/r y"^'^'--.^' i:M.w''L.^f'^ |i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Chap.kL-.6^opjriglit No.. Sliell__A-5-5^ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1^ School History OF FRANCE. Illustrated with Numeeous Ei^^grayings ai^d Maps, By JOHN J. ANDERSON, Ph.D., Author of a "Grammar School History op the United States," a " Pic- torial School History of the United States," a " Manual of General History," a "School History of England," etc., etc. NEW YORK: Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers, 39, 31 & 33 Bast 19th Street. 1897. 59039 Anderson's Historical 'Series, A Junior Class History of the United States. Illustrated with hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. 306 pages. 16mo. ^ A Neiv Grammar School History of the United States. Sup- plemented bj^ maps, engravings, chronological summaries, tabulated analyses, review questions, appendix, etc. 860 pages. 12mo. A Grammar School History of the United States. Anno- tated ; and illustrated with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty maps, many of which are colored. 340 pages. 16mo. A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully illus- trated with maps, portraits, vignettes, etc. 439 pages. 13mo, A Popular School History of the United States, in which are inserted, as a part of the narrative, selections from the writings of eminent American historians, and other American writers of note. Fully illustrated with maps, colored and plain; portraits, views, etc. 381 pages. 12mo. A Manual of General History. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 500 pages. 12mo. A New Manual of General History, with particular attention to Ancient and Modern Civilization. With numerous engravings and colored maps. 685 pages. 12mo. Also, in two parts. Part I. Ancient History : 300 pages. Part II. Modern History : 385 pages. A School History of England. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the country at different periods. 378 pages. 12mo. A Short Course in Eng'lish History. With numerous engravings and maps. 215 pages. 12mo, A School History of France. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings, colored and uncolored maps. 373 pages. 12mo. A History of Rome. Amply illustrated with maps, plans, and en- graving?. 554 pages. By R. F. Leighton, Ph.D. (Lips.). A School History of Greece. In preparation. Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History. Illustrated with engrav- ings, colored maps, and a chart. 445 pages. 12mo. The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers of Ancient and Modern Historj- ; with a Vocabulary of Difficult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 544 pages. 12mo. The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent American historians, oiutors, statesmen, and poets, with explanatory obser- vations, notes, etc. Arranged so as to form a Class-manual of United States History. Illustrated with colored historical maps. 436 pages. l;irao. MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO., Publishers, 29, 31 & 33 East 19th Street, New York. Copyright, 1872, hy John J. Anderson. A 5 L /brary of Cohgi-e«a^ Otfico of the M/IY ] 5 19UU ^,/^oS^ PEE F AQ^ND COPY, The work here presented to the public is an addition to the author's series of school text-books of history, which has already attained a wide popularity among teachers and school officers. The same plan has been followed in its preparation as in the other books of the series, this plan haying received the general approval of practical educators. Maps and geographical references constitute its most promi- nent feature ; but, besides this, there are copious exercises for topical review, chronological and genealogical tables, and other auxiliaries useful in the work of giving instruction. The dates are generally inserted so as not to form an essen- tial part of the narrative, but still with sufficient frequency and prominence to keep the proper sequence and relation of the events before the mind of the pupil. While the arrangement is essentially by dynasties, as being the simplest and most interesting for young students, con- siderable space has been given to an account of the state of society, including the literary history, at diiferent periods. In this connection, the numerous biographical notices in- serted will be found interesting and attractive. As in the author's other historical text-books, the pronun- ciation of all difficult proper names has been carefully indi- cated, as far as was possible. This is an important feature in an elementary manual of French history, abounding, as it must, in names puzzling to the English reader. The mode of representation employed is such as seemed best adapted to render the pronunciation of the word at once obvious to the pupil, without the employment of any special system of diacritical marks. Of course, in many cases, the indicated pronunciation of the French word can be only an approximation to the correct mode. This volume is copiously supplied with explanatory not.es, the author being convinced that this not only constitutes a source of information of great value to both pupil and teacher, but supersedes, to some extent, the need of laborious research, for which the means are not always at hand. ^ It also obviates the necessity for putting a larger text-book into 3 PEEFACE. the hands of pupils, and thus enables the teacher to cover the ground well in a single school term. These notes, being chiefly from standard writers, seiTe also to impart a knowledge of the most important historical literature j)er= taining to the subject. The full index of persons, places, and subjects will be found a valuable addition to the book, not only for the purpose of convenient consultation, but as a pronouncing vocabulary of proper names. While the treatment is necessarily brief, on account of the small size of the book, it will yet be found sufficiently com- prehensive to give the pupil a clear conception of the great events of French history, so rich in interesting and instruc- tive lessons. The aathor trusts that this volume may meet with a part, at least, of the favor and patronage which the other books of his series have so liberally received. MAPS. PAGE 1. Empire of Charlemagne (Progressive Map No. 1), Fivntispiece. 2. Gallia, or Gaul 13 3. Gaul, in Provinces 21 4. Gaul, about 500 a. d 27 5. France, after the Treaty of Yerdim ^3 6. France and the Neighboring Countries . . , 5t 7. Christian Kingdoms in Syria and Palestine 61 8. France under Hngh Capet (Progressive Map No. 2). .facing 99 9. France at the Time of Valois (Progressive Map No. 3) .facing 99 10. Southern Europe (Progressive Map ITo. 4) .facing 152 11. Ireland 222 12. Modem France ar.tl the Neighboring Countries (Progressive Map No, h). facing 353 GENEALOGICAL TABLES. PAGE 1. Of the Merovingians 32 2. Of the Carlovingians •■ 51 3. Of the Capetians 97 4. Of the House of Valois 151 5. Of the Valois-Oriear.s Branch 192 6. Of the House of Bouibon • . ' 57 7. Of the Bouaparte Family 360 CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION (Geograpliy of Gaul or France) „ . 7 PART I.— ANCIENT GAUL. SECTION I. — Early Inhabitants of Gaul 9 Appearance and Manners and Customs of tlie Gauls (11) ; Re- ligion, etc. (12) ; Progress of the Gauls in Civilization (14) ; Gallic Migrations and Invasions (14) ; Conquest of Gaul by the Romans (15) ; Chronological Recapitulation (17). SECTION II.— Gaul under the Romans 18 Roman Policy in Gaul (18) ; Introduction of Christianity (21) ; Invasions by the Barbarians (22) ; Great Invasion of the Huns (22) ; Clovis becomes King (23) ; Chronological Recapitulation (25) ; Review Questions (25). • PART II.— FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. SECTION I.— The Merovingian Dynasty 38 The Mayors of the Palacs (30) ; State of Society (31) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (33) ; Gsnealogical Table of the Mero- vingians (32) ; Review Questions (32). SECTION II.— The Carlovingian Dynasty 33 Pepin le Bref (33) ; Charlemagne (35) ; The Diet of Paderborn (36) ; Charlemagne Emperor (38) ; Louis I. (40) ; Charles the Bald (44) ; Louis the Stammerer (44) ; Charles the Fat (45) ; Charles the Simple (46) ; Louis IV. (47) ; Lothaire (47) ; Louis V. (48) ; The Feudal System (48) ; Condition of the People (49) ; The Church (50) ; Chronological Recapitulation (50) ; Genealogi- cnl Table of the Carlovingians (51) ; Questions for Topical Review (52). SECTION III.— The Capetian Dynasty 53 Hugh Capet (53) ; Robert (54) ; Henry I. (56) ; First Pilgrimage (58); Philip 1.(5/); Conquest of England (58) ; First Crusade (59) ; The Commune (63) ; Louis VI. (65) ; Louis VII. {m) ; Second Crusade (67) ; Suger (71) ; Philip II. (72) ; Third Crusade (73) ; The Albigenses (75) ; Louis VIII. (78) ; Louis IX. (79) ; Philip HI. (82) ; Philip IV. (84) ; Battle of Courtray (85) ; Aboli- tion of the Templars (85) ; Louis X. (88) ; Philip V. (88) ; Charles IV. (89) ; State of Society (90) ; Chronological Recapitu- lation (98) ; Genealogical Table of the Capetian Dynasty (97) ; Review Questions (98). 5 CONTENTS. SECTION IV.— The House of Valois 91) Philip VI. (99) ; War with England (100) ; War in Brittany (101) ; Second Invasion of the English (101) ; John (105) ; War with England (10(5); The Jacquerie (110); Charles V. (113); Charles VI. (119) ; Great Schism (121) ; Armagnacs and Bur- gundians (123) ; Charles VII. (127) ; Joan of Ai'C (128 ; Conquest of Normandy (132) ; Louis XI. (134) ; League of the Public (iood (135) ; Chai'les VIII. (140) ; State of Society during the Valois Period (144) ; Chronological Recapitulation (150) ; (ienealogical Table of the House of Valois (151) ; Questions for Topical Re- view (152). PAET III.— FEANCE IN MODERN TIMES. SECTION I.— The Valois-Orleans Branch 153 Louis XiL (153) ; Holy League (157) ; Gaston de Foix (157) ; Francis I. (101) ; Holy League (168) ; Massacre of the Vaudois (170) ; Henry II. (171) ; Francis II. (175) ; The Huguenots (175) ; Charles IX. (177) ; Civil War (177) ; Massacre cf St. Bartholo- mew's Day (182) ; Henry III, (184) ; State of Society under the Valois-Orleans Branch (187); Chronological Recap itulation (191) ; Genealogical Table of the Valois-Orleans Branch (192) ; Ques- tions for Topical Review (193), SECTION II.— The House of Bourbon 194 Henry IV. (194) ; Louis XIII. (199) ; Louis XIV. (210) ; War of the Fronde (210) ; War of the Spanish Succession (225) ; Louis XV, (230; ; War of the Austrian Succession (2£5) ; Seven Years' War (238); State of Society during the Bourbon Period (242) ;* Chronological Recapitulation (255) ; Genealogical Tfble of the House of Bourbon (257) ; Questions for Topical Review (258). SECTION III,— Revolutionary France 259 Louis XVI. (259) ; The Great Revolution (264) ; The National Convention (277) ; The Directory (289) ; Revolution of the 18ih and 19th Brumaire (297i ; The Consulate ,299) ; Ihe First Em- pire (304^ ; Restoration of the Bourbons (£22) ; Louis XVIIT. (322 ; The Hundred Days (822) ; Second Restoration (324) ; Charles X. (327) ; Bourbon-Orleans Family (329) ; Louis Philippe (329) ; Second Republic (386) ; Second Empire (340) ; Napoleon III. (840) ; Third Republic (847) ; State of Society (353) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (358) ; Genealogical Table of tho Bona- parte Family (3G0) ; Questions for Topical Review (361). INTEODUCTIOK Geogeaphy of Gaul, or FraivCe. 1. Ik ancient times, the Alps and the river Rhine {Bhe7i2ts) formed the eastern boundary of the country known as Gal'- U-a, or Gaul. On the south were the Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenees {Pyi^encei Mo7ites), the latter separating Gaul from His-pa'iii-a (now called Spain) ; and on the north and west were the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. (See map, page 13.) 2. Of the region embraced within these limits, the most striking natural feature is the long mountain chain which begins at the Pyrenees and extends in a north-easterly di- rection to the Rhine. This chain, in part, is parallel to the Alps, from which it is separated by a valley througli which flows the river Rhone {Rhoclanus). The southern portion of the range is now called the Cevennes {sd-ven') ; the middle, the Cote d'Or (cote dor). In the north, the range makes a short, sudden bend to the east, and then resumes its north- erly direction, ending at the river Rhine. {See Ma]), p. 353.) 3. The great range which thus extends entirely across the country divides it into two parts quite different in character. The larger of these, that north and west of the range, is a long gentle slope which stretches from the moun- QtJESTiONS.— 1, What, ill ancient times, formed the eastern boundary of Gallia, or Gaul ? The southern boundary ? The northern and western ? 2. What is the most strikini? natural feature of this region ? Describe this moun- tain chain. What is the southern portion called ? The middle ? Where does this chain end ? 3. How does this range divide the country? Describe the larger division. What four rivers flow through it ? Describe each. INTRODUCTION. tains to the shore of the ocean. Down this slope four great rivers flow. The first (beginning in the east) is the Ehine, ah'eady mentioned. The second is the Seine (sane), an- ciently called Seqitana, on which the present city of Paris is sitnated. The third is the Ligeris, or Loire [Iwar), which flows west, and is separated from the Seine by a long line of high hills and table-lands beginning in the Cote d'Or and extending to the most westerly part of France. Another, though mnch shorter, range separates the valley of the Loire from that of the Qarumna, or Garonne {gah-ron'), which is the most southerly of the four rivers. 4. The area of France, at pre^'ent, is 204,090 square miles ; and its population, according to the census of 1876, is 36,905,788. Its colonies and dependencies, including Algeria, in Africa, embrace an area of about 237,000 square miles, and a population of over 6,500,000. In literature, the arts, and general culture, the French nation stands among the foremost in the world ; and its history is of the greatest importance and interest, for its instructive lessons in political and social life. 4, What is the area of France at present ? Its poi)ulatiou ? What is the extent of its colonies and dependencies ? The popnlation ? What is said of the French nation and its history ? HISTORY OF FRANCE PAET I. ANCIENT GAUL. sections' i, Early Iisthabitants of Gaul. From the Settlement of Massilia (600 B, C.) to the Conquest of Gaul b^ the Bomajis (50 B. C.) 1. Nearly twenty-five himdred years ago, a company of Grecian adventurers, coasting along tlie northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, cast anchor near the mouth of the Ehone, in the country now known as France, but then called Gaul.* Here was founded (600 b, c. ) the Grecian colony Massil'ia, now called Marseilles {mar-sdiz). This was, as far as is known, the first permanent settlement made by any civilized race in Gaul ; though the Phcenicians had The Seg-o-bns'-i-ans, a tribe of the GaHic race, were in occupation of the neiehborin? country. Wann, their chief, gave the stningers kindly welcome, and took them home with him to a great least whih he was giving for his daughter's marriage, who was cnlled Gyp'tis, according to some, and Pet'tsi, according to other historians. A custom, which still exists in some parts of prance, wouldthat the maiden should appear only at the end of the banquet holding in her hand a tilled winecup, and that the guest to whom she should present it should become the hns- band ot her <^ioice. By accident, or quite another cause, suv the ancient Ipsrends, Gvptis stopped opposite to Eux'e-nes (the Greek captain), and handed him the cup. Great was the surprise, and, probably, anger amongst the Gauls who were present. ]5ut Nann, believing he recognized a commandment from his gods, accepted the stranger as his son-in-law, and gave him as dowry t^e bay where he had landed, with some cantons of the territory around.— Guizot's History of trance. Map Questionp.— Into what three parts was Ancient Gani divided ? (See page 13.) Where were the Beljyte ? The Celta3 ? The Aquitani ? Where was Provincia (the Roman province) ? What country to the east and northeast of Ganl ? Where was the country of the Helvetii ? Where was Aquse Sextiae ? Massilia ? 1. When and by whom was Massilia founded ? Give an account of its settlement. Who previously sailed along the coast of Gaul ? 1* 9 10 EARLY INHABITAKTS OF GAUL. [B. C. 600. previously made voyages along the coast, and had sailed np the Ehone. 2. At the time Massilia was founded, three great races inhabited Gaul. The oldest were the Iberians or Basques {basks), who came from the north of Africa and from Hispa nia, and crossing the Pyrenees, settled in the valley of the G-aronne. Afterward, they gradually extended their sway beyond the northern boundary of this valley into the valley of the Loire. This region formed the greater part of what was afterward known as Aquitania. The Iberians are described as a people of medium height, dark hair, and somewhat re- served in manner. They were obstinate in battle, and so tenacious of tlieir customs that traces of these, as well as of their language,* still survive in the country they inhabited, after the lapse of more than two thousand years. 3. North of these people were the second race, the Celts or Gael, who came from Asia, moving westward in vast numbers, some establishing themselves in the country they entered, while others continued on their journey till they reached the western coast of Ireland. As the Celts entered Gaul, they pressed the Iberians back from the valley of the Loire, and confined them to that of the Garonne. The Gael, like the Iberians, were of medium height, but were more slender in figure, with blue eyes and yellow hair. 4. The third of these races, and the last to enter Gaul, were the Belgse {bel'-je). They appear to have come from the forests of Germany, about the time of the foundation of Massilia, and crossing the Rhine, gradually established tliem- selves in Gaul from the Rhine to the Loire, driving back the Gael, in great measure, to the hill country of the south- east, or to the extreme western part of Gaul, which is now called Brittany. The Belgae were taller than the Gael, and difPercd from them chiefly in their character, Avhich 2. How many races inhabited Gaul at that time ? Who were the Iberuuis or Basques "> Describe their character. Where was Uispania ? (See map, page Id.) 3. What is said of the Celts? Their appearance ? ., , „ , 4. Who were the third race? Their origni ? Describe the Belgaj. How weie these races subdivided ? EARLY IN^HABITANTS OF GAUL. 11 was more savage. Eesembling eacli other as they did in complexion and color of eyes and hair, the constant inter- mingling which took place between the two races soon pro- duced a simiWity which made it difficult to distinguish them from each other. Together they formed the ruling race, and were known under the common name of Gauls. These three races were subdivided into many tribes, several of which rose to special prominence in the early history of Gaul. 5, Appearance and Manners and Customs of the Gauls. — The Gauls were of powerful build, with fair com- plexion, blue or gray eyes, and yellow or red hair. They had loud, harsh voices, and were fond of ornaments and bright colors in dress, their favorite cloth being a coarse plaid. They were simple in their manners, brave and hospitable, of lively imagination, impetuous in battle, but easily dis- couraged. In the earliest times they fought naked^ but at a later period they adopted the war dresses of their more civilized neighbors, and protected themselves with cuirasses of iron mail, and bucklers and helmets, the latter orna- mented with the horns of the ox or stag. They wore two- handed swords, and carried hooked spears and long javelins which they threw as they approached their foes, and then charged upon them, either on foot, or in two-horse chariots armed with scythes. 6. They delighted in single combat, and cut off the heads of their enemies, wearing them, or nailing them on their houses as trophies. Sons were not permitted to associate with their fathers till they were able to bear arms, and the men had the power of life and death over their wives and children. When a chief or noble died, a funeral pile was built, and every thing which the dead had held dear — slaves and animals, as well as inanimate things — was sacri- ficed. 5. Describe the Gauls. What was their mode of warfare ? 6. In what did they delight ? How did they treat their enemies ? What other customs are mentioned ? 12 EARLY liS^HABIlANTS OF GAUL. 7. Religion, etc. — The Gauls worshiped the powers of nature, having names for the gods of the snn, the ocean, the thunder, the wind, the stars, rivers, and lakes. Their priests were the Druids,* a sect specially chosen for their intelligence, who introduced among them the worship of moral and intellectual forces, and taught them to believe in the rewards and punishments of a future life. The Druids were divided into three classes — bards, prophets, and high priests. The bards were poets who chanted, to the accom- paniment of a rude harp, the bounty of their employers, the exploits of heroes, or the beauty of w^omen. The prophets were a lower order of priests who professed to reveal the future. They conducted, also, the ordinary religious cere- monies. 8. The high priests were the most powerful of the three orders, and lived in seclusion in forests of oak, where they guarded with jealous care the secrets of their peculiar faith. Many of their ceremonies were attended with cruelty and awful mystery, f The sacrifice of human victims was of SPECIMEN OF DRtriDICAL KEMAINS. common occurrence. Great circles of stone were set up on the plains or in the forest, in which were erected altars, * The name Druids is derived from a Celtic word meaning oaJ,; and lience signifies menofthe oalx. 7. Whom did the Gauls worship ? Who were the Druids ? Into what classes were they divided ? Wlio wei'e the bards ? The prophets ? 8. Who were the high priests V What kind of sacnfice w£ etructures were set up y Where are there remains of these ? k'as common ? Whali EARLY IKHABITAITTS OF GAUL. 13 called cromlechs, consisting of two npright stones support- ing a horizontal one, on which victims were laid for sacri- fice. The priest smote the yictim, and professed to fore- tell the future from the manner of his fall or the flow- ing of his blood. * Many of the structures erected by the Druids, and consisting of immense stones arranged in vari- ous ways, still remain in the south of France. 9. The rival of the priest, in the esteem of the people, was the warrior, who was the head of the only political organization known among the Gauls — the clan. This was formed at first by the union of several families of blood * " Some erect colossal figures constructed of wicker-work, which they fill with men, and then set fire to them, thus destroying their victims." — Ccesar^s Comvientaries on the Gallic War. 9, "Who was the rival of the priest ? What is said of the clan ? What did the clans form ? The cantons ? 14 EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. [B. C 390o relatives, and was afterward increased by marriage and con- quest, till the various families, with their retainers, depend- ants, aud slaves, constituted a large community. Several clans constituted a canton ; and several cantons, a state. 