 hours after a heavy rainfall, or as soon as the water has settled into the ground. Deep cultivation, from 4 to 6 inches in depth, will conserve the greatest amount of moisture. Dur- ing the rainy season the ground must be cultivated in order to make ample reservoirs to hold the water during the dry part of the season. For ten days during the entire season, in long bearing orchards, where the limbs of the tree are too near the ground to be cultivated with horses, the ground should be well spaded with a forked spade, and should be heavily mulched. If you wish to get the largest re- turns from your fruit orchard cultivate and spray thoroughly through- out the entire season. Mulching Early a Protection From Too Early Blooms. Early mulching is a sure preventive of the too early blos- soming of fruit trees. In the Northwest the best time to mulch fruit trees is about the first of January. Straw, horse stable litter, and wild grass hay all make very good mulching for fruit trees. The object is to keep the frost in the ground and among the roots of the fruit trees and thereby keep the tree from budding too early. If the mulching to be used is dry, light stuff, cover the ground around the fruit tree from 12 to 16 inches deep. If, on the other hand, the mulching to be used is wet or partly rotted, cover the ground around the fruit tree only from 8 to 12 inches. Cover all the ground to the same depth under the head of the tree, varying according to the size of the tree's head, probably from 12 to 20 feet in circumference. THEORCHARD 159 This mulching will keep the frost in the ground around the fruit tree from two to three weeks later in the spring. We find often in the valleys that the fruit crop is lost from the late spring frosts. By mulching heavily we keep the fruit buds back until the late cold rains and frosty nights have passed over. A long, cold, rainy time with an east wind, when the fruit trees are in bloom, is ruinous to the fruit crop. No mulching should be removed from the fruit orchard in the spring, but should be left to rot and retain the mois- ture in time of drought. Cover Crops. Cropping a fruit orchard in some localities, often results in more and better fruit, while the labor is greatly lessened. For an orchard which has been in bearing many years, this is specially true. Seeded down to clover the sod mulching conserves moisture and enriches the soil. By the middle or last of July in average climates, any cultivation should end. Cultivate often during the last weeks of this period, getting at least five or six workings in the last three. Then put on a cover crop of the crimson clover, to be sown not later than the middle of August. If there are any hollow places near the fruit trees, either fill up or arrange a ditch to drain off surplus water. Anything of this nature must be kept away from fruit trees in the winter. In the spring plow up the cover crop. If it can be en- riched by stable manure late in the fall, so much the better for the trees. Follow the plowing by harrowing, and keep this up by the spike-toothed harrows after rains and at least every ten days between rains. If an orchard is to be pastured for pigs, calves or sheep the trees must be enclosed. Set four short posts around each tree. Upon these, boards can be nailed, or barb wire wound on the outside. Set the posts about four feet from the body of the tree and about three feet above ground. Only bearing orchards should be sown to a cover crop, and clover is the best for this purpose. Pigs pastured in this way will eat up the windfalls, which are excellent for stock ; in fact, the bearing farm orchard is unexcelled for a pig pasture. Twice a week during the fruit maturing season the trees must be carefully gone over and the ripe fruits picked. Apples, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, ripen their fruit at different periods, and of each of these the products mature at difTerent times. Pruning Trees. The orchardist, whether he is growing fruit for pleasure or as a commercial venture, must begin his pruning with the first year of planting. Get the main branches formed at once — "not less than three nor more than five" — and radiating out from the stem at dif- ferent heights around it, like wheel spokes. Three branches from each of these main branches, and three twigs upon each branch is a safe rule to follow. This frame work makes the foundation principle of all later growth and later pruning, making due allowance for the varying 160 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING growth habits of varieties of fruit. As a rule heavy pruning is not wanted ; but annual, even attention to each year's growth does not need heavy pruning. If a tree is weak, or diseased, it is advisable to prune the top heavily while it is dormant, as each cutting back will give the top growth new life, and often restore the tree to vigor and health. Trees in normal condition need only the removal of suckers and superfluous twigs and branches after they begin to bear. Shape the tree before bearing. If the trees set out are only one year old, the side branches are weak. These should be removed and the main stem cut back to the point where the tree is to form its head. If they are two years old, cut away all but the main branches already mentioned, and cut these back to three bud stubs, possibly four. General Directions. The Colorado experiment station gives the following general di- rections for pruning: 1. Prune to modify the vigor of the trees, giving it less top to support, allowing the sap to flow into the remaining branches. 2. Prune to produce larger fruit than could be produced if the vital forces of the tree were divided among a greater number of branches. 3. Prune to give the trees desirable shape. 4. Prune in summer to change the trees from wood-bearing to fruit-bearing. The best time to prune such fruit trees as apple, plum and cherry, is after the frost is out of the ground in the spring and before the tree blooms. All fruit trees should be pruned so as to keep the head of the trees as close to the ground as possible, and thus protect it from the hot suns. In the northwest there should not be removed from the trunk of any fruit tree any green, thrifty limbs. From the top of the head of the trees there should be cut back one-third of last year's growth, and also some of the little twigs in and around the center, so that the sun can shine in on the growing tree and fruit, which will improve its flavor. Shade always impairs the flavor of the fruit. All fruit growers, though, do not agree as to the time of tree pruning. In Iowa it is the habit of some farmers and fruit raisers to do pruning when the tree is in full bloom. They claim that by trim- ming then, the location of the blossoms is a help in pruning so that a tree will bear fruit more evenly. Apple, Fear, Cherry and Quince. Apple, pear and quince trees can also be pruned early in the fall. The apple fruit grows on twigs that are, at least, three years old, and care must be taken in pruning not to confuse these with the non-bear- ing branches ; as only a small part of the bearing wood should be cut each year. Regular yearly pruning is specially needed in apple or- chards, whether large or small, as this tree develops very rankly, and too much wood is formed at the expense of fruit. With a young ■- -fM-'Mn' b£ THE ORCHARD 161 apple tree leave from three to five main branches radiating at different points from the trunk. This central head should begin not less than three feet from the ground nor more than about four and a half feet. Keep this form for the tree until the time for bearing comes, seeing to it that the branches are evenly distributed, cutting back the lead- ing shoots so that the tree will not grow too high, and that the head may be kept full and bushy, without interfering with the admission of plenty of air, light and sunshine to the top. Keeping the trees low and open is also necessary to help spraying and harvesting. Mod- erate pruning every year, done in this way, will reduce greatly the need for excessive pruning after the tree begins bearing. Pear trees are pruned in about the same manner, except that, in pruning the young tree, head it about one foot lower. The pear's nat- ural habit is to grow tall and spindling. Prune this tree so that it will spread out and the inside growth will not be dense. Cut the main branches back annually to an outside bud, as the last bud left should point in the direction to which you want the tree to grow. If the bud is left on the outside of the pruned branches, this will send the new growth outward. Cherry trees, also, are likely to grow tall, unless the spreading habit is enforced by severe and annual pruning. After a broad and open top is produced, however, the orchard needs but little pruning. Wood two or more years old produces cherries. Keep the young tree down to three or four main branches, set at different points along the stem, and heading out about four feet from the ground. Bearing trees need chiefly such pruning as will keep the head open to light and air, and remove all dead or broken branches. Cherry trees left to grow as they will, reach fifty feet or more often. Head quince trees low, from fifteen inches to two feet from the ground. Leave four or five main branches. Quinces grow at the ends of shoots two or more years old. Head back leading shoots after they reach two feet. Peaches. Peaches produce their fruit on wood of the previous season's growth. When you are pruning bearing trees cut back such shoots, late in March or early in April, about one-third or one-half. This thins out the fruit buds enough, but not so much as to minimize the crop. By following this process the bearing wood for the next sea- son's crop is much better assured in plenty. Of course, before begin- ning the pruning of the bearing shoots, all the dead wood must first be cut away, and also the interlocking limbs. A peach tree grows out chiefly from the tips of the branches, and is likely to get a straggly, untidy habit of growth if not kept well headed in and its inside branches cut out annually. In starting the young tree leave the main branches not much more than eighteen inches long and from eighteen to twenty-four inches high. Later pruning will be decided by the habit of growth of the peach trees you have. Some peach trees grow in pyramid form, that is, with one central branch from the ground to the top, 162 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING and main branches growing- out as laterals. This kind of a tree can be pruned more severely than the other, or vase-form, where from a short main trunk several branches come out and grow upright. With this form, which is the most desirable, pruning of the main branches is likely to do great harm after the first year. Get your tree headed as low as possible the first year of setting out, and then prune to keep the tree open and spreading. Plums. Plum trees do not need so much pruning as some others. For young trees follow about the same method as for the peach. The plum tree, which grows upright, should be kept headed back and the main branches pruned to a bud pointing outside. There is a variety which grows out in a scattering fashion. The main branches of these trees must be pruned to an inside bud, or one that points inside. Some plums bear fruit on wood of two years' growth. Others are like the peach, with bearing wood of but a season's growth. If your plum trees are of but one variety, it will be best to plant trees of another kind among them, as some plum trees must be pol- lenized from other varieties. Take great care that plum trees don't grow too much to wood. If you find they do not bear when the proper time comes for bearing, try giving a good stifT dose of prun- ing, and leave it with the present season's growth one-third cut away. Sometimes plums have a way of bearing so heavily that they suffer for several seasons. Care must be taken in pruning that a tree of this habit is carefully pruned as to fruit buds in the early season. Pruning Tools. The proper pruning tools are : two shears, one for hand work and the other a pole shears, for work on the upper branches; two saws, large and small, or a pruning saw in place of the small saw; a chisel, ladder and rope. The cut should be made close to the parent stem or twig, and no stubs left. A close cut gets the full benefit of the mount- ing trunk sap, which heals the wound before disease germs can get in their work. As a sure prevention, however, it is best to paint over all large cuts with lead paint of the right tint. Cut smooth and use the chisel for smoothing off. Lead, yellow ochre, coal tar and grafting wax are all good cover- ings for cut surfaces. Anything which is not corrosive or hurtful to growth and which will keep the heartwood from rot spores is good. Making Over Old Orchards. The following method of making old trees new has been prac- ticed by Mr. Vescelius, an Iowa fruit grower, who says he regener- ated his orchard of 600 apple and peach trees by the process ; so much so that in the fall they were overweighted by their load of fine fruit: "When the frost is well out of the ground and the weather is warm," he says, "remove all the dirt from about the trees down to the roots for about three feet around the trunk of the trees, and leave the top part of the roots bare for about three days. Then hoe all the T H E O R C H A R D 163 dirt back again, which will leave it some higher close to the body of the trees. "In this time that the roots are bare you will see them turn from a dark to a pink color. You will also find that your trees will be full of good, healthy blossoms and later they will be loaded with fine, healthy fruit, all smooth and nice and of a much finer flavor than be- fore. It will surprise you to see the increase in the amount of fruit and improvement in the quality." The question of declining apple orchards has been one which has been taken up in a scientific manner in Germany, and the German papers have been giving a good deal of attention to the matter. A brief outline of some of their experiments shows that commercial fer- tilizers were heavily applied. Of five long rows of apple trees, one row was left untreated and the four others had different combinations of manurings. The row left unmanured gave 104 pounds of apples per tree during the five years from 1900 to 1904, both inclusive, and in the fifth year (1904), which was the year of maximum yield for the entire orchard, the weight of the apples per tree was 55 pounds and the number 294. The best results from manuring were obtained by a complete manure, consisting of lyi pounds of sulphate of ammonia, 1^ pounds of muri- ate of potash, 3^2 pounds of basic slag per tree per annum, applied to the roots during the winter. During the five years the yield per tree from this dressing was 163 pounds of apples, while by the fifth year the bearing increased to 401 apples, weighing 105 pounds per tree — that is, the weight of the apples per tree increased by this manuring from 55 pounds on the unmanured trees to 105 on the manured trees, or 90.9 per cent; while the number of apples increased from 294 to 401 per tree, or 36 per cent. The increase in the average size of the apples is remarkable. Those from the unmanured trees averaged 2.98 ounces each, and those from the manured 4.19 ounces each. In a corresponding experiment with pears (Josephine de Ma- lines) similar results were obtained with a dressing consisting of 3 pounds of nitrate of soda, 2% pounds of muriate of potash, and 5 pounds of basic slag per tree. In 1904 the yield was 14^ pounds per tree from the unmanured trees and 80^ pounds per tree from those manured with the mixture. How to Top-Graft An Unprofitable Orchard. From "Garden and Farm Almanac" There is a peculiar fascination for most men in the idea of mak- ing over an old orchard by top-working with some better sort and changing the varieties of an unprofitable orchard into something palatable and paying. Contrary to the notion of many, there is noth- ing especially difficult or mysterious in the process, and any enter- prising man can do it for himself. Grafting is done preferably while the tree is dormant, just before the growth starts in the spring. The stubs to be grafted should be from an inch to three inches in diameter. One and a half to two inches is best. Cut the stubs off with a sharp saw. Cut them from all parts of the tree so that after the grafts are 164 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING growing and all other branches have been removed the tree will have a shapely and well-balanced top. In preparing the tree for top-graft- ing it is well to leave some branches untouched to supply foliage till the grafts are started. Aside from the pruning saw, the tools needed are a mallet and a grafting knife. Grafting knives are commonly sold by nurserymen, or if you prefer you can have the blacksmith make one for you of an old file. The blade has a heavy back so that it can be driven into stubs to split them ; a hook is commonly made upon one end for convenience in handling. On the other end is a narrow wedge for holding the stub open while the cions are inserted. Be careful not to split the stub down farther than necessary to receive the cions. Cions for top-grafting should be dormant. It is well to cut them the previous autumn and store them in a cool place which is not too dry. One of the best ways to keep cions is to pack them in layers in a box of sand in the cellar. Let the sand be slightly moist, just enough so that the cions won't shrivel. Always cut shoots for cions from the end of bearing wood. The cions must be of last year's growth, never older. Do not use water-sprouts, because the buds are not well developed and they are not so likely to grow into good bear- ing wood. The cions should be cut from four to six inches long and after a little practice, may be shaved properly with two quick strokes of a sharp knife. Make them in the shape of a wedge with about an inch to an inch and a half taper, having one side thick and the other thin. At the top of the wedge on the thick side leave two buds. Two cions are usually put in each stub, one on each side unless it be too small. The stub heals over better in this way and there is greater certainty of getting a successful graft. When they are inserted the cions are leaned apart slightly so that there is more likelihood of the cambium layer (the part of the bark where the growth takes place) of stock and cion touching. The best size for the cion depends some- what upon the size of the stub, a quarter of an inch in diameter being an average size. They should be pushed firmly in. Subsequent Treatment. After the cions are properly inserted, knock out the wedge of the grafting knife, which has held the split of this stub open, and cover all the crack carefully with good grafting wax. This should be pre- pared beforehand and must be warm enough to work easily in the hand. The hands are thoroughly greased to prevent its sticking. There are many formulae for making grafting wax. The following, one of the best, is recommended by Fletcher: "Rosin, four parts; beeswax, two parts ; tallow, one part, all by weight. Break all the material into small pieces and melt together. When all melted and thoroughly mixed, pour the hot mixture into a pail of cold water. When it is hard enough to handle, grease the hands with hard tallow or cheap vaseline, and pull it until it becomes light colored like mo- lasses candy. Be sure that the rosin is all melted and do not have it appear as little lumps in the completed wax." For use in cold weather, when the above will not work, take 6 T H E O R C H A R D 165 pounds rosin, 1 pound beeswax, and 1 pint linseed oil; apply this hot all over the joints with a brush. It should be put on one-eighth of an inch thick. For use in warm weather the following- is used : 4 pounds of rosin, 1 pound of beeswax, anrl from half a pint to a pint of raw lin- seed oil. Melt all together, gradually turn it into cold water and pull. The linseed oil should be entirely free from cotton-seed oil. The waxing is an important part of the operation and must be thoroughly done. Wax the cracks in the stub first, then cover the top of it carefully, about the base of the cions. Put a little on the end of the cions to prevent drying out. Don't be afraid of using too much wax, as the life of the cions and the success of the grafting depends upon keeping out all water. Spread the wax on the joint about ^-inch thick. When this has been spread evenly over the joints a stout cotton bandage should be applied and tied or sewed with a strong cord. A sack needle is good to use if sewing. The object of the wax is to keep the joint from drying out and giving them the best condition under which to unite. The bandage prevents the sun from melting the wax. The following summer if both grafts on a stub have started to grow, the weaker should be removed. Neglect of this often destroys the usefulness of both cions by too close crowding. At the same time the remaining branches of the original stock may be removed, so that all the strength of the tree will go to developing the grafts. With a little practice every fruit grower can successfully do his own top-grafting. If he prefers, however, to hire it done, he should at least cut and prepare his own cions and not run the risk of getting water-sprouts or undesirable varieties frorn. a professional "grafter." A successfully top-grafted orchard will be bearing good crops of its new sorts in three or four years after grafting. Danger from Early Frosts. The danger from early frosts to the commercial orchard has been such a serious matter in the past few seasons that several western fruit growers are reported, in the daily press, to have installed oil stoves in large orchards. The latest of these reports is that a fruit grower of Hutchinson, Kansas, has ordered thirty oil stoves per acre for his orchard of 600 acres. The stoves hold ten gallons of oil apiece. If any reader doubts this let him write to W. H. Underwood, of Hutchinson, Kansas, to verify it, as I do not vouch for the truth of the tale. Mr. C. E. Mincer, of Hamburg, Iowa, circumvented the late frost of the spring of 1910 by placing oil and wood heaters through twelve acres of his orchard where his best trees were growing, when frost was predicted. He kept these at work for five days, and saved a crop of 6,000 bushels from his twelve acres. A common plan is to build fires or smudges at frequent intervals through an orchard, thereby creating a dense cloud of smoke, which hangs over the orchard and blankets it. These fires may be made of 166 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING any suitable material that is at hand, or special orchard heaters may- be purchased. Several makes are now on the market. It is important that the fires be rather small in size and distrib- uted at frequent intervals. This is because it is undesirable to create a heavy and strong draft such as a large fire gives rise to, since this draft will carry away to the upper atmosphere the heat and smoke that is needed next to the earth. Some orchardists have followed the plan of using bags of manure to create a smudge. The manure is tightly packed into the bags and these are distributed through the orchard so as to be ready for use if needed. When frost threatens kerosene is poured on the bag and it is set on fire. It will burn slowly, giving off a dense smoke and adding moisture to the air, which will assist in forming an effective blanket. Insect Pests and Diseases. Three hundred million dollars is estimated to be the annual loss to this country from insect pests of various sorts. Yet out of seventy- five important insects, only two, the Colorado potato bug and the chinch bug, are native. The rest have been brought to this country in various ways, but chiefly on plants. These insect pests are of two general classes — the chewing in- sects and the sucking ones. Chewing insects can be fought very easily by coating the foliage or any infected part with poison, such as paris green, london purple, etc. These contain arsenic, which the insect takes as it chews along the plant or leaf. Get on your poison early, when the foe is due to appear, and you will have little serious trouble. The main thing is to be on the ground first. But with the sucking insects you cannot leave your trap for them to fall into. It is a hand to hand battle. In general it is safe to say that insect pests can be controlled in one way or another. But so long as there is plant life there will be insect life that will live on the plants. And new pests are continually coming up. We can hold these in check by constant vigilance, but we can't rout them utterly or exterminate them. The orchardist, especially, must make up his mind that to fight insect pests and fruit tree diseases is as much a part of his yearly program as it is to culti- vate his orchard grounds, prune his trees, and pick his fruit harvests. Certainly he will have slim harvests to pick if he does not accept this hard fact and adapt his every twelve months of culture to that view, beginning with the first year of planting. Whether by arsenical spray, the oil solution, the lime-sulphur treatment, hand picking of bugs, cutting out infested parts and destroying them, or burning col- onies or webs by lighted torches or poles, the battle is always going on somewhere. San Jose Scale. The San Jose scale is a sucking insect, and as it multiplies rap- idly, it becomes a great drain on the fruit tree's vitality in a very short time. Growth stops perceptibly, the limbs begin to die at the tips, and unless spraying is immediately and thoroughly practiced the tree dies. Look carefullv after the new growths or twigs to see if the THEORCHARD 167 scale has made its appearance. If there is the slightest indication, spray with either the kerosene-soap solution or the lime-sulphur mix- ture. The soluble oils now on the market can be bought in readiness for solution in water. In fact, don't wait to look for the scale, as it is so small, only one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, that it may not be discovered until too late. Spray anyhow, on the principle of the ounce of prevention. It is a good plan to do this while the trees are dormj^nt. The young scale insects can be destroyed by the kerosene emul- sion before they secrete a scale. The lime-sulphur washes, used when the trees are dormant, will kill the adult scale, but as the kerosene emulsion must be used with great care, so that it comes in contact with each scale, the vigorous use of both sprays in the dormant sea- son is specially advised. If you have only a few trees it is best to buy the stock solution of both oil and sulphur mixture. For a large orchard the lime-sulphur mixture may be made by the recipe which will be found below. Two sprayings are best — one early in the spring, before buds swell, and one in fall after leaves drop. The small orchardist, however, is the man who is most apt to neglect the matter of spraying; and he is the one, therefore, who is most to be prodded up as to the absolute necessity for spraying for the San Jose scale. Fortunately this question is being made a matter of necessity and orchard owners are finding that they cannot continue to let even a few scale increase by lack of proper care and preven- tion. In California the scale is now practically exterminated, but it has spread to other localities, and it will soon be as much of a pest in the middle west and the east unless it is met with just as vigorous warfare as on the Pacific coast ; where, beside the spraying method, entomologists set to work to find the native home of the insect, and then import its natural enemy from Australia — the ladybird bettle. Spray Formulas. Lime-sulphur solution. Small quantity : Place five or six gallons of water in a large iron pot and heat it to the boiling point. Add twenty-two pounds of the best stone lime obtainable and seventeen pounds of sulphur made into a paste. Boil this mixture until it turns to a deep red color, which usually requires from three-quarters to an hour of rapid boiling. Keep stirring the solution all the time it is cooking, and when properly cooked add suffi- cient water to make fifty gallons in all. Strain it into the spray bar- rel and apply while hot. Another recipe. Large quantities : 50 lbs. lime, 50 lbs. sulphur, 50 lbs. salt. Water enough to make 150 gallons of the wash. Boil this mixture an hour and a quarter, strain through three thicknesses of fine screen mosquito wire netting. Take the strainer off_ the bottom of the pump and wrap up this end of the pump with some kind of screen wire of four or five thicknesses. This will keep the pump from clogging with fine lime. Then use a nozzle with a hole about as large as the point of a lead pencil, not too small, and drench the trees well while in a dormant state. This wash 168 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING is cheap, and there is no danger to trees and buds if used at that period. The liquid can be applied warm or cold. The insects are killed as soon as the wash touches them, either by the burning of the caustic fluid or by closing up their breathing pores with the oil solu- tion. The heavy ingredients also form a crust on the bark, prevent- ing the normal development of the young insects. It is wise, while spraying, to keep at hand a quantity of grease free from salt, to use in case of personal accident from the lime-sulphur spray. Also grease the face, hands and inside of the gloves with this. The driver should be well protected and the horses blanketed. Use rubbers also and look out well for the face and hands. Hibernating insects in fruit and ornamental trees may be treated by a carbolic and soap wash made of one pint crude carbolic acid, one quart of soft soap, and two gallons of hot water thoroughly mixed. Soda and whale oil soap wash is made in the proportion of five pounds of sal soda to five gallons of water, heated to a boil, and one quart of whale oil soap then added. Apply at about 120 degrees of tempera- ture. A very simple treatment is a pound of washing soda to two pails of water. Where the trees have a rough bark, scrape first, either with a hoe, pr a tree scraper. This removes the shaggy bark and the trunks and large branches can then be treated either by a wide brush or broom or the spray pump. Do this while they are in the dormant period. Other Remedies and Preventions. My method of preventive treatment for tree girdling by mice is to move back the mulching from the body of the trees from six to eight inches. If there should be a heavy fall of snow this could be banked up and trodded down hard. In case trees have already been girdled, bank them with earth as soon as possible, and when the grafting season comes on bridge over the girdled spots with cions such as are usually used in grafting, and cover again with banked earth. I have seen the strychnine method used for getting rid of both mice and rabbits, and corn kernels soaked in a solution of strychnine and water for twenty-four hours, scattering a few around each tree, are no doubt efifectual. But as this method suggests other results than the killing of pests it might not be advisable to recommend it for general use. Probably the best method as a prevention for rab- bits is to trap and snare them. Heavy building paper wrapped around the lower trunk to the height of eighteen inches and held in place by two ties of pliable wire will keep away mice ; or a wire screen can be used. Rabbits do their worst work when the snow is deep and they can reach the branches. Tar paper is not so good for tree protectors to keep mice and rab- bits away as lighter colored paper. The dark color absorbs heat. Use light colored building paper, old newspapers, or burlap. Burn brush heaps and any old rubbish that will harbor rabbits and keep the o- chard free from weeds. Live stock inside of the orchard in winter are worse than the rabbits, for they will eat the limbs. A thick white- wash is good to keep away both rabbits and borers. THEORCHARD 169 Wire cloth 18 inches high makes a good protection for fruit trees. Dip it in oil before placin<^ as a protection against rust through the winter. However, the safest rabbit around fruit trees is a dead rabbit. Blight in Pear and Apple Trees. One remedy for blight in pear trees is said to have been found reliable after several years' experience. This is to cut all the dead limbs off, then with a sharp knife, score all the trees around deeply as high as can be reached from the ground. The late Prof. Samuel B. Green wrote a brief summary once as to the cause of this disease in both pear and apple trees. I have given considerable space here to his article, which appeared in the N. W. Agriculturist a few years ago. Prof. Green said : "Mr. Webber, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has made as careful a study of this subject as any one, and not long ago he pre- sented his conclusions at a meeting of the American Pomological So- ciety. At that time he claimed that he believed the trouble was caused by a disease, a special organism. This organism lived over in the wood, which was killed by the disease in the summer, and produced sticky spore masses which oozed out from the pustules in the diseased wood in the spring. Insects were attracted to it by its sweet taste and carried the spores on their feet, or other portions of their body, to the trees, and when these germs reached portions of the trees that were very suscptible, as on the new growth, or on the trunk where it is cracked, they soon started and grew into the tissue of the trees. "In proof of this theory he showed that trees that were screened by a fine wire netting so that insects could not reach them were en- tirely exempt from blight, although they were kinds that were liable to this disease and were growing in orchards where all the other trees of the same kind were injured by it. In further proof of this he took the contents of the nectar carrying glands out of a honey bee that had been working near blighted trees and with the contents of these glands he inoculated healthy trees and produced the disease. But other insects besides honey bees also carry this disease. It seems to me that the case is pretty well made out in favor of the theory of this blight being produced by disease germs. "The question of the treatment is the next point. It is probable that if it were possible to cover all the blighted tissue of apple trees with thick Bordeaux mixture the disease would not be spread by in- sects. It is found in practice, however, that little in the way of a pre- vention of this disease can come from the use of fungicides, and the most practical remedy seems to be to cut out and burn the diseased tissue some time during the summer. This removes the diseased wood and so leaves nothing for the production of spores to infect the orchard in the spring. I have personally seen very excellent results come from this treatment, where orchards were somewhat isolated and the infection could not come from near-by orchards that are un- •cared for. "In this connection it should be noted that there is quite a differ- 170 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING ence in the immunity of different varieties to this disease, and we should aim to plant those that are most resistent to it. Then, too, we find that trees making an extremely rapid growth are more liable to it than those grown in a rather inferior soil, and this leads to the point that we should be careful about forcing a very rapid growth on our trees." Lime and salt mixed with stable manure makes a good preventive of orchard blight. Mix separately : two to four quarts of the barrel salt to a load of manure, thoroughly mixed when taken from the stable. Then add one bushel of air-slacked lime to the load. How Fruit Bearing Trees Should Be Pruned in the Northwest. A very important consideration is not to cut off any limbs that act as a protection against sun scald on the trunk. Leave all limbs low as the fruit can be more easily reached. Trim out in the top and keep thin enough to let in the sun. Cut off all stubs and dead limbs. They are a menace to the living parts as they harbor disease and parasites. Cut the limb close to the main trunk or limb and paint to prevent rot. Sun scald is the result of the action of the sun in winter on the side of the trunk of the tree exposed to the sun. When the sun is very warm some of the sap works up from the roots and then freezes there. Decomposition takes place and rot begins. This is very in- jurious to good fruit production although the tree itself may struggle along. It is always best to provide some protection against this in young trees, but by proper pruning of older trees the branches will act as a natural protection. Sun Scald. The last of winter is the time to guard against sun scald. If the tree heads low the limbs make sufficient protection from the dangers of the sun shining on one side of the frozen tree. Or if the trees leans to the south or southwest it is not liable to injury. But if erect, or it inclines north, the trunk is not sufficiently protected. In that case put a board on the south side, or building paper around the trunk, or a screen of straw and lath. These last also protect from mice and rabbits. Guards can also be made for this last purpose for small trees by using four staves of old barrels to a tree, and tie these with fine wire near the top, center and bottom. Such guards should be put on in November. Guards can also be made out of thin strips of elm wood about as thick as shingles and soaked for a little while in water. Make these eighteen inches long and twelve broad. Set around the tree in a circle and tie with fine wire at top, center and base. Cut the wire and bind with pincers. Summary. To summarize as to orchard growing for the beginner : Find out what fruit grows the best in your section and, if possible, travel around and look at successful orchards near your locality and learn the methods of their workers or owners. Select a good piece of land with more than one direction of slope T H E O R C H A R D 171 and with a good drainage, unless you mean to raise only one species of fruit. Get your land in the very best shape for setting out trees, before you dig a hole, by deep plowing, heavy fertilizing and thorough cultivation. The soil for trees should be as finely worked as that for vegetables. Prepare the holes for setting according to directions given here. In planting any tree, always let the strongest roots stand toward the prevailing winds, with the tree leaning a little in the same direction. If you buy nursery stock, be sure it is the best, take it home care- fully yourself a^d see that it is set out as rapidly as possible in the previously prepared holes. If you try your own seedlings you must take more chances than with nursery stock. Follow the same method of transplanting, and you may or may not be tolerably successful. But do you really gain in the end? Fertilize, cultivate and mulch annually. Prune annually. Spray several times a year with regularity and efficiency. When you start out to kill, be sure you do kill. Study the best and improved methods every year. Gather, store and market your fruit so that it shall be first grade always. Get your reputation established and then keep it at that standard. By this method you will get your own standard and be able to reach favorable markets without the aid of any packing association. Have your own packing house, therefore, and your own style of individual package. Last, and most important, be honest about every step of fruit growing. From start to finish don't think that big red apples on the top of the barrel will balance the poorer ones out of sight. Hedge for a Fruit Orchard. This hedge is for the farm, for a windbreak and for ornamenting around the buildings and gardens, having seven rows running parallel 12 feet apart. Trees set for a thick hedge must have room in order to get strong branches near the ground.. When small in the thick woods the tree grows tall and slender, and the lower branches where no sun shines on them die and decay. It should be remembered that the sun is life and strength in planting thick hedges. This hedge is not to be trimmed. Let it grow naturally. The first thing to be done is to pre- pare the ground for the hedge. Plow the ground very deep twice, late in summer or in August and September, and early in the spring, as soon as frost is gone, in order to get rid of the weeds and grass. Be- gin to cultivate immediately after planting. Always cultivate soon after a rain, as soon as the water is well settled and the ground is in good working condition. Where a horse cannot be used, stir the soil with a fork-spade from four to six inches deep. Cultivate the hedge yearly till it becomes so large and thick that it cannot be worked with- out injuring the bottom branches near the ground. Late in the fall, about the last of October, mulch the trees with hay, straw or coarse litter about ten to twelve inches deep and six to eight feet around the tree. Do not remove any mulching from the trees. The coming spring spade the mulching into the soil with a fork-spade. Trees for 172 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING this ornamental hedge should be Russian Golden Willow, Norway Spruce, Red Cedar, Colorado Blue Spruce, and American Arbor-Vitae. Plant all golden willows in the four outside rows; this will include four willow trees on the ends of the three center rows. The remainder of these three rows plant to evergreens, Colorado blue spruce and red cedar; American arbor vitae and Norway spruce. Directions for Planting in the Hedge. Dig the holes four feet across or in diameter and thirty inches deep; fill the hole nearly two-thirds full of good thick grass sod, lay them bottom side up and tramp them down tight. Put on top of these sods about four inches of good rich surface soil, place the tree in the hole about two inches deeper than it stood in the nursery, sift in good rich fine soil between the roots, using the fingers to spread out all the roots. When the roots are well covered give the tree a thorough soaking. As soon as the water is well settled around the roots, fill in more earth. Do not stamp the earth down solid. Give it more water and the soil around the roots will be well settled. All evergreens should be transplanted with a ball of dirt for safety. Ever- greens should be watered every eight days in the evening, each tree with a thorough soaking, not sprinkling, for the first two years after planting, until the ground commences to freeze late in the fall. Ever- greens must go into winter thoroughly soaked in order to winter and grow the coming season. It is not safe to depend on local showers to water evergreens in the northwest. Water and cultivation will cause evergreens to grow very fast in the northwest. It is injurious to squirt water on the foliage of evergreens with the hose, especially when the sun is shining hot. The earth for about six feet around the tree should be dish-shaped. By