10. Progress of the Gauls in Civilization. —The Gauls lived in conical houses built of poles and rushes, plas- tered and thatched. They had fortified towns, which dis- played sufficient knowledge of engineering to excite the admiration of the Komans. They cultivated the soil, rais- ing barley, wheat, and flax, and many kinds of live stock, and planting vineyards. They understood, to some extent, dyeing, and the art of working metals, and were accustomed to use the froth of beer as yeast for raising bread. They car- ried on, also, considerable commerce with other nations, establishing depots along the principal rivers or on tlie sea- shore. The countries with which they traded were princi- j)al]y Italy, Greece, and the island of Britain. 11. Gallic Migrations and Invasions. — The restless, warlike nature of the inhabitants of Gaul always made them a terror to their more peaceful neighbors. Their wars and incursions form a part of the history of the earliest times. One of these invasions was that into Iberia or Spain, where they established themselves so firmly that, many hundred years later, the most stubborn obstacle to Eoman conquest there was the race which was formed by the union of the Iberians and the Celts — the Celtiberians. The northern part of Italy, however, was more frequently the scene of bloody battles in which the Gauls were actors, the history of their struggles with the Eomans on this ground extend- ing back to a very early period. 12. In one of these invasions (390 b. c.) they defeated tlie Koman army, captured and pillaged Rome, and held it for 10. Describe the hon«es of the Gauls. The to^^^ls. What did they cultivate? '^/^hat arts did they practice ? What commerce did they carry on ? With what coun- tries ? 11. What war did they carry on ? Mention one of their invasions. What was its result? Who were the Celtiberians? What other country did the Gauls invade ? What struggles wore the consequence of this ? 12. When was Rome captured ? Give an account of this event. How was Rome ransomed? What did this give rise to ? B. €. 123.] EAKLY II^HABITANTS OF GAUL. 15 seven months till a ransom in gold was promised, which was increased at the last moment bj the action of their chief, Brennus, who threw his sword into the scales while the gold was being weighed, with the famons exclamation, "VcBVic- Us'' — " Woe to the vanquished.'' * This defeat, and the insult which accompanied it, were the cause of those frequent and bloody wars whicli were waged between Rome and Gaul hundreds of years. 13. Conquest of Gaul by the Romans. — The Grecian colony of Massilia had long been regarded with suspicion by the native tribes of Gaul. War being declared, the Mas- silians sought the aid of Rome, which sent an army to their assistance (154 b. c). A Roman army invaded the south of Gaul about thirty years later, and established a Roman province there, whose capital was called Aquae Sextiae, on the site of the present city of Aix, in Provence (123 B. c. ). This was the first Roman settlement in Gaul; but it was followed by others, Avhich maintained themselves, notwith- staiiding the attacks made upon them by the native tribes and by vast hordes of barbarians, prin- cipally from beyond the Rhine. One of these invasions was that of the Helvetians, who inhabited c/esar. the country now called Switzerland. The governor of the Roman province in Gaul, at that time, was Julius Caesar. *This invasion was made by a Gaulish tribe called the Sennones. Some accounts state th;it Camillus, the Roman dictator, arrived in time to prevent the payment of the ransom ; and, with the exclamation that "Rome should be ransomed only with steel," he ordered the gold to be taken awiiy, and immediately attacking the Gauls defeated them with great slaughter. There is, how- ever, no historic evidence of the truth of this accoimt. The public records having been destroyed, no autlientic annals of tlio previous events of Roman history exist. 1 3. What led to the invasion of Gaul hy the Romans ? What other invasion oc- curred ? What was established by the Romans ? What other settlements were made? What account is given of the Helvetians and their invasion ? How were they re- pelled. What did this lead to ? 16 5AKLY Il^HABITAKTS OF GAUL. [B. C. 58» Hastily gatliering some legions from Italy, lie gave battle to the invaders, and defeated tliem (58 b. c). This vic- tory led to alliances between the Eomans and some of the weaker tribes against the stronger tribes with which they were at war, and was the beginning of that policy which. Bight years later, brought the territory of Gaul into sub- jection to the Eoman power. 14. OaBsar next gained a signal victory over the Germans under their great chief, Ar-i-o-vis'tus, who had crossed the Ehine and invaded the territory of Gaul. He then defeat- ed the combined forces of the confederacy of the tribes of northern Gaul, under the leadership of the Belgse ; subdued the martial tribe called the Nervii [ner've-i), who bravely withstood the Eoman invader. He next invaded Britain, because the brave inhabitants of that island had sent assist- ance to the struggling Gaulish tribes. The gallant barba- rians made a vain attempt to oppose Eoman skill and valor, and Ceesar gained several victories over them ; but he had no time to complete the conquest of the island. Indeed, this was not accomplished until more than a century after- ward. 15, The last great struggle of the native tribes against the Eomans was that entered into by a league under the command of a native chief named Ver-cin-ge'to-rix.* After a campaign in the open field, in which the Gallic chief dis- played great ability, and in w^hich the Eoman army was many times placed in desperate straits from Avhich nothing but the genius of Caesar, its great commander, could have rescued it, Ve;-cingetorix withdrew to a fortified town, and construct- ing an intrenched camp outside of its walls, awaited the attack of the Eoman army. Caesar threw a double line of fortifications around the place, and after repelling an army of more than two hundred thousand Gallic warriors, which had come to its relief, returned to the siege. * This Is the Latinized form of the name as given by Caesar In his Commentaries. It signifies in the Celtic language, " The chief of a hundred chiefs." 14. Over whom did C:csar next obtain a victory ? What confederacy did he de- feat ? What tribe did he !?ubdue ? (Jive an account of the invatsion of Britain. 15. Give an account of Vercingetorix and liis struggle with the Romans. B. C. 50.] EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. J T 16. Hunger, and despair of receiving any aid from with- out, soon led to the surrender of the town, wliich Vercinge- torix came to offer in person, hoping, in this way, to soften the heart of Caesar and thus obtain more favorable terms for his army. Wearing his richest armor, he rode alone into the Eoman camp, alighted before the tribunal of Caesar, and threw on the ground his spear, his helmet, and his sword. He was sent a prisoner to Rome, and, six years afterward, was led through its streets in chains, as a part of Caesar's triumph. Some feeble attempts after this were made to throw off the Eoman yoke, but the vigilance of Ca?sar rendered them of little avail, and thus Gaul was completely conquered (50 B. c). 17. The cruel policy of Csesar in Caul was now entirely changed. All violent measures were abandoned, but the conquered tribes were obliged to pay a tribute of 40,000,000 ses'-ter-ces (about 11,400,000). The wisdom of this policy was soon apparent. The country which had required such strenuous efforts to subdue, became, in a short time, a sub- missive Roman province, from whose warlike people were recruited some of the choicest legions afterward employed by Caesar in the civil wars of Rome.* * " He allured their best warriors into his legions by high bounties ; and even formed an entire Gallic legion, the soldiers of which bore the figure of a lark on their helmets, and which was thence called Alauda.^^ — Michelefs History of France. 16o Describe the surrender of Vercingetorix. What was his fate ? 1 7« What policy did Cset^ar afterward pursue ? What was the result of this ? CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B.C. 600. Settlement of Massilia by the Greeks. 890. Taking of Rome by the Gauls. 123. Settlement of Aquae Sextiae by the Romans, 58. Defeat of the Helvetians by Cassar. 50. Conquest of Gaul completed by CsesaPo 18 GAUL. tJI^DER THE EOMANS. [B. C» 50a section ii. Gaul ukder the Romans. Fr(/ni the Boman Conquest (50 B. C.) to the Baptism of Clovis {A. D. 496). 1. Roman Policy in Gaul,— The efforts of the Romans were now directed to the extinction of the national feeling in Gaul, by the substitution of their own laws, customs, and religion. The first step was the division of all the ter- ritory, except Narbonuen'sis, into three great provinces : Aquitania, which comprised most of the country south of the Loire and west of the Cevennes ; Lugdunensis, chiefly situated between the Loire and the Seine ; and Belgica, which extended nearly to the Ehine. ]\"arbonnensis was the old province, and comprised principally the valley of the Rhone, from the 23resent city of Geneva south to the Medi- terranean Sea and the Pyrenees.* 2. The next step was the abandonment of cities or towns at which Roman arms had suffered defeat, and the estab- lishment of new ones in tlieir stead. The ancient names of cities, also, were changed, the names of clans and of Roman emperors being given to some of tlie more important. By this means, dangerous memories were obliterated, and tribes wliich had formerly acted together against the Romans were separated, and, in some cases, found themselves associated * A general census taken in 28 b. C. showed that the number of Roman citizens in Gaul, at that time, was 4,163,000. Map Questions.— (See pajje 21.) Wliore was Nar1)oniu'iisis situated ? Aquitaiiia ? tugdiincnsis ? Bclirica "i Where did the tribe called Parisii dwell y What city de- rives its name from them? What was the ancient name of Paris ?—yl /«.■>'. Lutetia. What does this word mean 'i—Ans. A nvid-ivdlled city. 1, To what were tlie efforts of the Romans directed? How was Gaul divided? Describe the situation of each. 2. What was the next step talcen by the Romans ? What other measurcG did they take to strengthen their rule ? B. C. 43.] GAUL UNDER THE ROMANS. 19 with ancient enemies in the same province. These great provinces were again subdivided into states, with diverse privileges, the liighest being conferred as rewards for special services rendered to the imperial government. A spirit of rivalry between the states was thus aroused, which led them to forget, in the eagerness of present strife, their an= cient wrongs. 3. The city of Lug-du'-num (Lyons), at the confluence of the Ehone and the Saone {son), was founded (43 b. c.);, KOMAN AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES (INTERIOR). and afterward, under the emperor Augustus, became the Eoman capital of Graul. From this four great military roads were opened : one to the Rhine at what is now Cob'lentz ; another to the northern coast ; a third to the mouth of the Garonne ; the last running south, and branching near the mouth of the Rhone to JMassilia and Narbo, now Narbonne {nar-hon'). The names of the gods of the Druids were changed, each new name being a compound of the original Celtic name and that of the corresponding Roman god. Human sacrifices were forbidden, and certain privileges 3. When was Lugdiinum founded? (See map, page 21.1 What did it become? What roaus led from it ? Where is Coblentz ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) What changes were effected in religion ? 20 GAUL HINDER THE EOMAN^S. [B. C. 43. were denied and penalties attached to those who adhered to Druidism. 4. Under such influences Gaul became rapidly Eoman, though traces of the ancient religion lingered for centuries in some parts of the country remote from cities. The prog- ress made in the arts of civilization was marked and gen- eral. The old savage way of living was abandoned ; the people devoted themselves to agriculture and commerce, and schools and colleges were established, which soon became famous throughout the civilized world. Evidences of the KOMAN AMPHITHEATER AT NIMES (EXTERIOR). extent to which the Roman influence prevailed are found in the literature of those early times, and in the architectural remains still existing in many parts of France. Tlie hitter are most numerous in the south and east ; tlie ruins of gate- ways, aqueducts, circuses, and temples at Toulouse {too- looz'), Aries (arlz), and many other places, being some of the most remarkable.* * One of these. . 419). 7. The Great Invasion of the Huns. — Great and numerous as these invasions of the tribes beyond the Rhine had been, however, they were followed by a much, greater one. For fifty years the nations of Europe had watched with apprehension the westward progress of the Huns, a fierce and mighty tribe of savages from Asia, whose sway had gradually been extended from the Black Sea to the Baltic. Over this vast horde of savages, cunning and fero- cious in character and grossly superstitious, one man reigned supreme. This was At'ti-la, sometimes called the " Scourge of God," on account of the dreadful devastations which he caused. 8. Crossing the Rhine, he entered Gaul with 500,000 men, "* " On the lower Rliine, a still more powerful confederacy than the Saxons, called the Franlen ttr/repineiu was formed out of the vhIofous races which had so long maintained both peaceful and warlike relations with Rome." — Godicin. 6. What new danger threatened Gaul ? During what period did th(! incursions of the Germans take place ? AVhat tribes obtained a permanent foot-hold in Gaul ? W^hat is said of the Franks ? The Burgundians ? 'i'he Visigoths ? 7. What greater invasion followed ? Who were the Huns ? Who was Attila? 8. Give an account of the invasion of Gaul by the Huns. By whom were they op- posed ? What battle was fought ? The result ? A. O. 486.] GAUL UKDER THE ROMAN'S. 2S burning cities and carrying terror and desolation in his path. All Gaul united against the common foe. The city of Orleans checked his progress into southern Gaul. While besieging this, the opposing army, consisting of Romans and Goths, under A-e'tius and The-od'o-ric, appeared. Attila Avithdrew to the Catalaunian plains, near the river Seine, where a battle was fought the following day. All day and far into the night the battle raged; and, on the fol- lowing morning, more than 200,000 corpses strewed the plain. So great was the confusion that neither army claimed the victory ; but the power of Attila was broken, and he re- crossed the Rhine with the remnant of his army (a. d. 451).* 9. Olovis becomes King. — When the Roman empire fell (a. d. 476), the Christian bishops, who had gradually become a ruling power in Gaul, turned to find some tem- poral ruler who could help them to strengthen and per- petuate their sway. The most promising was 01o'vis,f the young, ambitious leader of clie Salian Franks. He was a descendant of Mer-o-vse'us, the sea-king, J whose wonderful, half-fabulous exploits had been for many years a subject of admiration to the simple Franks. At the age of fifteen, Clovis had been proclaimed king of his tribe. Fearing the Roman influence among the Frankish tribes, he determined, if possible, to destroy it ; and, to that end, attacked the Ro- man General Sy-a'gri-us at Soissons (stvaw'song), and defeated him (a. D. 486). Syagrius was the last Roman governor of Gaul.§ After the battle of Soissons, Olovis moved his capital * '' It was H battle," says the old Gothic chronicler (Jornandes), " fierce, multiform, terrible, obstinate; such a battle and such a slaughter as the world had never seen, and will never see again. The little stream which traversed the field, almost dry till then, was swollen beyond its banks by the blood which mingled with the water. When night drew on, the carnage was still continued, and far into the darkness was heard the shock of bewildered steeds, the clash of in- discriminating swords.'"— Godwin. + Called in his native tongue Chlodonifj. t It is from Merovasns that Clovis and his successors have received the name Merovingians, or the Merovingian Dynasty. The Salian Frmiks inhabited the country near the mouth of tlie Rhine. § "An incident which occurred after one of the incursions of the Franks illustrates in aforcible taanner the extent to which brute force was used by Clovis in maintaining liis authority. At the sacking of the Cathedral of Rheims, some of the sacred vessels had been carried off, among them a vase of great beauty wliich formed a part of the booty that, according to the custom of the Franks, was placed in the middle of the camp to be distributed by lot. The bishop of Rheims sent a messenger to reclaim it, and (Jlovis promised to return it. When the day came for the I 'wisioTi of the spoils at Soissons, Clovis asked that the vase might be allotted to him as his ■^hare. A young Frankish soldier, however, angry at this infringement of custom, and perhaps < 9. Who was Clovis ? Whom did he attack and defeat ? Who was the last Roman overnor of Gaul ? What city did Clovis make his capital ? 24 GAUL UKDEE THE ROMANS. [A. ». 496. to Lutetia, the chief city of the Parisii,* which by this act became the capital of the Franks, under the name of Paris. 10. The power of Clovis was still disputed by many tribes, and several years were passed in war to establish his snpremac}^ The marriage of Cloyis with Clotilda was an event of great importance (493). This princess was the daughter of Grun'de-bald, King of Burgundy, and had em- braced the orthodox Christian faith ; and, through her means, Clovis obtained the support of the Callo-Roman Church in carrying out his schemes of conquest. Clotilda, for some time, earnestly sought to effect the conversion of her hus- band ; but he refused, although permitting his eldest son to be baptized. 11, At length, however, an incident occurred which brought about this event. The powerful tribe of the Ale- manni f crossed the Rhine, and attacked the Franks J at Cologne (496) ; and Clovis marched to their assistance. In the fierce battle that ensued, the result was for some time doubtful ; Avhen at length Clovis, raising his hands to heaven, invoked the God of the Christians, and offered a solemn vow that, if he should gain the victory, he would embrace the faith of Clotilda, and permit himself to be baptized. He then continued the battle, rushing into the thickest of the fight, and inspiring his soldiers with cour- age and enthusiasm. At length, the King of the Alemanni being slain, victory declared for Clovis ; and in fulfillment of his vow, he, his sister, and three thousand of his warriors, besides a large number of women and children, were bajDtized coveting: the vase, told the king boldly that he should have only what fell to him, at the same time defacing the vase by a heavy blow from his battle-axe. The king said noth- ing, but took the vase and returned it to the bishop. Some time after, at a review of his forces, he stopped before the young warrior, reproved him for the ill appearance and condition of his arms, and seizing his battle-axe, threw it upon the ground. As the owner stooped to pick it up, Clovis buried his weapon in the soldier's skull, saying, * Thua didst thou to the vase of Soissons ! ' "—GuizoV-^ Elstory of France. * A Celtic tribe. Hence the modern name of the city, Paris. t " Clovis was still only chief of the petty tribe of the Franks of Tournai, when nu- merous bands of Suevi [Germans], under the designation of All-men (Alemanni), threat- ened to pass the T^.\lmQ ."—Mlchde! . % This tribe was called the liipuarian Franks, as the followers of Clovis were called the Salian Franks. 10. By whom was Clovis oppoised ? Whom did Clovis marry ? ^^Hio was Clotii. da ? What support did Clovis obtain by this marriage ? What did Clotilda seek to accomplish ? 11. What led to the conversion of Clovis ? Who received baptism ? A. ». 496.] GAUL UKDER THE ROMANS. 25 with great pomp and magnificence in the temple at Rheims U. D. 496). CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 177. Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 256-358. First invasions of Gaul by the Franks. 413. Establishment of the Burgundians in Gaul. 419. Settlement of the Visigoths in Aquitania. 451. Defeat of Attila by Aetius. 486. Defeat of Syagrius by Clovis. Conversion of Clovis to Christianity. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PART I. PAGE 1. What races inhabited Gaul when Massilia was founded ? lo 2. Give an account of each 10, 11 3. Describe the manners and customs of the Gauls 11 4. Give an account of the Druids 12 5. From what is the name Bruid derived ? 12 (note) 6. What progress had the Gauls made in civilization ? 14 7. Give an account of the Gallic migrations 14, 15 8. Give an account of the conquest of Gaul by the Romans 15, 16, 17 9. By what policy was the conquest completed ? 17, 18 10. Mention the divisions of Gaul, and state the situation of each 18, 19 11. What city was made the center of the Roman domain in Gaul, and in what way ? 19 12. What progress was made in civilization in Gaul under the Romans ? . 20 13. Give an account of the introduction of Christianity 21 14. What barbarous nations invaded Gaul in the 3d, 4th, and 5th centuries ?. 22 15. Give an account of the invasion of the Huns 22, 23 16. Give an account of the defeat of Attila 23 17 How did Clovis become king ? 23 18. Give an account of his reign 24 19. W^hy are Clouds and his successors called the Merovingians ? 23 (note) 20. From what is the name Paris derived ? .24 (note) PAET II. FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. secxiois" i. The Merovingian Dynasty. Extending from the baptism of Cloms {A. D. 496) to the accession of Pepin le Bref{A. D. 753). 1. The north of Gaul had now a Christian king and queen^ the first in its history. The clergy saw in Clovis their only hope, and gathered around him. The people in the other provinces of Gaul, w^eary of petty wars, and hound together by a common faith, turned toward Clovis as to tlieir natural king ; and, only a few years after his baptism, he succeeded in uniting all Gaul in one great dynasty. Auastasius, also, the emperor of the East, desiring his alli- ance, sent him a golden crown and a jiurple robe, making him, by that act, a Christian prince and a Eoman consul. He made Paris his capital, and died there (a. Do 511). Modern France dates its foundation as a kingdom from tlie reign of Clovis, his consecration at Elieims being an exam- ple which succeeding kings, for many centuries, follv^»ved. 2, The changes wrought in the politics, society, atid Iciws of the country at this time were marked and lasting. Chief among these was the introduction of the feudal system , the 1, What was the condition of Clovis and his kingdom at this time ? Waat did he accomplish? What did Anastasius do? Where and when did the death of Clovis occur ? From what does modern France date its foundation ? 2. What chanj^es took i)Iace at this time ? What system was introduced ? What 'Aoea fei/d mean? How did Clovis divide the conquered territory? What were the features of this system ? What was the Salic law ? 26 THE MEEOVIjSTGIAK DYNASTY, 21 Avord feted meaning property held as a reward.* Clovis divided the territory which he conqnered among his chiefs as a reward for services rendered, and a pledge for similar services in the future. Each chief, called a feudatory, be- came thus a petty king, possessed of a large extent of coun- try, containing many towns and castles, with hundreds, and, in some cases, thousands of tenants or vassals, and man 3^ more serfs or bondsmen who cultivated the soil, and were not permitted to leave it, but were sold with it, like cattle. A natural offspring of this system was the salic lata, the name of which is thought to be derived from tlie Salians, the branch of the Franks from which Clovis came. By this * According to thif- system, the teiiiiro of 1 iiuls dspended npo-i the vnssalafro of those hy whom they were held. Every vassal was hound to do homa.iAe to his supeiior. Unarmed and bare- headed, he knelt before him, and putting his hands in those of his 1 ird, promised to be "his man " thenceforward, and to serve him faithfully for the lauds which he occupied. 28 THE MEROVIKGIAK DYNASTY. [A. ». 558. law, no woman conld inherit the lands of a feudatory, nor could she be made queen. (See note, page 49.) 3. From the earliest times, the Franks had been accus- tomed to assemble annually in general council, in the open air, on the 1st of March, which was then considered the beginning of the year. These assemblies Avere called tlie Fields of March. Here the chiefs discussed affairs of state, made an estimate of the number and condition of their fighting men, and planned new expeditions. Now, how- ever, the great chiefs being separated, and each established in the center of an extensive territory over which he w^as ruler, lost their interest in these general assemblies. Prop- erty now became the ruling thought in the mind of the chief, and only when this was threatened was he inclined to take up arms. 4. The kingdom of Clovis was divided, at his death, in 511, among his four sons, — The-od'o-ric, Clo'do-mir, Chil'de-bert, and Clo-taire'. In those days of craft and blood, such an arrangement only prepared the way for fresh quarrels. Plots were constantly formed by the brothers against each other ; and, after forty-seven years of domestic broils and foreign war, Clotaire, the youngest and last-surviving son of Clovis, became king of all the Franks (a. d. 558). He, however, enjoyed his new honor only three years.* 5. The four sons of Clotaire divided their father's king- dom among themselves ; but one of them dying soon af ter- Avard, it was again divided among the survivors, and with so much I'esfard to natural boundaries and the distinctions of tribes and languages that the divisions then made con- " One of tlie wives of tliis king, Radegunda, deserves a ])assing mention for her saintly virtues in these stormy times. She was the daugliter of the King of Tharingia and was talteii prisoner by Clotaire, wiio, struck with her beauty, caused her to be educated and married her. Her power over him, however, was of short duration. Shocked at his crimes, she finally left the court, entered a cloister, and passed her day.s in deeds of charity and love. 3. What were the "Fields of March" ? What was their ohject ? Wliat change occurred at this time ? 4. How was the kingdom of Ck:)vis divided ? What was the consequence? Who finally became king of all the Franks ? How long did he reign as sucli ? 5. How was the kingdom divided after the death of Clotaire? What permanent divisions were afterward formed ? Describe the situation of each. (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) A. B. 714.] THE MEEOYIiq^GIAK DYKASTY. 29 tinned for a long time. The north-eastern part, along the Ehine, with a small part of Germany, was called Ans-tra'- sia ; the north-western part, from the Loire to the ocean, was known as Neus'tria ; while the third, called Bnrgundy, comprised the mountainons region east of the Rhone and south as far as Provincia, or Provence {pro-v alms'). (See Progressive Map No. 1.) 6. The brothers ruled severally over these divisions, but Aquitania was claimed by all three. Occasions for war be- tween the brothers soon arose, growing out of domestic troubles ; and the history of many years is chiefly composed of accounts of wars, intrigues,, and murders, caused by the wives of these princes. The kingdoms of Austrasia and Burgundy were united for a time (593), and the three di- visions were reigned over by Olotaire II. as sole king of the Franks (613), but his character was insignificant and his reign unimportant. 7. Before his death, his son Dagobert, then fifteen years of age, was made king of Austrasia ; and on the death of Clotaire (628), Dagobert asserted his right to the whole kingdom. With tliis king, the glory of the Merovingian line departed. After him, the struggles of the nobles, who were constantly increasing in power, with the effeminate kings (derisively called roi^/rt{we«j^?f6^ {fa-na-6ng), do-nothing Mngs), were usually successful ; till, at last, Pepin d'Heristal, mayor of Neustria and Burgundy, virtually became king, under the title of Duke or Prince of the Franks (687). 8. His successor Avas his son Charles, afterward styled Martel, a powerful Duke of Austrasia, and Mayor of the Palace. On his father's death (714), he raised the standard of revolution, and by his boldness and vigor, attached many chiefs to his cause. His title of mayor was disputed, and only established after several battles, in which he had many 6. What caused war among the brothers ? What kingdoms were united ? Who reigned as sole king of the Franks ? His character ? 7. Who became King of Austrasia ? With whom did the glory of the Merovingian line end ? What were most of his successors called '? Who virtually became king ? 8. Who succeeded Pepin d'Heristal ? How was the title of Charles established ? What did he display ? 30 THE MEROYINGIAN^ DYliTASTY. [A. D. 0*52. opportunities to displiiy the military talents which subse- quently gained for him so brilliant a renown. 9. When, therefore, the Saracens invaded France, his constant practice in war, joined to his native energy of character, pointed him out as the natural leader of the Franks in the threatened struggle. Charles acted with characteristic courage and dispatch ; gathering an immense army, he met the invading host near Poitiers (poi-teerz), and, after a terrific battle, completely routed them, gaining by his personal strength and prowess the title of Martel (the Hammer), and justly deserving the more distinguished title of Savior of Christian Civilization (732).* 10. This victory also gave him the undisputed possession of the kingdom of the Franks, in the strengthening and consolidation of which he spent the remaining years of his life. Having promised assistance to the Pope, in his strug- gle with the Lombards, he was marching to his relief wdien he died (741). After his death, the kingdom was divided among his sons ; but the most energetic of these, Pepin (styled le Bref, oy the short) soon became sole king of the Franks (752). 11. The Mayors of the Palace. — During the Mero- vingian dynasty, a new order of men, known as Mayors of the Palace, had risen into power and prominence. Their origin is lost in obscurity. They are supposed to have been orig- inally guardians or stewards of the king's estate ; and, after the fall of the Roman empire, this estate being vastly in- creased, the office became much more important. The mayor was chosen from among the feudatories of the king, and soon became his chief adviser. The mayors were the guar- *" There ' the younfr civilizations of Europe and Asia 'stood face to face. There the horse- men of the East met the footmen of the West ; the Semitic race made trial of strenjrth with the (Jernianic. The battle was worthy of the cause : it whs loiitr imd bloody. The chroniclers are i.ot sparing of their numbers. Throe hundred thousand Arab corpses, say they, marked the poii.t at which the flood-tide tuviied. ''—Kilrhin's flistory of France. 9. Who invaded France ? What course did Charles pursue ? When was a battle fought ? Its result ? Wliat titles were conferred on Charles ? 10. Whiit did this victory give him ? When did he die ? Under what circum- stances ? How was the kingdom then divided ? Who became sole king ? 11. Who were the Maj'ors of the Palace ? What was their origin ? "How chosen ? What guardianship and powers did they have ? A, ». 5T3.] THE MEROVIKGIAN^ DYKASTY. , 31 dians of the kings during their minority, and then exercised almost full kingly powers. In this way, they finally set aside the legitimate prince, and obtained permanent pos- session of the throne. 12. State of Society, — The prospects of civilization, during this period, were gloomy in the extreme. The bar- barous condition which, for a time, had been changed, by the introduction of the arts, science, and literature of the Komans, suddenly returned at the downfall of the empire and the invasions of the Germans. Old rivalries were re- vived, murders were frequent, and property and the rights of the weak were insecure. Only the strong arm ruled. One hopeful ray alone illuminates the darkness — the grow- ing respect for the Church, which stood between the barba- rians and the Romanized inhabitants of Gaul, and, number- ing its adherents in both, lifted up its voice in the interest of humanity. 13. Churches, monasteries, and convents were built, pre- serving to some extent, in their construction, the architec- tural beauty of Greece and Italy, and affording, by the awe which attached to their sanctity, a refuge to the oppressed against violence and wrong. In the leisure and seclusion of their service, also, the literary models of a higher civiliza- tion were preserved. 14. Among the names which have come down to us from this period is that of Gregory of Tours, whose History of the Franks though showing traces of the childish superstition common in that age, has been an invaluable source of infor- mation to students and historians. He was born in Auvergne in 539, and chosen bishop of Tours in 573. In all the strug- gles and disorders of the troubled time in which he lived he discharged the duties of his high office with firmness and discretion, acting always in that spirit of humanity which forms the distinctive feature of the religion he professed. 12. What was the state of civilization during this period? What was the only hopeful feature ? 13. What were built ? What did they preserve ? 14. What distiuguished personage is referred to? What is said of Gregory of Tours ? 32 THE MEROVINGIAK DYNASTY. [A. ». 752, CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A.D. 511. Death of Clovis. 558. Olotaire I., king of tlie Franks. 613. Clotaire II., king of tlie Franks. 687. Pepin d'Heristal becomes king. 714. Death of Pepin d'Heristal. 732. Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel. 741. Death of Charles Martel. 752. Accession of Pepin le Bref. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE MEROVINGIANS. Clovis. Theodoric. I Clodomir. Childebert. r — Charibert. Gontran. Sisfcbert. r Sigebert II. r 1 Clotaire III. Childeric. I Chilperic II. 1 Clovis III. CMlperic III. (742-752) Deposed by Pepin le Bref. Clotaire. I Chilperic. I Clotaire II. I Dagobert. I Clovis II. Theodoric. I Childebert. I Dagobert III. I Theodoric IV. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 0. 10. 11. 12. 13. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE Wliy was the reign of Clovis important ? 26 Mention the chief events of his reign 26 Describe the feudal system 27 What was the Salic law ? 28 What assemblages were held by the Franks ? 28 Mention some of the successors of Clovis 28, 29 How was the French territory divided at different times ? 28, 29 What was the office of Mayor of the Palace ? 30 Who were the most distinguished of the officers ? 29, 30 Who obtained the title of Savior of Christian Civilization ? In what way ?. . 30 What was the state of society under the Merovingians ? 31 How many centuries did this dynasty last ? : 80 Give an account of Gregory of Tours 31 A. ». 752.] THE CARL0VII«^GIA:N^ DYNASTY. 33 sectioi^ ii. The Carlovikgiak Dynasty. Bxtending from the Accession of Pepin le Bref (752) to that of Hugh Capet (986). ,y^^2 1* I^epi^i 1© Bref was the first king of the Car- to lovingiaii line. His surname le Bref {the SJiort) was given him on account of his stature, which was such that he appeared almost like a dwarf among his stalwart warriors.* JSTothing could have saved him from the con- tempt of these men but his undoubted physical strength and courage, and his ability to command. He gave ample proof during his life that he possessed all these qualities, f The influence of the Church at this time was very great, and hence an alliance with it was eagerly sought by kings who were at war with each other. Winifred, or St. Boni- face, archbishop of Mayence, had devoted himself to the spread of Christianity, and aided by Pepin's father, had gone as a missionary into the wilds of Germany. He had also anointed Pepin with holy oil at his coronation. Influ- enced largely by Winifred, therefore, Pepin enlisted on the side of the Pope, who was then attacked by the Lombards. J; * He is said to have been only four and a hftif feet high, while his son Charlemagne was seven feet in height. + An incident which happened at the beginning of his reign will serve to illustrate his strength and courage. While watching a fight between a lion and a bull one day— the spectacle of com- bats of wild animals being an amusement common in that rude age— the Isiug asljed liis attend- ants who among them dared to rescue the bull, which was being strangled by the lion. No one answered. Pepin himself, it is said, then leaped down into the arena, and with one blow of his sword struck off the head of the lion, and even gashed the neck of the bull. Then turning to his nobles, he said, " Now am I worthy to be your king?" t Tlie Lombards were a race of barbarians who in the sixth century entered Northern Italy and founded a powerful kingdom there. Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) How far did the empire of Charle- magne extend from east to west ? What river was its eastern boundary ? How far did it extend toward the south ?—Ans. To Gaeta. in Italy. How far did it extend toward the north ?—Ans. To the Baltic Sea. What stale occupied the northern part of France ? Eastern part ? The south-eastern part ? What the southern pait ? The north-western part ? The south-western part ? What monarchy occupied both sides of the Lower Danube ? What people dwelt in the districts of the Upper Danube f What people occupied the country near the Elbe ? 1 . Wlio was the first king of the Carlovingiau line ? His surname ? Why given to him ? His physical strength, etc. ? What is said of the influence of the Church ? Of Winifred or St. Boniface ? What cause did Pepin espouse ? 2* B4 THE CARLOYIKGIAI^ DYN^ASTY. [A. D. 771. 2. He made two expeditious against the Saxons, but his principal yictories and conquests were in Italy and in the countries south of his own. Pope Stephen II. fled to G-aul (754) to ask tlie aid of Pepin against the Lombards, who had seized the exarchate* of Ravenna and marched on Rome. Pepin, therefore, crossed the Alps with his army, attacked and defeated the Lombards, and regained posses- sion of Ravenna. Tlie Lombards then promised to give to the Church the lands they had taken in northern Italy, but their promise was not fulfilled. Pepin, therefore, marclied against them the following year, and wrested from them the exarchate, which he gave to the Pope (755), who thus assumed the office and power of a temporal monarch. 3. Three years after, the country lying between the Ce- vennes and the G-ulf of Lyons was conquered by Pepin, and the kingdom of the Franks was thus extended to the Pyr- enees (759). Still warring in the name of religion, he de- manded of the Duke of Aquitaine a return of the property he had taken from the Church, and the surrender of Prank- ish fugitives who had found shelter in his dominions. This demand Avas refused, and Pepin entered upon a war which lasted nine years, during which the rich dukedom of Aqui- taine was ravaged with remorseless cruelty. The duke was finally assassinated, and Aquitaine was attached to the kingdom of the Franks (768). The same year Pepin died, leaving his kingdom to his sons, Carloman and Charles, afterward entitled Charles the Great, or Charlemagne (shar'le-7naJm). The former died at the end of three yeax's, and the Franks, who, according to their old laAv, were per- mitted to choose their king, set aside the two infant sons of Carloman, and chose Cliarles (771). * Exarcliiiie^ a portion of country ruled by an exarch, an officer appointed by the Emperor of the East. 2. What expeditions did Pepin make ? Wliy did he attack the Lombards ? What was the result ? 3. What was Pepin's rext conquest ? Whj' did he invade Aquitaine ? What ended the war ? Who succeeded Pepin 'i How came Charlemagne to be king ? A. ». 776.] THE CARLOVINGIAN DYKASTY, 35 ^gg 4. Charlemagne was called to rule over a king- to dom larger than that of any of his predecessors, **^ coinciding nearly with modern France. The de- posed children of his brother, Car'loman, had taken refuge with Des-i-de'ri-us, the king of the Lombards, who was an enemy of the Franks. The daughter of Desiderius had been the wife of Charlemagne for a single year, but at the end of that time Charlemagne had divorced her and re- turned her to her father, who felt himself grossly insulted by this act. 5. Desiderius, therefore, besought the Pope (Adrian) to consecrate the children of Carloman as kings ; but the Pope informed Charlemagne, who immediately marched against the Lombards, conquered their territory, except the cities of Pavia {pah-ve'ah) and Vero'na, to which he laid siege, and went in person to Home, on Easter day (774), where he confirmed the Pope in his title to the possessions given him by Pepin. The Lombards in Verona surrendered after a short siege, but the defense of Pavia was more obstinate. It was finally reduced by famine, Desiderius and his family were imprisoned in a monastery, and Charlemagne assumed the title of King of Lombardy, the Pope placing on his head, at his coronation, the famous iron crown of the Lombards. Shortly afterward he appointed his second son, Pepin, to rule over Lombardy (776). 6. The kings of the Franks had now been for many years the special champions of the Church. So accustomed had they become to do battle in its defense that its quarrel was easily assumed by them, often on, slight pretexts. The Saxons, taking advantage of the absence of Charlemagne in Italy, rose in arms, threatened the Christian missionaries in their midst, and burned the church at Dev'"en-ter, which 4. Over what kingdom was Charleniii^ne cMlled to reign ? What became of the children of Carloman ? Whv was Desiderins hostile to C'arlemagne ? ., „ ^. ^ 5. How did Desiderins show l,is enmity? What did Chiulemagne do? What were the results of this w;ir ? , „ ^_, 6. What acts of the Saxons brought o'l a war with Charlemagne ? _ Where is Deventer ? (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) Why was Charlemagne absent m Italy i 36 THE CARL0VI:N^GIAK dynasty. [A. D. TTT. had been built by the Franks. Charlemagne marched against them, and reduced them to subjection (775).* The following year he returned with his army to Italy, con- quered the Lombards who had again risen, and hurrying back to Germany assembled the Field of May at Paderborn (777). 7. The Diet of Paderborn. —This council was held in the ravaged country of the Saxons. Along the frontier •several strongly-fortified places had been built, and Charle- magne, hoping on this occasion to bind the Saxons by an oath too solemn to be broken, spared no pains to make the ceremony imposing. All the Saxon tribes were summoned to attend, many nations which were anxious to remain on terms of friendship with Charlemagne were represented, even the Saracens from Spain sent deputies. The Saxons professed allegiance under the severest penalties in case of disobedience, and many were baptized, f 8. As the defender of the Church, but more perhaps to se- cure the southern frontier of his kingdom, Charlemagne noAv gathered his forces to attack the Saracens in Spain. Cross- ing the Pyrenees in two divisions, his army united before Saragossa, which surrendered. While the army of the Franks was crossing the Pyrenees on its homeward march, a band of Basques fell upon the rear guard in a high and gloomy puss called the gorge of Roncesvalles (ron-ses-val'les), and over- whelmed it with an avalanche of rocks and trees. Among the killed was Roland, the nephew of Charlemagne. This disaster, from the suddenness of the onset, the almost total an- nihilation of the force attacked, and the romantic character of the spot where it occurred, has been lifted into a singular and undue prominence. So many different accounts have * One of the acts of tlie Franks, at tliis time, which roused the anger of the Germans, was ths destruction of the .statue of Hermann, whicii liad been erected on a high rock overlooking a )iarrow pass where Hermann, or Arminius, the great German chief, dad defeated the Romans many years before. This statne had always been regarded as sacred by the Germans. t One chief, however, Witikind, a leader of the Westphalians, refused to attend the assembly or to be bound by the terms there made. 7. When was the Diet of Paderborn held ? Describe it. 8. Why did Charlemagne invade Spain ? Describe the invasion and its resulta 5V he was Roland ? A. ». 781.1 THE CARLOVIN^GIAJ^ DYNASTY. 37 been given concerning it, in poems and legends, that the very spot where it happened has become a matter of dispute, and the actors in it have taken rank with the heroes of fable. * 9. A revolt again broke out in the north (781). Through the energy and eloquence of Wit'i-kind,f the Westphalian chief who had refused to attend the diet of Paderborn, the rule of the Franks in Saxony was again threatened. Gatli= ering together an army composed of Danes, Saxons, and war- riors of the neighboring tribes, he pillaged the Christian churches in Saxony, and killed or expelled the priests and officers appointed by Charlemagne. The latter marched to attack Witikind ; but the battle was fought before his arri- val, and the Franks had been defeated. Witikind, pursu- ing his customary policy, had made his escape into Denmark, beyond the pursuit of the Frankish monarch. Charlemagne, therefore, to satisfy his thirst for vengeance, determined upon an act of ferocious cruelty, which must ever be an indelible stain upon his memory. Gathering together at Werden all the Saxons he had captured (4,500), he ordered them to be behead- ed.}; This atrocity served only to inflame the Saxons, who left their retreats in the woods and marshes and determined to * " The disaster of Roncesvalles and the heroism of the warrior who perished there be- came, in France, the object of popular sympathy, and the favorite topic for the exercise of the popular fancy. The Song_ of Roland, a real Homeric poem in its great beauty, and yet rude and simple as became its national character, bears witness to the prolonged im- portance attained in Europe by this incident in the history of Charlemagne. Three cen- turies later, the comrades of William the Conqueror, marching to battle at Hastings for the possession of England, struck up The Song of Rotand to 'prepare themselves for victory or death.' . . . The political genius of Charlemagne comprehended, more fully than would be imagined from his panegyrist's brief and dry account, all the gravity of the affair of Roncesvalles. Not only did he take immediate vengeance by hanging Duke Lupus of Aquitaine, whose treason had brought down this mishap, and by reducing his two sons to a more feeble and precarious condition, but he resolved to treat Aquitaine as he had but lately treated Italy, that is to say, to make of it ' a special kingdom,' an Integral portion, indeed, of the Frankish empire, but with an especial distinction, which was that of resisting the invasions of the Andalusian AYahs"—GuizoVs History of France. t Witikind was the great hero of the Saxons— the representative of Saxon patriotism and Saxon valor. Discouraged by no disaster and incapable of yielding, as often as he was defeated he took refuge in the forests and wilds of Denmark or Scandinavia, to re- appear as soon as an opportunity presented itself with new forces, and again to make a stand against the invaders of his country. But no energy or courage could successfully withstand the determined skill and valor of Charlemagne and his Frankish warriors ; and at last Witikind was obliged to submit to the conqueror ; but this he only did at the sup. plications of the people for whose liberties he was waging a desperate war. t This dreadful massacre was perpetrated on the banks of the river Aller— at a spot a short time previously consecrated as the site of a Christian place of worship, and the resi- dence of a Christian bishop. The barbarous and heathen Saxons had thus a terrible illus- tration of how far a so-called Christian monarch's acts could be at variance with the sublime precepts of the faith he professed. 