having the earth dished a shower will soak in around the roots. When watering, place the hose two or three feet from the trunk of the tree flat on the ground. Let the water run as long as the soil will take it in, every eight days in the evening. As soon as the water is well settled and the ground is in good working condition a fork-spade should be used to stir the top soil. Otherwise a crust will form where the soil is all clay. Sand should be mixed into the clay, about one- fourth, for evergreens. The sand will prevent the soil from baking. Mixing the sand in it has a tendency to make the soil more porous around the roots, it will take in water more freely and the evergreens will grow much faster. A clay subsoil is all right, but when it comes up to the "second rail in the fence" it is all wrong. If the soil is all sand or gravel a bedding of clay should be put in the bottom of the hole to hold moisture. The writer has been in several of the best fruit states and has been through several of the best counties in Minnesota for raising ap- ples and small fruits, such as blackcap raspberries. I have seen patches on new land choppings where the trees were about one-half of them cut, the largest ones, and taken away. On these new cut-over lands I saw the finest patches of blackcap raspberries that I have ever seen ; bearing immense crops of the largest and most beautiful berries. THEORCHARD 173 Their winter protection was the scattering forest trees ; their mulching was decayed forest leaves and rotted wood. I have also seen apples growing thrifty and bearing almost every year in among the oak groves. The owner said they were there when he bought the place, then several years old. He said that he had lived on this place four- teen years and they had borne fine apples almost every year. They were the Duchess and Wealthy. Finding such fine fruit growing so thriftily among those forest trees was the best of proof for fruit grow- ing in the northwest, if it was protected from the cold, bleak wind. A farmer should have a large and thick hedge for a wind break on the prairies in the northwest to make fruit raising successful. In regard to hedges every farmer should enclose from two to six acres, including all buildings, with a thick hedge, not only for fruit raising but for protection of barn yard. It is safer and better to en- close several acres for fruit. More air will circulate in a large place and the fruit is not so liable to be frosted by the late spring frosts. All fruit trees and berries should be planted inside of the hedge and thoroughly cultivated. This hedge can be planted to all willows or all English buckthorn or all evergreens. The willows and evergreens will look the best the year around, and make the closest and the most compact hedge. Three rows of white elms set diagonally twelve feet apart on the outside of this hedge would make it a vei"y strong wind- break, or it can all be planted to upright ornamental trees, such as elms, linden and maple. White ash and elms are to be the trees if it is to be all ornamental upright trees. They will stand a very strong wind before breaking. The farmers in the northwest should quit burning straw piles. Straw is too valuable to burn in such a wasteful way. On one occasion the writer transplanted about thirty sugar or rock maple ; they were about three and a half inches in diameter. I cut them back a very little. They were transplanted about April 1, some fifteen years ago, in New York state, on a sandy, gravelly hill. I mulched them immediately after planting with about two tons of dry straw from 18 to 24 inches deep and from 8 to 10 feet around the trees. All of them lived and grew very fast. The rain was allthe water they got. The most of them were tapped seven years ago to make sugar. At the pres- ent time they will measure 18 inches in diameter. Forest growing for protection is now desired by those who only a few years ago ridiculed it. Large quantities of mulching and cultivation will grow hedges and timber trees very fast in the northwest; white elms, white ash and lin- den and maples are the trees best adapted to this purpose. Neither soft nor hard well water should be used when first drawn from the well for watering trees and shrubbery. The water should be pumped into the tank and allowed to stand from eight to twelve hours before watering. A Golden Willow Hedge For a Fruit Garden. Enclose from three to six acres with a golden willow hedge. This is a very rapidly growing hedge. Plant from ten to twelve inches apart around the garden. In three years it will turn all stock. On the north 174 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING and west let it grow ten or twelve feet high to protect the garden from the cold winds. On the south and east it does not need to be so high. Cut back the first year, one-fourth of the new growth, about the first of September. The bed can be prepared in the spring. With a plow measure off the piece of land you wish to enclose and then drive in stakes at each corner. Plow three furrows around the garden from five to ten inches deep. Then plant golden willow or buckthorn. They are both per- fectly hardy. Be sure and keep them cut back and you will have a thicker and better hedge. Both of these are long-lived hedges. Plant any windbreak from 75 to 100 feet from the fruit orchard, and plow deeply twice in the growing season along the windbreak on the inside, between the orchard and windbreak. This deep plowing will destroy the roots from the windbreak, so that they will not rob the orchard land of its food. After planting, mulch thoroughly with stable manure and straw, for the first two years. The next thing is to plow and plant the fruit trees : From ten to fifty fall and winter apples, twenty of the Wealthy and ten of the Duchess of Oldenberg, twenty more of the next best apples. Whenever you see fine apples on the market, buy of them and save and plant the seed in your garden. Some of the best apples that are grown in this country are seedlings. The Tompkins Co., King's, and a number of others are seedlings. I would advise you to buy an apple by the name of Canada Reds. They are a beautiful red apple. I think they can be grown in the northwest from the seed. If you fail at first, try another. Plant twenty-five plums of about seven varieties. Then you will ensure some almost every year. The Cheney, Forest Garden, Wolf, Rockford, De Soto and Weaver are good. Plant twen- ty-four cherry trees of six varieties — four of each. Plant the trees in rows clear across the garden, twenty feet from the hedge and wide enough to drive a load of straw between the rows of full grown trees without breaking the limbs. Plant currants in rows ; gooseberries in rows from four to six feet apart, so that this garden may be worked by a cultivator with a horse. Plant blackberries, raspberries — red and black, strawberries, grapes and rhubarb all in rows clear. If you have land to spare after you have put in the fruit and berries, then put in a nice lot of vegetables for the table. Your straw will be worth $4.00 per ton on this garden and you will have no straw to burn by taking this course. You will have plenty of all kinds of fruit and berries and some to sell, and after the garden is once planted it will take but a trifle to keep it in good bear- ing shape the rest of your life, while you will have a good place to use all your straw and coarse manure. The willow hedge will make a great windbreak for your stock and building. A farm with this garden is worth $2,000 more. The willow hedge can be put around a large piece of land very cheaply by using cuttings six or eight inches long. Make a good mellow bed for these. Plant in the spring, from the first of April to the 25th of May. Shove down THEORCHARD 175 and leave about one-half an inch above ground. Mulch heavily with strav^^ and coarse manure. An orchard planted by the writer in the spring of 1911, on sandy loam, received the following treatment and made a great growth. There were 64 trees in all. After they were set out the land was dressed with horse manure at the rate of 100 loads per acre. The next spring this was plowed into the soil at a depth of from 6 to 8 inches and this was replowed every two weeks throughout the growing sea- son. This treatment supplied plenty of plant food and the same time acted as a mulch for the retention of moisture. CHAPTER XII Trees ana Farm Forestry Who Plants a Tree. He who plants a tree Plants a hope, Rootlets up through fibres blindly grope ; Leaves unfold into horizons free. So man's life must climb From the clods of time Unto heavens sublime. Canst thou prophesy, thou little tree, What the glory of thy boughs shall be? He who plants a tree Plants a joy ; Plants a comfort that will never cloy Every day a fresh reality. Beautiful and strong, To whose shelter throng Creatures blithe with song. If thou couldst but know, thou happy tree, Of the bliss that shall inhabit thee ! He who plants a tree. He plants peace. Under its green curtain jargons cease, Leaf and zephyr murmur soothingly ; Shadows soft with sleep Down tired eyelids creep. Balm of slumber deep. Never hast thou dreamed, thou blessed tree. Of the benediction thou shalt be. He who plants a tree. He plants love ; Tents of coolness spreading out above Wayfarers he may not live to see. Gifts that grow are best ; Hands that bless are blest. Plant Life does the rest. Heaven and earth help him who plants a tree. And his work its own reward shall be. — Lucy Larcom. \ > O tn -0 "o C3 O E 1) a- C "re Cu a. 3 -a XI OJ w c c lU ^ & .^ -a _M a. "oj u c/j -a X c m C c OJ a; 'rt ca - .M ^ C o — c M CJ a. 'C K c < (1^ X 13 OJ c yj OJ -a 5 O P O -c 1) c C8 -a u ^ C C a. aj '/■; ' > ■^ ^ _§ X. E ^ u c o t; ' «> c -^ o. c i; = ' = (U CI S "> 1) £ ii ca 1^ bri ;h ._ ^ dJ '< feet of clay at bottom. A clay basin holds water and moisture in drouth, but if the natural soil is clay mix in one- quarter sand with it. Coal ashes make excellent mulching for hedges, especially for those that are not cultivated and are crowded by grass and weeds. A good coat of ashes spread four inches from the plants on both sides of the hedges and 2 feet in width will insure the hedge from quack grass and keep fire away. This mulching should be from six to eight inches deep. EVERGREENS 195 Watering Trees. It is my firm belief that more plants and trees are killed by over than by under watering, unless the season is exceptionally dry. When planting a tree or bush fill in around the roots with the best of soil within four inches of the surface. Then settle the ground around the roots of the tree or bush firmly with water. After that try to conserve the moisture in the soil by either cultivation or mulching. The mulching should be put about 3 inches under the soil, that it may not interfere with cultivation. Remember that it takes considerable water to soak into the soil to any depth that will benefit the tree. Small amounts, often applied, are more likely to harm than do good. The soil becomes hard and baked and evaporation is greater than ever. Give the soil a good soaking when you must water and as soon as it is dry enough cultivate or mulch the surface so as to hold the moisture. The time to apply water to trees and all kinds of shrub- bery in hot weather is after sunset. When the sun is shining, water, if it does not kill, causes rust and blight. Miscellaneous Notes. Other evergreens beside the American arbor vitae which make good hedge plants for diflferent localities are the Scotch pine, Norway pine, hemlock and Norway spruce. Among the hedge shrubs the purple barberry, buckthorn, rosa rugosa, spiraea, forsythia, osage orange, honey locust and privet may be grown with advantage if care is taken to choose only the ones adapted to your own climate. The basswood or American linden is a vigorous grower, and while of pyramid shape when young, becomes at last a large, round- headed tree. The value of the blossoms for the honey bee makes this tree, apart from its decorative use, specially desired by most farmers. Low growing trees should not be planted at the roadside, as in low, wet places, the mud Avill not dry up readily after a rain. In win- ter, also, they are the cause of drifts in roads. Elms, headed high, are excellent for roadside trees ; and for the northwest this is specially true, as the rough bark of the elm protects it from sun scald. An elm will also bear more bad treatment in transplanting, because it has not only a good tap root, but many fibrous roots. Cedar makes the easiest grown of all windbreaks. It is dense at the bottom and drouth and windproof. The seed (the red berries) germinates slowly, but it grows afterwards faster the first few years than any other evergreen. Mountain ashes are subject to sun scald, having a very tender bark. If protected when small by something that will shade the stalk they will grow more bushy. They are a very pretty tree and are used extensively for ornamental purposes. The two common va- rieties are the European and American. Black walnut and butternut trees do not stand transplanting easily, as they have very few lateral or fibrous roots. But the nuts of these trees, planted as soon as they fall, under the shade of some such quick growing tree as the basswood or ash, will thrive well. 196 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT F A R ^I I N G Open trenches about four inches deep and cover well, and the nuts will sprout the next spring. Large willow cuttings, closely set, driven into sod land which is inclined to be low and is damp in spring, will usually make good windbreaks. Prepare the willow cuttings in the winter, and bury in straw or earth to keep them moist and fresh until planting time, al- though the best results from planting are had by making the cuttings in the fall or early spring. The willow makes a successful windbreak or a good woodlot utilized in this way, but it is troubled by one in- sect pest which works ravages upon its usefulness. The insect is a bark louse, which remains attached to the small limbs of the trees, multiplies rapidly and takes the sap from the small twigs to that extent that they are liable to die, and as a consequence injure or destroy the lower branches, which are so valuable in stop- ping the ground sweep of the winds. Russian willow is said, by those who have used it for hedge rows, not to be troubled by this bark louse nor by worms. This willow grows fully as well as the white willow for hedges, has wood about as hard as that of soft maples, and a very beautiful glistening foliage. Posts from this willow, treated for rot, are being used. The golden willow should not be started on sod land, but on land that has grown some cultivated crop. If golden willow cuttings are cut back to the ground at the end of the first or second year of growth they will make a much thicker hedge for a shelter. A good solid wil- low hedge makes fine protection for evergreens. The Carolina poplar, which is simply a variety of our cottonwood tree, is usually grown in its staminate form, and therefore is free from the objectionable cottony seed. It is the best poplar we have, but it does not grow to advantage on very dry soil. Plant on moist ground, like that of a river bank, which was its native home, and you will have a grand tree. The Tree Borer. The European alder and willow borer has been at work on the Carolina poplar. Prof. F. L. Washburn, of the Minnesota Experiment Station, gives this description of it as a dark "brown beetle, about half an inch long, with a long snout. It has a conspicuous white patch on the rear part of its back, and some whitish on its sides near the head. It makes a hole in the poplar stem or trunk, lays an egg there- in, and the larva hatching bores into the bark, and into the solid wood. "When trees are young they are easily killed by this pest. When only a branch or stem is affected, it may be cut off in June, with the contained worm, and burned with the culprit inside. A good prevent- ive to young stock in the nursery or elsewhere would be a whitewash on the trunks, containing a liberal allowance of Paris green, applied two or three times during May and early June. Jarring the trees in May and June, in the morning, causing the beetles to drop upon a sheet below is also suggested. All farmers planting windbreaks should watch out for this pest." Wood borers can be destroyed by working with fine wire into their holes. As they usually bore through the bark near the base EVERGREENS 197 of the tree, a whitewash made from lime and soft soap will help in keeping these pests and others away from their mining work. Another good way to keep the borer away from almost any tree, especially fruit trees, is by wrapping the trunk with stilT building paper, having it extend from a few inches beneath the soil to a foot up the trunk. The moth that lays the eggs must then go higher up, and the young are exposed to the elements so much that the larvae are usually killed. But keep up a thorough searching of the soil every spring and fall just the same. Tree Stories. Newark, N. J., has long been noted for its beautiful shade trees. That city started tree planting nearly 250 years ago, as may be seen from this paragraph in the old town minute book: "Feb. 6, 1676. The town seeing some trees spoiled in the streets by barking or otherwise ; the town hath agreed, that no green tree within the town as is marked with N, shall be barked or felled, or otherwise killed, under the penalty of ten shillings so killed." Probably the thrifty settlers of that day were careful as to how they injured the village trees after that. When we remember that trees are self-sustaining, after they have been well started and prop- erly cared for at first, it is stranger still to understand why farmers neglect to plant them. The following story, for which the writer does not vouch, has a good deal of interest in it, because it shows, if true, that nature has great recuperative powers if we know how to influence them to action : "A contributor to the 'Country Gentleman' tells of an old tree having been rejuvenated in a remarkable manner. It was a very an- cient walnut, with long, gaunt boughs carrying much deadwood, and here and there bearing a few leaves. For several seasons it had been struggling in this way to live, but each year manifested signs that its life was fast disappearing. Then a wonderful thing occurred. The keeper in front of whose house the tree stood, took to slinging the body of each deer he killed on to one of the boughs for dressing. The following spring this tree put forth an astonishing crop of leaves, and in less than three seasons it was making new wood and showing all the vigor which had characterized it thirty years before. Its renewed youth was entirely attributed to the fertilizing properties of the blood with which it had been so liberally dressed." CHAPTER XIV Xne FloAver Garden Soil Preparation. ALL flowers should be grown in deep, rich, mellow loam. If the soil is clayey and apt to bake, it must be thoroughly fertilized with well rotted barnyard manure and a mixture of some sand, one-third sand at least. Spade or plow deep, break the soil up well and rake the surface very fine. Fresh or unrotted manure is lia- ble to burn the roots. Cow manure is the best for flower beds. A teaspoonful of ammonia in a gallon of water makes a good fertilizer. This is to be applied to the soil once a week and is very good for ver- benas and asters. Ashes, liquid manure, and nitrate of soda are very good flower fertilizers. The Making of the Flower Beds. In making a flower bed, see that the ground is well drained ; that the subsoil is deep, and the land in a mellow condition, and that it is rich. Make the beds always in the fall and each fall give it a mulch of rotted manure, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring. This method distributes the fertilizer more equably and perma- nently through the soil. Plants and seeds in such beds begin to grow and germinate at once in the spring. Old sod or dead grass make fine fertilizers. Combine the sod with one-fourth sand and one-fourth well rotted manure. For some soils 4 qts. of salt to the soil of a bed, 10 to 12 ft. in diameter, is of value. The salt helps to destroy worms and to retain moisture. When salt is used, however, it should be well mixed through the beds in the fall, and two bushels of air-slacked lime added in the spring. Spade in well and work over often. If your soil is sandy naturally, however, omit the sand from the mixture. But the lime and soil applied each year will free from insects and cut worms. Make the flower beds as broad as possible, so that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add a little commercial fertilizer each fall and spring. Transplanting and Cultivating. In out door culture surplus plants should be transplanted. This may be done at any time when the plants are quite small. The best time is after a soaking rain, in the latter part of the day. Take up the plants carefully, pressing the soil about the roots and make the hole large enough so that the roots can take their natural position in planting. Draw the soil up about the plant and press firmly. Give a good sprinkling, and shade from the hot sun a day or two. The soil T II E F L O W E R G A R D E N 199 should be well cultivated once every week. The loosened soil on the surface acts as a mulch and saves the moisture. Give the plants plenty of room. Good results cannot be had from crowded beds. Watering. Watering the garden plants should be done with great care. Many a flower garden is spoiled by too much watering. It is better to save the water in the soil by frequent cultivating with the garden rake or hand weeder. But if the soil should become so dry that the plants do not thrive, then water the bed. Do not sprinkle, but water thoroughly after sundown once or twice a week, applying water to the roots from the spout of the watering can. Rake the surface over again in the morning when it begins to get dry. Seed Sowing. Seed should not be sown until settled warm weather. Too early sowing is the cause of many failures, and another mistake is in covering too deep. Always cover only one or two times the thickness of the seeds, but for coarse seed a quarter or one-half inch is not too much. Mix fine seeds with ten to twenty times their bulk of sand and sprinkle them over the seed bed with a pepper box. Then add a light covering of fine white sand, which will not crust nor bake in the wind and sun like a clay loam. The latter often does not yield to the up- ward pressure of the tiny plants. Keep a supply of fine, sharp sand on hand. When seed is sown in the summer, it should be put a little deeper than in spring, and the soil firmed very thoroughly over it. Always press the earth down firmly after sowing all flower seeds. A second sowing ought to be made in from two to four weeks to secure a succession of bloom. In starting flower seed of any kind, only heat and moisture are required until they sprout through the ground. Do not water unless very dry, then be sure to cover as above directed, to prevent soil drying out and crusting over. A board laid on the earth over the seed will also prevent washing out by heavy rains. In-Door Seed Sowing. Take equal parts of fine, clear, gritty sand, and surface earth from the woods or soil, cut from beneath turf full of tiny grass roots. Take a box and bore some holes in the bottom to secure a good drainage. Cover the bottom with pieces of broken pottery or small stones before putting in the soil. Press down the soil, smooth it over with a piece of lath or flat stick, and saturate with water and wait for it to drain off. Make shallow drills with the edge of a ruler about two inches apart and sow seed, sifting soil over according to size of seed. Cover with glass and place in the sunshine. The temperature of the room should not go below 60 degrees at night and should be from 70 to 75 degrees in the day time. While the seed are germinating the soil should never become dry. Spray (not water) carefully only when no moisture collects on the under side of the glass. Give fresh air daily and before transplanting out doors, harden the plants by putting them out of doors on pleasant days in the sunshine. 200 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING House Plants. The best soil for all varieties of house plants is obtained from thoroughly rotted prairie sod, heavily grassed, which should be placed in a pile, grass side down. About 100 lbs. of slacked lime to each load of sod, or two or three quarts of slacked lime to a bushel of sod should be well scattered among the sod. A small quantity of wood ashes mixed into the rotted sod is excellent for all flowering plants, also a little sand mixed into the soil. The sand draws heat, and keeps the soil from baking, from over watering, or from going too long without water. If you can only get heavy clay soil for your house plants, mix in one-third sand. The richest soil should have shallow cultivation. This can be done with a common table fork, and once in two or three weeks is sufficient. It is also good once in a while to add a little new soil. Be sure to watch for insects. All house plants should have a vessel of hot water or a wet sponge placed near them. The sponge may be hung up so that it will be near the flowering plants. Nitrate of soda is a fine stimulant for sick plants. Dissolve a teaspoonful in one quart of warm water and use twice a week as long as needed. For outdoor plants a thin layer of sand over the entire root of the plant will help to retain the moisture. Nitrate of soda should be used as follows: One handful of soda to 50 gals, of water, but only a small grain to one cup of water. Some use ammonia. When this is used, put one teaspoonful to 1 gal. of water and always apply with a spray. For out-of-door roses, use white hellebore mixed with flour equally, and dust on through tiny holes made in a common tin can with a nail. This should be done while the dew is on, but never when the wind blows. Nicolicide is used to kill all kinds of insects. Use from one to two drops in one teacup of water. Spraying once will be sufficient. All vines, shrubbery and ferns should be planted in their natural soils to thrive the best. I planted a wood vine, or fine leaf ivy, in leaf mold soil about May first, in the spring of 1908. It made a growth of 16 feet and 4 inches by October 15, 1908. The wood vine plant was nearly one year old when planted, and was cut back to four inches in length. There should be placed about one wheelbarrowful of leaf mold soil, brought from the woods, around each vine or shrub. Alphabetical List of Varieties. Ageratum. Hardy annual. Start in-doors or in cold frame, if de- sired, for early blooming in March, but for summer and fall bloom the seed may be sown in well prepared beds in the open about May first. Althaea Rosea or Hollyhock. Plant seed as early in the spring as possible, and transplant or thin to one foot apart. Time of ger- mination, 10 days. Alyssum. This is used a great deal for borders and rock work. The seed should be sown thickly so as to form masses. For winter bloom sow late in August, but for spring bloom the seed should be THEFLOWERGARDEN 201 sown in the open early in the spring, as it will stand considerable frost. While white is the most common and popular color, there are yellow varieties of alyssum also. When bloom fails cut back the plant and it will bloom again. The anemone, meaning wind flower, is a genus composed of about 85 species, among which are some very handsome garden plants. They are perennials and natives of the north temperate zone. They will do well in any good garden soil, but a well drained, rich, sandy loam is best. Some of the tuberous species are best adapted for hardy borders, and if used for winter blooming will require about the same care that should be given the hyacinth. For out door planting, Sep- tember to December and February and March are good times. Aster, Chinese. One of the most popular annuals for fall blooming. It is a native of China and was introduced into Europe about 1731 by a Jesuit missionary to China. These were all the single flower type, but soon the double flower was produced, as were also other variations in form and color. Culture. Secure good seed. Have the soil well manured the pre- ceding season. A mulch of tobacco stems is said by some growers to be good if applied at time of bloom, as it keeps down weeds and kills the root aphis. To have a succession of blooms sow some in the house or in cold frames in March or April, and in May sow in the ground in the open in a specially prepared seed bed. Sow about a quarter of an inch deep and cover with burlap or old carpet, water through the covering, and keep the soil moist. When an inch high transplant to about four inches apart, and when four inches high transplant again to twelve inches apart or more for the branching kinds. In this way much finer plants are obtained. If troubled with the black aster bugs look for them three times a day during the flowering season and knock them into a pan and destroy them. As different varieties come to maturity at varying times one may have a long period of aster blooming. Bachelor Buttons, Centaurea Cyanus. Sow in the open ground as soon as danger of frost is past, and transplant to one foot apart. Balsam. Water with manure water occasionally. These plants need plenty of sun and room to insure nice double flowers. Balsam, Impatiens Balsamina. This annual was long ago intro- duced from India, and is now widely cultivated for its showy blos- soms. Since then it has varied greatly in size, color and form. The culture of the balsam is not difficult. The seeds are large and germinate readily, but the plants are sensitive to frost and should be started in thumb pots until all danger of frost is past. The soil should be a rich, sandy loam, and the plants ought to be set about two feet apart each way. Begonia. Very popular as a house plant. The first begonia was brought to England in 1777. 350 species are now known, while per- haps 150 of these are of use to florists. The development of this plant 202 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING has been very rapid and the colors both of flowers and leaves are very gorgeous. They are divided into four groups : 1. Winter flowering. Fibrous rooted. 2. Semi-tuberous. 3. Summer flowering. Tuberous rooted. 4. Rex. Sow from January to March in a good box or flower pot in good soil. Cover with glass and set in a dark place, not too warm, until seed begins to germinate, then bring to the light gradually, but do not give full sunlight except in early morning or late in afternoon. Keep soil moist, but not wet. When second or third leaf appears trans- plant, etc. Begonias dislike close atmosphere and hot sunshine in their earlier days. They may be headed out by the middle of June. While during the summer the sun may hurt begonias, during the winter and spring they can not get enough of it. The soil must consist of good loam, well rotted manure, leaf mould and sand mixed to a good consistency. They are not very liable to insect attacks, but sometimes are troubled by fungous diseases. Candytuft. Sow in fall or early spring. Any good soil is suit- able ; thin out to four or five inches apart. It takes about 16 days to germinate. Candytuft, Iberis. These annuals are grown in masses in the garden and by florists for cut flowers. They can do well in any rich garden soil with plenty of light and air. It got its name candytuft because it was brought from Candia and its flowers appear in tufts. Columbine. Hardy perennial in the northern hemisphere. There are about 30 species, and are among the most beautiful of hardy plants. They do best in a light, sandy soil, well drained and in a sheltered location where they can be in the sun. Propagation is best done with seeds. Canterbury Bells, Campanula Medium. Sow in fall or in May in light, rich soil, and thin out to two feet apart. They bloom the sec- ond year. Carnation. Sow in-doors (See "In-door Sowing") or in the open ground in April or May. A sunny location with some sand in the soil is the best. In most regions, if well mulched with strawy manure, the plants will live out over winter. Chrysanthemum. Sow in boxes in spring and make several trans- plantings, as they advance in growth. In September lift into large pots. Water well and keep in a sheltered place. Columbine, Aquilegia. Sow the seed in the open in spring where the plants are to grow, and thin the young seedlings to about a foot apart. The columbine is a hardy perennial, with many horticultural varieties, and is a desirable border plant. Few hardy perennials are so easily grown from seed. THEFLOWERGARDEN 203 Delphiniums, Larkspurs. About 60 species of beautiful, hardy plants. Native of north temperate zone. Annual and perennial. They do best in rich garden soil that is well and deeply prepared. The perennials are propagated : 1. By root division in fall or spring. 2. By cuttings. 3. By seeds started in greenhouse in March. , The young seedlings must have plenty of room and may be set in the garden in June. These will flower in autumn. Seeds started in late spring or summer flower the following summer. The annuals are propagated from seed, which should be sown in the fall for early spring flowers. Daisy (Bellis Perennis). Treat same as Pansies. Set eight inches apart. Dahlia. To insure bloom the first season, sow in February in- doors or in cold frame. If sown out of doors in May it will come into full bloom late. Prune ofif some of the branches, letting only two or three grow. Evening Primrose. The evening primrose is a choice, free-bloom- ing annual, with widely open flowers of satiny texture, with delicate colors. The seed should be sown in an open border or in a cold frame in spring. If the latter, the seedlings should be transplanted to stand about a foot apart in rather thin or sandy soil. The blooming season is from early spring until frost. Eschscholtzia, California Poppy. Sow where plants are to stay and thin out to six inches apart. They do not stand transplanting well. Germination, 14 days. Feverfew. May be sown in-doors or out. Observe direction for fine seeds, although in-door sowing proves the best. Forget-Me-Not. Sow in early spring, but best to sow in cold frame in July or August, transplant to a shady position and keep well watered during dry weather. Will sometimes bloom the first season. Four O'clock. Will grow in any common garden soil from seed sown in the open ground. Sow in May. Set two feet apart. Fuchsia. After plants are started give rich soil and water wnth weak manure water occasionally. Do not need high temperature, but plenty of light and air. Geranium. See "In-door Sowing." Place in the dark until seeds germinate, then admit light. Gladiolus. Sow in drills about half inch deep in well worked soil, cover with hay or grass clippings. When well up remove the cover- ing and keep soil loosened about the plants all summer. Take up the tiny bulbs after the first frost, and set out the following May ; many will bloom the second year. The culture of gladioli is very easy. Conditions suitable for po- tatoes prove very good for them. Succeed best in moist, sandy loam. Propagated in three ways : 1. Division of bulb. 2. By seed. 3. By small corms growing at the base of parent bulb. 204 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Heliotrope. Do not sow with other seeds, as heliotrope needs a higher temperature, with rich soil. Sow in a flower pot, cover and keep in a temperature of about 70 degrees. Set in the ground in May. Hollyhock. If planted in the fall or started in the house early they will bloom the first season. Or sow out doors in April, trans- plant when they have 3 or 4 leaves. Do best in deep, rich, well drained soil. Iris. Sow after settled warm weather ; will grow anywhere, but does best in moist situation. Marigold. Sow in early spring 18 inches apart. Morning Glory. Sow early, thin to 8 inches. Sow each seed singly in small pots in April and transplant out doors after the frosts are over. Sow in good ground in sunny situation. Mignonette. Cover a little deeper than general rule, and firm the ground down well; thin to 6 inches apart for nice fall plants, make second sowing last of June. Nasturtium. After settled warm weather sow in open ground, firming the soil well over the seeds. A sunny location is the best. If soil is too rich they run to vines. Set one foot apart. It takes from 12 to 16 days for germination. Very common and easy of culture. The watercress is a member of the genus, of which there are 20 widely scattered species. It is sometimes used as a food. It is occasionally attacked by a green worm with biting mouth piece. To stop its ravages use hellebore or flour and paris green. Fre- quent applications may be necessary, as the leaves are very slippery. Peonies are plants of the hardy perennial herbs so much grown and liked. They are natives of Europe and Asia. They are not usu- ally subject to insects or fungous diseases. At present there are about 1,000 double varieties. In 1855 there were only 24 double varieties. Peonies do best in rich, deep, moist loam and need a large quantity of manure, worked well into the soil. Also they need a great deal of water. Peonies are propagated : 1. By division of roots. This is easiest and most satisfactory. May be lifted and divided from middle of August until stalks appear in the spring. Early fall is best. There may be as many divisions as there are eyes. 2. Grafting. 3. Seeds. If seed can be sown in fall, shortly after maturity, it will come up the next spring; otherwise it will lie in the ground from one to two years, hence sow where soil will not be disturbed and wait. Pansy. The pansy requires a very rich soil and a partially shaded location. Spade the ground in the fall, and work in rotted cow manure. Give plenty of water, and to get best results keep the sur- face soil loose. Sometimes a mulching of grass clippings can be used. In early spring make drills one-half inch deep and 8 inches apart, and T H E F L O W E R G A R D E N 205 sow the seed thinly, but cover very lightly. After the plants have several leaves transplant to about 8 inches apart. Start the seed in-doors in February or March, according to latitude, though seed sown in July will give bloom late in autumn. Cover with leaves in winter. Petunia. Sow common petunia out of doors. Sift a little sand over the seed as soon as it germinates, keeping on the slats or glass a day or two longer. It takes about 14 days to germinate. Phlox. Sow in ground in late fall or early spring. Germinates from 6 to 20 days. Perennial. Few annual plants are more easily grown from seed, give such quick return of bloom or ofifer such a variety to choose from as do the phloxes. In transplanting set the taller kinds about a foot apart. The average height of the plant is about a foot. Poppy. Sow in fall or early spring where plants are to stand, and thin to about 8 inches. Cover with a sprinkling of earth and press down with the hand. Best to sow these in September. Snap Dragon. Sow late or start in-doors or in cold frame. When germinating give barely enough water to keep soil moist. Sunflower. The seed should be planted in the open garden about the same time that corn is planted, and the plants thinned to stand from 2 to 4 feet apart, according as the plant is dwarf or tall growing. There are different varieties, which range from 2 to 10 feet in height, with from one to many flowers. Sweet Peas. Sweet peas require a soil deeply tilled and well sup- plied with plant food. A good method is to open a trench in the fall about two feet wide and two feet deep in rich garden loam. Fill this trench with an equal mixture of well rotted manure and good soil mixed either with one-quarter hardwood ashes or air- slacked lime. All should be thoroughly mixed before placing in the trench. Plant the pea seed one and one-half inches deep, and quite thick, as follows : Press the peas down with the hand before putting on the surface soil oi lYz inches in thickness. Do not press the top soil very hard. As soon as the peas are an inch high cultivate them every other day until they commence to bloom. Use water sparingly. After applying water cultivate as soon as the water has settled into the soil, for if left uncultivated the soil will bake and become hard. Smilax. Soak seeds in warm water 12 hours and sow in-doors in February or March. Keep in warm, moist place. Sweet William. Sow in spring or fall in the ground and thin to one foot. New plants should be raised every few years from seed, as the plants degenerate. Verbena. May be sown out doors or in-doors in February or March. Keep seedlings in cool, sunny place, not too warm, and when weather becomes warm put in a sheltered situation out of doors to 206 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING harden before setting into the ground. Don't do as well on clayey soil ; light, rich, tufty soil best. Violet. Pour hot (almost boiling) water on the seeds and let stand four or five hours ; sow in May. Germination from 2 to 6 months. Zinnia. Sow early and transplant or thin to 6 inches apart. As the first blossoms appear, pull up plants with single flowers and trans- plant others to 8 inches apart. Strong, rich soils suit the zinnia, and during the month of August they are at their best. The plants can be used for groups, beds, borders, garden lines, and summer hedges. Their average height is 1^/2 feet. The zinnia is easily grown. Damping Off is the rotting oflf of cuttings or young plants near the surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi ; but these fungi are injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth. Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear through. Keep it as dry as possible on the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal ashes to keep the top dry, give the plants free circulation of air and abundance of room. If damping off threatens, transplant. Boston Fern. — Perhaps the most popular of ornamental foliage plants is the Boston fern, better known as the sword fern. This plant is too well known to need description. When well grown it is a most beautiful plant, but as ordinarily grown it fails to do itself justice because conditions are against it. It is one of the easiest of all plants to raise, if its requirements are understood and met. It must have a light, spongy soil in order to do the best, and be given plenty of root room. A year old plant ought to have, at least, a 12 or 14-inch pot to accommodate properly its many roots. A good soil for it is made by mixing leaf mold with thoroughly rotted grass sods. The grass sods should be rotted a year before use. Prairie sod is the best. Mix one barrel of air-slacked lime to one large wagon load of sods when piling them to rot. When thoroughly rotted, mix one-third rotted leaf mold from the woods where no grass or weeds grow. This mix- ture of soils is excellent for almost every kind of plants and flowers. In such a soil any fern will grow well, provided other conditions are favorable. "Hard" and "Soft" Wood Cuttings. Cuttings are of two kinds, viz., "hardwood" and "softwood." Hardwood cuttings are more difficult to root than the "softwooded." A softwood cutting will "callus" or heal and form roots, no matter where the cut may be. The azalea and abutilon are hardwood cuttings ; the geranium and coleus are types of the softwood cutting. Hardwooded plants have a woody stem, a pithy center (in a young state) and a well-defined bark ; a hardwood cutting will bend right over without snapping or breaking, but a softwood cutting does not show these characteristics and will snap clean through if bent to a right angle. A hardwood cut- ting should always be cut close to a leaf joint, the wood at this point T H E F L O W E R G A R D E N 207 being firmer and less pithy than at any other, and it roots most readily when taken off the old plant in a young and growing condition. Al- ways use a sharp knife, and have a heel (or very small part of the older stem) attached to the cutting. Aside from great financial saving that results from propagating plants at horrje instead of buying them each year, the pleasures of gardening are greatly increased by this practice. Where we have had one or two of a kind we can have forty or fifty at no greater expense. The early care of the cuttings at the critical time of their exist- ence must not be neglected. In every household there is some corner where we can save over some of our favorites of last summer from the ravages of Jack Frost. Cutting s The ideal cutting should be about three inches long, short jointed and firm. Two or three fully developed leaves should be left. The others — and also the bracts and flower buds — should be broken oflf close to the stem. When carelessly cut off the portion of the leaf stalk left behind usually decays, and many of the failures and much of the "damping off" can be traced to this. "Damping off" is a rot that kills the young plants before they are properly rooted. Have your knife sharp and do not squeeze it through, nor yet make a long, diagonal cut, as if whittling a stick. Hold the portion that is to be a cutting with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, place against it the thumb of the right hand (which holds the knife) and then draw the blade through the stem. Commence with the base of the blade and draw toward the point. Do not let the edge of the blade strike the middle of your thumb. This disfigures your thumb and bruises the cutting, as it is squeezed between the blade and the thumb. When the thumb is merely used to steady the cutting and the blade drawn through, so as to come out at the side of the thumb, the disfiguring and bruising are avoided. Geraniums may root readily with less care, but the principle of making a cutting holds good in other things, and the geranium is a good steady plant for the amateur to begin on as practice. If it is desired to have a large quantity of geraniums the cuttings must be put into boxes or flats, which should be two and one-half or three inches deep, and any length and width that may be desired, so long as they can be conveniently handled. They must have holes in the bottom for drainage, just as is done for window boxes. Cover the bottom with a thin layer of leaf soil or light turf, and on top of this about two inches of clean sand. Striking the Cutting. Sand is the best medium for use in propagating — the cleaner the better. A cutting, having no roots, if placed in material containing decaying organic matter is liable to be attacked by disease. Place the cuttings in the sand about one and one-half inches deep and two inches apart each way, and make the sand quite firm around each one. After the box is full soak thoroughly with water and place in the sash bed or window. 208 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Shade with a newspaper for a day or two, and in from three weeks to a month your cuttings will have roots and require stronger nourish- ments. One good soaking is usually sufificient watering until the roots appear. But give a light spraying on bright days to prevent undue evaporation. This keeps the leaves fresh. As soon as well rooted the cuttings should be potted up in small pots or boxed over again in fairly fertile but light soil. Water care- fully until well established, and never allow the young plant to flower until it has an abundance of roots. Other plants which can be treated in the same way are : Helio- trope, ageratum, begonia, alyssum, cuphea, fuchsia, alternanthera, salvia, abutilon, hibiscus. The coleus wants a closer, more humid atmosphere, and if pos- sible, more heat. This can be secured by covering with a bell glass, or the flats may be surrounded and covered with panes of glass, thus forming a complete case. A coleus will root in from seven to ten days in a dwelling house, but if the cuttings once get thoroughly wilted they will never recover. If only a few plants are needed, two and one-half or three pots can be used instead of flats. Use leaf mold and sand, the same as in the window boxes, and insert the cuttings so as just to touch one another around the edge of each pot, and the same treatment as de- scribed above holds good in every other respect. Ferns of the Boston type can be readily increased at any time by breaking ofif some of the small plants (with roots intact) that grow around the edges of the large pieces. Pot them up in any size pot that is sufficiently large to contain these roots, but never "over-pot" them (over-potting is putting a small plant in a big pot). They form roots much more quickly in a small pot. and they can be repotted often as they require it. Any plant needs to be repotted into a bigger size as soon as its present pot gets full of roots, and no sooner. Growth is much quicker, too, if only a small shift is given each time. It is best to use a pot about one size larger, or say, from a three-inch to a five- inch, from a five-inch to a seven-inch oot. and so on. Rose Culture. Roses, among the most beautiful of flowers, are the easiest to raise to perfection. They only require thorough cultivation, good soil, and an abundance of well rotted manure. A clay loam is the best for roses, but a sandy soil, well prepared by a layer of thoroughly broken up clay at the bottom and heavily manured with rotted man- ure, well mixed in, with a thick covering of black earth, will make a good soil for rose growing. Such a soil is best prepared by thoroughly plowing or spading the dressing, according as you plan for rose grow- ing on a large or small scale. Roses also need a sunshiny spot and a free circulation of air. Don't choose a bed under trees or in the close shade of many buildings. They may mildew from that cause and also from poor drainage, or from prolonged wet weather. Cultivation is very important, and must begin immediately within twenty-four hours. Mulch heavily with rotted manure and spade it T n E F L O W E R G A R D E N 209 into the soil with a fork-spade. Keep the soil loose and free from weeds. This surface cultivation is needed at least once a week, and if the season is very dry, even twice a week. If you have a number of rose bushes try to save all the moisture you give the roses when watering by digging little trenches between the bushes, which will carry surplus water where you want it to be and not waste it on the soil around. Roses need a great deal of moisture, but they must not stand in it. A wet blanket at their feet is death to roses. When you water do it in abundance. Then give them a rest from watering for a time. Frequent cultivation will keep the moisture in the soil by keeping it from baking and making it loose and fine. One rose grower recommends mulching with lawn grass clippings about the first of July. On a farm, coarse stable litter or hay would serve equally well, taking care to keep it away from the stem. Pruning Roses. Rambler roses may be planted in the fall. In some climates these need no protection if they are strong plants when set out and are carefully planted. If planted along a fence or wall, set them from eight to ten feet apart. As these roses bear blooms from wood of new growth each year, growing from canes of the season before, it is very necessary to prune them thoroughly every spring, so that the old wood remaining on will not take vigor that should go to new shoots each year. As one nurseryman puts it: "The greater the growth of new shoots this season the more buds there will be produced, and the more buds there are produced the greater will be the number of flower-producing shoots next season. After the plants have been pruned, spade a quantity of rotted manure into the soil about the base of the plants, to induce a strong growth of new wood during the remainder of the growing season. The flowers will be borne next season on the wood sent out from the now dormant buds. The buds on the wood arising from wood that is two or more years old are invariably weak and when there are strong young shoots coming up from below, the old wood ought to be cut away and the young shoots allowed to take their place." An amateur in rose growing, however, would do best by consult- ing some experienced rose grower before experimenting much with any kind of roses as to pruning. Cut out all old or dead branches, and some of the top should be cut back early each spring. Opinions as to how far this should be done vary. In general about half of the previous season's growth should be cut away. If your roses are from budded roses, cut root sprouts or suckers way back into the soil, so that they will not take life from top growth. Winter Protection. The time at which roses should be given winter protection varies so much as to climate that no exact date can be named. In freezing latitudes all roses are benefited by some protection, even the so-called hardy ones. In some mild localities tender roses will need only a mound of earth covered with long manure and reaching up above the 210 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING lower branches. The top will be winter-killed, but as this is pruned in the spring it will not injure the plant. There will be enough canes left for the next summer's blossoms. In severe climates, though, much more thorough means must be used to keep roses in good condition through 20 degrees below zero blizzards. I give several methods, used by different rose growers with success. For number one, put from 6 to 8 inches of dry leaves or straw on the ground, after breaking up the soil around the bushes so that the canes can be bent down as far as possible. This layer of leaves not only keeps the canes from cracking when bent down, but also insures a dry bed for the winter, with no ice to settle around the roots of the plant. If there are several bushes together, mulch the whole plot heavily with well rotted manure before laying down. Then use the leaves as above. If possible, arrange the bent canes so that they slant up on a slight incline. After they are well laid and fastened down with pegs, cover with leaves or straw, followed by a layer of sods placed upside down, or else by tar paper. Over this put coarse manure and a top layer of sand. Poisoned corn meal sprinkled among the canes or bushes will kill mice. Do not uncover too early in the spring. This covering can be taken off in layers, beginning on the north side of the rose bed. Take about ten days for the process of uncovering, remov- ing about one-third at a time, and leaving the mulching to be spaded in. Another method of winter protection for roses, where it is not convenient to lay them down on the ground, may be followed. Wrap a thick coat of long rye straw around them with binding twine. Then wind with burlap or an old grain sack from one to six inches of thick- ness. But this method is not advised for a cold climate, nor for ten- der varieties of roses. For a climate where the winters are cold, yet there is little snow on the ground, the most hardy varieties are the Scotch pink, Madame Plantier, white, which is a generous bloomer, the moss pink, the cin- namon rose and Harrison's yellow. Many rose growers claim that these need no protection beyond that given to any hardy shrub ; but by way of extra precaution it can do no harm to put a barrel or box around these, which can be filled with leaves, fine straw or hay. A banana crate makes also a good covering, filled in the same way, and fastened down by slats to keep it from being blown over by winds. Such coverin!?;s for tenderer roses can be banked on the outside with stable manure and litter, which should not be removed before May 1. The rest of the protection about May 15. Imported roses can be safely wintered by this method. If a permanent protection is desired, prepare several twelve-inch lengths of one by two-inch boards by sharpening one end enough to drive them in the ground. Bore half inch holes in these two inches from the top end. Through these, after putting them in the ground on each side of the rose bush, after laying down the canes, insert half inch strips of light wood. This will leave the canes above the ground well and prevent breaking. The pegs can be used each year. TH E FLO W E R G A RD E N 211 Rose Hedge. For a rose hedge dig a trench about 3 feet deep and 4 feet wide. Fill in to about 18 inches with thick grass sods, grass side down, and above this put 8 or 10 inches of good soil, mixed with well rotted manure. Set the plants then and fill up to the top with black soil and sand on the top. For hedges, either one color or a variety of species can be used. This last method insures flowers for a longer time. Set the bushes from 16 to 18 inches apart in the row and incline each row up slightly. An excellent way to get liquid manure for the rose garden is to fill a barrel or box with manure. This receptacle should have a few holes bored in the bottom and be set up slanting so that the leach from it will run into a trough or pail. Give this plenty of water and wet the soil around the roses once a week Avith the leach from it. Your roses will soon show its value, in size, color and perfume. If you find you have roses planted in the wrong location, the only thing to do is to transplant to a sunny, bright place, away from tree growths, which will be likely to take up the soil values. When To Plant. The best time for planting is in the early spring. If you are get- ting your roses from a nursery do not open up the plants until the ground is ready, but wrap and store them in the cellar after sprinkling well. Cut back the plants to six-inch canes and set them in the pre- pared holes, filling in firmly around the well spread out roots and watering abundantly as you do this. Be sure to fill thoroughly, and press down hard, as firming the earth well is one great secret of any planting. Don't tread the soil. Where roses are on their own roots set a couple of inches deeper than when in the nursery. If the plants are budded, set several inches deeper, so that the bud will be about three inches below the surface. As there are many fine varieties of roses that are too weak to grow on their own roots with success, it is always worth while to try the grafted kind, bedded on hardy stock. Growing Rose Cuttings. Roses on their own roots can be grown by any amateur gardener by taking cuttings in the fall, about 8 to 10 inches long, and keeping them over winter in moist sand. In the spring plant out in soil pre- pared as above, and transplant the second year to their permanent home. There are so many kinds of such roses to be had that the amateur rose gardener can experiment with little expense in this way, getting cuttings from friends or from nurseries, where such cuttings can be had cheaply. There is, of course, more pleasure from your own results of this kind, if your labors are at all successful, than there is from nursery stock, though the latter can be had very cheaply. If you want to get a few fall flowers from your outdoor rose plants, try pruning them. As son as they are through blooming, cut back this season's growth to a very few bud stubs — a half dozen is enough. The shoots that will develop from this pruning will bear blossoms in the fall, wherever early frosts are not likely. Judicious 212 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING pruning all the season will not harm. It can be done while picking the blossoms. Planting Climbers. The president of the Minnesota State Rose Society gives much valuable information as to planting climbers in the following direc- tions: "Dig a hole 2 feet square by 3 feet deep. Fill in partly with stones or brick in the bottom for drainage. Fill in the hole with rich earth mixed with well rotted manure and a small quantity of bone meal. "Have the manure well rotted, or if fresh, put below the roots so as not to burn them. Plant these climbers in April or first part of May to become well established before fall, planting about a foot away from a brick wall, for the brick absorbs a great deal of moisture. A stone wall would be cold. Climbers can be planted in standing posi- tion with the roots well away, if planted near walls. I shall speak here of the winter protection necessary for climbing roses. "Draw the soil up about the main stem, about 4 inches high, place straw on the ground, making a warm bed for the vine to lie upon ; take the rose from the trellis (and by the way, do not use poultry wire for roses, as they push through the wire and are hard to take down in the fall) ; draw the branches together, lay them down on the straw, cover them carefully with straw about a foot deep, finally covering all with tar paper to keep out water. "Rugosa roses are hardy Japanese roses, making a dense growth, foliage rough of a dark, glossy green. They bloom during the sum- mer, the blooms followed by rich orange red seed-pods, which are most ornamental ; but if the blooms are allowed to mature, the season of bloom is checked. "Climbing roses and the Rugosas must not be placed in the rose bed proper. The Wichraina and its hybrid Dorothy Perkins, are splendid for banks and trellis, magnificent as pillar roses and on arches. The Wichuraniana has star-like white blossoms, with a delightful fragrance ; its foliage is its chief beauty, with leaves about the size of the leaves of the smilax. "The Dorothy Perkins is a beautiful shell pink, fragrant and full, blooming in clusters, late in June. The growth is exceedingly strong, foliage glossy green, retaining this appearance all summer. I cannot say too much in praise of this rose." Tea-Roses. The hybrid tea-rose is hard to raise in the north, but it can be successfully grown if much protection is given. To be most effective the plants should be in masses of from 20 to 100 planted together, all of one kind in a bed. They should be about 18 inches apart, making about 12 plants in a bed 6 feet in diameter and 2)7 plants in a bed 10 feet in diameter. The hybrid tea and poly- antha roses should be planted in the spring in the north and the hybrid perpetuals in either spring or fall. Each spring the plants should be pruned, the dead wood being cut back and the remaining shoots cut THE FLOWER GARDEN 213 back four or six eyes. When planting", cut back the shoots to two or three eyes. Among the best of the tea roses and hybrid tea roses are the Kaiserin Augusta Victoria (very tender), white; La France, pink; Killarney. flesh tint ; Helen Gould, cherry red ; Perle des Jardins and Betty, yellow. Pink Manian Cochet and White Maman Cochet are a beautiful variety, remaining in good condition long after cutting. All tea roses are excellent as giving freely of cuttings for the house during the summer. Most tea roses are best cut when about three- quarters open. The following list of roses for a northern climate is taken from a valuable article on rose growing, presented by J. M. Underwood, of Lake City, Minnesota, at a meeting of the State Horticultural Society. This list has been chosen because it comes from a practical gardener accustomed to a northern cjimate and is therefore desirable for other localities, as well as reliable. Hardy Roses: Cinnamon, Old Blush, Wild Roses, Scotch Roses. June Roses : Magna Charta, Madame Plantier, Harrison's Yel- low, Persian Yellow. Rugosa Roses : Alba, Rubra and Madam G. Bruant. Moss Roses: Scarlet, Crested, Princess Adelaide, Countess de Murinais. Climbing Roses: Prairie Queen, Crimson Rambler, Baltimore Belle, Gem of the Prairie, Seven Sisters, Dorothy Perkins. Hybrid Perpetual : Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron, Margaret Dixon, Alfred Colomb. Ulrich Brunner, Mrs. John Laing, Marchioness of Londonderry, Anne de Diesbach, Frau Karl Druschki, Mabel Morri- son. Rose Pests. Roses are very subject to various pests. The best way to keep them away is to keep the plants healthy by manuring and cultivation. If the thrip lice or fly appears, syringe the plants daily with a solution of tobacco stems; 1 lb. of stems to 5 gals, of water; or. a solution of whale oil soap, 1 lb. of soap to 8 gals, of water, until the insects are conquered. The rose bugs, which work at the flowers, must be picked oflf. The presence of the rose caterpillar can be detected by its glueing two or more leaves together to form a shelter. Such leaves should be promptly pressed together with thumb and finger. Insects which eat the leaves can be destroyed by a mixture of white hellebore and flour, half and half. Sprinkle when the foliage is damp. Scale will attack stems and twigs. For this, a very weak kero- sene emulsion applied early in the season may save from any further attack during the summer. Rose lice — tiny, bright green insects — sometimes make their appearance in a twenty-four hours, in great numbers. Kerosene emulsion, or whale oil soap, sprayed on so that it will get on the under side of the leaves, are either of them good remedies. Rose bugs and beetles can be killed by poisoning the flowers and leaves with Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead. Make a thick 214 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING lather of common kitchen soap and drop the lather with the hand on all the affected plants, till they are one mass of soap suds. If the leaves or roses mildew or rust, apply Bordeaux mixture. Rose-Jar. An old and tried New York recipe for a rose jar is this: Gather the petals every morning, and after the dew is dried, place the petals in a large glass jar, sprinkling salt over half-inch layers of the flowers. Add to these each morning until you have enough, letting them stand in the jar for ten days after the last are put in, stirring the whole every morning. Have one ounce each of cloves and allspice, coarsely ground, and as much stick cinnamon, broken and shredded fine. Transfer the flowers to another jar and scatter the spices mixed to- gether in layers. Cover the jar tightly and let it stand in a dark place for three weeks. Have ready one-quarter ounce of mace and one-half ounce of allspice and cloves, all coarsely ground — or pounded in a mortar — half of a grated nutmeg, one-half ounce of cinnamon, broken in bits, one ounce of powdered orris root and one-fourth pound of dried lavender leaves. Mix these together in a bowl and proceed to fill the rose jar with alternate layers of the "stock" and the mixture of spices. A few drops of several essential oils — rose, geranium, bit- ter almond and orange flower are good — should be dropped upon the layers as you progress. Over the whole pour one ounce of some favorite toilet water. This recipe is sufficient to fill two quart jars or one large one, and will last for years. The jar should have a double cover. The Best All-Round Greenhouse. From "Garden and Farm Almanac" The best type of greenhouse for all-round purposes is unquestion- ably what is known as the even span — that is, a house in which the roof is in the form of an inverted V, so as to be exposed as much as possible to sunlight, and having the ridge-pole in the centre. All other types of houses are modifications from this simplest form, and are designed in some way or other to fit some special requirements. These requirements may be: the cultural necessities inside, more or less abnormal at given seasons (as in a forcing house) ; or an adapta- tion to some peculiarity of the situation, as when a greenhouse is built as an adjunct to other buildings. It is plain common-sense that the ideal greenhouse is one in which the light is most nearly that which exists outside, and in which the heat is as evenly distributed. It is practical experience that a structure with as few angles and turns in it as possible, and with a minimum of woodwork in its superstructure, best answers these con- ditions. From the earliest days of greenhouse construction, the line of development has been toward a reduction of the timber and an in- crease in the size of the panes of glass, until today the accepted stand- ard of size for the glass, where the question of snow-weight is not a serious one, is sixteen inches wide. Even larger sizes are used in the best style of modern construction, and panes 24 x 24 inches are quite THEFLOWERGARDEN 215 popular in commercial buildings, and there is apparently actually less breaking in the larger sizes ; 16 x 24 inches is a popular size. The weight of snow, however, is not a very serious problem, except on flat pitches if the inside temperature is kept to about 60 degrees. Of course, the larger the pane, the greater the light inside the house, and the more natural the growing conditions of the plants, but as an off- set to this is the expense of the larger sizes. Not only is the loss for repairs greater, but the ratio of cost increases very greatly in the larger sizes. It is impossible to make a quotation on the price of glass. It fluctuates almost as much as Wall Street securities. Six- teen-inch glass, or even fourteen-inch, will be found thoroughly prac- tical and economical in use. The Sash Greenhouse. The cheapest form of practical greenhouse is made by using hot- bed sash supported on a skeleton frame, from which they can be re- moved entirely in summer time. The standard size for the sash is 6 X 3 ft., and the house can therefore be made in any multiples of three feet, as regards length. The width of the house is governed by the pitch of the roof. Using two sash for an even span, the ends of the sash supported by a central ridge-pole, a width of about ten feet would be had, giving the pitch to the roof a rise of about seven inches to the foot. Such a house can be built for very moderate cost. The lumber for a house may be estimated roughly at about $3 per lineal foot, and the glass at $1.50 per foot. Carpentering and other labor will vary from $2.50 to $3 a foot; and together with heating a house of this style twenty feet long, may be erected for possibly $250. If iron frame is used, instead of all wood, there is greater durability, and the structure being more slender, will admit more light, but the cost will be increased by perhaps $100. Comparative Costs. It makes very little difference what form of house is to be erected. The cost per lineal foot for an even span is practically the same as for a lean-to of the same length and width. In the lean-to, in order to get the sufficient bench and walk space inside, it is necessar}^ to carry the roof to a point much higher than in the even span house. The extra framework and material for the roof cost a good deal, yet add practically nothing to the efficiency of the house. The three-quarter span house, which differs from the even span, in having the ridge nearer to one side, and a short span from there down to the top of a high wall is equivalent to a lean-to with a few feet on the top cut off and turned over. It is a practical house for fruit trees particularly, where the main object is to maintain a slight degree of forcing. Such a house should stand with its exposure to the south; in other words, it should extend east and west; the object being to secure as much of the sun's heat as possible rather than abundance of light. For ordinary plants, such as the amateur will grow in a general collection, a lean-to is not so well adapted as the even span because 216 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING the illumination being all from one side, the plants get drawn in that direction, just the same as they do in the ordinary window- garden. Where the glass structure is designed for ornamental purposes as much as for utility, what is known as the curvilinear roof is very popular because it does away with the straight lines and sharp angles which characterize the simple greenhouse. The curved line adds a degree of beauty, and where this is an important consideration, a little of utility may be sacrificed for the sake of art. The Roof Pitch. Greenhouse builders vary the degree of pitch of the roof up and down from 7>4 inches to the foot, but it is always somewhere around that figure, which is equivalent to an angle of 32 degrees. This angle allows the sunlight to pass through the glass most directly for the longest time during the day, together with accomplishing the very desirable object of quickly shedding the snow. A roof that ap- proaches the flat presents a big problem in winter, and artificial means may have to be resorted to in order to remove the snow and admit light to the growing plants, but its most serious objection is the impossibility of making it tight — it will surely leak. A pitch of six inches to the foot is as low as should be built. A much higher pitch, while solving the snow and leakage problems, results in a great loss of light at the times of year when the sun does not rise very high and when it is most needed. In the curvilinear roof there is always some one portion, it is true, at which the sun's rays strike at right angles, but in by far the larger portion the glass is standing at all variations from that to the per- pendicular, when practically no light is passed through. Another objection is that this very pretty roof is certainly 10 per cent more costly. The Direction of the Sun. There is a division of opinion as to how a house should be placed in relation to the sun. One that is built entirely of glass should per- haps best run north and south. It is evident that this will give the greatest exposure to the sun during the longest numbers of hours, both sides receiving illumination at some time during the day. The small end of the house to the north is the only portion that does not receive the sun directly. For this very reason, it is better to select a south wall of a house for the ordinary conservatory, or lean-to greenhouse, when such is erected in connection with the dwelling. The north side of such a house has no glass whatever. Most florists, however, are now plac- ing their carnation and rose houses east and west. The Commonest Blunders. The chief mistakes which the amateur is likely to make in con- structing his own greenhouse are these : 1. Insecure framework. 2. Too heavy lumber and other than cypress. THEFLOWERGARDEN 217 3. Incorrect pitch to the roof. 4. Lack of economy in internal space. 5. Skimping the walls and foundations. Perhaps the last is the most common of all, and when the winter comes, the problem of maintaining a proper growing temperature causes more anxiety than the whole crop of the house is worth. A greenhouse must be built for winter; it is not an uncommon sight to see an otherwise very pretty and satisfactory little house which has to be boarded up and packed all around the foundations with some heat-retaining material, so as to keep the inside comfortable. The saving of perhaps $100 or even less, at the very beginning of things, thus results in an annual expenditure in hard cash of perhaps $10 or $15 and always with the risk of the weather being just a little bit more severe than usual, and the result being a total loss of the most valuable plants. The Question of Width. The standard widths for greenhouses are 6 feet 8 inches for a lean-to with one bench, and 9 feet 4 inches for a lean-to with two benches, and a central walk. The difference in width which gives the extra bench is very slight and the cost for twenty-five feet is for the single bench $450, for the double bench $700. An even span house 9x17 ft. all wood frame, boiler and heating complete, can be erected for $500. Heating the House. In a greenhouse in which a general collection of plants is to be grown it is necessary to maintain a temperature of from fifty-five to sixty degrees, when it is zero weather outside. Lettuce and violets may be grown in a house which runs ten degrees lower than this, but no one should build a greenhouse of the ordinary type, and calculate on maintaining a lower degree of heat than what is here given. Heating is best done by hot water, and in a small house the pipes may well be connected with the heating system used for the dwelling, if the greenhouse and the home are within any sort of reasonable distance from each other. For large houses or ranges of several houses together, the independent heating plant is necessary. Steam is used for heating by commercial florists, but it is economical only on a large scale. As a uniform degree of temperature must be main- tained in the house, the fires, where steam is used, need watching con- tinuously during cold weather, for the moment the water ceases to boil, the pipes cool ofif, and some considerable time is consumed in starting the heat running again. With hot water there is much more latitude in attention, for though the fires dwindle, the water which fills the pipes will carry heat for a long time, and it will circulate until the last degree is radiated. But a hot water system costs in the installation about one-fourth more than steam. Very small houses may be successfully heated by kerosene stoves, which may be placed inside the house. The fumes which may be given ofif are not likely to be seriously injurious to plants. A much better way would be to use oil heaters for an inside water circulation, carrying ofif all products of 218 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING combustion by means of a flue. Coal stoves should never be installed inside the house. It has been done successfully by some amateurs, but the danger of coal gas being driven back into the house by a down draft in the chimney is always present, and is too great a risk to run. Coal gas and illuminating gas are two virulent poisons of plants. Figuring the Heating. How to maintain a minimum of 55 degrees? It's quite easy to know what to do. Find the area of your glass surface in square feet, and allow one foot of radiating surface for every three feet of glass. Walls up to two and one half feet high are generally ignored in mak- ing the calculations for heating. If they are anything more than this, allow one-fifth of the area as equivalent to glass. Heating is usually laid on by 4-inch (outside measure) cast iron pipe, if water is used, and one lineal foot of this equals one square foot of radiating surface. Another commonly used size is 2-inch wrought iron, of which 1.6 lineal feet is equivalent to one square foot of radiating surface. Having ascertained the amount of radiating surface necessary, it is an easy matter, upon reference to the catalogues of greenhouse builders and boiler makers, to decide upon the capacity of the boiler to be bought. These details are all tabulated. Though as a matter of fact it may be taken for granted that the maker's statement represents slightly under the full efficiency of the boiler, yet there is nothing like having reserve power, and the ama- teur who wants comfort in his greenhouse, and comfort in running it in heavy weather, will purchase a boiler which is listed to feed at least 25 per cent more area than he really requires. There is not only re- serve power for unusual strains but a big, deep fire can be operated with so much less labor, and actually during the winter months, with a less consumption of coal than would be the case with a boiler that was piped to its full efficiency. CHAPTER XV Qees BEE keeping is a profitable business if the bees are rightfully cared for. The bee is the wisest of the wise among the ani- mal kingdom. He rises early, flies afar to the hills and loads himself with the finest of the sweets that the land affords. Day after day he grades these as he gathers them, putting the beautiful white clover honey by itself, the basswood by itself, and the buck- wheat flavor has its own place. Selecting and arranging in this or- derly fashion he continues through the season of bloom, going miles often for honey. As a co-worker on the farm, he is an excellent aid to the pollenizing of fruits, and as a syrup and sugar factory he is a marvel of mechanism and industry. Bee keeping, in order to pay, must be conducted on simple, cheap, but effective principles. A safe rule for the beginner is to buy only such fixtures as he cannot get along without. An extension ladder to get a swarm of bees down from a tall tree is better than any swarm catcher on the market. If one does not "fuss' too much a good many bee colonies can be taken care of on a farm without neglecting any of the farm work. On a poultry farm, bees can well be kept, as the hardest part of the bee work comes when poultry work is compara- tively light. The most important thing to remember in bee keeping is to make them pay for themselves as you go. Begin small, and in- crease only as you can see that it will pay to do so. Then you will not pay too dearly for your experience. Yet bees must have systematic and consistent attention. The writer has seen 150 to 200 colonies put in the cellar in November, and the same number taken out in April, alive and in good shape for work. The Essentials. Three essentials were necessary for this: a good queen, not more than one or two years old (a queen from the present season's raising is still better) ; an allowance of from 25 to 40 pounds of honey, accord- ing to the location, to each colony, or of sugar syrup ; and a good cellar, free from damp, with a temperature that does not vary more than two or three degrees during the winter. If the covers are re- moved, and this was the method followed in this instance, the hives are better ventilated. But the frames must be covered with good, heavy ducking just after supers have been taken ofif. This allows the bees to seal down the cloth, and gives a bee tight cover when the board is removed. Spring is the best time to make a start with bees. If you are a beginner, and don't know a good colony from a poor one, bargain with a neighbor for the first swarms that issue. The early swarms yield a 220 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING good lot of honey, at least enough to pay for the bees, and they are sure to have the most prolific queens, which means thousands of work- ers for the season. Of course, you will inspect your bees before buy- ing; and equally, of course, you will inspect the hives you buy. Get good moveable hives first — the kind that are loose from the bottom boards, fastened on by two hooks and staples on each side. In hot weather all hives need to be raised for ventilation, and the bottom board should be cleaned often. A good, strong colony ought to weigh at least five pounds, which would mean about 12,000 bees. Face the hives south or east, and near a good hedge of evergreens, fruit trees or grape trellises as a protection both from too much wind or too much sun. Never open hives when the early spring day is too cold for bees to be flying freely. In moving bees from one location to another be careful not to smother them by too close confinement. Bees readily adjust themselves to a new location. Protect the Hives. A double covering on windy days is desirable, so that late snows or cold rains may not chill the bees. If you can't do any better, turn a big box over the hive. Be sure to first saw out a little opening that will correspond with the opening of the hive, so that the bees can get fresh air, and so that they can take little flights as the weather warms up. A big box, even without chaff, is a great warmer. If tight at the bottom, so no wind blows in, it gives a chamber of dead air, and that is a good non-conductor. Remember that the bees cannot get honey even on warm days of early spring, except from soft maple blossoms and willows and dande- lions. In late spring warm weather one bee keeper feeds syrup in a large trough at one side of the apiary, using corn cobs or sticks of wood for the bees to alight upon. All spring food must be as thin as water and quite warm. A little experience will tell one very soon how to know when the hives are keeping in good condition. If flying bees are active in May in normally good weather and if there are plenty of bees with pollen on their legs going into the hive you can reasonably conclude that the inside of the hive is doing as it should. Shipping Bees. About May 1st is the best time to buy or sell bees or ship them. In buying bees get good Italian bees in movable frame hives. Get hives heavy with bees, without caring much about the honey weight. See if the cluster nearly fills the hive and if the combs are straight and built in the frames. In moving bees by wagon or shipping by rail- road, do it in April or May. The frames are probably fast with pro- polis, and by nailing a wire screen over the entrance early in the morn- ing, before they begin to fly, the hives are ready for removal. Look the hives over first for cracks and secure the honey board down by nails or screws. The combs are tougher at this season, the honey less, and the bees fewer. Moving in warm weather needs much care. The bees are likely to create a great deal of heat by their agitation, enough to melt the BEES 221 combs. These will fall and smother the colony. It is best to remove the two outside combs if very heavy with honey, and put in some dry and empty ones or some with cold water in them. Also remove the honey board and tack a wire screen over the whole top, protecting it with strips of cloth. This will give upward ventilation. Summary for General Spring Treatment. I give a summary for treatment of bees generally, as soon as spring management can be thought of and the bees are out of the cel- lar. Of course, you have kept an eye to the stocks and as to the sup- ply of honey. Do this by raisng the honey board, pufif in a little smoke and look for sealed honey. If none is in sight a further exam- ination is needed. If no honey is found it will be necessary to give feed. Make it of granulated sugar and half water and sugar, boiled until dissolved, cooled to blood heat, and then feed. Use the pepper box or suction feeder, which can be inverted above a colony and from which they can eat up clean without draggling themselves. Maple sugar is good for bees and a pure New Orleans syrup — not a purified one — will be eaten by the bees. Do not feed if the hive has plenty of honey. A teacupful of syrup every other evening is enough for a large colony, unless continuous breeding is going on, when a teacup- ful every evening should be given. During April and May this is very important. Often even in June there will be a cold rain. The bees can get no honey and the lack of sufficient feeding makes such inroads by the young bees on the honey accumulated that the colonies have