9. What did Witikind do ? What act of cruelty did Charlemagne commit ? Where did Charlemagne establish hi^ capital, and why "? Where is Aix-la-Chapelle ? (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) 38 THE CARLO VIKGIAI^ DYI^ASTT. [A. ». 800. give battle to Charlemagne in the open field. The latter now established his capital at Aix-la-Chapelle {akes-lah- shah-2Jel'), for the purpose of watching the Saxons and at- tacking them more readily. This place had long been a favorite one with him, on account of its warm springs, bathing being a recreation in which he specially delighted.* 10. During the three years which followed the massacre at Werden, the country of the Saxons was ravaged without mercy. The war had now lasted, almost without interrup- tion, for thirty-two years. Moved at last by the sufferings of his people, Witikind sued for peace. Trusting to the gen- erosity of Charlemagne, he went to meet him in his palace at Attigny {at-teen-ye), and returned loaded with presents. He was afterwards baptized, and, resigning the leadership, entered a convent where he spent the remainder of his days. By an ingenious, and, to some extent, merciful treatment of the Saxons after this, Charlemagne succeeded in preventing any general uprising for several years. His army, however, was not permitted to rest. The Avars, a tribe inhabiting the country east of that of the Franks, invaded his kingdom, and Charlemagne marched against them with three armies, and expelled them. 11. Charlemagne as Emperor. — The signal service which Charlemagne had rendered to the Church was now rewarded in a striking manner. Leo III., the successor of Pope Adrian, had solicited the aid of the king against his enemies, and Charlemagne had gone to Eome to confer with him. While attendine' service in the Vatican on Christ- mas day (800), the Pope, in the presence of a multitude of people, advanced toward the king, and, placing a crown of * Aix-la-Chapelle is said to owe its foiindation to an incident which happened on one of the hunting excursions of Uhiirlemaene. While cliiisins? a stJisi, the emperor attempted to urge his horse across a brook. The Mnimal, liowever, hesitated, and the emperor, on iiiquirinir into the cause, discovered that the waccr was hot. He oiused a chHpel in the shape of a horse's hoof to be built on the spot, and this is thought to be the origii! of the rotunda under which the hot spriuf^s there are now found. 1 0. What was the fate of Witikind ? Who were the Avnrs ? 11. What title was conferred on Charlemagne ? Describe the ceremony. What followed? What project did Charlemagne entertain? What prevented its accom plishment ? A. D. 814.1 THE CARLOVIITGIAK DYNASTY. 39 gold on his head, saluted him as Emperor of the Eomans. This act revived the Empire of the West, which had been extinct since the time of Angustuliis, three hundred and twenty-four years before. His uniform success now led Charlemagne to entertain the project of re-establishing the ancient Eoman Empire, and, to this end, he offered his hand to the Empress I-re'ne, the ruler of the Byzantine Em- pire. The news of this intended union, however, provoked a popular insurrection at Constantinople which led to her dethronement, and the marriage never took place. 12. Charlemagne now began to feel the approach of age. He divided his empire, therefore, between his three sons, reserving all his titles for the youngest, Louis, whom he presented to his people at a great diet assembled at Aix- la-Chapelle (813). A crown similar to that worn by Char- lemagne was made ; and Louis, on this occasion, by his father's direction, took it from the altar and placed it on his head. This was one of the last public acts of Charle- magne. The following year he died at the age of seventy- two (814). He was buried in the chapel which he had built at Aix-la-Chapelle. He was dressed in his imperial robes, and placed in a sitting posture on a throne of marble, with all the symbols of his power about him. 13. The figure of Charlemagne is one of the most impos- ing in history. Standing between the era of barbarism and that of civilization, his character partakes of both. His long reign of forty-six years was an almost ceaseless warfare ; and, at its close, he left an empire more than double the size of that over which he had begun to reign. It comprised all of modern France, Belgium, and Switzerland, the greater part of the German States and Italy, and a part of Spain. Sprung from a race of warriors, and excelling in arms, he turned from the battle-field with eagerness to follow the arts of peace. He built churches, founded schools and semina- 12. How did Charlemagne divide his empire ? Where and how was he buried ? 13. What was the size of the empire of Charlemagne? What did it comprised What benefits did he confer on it ? Who aided him ? 40 THE CARLO VIl^GIAK DTN^ASTY. [A. D. S14. ries^ establislied libraries, invited eminent men of letters from other countries to his court, sent missionaries into all parts of his dominions, and strove in every way to encourage among his people a love for learning and religion. The famous Alcuin, one of the most learned men of his time, was for many years a resident of his household and the tutor of his family ; and Charlemagne himself did not disdain to be- come a learner with his children. 14. His ability as a civil ruler is no less remarkable than his talents as a warrior and a patron of learning. He di- vided his empire into kingdoms, over which he placed his sons to enforce his decrees, which were called capitularies. The empire was also divided into counties governed by grafen, or earls. He created special officers who visited the counties four times a year, holding courts of justice for the redress of grievances, and supervising the accounts of the collectors of public money. He fostered trade and commerce, regulated the currency, and suppressed beggary ; in all his measures showing a wisdom and fore- sight beyond that of any monarch of his time. The ancient assemblies of tlie Franks — the Fields of March — changed at a later time to Fields of May, were continued by Charle- magne, but in an improved form. Two of these assemblies were now held, however, one in the spring, the other in the autumn. * §14 15. Louis I. (le Debonnaire — da-hon-air'), the Easy, to or Good-natured — was thirty-six years of age when he was called to the throne (814). He was amiable and pious, but lacking in that firmness and severity necessary * Originally these meetings had been held in the open air, and every free man had a voice in their deliberations. Tliey were still held out of doors, if the weather was pleasant; if not, thev were convened in buildings specially constructed for the purpose, and only men of rank took part in the deliberations. These buildings were divided into rooms for the use of the several councils, some of which were composed of the great lords, others of the bishops, and others of both. The emperor attended in person, and submitted the new laws ho had resolved upon ti) the cor.sideration of a superior council, which met in secret session, and was intrusted with .s"ASTY. [A. ». 1159. 35. On reaching Antiocli, the king pushed on to Jerusa- lem, bent only on fulfilling his yow. A feeble attempt was made to capture Damascus, but the jealousies of the great lords prevented its success. On his way back to France, Louis was captured by the Oreeks, but was afterward rescued by the ISTormans of Sicily, who landed him on the coast of France two years after he had set out (1149). The conse= quences of the second crusade were most disastrous to Louis. As he had abandoned his army in Asia Minor, so his queen now abandoned him, marrying Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and thus depriving him of Poitou and Aquitaine, her inheritance (1152). 36. During the absence of Louis in Palestine, France, under the administration of Suger, had been prosperous and happy. Louis's want of judgment began at once to unsettle everything. His divorce from Eleanor, which caused the rupture of his kingdom, had been hastened by his rashness, and he now found himself confronted with her new hus- band, who was one of the most powerful lords in France, and even had pretensions to the throne of England. So great was his power, that though the King of England entered into a league with Louis against him, he was able to dictate a peace which confirmed him in the enjoyment of all his possessions (1153). 37. Henry of Anjou soon became more powerful than ever. He crossed over to England and was acknowledged heir to the throne by Stephen, who died the following year (1154) ; and Henry then ascended the throne under the title of Henry H. Enterprising and warlike in disposition, he was a constant menace to the French long. Two years after his accession (1156), he organized an expedition to subdue L'eland, but landed in France instead, without, however, accomplishing anything of importance. He returned (1159) 35. Give an account of the king's adventures. Whom did the queen marry on the king's retuin ? What loss did this occasion ? 36. How had France prospered during tiie king's absence ? What occurred on his return ? What is said of Henry of Anjou ? 37. Who succeeded to the Englisli throne ? How was France affected by the ac< cession of Henry of Anjou ? A. D. 1170.] THE CAPETIAN DYN"ASTY. G9 and attacked Touloiisej but refrained from capturing it ; for the homage due from him to Louis, who was in the city^ prevented him from thus breaking his feudal vow. 38. The marriage of Henry's son * with a daughter of Louis now brought about a peace which the English king skillful- ly used to strengthen himself in France. He built castles in many parts of his French possessions, particularly along the borders ; and, after a ten years' war, conquered Brittany (1166). A contest with the clergy, however, was brew- ing, and Henry's judgment here forsook him. The repre- sentative of the Church was Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. The struggle began in an attempt by Henry to restrain the Church in its interference in temporal affairs. The French king sided with the Church, but no decided advantage was gained by either, till at length a startling crime deprived Henry of his most powerful support. Beckeii was murdered before the altar of Canterbury Cathedral (1170). The dead prelate became at once a martyr, and the sympathies of all Christians were enlisted in the cause for which he had fallen. Henry hastened to disavow this bloody deed, making the most humiliating promises to extenuate it. Louis called upon the Pope to avenge the death of the mar- tyr, but was unable to take any special advantage of it. 39. This last attempt to wrest from Henry his French possessions was not attended with success, though the op- portunity seemed favorable. The inconstant Eleanor of Gui- enne left her husband, and returning to France, attempt- ed to rouse the Aquitanians against him, while his three sons took part in the conspiracy, one of them, Henry, be- ing urged on by Louis to demand either Anjou, Norman- dy, or England as his portion. Louis attacked both the French provinces, but Henry met him with an army of paid * This young prince was only four years old, and was betrothed to the Infant princess Margaret, daughter of Louis by his second VN^ife, Constance of Castile. 38. VTTiat led to a treaty of peace between France and Encrland ? How did the English king employ himself in France during this peace ? Give an account of his straggle with Thomas a Becket. 39. In what new project did Eleanor of Guienne engage ? What was the result 1 What novel feature was there in the king's army ? What public act did Louis per- form just before his death ? 70 THE CAPETIAN DYXASTY, t'p.iC' NOTRE DAME, PARIS. ^^ ' The prreat cathedral of Notre Dame is a fine snei-inien of the pointed Gothic stj'le of architecture. It \.i built in tlie form of a cross, with an cxtren^.e length of S9U feet, width 144 feet, height of vaultings 105 feet. The towers are 224 feet high. It stands on the f or- Sier site of a Roman temple. Its corner-stone was laid by Pope Alexander III. in 1163; the high altar was consecrated in 1182; and, in 11S5, the Patrician of Jerusalem ofJiciateo In the church. It was not entirely completed till lol2. A. O. 1180.] THE CAPETIAN DYJTASTY. 71 soldiers — the first standing army, it is thought, in the annals of Europe — and defeated him. Disease had now brought the French king to his deathbed. Calling a council at Paris, he caused his son Philip Augustus,*^ then fifteen years of age, to be crowned at Rheims. A few months after, Louis died (1180). 4®. The changes which took place in the politics and society of France, during the reign of Louis the Young, were many and of great moment. Chief of these was the progress of the communes, f Though it can hardly be said that Louis was an advocate of the new movement, since he sometimes aided it, and sometimes suppressed it, the fact re- mains that twenty-five charters to cities were granted by him. Forests were cut down, large tracts of land were brought under cultivation, many new cities were built, and old ones were improved. He founded many churches and abbeys, the corner-stone of Notre Dame {notr dalim) in Paris being laid by the Pope during his reign. He con- firmed the privileges of the merchants of Paris, and created the peers of France. These were twelve in number, and the first public ceremony in which they took part was that of the coronation of his son. 41. Suger. — The guiding spirit of the interests of France during the reign of Louis VII. was his special adviser, the abbot Suger. He was of poor parents, and had been brought up by the monks of St. Denis. He was the schoolmate and friend of Louis VL, and at his death became the friend of Louis VII., and acted as regent when the king left France to lead the second crusade. He introduced order and peace into France, showing at all times a foresight, skill, and modesty which equally adorned the humblest station or the highesi", * Son of Alice, the third wife of Louis. This princess was sister of the Count of Cham- pagne. t The commune waS a kind of municipality, having its rights secured by royal charter, or grants of freedom from the nobles. The people of the towns were very earnest in the defense of their chartered privileges. 40. What were some of the principal changes made in France during the reign of Louis VII.? 4 1 . What was the character of Suger ? His origin, education, etc. ? What did he accomplish ? THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. [A. D. 1186. jj§0 42. Philip II., usually called Philip Atig^!,stus, to beo-an liis reiofn in 1180, at the as'e of fifteen. He was filled, at an early age, with the idea of raising France to the height reached in the time of Charlemagne ; and being gifted with much cunning and perseverance, was, to a great extent, successful. Circumstances, also, came to the aid of his natural abilities. Nearly all the territory which Louis the Fat had united into a compact kingdom came under his sway. The office of king, also, had now as- sumed sufficient importance to be superior to that of the most powerful lord. 43. The young king found himself involyed at once in a struggle with his relatives, who had hoped to take advan- tage of his Avant of experience. Disregarding their counsel, he had, even before his father's death, married Isabella, niece of the Count of Flanders ; and they now, at his father's death, attacked him. He was aided, however, by the King of England, who brought about a peace. The increase of the kingly power in such an unsettled time could only be ac- complished by the use of arbitrary, and often cruel, power ; and of this the young king showed himself capable. For many years it had been the custom to persecute the Jews, such cruelty being regarded as approved of God. A decree of banishment was, therefore, issued against them, and they were driven out of France, their property being taken by the king (1182). 44. The king then entered upon a career of conquest, the first step in which was the possession of some of the cities of Flanders (1185). He next attacked the Duke of Burgundy, conquered him, and converted him into a friend by suddenly releasing him from the penalty which defeat had imposed (118G). His next step was to subdue Kormandy, which commanded the mouth of the Seine ; but which, being gov- 42. Whon did Philip Ansnii^tus commence to reign ? What was his controlling iaea V What circumstances aided him 'f 43. Who was the wife of Philip Aujjustus ? In what war was he engaged? Of what cruel act was he guilty ? 44. Wliat conquests did he make? Who was his antagonist m the south ol France ? What was the result of the struggle ? A. ». 1190.] THE CAPETIAN DYKASTY. 73 erned by the English king, had been, since 1066, a standing menace to the French monarchy. The most promising pre- text for tliis purpose was tlie quarrel which had long existed between the King of England and his sons. After many conferences and compromises, war was finally declared be- tween France and England, Philip attacking Eichard the Lion-hearted, who governed Aquitaine. The want of vigor, however, shown by Eichard caused his father to suspect treachery on his part, and he consented to a humiliating peace, by which Philip obtained possession of some of the English territory in France (1189). The same year Eichard became King of England. 45. The Third Crusade. — Alarming news now reached Europe. A second time the Christian kingdom, founded and sustained in Palestine by the expenditure of so much blood and treasure, was in danger of being swept away. The Moslems, under Saladin, had defeated the Christians in a bloody two days' battle, and had captured Jerusalem and most of the Christian cities. The Emperor of Grermany, Fred- eric Barbarossa, was the first to march ; and the kings of France and England followed (1190). The same frightful sufferino- and loss of life which marked the first and second crusades, were now repeated. The King of France, having no liking for the dangers of war, soon set out for home, having first taken an oath to respect the possessions of the King of England.* 46. The designs of Philip against the English king were now greatly assisted by an accident. Eichard, on his return from Palestine, was shipwrecked, and attempted to cross Germany in the disguise of a pilgrim. He was detected, however, by his enemy, Leopold of Austria, and delivered to the Emperor of Germany, who held him a prisoner. Philip, on receipt of this news, invaded Normandy. In this enter- * A treaty was at length made with Saladin, by which the seaports held by the Chris- tians were secured to them, and a way opened for pilgrims to Jerusalem. 45. What caused the tliircl crusade ? Wlio was the leader of the Moslems ? What countries engaged in this crusade ? What course did Philip take ? 46. What liappened to Ricliard the Lion-hearted ? How did Philip take advan- tage of Richard's misfortune ? What followed ? 4 74 THE CAPETIAK DYItfASTY. [A. D, 1200. prise lie was assisted by Richard's brother, John. But the synipathy of Europe was enlisted for the captive King of England, who had done such brilliant deeds in the name of the Church on the plains of Palestine ; and the ransom neces- sary for his release was soon paid.* His return put an end to the compact between John and the King of Erance, and though the just anger of Richard caused a continuance of the war, want of resources on both sides soon brought about a peace, by which the crafty Philip became master of Auvergne (1196). 47. The truce, however, was short-lived. By a previous cession of territory to the Erench king, an open path had been made for him to Rouen ; and Richard built a castle to bar the way. War, therefore, broke out in Normandy with renewed violence. Richard defeated Philip, but before he could gather the fruit of his victory, the Pope interfered and bound both kings in a five years' peace (1199). Only two months after, Richard was killed by an archer while attacking the castle of one of his vassals in Erance. Arthur of Brittany, a nephew of Richard the Lion-hearted, had been chosen by the latter as his successor ; but Richard's brother, John, obtained the throne. 48. A war ensued, in which Philip, under the guise of espousing Arthur's cause, entered Brittany, capturing town after town, and demolishing their defenses. But he soon entered into a treaty with John (1200), and deserted the * " On his voyage homeward, Richard was shipwrecked on the coast of Istria. As he had given great offense to the Duke of Austria in Palestine, he undertook to travel through Germany in the disguise of a pilgrim to prevent discovery and arrest. He was, however, discovered and 'incarcerated in an Austrian castle ; and the business was man- aged so secretly that his very existence became a matter of doubt lO his subjects.' Kre long, however, Blondel de Nesle, whose minstrelsy Coeur de Lion had patronized, under- took to discover him, and traversed Germany with that object. For a time the enterprise seemed hopeless ; but one day Blondel, coming to a castle in Tenebreuse, learned that it contained a solitary prisoner. He could not learn the name of the captive, but, from the description, he was convinced that his search had not been in vain. Seating himself under the prison window, he commenced a song which Richard and he had in other days composed together. No sooner had Blondel finished the first couplet, than, to his joy, a well-known voice from the window, in significant accents, sang tl>e second. Blondel no longer doubting that Kichard was the solitary captive, hastened to give Queen Eleanor Information as to the prison which contained her lion-hearted son."— Edgar's Crusades and Crusaders. 47. What led to a renewal of the war ? What was the result ? ^\Tiat caused Rich- ard's death ? Who was his succesrsor ? 48. On what pretext clid Philip invade Brittany ? With what result ? What crima did John commit ? A. ». 1204.] THE CAPETIAIS" DYNASTY. 75 young prince. The war was, lioweverj renewed ; but during its progress, Arthur fell into the hands of his uncle, who caused him to be murdered (1203). 49. The feeling of anger produced by this act brought on a general attack upon Kormandy, Philip, as usual, taking an active part. His excuse for engaging in this contest was that John had not appeared before the peers of France, as Philip had summoned him to do, to answer for the mur- der of Arthur. Philip, therefore, invaded Normandy, and advanced to Rouen. John fled at once to England, and Philip completed his victory, ending the war by annexing nearly all of the English possessions in France to his king- dom. He then summoned John again to appear and answer for the death of Arthur, but John again refused. Philip then called a council of the twelve peers, declared the Eng- lish king guilty of murder and treason, and passed sentence of death on him. Thus ended the rule of the English king on the soil of France (1204). 