starved. The bees often eat their own larvae then. Therefore be sure to look well after the feeding question. Bees require constant management of this sort in order to make them profitable. Bees left to do as they please will swarm three or four times in the season, requiring many hives and thus greatly add- ing to the expense. This can be prevented by giving additional room at the right time, before the bees prepare to swarm, but not before honey begins to come into the hive. If the extra supers are put on too early they may hinder brood rearing. But if too late, and the queen cells are started, it is almost impossible to prevent a swarm. Give the extra supers at just the right time, when as many as fifty bees are coming out per minute and are showing much activity. Give good ventilation, also, and shade the hives in the middle of the day and you can control swarming to a great extent. Some bee keepers take out their queens in June, not allowing the bees to swarm at all. By this method the storing of a large surplus of honey goes on. "It is well to keep watch and try to find out what flowers the bees are working on and notice whether or not they are bringing in honey. By lifting the honey board or cover board it is easy to see whether they are getting more than is needed by the increasing brood. If honey can be seen in the top cells and bits of white new comb are being built on top of the frames, put on the supers at once. But you can't do these things in the nick of time unless you have supers ready." The first day after being set out of the cellar in the spring, bees are eager for water and large quantities will be brought in. Open the 222 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING entrance wide the first day so that all can have a free chance to fly and clean out the hive of dead bees, but on the evening of the first day con- tract the entrance w^ith blocks to two inches. The bees will be better able to protect themselves from robber bees and to keep warm. Don't leave bits of honey about the yard at this season. The bees taste it, and it excites them with the desire to rob. The strong bees will then get stung to death from robber bees and the weak will be overpow- ered. Soon your bees will begin to show the results of good care in the spring if they went into winter hibernating with a young queen, who is now laying eggs and has been all through the spring. The bees will be flying far, and all this outside bustle will mean combs in the hive filled with capped brood, larvas and eggs, and plenty of bees to darken them. At the same time enough honey for food and sur- plus is being stored along the top bars or the corners of the frame. Your bees are on the job again. Safe Wintering. The most important part of the bee keeping is their safe winter- ing. If the bee hives have been managed during the summer accord- ing to the previous directions this will not be such a care as it seems. A good queen — not too old — for each colony, and plenty of late hatched bees, with good honey — (June honey is the best) — generally insure safe wintering, though the cellar must be dry. In states where the mercury drops to 40 below zero occasionally and stays below freezing for weeks at a time extra precautions must be taken as to cellar keeping. In mild climates outdoor wintering is generally prac- ticed, but this method is more expensive as to preparations and the bees take more honey. A cellar gives the three most needed requisites for bee wintering, which are, absolute darkness, quiet and a tempera- ture at about 50 degrees. If you can keep potatoes in good condition through the winter you can keep bees there. For a cold climate the hives should be taken into the cellar on a dry day, sometime near the 1st of November. The hives should be raised from the ground a little, and racks on each side of the cellar, slanted one inch incline from back to front and strong enough to hold several hives placed above each other will be needed. Leave all upper covers outside and the entrance wide open for several days. Ventilate by an upward tube 6 inches square. Each colony should have about three pounds of honey per month during winter. Use no artificial heat, but simply make your cellar frost safe and regulate the heat by opening or closing ventilators. A cellar 8 feet deep, in a sandy soil, is the best. For such a cellar 40 degrees all winter is a safe tempera- ture. The more honey you can give your bees the better will be their condition in the spring. The success of your whole season will depend upon the strength that each colony brings from the winter confine- ment. They must have enough food also to keep them raising broods during April and May, for it is the early bee that gets the June honey plentifully for a surplus. Don't worry if 3'ou don't hear your bees BEES 223 hum, and don't begin to bring the hives out of the cellar into the open air with the very first warm days. The bees are wiser than we. They don't hum because they know there is nothing for them to do yet, with no flowers open, and they would only wear themselves out flying for food. The queens also ought to be laying well by March, and if the broods get a chill by a change of temperature the colony is that much weaker. Stick to the cellar, at least in the 30 degrees below zero states, until warm weather. Sweep up the dead bees once in two weeks in the winter. Brush them ofif from the entrance board to the hives, and dig them out from the bottom of the hive with a long, slim splinter. They must not be left to interfere with the ventilation of the bunched up colonies. Keep the bee cellar sweet and clean for the health of the family also, as well as for that of the bees. If a whole cellar cannot be given up to bees, in order to be sure of dark quarters, partition off a part with studding and building paper. I will add here some directions as to arranging hives in the cellar, which are very exact and detailed and are given by a professional bee keeper. They are intended for a large number of colonies: Arranging Hives. "The proper way to arrange hives in the cellar is to put down scantling the proper width apart and nail with lath to keep them in place, using a spirit level to set them so that the hives won't 'teeter' when put in place. Begin at one end and set them down four inches apart, and after completing one row remove the covers and raise each hive off the bottom by two little blocks, J^-inch thick. This gives plenty of ventilation and allows a space for dead bees. Before pro- ceeding with the next row, cover the first one with old carpet, grain sacks or any cloth that may be handy, placing on top of that a y% strip the whole length of the row and at the rear of the hives. This piece is to equalize the blocks at the entrance so that the next row sits level. It also helps to bind the rows together so that they will remain per- fectly steady if piled five or six rows high." Don't take bees out of the cellar as soon as the snow is all off and a few warm days appear. In the northwestern middle states from the 15th of April to about May 1st is the best time. If you wait too long and flowers appear, the bees will fly too freely every day and get so much pollen that the queen bee will lay too many eggs and the old bees will have too much to do in flying and brood-rearing. This exhausts them needlessly and they die off before the young hatch out, as most of the eggs laid by the queen are laid after the hives are set out. About three weeks after being put out the young bees hatch, and by this time, if the hives are set out after blossom time, the old bees have died out so much that the outside combs of brood die or wither down to a small number. On the other hand, by setting out hives early on a warm day, the bees begin to breed at once. But after the first cold snap comes again the old bees stay inside and attend to the brood, there being no temptation to long flights. They thus keep the brood nests warm, and the young bees begin to hatch out while 224 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING the old ones are with them. The hive is much warmer and the young bees are saved until settled warm weather comes. Clip the queen's wings in the early part of May. This prevents high swarming or wood nests. Open a hive without smoking, if pos- sible, raise the combs quickly till you see the queen, catch her by both wings with the right hand, clip the thin gauzy part oflf one wing and set her back on the comb, closing the hive at once. This can be done as soon as a queen is laying and no harm done. Never clip a virgin queen, as mating is done in the air. If clipped she will never be mated. One mating for life is enough. In the spring great care should be used in taking bees out of the hives. They will chill if very near the ground. A little sprinkling of quite long straw, scattered on the ground close to the hives, is a good safeguard. The bees will fall on the straw and can crawl into the hives. Bees in a Cave. One bee keeper winters his bees in a cave built in a side hill. The cave is ceiled with stone flagging; and over this are several feet of earth which is kept dry by means of gable roof. Back of this cave, to the northwest, is a fence which causes the roof to be covered, in win- ter, with drifted snow. There are four doors to pass through, in enter- ing the cave, thus providing three dead air spaces. It is hardly neces- sary to say that this cave is both dry and warm and is shielded from noises of all kinds. In many of the middle states, bees are wintered outdoors with success, but in such conditions the hives are packed in outer protec- tion, usually cases made from dry goods boxes. These cases should be painted dark to absorb as much of the sun's rays as possible. It is best not to fill in at the bottom of the case. An air space of a few inches is best here. For the rest of the air space use some good pack- ing material, and have five or six inches of this on top. Do this pack- ing on a day when the bees are able to fly. The opening in the win- ter case must be cut to correspond with that of the hive. For winter this should be contracted to three-eighths by three inches for good, strong colonies. For weak ones three-eighths by two inches is better. Anything deeper than the three-eighths inch will admit mice. The little field mice will even go through a less depth than this. In southern and more temperate climates a good substantial hive with a tight roof will keep rain and snow from the colony when out- doors. Be sure to have a full width entrance, but no top ventilation in such cases. The bees must have air, but a draft is very bad. Have the entrances shallow and long instead of round. Uniting Stock. It is a good plan when uniting weak stocks with stronger, to choose a time when swarms begin to leave a strong colony. When the swarm is in the air, set the parent hive ofT the stand, put a new one with wax starters on this and hive the new swarm in it. Open the parent hive, shake the remaining bees down in front and let them run in with the swarm. The brood combs can be given to a small Bees in glass case— making the comb. BEES 225 colony with a good queen. This will bring up the weak stock rapidly, and in a week or so they will be making surplus honey. February is a good time to get what extra hives are needed. Any man — or woman — handy with tools, can not only make their own hives, but some for the neighbors. If you can't do that, buy them in the flat and put them together. The old plain Langstroth hive is as good today as it ever was, and there are more of these in use today than of all the other kinds together. As to sections, the old style 4^4x434 one is practical and simple for the small bee keeper. Sec- tions and starters are necessary if comb honey is to be produced for the market. But be sure to have these in the supers in plenty of time before the swarming season is due. If you get this surplus depart- ment ready before the rush of spring work is on at the farm you will be ready to meet the bee half way, when he is ready for work. It has been said truly that "a. bee never begins business until he is thorough- ly ready to carry it on, and then he never does it by halves." Feeding the Bees. September is the best time to feed bees that are short of honey to winter on. Inspect your bees the first of September. If there is less than from 12 to 14 pounds in the hive, stored compactly in the center of the brood apartment, for each swarm or colony, then feed them while the weather is warm. This will do away with the winter fussing and be much better in the end. The syrup must be placed in the hive so that no other swarms or hives can get in to rob. To do this, close the entrance but be sure that the bees have plenty of air. Never allow bees to enter winter quarters without plenty of stores for food. Syrup for winter feeding should be made much richer than that for spring feeding: To fifteen quarts of water brought to a boil, add thirty pounds of granulated sugar. Stir till all is dissolved, bring to a boil and skim. Cool and add three pounds of extracted honey, which prevents the hardening of the syrup in the feeders. Another good way to make and feed the syrup is to bring to a boil two quarts of water and dissolve in it four quarts of granulated sugar. Boil and skim. Try a little in a saucer by stirring with a spoon until cold. If thick enough to cake it is ready to work. If not, boil more and try again. When thick, set in a cool place and stir till it turns white. Pour upon buttered plates in amounts that will weigh about two pounds, and let this harden into cakes. Lay these cakes on the frames above the bees. Keep the cellar at a temperature of fifty or fifty-five degrees, and the bees will winter as well as though fed honey. Great care must be taken not to brown or scorch the syrup while boiling, as then it will kill the bes. Shipping Bees and Honey. It is well, in shipping bees, to tack on a shipping card warning against letting the bees stand in the sun. In selling honey cultivate your nearest market before trying the big cities. Keep the honey on sale there the year around. It has been said that every town of one thousand people will, consume a ton of honey a year if the producer 225 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING handles his market ric^ht. Not many farmers keep bees, and there- fore even in a farming- community there is a demand. At any rate, don't try the big cities until you have solicited your own home mar- kets thoroughly. It is important to put your honey on the market in first class shape. Keep the honey in a very dry and warm place, espe- cially the comb honey, or extracted honey. Grade the comb honey and bottle and label the extracted. Candied honey should be sacked. Have your own trade mark and never allow it to stand for an inferior article. An Oregon bee keeper gives these directions for making sacked honey, or candied honey. This honey product can be handled and shipped with such ease that it commends itself to the man who keeps bees for profit : "To prepare honey for 'sacking' it is first run through a straining machine and it might be added that comb honey not up to the stand- ard makes a 'sacked honey' of first g^rade. After straining-, the honey is placed in large vats and set out in the open, when the heat of the sun clarifies it. The vats are tightly covered that no dust or im- purities can enter. The clear honey is drawn ofif after it has remained two weeks in the vats. It is then put in sacks and allowed to stand exposed to the air a few days. It then candies or solidifies, and is ready to be put in rolls for the market." Bee Pests and Diseases. Bees are no longer considered immune to disease. In fact, the germ question for bee keepers is almost as pressing as it is to the medical world and the human race generally. In this matter, though, it is just as true as with man, that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Keep only strong colonies and then bend every effort to maintaining the strength of the colonies by proper winter care and inspection. Foul brood is becoming one of the most dreaded of bee diseases, as it works so insidiously that a whole apiary may be in- fected before the fact is known. Nearly everything hinges upon how well the bees come through the winter, and their well being at this time, granted that the hives go in in strong condition, depends chiefly upon three things : an ample supply of food, even temperature, and good ventilation, but no chills — eternal vigilance, in fact. The wax moth is another pest of the bee keeping business. This moth is hatched from eggs laid by a brown miller, such as can be seen around hives in summer. As these eggs are always present in combs that bees are on_during the winter, put all empty combs that are hung up or stored away in some place where they will be frozen all winter long and hang them with an inch space between them. If there is am- ple space on both sides of a comb it is seldom destroyed by the worms. The best way to protect from this moth is to keep your colonies strong and provided with a queen. In strong colonies the bees drag out every worm as fast as it appears. Beeswax. In making beeswax by home methods use soft water and bright tin ware or granite ware enameled. If possible do the work outside BEES 227 tile house or in some out building-. Use great care as to boiling over, on account of the inflammable nature of the process. If you have a large quantity the wash boiler may be needed. Make coarse sacks of loosely woven material, put in the comb, pound them well, tie the sacks closely and lay on a piece of board laid on the botton of the vessel you use. Fit another board on top and weight down by heavy weights. Cover with water, boil slowly, let the wax cool over night and remove next day. Or, if you want to boil up more comb, skim off wax, and add combs, and water as needed. For clarified yellow wax, melt a second time, strain into a vessel with water in it with flaring sides. Put in oven and cool very slowly. The "ABC of Bee Culture" gives a simple way of treating combs if you want a small quantity of bees wax. "Take an old dripping pan and split open one corner. Put the bits of comb in the pan and put the pan in the oven of the cook stove, leaving its door open. Let the leaking corner of the pan project out of the oven with a dish beneath to catch the wax, and have the end of the pan inside the oven raised an inch. The heat of the stove will do the rest." But the finest wax is produced by a solar wax extractor. This is a box lined with tin and covered with glass and placed in a sunny spot in the yard at such an angle as to get the direct rays of the sun. These extractors are sold by supply dealers at from $4.00 to $6.00, or you could make one if you saw a picture of it. I don't think they are patented. One of these sitting in the yard, into which all the scraps and scrapings of the hives can be thrown, is a very handy and very satis- factory adjunct. Bee Stings. Persons with weak heart action should be very careful about exposing themselves to bee stings. The first thing to do when one receives a sting is to remove the stinger if possible. This should be scraped off at once, rather than pulled out with the thumb and finger, because the sack containing the poison is usually left by the bee, and as the stinger is a hollow tube, squeezing the poison-sack injects more venom into the flesh. Ammonia applied to the wound is recom- mended. Cold water will allay the pain. If one is at work with bees and receives a sting, the best imme- diate remedy I have found is to smoke the part. As the lighted smoker is usually at hand it is easily applied. This destroys the scent left by the sting and other bees are not attracted by the smell to in- crease the dose. Wet soda, wet mud, or permanganate of potash, if applied at once, will, any one, be a good remedy. Most people become immune after handling bees for a few years, and the poison will not cause much swelling, though it will give as severe pain. . An old bee keeper says : "One must know when and how to handle bees, and when to let them alone. Because one can protect oneself by netting and gloves so as to be almost proof against stings, it is not wise to handle them at all times. Only extreme necessity will warrant it, because when 228 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING once stirred up at an inopportune time the bad effects may remain for a long time. If nectar is scarce and they have a tendency to rob each other, one must be careful when he opens a hive. At such a time, if necessary to examine them or to perform some operation, it should be done toward evening or when few bees are in the air." Another good remedy for the sting of wasps or bees is to apply common table salt, moistened with a little water. Where a bee is accidentally swallowed, and the throat stung, the alarming symptoms that follow are instantly relieved by drinking copiously of salty water. Among the honey-producing plants the basswood makes a honey of delicious flavor. Fruit blooms help the bee out in activity at honey- making; alfalfa, sweet clover, white and alsike clover, melons, cante- loups, cucumbers and buckwheat are each of great value and can all be grown on the farm. The second crop of red clover is also some- times visited by the honey bee, but in the main the bumble-bee is the chief poUenizer of red clover. Unless the second crop of red clover has been dwarfed by dry weather, so that the nectar tubes are shorter, the honey bee cannot reach the nectar. The Life of the Bee. [The following description of the life of the bee was written by Mrs. Barnes of Hamline, Minn., who knew the writer and contributed this most interesting article to this volume.] It is an impossibility to give a full description of the life of that most wonderful little creature known as the honey bee in a few brief pages, since a whole book could be written on the subject. So we have gathered together some of th'e most important facts and will endeavor to give them in such condensed form as these pages will allow. The bee hive may be compared to a city containing from 20,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, whose houses, having no windows, but only doors opening into them, allow each owner to enter, and are just large enough for this and no more. These houses are very evenly built, with here and there a few royal palaces larger than the others, for the queen and princesses. Some of the common houses are used for the storage of food in the summer to feed the inhabitants, and still other houses that are occupied only to live in during winter. Al- though the doors remain open, none of these little citizens ever leave home, except to perform different duties which are done in the proper time, in an orderly and law-abiding manner, thus causing no friction whatever in the upbuilding of this wonderful city. One queen reigns over all, and she also makes herself useful, obey- ing all the laws that concern her work and life among her subjects. And so thousands of these little creatures are busily engaged from sunrise to sunset passing in and out through the door (just large enough for two to pass each other). Although all seems to be dis- order and confusion, yet each one is doing her own appointed work and perfect order reigns over the whole. And now for the way these interesting little workers of this strange and wonderful city go about their daily duties : , BEES 229 A cluster or swarm of bees may be procured on some sunny morninq- in May, by going into a country garden, where they will sometimes be seen hanging in a large bunch to the bough of an old apple tree. Many thousands thus hang together, by each bee clinging with its forelegs to the hinder legs of the one above it. They would, if left alone, soon find a home in some cavity or shelter somewhere and begin to build a honey comb, but wishing to obtain their honey we will bring a hive, hold it under them, and shake the bough gently so that the bees fall into it, whereupon they will cling to the sides as we turn it over on a piece of linen on the stand where the hive is to remain. Almost immediately the industrious little insects will arrange to make their new home. There are the drones or males, large and dark, who never do any work during their whole lives except on one or two days ; the small working bees or barren females, and the queen, blacker than the rest, having a long body and short wings, and which is the fertile bee. Some of the working bees fly off in search of honey. Others see that all cracks in the hive are filled up (they do not like the light to get in), using a sort of gum called propolis, which they gather from plants having sticky buds. Others again cluster around the queen, for she must be watched and tended, while the largest number begin to hang in a cluster as when found on the bough of the apple tree. Presently one bee settles on the ceiling of the hive and turns round and round to make room for herself to work in, then with her fore legs she brings a scale of wax from a sort of pocket located under the abdomen, and holding it in her upper jaws she bites and moistens it with her tongue, forming a paste which she draws out like a ribbon and plasters on the top of the hive. She will do the same thing again until all the wax is exhausted, for she has eight of these little wax pockets. Then she leaves a small lump of wax on the bar stretched across the ceiling, and flies away from the hive. So, one after another, will the rest of this large number go through the same process, till a large wall of wax has been built, hanging from the bar of the hive. By this time the honey gatherers are returning laden with honey. But no cells having been made yet, they just hang quietly onto the other bees, remaining thus about 24 hours, during which time they digest the honey, part of which forms wax, which oozes out from the scales under their body. Then they are ready to help plaster wax on the hive with the other bees. When a rough lump of wax has been formed, another lot of bees who nurse and prepare cells for the young ones, come to do their work, which consists in forming the base of a cell. This is done one after another, the same work proceeding on the other side of the wax, so that a series of hollows are made back to back all over the comb. Then the bees form hexagonal tubes about half an inch deep upon these hollows, making them ready for the honey or bee eggs. The work is so well done that the tubes fit into each other perfectly and not a bit of space is lost, besides making a warm house for the young bees. One comb being finished they proceed to make another leaving a path just wide enough for two 230 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING bees to pass back to back. Thus do they keep busy until the hive is full of combs. When a few of the cells are made, the bees laden with honey begin to store it. They gather it from flowers by means of a sort of long tongue or under lip which is thrust into the flower and a drop of honey sucked out. This is swallowed into a honey bag or first stom- ach lying between the throat and real stomach. When she is ready she can empty this bag through her mouth into the honey cells. The bee also gathers pollen from flowers when they are moist with dew, or else from some moist, shady place, if the dew has disap- peared, and packs it in the joints of her hind legs, making them look like swelled joints. On arriving home the nursing bees take this pollen from them, and eat it themselves; also mix it with honey to feed the young bees. Should there be an overabundance it is stored away in old honey cells. Sometimes it is found in a honey comb. It is bitter, and is called bee bread. When the bee is relieved of the bee bread, she stands on the edge of one of the clean new cells and throws up the contents of her honey bag into it. Thus the busy bee must continue to be indeed very busy day after day in order to fill all the cells, which, of course, remain uncovered, the honey being too thick and sticky to flow out, and is used every day for food. Should there be more than a sufifl- ciency for daily needs, they close the cells with wax for winter use. A day or two after the bees are settled in the hive, the queen mother, which has been kept closely in-doors, is allowed to come out now and do as she wishes. So she goes in and out for a time and at last soars away. All the drones follow forming an escort wherever she goes. She soon returns, however, and all the working bees gather around her on her arrival knowing that she will now remain and proceed after a day or two to spend all her time laying eggs. Many cells being now ready, besides those filled with honey, she begins to lay an egg in each one of these quickly, until she has visited all the cells on both sides of the comb, laying sometimes as many as 200 eggs a day. A few days after, about two or three, the eggs have become a tiny maggot or larva, and the nursing bees having prepared the bee bread mentioned before, place a little in the cell's in which the larvae lie. Then in five or six days the larva has grown so well that it almost fills the cell, when the bees cover the opening with a thin layer of wax, leaving a small opening in the center. The larva then gives out from its tongue a whitish film like two threads of silk glued together. With this it spins a covering all round itself and remains about ten days more. About twenty-one days after the eggs have been laid, the young bees having become perfect, begin to eat their way out. The nursing bees then stroke their wings and feed them for a day, when they will be ready to begin work with the rest of the bees. Their number is legion now, and the work of storing honey and pollen dust is carried on rapidly. The empty cells where the young bees have been are cleaned out by the nurses, and these also are filled with honey, this BEES 231 being darker than that stored in clean cells, the latter being called virgin honey because it is so pure and clear. In six weeks the queen begins to lay, in larger cells, eggs from which drones will come in about twenty days. Meanwhile the work- ers have been building cells on the edge of the hive with the open side upward, and about every three days (a fact. for which there is good reason, as we shall see later), she stops laying drone eggs to put an egg into one of these cells. These eggs are given a special food, being a sort of sweet, pungent jelly, and strange though it may be, it seems to be the peculiar food and size of these cells that make this larva grow into a queen bee, as such is what these cells contain. For if they ever lose their queen the workers take an ordinary worker egg and put it into one of these cells, feeding it with jelly and it becomes also a queen. These also spin their covering, but instead of covering themselves entirely as do the other larvae, they leave a hole at the top. In sixteen days the eldest princess is breaking her way out of her cell, causing the old queen to become very uneasy, for she knows there cannot reign two queens in one hive. So, on a bright, sunny day — they will never choose a wet or cloudy one — she, with many of the others who have clustered together with plenty of honey, will start to find a new home elsewhere. A large number of drones also go with her, and they form a compact swarm, ready to begin again, as was told in the first part of this writing. Now the new princess is reigning in the old queen's place, and the working bees crowd around and are profuse in their homage to her. About three days later, another princess is about ready to come out and the present princess proceeds to follow the same method car- ried out by her mother. She goes, taking an after-swarm with her. And that is why the princess eggs are three days apart, that there may be time for the first to get away before another comes. Now a third queen begins to reign, and should no new swarm wish to start she will proceed to kill the other princesses while yet in their cells until no more are left. Then she is satisfied, for she can then rule unmolested. A few days pass by, and she soars into the air with the drones, then comes home for the winter. Now the drones being of no more use, the workers begin to kill them all oE, keeping on until not one is left, not even a drone egg. They have no stings to defend themselves with, so they are soon de- stroyed. However, they could not live long if left alone, for the work- er cannot afTord to feed idle bees. All that remain now settle down to feeding the 3^oung bees, and storing their winter's supply. About this time we can begin to take their honey, which sometimes amounts to as much as thirty pounds in a well-stocked hive, without depriving them of their own needs. But, in return, we should often feed them with some sweet -syrup late in the fall and earl}^ in the following spring. A certain number of bees now begin to ventilate the cells, the air of which has become very impure after so many bees have been packed together so closely. The way this is done, some bees stand with their faces to the entrances, and opening their wings wave them to and 232 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING fro. Others inside do the same thing, and a current of air is thus produced which ventilates the hive. Another lot of bees clean out the cells that were occupied by the young bees, making them ready to receive honey, and, again, others keep guard at the entrance of the hive against the destructive waxmotii which tries to lay its eggs in the comb that its young may feed on the honey. There are many insects that trouble the bees, trying to get into the hive, and if perchance any do happen to evade the guard a fight ensues in the hive and the intruder is stung to death. Very often in such cases a pestiferous insect's body is too large for the bees to re- move, so the clever little bee, in such a predicament, will bring the gummy propolis and cement the dead body all over with this, thus preventing it from decaying. The wonderful life of the working bee is about eight months, all of which time she has spent most industriously. Only the bees born late in the season live on till the next spring to begin their work then. The queen bee lives about two years, having produced thou- sands of young bees in that time. So much for the bees in the hive. CHAPTER XVI Poultry The Hens Lay Ev'ry Day. We need a year to grow a pig, 'Tis two before a steer is big. The hens lay ev'ry day. Alfalfa takes three years to spread, A horse as colt four years we fed. The hens lay ev'ry day. A few weeks yield the honey store, Then blossom, fruit and all are o'er. The hens lay ev'ry day. For other things, too long we wait, Our life is short, and payday late. The hens lay ev'ry day. — Ida E. Tilson. YEARS ago poultry and eggs were listed as at the head of the seven great industries of the country. The 1910 census gives the production of eggs in that year as nearly fifteen hundred millions of dozens, while the production of poultry was over two hundred and fifty million of fowls of all sorts, three months old and over. This fact, so simply stated, shows that there is money for somebody in the poultry business in this country, even though failures are common, and though it has been said that where one person suc- ceeds a hundred fail. But pay no heed to the knockers, if you are willing to try what scientific attention to the hen can do for success in this business. For, in poultry business, as in everything else, more depends upon the man than upon the poultry. One man with a small capital and no experience may succeed, where another with a little experience but much capital will fail. A dozen fowls to start with, and a deter- mination to go no farther in enlarging your poultry yard than your results and experience will warrant will usually end by bringing satis- faction and at least fair profits to the farmer or professional poultry- man ; for "eggs is eggs," and the demand is still greater than the supply. That system of poultry housing which keeps the chickens always confined in small coops and yards, so that a large commercial business can be carried on in your back yard, is gaining a good many followers. But it can only succeed by the strictest attention to the feeding and management of the flocks, and the labor it requires, if only for the 234 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING necessities of cleanliness in a neighborhood is great and nerve taxing. The expense of establishing the plant is considerable, and unless one has fully resolved to make a continuous business of poultrying the close confinement or colony method is not always a triumphant suc- cess. Remember the financial advice of some years ago, "The way to re- sume is to resume." There is no royal road to profit in poultry keep- ing. It is all a matter of good breeds, good housing, good care, and good food, and an unremitting attention to details, especially in zero weather. The poultry business is still in its infancy, and offers a field for the closest study — and until a man has had actual experience in the business he can tell nothing as to his profits. JBegin With Economy. Begin in a small way, therefore, as I have said, and gradually ex- tend your poultry department until it is as large as your farm will stand. Let the first year's work be largely one of experiment. Women are apt to make good poultry raisers, because success in this business is chiefly a matter of good housekeeping. But on account of the steady, hard work and close attention needed for hens and hens' quar- ters it is almost impossible for the farmer's wife to give the neces- sary time and labor to the problem. However, by a co-operation of farm forces, with a smart, capable woman at the helm, poultry raising can be made both profitable and pleasant to the farmer's family with- out drawing too much upon the field working forces of the farm life. Where fruit culture is possible the union of the two industries is a good policy. First visit a successful poultry plant, study its meth- ods, and see how they can be adapted to your own location and sur- roundings. In the east large families get a good income from an acre or less by keeping bees and hens, and raising fruit. The bees dis- tribute the pollen when the fruit garden is in bloom. The poultry pick up insects in the plum and apple orchard and the small fruit garden. The droppings from the henhouse, with a pint of salt added to a bushel of the manure, are piled up outside the henhouse and later spread thinly over the ground or over the snow in the winter time. Poultry droppings furnish the most valuable of manures for fruit or orchard purposes or for grass culture. I know of one New York farmer who considers poultry manure of more value than commercial fertilizers for onion raising. It is especially good also for asparagus, corn and strawberries. Spread fresh and lightly, and compost with dry earth. Some recommend lime and wood ashes with poultry drop- pings. But these chemicals at once begin to liberate the ammonia in the manure and the nitrogen in the poultry droppings is then largely lost. Use land plaster or road dust and cultivate immediately and you will get the full benefit of all the nitrogen. As to the number of hens to be kept for profit ; that will depend altogether upon the conditions of the farm life. It is better to begin with not more than from twelve to 25 or 40. From 200 to 300 are necessary for a commercial result, and many commercial yards have from 1,500 to 2,000 fowls. A house for 25 hens should be at least POULTRY 235 12x18 feet. The 25 will lay far more eggs than 50 hens would in the same space, for hens need a great deal of exercise not only for egg- laying, but to keep them from feather pulling. This size of henhouse will mean about eight square feet to each fowl, and this amount should be enough for even the active egg-laying breeds. It is esti- mated that every fowl should also be given from ten to twelve cubic feet of air space per pound of live weight, and this amount will be more than secured by such a house if perfectly ventilated. Building a house of this dimension on the south side of a gentle slope, where the soil is dry and porous, and the drainage is perfect, you will be pretty certain to keep your fowls healthy. Such a house can be easily supple- mented as to size when building, if more hens are intended to be kept later on. Building the Poultry House. There are various ways of building henhouses, but the chief pur- pose of a henhouse is to keep the hens warm in cold weather. Hardly any reasonable expense is too much for this purpose, because to at- tempt to save here is like the old saw, "Save at the spigot and spend at the bunghole." Thousands of bushels of grain are thrown away by being fed to hens in cold henhouses. There are no eggs laid in a cold house, and no eggs for four months of the year mean a dead loss to the poultry raiser. Keep your fowls lively, comfortable and contented in cold weather and you will have solved the question of winter eggs for the market. In order to do this the house for hens should be kept at an even temperature. The even warmth of temperature is absolutely neces- sary, though some people expect hens to lay in an icehouse. We put storm windows and storm doors on our own houses for winter, but refuse to put out a cent on the henhouse. I have seen plenty of hen- houses with a heavy coat of frost lining the walls inside and out and overhead, and yet the farmer grumbled because there was so little market profit in hen-keeping. A henhouse should be built for a stove, in case of need, with a chimney built through the roof, high enough for a good draft, and also to create a good ventilation. Enclose the stove with a woven wire cage 7 to 8 feet from the stove. Fowls are less inclined to jump a wire than a board fence. A barbed wire at top is also deterrent. Leghorns will jump 7 or 8 feet, so that your fence must be high enough for that breed, if you keep it. Other fowls will only need about 314 or 4 feet. Coarse chunks of wood make the best fuel, as these furnish charcoal for the hens, and this is a very necessary thing for laying hens in winter. Care of the Interior. Everything in the interior of the poultry house must be so ar- ranged that it can be easily cleaned and be readily accessible. The roosting department for the hens is an enclosure placed in the center at least eighteen inches from the outside wall of the hen- house and two feet from the ground floor. The perches for the hens to roost on should be well seasoned, basswood or pine, peeled poles 236 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING two to three inches in diameter and placed on frames about 14 inches apart and 14 inches from the dropping board. Don't fasten the roosts tightly, as they must be taken out often and sunned, as well as cleaned. Be sure to have the perches level, as then the fighting for positions is done away with. A hen goes to roost about four o'clock and sits until about eight the next morning. She is about 16 hours on the roost, and may be exposed to forty degrees