50. The Albigenses. — The persecution of the Albi- genses * was a memorable event of this reign. This people were a sect of dissenters from the Catholic Church who lived in the south of France. This part of the country had always differed from the rest, not only in disposition, man- ners, and customs, but for some time had not accepted the doctrines of the Church. In this they were supported by Raymond VI., f Count of Toulouse, who was excommuni- cated, and a crusade was directed by the Pope against them. 51. Simon de Montfort J gathered together an army of * The Albigenses received their name from Albigeois (al-be-zhwah) , the district in which they first appeared. " Their life," says Kitchin, "was of the utmost purity and sim- plicity ; even their opponents allow so much." t Raymond VI., the descendant of the rich counts of Toulouse, was, says Michelet, "one of the most powerful, and, prohably, the richest prince of Christendom." t " Simon dc Montf ort. the true leader of the war against the Albigeois, was a veteran of the crusades, hardened in the unsparing battles of the Templars and the Assassins. On his return from the Holy Land, he found at Venice the army of the fourth crusade 49. To what did this lead ? What part did Philip take ? On what pretext ? What did he accomplish ? What ended the English rule in France ? 50. Who were the Albigenses ? How were the people of the south of France pecu- liar ? What did they refuse to accept ? Who supported them ? What was done by the Pope ? 5t. "What was done by Simon dc Montfort ? What city was taken ? What cruel deed was perpetrated ? How long did the war last ? What other events are men- lioned ? Where is Beziers ? {See Progressive Map No. 3.) 76 THE CAPETIAK DYNASTY. [A. B. 1229. men from the north and middle of France ; and, in the name of religion, entered Languedoc [longeh-doc), where he captured Beziers (ba-ze-a), the whole population of which was put to the sword (1209),* This Avar, which was carried on with great cruelty, lasted till 1215, when it ended for a time, the lands of the great lords having been seized and given to Simon de Montfort. During its progress, the King of Aragon was killed, and the civilization of the south almost perished. 52. Simon de Montfort was afterward killed, and the peo- ple of the south appealed to the King of France for protec- tion. The result was the addition of a large part of the south to the kingdom of France, several years after (1229). Philip did not enter into this war in the south, perhaps be- cause he was preparing for another danger which began to threaten him about this time ; for the great lords of the north 01 France had for a long time watched with fear the increasing power of the king.f 53. An alliance was now formed between King John of England and the Emperor Otho of Germany (both of whom had been excommunicated by the Pope), and the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne. Philip, therefore, espoused the cause of the Pope against them, and was preparing to in- vade England, when he suddenly learned that King John had made his peace with the Pope, and that his kingdom was under the special protection of the latter. He therefore on the eve of departure, but refused to accompany it to Constantinople, and obeyed the Pope. This action rendered Montfort a marked man, and paved the way for his future neatness."— Jfichelei. * "One of the superior oflaccrs inquired of the Abbot of Citeaux (se-to'), how they were to distinguish the heretics from the faithful. ' Slay them all ! ' returned the sav- age churchman, ' for the Lord knoweth those that are his ! ' Not a living soul was spared, and the city was afterward pillaged and reduced to ushes^—Stude'its' France. ■ t " While this cruel war lasted, Philip Augustus would not take any part in it. Not that he had any leaning toward the Albigensian heretics on the score of creed or relig- ious liberty ; but his sense of justice and moderation was shocked at the violence em- ploved aga"inst tlunn, and he had a repugnance to the idea of taking part in the devasta- tion of the beautiful southern provinces. He took it ill, moreover, that the Pope should arrogate to himself the right of despoiling of their dominions, on the ground of heresy, princes who were vassals of the King of France. V.'hen Innocent III. called upon him to co-operate in the crusade, Philip answered 'that he had at his flanks two huge and terrible lions, the Emperor Otho and King John of England.'"— Guizot'a History of France. 52. Who was killed? What was the result of the appenl of the people of the .south ? Why did not Philip enter into the war a>iainst the Albigenses ? 53. Whaf alliance was now formed? What cause did Philip espouse? What changed his purpose ? What happened in Flanders? A.J». 1217.] THE CAPETIAN^ DYNASTY. 77 turned liis army toward Elanders, many cities of which he pillaged, though he lost his fleet (1213). 54. The anger of the English king, however, had not yet cooled, and the war was renewed the following year (1214). This time France was invaded at two points. King John landed at Rochelle {ro-sheV), and marched inland ; but was met by a French army under the king's son, Louis, and easily beaten. In the north, the allied army, under the command of the Emperor of Germany, came upon the French at Bouvines {poo-veen), and, after a desperate struggle, the French were victorious. The result of the battle of Bouvines has always been regarded as the death-blow to the hopes of the great lords in their contest with the king. On that day Philip and the common people fought side by side, the latter being mentioned by him with special honor. A national feeling was thus aroused, which placed the French monarchy on the strongest foundation — the affection of the people. 55. In England the contest of the king with the great lords or barons ended in a victory for the latter. King John, on his return from his defeat in France, was com- pelled by the barons to sign Magna Cliarta — the Great Charter (1215) ; but he disregarded his signature at the first opportunity. The barons then offered the crown of England to Louis, the son of the French king, who went to England to claim it. But John shortly after died, and the barons, deserting Louis, set up as king John's son, Henry, who was soon acknowledged under the title of Henry III. Louis, after being besieged in London a short time, made terms with the English, and sailed for France (1217). 56. The remaining years of the life of Philip Augustus were not occupied in war, but in consolidating his kingdom. 54, Who invaded France by way of Rochelle ? What was the result? In what respect was the battle of Bouvines of great importance ? What aroused a national feelino; ? Where is Bouvines ? (See Progressive map No. 3.) 5 5. What great act in England made the year 1215 memorable ? How was France affected by it ? At John's death what happened ? 56. How were the remaining yenrs of Philip Avijjustns occupied? What were some of the special reforms introduced by him ? What improvements were mad» in Paris ? 78 THE CAPETIAIS" DYNASTY. [A. ». 1223. He had succeeded in placing the royal power on a firm foot- ing, by making it independent not only of the lords, but also, in great measure, of the Church. He had sometimes resisted the demands of the latter, but he was wise enough to uphold its cause when it did not threaten any of his own rightSo Though he was not great, either in mind or heart, he did much to improve and strengthen France. ^ During his reign, many provinces were added to it, the common people were lifted up to a position of greater influence in public affairs, the right of private war between the nobles was abolished, and peace and order prevailed. The city of Paris was walled, paved, embellished, and provided with markets : the Louvre was begun ; and the University of Paris received a royal charter drawn up under the direction of the king, who also enlarged its course of study. The greater part of the Cathedral of Notre Dame was also finished, f Philip died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of nearly forty-three years (1223). 1223 ^^' ^oi^is VIII., the son of Philip Augustus, as- t& cended the throne at his father's death (1223). On the side of his mother, he was a lineal descendant of the renowned Charlemagne, and thus united in his person the Carlovingian and Capetian dynasties. On this account he was regarded with especial favor by the French nation. He renewed hostilities with England ; but a truce was * " Philip Augustus made great changes in France, and converted the separate inter- ests of the feudal nobles into a confederation of powers strictly suhordinate to the crown. A tumultuous republic of knights and barons had become a well-balanced kmg- dom, with local privileges and a centralized authority. The Church, satisfied v/ith its progress, and now relying on law for its support in crushing its adversaries, had ira- hibed a monarchical spirit not known in the days of its early struggles in defense of the helpless peo^]e. The communes were rich and flourishing, and had made their voice al- roadv potential in the State by holding the purse, and even by Jvceping mcn-at-a^rms in their pay. The great mass ofthe ponulation were in easier circimistances than before, and not so entirely exposed to the oppressions of their local tyrants. Learnea men, even from the lower class of the laity, were admitted into the national councils, and admin- istered justice in the king's name. The nearest approach to the policy of a modern State was made by this wise and unscruoulous ruler."— Whitc'-'i H/stor// oj Finance. I " In 11S5. as Philip Augustus was walking one day in his palace, he placed himself at a window whence he was sometimes pleased, by way of pastime, to watch the ^e]ne flow- ing by. FTome carts, as they passed, caused the mud with which the streets were lillcd to emit a fetid smell, quite unbearable. The king, shocked at what was as unhealtny as it was disgusting, sent for the burghers and provost of the city, and ordered that all the 57. When did Louis VTII. ascend the throne ? Ajjainst what country did he make war ? .What war was continued ? When did the king's death occur? Who was his euccessor '? A. ». 1242.] THE CAPETIAN^ DYXASTY. 79 soon concluded, and the king turned liis attention to affairs in Languedoc. The war against Count Raymond (VII. ) was continued ; but during its progress Louis died, after a reign of only three years. Before his death, he caused the barons and prelates to swear allegiance to his eldest son Louis (1226). 1226 ^^* -^^^^^ 1^., commonly called Saint Louis, was to only twelve years of age at his father's death. His 1270 jjiother, Blanche of Castile, therefore, was made regent till he should be of age. She caused the boy-king to be crowned immediately at Rheims, but the summons sent to the great lords to attend the ceremony was generally disregarded. They saw an opportunity to regain a part of their lost power, and formed a league against Louis. Their plans were thwarted, however, by the courage and ability of Blanche, who won over to her side some of the great vas- sals ; but the struggle did not end for several years (1231). 59. During this period, the war against the Albigenses was terminated, Languedoc submitting to the crown of France ; but Raymond retained a small portion of his ter- ritories during his life (1229). The Inquisition was now established at Toulouse, under the Dominicans, to complete the conquest. People of every age and condition, and of both sexes, were thrown into dungeons, and compelled by cruel tortures to abandon their religious opinions. 60. Louis, at the age of nineteen, was married to Mar- guerite, eldest daughter of the Count of Provence (1234). His mother, however, had great influence over him for many years. The plots which the great lords formed against the young king were still kept up ; and, in 1242, he found it necessary to take up arms against them. He defeated the lords and the English under Henry III. allied with them, and made a treaty with them. By this treaty the French thoroughfares and streets of Paris should be paved with hard and solid stone, for this right Christian prince aspired to rid Paris of her ancient name, Lutetia (Mud-town)."^ Delisle. 58. What wns the surname of Louis IX.? What action, did the lords take when summoned to his coronation ? Who thwarted their plans ? _ 59. How was the war against the Albigenses terminated ? What was estab- lished ? What persecution took place ? 60. Whom did Louis marrv ? What war was waged ? With what result ? 80 THE CAPETIAI^ DYNASTY, [A. ». 1254. acquired possession of the northern part of Aniiitame (1243).* 61. The contest of the Pope with the Emperor of Ger- many at this time engaged the attention of Europe. The Latter had driven the Pope out of Italy. The Pope excom- municated the emperor, and strove to engage the French king in a crusade against him. But Louis, though he was a devout believer, was also a prudent king, and refused to up- hold the Pope in humbling a monarch who might be a dangerous enemy to France. Ever since a serious illness through which Louis had passed, he had resolved to go on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land ; and, on the capture of Jerusa- lem by a Tartar tribe (1244), he determined to embark on a crusade to liberate the Holy Sepulcher. f 62. Louis, having received the oriflamme | at St. Denis, set out from the port of Aigues Mortes [dg-mort') on the Mediterranean, sailed for the island of Cyprus, and thence to Egypt (1248). After many delays, and some severe fighting, disease broke out in the army of the king ; and he, with his knights, was taken prisoner, and was released only after the payment of a heavy ransom. He reached Palestine with only a hundred of his knights and a fragment of his army, and spent four years there, when hearing of the death of his mother, he returned to France (1254). * " He entered into negotiations with the King of England, the King of Aragon, and various princes and great feudal lords, and in January, 1243, a treaty was made which marked the end of feudal troubles for the whole duration of his reign. He drew his SFord no more, save only against the enemies of the Christian faith and Christian civili- zation."— Fawre'-s Life of St. Louis. t A de\ace adopted by him, when he was ready, swelled considerably the number of his attendants. It was the custom on Christmas to give to every courtier a new cloak. All were bidden, therefore, to be present at early morning mass, and each was presented with his cloak, and passed into the church. As the daylight grew stronger they were surprised to discover that each clc'ak had on its shoulder the figure of a cross. But the cross, thus worn, was the emblem of a crusader. Not daring, for the sake of their relig- ion, to take off the cloaks and thus appear to decline the service of the cross, they left them on, and the king in this way secured many followers in his crusade. t The oritiamvip, the sacred standard of France, was first carried before the king in the time of Louis VI. The word oriflamme signifies aolclen flame, and refers to the dis- tinguishing feature of the standard, which was red with flames of gold embi-oidcrcd on it. It was kept in the church ol St. Denis, and one of the conditions by which the King of France, in 10T5. obtained possession of the fief in which St. Denis was situated was that on the breaking out of war, he should repair to the cliurch in person, and, taking down the standard, place it in front of his army, and there keep it when engaged in battle. 61. What contest engaged the attention of Europe? Why ('id Louis refuse to take part, in it ? What induced the king to undertake a crusade 'i 62. From what port did the expedition sail ': What course did it take ? What was the result ? What caused the king's return ? {See Frogrestiire Map So. 8.) A. ». 12 to.] THE CAPETIAN" DYI^ASTY. 81 68. For thirteen years he devoted himself to adminis- tering the affairs of his kingdom, establishing order, and making laws which should promote the welfare of his peo- ple. Notwithstanding his failure in his first crusade, he longed, as a loyal son of the Church, to go upon another, that ])eing, as he thought, the surest way of showing his de- motion. Accordingly, he sailed again, this time directing his course to Tunis. There the plague oyertook his arm}/ and carried off the greater part, the king himself being a victim. He died at the age of fifty-six (1270).* 64. The character of Louis IX., his love of justice, hia devotion to the Church, and the great service he render- ed to the cause of the monarchy, have always caused him te be ranked among the greatest of French kings. His strong sense of right sometimes brought him into conflict with the Pope himself, whose subject he was proud to be. The great- est service rendered by Louis IX. was, perhaps, his substitu-- tion, throughout his kingdom, of just laws for those which were founded upon brute force. He gathered around him able lawyers, and devoted himself to redressing the wrong-^ of his people, t 65. Much of this king's time was given to acts of charity, and many buildings were erected by him for the comfort of the sick and unfortunate. Besides hospitals, asylums, and churches, he built the Sainte Chapelle {sJiaJi-peT), a beauti- ful chapel in Paris, intended to contain the crown of thorns said to have been v/orn by our Saviour. This had been pre- sented to Louis, in return for the aid which he had given '^ " At length King Louis was himself attacked by the fatal epidemic, and, being already m an enteebled state of health, seems to have perceived at once that his end was ap- proaching. He Imgered for twenty-two davs, engaged in devotion, giving wise and admirable counsel to his son, consoling his distressed attendants, and exhibiting a per- lect niodel ot Christian resignation and equanimity. In his last moments he caused himself to be laid upon a bed of ashes, and in this situation peaceably expired." ^■vJ }: ^-^t*]^ custom to sit under an oak tree at Vincennes and listen to any complaints tnat might be made ; and the sentence passed by him, even upon the nobles, was often very severe. In this way the lords became used to his exercise of superior power, and the common people learned to look with affection upon a king who did justice without 63. How were the next thirteen years spent ? Why did he go on anotlier crusade ? What caused the king's death ? 64. What was the character of Louis IX. ? Give some account of the service he rendered to France. 65. What other acts of St. Louis are mentioned? What buildings did he erect; vvhat institutions did he assist in founding ? 4* 82 THE CAPETIAX DYN^ASTY. [A. ». 1270. to the Cliurcli in time of need. He also assisted his confes- sor^ Sorbon, in founding the school^ afterward called after him the Sorbonne (sor-bon').^ Louis was canonized Au- gust 11th, 1297, by Pope Boniface VIII. 1270 ^®* ^liilip m* {i^^ Hardy).^T\\Q successor of to St. Louis was his eldest son, Philip, who returned from the crusade in Tunis to ascend the throne. He was devout, but unlearned, and made a weak successor to Louis IX. By THE PORBONNE. the marriage of one of his sons to the daughter of Henry of Na- Y a r r e {na li- var'), he laid claim to the lat- t e r kingdom. His claim, how- ever, was resist- ed ; but, though Philip showed little ability as a soldier, in the war that f ollovf- ed, he succeeded by dijolomacy in adding N^avarro to his kingdom. 67. A n o t h e r war in whicli Pliilip engaged • "Tinder his patrnnag:e, the university drew to itself all" the learned of Europe : the German Alhertus Matrnus, the Italian fet. Thomas Aquinas, the Enplish Koger i>acon. studied there. The French language sprang into a new and brilliant life. 1 oetry and history, with wonderful freshness and truth, gave grace and power to the tongue. — KUcMiVh HiHtoru of France. 66. What was the first war in which Philip III. was engaged ? What claim had he upon Navarr^ ? , 67. Give an acoonnt of the Sicilian Ve.. How was Pliilip regarded by iiis people ? What addition v^^as made to the ter ritory of France during his reign ? A. D. 1312.] THE CAPETIAN^ DYKASTY. 87 his death produced a sense of relief. * During his reign, however, the territory of France had been somewhat in- creased. The most important of these additions was the city of Lyons, which was annexed in 1312. 76. Throughout the reign of Philip the Fair may be seen the gradual change which was being made in France toward the increase of the royal authority. The powers which the lords had exercised by right of custom gave place to written laws, which the cunning king took care should generally be attended by some loss to the lords. For the purpose of ex- ecuting these laws, he divided the parliament into three bodies : one for the administration of justice^ called the par- liament ; another, called the chamber of finance ; a third, for the consideration of political matters, which was called the grand council. 77. The Third Estate. — The most important act in the reign of Philip was his creation of the third estate. Up to this time there had been only two recognized orders in France, the nobles and the clergy. In 1302, however, Philip, being then at the height of his quarrel with the Pope, and feeling his need of the support of the whole people of France, permitted the burghers, or common peo- ple, to send representatives to the States- G-eneral which he had called. In this general council, these representatives sat on equal terms with those of the nobles and the clergy ; and thus one of the most despotic kings of France was the means of bringing about a great political advance in the condition of the people. From that time three estates were known in France : the nobles, the clergy, and the people, or, as the latter were called, the third estate. * "This greed Is the vice which has clun? to his name. Not only did he load his sub- jects with poll taxes and other taxes unauthorized by law and the traditions of the feu- dal system; not only was he unjust and cruel toward the templars, in order to anpro- priate their riches ; but he committed, over and over again, that liind of spoliation which imports most trouble into the general life of a people ; he debased the coinage so often, and to such an extent, that he was everywhere called 'the base coiner.' " — Gui^oVs History of Fr'ance. 76. Howwas the power of the nobles diminished? How did Philip divide the parliament ? 77. What was the origiu of the third estate 1^ What other orders existed at this time ? 88 IHE CAPETIAI^ DYKASTY. [A. ». 131S 1314 '^^' Louis X. {le Rutin — disorder or tumult*).-^ t© Philip the Fair had three sons, of whom Louis, the eldest, was proclaimed king (1314). Though he was twenty-five years old when he was called to the throne, his trifling disposition led him to prefer the sports of the boy to the cares of a kingdom. The nobles began to plot at once for the recoyery of power. The king, however, coun- seled by his lawyers, turned to the people for aid ; and he per- mitted the serfs to purchase their freedom. The reason of this great concession was probably the king's want of money, but from it resulted a great change in the social state. 79. Heavy and unjust taxes were imposed throughout the kingdom, for the purpose of carrying on the war in Flan- ders ; but in this war the king gained no laurels. He was defeated, not however by the Flemings, but by the mud and the rain, and losing a large part of his army, returned in disgrace to France. The following year he died of a chill produced by drinking wine to excess after becoming heated in a game of ball (1316). 1316 ^^- Philip V. {le Long— the Tall).— The only to child of Louis X. was a dauHiter, who, by a new I 'too ^ o ' ' J "' application of the Salic law, was excluded from the throne. Louis's brother Philip,, therefore, succeeded him as king. He busied himself chiefly in regulating the affairs of the kingdom, making laws for tlie uniformity of the currency, and of weights and measures, and many others for the benefit of industry, trade, and commerce. One of his most significant acts w^as the exclusion of the clergy from the meetings of the parliament ; another was the creation of a privy council (1318). He continued the practice of granting letters of nobility to tradesmen, and * So called because of the tumultuous and refractory conduct of the nobles and clergy , who attempted, during the weak reign of this king, to regain the powers of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic father. 78. What was the name and surname of Philip's successor ? What was his dispo- sition ? What measure did the Iving ndopt ? Why? lis effect? 7f). Why were taxes imposed ? "Was the war ayainst Flanders successful ? Why not ? What caused the kin<;\s death ? 80. Why was Louis's daughter excluded from the throne ? Who succeeded him ? What were some of the measures he advocated ? What piactlce did he continue :- A. D. 1328.] THE CAPETIA:N' DYN"ASTY. 89 was the first French king to permit the organization of mil- itary companies among the laboring people. 81. Several persecutions, however^ took place during the reign of Philip the Tall. The religions order of the Fran- ciscanSj being shocked at the excesses of the papal court, protested, and began to preach in favor of a return to the simplicity of the early Church. They Avere at once attacked, and with such severity, that they were obliged to flee the country. The excitement once begun did not cease imme- diately. The next objects of suspicion were the lepers.* These were accused of poisoning the wells, and a frightful slaughter took place. The Jews were next attacked, as ac- complices of the lepers, and similarly persecuted, f After a short and unimportant reign, Philip the Tall died at the age of thirty (1322). 1322 ^^" Charles IV. {le Bel— the 7^«?>).— Philip to the Tall had ffiven a new readinsr to the Salic law so as to make it exclude women from the throne. By so doing, he had made himself king. The new law, how- ever, was now, at his death, used against his family. He had four children, all daughters. These were set aside ; and his brother, under the name of Charles, became king. Charles's reign, hoAvever, was short and unimportant. A feeble show of power, against Louis of Bavaria, who had given shelter to the Franciscans when they were driven out of France, thereby bringing upon himself the punishment of excom- munication ; a few laws in regard to commerce ; the expul- sion of the Lombard merchants ; and the just execution of a powerful baron who had been found guilty of many crimes, are the principal incidents of his reign. He died after a six years' reign, at the age of thirty-four (1328). * The lejjers, because afflicted with disease, were supposed to be under the influence of sorcery ; but by some they were reported to be accomplices of the Jews, or agents of the Moorish King of Granada. t At one place in Touraine. a large pit was dug, and one hundred and sixty Jews were cast into it and burned. 8 1 . Mention some of the odious acts of his reign. What is said of the lepers ? The Jews ? 82. For what reason was Charles the Fair named as the successor of Philip the Tall '; What were some of the principal incidents of his reign ? 90 THE CAPETIAK DYNASTY. 83. Charles the Fair was the last of the Capetian kings of the direct line. The hostility which the later descendants of the line had shown toward the Pope was, by many devout persons, believed to be the cause of their early death ; and to this was believed to be added, in the case of the last four, the curse of the templars, whom Philip the Fair had so cruelly persecuted. As Charles died without male heirs, Philip of Valois [val-wali), nephew of Philip the Fair, was declared his successor. This introduces a collateral line of kings, called the Branch of Valois. State of Society during the Capetian Period. 84. The most important changes Avhich took place in France during the Capetian period were the firm establish- ment of the monarchy, the elevation of the common people, and the temporary decline in the secular power of the Pope. A result of the first two was the slow decay of feudalism. Attacked from above by the king and from below by the people, it yielded gradually in the contest. With the weak- ening of feudalism and the papacy, the institution of chivalry slowly passed away and crusades became impossible. 85. A new power rose into prominence during this period — the power of the people. The working-man became a soldier, and the tradesmen of the cities, whose friendship the king had found useful to him in his struggle with the lords, were granted special charters, which protected them in their industries. At first the king left to each city the conduct of its affairs, being satisfied with appointing a royal superintendent. This was followed by other claims, from time to time, till, finally, each man, instead of boasting as before that he was the inhabitant of a particular city, came to pride himself upon being the king's yeoman. 83. What dynasty terminates with the rei ° - _ Peregueujr^ >i.F / ;. 5»\ Grentfble J ^ (££ B 1 G O R D ; /V^-'f t''& ? ( ^te Gapo ^# ^%V^''" ^r# V Avignon , "'f"/ L. 1^ <5 P O M Y / ^ *0 i^*^i& y\ Arks " . /^ Y^ rbou ^Ues' A* .r...^^-^'^'" Xa RoclieTltio France ^ AT THE TIME OF VALOIS A.D.1.32S ugou^c-me'o (° Clertnoit=" i.ihf^y<^^^\^ % W. I r ieiigueux^ O /r-^^^W Qpl DAUPHIN EjM / \ r - ' /rJy i-.^ p.,./? K 1 /-"...,., ,,v,in %^^ JJor v^ r :I.,e Roy,r, lateau Ranilpu f,jj^ '■^— -. oCaliois XO:db, ■Cv Beaucaire ^^«Mfe,4«i.. '•^V'*«iff: :v..-U 1?' c^' THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 99 The House of Valois. Emending from the Accession of Philip VI. (1328) to that of Louis XIL (1498). 132§ ' ^' Philip TI. — Philip of Valois, grandson of to Philip III. (see Genealogical Tahle), now ascended 1 J»0 ^i^g throne of France. He had a competitor for the regency in Edward III. of England, who was a grandson of Philip IV. Louis, Count of Flanders, was at that time en- gaged in putting down a revolt of his subjects. Philip col- lected an army immediately, and marched to his assistance. In the battle which ensued, Philip routed the Flemings com- pletely ; and the Count of Flanders being now fully rein- stated, Philip entered Paris amid great rejoicings, and with the good will of most of the feudal lords, who believed that by him, who was one of their number, their interests would be protected. 2. Robert of Artois {ar-tivali) at tnis time laid claim to the county of Artois, which had been for many years in the hands of the females of that house.* Philip, however, was not disposed to acknowledge his claim. The lawyers, also, declared that the papers which appeared to establish his claim were false ; and to this was added a charge that he had attempted to poison his aunt and her daughters, and had even used magic to produce the death of the kmg himself. On learning of this last charge, Robert fled to * " Robert, Count d'Artois, was the man above all others who had most assisted Phliip to gain possession of the crown: he v/as one of the wisest and greatest barons in France, of the hlsrhei^t birth, being descended from kings. His wife was dieter-germ an to Philip, whose special companion and friend he had been in all his fortunes ; and for the space of three years he managed everything in France— so that nothing was done without his knovfledge."— i^roZ-ssarrs Chronicles. 1 . Who was Philip of Valois ? Who fought at the battle of Cassel ? What was the result ? 2. What is said of Robert of Artois ? Where did he finally find snfety ? How did he use his influence there ? Where was Artois ? Ans. North of Picardy. I a/ /)» 100 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS, [A. », ISSI". Brussels, the charge of sorcery being attended with the gravest consequences in that superstitious age. A decree of banishment was issued against him, all his goods were con= fiscated, and he finally fled to England, where he was wel= comed by Edward III., whom he encouraged in his design on the French throne (1334). 3. War -with England. — Edward III. having con= quered the Scots, in the great battle of Halidown Hill (1333), now turned his attention to France. There the des- potic course of Philip had for several years been making his own people his enemies. He had debased the coin of the kingdom, diminished his revenue by imposing such heavy taxes on the merchants that trade was driven to other coun- tries, and brought industry almost to a stand-still.* 4. The nobles of Flanders were in sympathy with the French ; her merchants and manufacturers, with the Eng- lish. From England much of the raw material which gave b'^x large cities their importance was derived. The Flemish merchants, under the lead of Van Artevelde (ar-ta-veW) of Ghent, formed an alliance with Edward. Philip, on the other hand, entered into an alliance with Scotland. The first action took place on an island at the mouth of the Scheldt (sJcelt), where a force of Flemish knights lay block- ading the ports of Flanders. An English fleet attacked them and drove them away. This was the first action of the " Hundred Years' War " (1337). 5. Each side now fitted out a fleet, and employed it for some time in making descents upon the other's coast. The French were the first to act. Their fleet constantly threat- ened the English ports, making attacks from time to time in different places. Edward sailed from London with a force of 120 vessels and 16,000 soldiers, and cams up with the * To such an extent was spurious money issued by Philip, that, in 1342, the value of coin Is said to have changed every week. 3. What were some of the unpopular measures of Philip ? 4. Why were the Flemish merchants in sympatliy with En,. The French knights, enraged, di-ew their swords on the unfortunate auxiliaries and out their way through to arrive at the enemy. They encoun- tered the first line of the English under the Prince of Wales ; and hei-e was the heat of the battle. Edward was sent to for aid ; hut he who saw the strife and knew the mettle of his men, refused. 'Let mv son win his spurs!' said the monarch; and bravely did young Edward earn these symbols of knighthood."— Croioe's History of France. 8. Describe the line, of march of the English. Where did they halt ? 9. Give an account of the battle of Crecy. A. ». 1347.] THE HOUSE OF TALOIS. 103 Amiens^ leaving 11 princes, 80 baronets, 1,200 knights, and 30,000 soldiers dead on the field (1346.)* 10. The Siege of Calais.— After the battle of Crecy, the English king continued his march to the coast, and laid seige to Calais (Jcal'is), which was starved into submission (1347). The terms which Edward imposed were, that all the inhabitants should surrender, and that six citizens, bear- ing the keys of the town and castle, should be sent to him stripped, with halters around their necks, to be dealt with as he should order. Eustace St. Pierre and five others vol- untarily gave themselves up, and were brought into Ed ward's camp as he had directed. He ordered that they should be beheaded, but his queen, Philippa, pleaded in their behalf, and their lives were saved. All the inhabit- ants of Calais, however, were removed, and it was repeopled with English, and remained an English town many years. !!• The Black Death. — The surrender of Calais led to a ten months' truce, which both monarchs, being weary of the war, willingly signed. Another scourge now came to add its horrors to those of war. A pestilence, known as the Black Death, or Plague, made its appearance in Asia, and swept over Europe, carrying off not only men but beasts. It reached Paris in 1348, and raged with such violence that, at times, 800 dead were buried daily in that city alone. A report made to the Pope asserts that 80,000 persons perished in Paris ; and Europe, according to the historians of the time, lost one-third of its inhabitants. Among the victims was the Queen of France, f * The battle of Crecy was fought on the 26th of August, 1346, and is memorahle be- cause there, for the first time, cannon were used, and the value of the English bowman was gloriously established. Notwithstanding the great sviperiority of the French in numbers, the battle lasted but a few hours, and only the first and second lines of the English were engaged. In the heat of the action the blind King of Bohemia directed two of his knights to tie his horse's reins to theirs and lead him into the battle. They were all killed, and their horses were afterward found standing near their bodies. His crest and motto,— three ostrich feathers, and the words Ich Dien, "I serve,"— were adopted by the Prince of Wales in commemoration of this victory, and have been used by his descendants to the present time. t" Many died in the streets; others left alone in their houses— but the fact of their death was known by the smell. Often, husband and wife, son and father, were laid on the same bier. Large ditches had been dug, in which the corpses were laid by hundreds. 1 0. What terms were imposed by Edward on the inhabitants of Calais ? How were the lives of St. Pierre and. his associates saved ? What change was made in Calais ? 1 1 . Describe the origin and progress of the Black Death. How many persons per- ished ? 104 THE HOUSE OF Y ALOIS. [A. 1>. 1338. 12. The Gabelle. — The remaining years of Philip's reign were barren of stirring events. The same reckless extravagance and love of gayety which the king had always shown made it necessary to the last to impose heavy taxes upon the people to meet his expenses. One of the most odious of these was the salt tax, known as the gabelle {gah-del'), the king's store-honse for salt being called by that name. These store-houses were established in many parts of the kingdom, and all the salt produced was brought to them, and sold at whatever price the king chose to put upon it. Philip died in 1350, having married only a short time before the beautiful Blanche of Navarre, then eighteen years of age. 13. Annexation of Territory. — Two additions were m_ade to the kingdom of France during the reign of Philip VI. : the city and district of Montpellier [mong-pel-ya'), in Languedoc, and the province of Dauphine. The former was bought of the King of Majorca. Dauphine was sold to Philip in 1349 for 120,000 florins, by Humbert II., Count of Vienne, who was called the dauphin, or dolphin, of the Viennese, on account of a figure of that fish which he car- ried on his coat of arms. The province was ceded to his grandson, Charles of Xormandy, who was called, from this circumstance, the Dauphin, a title which was always after- ward given to the eldest son of the King of France. 14. Taxes. — Use of Gunpowder.^Two important events which happened during the reign of Philip VI. re- main to be noted. In the early part of his reign (1338), a law was passed by the States- General, which provided that no extraordinary taxes should be levied by the kings of France without the consent of the three estates, the monarch to bind himself to obey this law by an oath given at his coronation. Though the French kings found means of likP bales in a ship's hold. Every one carried in his hand strong-smellingr herbs. The air stank with the dsad and dying, or with infectious drugs. Alas ! how many lovely ladies, how many amiable young persons, dined in the morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped ^yith their ancestors ! '^—Boccaccio. 1 2. Whom did the kintr marry ? What was the qabelle? Why so called ? 13. What additions were made to the territory of France ? Wliat is the origin of the name davphinf To whom was it afterwarc. applied ? 14. What important law was passed ? What is said of the use of gunpowder ? A. ». 1351.] THE HOUSE OF' V ALOIS. 105 evading this law, the principle there laid down re-appeared and became the watchword of liberty in many countries. The other important event was the use of gunpowder, already mentioned in the account of the battle of Crecy. This proved a most elective instrument in hastening the down- fall of feudalism, the humblest peasant armed with a mus- ket being more than the equal of the proudest knight. CANKON OF THE 14tH CENTURY. 1350 ^^* John {le Bon — tlie Good). — John of Nor- to mandy, who ascended the throne at his father's death, did not depart from the unwise course marked out by Philip of Valois. Prodigal in disposition, and fa- miliar with the custom of extorting money from the peo- ple to supply the pleasures of the king, he squandered the public treasure, sold offices and dignities to his favorites.* and continued the practice, long pursued by the kings of France, of debasing the coin. So great had his need of money now become, that he even formed the plan of openly demanding from the people the amount his extravagance required, instead of gathering it indirectly in the form of taxes. To this end, therefore, he called together the States- General (1351). He failed in his purpose, however ; instead of getting money as he had hoped, he was forced to listen ^^ Jt ^^^ °" account of his extravagance and lavish expenditure upon his favorites that he was called le Bon, which properly means the good fellow. 15 lar acts What was the surname of John of Normandy ? Mention some of his unpopu- s. Why did he convene the States-General ? What was the result ? 106 THE HOUSE OF TALOIS. [A. ». 1355. fco complaints concerning liis spendtlirift ways, and was even compelled to make promises of reform. 16. The long-standing quarrel for the title of King of France was now revived by the entrance of a third claimant. This was Charles of Navarre, whose meddlesome disposition secured for him the surname of Charles the Bad. He was a grandson of Louis X., and not only laid claim to the throne, but murdered one of the king's favorites who had been pre- ferred before him. Eor this act, the king confiscated a por- tion of his estates, and Charles fled to England, where he incited Edward III. to a new war against France. 17. War with England. — Edward was jeasily persuaded to undertake a new invasion. He landed at Calais, and laid waste the adjoining country ; while his son the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux {hor-do), and pillaged the south of France without opposition (1355). The treasury of the French king was empty, and his people disaffected. Another meeting of the States-General was called, at which the rep- resentatives of the people spoke more boldly than ever against the wasteful excesses of the king. An army and the means to support it were promised by them, provided a committee of their number might supervise the expenditure of the money, no part of which was to be devoted to the king's private use. The bankrupt monarch was compelled to yield to these humiliating terms. 18. An incident which happened at this time gave Ed- ward another pretext for action. Charles of Navarre had returned to France under a treaty of peace concluded some time before. He had again, however, placed himself in opposition to the king on account of a heavy tax which the latter had levied. The dauphin invited Charles of Navarre, his friend, the Count of Harcourt and several other lords to a great feast at Eouen. When the banquet was at its 1 6. Who was Charles the Bad ? What claim did he make ? Why was he forced to flee to Eiis2;land ? 17. At'what i)oints did the p^nsrlish invade France'? Who commanded the army that landed in the south y Wliar did the States-General do ? 18. What act of treaclicry did the king commit ? AN'hat became of Charles of Kavarre ? A. D. 1356.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 107 height, the king entered, seized the King of lN"aYarre, and ordered him to be thrown into prison ; and the Count of Harcourt, with three other lords, were led out to the castle- yard (miscalled the Field of Pardon), and beheaded (1356). 19. The Battle of Poitiers.— Edward III. lost little time in taking up the quarrel of his friend, the captive King of Navarre. Edward the Black Prince took the field with a small army of 8,000 to 12,000 men, and for some time ravaged the south of France unmolested. On turning to the coast, however, he found his retreat cut off by the French king, who had crossed the Loire, and placed his army be- tween the English and the sea. King John, in person, com- manded the French army, which consisted of 26 dukes, 140 baronets, and 50,000 men. The Black Prince, seeing his danger, chose his battle-ground a short distance north of Poitiers [poi-teerz')^ on the top of a rough hill, covered with vineyards, crossed by hedges, and made difficult of access by low shrubbery. The only approach to the top of the hill was by a narrow road which could be commanded by a small force. 20. The French king, in his eagerness to wipe out the disgrace of Crecy, forgot all prudence. He ordered his horsemen to begin the attack along this road. The English bowmen showered their arrows upon them, and, in a few moments, the force of the attack was broken, and the horses, rendered furious and unmanageable, galloped madly back unon the French lines behind them, and threw them into confusion. At this moment, with the cry of ^' St. George and Guienne ! " the English charged, and drove the first and second lines of the French off the field in disorder. Another blunder was now committed by King John. He commanded his knights, who were clad in heavy armor, to dismount and fight on foot. The Black Prince, on the con- trary, ordered his horsemen to mount, and the French, being now on the open plain, were ridden down and trampled un- 19. How did the King of England avenge the wrongs of Charles of Navarre? What great battle was fought ? What was the position of the two armies ? Where is Poitiers ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) 20. Give an account of the battle. What mistake was made by the French com- mander ? What became of John and his son ? 108 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1356. der foot without help. King John and his youngest son, Philip, threw themselves into the midst of the action, and strove to turn the tide in their favor, but without success. Both were captured, and the French army was beaten back jpon Poitiers. 21. The battle began at daybreak and ended at noon, on the 19th of September (1356). Eleven thousand French were left on the field, among them more than 2, 4G0 nobles ; and 100 barons, 2,000 men-at-arms, and many of less rank were taken prisoners. The loss of the English was only 2,500. The Black Prince marched at once to Bordeaux, releasing nearly all of his prisoners on parole, their number being so great as to embarrass him. He concluded a two years' truce with France, and immediately embarked for London, taking with him John and his young son Philip.* 22. Great dissatisfaction prevailed throughout France on receipt of the news of the disaster at Poitiers. The army was beaten and scattered, and the king a prisoner ; a second and greater disgrace Avas added to that of Orecy. New taxes were necessary to equip another army, and to ransom the prisoners taken at Poitiers. Still more gloomy was the situ- ation made by the absence of any hopeful national senti- ment. The people blamed their captive king for the mis- "or tunes under which they were suffering. 23. The States-G-eneraL— Stephen Marcel.— In the midst of this general gloom and anger, the dauphin called a meeting of the States-General. So bold were the represen- tatives of the people in their demands for better government by the king, that the dauphin adjourned the assembly in alarm ; but he was forced to call it together again, as the treasury was empty. After many stormy debates, in which * After the capture of the French king: and his son, they were conducted to the tent of the Black Prince, who treated them with the utmost respect, waiting: upon the king at supper as if he had been his own father, and cheering him by kind and consoling words. During his stay in England, John was treated more like a guest than a prisoner. 