change of temperature in that time. Laying departments are drawers right under the roosting de- partment. Each poultry house should be provided with dust boxes, placed in full sunlight, from two to three feet long and the same in width, and about six inches deep. These boxes should be kept at least three- fourths full of dry, clean, light dust or dry wood ashes for the hens to burrow in. The boxes should be emptied every two weeks, at least, and refilled with fresh dust. During the winter season, wood ashes are good for the hens to burrow in, especially where they are kept in dur- ing rainy and stormy weather. If kept dry, air-slacked lime may be used. Fresh, clean water should be kept in every poultry house, where the hens can help themselves. Earthern vessels are the best for this. Fresh, warm water is needed every day in winter, and cold water every day in summer. The vessel containing the water should be scalded out with boiling water each time, before fresh water is put in again. There should be a small box or trough in the poultry house, with charcoal broken up for the hens to eat at their leisure. To prevent loss from lice, let the dust in the boxes be sprinkled with any good insect powder until the dust is slightly tinted with the powder. Do this each time the boxes are emptied. Everything about the henhouse must be kept free from dirt and moisture. Give plenty of light and ventilation, sunlight especially being needed. Whitewashed walls and clean windows are essentials. Keep about six inches of sand and gravel on the floor and a bed of dry straw chafT frequently renewed. If this litter becomes at all damp it should be removed and new straw or dry leaves supplied. During the winter once a month is not too often for this. The roosts should be cleaned twice a week. Sift air-slacked lime on the dropping places every time after cleaning and rub the roosts with kerosene oil. Fif- teen minutes given every morning to a thorough cleaning of the hen- house will be pretty sure to give success to your campaign for a full egg basket. As May is the month for the worst trouble with lice, April is the time to fumigate the henhouse thoroughly. This is best done by plac- ing a small quantity of burning charcoal in an iron vessel. Close the henhouse tight and burn a lb. of sulphur in each pan. There should be several of these for a large henhouse and the henhouse closed tightly for from 2 to 4 hours. Repeat this regularly during the sum- mer season. By beginning early in the spring the young broods are more likely to be saved from the dangers of lice. If the setting hens are allowed to hatch out and the chickens raised by a brooder, the chicks ought to be clean from lice. But be sure not to fasten your ^■'■mm. The safety pocket hen's nest, a protection against ail egg-destroying animals. POULTRY 237 henhouse fixtures, as said before, as you can clean everything much better by being- able to remove them occasionally. Camphorated oil is good for head lice. Poultry Houses. Poultry houses can be made in almost any shape, yet for warmth and convenience the octagon or the round silo shape seems to me to be the best. To build an octagon poultry house, have the ground raised, or have the house placed upon high ground so that the house shall be kept perfectly dry at all times. To accommodate 100 hens make the poultry house 80 feet in circumference, that is 10 feet on each side of the octagon, with sills 2x4x10 feet long and 6 foot studs to plate of the same size and length of the sill. On the outside, ceil with matched rough boards, cover with building or tar paper, and then cover with drop siding. All this material should be of best quality and should be painted early for preservation. The diameter of such a building would be about 26 feet, and the rafters about 2x4x14 feet long, according to the pitch desired. These rafters are covered with rough boards and on these the best 3-ply rubberoid or any other good roofing material. Seal with matched, dry lumber the inside of all the outside walls, including the roof, for warmth and as a protection against vermin, and put a good sized paneled door on the side most convenient for your use, with a storm door for winter. Place double windows, each provided with double sash, about 28x36 inches, on the east and south sides of the poultry house, at an angle of about 45 degrees, slanting in at the top, and also provided with storm windows for winter. About one-half of the distance from the base to center should be made another room, octagon in shape, with sills and studs for braces to the long rafters. These sides should be boarded up with matched boards to the height of about 3 feet, with doors on each side of the oc- tagon. Above the boarded sides common white muslin may be used. Put a partition made of matched lumber through the center of this inner octagon, thus separating the place for nests from the place for roosts. One section can conveniently be made for feed and this can be protected from the hens with a wire screen. A good sized brick chimney should be placed on one side of this inner octagon and ex- tended upward through the roof a little higher than the highest point of the building. This chimney should be provided with a fireplace and protected with a wire screen. This will serve for a ventilator and also for stove pipes, etc., if you should desire to cook poultry food by means of stoves. Warm, well ventilated buildings save about fifty per cent in food stufif. Another Way to Build the Hen House. Floor Plan. Lay out wall polygon with 8 (eight) corners, each side being eight feet long. Make cement floor four inches from bot- tom of sill, then fill in with dirt to bottom of sill. The purpose of this is to make the house rat proof and at the same time warm and dry. The sills should be usually 4x6, studs 2x4, seven feet long, placed 238 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING two feet apart. For plate use 2x4 doubled. Tie the building together with 2x4, two feet apart, supported in the center by a 2x8. The upper floor should not be tight. This will allow the moisture to escape into the chamber. This floor ought to be covered with straw about two feet thick. The roof is made eight-cornered, the same as the building, with eight main rafters 12 feet long, and a 4x4 between the rafters at the top. Make the ventilator same as the roof. It should be about two feet in diameter. Then cut eight rafters to go between the main raft- ers and join at the top with the frame of the ventilator. Cut 16 raft- ers about four feet long to go between the other rafters. This will make a rafter every two feet all around the roof. The ventilator should be slatted so as to let out air and yet not let in rain. Windows should be placed on the southeast, south and southwest. Set them 6 to 8 inches from the floor. Use windows about 4 feet 10 inches in length and any width desired. Put them on a slant by set- ting the top in. Make the frames 12 inches deep at top and 4 at the bottom. This will give the window a slant of 8 inches, and will allow the sun to shine on the floor and also make the house warmer. For winter put on storm windows the same slant as inside windows. Put the door in the east or west side, as desired. Make it 6x2-6. The inside plan consists of two parts ; the roosting place, and the nursery. Three feet from each corner draw a circle. Put up studs on this circle two feet apart, reaching to the upper floor, which is 7 feet. Cover this frame with cloth, either ducking or burlap. This will pre- vent a draft and yet make a comfortable place, and pure air is very important if you can get it without fowls taking cold. This can be done in this way. Put a partition through this circle, dividing it so as to give 7 feet for nursery and 5 for roosting. Make a table two feet high and as wide as the room, leaving a place in front to walk. Then make a frame with legs eighteen inches long for the roosts to rest on. Make the roosts the shape of the building. Underneath the roosts and on the front side make a trough the full length. Then fasten this cloth just underneath the roosts at the back side, and let it slope to the edge of trough and fasten firmly. The dropping from hens will fall on the cloth and pass to the trough, where they can be easily re- moved. Nursery. Make nests in the circular side of room by rows, if de- sired. The nests are to be twelve inches wide and fourteen inches long. See floor plan. Make a door at each end of the nest so that you can shut the nest up, if desired. This arrangement will be found very convenient at times of setting. The doors at the inside of these rooms will be seen in the floor plan. Put a two by ten at the top of the parti- tion to support the roof. In constructing this building look carefully at the cuts, and anyone who is handy with tools can make it. Some deviations might be resorted to, but on the whole it is better to follow plan as indicated. Chicken House Number 3. Make this house a square of 24 feet. Build it on level, dry ground, with good stone or brick sills, the walls 2 feet in the ground, 1 foot POULTRY 239 above ground. The studding is of 2x4, and covered with heavy build- ing paper on the outside. Over this put a layer of ordinary well sea- soned boards, then a second layer of siding. Fill in with sawdust, packed down tight, and line with good straight edged boards. Board in the rafters on the inside, and fill in with dry sawdust before shingling. Put the roosting place in the east side and the laying department in the center. This laying section should be about 10 feet long, with an alley three feet wide running its length. The nest boxes will be built on three sides. The south side will be all glass from the sill to the plate, with a one-foot slant inward. Six or seven feet of height under the eaves is sufficient. If you build with a hipped roof four or five feet at the eaves is enough. In that case run the glass windows up to the purline plate, putting them in separate sections, from the out- side plate to the purline plate. The 1-foot slant will then only be from the sill to the outside plate. For very cold climates add storm win- dows for winter. The laying department being inclosed in the center, will be warm in winter. Arrange the laying section so that the hens can go into it by going into the alley or on the side. Chicken House No. 4. For the west or northw^est build this henhouse into a mound, if possible, facing the south or southeast. Into this dig down 3 ft., and back 16 ft., leaving it open to the south. Dig the enclosure 20 ft. long. If you put in a stone foundation for the excavation let it be dug straight down. But if the earth sides are left, slant the ground slightly to avoid caving in. Studding for this should be 2x4, sheathed up with building paper on the inside and ceiled on the outside with good lum- ber. Fill in with shavings or good sawdust. The house should be built 4 feet high in the eaves, which will make the total height seven feet, with a frontage of 20 feet. The south front should have glass windows with slats across on the inside to prevent the chickens from breaking the glass. In the fall bank up to the eaves with straw on the sides and bank the glass three feet high unless storm windows are put on. This last is the better way, as plenty of sunlight is a great stimulant to egg-laying. In the winter, paper and ceil to the top of the rafters. Chicken House No. 5. Directions for cement or square timbered winter henhouse — round or eight-square, with hipped roof. Lay the foundation two feet deep in the ground and one foot wide until above ground. Above ground the wall should be 8 in. wide to the plate. The floor should be of cement below and boards above with an air chamber of two inches between the two floors. The board floor should be of oae-inch well seasoned lumber. The walls should be seven feet high from the foundation to the plate. Make the outside wall of cement, studded with one by two inch timbers, and lathed and plastered, the plates two by eight inches, and the rafters two by four inches. A ventilator three or four inches square should be placed in the center of the roof. 240 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING with a slide at the bottom of the ventilator so that it can be closed in cold weather. This henhouse can also be built of either four or six inch square timbers, laid one upon the other, like a wall, from the foundation to the plate. This timbered henhouse should also be lathed and plas- tered, and the outside covered with good matched siding- and painted. Put the roosting department within eighteen inches of the floor and drop a blanket around the roosts after the hens have settled for the night. Another Plan No. 6. Another plan for a henhouse divided into two parts, one for roost- ing and one for a scratching pen, can be followed as below : 1. Make the house twelve feet wide, running north and south twenty-four feet, with no windows on the west side, but have that side and the north end absolutely straight. Partition across ten feet from the north end for roosting pen. 2. Have both windows in the east side, one in the roosting room and one in the scratching room. 3. Place the perches along the west side of the roosting room so they will be as far away from the window as possible. 4. See that the roof is low, especially on the west side — no more than four and one-half feet from the floor, and no more than two and one-half feet above the perches, so as to save all the animal heat at night. 5. Use 4-foot posts on the back side and 6-foot on the front, with a 6-inch space between walls enclosing the entire building. Pack this space with fine hay or flax straw to make the house dry, as well as warm. Use stone or brick for a foundation and have a cement floor regardless of cost. A St. Paul Chicken House No. 7. One poultryman of St. Paul, Minn., reports that his 25 incubator- raised hens are kept in a house 20 feet by 6 feet and 10 feet high. Two feet from the ceiling are steam pipes that run from a near building. These are covered with asbestos and on these, which are just warm, the chickens roost at night. Yet this poultryman got, some midwinter days, only one egg, and some days none. Evidently heat was not the greatest thing in the world for those hens so far as winter laying goes. Did these hens scratch enough for their living and would it not have been better to give them their warm mash in the afternoon, and season it with some stimulant such as cayenne? The Crookston, Minn., Plan No. 8 A recent bulletin on poultry raising, sent out from the Crookston, Minnesota, Experiment Station, where fowls must be housed five months of the year, recommends a poultry house with lap siding, two thicknesses tarred paper, matched flooring, an air space between stud- dings, filled with planer shavings or flax straw, and cheap boarding in inside, being three thicknesses of lumber and two of paper, besides air chamber. A loft overhead, filled with straw, renewed every year, makes a dry house. Perspective, south exposure of Octagonal Chicken House. N Ground floor plan of Octagonal Chicken House. POULTRY 241 House No. 9. All of the above plans are undoubtedly good for mild climates, but for the severe changes of the north and northwest special care in arrangement and construction is necessary. The writer, using the following system during one of the severest seasons of the north- west — that of 1911-12 — procured, without artificial heat, 18 eggs from 28 hens per day all winter, while his neighbors did not get any at all. One man in particular put up a modern house at the cost of $700 and did not get any eggs for 3j/4 months. The first thing I considered in building from the following plan was location. This should insure perfect drainage, protection from north winds, and a southeast or southwest slope. The next aim was a thoroughly warm house, built with the idea of conserving heat and turning frost from every part of the building. Artificial heat does not always give the best results, but the method that follows I believe will insure plenty of eggs in zero weather for the winter poultry house. In putting in the foundation for the building it is essential that it be laid below the frost line, probably about 3 feet. This not only turns the frost, but it keeps rats and weazels from getting into the house. Poured concrete is good for the foundation, but should not be run above the level of the floor, as in my experience in cold cli- mates concrete is no good for any kind of farm stock, for the reason that it is too damp, cold and frosty. The best floor for the building is earth, packed solid and raised several inches above the highest sur- rounding soil. As the sun is the best disinfectant the windows of the house should be so arranged that it will shine in on all of the floor space during the day. For this reason the windows should be placed on the south side and should occupy almost the entire side, extending from about 18 inches from the floor to within the same distance from the rafter plate. Upon the foundation sills 6x6 or 3-2x6 pieces are used. For the purline plates that the rafters sit on 2x6's may be used. The height of the framework is 6 feet from the top of the foundation to the top of the rafter plate. It is well to put a double thickness of matched plank on the outside of the framework, between which is placed some paper or roofing. Tarred felt, in my experience, is not good because it does not last and during hot weather makes a bad odor. Rubberoid or similar material is good. The inside plank should be run up and down from plate to sill or run diagonally. Thoroughly seasoned lumber should be used. In finishing ofT the inside, tack on the framework a thickness of rubberoid and then over this a layer of well matched siding. This may be painted or whitewashed. This arrangement gives an air space all around. A good roof is the hip roof, but a simpler and cheaper one is the ordinary lean-to roof. One of the most essential points is to keep the temperature as even as possible day and night, between 60 and 70 degrees. For this purpose it will be necessary to contrive some simple arrangement that will substitute during the night, the heat that exercise and sun provided during the day. To allow the fowls to roost in the same 242 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING pen they have been exercising- in during the day without extra cover- ing is not wise — it is not the cold days, but the cold nights, that keeps the hens from laying. To this end I have contrived and used the interior roosting quarters with good success. This is simply a room placed in the center of the house running from the floor to the ceil- ing, three sides of which are of matched boards and the fourth side open. It does not need to be very large, its size depending upon the number of chickens kept in the house. The best practice calls for from 20 to 30 hens in one house. The open side faces the win- dows, so that the sun reaches e\ery niche and corner — from the top of this is hung a curtain which is lowered at night as soon as all the birds have gone to roost. This arrangement combines sanitary conditions with warmth and comfort. It provides a double air space and prevents any drafts from striking the birds. Also the body heat is retained and the curtain acts as an equalizer of temperature without creating any drafts. The roosting poles should be placed about 30 inches from the floor. This apartment must be cleaned not less than once a week and the poles rubbed with kerosene oil. A sprinkling of air-slaked Hme in this apartment is an excellent help toward cleanli- ness. It also helps to absorb any moisture which may form. In the morning, between 8 and 9 o'clock, the curtain can be drawn and the chickens allowed to go out into the feeding department. The first leed should be a hot mash, composed of two parts ground corn, one part ground oats, one-half part of wheat bran stirred up in boiling water. The next feed is wheat and oats mixed together and placed on the scratching floor in straw or hay. At mid-day a cabbage hung up by a cord for them to pick at or clover hay or sprouted oats — some- thing green is very important. At about 3 o'clock in the afternoon hot cracked corn and oats is fed. Have always available for their use sand or grit, and oyster shell and charcoal. Room and cleanliness are very essential things to be observed if maximum egg production is sought. Each hen should have from 6 to 8 square feet of space to do her best. This with light, sunshine and air without drafts will accomplish wonders. Vermin in chick- ens is the cause of greater mortality than all other agencies combined; to prevent this the house should be fumigated about three times a year ; once in the spring as soon as the weather is warm, then during the latter part of June, and then toward the middle of September. The roosts and drop boards should be movable so they can be taken out and cleaned every day and then dusted with lime or hard plaster, known as gypsum. It is a good plan to whitewash twice a year. The kind of dust to use varies with conditions. If the hens are kept indoors, dry wood ashes are good. Road dust, however, is the safest insect powder known and should be used where practicable. The boxes ought to be emptied once a week. Ventilation. For all henhouses provide some kind of ventilation. Remem- ber that a cold, dry house is better than a warm, damp one. If a trace of foul odor can be detected on entering the henhouse or any moisture, POULTRY 243 open doors and windows at once, at least a little, being careful to avoid drafts. Cloth curtains and muslin fronts are quite satisfactory as means to provide fresh air without drafts. Remember also that it is not so necessary to house your Hock very warmly during- the day, if the hens are kept out of dampness and out of drafts, but the night quarters must be warm. Dropping the curtain in front of the roosts every night will give the extra warmth needed then, but only proper construction will keep a henhouse dry. A good device for helping out the ventilation of a poultry house consists of a door frame in which two crosswise panels of oiled muslin are inserted, one near the top of the door and the other, a little wider, at the bottom. Between these two panels is a cased and hinged window, protected by a wire screen. The window can be opened as much or as little as desired. The following ventilator is simple and readily applied to houses already up, which need better air. A shaft is made by nailing together four boards, each a foot wide. This shaft is run straight through the top of the house, and up a couple of feet. A cap keeps out the snow. Some rest_the cap on four little pillars. Others have a cap running to a point and starting from two sides of shaft, the other two sides being left open. This shaft should come down to within six or eight inches of the floor and. of course, be open at the bottom. Care must be taken that the roof is properly tinned around the ventilator where the latter passes through, so there will be no leaking of the roof. This central ventilator is more in the way than those built in wall, but actu- ally draws better, as I know by experience of both. A built-in shaft should be in a south wall or in a partition, to avoid chill. The Scratching Room. A light and sunny scratching room for fowls is a requisite for the cold climate, with at least a foot of straw on the floor. But even when the weather is very cold the fowls can be let out in a scratching yard protected by a hedge or even by any makeshift for a fence and cover- ing, such as old boards and farm yard litter of straw or cornstalks. Get the fowls out some way, at least for a short time each day, and take that time to clean up the henhouse. But do not turn them out on cold snow, but on litter. If one has the space to give, catch crops sown in the poultry yards and scratching sheds prove of benefit in the matter of green food. Rye sown in the fall will give plenty of accessible green food in the early summer. It is best, if possible, how- ever, not to keep poultry on the same ground year after year, to which I may add that after a hen is two years old her room is better than her company on any real poultry farm. A California poultry breeder recommends dry leaves for litter in a scratching yard, as they are too light to pack easily. In that locality, especially southern California, where other litter is not always avail- able, spading or plowing up the yards is a method used as a medium for raking grain foods into the soil. By this plan the soil has to be frequently worked over. If leaves or straw be used, eight or ten inches of depth is not too much of an application. The hens get vigor- ous exercise in such litter. 244 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Have your scratching yard as large as possible for the farm hen that runs at large is well known to lay the most eggs, as a general rule. A Cloth Pocket Hen's Nest. This form of nest is good for hens that eat their own eggs. Take a piece of burlap, or any strong cloth or cloth wire and tack it on the inside of the box for the hen so that the bottom will be six inches deep. Add to this, before it is tacked to the nest, a pocket in the shape of a trough, along which the eggs will roll to one side of the box. Keep straw in the bottom of the box, upon which the eggs will slide out from the pocket. Hang this pocket with a good slant and make the hole at the end through which the egg passes abundantly large. Shape the nest itself like a water bowl. This nest arrangement will also prevent animals from stealing the eggs. One woman poultry raiser says she has found small wooden boxes, procured from the grocery stores and nailed up in the nesting department, more convenient than regularly built nests. They are easily taken down for cleaning and when hens get broody they can be given eggs in these boxes to which they are wonted, and covered with a board or a hinged cover, thus insuring seclusion and a tranquil mind to biddy. Such movable nests are also useful for breaking up the sitting desire at the wrong time. All nests should be simply constructed and easily moved and cleaned, and, if possible, put in a dark place to prevent egg eat- ing. If placed under the dropping board, with a hinge door in front to lift up when securing eggs, and an alley in the rear where biddy can sneak in to lay her egg, the arrangement is ideal if it can be kept free from lice. A careful painstaking poultryman may keep it so. but as a rule being so near the roosting quarters and being dark makes it a favorite place for the accumulation of mites. Nests that can be carried outdoors, whitewashed, sprayed and aired at intervals are preferable for busy people. The wire nests sold to hang on the wall are not liked by hens, as they lack stability; for biddy has her own ideas about nests and will generally desert the finest nests that can be built and lay her eggs in a barrel if she can find one. In fact, several hens will sit around and wait for the barrel when half the nests are empty. Boxes, therefore, set on platforms, or hooked to walls, may be considered most suited to the hen's tastes. Make the edges of the boxes high enough so the eggs will not roll out and get broken. Of course, the platform boxes, not coming in contact with the walls are not so likely to harbor mites. Cheese boxes make good nests, as they have no corners. For square nests those about eleven by fourteen inches, inside measurement, are large enough for Wyandottes or Ply- mouth Rocks. Other breeds in proportion. Don't make the boxes so deep that the hen will jump down on the eggs and break them. Have covers, open daytimes and closed nights. Secondhand boxes from the stores are satisfactory. Keep your nests separate by all means. Let hens set outdoors during the spring and summer season. A very common way is to furnish biddy a barrel laid on its side in a POULTRY 245 secluded place and ballasted so that it will not roll. This makes a good place for either hens or turkeys to lay or set in. Make the nest perfectly fresh every time, and it is a good plan to whitewash the bar- rel inside and out. Put about 4 inches of fresh earth in the barrel and on top of this make the nest of straw or other material. At night place a board in front of the nest to keep out rats or other egg thieves. It is well to sell non-layers in the spring, before chickens fill the market and bring down the price. Eggs, also, are lower in the spring, and the new broods will need the room of the old hens. A good way to tell a non-layer is to see whether the rear bones are wide apart or close together at the points below the tail feathers. If they are close together that biddy is better for market. Laying and Setting. Six hundred eggs are said to be due from a small fowl. A hen lays about 200 eggs in the first year of laying. In the next three years she totals about 370. In the last four of her egg-producing years she lays a little over 200 eggs. A hen that will lay 200 eggs a year is scarce ; and scarcer than hen's teeth is the fowl that lays an egg a day. But hens do break all records once in a while by the egg a day method, while some breeders report 240 eggs a year. The average hen should lay 150 eggs a year. If she does she will have produced two pounds of pure carbonated lime. This shows how much fowls must depend either upon their food or their grit for suc- cessful results. But the average hen does not lay 150 eggs a year. Half that number would be nearer a fair estimate. In choosing hens choose American breeds for their meat, but Asiatics for eggs. Glossy plumaged trim fowls pay best. Breed from tested layers of thoroughbreds. For winter layers set some hens in March and April for next winter layers. Early spring pullets are the best for winter layers. Get the chicks for early layers all hatched by May 15 or before. As one poultry man declares early hatched chick- ens, kept growing on grass, cottage cheese, wheat, ground bone and pudding, with shorts, bran, bean meal and oil cake to balance the corn meal, get to laying before cold weather and keep right on. Late hatched ones may get size but not maturity. They will not start lay- ing in face of cold weather, hence go over till next spring. Then set some hens in July and August so as to have late pullets for the next summer. Late hatched pullets are always the best next summer layers. Hens are a good deal like cows in giving milk in some respects. Some hens lay eggs almost the year around, while others only lay a few dozen. The eggs should be saved from the best layers for setting, as the chick from a good laying hen makes the best layer. Varieties. The single comb Brown Leghorn, which is a small feeder, laying well in the summer on small rations, is the best for daily profit in eggs. They mature early also, and while not sitters, by using an in- cubator or Plymouth Rocks it will be possible to hatch winter layers sometimes as early as June or July. In any case, breed only from the 246 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING choicest of your flock and improve it each year by new blood. While mongrel stock, under the conditions of big farms, will sometimes bring good results, the best financial returns come from those strictly large commercial plants where pure breeds are maintained. Leghorns, Minorcas and Hamburgs are probably the greatest producers of eggs. Neither of these breeds is adapted to close ranging. Brahmas and Cochins, both fair layers, thrive well in small quarters. The Light Brahmas have many good qualities and, together with the varieties of Wyandottes, are popular. The White, Buff and Silver Duckwing Leghorn are excellent layers the year around. For the large farmer, where hundreds of hens are kept, and their food is raised on the farm, the small breeds of hens are the best. The Wyandottes have about seven varieties. Of these the Sil- vers, the Blacks, the Silver Penciled and one strain of the Whites are said, by commercial poultrymen, to develop, both in meat qualities and egg-production, more than a month sooner than will the other strains of the same breed. But most poultry breeders do not advise that too much stress be put upon this matter of getting early eggs. Don't let your pullets lay until they get to be a good size. No matter if they are from February hatches and can go upon the range in May. If they are under-sized, keep them by themselves, and give them a non-stiijiulating diet and a small range for exercise. The Orpingtons are fine for market sellers, their meat being un- usually delicate. Remember that a very full-feathered breed indicates poorer layers. Rapid feathering, however, shows a quickly maturing and bountiful layer. Good Winter Layers. As I have said before, pullets hatched in March make the best winter layers, with yearlings next. Spring hatched pullets should be placed in permanent quarters in October. If you use the colony sys- tem do not exceed flocks of two dozen. By the first of November they ought to begin laying if well situated and treated. Be sure they have thoroughly clean quarters, whitewashed entirely, with cut straw in the nests, leaves on the floor and any good disinfectant such as coal ashes, plaster, etc., beneath the perches. Ashes sprinkled in the nests before putting in straw, also two or three moth balls put in, will help to keep away lice. Here let me say that a bucket spray pump is the best thing with which to whitewash the henhouse. Don't cross breeds, as you get then inferior fowls. Inbreeding always reduces the size of the hen. A good way to improve a flock of hens, so says a practical poultry keeper, "Is to get a pure blood cock, breeding him two years, and then get another of the same breed, but not related in blood. Do this for five or six years and you will have a flock for all practical purposes as good as it would be of pure bred stock." "Older mothers for quality, but younger ones for quantity." Lay- ing qualities may be transmitted through male birds, and males from the best laying hens can be used for breeders to the great advantage of the flocks. Such pullets, heavily fed, will respond by greater pro- duction, but you can't expect that a mother who is a poor layer will POULTRY 247 be likely to have any other chicks than of her own sort. In careful breeding lies the great secret of poultrying, and in selecting a male for the next year, pick out the one with a broad deep body and which stands with legs well apart. The breast should be broad, deep and well rounded out so as to present a meaty appearance. Birds of this kind are worth many times the value of the common roosters gener- ally used and if they are purely bred males, will reproduce their meaty flesh in their olYspring. The shape and vigor of a breeding male is of much more importance than excessive size. The medium sized bird is nearly always the best breeder. Nor do breeders of poul- try pay much heed to the size of the eggs for setting, or incubation. They ask about the strain of good qualities that the egg represents. Setting Hens. In buying eggs for hatching, always rest eggs from a distance a few hours before setting. See that the hatching hen is free from para- sites, whether scale insects on the legs, body lice or mites. No kero- sene or any oil or grease should come in contact with the eggs or be used around the nests. A packing box 15 in. long and wide, and 16 or 18 in. high makes a nice nest. Arrange a sliding or hinged door so that the hen can be confined to the nest at will. The top of the box should be covered with cotton and there should be openings in the back for ventilation. Whatever you make the nest of plan to fit it as nearly as possible to the shape of the hen's body. One poultry breeder I know makes a nest from a piece of dry turf from 12 to 15 in. square, cut thin in the center. Either this or earth makes a good nest, being easy to shape, moist and a non-conductor of heat. Cover the earth with good straw, well broken. Straw cut with a machine is too sharply pointed, while hay gives a lure for mice to hunt for seeds and the hen is likely to scratch for these same seeds and break the eggs. To keep away lice and other vermin, mix tobacco stems well with the straw and dust the whole thoroughly with common, cheap, powdered sulphur from the druggists. The heat from the hen's body causes the sulphur to give off a smell that keeps lice, etc., away off. This method enables one to start several setters to hatching at the same time and in the same pen. Put the hen in the nest at night, after thoroughly dusting with insect powder or sulphur. Shut her in and do not disturb until the next afternoon. Then put dishes of whole corn, grit and water in the pen, and take out the hen for feeding, leaving her to return to her nest at will. When the nests are examined at night, give to all the hens that seem quiet and contented, from ten to fifteen eggs, according to the size of the hen. The hens must take a daily run. Feed all at the same time, taking gently from the nests all that do not leave them. They will form the habit in a day or so and come out when the door is opened to eat, drink and have a dust bath. Whole corn is the best food. See that the hen returns to her own nest and examine nests while the hens are feeding to see whether eggs have been broken. If they have, wash the soiled eggs in tepid water, to prevent the clogging of pores of the 248 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING shells. Do not handle further, except to test the eggs on the 8th or 9th day of incubation. If very warm and dry during incubation, it is best to moisten the earth around the outside of the nest boxes on the 18th day of incubation. This supplied moisture will further soften the membrane inside the shell of the egg and permit its ready separa- tion by the chick. Dust the hen thoroughly while sitting and never let her attempt to hatch two broods in succession. If a hatch of pur- chased eggs disappoints, the sender should at once be notified and given the whole history of incubation, so that if the buyer is not at fault the sender will duplicate. As the buyer purchases the eggs in the hope of getting full-blooded stock cheaper than he can by purchas- ing birds the inference is in his favor that he would use every reason- able care to get the value of his investment. The sender is therefore likely to feel his obligation to duplicate if a satisfactory record is sent him. Laying hens are great drinkers, therefore give warm water in plenty and keep a few rusty iron nails in the drinking vessels. Don't give red pepper or other egg forcers to laying hens. It is most likely to irritate the digestive organs and set up inflammation there. Hens with good appetites and full crops are usually good lay- ers and also healthy hens. Soft food and mashes may be fed occasionally, but do not have the mashes sloppy. The mash should be slightly cooked and steamed and allowed to become almost cold before feeding. The Incubator Chicken. If you mean to carry on poultry raising on a large scale, let me advise, however, the use of incubators, brooders and all the modern aids to prolific egg-hatching and fowl growth. Science has got ahead of nature here in the past ten years. A recent visit to the ostrich farm at Coronado, California, showed this very plainly. Get a standard incubator, run it according to directions, and you will get better re- turns on an investment in the business of poultry production than by any of the natural methods of the average farm, provided you have hundreds of poultry. Mr. E. G. Wycoff, of New York state, and Mr. Blanchard, late of the same state, have become independently rich from the raising of poultry. Farmers in general should keep at least five or six times as much poultry as they do. Poultry always brings better prices than pork and can be produced as cheaply. Raise more poultry and fewer pigs. _ , ., In raising chickens with the mcubator you are fortunate if you raise 75 per cent of the chickens hatched. Follow the directions that accompany the machine exactly and don't try any new tricks with it on your own responsibility. Be sure to hang a thermometer in the brooder and keep it at 90 degrees. Don't open the door of the incu- bator while they are hatching, but leave the chickens in the incubator for at least two days after the first of them hatched. Transfer as rap- idly as possible from the incubator to the brooder, and don't feed any- thing before the end of the third day, and this should be a light meal. POULTRY 249 Feed three times the next day, morning-, noon and night ; but feed lightly. You can increase the number of light feeds to five per day by the beginning- of the second week. Then feed all that they will eat up clean. Clean the lamp in the brooder twice a day, and keep it very clean. If you keep brooder in a shed, away from the other fowls, you can keep the chickens warmer, free from lice and get much better and longer service from the brooder. One word of advice about incubators is much needed. Buy your machine about a month before you want it and run it for a time in an empty state, so that you can become accustomed to the workings. And another word of advice is to allow just about twice as much space for each chicken as the manufacturer allows. Keep your brooder clean between seasons, don't let old hens use it to roost in, and wean your young chickens away from it by substituting some warm box in its place, which they will take to as a home. The best eggs for incubator service are those which are of medium size, pointed, have a smooth and finished shell and are neither from pullets nor very old hens. One successful incubator raiser says she hatched from Asiatics in March, American breeds in April, and Leghorns and Minorcas in May. Try to get heat upon the chickens from above, just as the hen gives it to them. Make the "hover" warm in some way. In a recent number of a farm journal I found the following sug- gestion for utilizing an old incubator. "B. R. E." said: "If you have a hot water incubator that has given out, don't throw it away as useless. Take off the top of it, take out the tank, measure it accurately and send for a new tank. Put that in place, screw on the top and your incubator is as good as new and at about one-fourth the cost of a new one. Now take your old tank, make a box of nice dry, clear lumber, that is long enough to take in the tank and the heater, and quite a bit wider than the tank. Make it about twelve inches high. Make a smaller box, just the size of the tank, with only a bottom and one side and ends, to slide under the tank. Nail a nar- row strip the length of the long box, as far from one side as the width of the tank, tack onto this strips of old soft flannel, then cover the entire affair with a cover that can be removed if necessary, and you have a very good brooder for early chicks. "It can be warmed by the same kind of a lamp that was used to run it as an incubator. If the tank at sides and top be covered with asbestos paper, which can be bought in large sheets and cut to suit, and the heater wrapped in the asbestos it would remove all uneasiness as to