2 1 . What was the loss of the French ? Of the English ? '^2. What was the feeling in France in regard to tlie battle of Poitiers ? i.3. At the meeting of tlie States-GcneraK what did the third estate demand ? Who was their s])okesman Y What office did ho hold '/ What were the principal measures T)asf?cd ? A. Do 135T.1 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 109 the rights of the people were boldly and ably asserted by Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchants of Paris, an ordi- nance Yfas agreed upon and passed, the principal provisions of v^hich were, that taxes should be collected, and the money so collected paid out by officers appointed by the States- General ; that the defense of the kingdom should be in= trusted to a committee of thirty-six, twelve from each estate ; that the depreciation of coin should cease ; that all men should be armed and form a national guard ; and that the States- General should meet twice a year without waiting for the call of the king (1357). 24. This ordinance was the first great check which royalty had received, and both ruler and nobles could not fail to see that the hand which had given this check was that of the people. As soon as the dauphin, therefore, was free of the States- General, he began to evade the fulfillment of his promises. After several acts which served to increase the vsuspicion in which he was held by his people, he ordered again the debasement of coin. %5. The storm broke at once. Marcel called the trades- men of Paris to arms, and marching at their head to the dauphin's quarters, demanded that he should dismiss his un- wise counselors, and seriously devote himself to the govern- ment of the kingdom and the protection of his people. A few bitter words passed betv/een them, when Marcel, seeing that nothing was to be hoped for from the treacherous dau- phin, turned to his attendants and commanded them to com- plete the work for which they had come. In a moment the marshals of Champagne and Normandy, the counselors of the dauphin, were stabbed and fell at his feet, staining his robe with their blood. Marcel then placed upon the dau- phin's head the cap which he himself had worn, and which was made of red and blue, the colors of the city of Paris, and the bodies of the murdered marshals were thrown out to the people. 24. Did the danphhi keep his promises to the States-General ? 2 5 . Give an account of the assassination of the marshals. 110 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ©. 1358. 26. The inliabitaiits of Paris aj^plaiided the. act of Marcel^ who now found himself ruler of the city and in arms against the dauphin. The latter withdrew, taking with him the nobles, who saw with dread the rising power of the people, and instinctively took the side of the dauphin. Unfortu- nately, the situation of the kingdom at this time was such that Paris could hope for no aid from other cities or from the country. Communication between them was difl&cult ; companies of soldiers called "free lances,'' roamed the coun- try, plundering and burning ; and safety was only to be found behind the w^alls of fortified towns and cities. Paris stood alone in the bold position which had been taken. 27. Prompt action was necessary on the part of Marcel, as the dauphin was already raising an army, and discontent began to appear in Paris itself. In his difficulty, he deter- mined to release the imprisoned Charles of Navarre, bring him to Paris, and proclaim him king, hoping that his de- pendence upon the people, if he were thus raised to power, would lead him to deal justly with them. Only a part of this plan, however, could be carried out. The King of Na- varre was released and brought to Paris, and Marcel demand- ed of the dauphin that his property should be restored to him and his rights respected. The dauphin promised, but failed to keep his word. 28. The Jacquerie. — A new danger now appeared, Vv'hich for a time drew the attention of all aw^ay from Paris, and divided the kingdom into two great parties, the nobles raid the people. The miseries of the latter had grown so great that they could bear them no longer. They rose in arms, and forming themselves into bands, marched through the country, sacking the castles of the nobles, and pillaging witliout restraint. This rising was called the Jacqueru {zhak'e-re), from Jacques Bonhomme {zhah I)on-om')/'' the * " Froissart imagines that the name ' Jacques Bonhomme ' meant a particular person; 26. In wliat position was Marcel placed ? Why was Paris cut off from the rest o/ France ? 27. What did Marcel now do ? Was the plan carried out ? 28. What was the origin of the Jacquerie? What did the peasants do ? Who vva.« their leader ? A. ». 1358.] THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. Ill Qame then generally given to a peasant. The nobles leagued together to defend themselves, and having captured and hung the leader of the peasants, they turned against the cities (1358). 29. Death of Marcel. — Marcel and the citizens of Paris soon discovered that the King of Navarre was false to them ; his fear of the people, and his natural sympathy with the nobility leading him into plots with the dauphin. Marcel's power was waning fast. In his desire to see a sta- ble government in France, he offered the crown first to the King of Navarre, and afterward to the dauphin. The lat- ter refused to enter Paris while the murderer of the mar- shals lived. The former, however, accepted, and secret pre- parations were made to admit him into the city and proclaim him king. The night of the 31st of July was chosen, and Marcel rode down to one of the gates of the city with the keys in his hand. His design was suspected, how- ever ; and, before he could carry it out, he was killed by one of his former associates.* Two days after, the dau- phin entered Paris, and for several days the blood of his en- emies was shed without mercy. 30. Charles of Navarre at once retreated to Normandy, where he gathered an army and began a new war. The dauphin, however, purchased a peace. King John, mean- while, had made a treaty of peace with the English king, the terms of which were indignantly rejected by the States- General ; the voice of the people being that they would bear their heavy burdens still longer rather than sacrifice their a leader in these risings. But we must not credit Froissart with any accurate knowledge of the peasant and his ways. Jacqiies Bonhomme was the common nickname, the ' Giles ' or ' Hodge ' of France, the name of the peasant generally ; and from it such ris- ings as this of 1358 came to be called the 'Jacquerie,' or the disturbances of the ' Jacques.' "—Kitclnn''s History of France. * " Maillart raised his battle-axe against Marcel. Giffard threw himself before Marcel and covered him for a moment with his body ; but the struggle had begun in earnest, Maillart plied his axe upon Marcel, who fell pierced with many wounds. Six of his com- rades shared the same faith. Thus perished, after scarcely three years' nolitical life, and by the hands of his former friends, a man of rare capacity and energy, who at the out- set had formed none but patriotic designs, and had, no doubt, promised himself a better fate."— Guisot's Mstort/ of France. 29. Why did Marcel break off negotiations with the King of Navarre ? What was now Marcers only object ? To whom did he next iippeal ? What was the result ? 30. What became 'of Charles of Navarre ? What was the feeling in France in re gard to the treaty v/ith England ? 112 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1360. country thus, and that "King John should remain a pris^ oner in England, leaving the remedy for their ills to God, who would provide one in his own good time." Bl. The news of the rejection of the treaty enraged the English king, who at once declared the truce broken, and made ready to invade France. In the autumn (1359) he landed at Calais. The dauphin did not oppose the English king in the field. All troops were withdrawn to the forti- fied towns and cities, and the invaders were permitted to ravage the open country at their will. The English king even marched to Paris, and challenged the dauphin before its walls. Tired at last, however, of a war in which there was neither glory nor plunder, and finding that his army was gradually melting away by sickness and the attacks of the maddened peasantry, he accepted proposals for peace. 82. The Peace of Bretigny. — A treaty was signed (1360) at Bretigny (bre-teen'ye). According to its terms, the English king renounced all claim to the throne of France ; gave up certain possessions in France while retain- ing others, ^ — principally those which had belonged to the Plantagenets ; and withdrew from his alliance with the Flemish. The dauphin, on the other hand, agreed to pay 3,000,000 gold crowns for the ransom of his father, and to give up his alliance with Scotland. Humiliating as these terms were, nothing remained to impoverished France but to comply with them. King John was accordingly brought over to Calais, and remained there till the first installment of his ransom was paid (October 25, 1360).* 33, King John, on his return to Paris, set about the work of reform ; but this was soon interrupted by projects more to his taste. The death of Philip of Eouvres (roo'vr) put ' ■ — . , ^ * The money for this was received from the Lord of Milan, who paid 600,000 florins for tne nonor of an alliance between his son and Isabella, the king's daughter, then only eleven years of age. & = . j 31 . Wliat effect did the rejection of the treaty have ? How did the dauphin con- duct the war ? Was the English kin<:r successful ? 32. What were the terms of the peace of Breticrny ? How was the first installment or the mcmey needed for the king's ransom obtained ? ti'?^/^^^'^^" "'^f ^^^^ "^^^ ^"^« "f Burgundy? Wliat attempt did the king make? \S hat frustrated it ? <=> •> f o A. U. 1364.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 113 him in possession of Burgundy, which he gave to his fourth son, Phili]), who had won his title of le Hardi {the hold) on the field of Poitiers. He made an attempt, also, to check the ravages of the free lances, or free companies^ but was defeated. He had just formed a project for ridding France of these roving companies by sending them on a cru- sade, when he learned that one of his sons, the Duke of Anjou, who had been left at Calais as a hostage for the pay- ment of the king's ransom, had escaped. He immediately made his son Charles regent, left Paris, and gave himself up in his son's place.* He was taken to London, where he was hospitably received ; but, after a brief illness, he died (1364). f 1364 ^^' Charles V. {le 8age~tlie Wise). — Charles, to the regent, now became king. He was in every respect his father's opposite. Pale and sickly, religious and much given to study, he had no taste for the rude sports of the feudal barons, and proved himself in time their bitterest enemy. The wasted country expected no relief from the studious young king ; but so great were the results pro. duced by him that, before many years had passed, witchcraft was the only name which his superstitious people could find for his achievements. He saw that a king, to be powerful, must be at peace with his people ; and his own experience had taught him that advantages gained by war must not be thrown away from any false sense of honor. 35. His first measure was to establish a fixed money standard, and to forbid all tampering with the coin of the realm. His next was to get possession of two cities belong- ing to Charles of Navarre, which commanded the Seine^ and could be used to favor the invasions of the Eng- lish. Both these cities were captured by stratagem. The " This king nobly said : " If good faith were banished from the earth it ought to be still found in the hearts of kings." + The king of England gave him a magnificent funeral. His body was afterward car- ried to France, and interred in the abbey of St. Denis. 34o What was the character of Charles Y. ? How was he regarded by his people ? 35. What were some of his first measures? What was done by the King of NavaiTe ? The result ? 114 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1365. King of Navarre answered this treachery by sending an invad- ing army into Normandy. Charles V. sent a few thousand men to meet them, under Bertrand Du Guesclin [ga-hlang'), a Breton free lance recently taken into his service. Du Gues- clin lured his opponent from a strong position he had chosen on a hill, by a pretended flight, then suddenly turned and routed the army, capturing its leader. This disaster led Charles of Navarre to consent to a treaty of peace, by which he received, in exchange for his fiefs in Normandy, the bar- ony of Montpellier (1365). 36. Crusade against Don Pedro of Castile. — The French king now matured a plan for accomplishing a double purpose : the relief of his kingdom from the curse of the free companies and the weakening of the English power in the south of France. Don Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, had poisoned his wife, Blanche of Bourbon, the sister-in- law of Charles V. He had also threatened his brother, Hen- ry of Tras-ta-ma'ra, who sought refuge in France. Charles V. consented to aid the young prince to drive Don Pedro from the throne of Castile, and offered him for the purpose an army of free lances. Du Guesclin was placed in com- mand of the new army. To give the expedition the char- acter of a crusade, reports were circulated that Don Pedro was a Jew ; and the army, on its way to the south, stopped at Avignon to receive the blessing of the Pope, the remission of their sins, and a sum of money. 37. Don Pedro fled without a battle, and finally appeared at Bordeaux to claim the protection of the Black Prince ; while Henry of Trastamara was made king of Castile. The free lances flocked back into France and gathered around the Black Prince, who was forming an army to restore Don Pedro to his throne. A battle was fought and gained by the Black Prince at Najera {na-liarah), Henry of Trasta- mara was driven out of Spain, and Don Pedro reinstated 36. Wliat did Charles V. liopci to accomplish by attacking Don Pedro ? What had Don Pedro done ? Who commanded the French king's army ? How was it made to appear a crusade ? 37. Wliere did Don Pedro go for safety ? What part did the Black Prince take in this struggle ? What was the effect of the battle of Najera ? What followed ? A. ». 136T.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 115 (1367).* Sickness, howeyer, now broke out in the camp of the victors. The money which had been promised them was not given ; and the Black Prince, in attempting to raise it by a tax on his subjects in Gascony and Aquitaine^, met with a refusal, and incurred the anger of his French subjects not only on this account, but because he had helped to restore to his throne Don Pedro, who was looked upon as a monster of cruelty. 38. The French king's stratagem, therefore, was doubly successful. The popularity of the Black Prince among his French subjects was fatally shaken, and France was freed from the terror of the free lances. Those that returned from Spain crossed into Italy, and enlisted in the service of the warring states there, especially in that of the Pope, who acquired such power by their aid that he left Avignon under their protection, and established himself in Eome. The quiet produced by this relief, and the wise reforms which the king had carried out in reducing the taxes, soon restored order and prosperity to France. He had also fortified the cities, organized military companies throughout the king- dom, and filled his treasury. 39. War with England. — When the Gascon lords came to complain of the oppressions of the Black Prince, Charles, being prepared for war, threw aside all concealment, and summoned him to answer the charge. ^'1 will come," an- swered the Prince, '^^but it shall be with my helmet on my head, and 60,000 men at my back." Charles then made an alliance with Scotland, bound Flanders to him by a mar- riage between his brother, Philip the Bold, and Margaret of Flanders, and sent a bold declaration of war to the King of England, insulting him at the same time by making a kitchen servant his messenger. * In this battle, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner : and Don Henry, having escaped, fled for safety to the papal court at Avignon. Du Guesclin was afterward ransomed. 3 8 . What became of the free lances f What did the Pope do ? What was the con dition of France ? 39. What did the king do when petitioned by the Gascon lords ? What was the answer of the Black Prince ? How did Charles insult the King of England when he declared war ? 116 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. U. 1373. 40. Without waiting for an answer^ the French king began an attack upon the English possessions in France, and with- in a week the proyince of Ponthieu [pong-too' Y^^ was in his handSa The English inyaded France by way of Calais (1369) ; and the defensive policy was again pursued by Charles Y. His troops were withdrawn into walled towns, and strict orders were given to his army not to risk a battle, TIiq English, therefore, as before, ravaged the open country at their pleasure, but conquered nothing of importance. Mean- time, in the south, the Black Prince found himself betrayed by his subjects, and forced to enter upon a campaign to sub- due them. So ill was he, however, that he was carried on a litter at the head of his army. He attacked and captured Limoges [le-mozli') ; and, enraged at the opposition he had met, ordered the massacre of more than 3,000 men, women, and children (1370). f This inhuman act closed his career as a soldier. He returned to Bordeaux, and there sailed lor England, where he died a few years after. J 41. The force of the English attack being now somewhat spent, Charles began to take more decided measures. Du Guesclin, who had been made Constable of France, attacked and defeated the English under Robert Knolles {noles), for- merly a noted free lance, and Poitou was reclaimed (1373). The same year, the English again landed at Calais with 30,000 men, and marched through France to Bordeaux ; but so poor had the country become, that only one-fifth of the * Ponthieu was situated in the northeastern part of France, bordering on the Enerlish Channel, southwest from Calais. t " It was a most melancholy business ; for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves on their knees before the prince, begging for mercy ; but he was so inflamed with passion and revenge that he listened to none, but all were put to the sword wherever they could be found, even those who were not guilty ; for I know not why the poor were not spared, who could not have had any part in tliis treason ; but they suffered for it, and indeed more than those who had been the leaders of the treachery. There was not that day, in the city of Limoges, any hearts so hardened, or that had any sense of religion, who did not deeply bewail the unfortunate events passing before their eyes ; for upward of three thousand men, women, and children were put to death that day. Uod have mercy on their souls, for they were veritable martyrs ! "—Froissarfs Chronicles. % The Black Prince, worn out with suffering, closed his brilliant career in the dark smoke volumes of burnt and ruined Limoges. From his litter he saw the massacre he had commanded, passed slowly among blackened houses, ruins, and corpses of waniors and worn jn. From this last act of war— tlie summary of war's evil, and a blot on his glory forever— he returned to Bordeaux, gloomy and sick. From Bordeaux he crossed to Eng- land, where he languished out the sad remainder of his days.'"— Kitchin's His. of France. 10. What policy did Charl'is pursue when the English entered Franco ? Of what cruelty was the Black Prince guilty ? State the situation of Limoges. (See Progres- sive Map, No. 4.) 41. What part did Du Gnesclin take ? Was the next English invasion successful. A. ». 1380.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 117 army reached the south of France. Cities and proyinces fell into the hands of the victorious French, till in 1380 fiye coast cities were all that remained to the English of their possessions in France. 12. Attempted Seizure of Brittany. — John of Montfort haying been driven out of Brittany by a strong anti-English sentiment, the duchy was, for a time, without a ruler. Charles attempted to seize it, and annex it to the crown of France. This act united the Bretons, however, and they recalled John of Montfort. The Bretons serving in the king's army deserted and returned home ; even Du Guesclin angrily resigned, and returned his constable's sword to the king. They were afterward reconciled, however, but Du Guesclin's day was near its close. While besieging a little stronghold in Auvergne, he died (1380).* 43. Character of Du Guesclin.— Du Guesclin, the instrument employed by Charles V. to recover the title to military glory which France had lost, was short in stat- ure, bat of powerful build and a hard fighter ; he was at the same time cunning, and utterly without fear. Disregarding the false notions of honor which prevented the nobles from winning battles on so many occasions, he bent all his ener- gies toward a single object, victory, f His harshness toward the nobility, and his generous dealing with the poor, joined to his military glory, have together made him one of the heroes of romance. 14. Charles V. survived his great captain only a few weeks. The disease which had always afflicted him gave * " It is told that the captain of the castle, who had promised to surrender in fifteen days if he were not relieved, kept his word, and broug:ht and laid the keys on Du Giiesc in's death-bed. The tale is not improbable. Du Guesclin had been the pride of the free companies, the father of the soldiers. He made their fortunes, and ruined him- self to pay their ransoms."— Jf?cA^?er.s HMory of France. t " LiL3 the other captains of his time, he preferred stratagem to all other means of conquest, and always avoided pledging his word and honor. Before battle he was the tactician, the man of resources and subtle device. He could foresee and provide. But once in the fight, his Breton head hurried him away ; he plunged into the melee, and that so fir that he'could not always draw back again. He was twice taken, and had to pay ransoms,"— Jf/cAefei'.s History of France. 42. What bold attempt did the king now make ? What was the effect? What became of Du Guesclin ? 43. What was the character of Du Guesclin ? 44. How long did the king survive Du Guesclin ? Give an account of his death. lis THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1380. signs of taking a fatal turn, and he was so advised by liis physicians. He summoned his family, therefore, and com- mending his young son to the care of his brothers, the dukes of Berri and Burgundy, and to the queen's brother, the Duke of Bourbon, died a fcAV days after at the age of forty-four (1380).* 45. The great service rendered by Charles V. to France has caused him to be ranked among her great kings. Assuming the crown at a time when the country was exhausted by years of war, he saw that the kingdom required rest and an oppor- tunity to regain its natural strength. To insure victory he set aside the nobles, and chose for the commander of his army a man who had earned his fame by success in war. Finally, he strove to reduce the burdens of his people ; though he was sometimes obliged to undo, in this respect, the work already done. Clear-headed, crafty, unscrupulous, prefer- ring the seclusion of his cabinet to the clamor of the battle- field, he made the aggrandizement of France his only aim, and left her at his death restored in great measure to her former dimensions, and no longer despised by her enemies. 