fire. If the tank is one of those that has a tube through the cen- ter to form a draft for the lamp, the top of the heater may be covered by a close-fitting disc of tin. In the other kind, a bit of tin laid over that portion of the heater on which the regulator damper rests will send the heat into the tank." The Hen Hatched Chick. Don't feed hen hatched young chicks for thirty-six hours at least. Steel cut Quaker oats is good for them fed in its raw, dry form. There should be a vessel near by with water, but great care must be exer- 250 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING cised not to let them overdrink when feeding- them. Other good foods are raw eggs, thickened with bread crumbs, cracked wheat, johnny- cake, baked beans, sweet cut bone, bread soaked in milk and then wrung out dry, dry crumbs, curds that are not ropy, lettuce, chopped onions, eggs boiled one-half hour and well minced, mixed millet seed and wheat, and later cracked corn. Dry food is safest. Cooked food makes them grow faster. Milk is the best drink for chicks. They should have plenty of charcoal and sand and grit, and plenty of fine cut lawn grass. Never feed grass that has soured in piles to the chicks in hot weather — but see that healthy chicks get a little fresh grass every day. Substituting scalded milk for water often corrects loose bowels, but this feeding should not be kept at too long, as it is finally constipating. Warm skim milk is very valuable for young chickens, and for this reason it would pay any small farmer who has 8 or 10 cows to invest in a good separator and keep his skim milk at home ior his young stock and poultry. As separators come down in price this practice will become more common on the farm. A very useful plan for keeping grit in front of chickens, and which can be made easily, is the device of Robert Colombe, of Little Falls, Minnesota. Take a common salt barrel, cut a hole in one side near the bottom of the barrel large enough to insert a cigar box. Put this in half way, and fasten so that it slants a little toward the out- side. Fill the barrel with gravel, cover well, and set so that the fowls will get the grit automatically. By this means they will always have their supply at hand until the barrel is empty. And don't forget to keep a box of crushed oyster shells where chickens can help them- selves. Country store keepers nearly all keep these on hand. Coal ashes not too finely sifted make good grit for chickens. Hens will swallow with evident relish jagged cinders the size of a marble. Broken crockery is also excellent grit. Pounded up fine it is es- pecially relished by young chicks. A good device for watering very young chickens is a trough that can be used by the hens and chickens alike, without any danger of drowning the chicks in it. Take three boards and nail together to make a trough, putting boards across the end to make it watertight. Bore holes about 1^ in. apart each way in a fourth board that will just float inside the trough. The young chickens will jump on the float and get the water they need, while the old fowls can drink as usual, standing on the ground. For a drinking vessel for chickens try also this method, the Geo. Howard "fountain" : Invert a deeper tin can into a potted-beef or fish can, or other shallow tin, with diameter an inch or two larger than that of the deeper can. Bore an awl hole into the side of the inverted can, about a quarter of an inch below where the edge of the shallow tin comes. By dipping these together into a pail of water, filling both while under water and inverting the taller can into the other tin, you have a day's supply. The shallow tin will be full as long as water remains in the POULTRY 251 other tin. Give cool, not cold water, or warm milk. If chicks wet themselves much, remove the drink between meals. Be sure to turn over chicken coops after rains. Late hatched chicks should be wintered alone, as they require good care and warm, clear, well ventilated quarters. The early hatched chicks should begin to lay in October and lay all winter and early spring. They also are generally fat at the age of 10 or 11 months and will bring the top price in the market or, better still, may be sold to those who desire to improve their flock of hens at a good price. Chickens for broilers should be in the market very early in the spring. Any yellow-legged bird that matures early and is, ready for the market in six or eight weeks is all right as to breed. At that age they are small, juicy and plump, and there is a good market demand for them. Don't try to dress them, but give them plenty of room in shipping and they will be in first rate order when they reach their market. The Feeding of Poultry. There is no ideal ration for all flocks, and to know the suitable foods essential is one of the most important problems of the poultry raiser. The farmer who can grow all the variety of rations needed for hens upon his own farm, except, perhaps, some of the mineral mat- ter, has not to meet some of the problems of the commercial poultry raiser, and is saved a great deal of the initial expense of starting a paying poultry business. If the poultry are to do well they must have some green food, grain food, animal food and mineral matter daily. A load of green and grain food daily will not compensate for a lack of animal and min- eral matter, neither will a surplus of the latter two make amends for a shortage of the former two. It is the happy combination of these four classes of foods that causes the hens to lay eggs of quality and quantity and to take on wholesome, well-flavored flesh. Nor is the policy of feeding fowls about half what they want to eat so common as it used to be. It pays to feed liberally. The fowl that eats the most, if fed proper rations, is likely to be the most profitable. But fowls vary in their appetites from day by day, and according to conditions. If you have a wiry, active Leghorn you can feed it to the limit — but big, sluggish fowls of that breed need judgment as to unlimited corn or barley. Hens laying rapidly eat considerable more than those of the same breed and age not laying to any great extent. Pullets in jull laying will consume relatively more feed than mature hens in a state of idleness. Fowls of one breed will eat more food than those of another breed. The question of feeding depends also to some extent upon the weather. To feed as liberally of corn when the weather is warm as when the thermometer is hovering about the zero point is a mistake. Corn is essentially a warmth producer, and should be fed freely only during cold weather. It is a good plan to make the last meal of the day, fed about an hour before twilight, one of whole or cracked corn, for hens should go to roost at night with a full crop, and therefore the afternoon or evening meal should be a substantial one. The earlier 252 WHAT I KNOW ABOUTFARMING the birds are fed in the morning the better, and this meal should be of mixed grains, scattered in the two-foot litter of the henhouse floor, but varied often as to the mixture. Too many would-be poultrymen give their fowls the same old ration of one or two dry grains month after month, and are dismayed that their fowls do not produce more. Vary the ration as much as possible. By way of variety, occasionally add another kind of grain, such as millet seed, kaffir corn, buckwheat, sunflower seeds, or beans and peas. Fowls will scratch all day long in the litter after whole grain. Crop Rotation For Poultry. Most valuable advice to small farmers was recently given by Miss Ida E. Tilson, a writer in Farm, Stock and Home. How to util- ize a few acres in the interests of poultry breeding was her text. "At the root of poultry success," she named as food essentials, "clover hay cut young and often, a variety of fresh vegetables, sun- flower seeds in the head, and wheat and oats in the bundle, for the hens themselves to thresh, with the resulting straw bedding." But as these are not always or often in the market a system of a four-year crop rotation was outlined by Miss Tilson. I give Miss Tilson's chart below, believing it to be a most scientific and practical arrangement for the small farmer to follow. Some movable fence will be needed. Woven wire fastened to sharp stakes and rolled up for removal or storage is used by Miss Tilson : Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Clover Clover Hoed 1st Year Pasture Hay Crops Grain Clover I-Toed Clover 2d Year Hay Crops Grain Pasture Hoed Clover Clover 3d Year Crops Grain Pasture Hay Clover Clover Hoed 4th Year Grain Pasture Hay Crops Mr. T. E. Orr, a well known poultry raiser of Minnesota, once prepared for a farm journal the following table. The amounts named are for forty-five hens and are supposed to keep them for one year. The total is 3,600 pounds, which would cost him $36, an average of 80 pounds of food per hen, at a cost of 80 cents each : 300 lbs. corn $1,87 600 lbs. oats 6.00 400 lbs. wheat 4.00 300 lbs. kaffir or sorghum seed 1.87 400 lbs. bran 3.00 400 lbs. clover 3.00 300 lbs. beef scrap, meat meal, or dried blood 8.00 400 lbs. grit 2.00 300 lbs. oyster shell 2.25 200 lbs. cut bone 4.00 It must be remembered, however, that present day prices are con- siderably higher than these. POULTRY 253 The Warm Mash. There are so many different times advocated for feeding the warm mash to hens that the best advice to give on this point is to experi- ment with your hens in your own locality and surroundings before deciding what way gives the best results. The modern theory seems to incline toward dry mash feeding, but a hot mash in the middle of the day is generally advised for hens in a cold climate. Dry food in the morning to keep the hens warm, a hot mash at noon feed in a long trough (which should be kept scrupulously clean), and in which the ground bone can be mixed and thus more evenly distributed, and whole grain enough in the litter at night so that "they will go to bed with a full crop." At the Minnesota Experiment Farm the following mash is rec- ommended for the farmer's hens : Equal parts of finely ground corn, oats, bran or shorts mixed with about 10 per cent of cooked meat, green cut bone or beef scraps. Mix these foods up dry and mix in thoroughly one-third their bulk of steeped clover leaves, or finely cut clover, which has previously been scalded by pouring hot water on it and covering it with a sack. The clover to be steeped about 12 hours before using. Another mixture, used at the Crookston Poultry Farm, is made of: 200 pounds bran. 100 pounds shorts. 100 pounds ground corn. 100 pounds ground oats. 100 pounds beef scraps. 10 pounds charcoal. Moisten this mixture with water a little when feeding it, but "don't make it sloppy." Various Methods of Feeding. My own methods of feeding poultry, while not varying greatly from the foregoing, have some few changes — enough to make me be- lieve that my readers, like the fowls, knowing that variety is the spice of life, will wish to read them. I should, by the way, put ground feed in hoppers fastened at the side of the wall of the poultry house. If this is not convenient, then use troughs. In summer, it must be remembered, fowls do not need vegetable food if they' range at all. But in winter feed three times a day ; once, at least, with a warm mash made of wheat bran, ground oats and a little corn meal. The noon feed can be of wheat and oats alone. In the evening add shelled corn, ground bone occasionally, or meat and milk. The noon feed should be mixed with fine straw^ leaves or clover chafif. As I have said before, also plenty of cabbage. The best way to feed this is to hang it up by the roots in the henhouse about 5 or 6 incties from the floor. Remember to feed meat or lard in winter once a day ; also ground bone, allowing about one-half ounce to each hen. This bone meal, ground by a bone cutter, is only necessary about twice a week, and 254 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING caution must be used that no bowel trouble results. The bone is only a kind of tonic, stimulating the digestive organs of the fowl, as well as furnishing phosphates, nitrogen and lime for the shells of the eggs. A little meat attached to the bone will not hurt, if it is fed the same day it is cut. But tainted meat or bones or boiled or bleached bones should not be fed, as these have lost their feeding value. It should be added, as to the general method of feeding hens, never feed more than will be eaten up clean. Corn is a great help in the diet for hens, because it keeps them warm in cold weather. These are my special recommendations for a good, ample diet for laying hens in winter, but there are other poultry keepers who give different formulas. One Wisconsin farmer says, "Barley scattered in straw in the morning, at noon a warm mash of bran and meal, at night cracked corn and wheat." Sorghum seed is also good and clover leaves or chaff, boiled potatoes, vegetables of all kinds, raw, skim milk, warm water. He believes that green bone can be kept for some time in winter. Give plenty of charcoal and gravel in place of grit. This farmer sows several rows of lettuce very early in the spring for hen food, also early cabbage and onions, planning to have a succession of green vegetables. He also suggests that where the dwelling house is warmed by a furnace, and the henhouse is not too far away, a hot air pipe be laid from the cellar to the henhouse. I have often seen the first milking from a new milch cow fed to the hens. This often causes trouble, especially when they have not had any milk for a long time. Yet milk is one of the best egg pro- ducers that can be fed to poultry, and they can be given all that they will drink, provided other conditions are all right. Remember that no amount of good feeding will make up for bad quarters. You can't expect a hen to roost on a fence at night, stay out all day in a fall of snow and then lay, no matter how well she is fed. Hens are mortal — and are even more sensitive to climatic changes than human beings are. Value of Clover and Alfalfa. Early but well dried clover and clover meal, young grass or alfalfa contain more available mineral matter than grains do. These are all good food for getting winter eggs and cause deeply colored, attractive yolks. Grinding food for poultry is not necessary unless for the pur- pose of feeding a mixture or variety that cannot be given in any other shape. Remember, on this point, that green feed in winter is chiefly valuable because it makes it easier for the fowls more thoroughly to assimilate all the food elements of the grain given them. Cabbage is not especially nutritious nor egg-producing, but if you feed cabbages to your hens you will find you will only need about half as much grain as you would on an entire grain diet, and your egg-production will be much increased. I have mentioned clover meal, and this is a very good substitute for green foods, which is not used by poultry keepers as much as it should be. It is cheap and easy to store and keeps for a long time — indefinitely. The necessity for green food to fowls is now so well settled that a substitute of this sort should always be at hand to insure the regular ration of grain and green food to biddy. POULTRY 255 Alfalfa possesses a great feeding value for poultry, as it shows seventeen and one-half per cent of protein as against thirteen per cent in clover. The third and fourth crops of alfalfa are said to he the best for poultry foods, being less stemmy and somewhat richer in protein. But comparing clover, as a poultry food, with wheat bran, the former contains one-third more carbohydrate, pound for pound, over one-half as much protein and more mineral matter than the wheat bran. This is a specially good reason why clover or alfalfa hay should be given to fowls. Clover or alfalfa meal, scalded, with the morning meal, adds therefore not only bulk to it, but valuable nutrients in a cheap form. Hay seems to be as good for chickens as for other live stock. Second growth clover is especially good. Get it harvested early. An economic source of green food, used by a California woman, is corn stalks. Pull the largest stalks, as many as can be held in the hand ; take a good sharp butcher knife and after the manner of whet- ting with a jack knife, slice them thin, not more than half an inch thick. Begin with the roots ; they will eat it all. For the young ones slice thinner ; chickens of all ages will go for it as they do for fresh meat. Feed in the morning — because then it is fresh and juicy — all they can eat up by noon. It takes but a few minutes to cut enough for fifty fowls. If one had a feed cutter perhaps it would be easier. If space is limited, plant between the rows when the corn is two feet high, but to continue such a tax and also to have the feed tender, the soil must be kept very rich. The fertilizer from the yards will do wonders. Mangels and sugar beets are good green food also. Selling Poultry at a Loss. Too much poor poultry is sold at no profit to the producers. Lots of people have an idea that they must sell the stock in the fall or fore part of winter and whether it is in condition or not it is thrown on the market at a time when the best fowls are not selling for very good prices. A few bushels of grain fed to that class of poultry while it is held back until the glut in the market has passed will make money for the producer. It should be remembered that prime or finished poultry is a rare thing, and when it does come in the dealers will ask the producer for his terms. Many a dealer in New York has asked the writer what his price was for his fowls — he wanted them for his best customers. At one time the writer sold 27 turkeys for $97.67 to a hotel and has made many a sale at the same prices. United States Senator David B. Hill has feasted on these turkeys and many a student at Cornell University has eaten turkeys raised by the writer. Geese. Raising geese is profitable both for the feathers and for market. They require but little care and can be raised on corners of a farm that are apt to be worthless for cultivation. Geese are long-lived, 256 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING hardy, small feeders, and need much less expensive food than other market birds. In summer they will live entirely upon grass. They keep their laying- and hatching qualities through life; 15 to 20 years is not an uncommon age, and sometimes this extends to 40 years. Thus it will be seen that a goose pasture on a farm where there is a stream or unused spring is a good thing. The Gray Toulouse and the White Embden are the most profit- able. The Toulouse, when mature, weighs about 45 to 50 pounds a pair, and averages forty eggs in a season, but is an unreliable setter. The Embden averages about twenty eggs a season. The flesh of both is excellent, and when turkeys bring from 20 to 27 cents a pound, geese and ducks will sell for 15 and 16. About all the shelter the geese need is a cheap shed, to which they can go to dry ofif in time of storm. A plain rough board building, 12x14, with a shed roof, water tight and covered with tarred paper, shingles or tin, and a floor raised 12 to 18 inches from the ground to avoid dampness will accommodate nicely a flock of six or eight. The sides can be covered by 12-inch boards, one inch thick, with joints covered by 3x1 inch strips. Geese are used to water on the outside, but they must have a place to "dry out." Geese for breeding should be bought as early in the fall as pos- sible — not later than October. A colony of a gander and one to three females need in this climate a lot of from 75 to 100 ft. Young ganders should be kept in a yard until mated. Geese begin to lay early in March. They will lay from 12 to 16 eggs. Then they will set. If the eggs are taken away and hatched under hens the shell is apt to become dry. In this case sprinkle the eggs every few days with water. The goose will then lay another nest of eggs. Goslings grow rapidly. They will live on grass after two weeks. When grass dies out they need a mixture of corn meal, bran and table scraps in the morning, and cracked corn at night. Green foods in the shape of vegetables, clover and cooked vegetables are also recommended for fertile eggs. If a pond of water is not handy, a tub of water set level with the ground may be used. Nests made of boxes should be provided in January. Put straw in the boxes and lay them in sheltered places. If she gets broody con- fine her in a dark box or in another yard, with extra gander. The goose covers her eggs with litter after laying, and this should be dis- turbed as little as possible. Gather the eggs every day in cold weather, putting in a nest Qgg from time to time to induce her to keep on laying. Some geese will begin laying early in December, then stop and begin again in February. As soon as the geese quit laying, pluck the old ones every seven or eight weeks until October. They get full feathered again for killing about the first or second week of Decem- ber. The young ones pluck every seven weeks from the time the feathers are ripe, which is about the 1st of August. As many as 25 goslings can be given to one hen, providing so many hatch out near together. The goslings do not stay long with the hen, but she will roost with them all season. POULTRY 257 Ducks. Ducks are excellent farm scavengers, as they will eat much that can not be used elsewhere. Duck raising on a large scale has been very profitable for a number of years, especially in the vicinity of the large cities. An example of this is in the career of three brothers m Massachusetts, who, twelve years ago, started with ten Pekin ducks and one incubator, and now market each season about 50.000 ducks. These men started with a played-out truck farm without other capi- tal than good judgment and ability to work. This concern breeds only from two-year-old ducks, from 1.000 to 1,500 being kept to pro- duce eggs for the incubators. In the height of the season, which is June, about twenty men are employed. Last year the income from feathers alone, of which two tons were sold, was $1,500. The Pekin duck is a great grower, reaching 4 to 6 pounds weight in 10 or 11 weeks' time, and as a table delicacy is growing constantly in favor. In keeping ducks many breeders put the duck houses near a stream of water and divide the pens or flock by means of 3-foot fences extending entirely across. As the proper selection of breeding stock decides the commercial success of a plant, it is very important to keep size and quality together. Pekin ducks are the most easily raised. They are large, a pair weighing sometimes 20 lbs., and the flesh is very delicate. The average of egg production is from 100 to 125 eggs per season. They are not frequent setters. The young ducks are hardy and easily raised. Breeding ducks do best when yarded and properly fed. After the laying season is over they may range. The New York Experiment Station sent to the Department of Agriculture some time ago the results of some experiments made in order to find the most nutritive food for ducklings. In the first test two lots were fed a ration in which over ninety-eight per cent of the protein was derived from animal sources, the ration being made up of meat meal, animal meal, dried blood, milk albumen, and bone meal with some green alfalfa. The ten younger ducklings (two weeks old at the beginning of the test) were fed for approximately two months. In the first month 3.2 pounds of dry matter were fed, the average gain was 27.9 ounces, making the cost of feed per pound of gain 6 cents. During the second month the ducklings gained 20.3 ounces on 7.5 pounds of dry feed, costing per pound of gain 13.7 cents. Other experiments were made with a view to studying the rela- tive value of different proportions of animal food. The rations were made up of different proportions of animal meal, grain mixtures, corn meal, wheat middlings, and green alfalfa. For the whole test, which covered ten weeks, the average gain per duckling was 7.17 ounces, the dry matter eaten per pound of gain 3.9 pounds, and the cost of feed per pound of gain 5.4 cents. It was found that, generally speaking, "during the first few weeks, growth was more rapid and 'equal grow^th made for less food under a ration in which 60 per cent of the protein was obtained from animal food, than under rations having respectively 20, 40 and 80 per cent of the protein derived from this source." Re- sults, on the whole, favored the use for the first few weeks of the 258 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING ration in which 60 per cent of the protein came from animal food, and later foods containing an increasing proportion of grain foods. John I. Sipp, an eastern agriculturist, declares that the greatest profit in duck raising is secured if the young are sold when nine to ten weeks old. If they have been properly fed they should weigh four pounds at this age. The pin feathers do not begin to grow until after that time, and they are then relatively easy to prepare for mar- ket. They should be given no food for eighteen to twenty-four hours before killing, but water ought to be kept before them. In killing a sharp knife is run through the roof of the mouth and then they are hung up by the feet to bleed. The birds should be grasped by the head and feet and dipped in water just below the boiling point. They must be thoroughly dipped, as their feathers are very thick. Wrap- ping in a blanket and allowed to steam for a few minutes will cause the feathers to loosen more readily. The head must not be dipped, as it discolors the comb and causes the eyes to sink. After picking, dip the ducks in water near the boiling point for an instant and then place them in ice cold water for twenty minutes. This will cause them to plump. The market demands that the head and upper portion of the neck be left unpicked and the legs and en- trails left intact. Turkeys. One of the best breeds for profit in turkey raising is the Bronze. Next to this comes the Holland. Get as large hens and males as you can get of either of these breeds in the fall. The choice will be greater then and the price less. Keep them in good quarters through the winter. A shed for turkeys can be made of either wood or straw and should be enclosed on all sides, with an opening in the middle on the south side about eight or ten feet long on the ground, and two or three feet high. Close the opening at night in very cold weather. In mild weather leave it open. Place boxes at one end for sand, grit, charcoal and grain. The roosts at the other end from six to eight feet from the ground. It is best to mate young hens with old toms, and old hens with young toms. Inbreeding reduces the size and vitality of the turkey greatly and should not be practiced. Either new toms or new hens should be introduced at intervals and only those should be selected which fill requirements in size and vigor. The poults from pullets' eggs are not as strong as those from yearlings or 2-year-old hens. There is a difiference of opinion as to the number of hens to put with one tom. Some breeders advocate 5, others say that 12 is the right proportion. Uusually they begin to look about for a nest about two weeks before they lay. In order to prevent them from stealing their nests it is a good idea to have boxes or barrels or any old litter piled up or placed in the corners of fences and buildings early. When they begin to lay, if the weather is damp or cold, gather the eggs at night, putting a couple of hen's eggs in their place. When the weather is warm and she has laid 16 or 18 eggs, put back the eggs and let her sit. A strong hen turkey should lay 3 settings before she is allowed to set. One successful turkey raiser says that the last week the eggs POULTRY 259 should be sprinkled with lukewarm water if the weather is hot and dry, unless the mother is sitting- on the ground. Don't try to set tur- key eggs under common hens unless the hens are free from lice, for the young turkeys will be likely to get lice, which may mean death for them. Lard and a little sulphur mixed together rubbed on the head and neck of young turkeys will kill the lice. Turkey chicks are very delicate for about six weeks, and should be kept in dry quarters, well sheltered, with, if possible, a wooden floor to the shelter. Feed nothing for the first twenty-four hours after they are hatched, and leave them with the hen for a day and night before putting in a coop, if they are cooped. For the first week feed minced dandelion with hard boiled eggs. The second week begin to add to the boiled eggs, bread crumbs and barley meal, lessening the egg gradually until three weeks have passed. Then this can be omitted and small grains fed in light quantities with boiled potatoes. Raw meat with onion tops chopped in is good once a day. They should have a plot of fresh grass to pick on and should be supplied with plenty of sharp sand, grit and good charcoal mashed fine. Some feeders place all the feed on sand so they will get grit this way. They ought to be fed often and only a little at a time. It is better to keep them hungry rather than to feed too much. Guard against vermin by dustii\g setting nests and hens with insect powder. Hog lard placed under the wings of the hens that brood the young will prevent lice from troubling them. Also grease the head and wings of the young poults. When cooped remove the coop often to fresh ground. Give water and sweet new milk in shallow vessels, so that they can only wet their beaks. Watch the hen turkeys closely when the chicks are feathered enough to run, and see that they do not take the chicks to swampy places. Until the young are eight or ten weeks old keep in a confined place. Great care should be taken to keep the chicks from getting wet, as they are very susceptible to the damp and cold. About the biggest problem in turkey raising is in the the proper care of th^ poults. While the older turkeys are very hardy, the chicks are the most delicate of all poultry to care for. They must be watched very carefully until they get their first plumage and ''throw the red" or get their combs. To let the young get wet means nearly always death. Lice can also kill them in a very short time. The following directions for setting turkey eggs were given in "Wallace's Farmer" : If early young turkeys are wanted eggs should be set under chicken hens (making sure that hens have no lice on them), setting two at the same time. Make a portable pen by nailing boards 2 inches wide, 8 and 10 feet long, to corner posts (2x4), four feet high. Sur- round this pen with netting three feet wide, tacking it to top of boards and extending it to top of posts. Cut hole in bottom of one of the boards and place a box with a good corner on it outside and against the hole for the hen and brood to roost and find shelter in. Put one hen with both broods in this pen and feed with corn bread baked as for the table, and mixed with about the same amount of milk curd. After 260 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING the brood has learned to know the cluck of the hen raise the pen so that they can go in and out at will. Move pen frequently into fresh sod and locate it away from the chicken yard, as lice and wet are death to young turkeys. After the middle of June I allow my turkey hens to rear their own broods, allowing them the liberty of the fields and pas- tures, but feeding them the same as the others until grasshoppers come. Insects make a natural food for young turkeys and when these are plentiful they need nothing else. Young, tender grass, finely cracked wheat, apples, cabbages and lettuce are all good turkey feed when chopped fine. Corn meal is not good for young turkeys in any quantity, but a little may be mixed with wheat bran or milk curd. Plenty of charcoal should be given, well powdered, and ashes, road dust or air-slacked lime sprinkled in the bottoms of the coops. Never keep food lying by them when they are still small, and do not let them get wet or draggled in dew or rain. Feed only what they will eat up clean. When fattening turkeys feed liberally with grain and corn meal wet with hot water and give them plenty of clean water to drink. Give vegetables two or three times a week, and finely chopped hay. The second cutting of clover is one of the best grasses for them. Corn is also good for fattening. Don't dispose of the old breeders until they are 8 or 10 years old, provided they are good breeders. An eastern turkey raiser says that the best fattening ration for turkeys and chickens to round them into shape quickly is three feeds a day of all they can eat of cooked potatoes and corn meal, with one feed of whole grain. The grain should be given as the last feed for the day and may consist of whole corn, buckwheat or wheat, or a mix- ture of the three. One-tenth of all the soft food should be of ground bone, beef scraps or other animal food, while grit and pounded char- coal must be kept before the birds at all times. Steamed clover, chopped cabbage, beets or other green food ought also to be mixed with the mash and all the fresh water the birds can drink must be provided for. The fowls ought to be kept in rather close confinement and upon a sward, if possible. It is surprising how quickly chickens and turkeys fatten on this special ration and those raising their own poultry for Thanksgiving or the holidays will find no better fattening ration. From eighteen to twenty-one days of such feeding will be sufficient to put them in ideal shape for the table. The turkey is an insect eater and if he is not confined he is worth as much as a hired man to the farmer in grasshopper season. He is an early riser and travels many miles in the course of the season. In this connection other great insect eaters are the quail and the crow; these birds are worth their weight in gold in the United States for this reason. Squab Raising. The constant and increasing demand for squabs (young pigeons) indicates that there is a profitable business to be had in the raising of them. They are most called for in the market when game cannot be bought and broiler chicks are not in. Any farmer's wife meditating pigeon raising should get the largest brood birds she can. Carrier POULTRY 261 pigeons are rapid growing birds. Give them proper housing and don't let them roost in any old place. Watch them carefully, give them good, clean nests, and keep them protected from rats, cats, and other prowlers. Get your squabs ready early in the spring. It has been said that a pair of pigeons can be kept for a dollar a year, or less, and that they will produce at least a dozen squabs a year, averaging $4.00 a dozen for the year. Pigeons will keep on breeding regularly for about seven years, and there is a market for squabs the year around. A pigeon house can be built for a few dol- lars, if you have no shed suitable on your lot or farm. A flying yard covered with mesh poultry netting can be easily made. By saving the largest and best squabs for breeding the increase and upkeep of the fiock is insured. As to the real facts between expenses and in- come consult those who know how and have raised squabs for years. Two good books for amateurs in pigeon raising are, "Squabs for Profit," by Rice and Cox, price 50 cents, and "Pigeon Keeping for Amateurs," by J. C. Lyell, price 50 cents. But take all squab raising advice with a few grains of salt until you have tried it yourself. Not long ago Mr. Hiram Lycan, a squab raiser of Paris, 111., wrote a rather gloomy report of his experience in squab raising. It appears that there are two sides to this business. Diseases of Fowls. No matter what disease attacks fowls it is a safe rule to isolate the afifected ones at once without a moment's delay after discovery. Then clean and disinfect the coops by kerosene sprays, followed by a coating of whitewash with a little carbolic acid. Fuller directions for specific treatment follow : Lice. The dust bath may be considered almost a specific against lice. The hens will throw the dust up through their feathers, eflfectively smothering these vermin, which, having no lungs, must breathe through apertures in their sides. Favus. Sometimes chickens are either affected with the disease known as favus, or with the disease known as depluming scabies. Both of these diseases are similar, as is also the disease known as scaly legs. With favus the disease appears first upon the comb and neck as yellowish raised areas of circular or irregular outline. The skin becomes crusted as the disease progresses, and the chickens lose their plumage. The affected birds should be washed with warm water to make the crust removable, after which the parts may be coated with an ointment made of one part benzine, twenty parts soft soap and enough sulphur to make the mixture into a paste. Depluming Scabies. Depluming scabies attacks the feathers, causing them to break off near the skin. Unlike favus, this disease begins at the rump and spreads forward to all parts of the body. It is due to the workings of 262 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING a mite. The affected parts should be rubbed with carbolized ointment or an ointment made by mixing one dram of balsam of Peru with one ounce of vaseline. Scurvy Leg. Similar to these diseases are the scabs and warts on chicken's legs, which come ofif sometimes and bleed. These are usually due to scurvy leg, a disease caused by a very small insect working among the scales of the shanks and feet. Wash with warm water and soak and anoint thoroughly with carbolated vaseline. Or you can get one of the commercial liquids sold for this purpose, dilute it to one-fourth, and dip the shanks in this. Gapes. Gapes, a disease caused by the Gape Worm, is usually confined to young chicks. The worm is originally a parasite of the earth worm, and may infect the chicks through several sources: infected drinking water, the eating of angle worms, or the picking up of the parasite from ground which is occupied by other infected chicks, who have coughed up the gape worm. The worm, after birth, makes its home in the windpipe and in fatal cases has been allowed to gather and grow in such quantities that the chick chokes to death. The dis- ease first shows in a slight cough ; as the worms grow larger the local irritation increases, and the peculiar gaping which gives name to the disease begins. Sneezing, difificulty in swallowing and breathing are other signs. But as these also accompany pneumonia or bronchitis the constant gaping, in chicks, is almost the only sure sign, especially if there is no rise of temperature with it. In the early stages the preventive treatment of removal to new ground, absolute clealiness of quarters and utensils, and feeding from boards or shallow dishes thoroughly scalded after each feeding will usually cure the chicks if practiced in time. But it will take some period before much improvement is seen. Some good gape cure mixed with the food is also advised. But if the disease is treated as soon as discovered the trouble is usually self-limiting; as the embryo of the worm is hatched out in the ground, and therefore the great need in the poultry yard is to keep the chicks away from infected ground and observe perfect cleanliness and free use of disinfectants. Roup. The various vermin and roup remedies should be kept on hand, and at hand, and used freely. Insect powders are a necessity. If your yards are small, and only a few hens are kept, a whisk broom can be used for cleaning yards, houses or drinking vessels or for applying disinfecting preparations. For larger quarters the use of one of the low-priced spray pumps is the better method. A few cents' worth of the poultry germicides now on the market dissolved in a gallon of water and applied often and regularly will keep down vermin and kill disease germs better than any amount of semi-annual cleaning of in- fested henhouses. These disinfectants will also often prevent disease when sprinkled on roosts and floors, as the fumes, breathed in by the POULTRY 263 fowls help to make them immune. A cheap hand sprayer can be bought for from 75 cents to one dollar. One gallon of the cheapest kerosene and one pint of crude carbolic acid, diluted with one and a half gallons of hot soap suds, makes a cheap but effectual mixture for walls and roosts. If roup, or chicken cholera, once gets among the chickens on a farm, the germs are likely to remain there for months. Sprinkle air- slacked lime all over the poultry yard after you have raked it clean, in order to destroy these. Roup usually develops from a bad cold. A fowl may sneeze, water a little at the eyes and nostrils, and be gener- ally dumpy as the result of a cold. This cold, if taken hold of at once, can be cured by forcing a little one-grain pill made of strychnine, iron and quinine, down the throat of each sick fowl. Give bread crumbs at the same time. If something of this sort is not done at once the cold will become accompanied by rattling in the throat, when it is called bronchitis. If the chickens gasp, it is pneumonia. Diphtheria may follow, and roup also. This last is so difficult of cure and so very con- tagious that the safest thing to do is to kill the fowl and burn it. Clean the chicken house and disinfect. Fumigation with sulphur, of the roosting place, driving the fowls into the scratching shed or yard, is advised. Quarantine every chicken that shows the first signs of infection and give each individual the following treatment as a wash. This can also be used internally, in teaspoonful doses: 35 grains chlorate of potassium, 2 grains salicylic acid, 1 oz. each of water and of glycerine. Wash the heads of the chickens with this, as the eyes get glued together. With an atomizer spray a liquid made of 4 tablespoons witch hazel, 2 tablespoons water and 3 drops carbolic acid into nostrils and mouth. One poultry raiser takes the sick chicken by the feet and dips her head for a second into a pail two-thirds full of water, into which one-half cup of kerosene has been poured. Dip the head just under the surface, dry well with warm cloths and put it in a dry, warm place. Ten drops of turpentine to twenty of sweet oil is a good mixture taken internally. Give about ten drops to a chicken. If tumors develop on head and face paint with equal parts of aconite and iodine. Do not handle infected fowls without protecting the hands, and burn all cloths or articles used in treatment. For the above very com- plete directions I am indebted to an article on the subject of roup by Mrs. Ida E. Tilson, an authority on poultry raising and a very clever and painstaking one. Chicken Cholera and Bowel Troubles. Chicken cholera, of which the first indication is usually a slight, watery diarrhoea, is also accompanied by a lack of life and spirit, and the bird goes moping around half asleep with ruffled feathers. The droppings become bloody as the result of intense inflammation ; the comb darkens; frequently it turns black and the decline is rapid— the bird possibly being sick but a few hours — though the length of time varies. It attacks all kinds of domestic fowls and carries with it a 264 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING high fever, while birds become exceedingly weak and may topple over at the slightest touch. This disease is so often brought into a chicken yard by the intro- duction of new fowls that are infected that the best suggestion of cure is one of prevention. Quarantine new fowls until you are cer- tain they have no disease germs to give to your flock. Among the remedies offered nothing is better than pure drinking water in which some one of the many excellent cholera remedies now on the market has been placed. Give this to the fowls in any amount that they will drink and keep up the most strict attention to cleanliness and disinfec- tion of yards and quarters for some time after the disease seems to have disappeared. Be sure, also, to burn all dead fowls and disinfect and bury the ashes at some distance from the poultry yard. There are various forms of bowel troubles, of a more or less seri- ous nature, to which young chicks are subject, but all of these, unless brought in from outside quarters, may be traced back either to im- proper food or drink or too close confinement and lack of ventilation and cleanliness in chicken houses. The same general treatment as for cholera is advised. Be careful to see that if sour food is given it should be sour from lactic acid and not from fermentation. Sour milk is good, but a sour mash is not. White diarrhoea is supposed to be a germ disease which attacks the caeca or blind intestine. A post mortem examination will always reveal the presence of Coccidium tennelum, a parasite belonging to the Sporozoa of the division Protozoa, the lowest division of animal life. This same germ attacks turkeys, ducks and pigeons. When this disease prevails, it kills from 60 to 75 per cent of all chicks hatched. It is accompanied by a white, pasty, fecal discharge which pastes up the feathers and closes the vent. There is also a disease which is a contraction of the vent which comes with or without White Diarrhoea, and is always fatal. The cause is the presence of the germ as above. While this dis- ease may readily be transmitted from the droppings of affected fowls, the primary cause must be sought back to the eggs used for hatching. Hatching eggs should always be antiseptically cleaned by wiping in 95 per cent grain alcohol. If an incubator is used (and it allows the best chance for success against the disease) it should be washed with a solution of some good germicide and exposed to the sun. The €:gg tray should be scalded and washed with the same solution and, if there is burlap in the nursery or elsewhere, it should be renewed. The same precautions should be taken with the brooders. The soil to which the chicks have access should be well disinfected with the solution, dug up often, and exposed to the purifying effect of sun and air. Round worms and tape worms are not a cause of serious trouble among fowls, unless they are present in large numbers. But as they may take away from the flesh forming powers of the fowls they should be looked for, if symptoms of diarrhoea and wasting away are seen. They sometimes also cause staggering. A little care and the right remedy will generally overcome the trouble quickly. POULTRY 265 Mites. If you want to know whether you have mites wipe your perches early in the morning- with a white cloth or pound the roosts a little. Hot water, sprayed into cracks, or kerosene in the joints, are both good mite killers. Be sure that your coops for chicks are thoroughly cleaned, repaired, disinfected and whitewashed before they are put away for the winter. Remember that mites are not lice, but belong to the spider family. Cats, dogs and some birds of the air may carry these pests, and as they multiply rapidly, and may live for a long time without food, the necessity for constant keeping at their hiding places, which are always dark cracks, is evident, unless you want to keep hens in order to support mites. Apoplexy. Apoplexy among chickens is quite a common disease. The chicken suddenly drops dead from the perch or it may have a milder attack, resembling vertigo, when the fowl throws its head and body about as if giddy, and falls in a fluttering, kicking collapse on the ground. Either vertigo or apoplexy are generally due to over-feeding, and the best remedy for vertigo is to drop all the fattening portion of the ration, corn especially. Also confine the sick birds for a time. In cases of vertigo, hold the head of the chicken under a stream of cold water, and this will often revive it. Be sure also that the ventilation of the chicken house is good, and don't let the chickens roost high, as they will do invariably if left to themselves, and if there are any perches near the top of the coops. A chicken which is found lying on the floor of the henhouse, but is still alive, may be restored by open- ing a blood vessel under the wing and letting it bleed profusely. This relieves the pressure on the brain. Keep your fowls well exercised also to avoid these troubles. Egg- Eating. Egg-eating among hens is usually due to eggs being accidentally broken. If hens do not get enough protein in their food or are too closely confined they are apt to eat eggs. If the habit spreads to the flock in general, put in very dark nest boxes, entered from the rear, as only an egg-laying hen will be likely to go into these. The cloth pocket hen's nest described in this chapter is an excellent preventive for this habit. Feather-Eating, Feather eating is generally found where fowls are kept in too much confinement without variety of food. Turn the chickens out for a time, if possible, to range for themselves. If you can find the ones that do the eating it may be best to kill them, if not too valuable. Paring the beak of the guilty one down to the quick Will sometimes help. Feather eating is most common during the moulting season, when the pin feathers are full of oil, and the cause may be that more animal food may be needed. It would be well to try an increase of green cut bone or fresh meat. 266 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Bumble Foot. The cause of a rooster's not being able to walk may be due to a warty growth in the ball of his feet known as bumble foot. If this is found to be the case remove the growths with a sharp knife and touch the wound thus made with nitrate of silver. The feet should be bathed frequently in warm water and the bird kept isolated on a bed of leaves or straw. Limberneck. The disease limberneck is peculiar to warm climates. It is be- lieved always to come from flocks getting access to carrion and eat- ing too many maggots. The latter go down whole and alive, and before they can be digested they have perforated some membranes of throat or craw. Mycosis, or the mould disease, also acquired from carrion, acts somewhat the same only it is a rapidly growing, sufifocat- ing fungus, vegetable, not animal. It may be acquired from very mouldy grain. Copperas is as good as any remedy for Limberneck. A little spirits of turpentine in drinking water, one teaspoon to two quarts may be used for two or three days, or each affected bird be given a turpentine capsule, followed soon after by one teaspoon castor oil. Examination and cleansing of premises is best preventive. Do not eat the fowls or allow any to be sold for food until you are sure your flock is rid of the trouble. Scours. Too much soft food for hen hatched chicks is said to be a cause of "scours." With brooder chicks the trouble is usually due to too great extremes in temperature. Either of these suggests its own remedy. Leg Weakness. Many large, heavy roosters sufifer from leg weakness. Their bodies develop faster in weight than their legs do in strength and as a consequence sooner or later the legs give way under the continual strain. Little can be done in such a case excepting to keep the bird quiet and to give him muscle and strength forming foods. He should be kept in a compartment removed from the other birds and given from two to four grains of powdered sulphate of iron daily in his food. Night Hawks. One good way of preventing the night prowling enemies of young chickens has been tried successfully by a Pittsfield, Mass., farmer, who carries on a large poultry business, selling over a thousand fowls as market poultry alone. The chicken plot is made into pens 50x100 ft. and around each of these the farmer plows up a furrow. Boards 8 in. wide are strung along the flat side of the furrow. Stakes are driven to come full 3>4 ft. above these, and then the furrows are turned back to the boards. One inch wire netting 3 ft. wide is tacked to the boards at the bottom and at the top to these stakes. This gives a sufficient protection Another way of protection from hawks is to put the chicks' coops in a small grassy yard, enclosed with a tight fence, high enough to POULTRY 267 keep them from getting out. Stick this full of brush, leaving just enough space for the caretaker to get through. The chickens, run- ning through this brush, are saved from the danger of a sudden swoop down from above, A third remedy used against hawks is to hang out dozen sheets of bright tin, each sheet about 5x12 inches with a string attached to one end and this in turn tied to a limb of a tree. The string should be about two feet long, allowing the sheet to re- volve constantly. It does frighten hawks. A good way to keep the chicks away from rats is to raise the coops on posts about two feet from the ground with inverted tin pans over these. Runs for the chicks leading up to the coop entrance are dropped at night, and the door closed. At each end of the coop roof are ventilators covered with wire screens. The best way to break up broody hens is to confine them to a dry smooth floor, without litter, in company with an active cockerel and feed them liberally with stimulating food. General Helps. Store plenty of dry earth under cover before winter sets in, so that the hens will not lack for a dust bath in cold weather. You will also need the clean, dry earth on the henhouse floor for a disinfectant and absorbent. Don't put pine sawdust on poultry floors. It becomes infested with fleas. Cedar sawdust is all right. There is nothing more valuable for the poultryman or farmer during the winter than a feed cooker or boiler to cook feed, heat water, make spray mixtures and a dozen other things. The morn- ing mash or feed for the stock can be prepared the afternoon before and left to heat up during the night. Warm feeds and water are es- sential during the cold months. Plum trees are good in a poultry yard, as the chickens tend to hold in check the curculio, one of the plum tree pests. Wherever other fruit trees will grow they can be planted to good advantage in a poultry yard. Apples, crab apples, pears, peaches or cherries will be benefited by the poultry pickings and will also give the fowls an abundance of shade. The dropping canvas to hang below the hen roost is much better than the board platform. Hang it on hooks twelve inches below the roost by several small rings sewed to it. Then it can be easily removed, carried out, cleaned and sprinkled with air-slacked lime. City people can keep a few hens for eggs without males. This not only precludes breeding, but it precludes the crowing of the rooster in the morning. When the hens are beyond the age of profit- able egg-producing they can be disposed of for eating purposes and pullets bought from some reliable breeder. It is often desirable to move hens from their own -chosen nests to a place more convenient for their owner. In such cases its hould be done at night, and the new nest should be well filled with eggs. It is also important that it should be dark and so arranged that a cover may be placed over it to shut ofif tlie hen's view of the surroundings 268 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING until she has become fairly fixed in her new quarters and the old nest forgotten. An old broom makes a good scrubbing brush for a henhouse. Do not have too much glass in your henhouse. On the south side is sufficient. Storing Eggs. There are several ways to preserve eggs for home use, but the most satisfactory method is to place them in sodium silicate (water- glass). A large jar is secured and thoroughly cleaned. Then to every fifteen quarts of cold boiled water add one quart of water- glass. Into this solution the eggs are placed as they are collected un- til the jar is filled within three inches of the top. Two inches of the liquid should always overlay the eggs. This method of storage is very cheap, costing but about one cent per dozen. When eggs are stored by any method they should never be washed, for this makes the shells porous and detracts from their keeping qualities. The eggs should be infertile, that is, they should be from hens having no males running with them, for infertile eggs keep better and longer than fertile ones. The shells should be absolutely clean and the eggs ab- solutely fresh. Eggs with cracked shells ought never to be stored by this or other rriethods. Uses of Eggs. The usefulness of eggs is by no means confined to the food value of the egg, although, compared with other food, eggs still keep their relative economic relation to meat as to their food value, whether in nutritive or financial qualities. But eggs have a decidedly medicinal use, and here are some of them : A raw egg swallowed at once when a fishbone is caue^ht in the throat beyond the reach of the finger will dislodge the bone and carry it down. The white of a raw egg turned over a burn or scald is most soothing and cooling. It can be applied quickly and will prevent in- flammation, beside relieving the stinging pain. A mustard plaster made with the white of an egg will not leave a blister. The white skin that lines the shell of an egg is a useful application for a boil. The white of an egg beaten with loaf sugar and lemon relieves hoarse- ness — a teaspoonful taken every hour. An egg added to the morning cup of coffee makes a good tonic. A raw egg with the yolk unbroken, taken in a glass of the best sherry wine, is beneficial for convalescents. An excellent remedy for bowel troubles is partly beaten raw egg taken at one swallow. It is healing to the inflamed stomach and intestines, and will relieve the feeling of distress. Four eggs taken in this man- ner in twenty-four hours will form the best kind of nourishment, as well as medicine. The white of a raw egg is the most satisfactory of pastes. Papers intended to be put over tumblers of jelly and jam will hold very securely and be air tight if dipped in the white of an egg. A raw egg is one of the most nutritious of foods and may be taken very easily if the yolk is not broken. A little nutmeg grated upon the egg, a few drops of lemon juice added, some chopped parsley sprinkled over it, POULTRY 269 or some salt and a dash of cayenne pepper, vary the flavor and tend to make it more palatable. The turning of eggs is said to prevent their getting stale, as when the egg rests in one position too long the yolk works its way through the white to the shell bottom and is affected by the air through the shell. Summary. Remember that fowls need certain things for egg production, in perfect shape, for the best commercial results. Granted you have good stock these things are : 1. Warmth. 2. Ventilation. 3. Cleanliness. 4. Plenty of range for exercise. 5. A. food ration that will give cereal, animal, vegetable and min- eral matter in the right proportions, and in variety, fed regularly. 6. Plenty of fresh water, and of warm skim milk, in clean vessels. 7. Intelligent treatment of the hen's peculiarities and appetite. Never overfeed. Watch the quality of food for young chickens and the amount for old ones, and keep green food and grit before hens all the time. 8. Immediate attention to diseases, although perfect cleanliness will usually prevent diseases. CHAPTER XVII Stock Breeding THE breeding of live stock is absolutely necessary to a per- fect system of farming. The keeping of a great variety of live stock upon the farm not only furnishes profitable work during the whole year, and adds greatly to the revenues that may be derived from the land, but it also converts the grain and grass of a farm into products which add to the value of these crops, and at the same time make the smallest draft on the farm's plant food re- sources. Assuming that we need not argue the advisability of every farmer keeping live stock, the only remaining question to be settled is what class and what breed shall be kept. In the first place, it is my candid belief that too many farmers, and especially stock breeders, in purchas- ing a sire, buy the pedigree only, and too often pay dear for it, while the individual itself is very deficient in type, outline and many of the essential points necessary to constitute a good sire. No matter what class of live stock you desire to raise, let it always be pure bred. The time of the "penny royal" steer, "razor-back" hog and "native" sheep is past, not to be thought of in these days, when all agree that the greatest benefit from live stock is only derived when good blood flows through their veins. Yet, if you can not begin with pure bred stock at first, you should strive to improve your stock by always using pure bred sires. By doing this for a few years your herd will become, for all practical purposes, as good as pure bred. Breeders have been so successful in fixing types that pure bred ani- mals can, with almost absolute certainty, be counted on to produce progeny that in every way is true to type, and great marks of im- provement have been made on the original stock. This may be counted on as true in all classes of live stock. Let every stock breeder, in the first place, in purchasing a sire, be sure to select a good individ- ual, with well defined outlines and type, and with a general combina- tion of excellent points and pure breed. Then investigate his pedi- gree, seeing to it that it reaches back through several generations of ancestors of excellent strains. In case you do not feel like trusting your own judgment alone in selecting a sire, it is not always wise to employ the veterinary who happens to be near at hand, for while most veterinaries are good judges of disease among live stock, in most cases they are very poor judges of good sires, for they have not made any particular study of that subject. Other things being equal, the man, or woman, raised on a stock farm, has, from practical experience in raising stock, the best knowledge, and is therefore the best judge of good sires. As a gen- eral rule suit the class of stock to be raised on the farm to some < : Q : < O STOCKBREEDING 271 particular purpose, whether the stock to be selected be cows for dairy- ing purposes, horses for speed and durability, sheep to produce large fleeces of wool that find a ready market, or to make good, heavy mut- ton, or swine that require the least amount of food to produce the larg- est per cent of profit for the feeder. Native Cattle. The introduction of native cattle into the states and territories began as early as 1525. The Dutch, in New York, imported cattle, commencing in 1625; the English, in Massachusetts, in 1624; and importations by the Eng- lish to Pennsylvania began in 1662. Our native stock all sprang from these importations. It is impossible to trace any direct pedigree of our native cattle, but some writers trace the origin of our common stock to the English Devon. A number of the early settlers were from the south of England, where the Devon cattle were the prevail- ing breed, and this was the breed the New England people brought to the eastern states. The predominant color was an all-over dark red and their horns were quite long. Short Horn Cattle. This breed of cattle has attained a distinction and won a substan- tial appreciation which no other has so fully and widely enjoyed among the enlightened grazers of the world. From Great Britain its dissemination has extended to the continent, to Australia, to South Africa, South America, Mexico, and to the West Indies, while it has secured almost a monopoly of the importations of this country and Canada. For the grass pastures of the Ohio valley, and the abundant natural and cultivated grasses of the broader prairies of the Mississippi region, it is admirably fitted and held in high esteem as the most economical machine for the speedy conversion of corn and grass into meat and money. The original short horn occupied the east of England, Yorkshire, and the valley of the Tee at the date of the earliest records of British stock growing. They were various in size, color and other peculiari- ties ; the dark skinned herds of the fens resembling the black cattle of the Holland marshes, and the finer forms of Yorkshire and Durham assuming the style and quality of the noted cattle of Holstein and Jutland. Yet it may not certainly be known whether the ancient emi- grants from those localities brought this stock to England or whether this similarity is the result of climate and keeping. It was at least a race very distinct from that of Ireland and the west of England, with long horns, thick skins, and a heavy coat of hair, well suited for their protection in a climate subject to continuous seasons of rain. It is well known in later times that Dutch and Danish importations modi- fied these cattle of the east of England, and suggested the more recent and greater improvements of Charles and Robert Colling, commenc- ing about the era of our revolution, and continued successfully since by Messrs. Bates, Booth, Townley, and others in England, and Thorne, Alexander, and other breeders in this country. 272 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING The story of the bull Hubback, the founder of the modern short horn, has often been told. He was purchased in 1783 by Charles Col- ling of his brother and a Mr. Waistell for eight guineas, and is said to have been from a cow grazed by a poor man on the highway. It has long been a matter of controversy whether he was a pure bred Teeswater, — the short horn of that day. He was somewhat below the usual size of the Teeswaters, yellow, red and white in color, of a fine, compact form, admirable touch, and so easily fattened that he early became useless as a bull. The cow also purchased by Colling acquired fat very rapidly, and never again bred. Either from mere curiosity or from a suspicion that he was impairing the constitution of his animals by continuous breeding in too small a circle, Colling tried the experiment of infusing some of the Galloway blood, which was confined, it is understood, to a single cross upon certain individuals of his herd. At the sale of Charles Colling, in 1810, forty-seven animals produced 8,911 guineas, or about $44,555. Robert Colling, not so renowned, but esteemed by many quite as judicious a breeder, sold sixty-one animals (but six of them bulls) for 7,484 guineas, equal to $37,420. High prices have also been maintained by later breeders. Mr. Bates, in 1850, sold one family of Duchess stock, including calves, at an average of $581. Lord Ducie's herd, in 1853, realized an aver- age of $760 for sixty-two animals. Individuals of superior excellence, from the day when Colling's "Comet" sold for 1,000 guineas, have commanded fabulous prices. Similar prices have been obtained in this country. There were at least five hundred herds of pure bred short horns in Great Britain ten years ago. From six to seven thousand head were registered in the herd book every alternate year at that period, and these numbers are yearly increasing in accelerated ratio. Derived from a large breed the improved short horn is heavy, less in weight than the originals of the Tees, rounder and deeper in the trunk, the limbs shorter, chest and back broader, appearing less in bulk, while really greater in weight. The skin is light colored, hair reddish brown or white or mixed, the muzzle flesh colored, the horns shorter and lighter colored than in the former breed, the skin soft to the touch, the form square, the shoulder upright, and the hind quarter large. The color can not be characterized by a single term, varying greatly from a pure white to a rich red, a mixture being the fashion, known as roan or strawberry. The skin should be velvety and not too thin, while the hair should be plentiful and of a mossy softness. The head of the female is finer and more tapering than that of the male, the neck thinner and lighter, and her shoulders inclining to nar- row towards the chin. The short horn looks smaller than he is. He excells all other stock in facility of fattening, making good and heavy beef in thirty months, and even in two years. The idea is somewhat prevalent that short horn cows are not good milkers. It has been obtained, without doubt, from the fact of the well known efiforts made to perfect their fattening qualities, in accordance with Bakewell's saying that, "All was useless that was not beef." It is true of many families of short horns. Others are su- STOCK BREEDING 273 perior milkers. The original Holstein blood of the Durham and Hold- erness districts was famous for its milking quality, and it is difficult to breed it out with all the culture which the modern improved short horns have received. The modern Holderness stock at this day chiefly supplies the London dairies, and many of their best milkers have strong strains of the improved blood. The Duchess stock of great celebrity and purity, bred by Mr. Bates, was distinguished for its excellence in this respect. Some short horns in this country have yielded ample supplies of milk of excellent quality. In selecting a bull to breed from, for good milkers, select one rather long and loosely built, with heavy body, color strawberry roan, with horns short and thick, of even size out from the head, and only tapering slightly at the end, with neck well cut up under the jaw, and with a nose tapering decidedly down from the eyes to nearly a point. For form and shape, see picture of short horn bull in volume. James O. Sheldon, of Geneva, New York state, was a noted breeder of the Duchess, and sold his whole herd to Walkolt and Cam- bell, of New York Mills. They bred this same herd until they had 100 in all, then they sold them for between $300,000 and $400,000. One cow, a pure bred short horn, owned by Isaac Ford, of Tomp- kins county. New York, gave 36 quarts per day, and was milked three times a day. Another cow, owned by Philip Stephens, of Ithaca, New York, made 19^ lbs. of butter per week throughout the season. The writer sold a pure short horn cow, bred from the Sheldon stock, that gave a bushel of good milk a day throughout the season, and was milked until she was 17 years old. Her grand sire was Bow of Oxford and was bred by James O. Sheldon. The Hon. Lyman E. Murdock, of New York state, bred and raised a pair of shorthorns. He sold them to some New York City people for $800. Three weeks later he discovered that they were being exhibited in New York City, and went there with the idea of buying them back again. He met with no success, for the men who bought the cattle would not sell at any price. It was said that they charged 25c. admission and took in $100,000 during the New York exhibit. The cattle were then 7 years old and weighed 8,000 lbs., being at that time the heaviest cattle in the world. The backs of these animals were so broad that a half bushel of shelled corn could be turned onto them between the hip bone and not a kernel would spill off. They were kept on ground feed, both summer and winter, from the time they were calves, and were also pastured out the same as other cattle. They were broken when calves to the yoke and were used to haul hay when very young. They were finally shipped to London, where they were slaught- ered for beef, and their meat was sold for 75 cents to a dollar a pound. Other Types. Of course there are many other breeds, but we shall only mention a few. The Devons make the best cattle for working purposes, for they 274 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING are quick walkers and of a good disposition, and the cows of this family give a very rich quality of milk. The Guernsey and the Jersey, while small in size, are noted for the exceeding richness of the quality of their milk, their butter is of a golden color, hardness of texture and of a nutty flavor. The Holstein cattle are large and well developed, they make good beef cattle and the cows are noted for the very large quantity of milk which they give. One imported Ayrshire cow, Jean Armour, in 1862, gave on an average 49 pounds of milk a day, for 114 days. Her milk made two pounds of butter per day. Some of this breed of cows have yielded 16 pounds of butter per week for weeks and weeks in succession. Beef Cattle For Market. A large percentage of our beef cattle are slaughtered too young, many of them just as they are beginning to take on flesh. A well bred steer, if he be fed and cared for as he should be, will, after the second year, take on flesh and increase in weight one-third more than any one of his first two years. This is true until he is four years old. Previous to his third year the food materials go into mak- ing up his bones and tissues, and if his feeding is rational he will have a good foundation to build the flesh upon. It is a well known fact that the better bred an animal is, with few exceptions, the better will be the beef and the price received. Care should be taken in feeding. A good pasture with several varieties of grasses and good water is needed for summer. In the winter use early cut clover hay, sliced mangle wurtzel beets and a mixture of farm grains ground up. Plenty of salt mixed with mashed charcoal will keep them in prime condition and when they are four years old they will weigh from 2,000 to 2,200 lbs. Many farmers think that the sooner they can get their animals on the market the more saving of feed they can make. This is a bad mistake. If you wish to make your farm produce well feed your grain to the stock. The writer sold stock, fed in the above manner, for $9.00 a hun- dred on foot. - 'U. •Si A CHAPTER XVIII Dairying very complete treatise on dairying will be found in this chap- ter, as it is formulated from papers from the best dairymen of eastern states, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and written by one who has had wide experience in this line. Selection and Breeding. 1. Select the best cows that you have in your herd, or that you can buy, and dispose of the others. 2. The best cow for dairy is the one that produces the greatest amount of butter fat in a year (for food consumed), when being rightly fed. 3. It is a good plan to test your cows by weighing the amount of milk produced by them in a year. In this way it is possible to know how much butter fat each one produces. To renew or increase your herd, raise the heifer calves from your best cows. 4. Use the very best dairy-bred sire you can get ! One that has a long line of ancestors that have been first class dairy animals. It is not profitable for a cow to go dry more than four to six weeks, but the young cows should be watched and not allowed to acquire the habit of drying up too soon. 5. Keep a record of the time when the cows are bred, and allpw no guess work about the time of calving. Provide a roomy box stall and allow the cows to become accus- tomed to it a week prior to calving. The udder should receive prompt attention and the calf should be permitted to nurse its mother for two or three days. After separating the calf from the mother, feed the natural milk as soon as drawn, for a week or ten days. Then begin gradually to substitute skim milk with oil meal jelly stirred into it. Feed three times a day and not more than three quarts at a time until the calf gets started. The man whose ideal of a cow is high, and who practices good care, feed and gentleness, is sure to receive in milk and pleasure the highest profit that can be had from dairying. Care and Feed. Begin with the calf to develop the cow. The cow must be kept comfortable to do her best. She must not be compelled to work hard for food by treading all day over a scanty pasture, and she must have free access to salt, Do not drive her fast or let dogs chase her. Give her a warm, comfortable stall in the winter, with plenty of light and good ventilation. She should not be kept out of doors in cold, rainy or uncomfortable weather. 276 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING "Do by your cows as you would like to be done by yourself." Give them plenty of pure water as often as they want it, at a temperature that suits them. They should never be allowed to wan- der off to places where there are sloughs with stagnant water or soft places where they would be apt to get mired. Feed. The better a cow is fed, up to her capacity to assimilate, the greater will be the profit. Feed a variety of good fodders, such as clover hay, ensilage and corn fodder, all the cow will eat. Milking. 1. Always have cows in the stable when ready to milk. It is better than to have them chase one another around the yard. 2. Have the stables clean, and have the cow clean, and be clean yourself or you cannot get clean milk. Before commencing to milk, brush all loose dirt from the sides and udder of the cow. Always milk a cow in the same manner, at the same time and speed. Any change will irritate and tend to excite her. Also milk in the same order and at the same time of day. Always milk a cow dry before leaving, but do not continue stripping after the milk is all drawn. Milking should be done with clean, dry hands. Care of Milk. 1. Milking should be done in clean, dry, tin pails, and should not be exposed to foul air. 2. Set for creaming as quickly as possible after milking. 3. Strain the milk as soon as drawn from the cow. If taken to the factory there should be a ventilator in the top of the can and the can should be protected from the sun on the way. Butter Making. 1. Good butter can only be made from good milk and this can only be had from healthy cows, kept on good, wholesome food with pure water to drink. 2. The best way to separate the cream from the milk is by using the separator, as this gets nearly all the butter fat. 3. The temperature of milk to separate well should be as high as 80 degrees. It separates best immediately after being drawn from the cow before it has had time to cool. Immediately after separating the cream should be well aired and cooled down to about 60 degrees and held at that temperature till slightly acid and then churned. The usual temperature for churning is from 58 to 62 degrees, but no one can tell what temperature is best for his milk until after a trial. The churning should be done at as low a temperature as possible, and should not take longer than 45 to 50 minutes. When the butter is in granules the size of wheat kernels, the churn should be stopped, and some salt should be thrown in. Then give a few turns of the churn to make the butter float. Draw ofif the buttermilk and wash in two or three waters, then salt to taste. The average customer wants DAIRYING 277 about an ounce of salt to a pound of butter. Work it once, then let it lie in a cool place from two to three hours, then rework and pack, and you will have no mottled or streaked butter. Winter Rations For Milch Cows. Feed for the silo, especially if intended for milch cows, should be cured. If not there will be a foul odor which will affect the quality of the milk. You cannot tell how much feed is needed by the flow of milk, for some milk will produce twice as much butter fat as other milk. The better quality of milk requires more feed to produce it. A good ration for a milk cow is as follows : 2 parts ground corn or barley. 4 parts ground oats. 6 parts wheat bran. 3 parts wheat middlings. 1 part oil meal. This ration should be fed before the cows are milked, both morn- ing and evening, from 4 to 6 quarts to a feed. Also in the morning feed about twenty pounds of silo feed from drilled corn silage and clover hay as much as the cows will eat up clean three times a day. In the evening before milking it is advisable to feed each cow one peck of sliced roots, such as mangel wurzel, beets or carrots. One should be careful in watering milch cows in the winter to have the water of the right temperature, so that the cows will drink sufficient water to insure the greatest quantity of milk. When possible, it is most satisfactory to water cows inside on bad days. When this can not be done, the tank in the yard should be supplied with a heater, in which a fire should be built to take the chill off the water before the cows are turned out to drink. If this is not done the cows will often go thirsty rather than drink the icy water in the tanks. It is said that the amount of corn passing a steer unmasticated increases with the amount of feed. This excessive feeding is more than a waste of corn. It requires energy, a tax on the internal econ- omy to masticate, digest and assimilate food even if given in the least quantity required to accomplish a given purpose. If given in a larger quantity, so large that the system cannot make the use of it that nature intended, the burden on the system is so much the heavier, and therefore corn is wasted and the animal injured at the same time. This theory confirms the belief of some animal nutrition men that il now costs twice as much to make a pound of beef as is necessary. If this is only half true the total loss in this industry alone is appalling. Corn should never be fed alone, but should be ground and mixed with some lighter grains. Every farmer should burn his own charcoal, which should be crushed and fed. The best way to prepare the wood is. to cut it up into stove lengths. When it is dry, stack it up like a chimney about one foot in height. Then stand the wood on end around the chim- ney, place one tier on top of the first and so on till the pile is rounded off as a wood stack. Be sure to have wood close as possible. Cover the wood with about 3 inches of straw or leaves or hav or grass, then 278 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING cover this with dirt about 6 inches deep. Start the fire through the chimney and after the fire is well started cover over the top of the chimney the same as the rest of the pile. Care must be taken that fire does not break out or the whole will burn into ashes. A close watch must be kept night and day till it has burned out, which may take a week or more, as the larger the pile the longer it takes. Never open it up before you are sure that the fire is all out, as a spark left in the coal may consume the whole pile when exposed to the air. Any kind of wood may be used, yet hardwood makes the best coal. Silo and Silage. There is no longer a doubt that the silo is the greatest factor in reducing the cost of the winter ration for our dairy cows. Probably more than 90 per cent of dairymen who begin to use silage continue to put it up year after year. This alone should be sufficient proof that the silo is a success. A man in southern Minnesota who has a dairy of 60 to 70 cows, built two silos, 16x30 feet, in the summer of 1901. After feeding the contents of these silos he remarked that the invest- ment had saved him a thousand dollars. The silo will do more to reduce the cost of feeding cows than will any other method we may adopt. Construction of the Silo. The silo which I will describe is circular in shape. The founda- tion is dug about two feet deep or so that it reaches below the frost line. Stone, gravel and Portland cement were used for the founda- tion. On top of the foundation was placed a circle of oak boards, 1 inch thick, two thick lapped to break points, and sawed so as to lay to form a circle a scant 12 feet in diameter on the inside. These one by six pieces were nailed together and laid in cement to form a smooth base for resting the staves on. White pine staves were used of two lengths, 12 and 16 feet, and 5 inches wide and 1% inches thick. The silo was 28 feet deep. Ten hoops made of ^ round iron with %-inch ends threaded 8 inches, were used. Late in the season, after the silo was filled, a roof was put on, which was almost flat and can be easily removed at any time. Cost of Silo. Lime and cement for foundation $5.00 Mason labor 3.60 Staves 70.70 Four 4x6's, bored for hoop supports 5.20 Circle of oak for silL 3.10 Ten hoops 10.00 Staples and nails . .30 Roof (lumber $5, tin $6) 11.00 Labor 2 men 4 days 10.00 $118.90 Capacity of silo, sixty-two tons. DAIRYING 279 The Cow For Small Farm Or City. A first class dairy cow for the small farmer or city people can be had by crossing a thoroughbred Ayrshire sire and a thoroughbred Jersey cow. The pedigree of sire and dam should extend back to ancestors for dairying purposes. A thoroughbred Ayrshire bull and a thoroughbred Jersey cow with a pedigree extending back to ances- try of the short horn cattle are the best to produce the all-purpose cattle for the large farmer. A cow thus procured has a value far above all other breeds ; in fact, no other breed can for a moment be considered its equal. They are a great dairy breed. While it is true that the dairy qualities of the short horn have been neglected, I have bred short horn cows that gave 32 quarts of milk per day which con- tained a large per cent of butter fat. By crossing these two breeds, viz., a great milk giver and a great butter maker, the dairyman will have a gold mine of his own. Cows thus produced made 18^4 pounds of butter per week throughout the season of 1908. The Ayrshire are, as a rule, most excellent for milk and butter. The Jersey gives a rich, small mess of milk. By crossing the Ayrshire with the Jersey, and also with the Guernsey, the quantity and quality of the milk will be largely increased and the calves will make much better veal for the market. It has been estimated that the average cow yields approximately 160 pounds of butter per year, while under properly applied scientific breeding and management 200 pounds of butter can be made yearly. The quantity of milk and butter secured from a cow and its cost of production must, of course, depend upon the care and feed used. On the other hand, when the city people can get the farm prod- uce direct from the farmer, fresh and sweet, they are very glad to receive and pay a good price for it. I have been asked by city people if I knew of a farmer that would furnish a private family with poultry, fresh eggs, butter, milk, etc., by the year, as they were willing to pay the farmer's price. Milk is sometimes furnished to families by milk- men and from large dairies that is not fit for use, and often contains tubercle bacilli from tuberculous cattle. The wide spread of tuberculo- sis among dairy cows and the concealed character of the disease make it impossible to be sure that a cow is free from tuberculosis until she has been proven so by the use of the tuberculin test. Now for the pro- tection of the public health it seems very necessary that regulations should be made requiring that either all milk should be obtained from cows entirely free from tuberculosis, stabled, milked, pastured, etc., in an environment free from tuberculous infection, or that it must be sterilized before it is used as a beverage or in the manufacture of but- ter and other dairy products. The tuberculous cow is a serious men- ace to the public health. Dairy Notes. The best cow for dairy is the one that produces the greatest amount of butter fat in a year (for food consumed), when being rightly fed. A famous Holstein cow, owned by Mr. Schilling, of Northfield, 280 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Minnesota, closed her official seven and 30 day test by making a new record for Minnesota. She was 6 years old and gave in one day 108.9 pounds of milk and made 4.46 pounds of butter. In seven days she gave 747 lbs. of milk and made 29.43 pounds of butter. The only correct way to ascertain the work of a cow is by the use of the scales and the Babcock test, which must be continuously used for one year. Read current dairy literature and keep posted on new ideas. Provide water in abundance, keep it accessible and always pure, fresh, but not too cold. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed stufifs ; in no case should decomposed or moldy material be used. Cornell Station, Utica, New York, at the present time, has a dairy cow, pure bred Holstein, that produced 36 pounds of butter in one week. It is not so much the amount of butter fat a cow produces as what it costs to produce it that determines the profit. 5 2 CHAPTER XIX Horse Department Horse Breeding and Horse Lovers. HORSES have been the companions of man since the beginning- of time. Many men have declared that the horse is next to man in intelligence. Rev. T. Dewitt Talmage said, "There ought to be a heaven for horses." George Washington (the father of our country) was much devoted to his horse. Ex-President Rutherford B. Hayes, who lived at his home near the little Ohio town of Fremont, on a farm, used to enjoy his broad acres by walking over them, or when on his favorite horse "Whitey" he would ride for miles and miles. "Whitey" was the horse that car- ried him through the civil war. He also regarded the trees on his farm with an almost paternal fondness, knowing as he did the individ- ual history of each one. The closest friend of Ex-President Pierce was "Ethan," his horse. This horse, the farmer president used to say, was more sympathetic than many of his human friends. One day Pierce was traveling alone, in a buggy, drawn by "Ethan," when he noticed a thunder storm approaching, he said, "We must be jogging along, Ethan, or the rain will catch us." Without another word or slap of whip or rein Ethan broke into a run for home, and President Pierce always maintained that the horse understood what he had said. Who doubts it? Gen. Robert E. Lee was very fond of his horse, which he rode through the Civil War. When he died, and his body in the casket was brought forth, covered as it was with flowers, the old charger, which Lee had loved so long, was led up beside the casket as they were bearing the body away for burial. The horse put its face down upon the casket and gave a loud whinny, by which he showed that he understood and was sorrowful. It is an admitted fact that "kind and gentle treatment makes a kind and gentle horse." Therefore a severe whipping may forever ruin a horse of fine blood and highly nervous organization. Let good sense be used then, teach the horse by patient firmness as you would teach a child to walk, talking pleasantly and encouragingly and caressing him frequently. Give him an occasional lump of sugar, and he will soon learn to love you and a lasting friendship will be estab- lished to the credit and advantage of both horse and man. The Percheron-Norman. The Percheron is an improved variety of the old Norman war horse that was used by knights in early days. They are natives of La Perche, in the northwestern part of France. They stand from 15 to 163^ hands high, and are almost always gray. They are strongly 282 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING built, with heavy shoulders and powerful hindquarters, large joints, sound, big, bony legs, and excellent feet. This breed of horses are thought to be a cross between the Arabian and the old Norman draft horse. The district of La Perche has long been celebrated for supe- rior horses. The breeders naturally seek to retain the activity of the Arabian and the strength of the Norman. This can be effected by crossing a particular kind of the Arabian stallion with Norman mares. It has been estimated by those engaged in the business that several hundred Percheron stallions have been imported into the United States within the last two years. As this breed possesses most of the qualities of strength and activity, and the form to use these gifts to better advantage than any other breed, it follows that in a few years we shall be in the possession of a very superior class of working horses. In regard to the origm of the Norman war horse, from which the Percheron sprung, there is nothing positively known. They have existed in France for centuries, and have fixed characteristics that show that they must have been bred in the animal for many genera- tions. The Normans have formed the basis of every draft horse that has existed in Europe or America since the foundation of the breed. The American Trotter. That "blood will tell" in the breeding and development of the trot- ter is conclusively shown by the history of the origin of the different trotting favorites. It is a fact that nearly all trotters of any degree of speed trace back to some recognized strain of blood, and while there may be exceptions, where no definite traces can be made, yet the presumption is that the pace came by inheritance and not by chance. These facts coincide with the laws of heredity. This being the case, it is interesting to study the origin of the numerous trotting families and their branches, in America, and follow their record of increase and development. The Father of Trotters. The father of nearly all our trotting families was the imported horse Messenger, brought from England in 1788 and taken to Phila- delphia. The lineage of this noble sire traces back in the male line to the Darley Arabian, the sire of Flying Childers, but with a sus- picion of an out-cross through his great grandsire Sampsan. On the side of the dam the strain reaches Cade, by Godolphin Aral>ian. All accounts concur in representing Messenger as being a horse of very superior, though not of handsome form, and possessing extra- ordinary power and spirit. Three other horses imported at Ihe same time had to be assisted and supported from the ship, while Messenger, with head up, tail extended, charged down the plank, carrying a negro on each side, whose combined strength failed to check him until he had trotted some distance up the street. His color was gray, which became lighter with age ; he was fifteen hands three inches in height, with a large bony head, and a rather short, straight neck. His windpipe and nostrils were nearly twice the usual size, while his withers were low and shoulders upright, but deep and strong. His loins were strong, and the quarters were very mus- U. o HORSEDEPARTMENT 283 cular, while his hocks and knees were unusually large, yet the com- mon bones were flat and clean. He carried his legs under him and was always ready for action. This description shows but little of the form of the thoroughbred, yet is typical of the form of his trotting descendants. This form, as well as the extraordinary vitality and endurance peculiar to him, he impressed upon his progeny, which being persistently driven and trained to trot, became more intensified and habituated as to gait, until we have as the result of this skill of man, and this strain of blood, the final development of the "trotting horse of America," un- rivalled and unapproached in his achievements on the turf. Messenger died on Long Island in 1808, at the age of 28, after having lived in the vicinity of New York City for 15 years. The roadsters and trotting horses throughout that section show the im- press of his blood. Prominent Sons of Messenger. The following were the prominent sons of Messenger, to whom we trace many pedigrees : Mambrino, Bishop's Hambletonian, Og- den's Messenger, Engineer, Commander, Winthrop Messenger, and Mount Holly. Some of his daughters have contributed to the differ- ent families qualities which have given them prominence. The grand dam of Young Bashaw, the source of the Bashaws and the Clays, was a daughter of Messenger. We will trace some of the sons and their descendants to more modern times, commencing with Mambrino's Descendants. Abdallah. — Of this king of stallions, "rough to look at," a son of Mambrino out of the mare Amazonia, and grandson of Messenger, too much cannot be said. While he was alive he was not appreciated ; in fact, was so neglected that he yielded no profit in the stud, and was sold for thirty-five dollars to a fisherman, who, not being able to work him on account of his temper, allowed him to starve to death. His greatest laurels were reaped years afterwards through the honors bestowed on his son. During late years his blood has been highly prized in pedigrees, either through male or female line. Wm. M. Rysdyk's Hambletonian. — This son of Abdallah was the greatest progenitor of trotters the world ever saw. He was foaled in 1849 and died in 1876. His dam was by imported Bellfounder, and his second dam by Hambletonian, son of Messenger, and third dam by Messenger. Thus he possessed Messenger blood on side of dam, as well as sire. He sired 1,325 colts, and his services paid his owner over $100,000. Among his sons that have made a reputation are the stal- lions Volunteer, Alexander's Abdallah, Messenger Duroc, Happy Medium, Jay Gould, Walkill Chief, Geo. Wilkes, and Edward Everett, while the trotters Dexter, Nettie, Gazelle, Mattie and others are found among the lower records. He was the grandsire of Goldsmith Maid, Rarus, Gloster, Judge Fullerton, Almont, Great Eastern, Bodine, Powers, Dame Trot, etc. Mambrino Paymaster. — This is another son of Mambrino, who was the sire of Mambrino Chief, out of a supposed Messenger Duroc 284 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING mare. Mambrino Chief was the sire of Lady Thorn, Mambrino Patchen, Mambrino Pilot, Ericsson, Bay Chief, North Star Mam- brino, Woodford Mambrino and others. Almack. — This horse was a son of Mambrino also, and was the founder of the Champion family, starting- with Grinnell's Champion. Descendants of Bishop's Hambletonian. This is another son of Messenger and was the sire of Harris's Hambletonian. This horse was not only a sire of some celebrated trotters in his day, but many of his descendants are found among the low records. His blood is interwoven with the Blackhawks of Ver- mont, where he stood for years. Descendants of Other Sons of Messenger. Engineer was grandsire of Lady Suffolk and Dutchman of the early trotting days. From Winthrop's Messenger came a majority of the trotting stock in Maine. Ogden's Messenger is popularly sup- posed to be the sire of Tippoo, the ancestor of the Royal George family. Mr. Edward H. Bramhall, of New York City, owned a mare of the Messenger breed that traveled 90 miles between sunrise and sun- set during the summer days. History of Trotting Performances. The First Races of Record. The first trotting race we have any authentic account of occurred at Boston in 1818. Boston Blue trotted against time and made a mile inside of three minutes, the exact time of which is not known. It was then considered a great performance. Previous to this there had been a growing taste for trotters and roadsters, gradually encroaching on saddle horses, but no public trials had been made. Racing horses, however, had always been popular, especially in the south. Virginia and Kentucky were the nurseries of the noted thoroughbreds. Gen- eral Jackson did much to aid in improving the stock. Six years later, 1824, Albany Pony trotted, to saddle, one mile, on Jamaica turnpike, in 2:40. The next horse we have any account of is Top Gallant, iDy Hambletonian. We have a more complete record of his performances than of any other trotter of that period. He was foaled in 1808 and trotted his principal races after he was twenty years old. In 1828, in a match against Whalebone, over the Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia, he trotted four four-mile heats in 11:16, 11:06, 11:17, and 12:15, or the whole 16 miles in 45:54. In 1830, when twenty-two years of age, he trotted twelve miles over the same course in 38 minutes; and in 1831 made two miles in 5:19. Betsy Baker, by Mambrino, beat Top Gallant three miles, under saddle, carrying 50 pounds, in 8:16. It was said that she could, when sound, trot twenty miles in an hour. Trouble, by Hambletonian, trotted two miles in 5:15; and Sir Peter, by same sire, trotted three miles, in harness, in 8:16. Whale- bone, another of Hambletonian colts, trotted three miles in 8:18. H O R S E D E P A R T ^I E N T 285 Screw Driver, by Mt. Holly, in a race with Betsy Baker, trotted two three mile heats in 8:02 and 8:10. About this period the length of the heats began to be reduced to one mile, instead of the longer races, until at the present time it is rare to hear of any thing else. In 1834 Edwin Forrest trotted, under saddle, one mile in 2:36, at Trenton, New Jersey; and on Long Island, during the same year, trotted a mile in 2:31^^, which was the best time ever made up to that date. Dutchman, in 1839, made his great record of three miles, under saddle, in 7 :'h2y2, one mile of which was made in 2:28, the best time made to that date. In -1847 Highland Maid trotted a mile, in harness, on Long Island, in 2 -.U . She was originally a pacer. In 1838 Lady Suffolk, as game a mare as ever stood on iron, made her first appearance, and in 1848 made a record of 2:26, which was considered a little less than miraculous. In 1859 Flora Temple, then 14 years old, trotted a mile, in harness, at Kalamazoo, Michigan, in 2:19^. This was without a parallel for eight years. In 1867 Dexter trotted a mile, in harness, at Buffalo, in 2:17^. This was thought to be the lowest possible notch attainable by any horse. But in 1874 came a flyer, the "Queen of the Turf," Goldsmith Maid, who eclipsed all former performances by trotting a mile, in harness, at Majestic Park, Boston, in 2:14. This stood unrivaled for four years. In 1878, however, that game horse, Rarus, trotted a mile, in har- ness, at Buffalo, in 2:13^. This was a great record, and when we remember that they used the high wheel cart in those days and also remember the poor condition of their tracks — as compared with ours of today — we see that we are not so very far ahead of them. This horse Rarus made a brilliant career during the year 1878 and was credited as follows: Fastest mile in harness, 2:13% ; fastest first heat, 2:14; fastest second heat, 2:13^; fastest third heat, 2:13%; fastest fourth heat, 2:13^; fastest three consecutive heats, 2:15, 2:13^ and 2:13%. He may fairly be said to have won the sceptre from the old mare who held it for so many years. All this had been accomplished in one season, and in addition to this he had trotted three heats in 2:14. Besides accomplishing the above feats he entered into a handicap race at the opening of the Chicago Driving Park, October, 1878. He went to wagon ; Hopeful, one of his opponents, to harness ; and Great Eastern, his other opponent, to saddle. This race was won by Hope- ful in 2:17%, 2:17 and 2:17. Rarus was privately timed and made his three heats to wagon in 2:18>^, 2:18 and 2:18, it being no record, how- ever. During the same races the trotter Hopeful made three mile heats to wagon in 2:16>^, 2:17 and 2:17 — the fastest time to wagon on record. During the first heat he had a running horse accompany- ing him part way. It is interesting to note the growth of the trotting element dur- ing the past few years, as well as to observe the lowering.of the aver- age time of mile heats. In 1872 there were ninety-six horses who had made a record of 2:30 and better; in 1873 there were one hundred and six ; while 1874 had one hundred and fifty-three ; in 1875 the number was one hundred and eighty-four; in 1876 it was two hundred and 286 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING twenty-five ; in 1877, two hundred and eighty-four horses made rec- ords of 2:30 and under. Of the latter number, two hundred and six- teen were in 2:25 class, one hundred and six in 2:23 class, thirty-three in 2:20 class, and 19 in 2:19. Since 1877 the record has been gradually lowered, due in part to the bettering of the race track and in part to better understanding of breeding and better trained drivers. From 1878 to 1908 we find horses trotting as follows, to wagon : 20 miles, Controller, in San Francisco, Cal., 1878; time, 58:57. 3 miles, Ed Bryan, in Point Breeze, Philadelphia, 1905 ; time, 7:30>4. 2 miles, Ed Bryan, in Point Breeze, Philadelphia, 1907; time, 4:43. Best 2 heats, Lou Dillon, in Memphis, Tenn., 1903 ; time, 2.04^. 1 mile in a race, Lou Dillon, in Memphis, Tenn., 1903 ; time, 2:04%. 1 mile against time, Lou Dillon, in Memphis, Tenn., 1903; time 2:00. The world's best trotting records : 1 mile, Lou Dillon, in Memphis, Tenn., 1905 ; time, 1 :58^. 1 mile, Cresceus, in Brighton Beach, N. Y., 1901 ; time, 2:03%. 1 mile on % mile track, George G., in Allentown, Pa., 1907; time, Best 2 heats. Sweet Marie, in Syracuse, N. Y., 1906; time, 2:03%. The world's best pacing records : 1 mile, Dan Patch, St. Paul, Minn., 1906; time, 1:55. 1 mile. Prince Alert, New York, N. Y., 1903; time, 1 :57. 1 mile, Dariel, Memphis, Tenn., 1903; time, 2:00%. 1 mile in race. Star Pointer, Springfield, 111., 1897; time, 2:00%. 1 mile. Minor Heir, Lexington, Ky., 1908; time, 2:00%. Pacing to wagon : 1 mile, Dan Patch, Memphis, Tenn., 1903 ; time, 1 :57%. 1 mile, Angus Pointer, Memphis, Tenn., 1904; time, 2:04%. Arabian Horses. A thoroughbred horse is one which traces back to Arabian blood. There was a law which forbade the transportation of the Arabian mares to any other country. If any of these mares were ever sold the penalty for this offence, according to the Arabian law, was a long term in prison. The Arabian blood flows in the veins of the fleetest horses in the world, according to the time test. The only horses ever known to be taken from Arabia to other countries were the sires. The writer at one time owned, drove and worked some of these horses whose dams descended from trotting families. Their sires were imported horses. Gray Percheron and Clydesdale. Stock Needed On the Farm. The farmer should have at least 3 working horses, weighing to- gether 4,400 lbs., or an average of 1,400 lbs. each, and every farmer should keep a general purpose horse. a be H O R S E D E P A R T M E N T 287 A thoroughbred mare should always be kept on the farm for the purpose of raising colts, and also thoroughbred sires should always be used for improving all kinds of farm horses and farm stock in general. The General Purpose Horse On the Farm. This horse should be bred for quickness of action ; a fast walking gait that can travel 5 miles an hour when not loaded. Such horses have been bred in the eastern states by crossing mares that can be traced back to trotting families such as the imported horse "Messen- ger," Hambletonian and the Morgan families can be improved by breeding mares or dams to imported sires, such as the gray Percheron. A cross between the Arabian horse and the old Norman draft horse makes the latter much quicker in speed and also renders it very much more stylish of gait. The predominant color is the dapple gray in- herited from the Arabian blood. Also the imported Clydesdale sires, when bred to American mares whose pedigree is traced back to the noted trotting families, produce a wonderful cross. These horses be- come fully matured when 5 years old and weigh from 1,300 to 1,400 lbs., and some of them have been known to trot a mile in four minutes. Raising and Breaking Colts. Farmers should note the scarcity of horses and give more atten- tion to the raising of colts. The east has for a number of years past depended on the west for their supply of farm horses. And as the great western ranches are being changed into grain and fruit farms this will make the supply of farm horses very short. A good farm team of horses brings from $500 to $600 at present and a colt may be raised for about the same amount of money as a cow, but at three years old. is generally worth as much as three or four cows. The colts should be from sires and dams that are of good ancestors, free from any diseases, such as lung trouble, heaves, etc. The mother should have ample stable accommodations when needed, and as the profit of raising colts is so large, and the demand for them is becoming so great, the farmer should keep the mares which are kind and good to work on the farm, and also because they are the best for breeding business. The best feed for the brood mare is good oats, barley and hay. The dam and colt should be fed the same kind of grain until the colt is three or four weeks old. The first winter's feed for the young colt is early clover hay, cured and placed in the barn before rain falls. The colt should also be liberally fed with oats and wheat bran. This will increase its development and growth. The stable for dam and colt should be warm and have plenty of sunlight and be bedded with plenty of dry straw. There should also be a yard s'o that the young colt may have exercise on pleasant days. It should have a good brushing every day, and plenty of salt and charcoal mixed to- gether and placed in his feed box. A very good feed for young colts the first winter after weaning them is fresh cow's milk. 288 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Breaking Colts. A halter is put on the colt when 10 days old, and whenever the mother is driven the colt is led at her side. I have never found any trouble in teaching a colt to lead in that way, and long before it is weaned it will be perfectly halter broken. Bitting the Colt and Training To Harness. In the warm days of spring when the colt is a year old, let the bit- ting process be commenced ; and if the colt has been handled from his birth he will usually submit to the bitting process as quietly as he will to any other training. After putting on the bitting fixtures he should be turned loose in a safe yard and given an hour or so to be- come familiar with the harness. He should be checked up gradually until the proper carriage of the head is attained. After a day or two a cord 10 to 12 ft. in length may be tied to the bits and the colt allowed to train or exercise in a circle or around you. This should be gone over time and again, and when he is two years old he may be har- nessed and hitched beside his mother and driven quietly about, at first with only the harness on, then to a light carriage. From 3 to 4 years old a colt should be driven with exceeding care. Diseases and Remedies. This chapter does not attempt to give any but the most common diseases and remedies. When possible it is always best to get a re- liable veterinarian. However, it is often possible to give the animal temporary relief before professional assistance arrives. How Medicines Are Applied. Medicines are applied in any one or more of the following ways : 1. Through the mouth. By means of pills, powders or drenches. If giving by drench use the drenching bottle, or a strong ale bottle will answer. If the medicine is very strong, as turpentine, add enough oil or milk beaten with eggs to prevent irritating the membranes of the mouth and throat. 2. Through the nose. The most common form is simply the inhaling of medicated vapors. For this, a sack is hung over the horse's nose and steam is introduced into it. Holes must be cut opposite the animal's nostrils, as the vapor must not be too hot. Vinegar and water or scalded bran, in which carbolic acid has been put, are very good for inhaling for troubles in the lungs and throat. 3. On the skin and under it. On the skin, as poultices, etc., and under it, by means of the hypodermic syringe. 4. Through the rectum. For worms in bowels, to move the bowels and intestines, for injections and when medicines cannot be given through the mouth they are administered through the rectum. Do not use a pump to give an injection. A better way is to use a hose and funnel. Toothache Or Decayed Teeth. This is rare, but if found it is from decayed teeth and is caused by biting something hard and breaking off some part of the tooth. It HORSEDEPARTMENT 289 can be detected by the action of the horse. When eating or drinking he will suddenly stop and throw his head to one side as though in pain. Sometimes bad odors in the mouth indicate trouble. The bad tooth can be located by tapping with a small hammer until the horse flinches. The extraction will require a veterinarian. Broken Wind Or Heaves. Do not use an animal in this condition for breeding. This is quite common and though the locality of the disease is known, much difTerence of opinion exists as to the cause. The symptoms are well defined. The double movement in the flanks when coughing and the inflated nostril and short cough or wheeze. This is worse during close, damp weather. If the animal has been "doped" by tricksters the symptoms can be shown up by watering well and then driving up a steep hill or on a hard road. Treatment. — There is no cure if once deep seated, but care in feeding will help. In early cases more good can be done. Water al- ways before feeding. Then dampen the hay, which should be the best obtainable. Feed this with grain, such as corn or oats mixed with some root chopped fine, as carrot, potatoes, etc. Do not work right after eating. Pasturing relieves the horse. Dr. Geo. A. Waterman, of the Michigan State Agricultural College, gives the following remedy : Arsenic and hydrochloric acid in solution (liquor arsenici hydro- chloricus) : give 1 tablespoonful with bran or oats 3 times a day for 2 weeks ; then twice a day for 2 weeks ; then once a day for several weeks. Diarrhoea is caused by exposure to cold, low, damp stables, musty food, stagnant water, etc. Treatment. — If from any of the above causes they should be lo- cated and removed. If caused by some irritation in the intestines, give a quart of oil and the trouble will gradually disappear. Should it still continue, give starch water, or water in which scorched wheat flour is put. In very severe cases give the following: Corrosive sublimate, 5 grains, water, Yj pint, every 2 hours until relieved. Worms and Bots. There are three kinds of worms : 1. Long round, 4 to 12 in. in length. Treatment must be vigorous. Use 3 times a day arsenious acid, 5 to 10 grains, for ten days, beginning with the small dose and increas- ing to the largest. On the 11th day give linseed oil, 1 pt., and croton oil, 30 drops. Shake well. Mix the arsenious acid well with damp food. 2. Pin Worms. Infest the large intestines. Are noticed in the manure. Use injections through the rectum, first with water and then with copperas 1 oz., water 3 qts. Repeat every 2nd or 3rd day. 3. Tape worms are not very serious in the horse, but if found are present in the small intestines. 290 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Fast animal for 12 to 18 hours, then give areca nut (powdered) Yz ounce, oil male fern 2 drachms, raw linseed oil Yz pint. Follow this within 2 or 2 hours by ^ lb. of epsom salts, then feed as usual. Repeat, if necessary, in a week. Bots. — Medical treatment is not satisfactory and if they are once in the stomach they will have to take their natural course. They loosen in May or June and are given off in the manure. Prevent the hatching of the eggs by washing them off the animal with soap and warm HoO. Bots never eat through the stomach. They do harm sometimes by clogging the stomach. Azoturia. — Is not well understood by veterinarians. Always oc- curs with overfed and under-exercised horses. Symptoms are very definite. A wellfed animal that has not been exercised is taken out and driven. After going a short distance the animal slacks up and perspires, trembles if standing, and if down cannot use hind limbs. The muscles of the loins are swollen and hard. Stop as soon as the first symptoms show and blanket warmly. Do not try to move unless weather conditions make it absolutely neces- sary. Then get to nearest tjarn. If stopped at once the attack may be light when just a little further exercise may turn the scale. Often, just to see what will happen, the driver goes a little further, thus turn- ing a mild into a fatal case. Send for veterinarian at once, if possible. Give following: Fluid extract of belladonna 1 teaspoon, bromide of potash Yi oz., water Y^ pint. Repeat in 2 or 3 hours. Then give a purgative: 1 oz. of aloes in 1 pt. of linseed gruel, or ^ lb. of epsom salts. If bowels don't move freely in 24 hours, give 1 pt. of oil. Apply hot blanket on the loins. If animal is down he must be rolled over on chest and the urine must be drawn by a catheter 4 or 5 times a day. Prevention. — By exercising unused horses at least every other day and cutting down their rations. Epidemic — Influenza Epizootic. Professor Law, of Cornell University, New York, considers this a specific typhus fever, complicated with inflammation of the mucus membranes lining the air passages and less frequently of the lungs, pleura, heart, liver, stomach and bowels, and even the muscles and lin- ing of joints. There is no doubt about its contagion. Symptoms. — The attack is usually sudden and the horse, which one-half hour before seemed well, suddenly drops his head, ears and lips, and stands with one or two legs semi-fiexed, to bring relief. Treatment. — Its treatment consists in a warm box stall, warm blankets and laxative food. Remove costiveness by copious injections of warm water, to which may be added two drachms of aloes. Follow with liquor acetate of ammonia, 3 fluid ounces ; extract belladonna, one drachm ; mix. Give twice daily in a pint of water. Much more de- pends on warmth and care than on a great deal of medicine. a — "5 a ^ ■e o > _M u _c >, p u ^ ~ __ t. aj 3 ^ HORSE DEPARTMENT 291 Distemper. Treatment. — Distemper has about 3 weeks to run its course; all the medicine required is a light dose of epsom salts, say 4 to 6 ozs., and good nursing. Give warm bran mashes, linseed or oatmeal gruel ; keep the animal warm, and rub the legs with cloths dipped in hot water ; a tablespoon of mustard in the water would be beneficial if the legs seem to be weak and numb or cold. Colic. Take 1^ pints of lard, heat quite warm, place in a bottle and drench the horse with it. This can be used when other remedies can- not be had. Another Good Remedy. Give one heaping tablespoonful of soda in one quart of buttermilk. Put the soda into the buttermilk just when ready to give; repeat in half an hour, if necessary. For Wind Colic. Chloroform, Yz ounce; linseed oil, raw, 1 quart; mix and give as one dose. Cribbing and Wind Sucking. This is not a disease in itself, but an exceeding bad habit. The manger, post, fence, or other objects are caught with the teeth, and the horse bears down until the neck is altered in position so as to form a temporary vacuum in the pharynx, when air rushes in to fill it. Treatment. — Put the horse in a box stall and feed him from the floor, giving feed from a pail that is removed as soon as empty, leaving nothing he can get hold of. A strap buckled tight around the throat — tight enough to prevent the action — is another means employed. Put- ting red pepper, aloes, and other such ingredients on edges of manger where horse can crib is also resorted to. Another way is to put a muzzle on with bars across the nose that will allow eating, but will prevent grasping the manger in his teeth. With young horses having this trouble give regular exercises. Lockjaw. Cure for Lockjaw. — Bleed in the third bar of the mouth and drench with strong, salt water. Spavin. Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms ; lard, 1 ounce ; cantharides, 2 drachms. This blister should be thoroughly rubbed in with the hand for about ten minutes. Twenty-four hours afterward apply a little oil or vaseline, and repeat night and morning until the blister heals. Scratches. Wash the affected parts with strong soap suds and apply freely Gumbault's Caustic Balsam. Have known this to cure when all other remedies had failed. 292 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Sprains. Sprain. — Bandage with salt and vinegar as warm as the horse will stand it. Sweeny Or Curb. Sweeny or Curb. — Or any hard lump, use the following liniment : Sweet oil, cantharides, hartshorn, origanum, camphor, equal parts of each. Wounds Or Cuts Application. Alcohol, 1 pint ; camphor, 1 ounce ; saltpeter, 1 ounce ; gum guaiacum, 1 ounce. Chicken Lice On Horses. Take one quart of fresh lard, mix with carbolic acid crystals 1 drachm. To Protect Horses From Flies. Take the common smartweed and make a strong solution by boil- ing in water. When this is cooled apply to the legs, neck and other parts of the body with a brush or sponge, and neither flies or any kind of insects will trouble them within the next (24) twenty-four hours. Sometimes chicken lice make the horses rub their manes and tails. They are very annoying to horses. Chickens should never be allowed to roost in or near the horse barns. To Thicken the Mane and Tail of a Horse. Wash thoroughly with castile soap and warm water once a week. Then take the common kerosene oil and mix it wth equal parts of sweet oil. Or a good substitute is mercurial ointment. Rub this into the roots of the mane and tail as often as once a week. CHAPTER XX Frosts and Sprays Facts About Frosts. THE total damage wroug^ht in the United States by the frosts of spring and fall runs into many millions of dollars. Naturally most of this is unavoidable, but a knowledge of the conditions governing frosts, and where possible the use of proper measures of protection, would reduce this sum materially and for the individual may easily mean the difference between profit and loss. What Is Frost? Frost, as we all commonly recognize it, is a condensation of moisture on plants in the shape of small ice crystals. Usually the air a short distance above the earth is several degrees above the freez- ing point at the time that frosts occur. The plants and the earth it- self, however, radiate heat very rapidly after sunset and may reach a point where the surface is belovi^ the temperature of freezing. Im- mediately the moisture in the air is deposited on these surfaces in the form of ice crystals. Location. In setting out to plant a given area, or in searching for a suitable piece of ground on which to place a given crop, the danger of frost should receive careful study. Many crops can stand heavy frosts. Naturally these may be raised in areas that are not particularly free from spring and fall frosts. Other crops which are especially tender should never be attempted except in suitable locations. Any valley within the temperate zone that is more or less shut in at its lower end is likely to prove a settling point for cold air. On the other hand, hillsides sufficiently elevated above such valleys are protected by the very fact that the cold air drains away from them and are likely to be comparatively free from damaging frosts. Due recognition of these two facts should be made in deciding what crop to grow or what land to choose. Factors That Influence Frosts. It is everywhere recognized that clear, still nights are particu- larly apt to be frosty. The reason for this is easily found. Clouds serve as a blanket to the layer of atmosphere just above the earth and hold the heat. The radiation of heat from the earth and from plants goes on very much more slowly when the sky is o.vercast with clouds. Winds tend to prevent frosts, because they stir up the air and keep it from forming in layers. If the air is kept constantly stirred by winds, the cold air next the earth will be mixed with the warmer 294 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING air above and the freezing temperature at the surface of the earth will not be reached. Protection Against Frosts. Anything that will serve as a blanket to assist the earth and the plants to retain the heat they have absorbed during the day will tend to prevent frost. This blanket may be water vapor, a heavy cloud of smoke, or such artificial coverings as straw, boards, earth, etc. With low-growing plants like the strawberry, straw may be used to great advantage as a protection against frost. The value of one crop saved in this way will pay for the labor and cost many times over. Garden vegetables of tender varieties may often be protected by plowing so as to cover their tops with earth. No practical means have yet been devised for protecting extens- ive areas of field crops such as potatoes from frost, but in vine and tree fruits, where the value of the crop is so much greater, protective measures may profitably be employed. Winter Protection for Large Shrubbery and Fruit Trees. For all kinds of large shrubbery, when the canes are too large to bend in, extend the branches out some distance from the trunks. Then carefully lift the branches and bend them toward the trunk, being careful not to break in bending them. Then bind with a strong cord or burlap. Place the outer branches in position. En- close the shrubbery with long corn stalks, standing them all around the shrub, a thickness of from 12 to 24 inches or even more, the thicker the better, then bind with cord or burlap. Bind from the ground up, the first tie being about 18 in. from the ground. Tie in the center and at the top. They should be bound together as close as possible, so as to be entirely protected from the wind and snow. The last band should be within 18 inches of the top of the corn stalks and drawn very closely together, so that no water can reach the shrub in case of a beating rain. All kinds of shrubbery and fruit trees protected in this manner by the use of corn stalks will live through the severest weather, where they have long, cold winters and deep snows. Such shrubbery as grape vines, blackberries, currant bushes, raspberries, etc., also the peach tree can be wintered until the fruit bearing begins. FROSTS AND SPRAYS Frost and Temperature Table 295 Alabama — Birmingham Mobile Montgomery Arizona — Flagstaff Phoenix Yuma Arkansas — Fort Smith Little Rock California — Los Angeles San Diego San Francisco Colorado — Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Connecticut — New Haven. . . . Delaware — Newark Washington, D. C Florida — Jacksonville Key West Tampa Georgia — Atlanta Columbus Toccoa Idaho — Boise Lewiston Pocatello Illinois — Cairo Chicago Springfield Indiana — Bloomington Indianapolis South Bend Indian Territory — Muskogee. lozva — Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Kansas — Fort Scott Manhattan Topeka Kentucky — Bowling Green. . . Lexington Louisville Louisiana — New Orleans. . . . Shreveport Maine — Orono Portland Maryland — Baltimore Princess Anne Massachusetts — Boston Worcester Michigan — Detroit Saginaw Minnesota — Minneapolis Winnebago Mississippi — Biloxi ANNUAL TEMPERATrRE MEAN MAX. -MIN. 63 97 13 66 97 24 64 97 19 45 92 -18 70 112 25 72 113 29 60 96 3 61 96 7 63 97 32 62 94 35 56 101 38 50 97 -10 51 99 -15 51 98 -13 48 94 -6 51 98 -10 53 96 2 68 97 26 76 93 51 71 95 32 60 94 12 65 101 21 58 97 12 52 104 4 45 108 16 47 96 -12 57 95 1 47 94 -15 50 97 -12 53 100 -11 51 94 -9 47 94 -11 59 100 1 48 94 -18 46 94 -23 47 96 -21 56 100 -11 53 102 -16 53 98 -10 56 99 -3 54 94 -3 56 98 -1 68 95 27 65 97 13 41 89 -27 i 43 93 -10 ! 54 97 2 53 93 48 93 -10 47 94 -10 . 47 96 -10 ' 45 96 -20 - 42 92 -iZ 44 92 -30 68 98 24 KH.LIXG FROST Last in Sprii g Mar. 4 Feb. 17 Mar. 4 June 15 Feb. 17 None Mar. 28 Mar. 28 None None Feb. 15 April 30 April 13 May 3 April 20 April 23 April 17 Feb. 18 None Feb. 18 Mar. 4 Feb. 22 April 5 May 5 April 12 May 8 April 20 April 20 April 20 April 20 April 20 May 15 May 1 May 1 Mav 15 April 25 April 15 April 25 Mav ] April 20 April 15 April 15 Feb. 15 Mar. 5 June 1 Mav 2 April 15 May 1 April 20 May 1 . May 1 May 10 May 15 May 1 Feb. 15 Early Fall Oct. 25 Nov. 19 Nov. 14 Sept. 15 Dec. 23 None Nov. 13 Nov. 13 None None None Sept. 15 Oct. 31 Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov None Nov. 28 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Oct. 30 Oct. 30 Oct. 15 Oct. 20 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Oct. 20 Oct. 20 Oct. Oct. Oct. 1 15 15 Oct. 25 Sept. 20 Oct. 15 Oct. 20 Oct. 20 Oct. 20 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Nov. 15 Nov. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 25 Oct. 30 Oct. 20 Oct. 25 Sept. 25 Oct. 5 Sept. 20 Oct. 5 Sept. 20 Nov. 15 296 WHAT I KNOW ABOUT FARMING Frost and Temperature Table (Continued) ANNUAL TEMPERATURE Vicksburg Missouri — Kansas City St. Louis Montana — Great Falls Kalispell Miles City Nebraska — Fremont Lincoln North Platte Nevada — Carson City Winnemucca New Hampshire — Concord... Plymouth New Jersey — Cape May Trenton New Mexico — Mesilla Park. . Santa Fe New York — Albany Buffalo New York North Carolina — Asheville. . . . Charlotte Raleigh North Dakota — Bismarck Devils Lake Ohio — Cleveland Cincinnati Oklahoma — Chandler Stillwater Oregon — Baker City Portland Pennsyhania — Philadelphia. . . Pittsburg Rhode Island — Providence. .. . South Carolina — Charleston. . . Greenville South Dakota — Pierre Tennessee — Memphis Nashville Texas — El Paso Galveston Utah — Logan Salt Lake City Vermont — Burlington Northfield Virginia — Charlottesville Hampton Washington — Tacoma Spokane West Virginia — Elkins Parkersburg Wisconsin — Madison Milwaukee Wyoming — Cheyenne Lander 65 53 55 46 43 45 48 49 49 48 48 44 42 52 54 60 49 46 46 50 53 59 58 39 36 47 54 65 57 46 53 52 51 50 64 55 46 60 58 63 68 46 51 45 40 55 56 50 48 48 53 44 45 44 43 94 97 98 97 94 104 100 99 99 92 96 95 97 91 94 103 89 97 89 95 90 98 99 99 96 90 96 101 102 97 100 96 92 97 98 97 105 94 97 102 91 96 98 90 89 97 98 97 100 90 95 90 94 90 90 KILLING FROST Last in Spring Early Fall 18 -10 -10 -25 -10 -30 -20 -14 -10 -15 -20 -20 -27 4 -A -25 -8 -5 4 14 14 -40 -40 -8 3 24 -2 -5 3 23 9 -20 6 1 14 24 -15 -5 -18 -30 2 11 22 4 -9 -2 -25 -20 -20 -28 Mar. 4 Mar. 30 April 20 May 25 May 5 May 20 May 1 April 30 April 30 May 20 May 25 April 20 June 5 April 20 May 1 May 3 April 30 May 1 May 1 April 20 April 15 April 5 April 20 May 15 May 15 May May May May May 15 Mar. 1 April 20 April 20 April 20 Feb. 15 April 25 April 30 Mar. 1 April 5 Mar. 10 Feb. 1 May 15 April 15 May 1 June 1 April 20 April 20 Mar. 15 April 30 May 10 April 20 April 25 April 20 June 1 May 25 Nov. 15 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Sept. 15 Oct. 5 Sept. 15 Sept. 15 Oct. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 30 Sept. 10 Oct. 30 Sept. 20 Oct. 20 Oct. 30 Sept. 25 Oct. 10 Oct. 30 Oct. 15 Nov. 10 Oct. 30 Sept. 15 Aug. 15 Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. 15 Oct. 25 Oct. 10 Oct. 25 Nov. 20 Oct. 25 Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Dec. Oct. Sept. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 10 Oct. 25 Oct. 15 Nov. 15 Oct. 30 Oct. 10 Oct. 15 Oct. 15 Oct. 20 Sept. 15 Sept. 15 l