46. Important Acts of Charles V. — He conferred the privileges and honors which had long been peculiar to the nobles among tradesmen and civil officers ; fixed the ma- jority of the king at the age of thirteen ; gTanted pensions instead of land to the sons of the king ; and separated the office of reo-ent from that of tutor of the kino;. He also made the parliament of Paris permanent ; f made the pur- chase by each family of a certain quantity of salt from the royal storehouses compulsory ; and claimed as his right the * Before his death he gave orders that Du Guesclin should he hurled at St. Denis, next to his own tomb ; and on the day of his death he abolished every tax not authorized by the States-General. t The Frencli parliaments were supreme courts of law, established in some of the most Important cities. Tliat of Paris, the most ancient, was founded in the 12th century, and was at first a court of justice which the king took with him wh^.ever ho went. By an ordinance of Philip IV.. it was fixed at Paris, in 1302. The king, to give force to his laws, often compelled the parliament to register his decrees, thus assuming all the legislative powers of the government. AVhen summoned for that purpose, it was called a bed oj justice. 4 5. How is Charles V. regarded ? What measures did he take to restore France? What was his character ? 4G. Mention some of the mo^t important measures passed during his reign. A. O. 1380.] THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 119 appointment of certain tax officers which up to that time had been elected by the people. 47. Letters, Arts, etc.- — Great encouragement was given by Charles V. to literature and the arts. He directed the translation of the Bible, and of Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Livy ; began the Eoyal Library, with a collection of 910 volumes ; founded a college of astronomy and medicine ; en- larged the city of Paris and the j)alace of the Louvre (loovr) ; and built many chapels, churches, and castles. Among these maybe mentioned the church of St. Ouen {oo-ahng'), and the chapel of the castle of Yincennes {vin-senz'). The famous prison of the Bastile, in Paris, also was begun by him. 13§0 ^^* C/harles VI. {the Well-Beloved) was little to qualified by age or disposition to wield his father's scepter. He was less than twelve years old at the time of his father's death, fond of pleasure, and showed no inclination for the cares of royalty. The Duke of Anjou, having once been regent, claimed the same office again. To this the dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon consented, pro- vided the office should cease at the coronation, which took place soon after. Then, taking possession of all the treasure and jewels of Charles V., and having stolen several bars of gold and silver which had been hidden in the walls of the castle of Me-lun' for the use of the young king, the Duke of Anjou, after exercising the powers of regent a short time, fled to Italy, where he had designs on the crown of Naples. 49. At the council which was held before the coronation Oliver Clisson {hies song) was made Constable of France, as the late king had requested, and then followed a division of the kingdom. Normandy and Picardy were given to the Duke of Burgundy ; Languedoc and Aquitaine, to the Duko of Berri. On the accession of the new king, a demand was made by the people for a reduction of the taxes, and this was promised by the government. Little, however, was 4'?'. How did he encourage literature and art ? 48. Why was Charles VI unfitted for the throne? Who became regent ?- What did the Duke of Anjou do after the king's coronation ? 49. How was France divided ? What caused a revolt ? 120 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A, ». 1388^ done to make the promise good. A tax having been levied on all sales of produce and merchandise, a beginning was made in the market of Paris, where an officer of the king attempted to collect the amount due on some water-cresses which had just been sold by an old woman. A riot broke out at once, and spread over the cit}^ (1382). The people ran to the arsenal, broke it open, armed themselves, and for a short time ruled the city. The rioters were soon subdued, and the leaders executed. * Similar revolts, however, broke out in other cities in all parts of the kingdom, 50. Revolt in Flanders. — Battle of Rosebecque. — The trouble which had for a long time existed in Flanders between the burghers and their ruler now broke out afresh. Count Louis was defeated in a battle near Bruges (1382) by Peter Dubois and Philip Van Artevelde. While the Flemings, however, were besieging Oudenarde (oo-den-ard'), Charles VI,, with a powerful army, approached ; and Van Artevelde, gathering together a large but ill-disciplined force, went out to meet him. A battle was fought at Rosebecque (rose'beJc), in which Van Artevelde was killed and his army routed (1382). f The result of this battle put an end to the revolt in Flanders. All the principal cities surrendered except Grhent, which kept up a show of resistance for some time. I 51. In the flush of victory, the king returned to Paris. Twenty thousand citizens went out to do him honor, but the king was in an angry mood. Instead of entering by the gates, all of which were thrown open, he ordered a breach to be made in the walls, entered through that, and rode * These rioters were called Maillotius Oni->/o-tava'), from a French -word meaning mallet, because they had armed themselves with mallets, found in the arsenal. t To prevent a retreat, he had caused his men to be tied together, and thus bound, they went into battle. This device proved their ruin ; for the French, being far superior in □umbers, surrounded and slaughtered them without mercy. Twenty-six thousand Flemings perished, many of them crushed to death by the weight of the slain. % A severe punishment was visited upon Courtrai, wliere the nobles had met wit^i such a crushing defeat eightv years before. Its people were slaughtered or reduced to slavery ; the fine clock of its cathedral was carried away by the Duke of Burgundy, who placed it in the Church of Notre Dame at Dijon ; and the cathedral itself, an object of specia hatred on account of the gilt spurs of the nobles, which had hung in it since the disaster of 1302, was pillaged and burned. 50. What occurred in Flanders ? Which side did the king join ? Who won the bat- tle of Rosebecque. and what peculiar incident is related of it ? W'hat was the effect of the battle of Rosebecque ? 61. How was the king received by the city of Paris ? How did he treat the i>eop]« 7 A. f>. 1385.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 121 through the streets with the air of a conqueror, his helmet on his head and his lance in his hand. He deprived the city of many of its privileges and executed many persons. Three hundred of its richest citizens were drowned, hung, or be- headed ; among them, a companion of Marcel, and John Desmarets {da-mah-ra), the most eminent lawyer in FrancCo The terror which these punishments inspired caused the peo- ple to welcome the tax of 960,000 francs which the king im- posed instead of such punishments in the future. ^2, The Great Schism = — For many years the Pope's capital had been at Avignon, where he was too much under the influence of the King of France. At the death of Gregory XI., therefore, in 1378, Italy chose a Pope of its own, under the name of Urban VI. The new Pope was so violent, even toward his own party, that a majority of the cardinals avIio had elected him were obliged to flee. They went to France, where they asserted that their election of Urban was made under compulsion. The King of France, therefore, declared the papal chair vacant, and ordered a ncAV election. The choice fell upon Robert of Geneva, who was made Pope under the title of Clement VII. ; and Europe, by this act, was at once divided into two hostile parties, causing what has been called the Great Schism. 53. At the age of sixteen, Charles VI. was married to Isabel of Bavaria, who was two years younger (1385). The same year great preparations were made for an invasion of England. Vessels enough were provided to make, it was said, a bridge from Dover to Calais. A wooden town, also, was built, the intention being to carry it over to England for the use of the army while operating there. The expedi- tion, however, v/as kept back by the delay of the king, and the boasted invasion ended in failure. 54. Insanity of the King. — Oliver Clisson, Constable of France, was at this time high in the favor of the king. 52. How was the Great Scliism produced ? 53. Whom did Charles VI. marry ? Give an account of the project to invade Eng- land proposed by Charles. 54. Why did the king invade Brittany ? What was the immediate cause of the king's insanity ? 6 122 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. [A. B. 1404. Eeturning, one evening in June^ from a banquet, lie was set npon by a servant of the Duke of Orleans, and left for dead. When the king heard of the outrage, he demanded the deliv- ery of the would-be assassin from the Duke of Brittany, with whom he had taken refuge. The duke refused, and the king collected an army and marched against him. The weather T\^as very warm, and the king's health was under- mined by excesses. Suddenly from the depths of the forest through which he was riding, a wild man, clad in white, rushed out, and seizing the king's bridle, exclaimed, ^^Stop, noble king ; go no farther, thou art betrayed ! " The sud- den fright shocked the enfeebled system of the king ; and, a little further on, one of his pages falling asleep upon his horse, and dropping his lance upon the helmet of his com- panion, the noise so startled him that he became insane upon the spot, and drawing his sword, wounded several of his attendants before he could be controlled. He never after- ward, except at intervals, recovered his senses. 55, The insanity* of the king was the source of terrible evils ; and for many years the history of France presents only a succession of factious broils on the part of the princes and nobles contending for the control of the government, which the madman on the throne was unable to wield. These parties were led by the Duke of Burgundy on the one side, and the Duke of Orleans on the other. The former favored the popular side ; the latter upheld that of the nobles, and were hostile to England. 56. Philip, Duke of Burgundy, died in 1404, and was succeeded by his turbulent and reckless son, called John the Fearless. Owing to the unpopularity of the Duke of * The king's reason was still fnrfher shaken by an accident which happened at a masked ball, given at the marriage of one of the queen's maids of honor. The king and five yoimg lords entered the room disguised as satyrs, and wearing close-fitting dresses which had been smeared with pitch and then covered with tow, to imitate the fur of animals. Tlie Duke of Orleans, wishing to discover who they were, imprudently ap- proached them with a lighted torch, which set fire to their dresses. Four died in great agony. One escaped by jumping into a tub of water which stood near, while the king was saved by the Duchess of Berri, who recognized him and smothered the fire by wrap- ping her mantle around him. 5 5. Whfit did the king's insanity cause ? Wliat broils occurred ? By whom wcro these parties led ? What is saiinrn Gi-awlfiilher. ^ -, -u ''Meanwhile, at Paris, the dauphin ruled supreme, and gave himself up to debauch- eries. He little recked what a cloud was gathering to shake him from his scandalous life ; he cared little for the growing force, so soon about to drag him out to see with iiis ewn eyes the downfall of his coimtry. "—Kitchin'-s History of France. 60. How did Paris fall into the power of the Armagnacs ? 61 . Why did Henry V. attack France ? 62. \Miat course did Henry V. then take ? A. ». 1415.1 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 125 63. Battle of Agincourt.— Between him and Calais was a French army of 50,000 men, commanded by the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. The position chosen by the French was near the little Tillage of Agincourt (aj'in-court), their army being drawn up in three lines of battle across the yal- ley, with a rising ground on their left and woods on theii right. The English faced north, and a portion of their line was strengthened by a palisade. Between the two armieis was the plowed ground of the valley", heavy with recent rains. The French cavalry began the attack, but were mired before they reached the English lines. A shower of arrows from the English archers now fell upon the struggling m-ass, maddening the horses and driving them back to carry con- fusion into the lines in the rear. The English then ad- vanced to the attack, and, with their pikes and battle-axes, made short work of the dismounted French knights, weighed down as they were wdth their cumbrous armor. The Eng- lish loss was 1,600. The French lost 10,000 men)' among them three dukes, the Constable of France, six counts, ninety-two barons, and many of less note ; while the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, the Marshal of France, three counts, and hundreds of other nobles were taken prisoners (1415). 64. The result of this battle was a terrible blow to the Armagnacs. Nevertheless, the Count of Armagnac hastened to Paris and took possession of it. He had with him the king, and the dauphin, and was himself Constable of France. Determined to do something to efEace the stain of Agincourt, he raised troops to besiege Hariieur, but was compelled to exact so much money of the people that they complainedo John the Fearless took advantage of the general discontent. He took Queen Isabel from Tours, in the castle of which she had been placed by her son Charles, declared her re- gent, entered into negotiations with the English^ and ad- vancing on Paris, cut off its supplies. 63. Det?cribe the battle of Agincourt. 64. What did the Count of Armamac do ? What did John the Fearless do ? 126 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1420. 65. Second Invasion of the English. — Meantime, tlie English returned (1417). Paris was opened by treachery to the Burgundians, who entered in the night, and took posses- sion, throwing the Armagnacs into prison, where many were afterward murdered. Among those who thus lost their lives was the Count of Armagnac himself. A few, how- ever, escaped, carrying with them the dauphin. John the Fearless now returned to Paris, bringing with him the queen ; but nothing was done to check the English, who captured many cities and toYfns, and finally besieged Eouen, which was forced to surrender, after a prolonged resistance. John the Fearless made proposals both to the English and to the Armagnacs, but without success. A conference was finally arranged between the dauphin and the duke on the bridge of Montereau, and there the duke was suddenly set upon and killed in the presence of the dauphin (1419). 66. The Treaty of Troyes. — The ceaseless quarrels of the two great parties in France had brought the country so low that the surrender of the crown to the English king was viewed by many with favor. The Orleanists and Armag- nacs were farther than ever from a reconciliation, on account of the recent murder. The dauphin withdrew into the south of France ; and the queen and the Duke of Burgundy signed a treaty of peace with the King of England, at Troyes {trivali), (May 21, 1420). The principal condi- tions of this treaty were, that Henry should exchange his title of King of France for that of Eegent and Heir of France, he to be crowned king at the next vacancy, at which time all his conquests in France, including Normandy, should be restored ; that he should, in the mean time, aid the French king to recover those parts of the kingdom which had been wrested from him by the dauphin ; and, finally, that he should at once marry Catharine, the king's daughter. 67. The surrender of Paris and the north of France to 65. What occurred in Paris ? What happened at the bridge of Montereau ? 66. What were the terms of the treatj^ of Troyes ? 67. How did the treaty of Troye? aid the dauphin? Who became regent of Franc(! ? What i)rorainent persons died ? A.. ». 1422.] THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. 12? fche English king lifted the dauphin at once into the posi- tion of the defender of the nation. Elinor differences were lost sight of, and all who felt the presence of the English king in Paris a humiliation hastened to the standard of the dauphin. During the progress of the war which ensued Henry V. died, and Charles VI. soon followed him (1422).* Henry had left an infant son, and the Duke of Bedford was declared Eegent of France to act during his minority. The dauphin was, at the same time, declared king by his party ; and the war was continued. 1422 ^^* Charles VII. {the Victorious) was nine- to teen years old when he was proclaimed king, and gave little promise of becoming an able monarch. His reign also began under a cloud, two defeats putting an end to his sway in the north. A judicious marriage, how- ever, with Marie of Anjou brought to him the support of that powerful family and province, as well as that of Lor- raine ; Brittany was w^on over by the promotion of Kiche- mont [i^eesh-mong') as Constable of France ; Languedoc de- clared for him ; and alliances were made with Scotland and Castile. The disagreements of the English also worked to his advantage. The Duke of Bedford represented the roy- alists, but the Duke of Gloucester, who was then Regent of England, was the champion of the nobility. In addition to the coldness toward Bedford thus produced, enmity between Gloucester and the Duke of Burgundy sprung up on ac- count of the marriage of the latter with the Countess of Hainault {Jii-no'), who brought him as her dowry Holland, Zealand, and Fris'ia, which were adjacent to the Duke of Burgundy's province of Flanders. * " Some weeks later died the saddest of French kings, the much-aflaicted Charles VT, fle had reigned for forty-two years ; long he had been but a name, a shadow. His voice, heard at rare intervals on some piteous occasion, was as if it came from the tomb ; it usually had a plaintive gentleness, a touch of sad forgiveness in it. ' In his days,' says Juvenal des Ursins, 'he v/as pitiful, gentle, and benign to his people, serving and lovmg God. a great giver of alms.' The people called him ' Charles, the Well-Beloved,' clmging to him with a touching helplessness. Their attachment to the crazy king shows how oppressive the princes were :— he at least did them no harm."— -ffisteA»/i. 68. How old was Charles VII. when he was made king ? How did his reign be- gin ? What changes favored the new king ? 128 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1428. 69. The Siege of Orleans. — ^After some preliminary figiiting, the English besieged the city of Orleans (1428) ; and for a year they lay before it with no decisive result. The frightful misery of the people, which had already lasted many years, and which noAV seemed likely to endure many more, was charged solely to the English, and France be= came gradually united in its hatred of them. How to free themselves, however, none could tell. In despair of any human aid, the people turned to Heaven ; and a superstitious belief became general that the kingdom which had been brought to such desperate straits by a woman could only be saved by a woman. She who had betrayed France into the hands of the foreigner was the queen, who had disinherited her son to accomplish it. But who was to be the deliverer ? 70o Joan of Are. — In the little village of Domr^my, be- tween Champagne and Lorraine, lived Joan of Arc, a peasant girl, who had been familiar from her childhood with the deeds of violence common at that time in France. The gloom which had settled down upon her country caused her to turn for consolation to the little church of which she had always been a devoted member. The belief, every- where expressed, that relief for France would come from a woman in the humbler walks of life, impressed her strongly, and roused in her the daring thought that she herself might be the means of accomplishing this great result. The op- position of her father, however, prevented her from acting ; and for several years she brooded over the thought, till the scheme which she had formed in regard to it became the object of her life. 71. During her solitary walks she said she heard strange Toices, which encouraged her in her project. * These became more frequent, till at length she went to the commander of *"At first she -was frl^^Monod. hnt sho recoyercd herself on finding: that 'it was a worthy voice ; ' and at the second call, she perceived that it was the voice of an.arels. The apparitions came again and again, and exhorted her ' to go to Fi-ance for to deliver the kingdom.' "—Guizot's History of France. 69. What feelini; was irradnally growing; up in France ? What was the condition of the country at this time ? 10. Who was Joan of Arc ? What had been her modi; of life 'i 71. What did she at length do ? A. D. 1429. THE HOUSE GF VALOIS. 129 the garrison at Yaucouleurs {vo-coo-lur'), and asked for an escort of soldiers, that she might go to the aid of Orleans, and, after the yictory, conduct the dauphin to Eheims to be crowned. He laughed at her at first ; but so strong was the belief of the common people in her mission, that he at last consented to give her a guard of six men. She then cut her hair short, put on men's clothes, and accompanied by her escort, went to Chinon (she-nong'\ where Charles YII. was staying, and asked to see him (February, 1429). 72. For two days she was refused, but being at length ad- mitted to an audience, she singled out the king, who had attempted to disguise himself by changing his dress and mingling with his courtiers, and told him that a yoice from heaven had sent her to raise the siege of Orleans, to con- duct him to Eheims to be crowned, and to restore to him his kingdom. The court mocked at her enthusiasm, and attempted to puzzle her with difficult questions. This only delayed her, however, a short time ; * the voice of the nation made itself heard ; and on the 29th of April, she entered Orleans with provisions for the garrison. 73. The starving army to which she had brought relief looked upon her as a saint, while the English thought her a w^itch. The besieging army had wasted away by disease and desertion to less than 5,000 men ; and the French, inspired with new courage, marched out to attack them. After sev- eral engagements, in which Joan of Arc fought at the head of the troops, Orleans was delivered. The *^Maid of Orleans," as she was always afterward called, after other victorious battles, conducted the king to Eheims, where he was solemnly crowned (1429). Joan then declared her mis- sion ended, and wished to be dismissed ; but her services were still demanded. * "A squire was assi^ed to her, a page, two heralds, a chaplain, varlets, and serving folks. A complete suit of armor was made to fit her. Her sword was marked with five crosses. She had a white banner, studded with lilies, bearing the representation ot (^od seated upon the clouds, and holding in his hand the globe of the y^ovlA^—Gmzot. 72. Give an account of her first intervievi' with the king. How did she relieve the garrison of Orleans ? TS. How was she regarded by the opposing armies ? What was the result of hes mission ? 6* 130 THE HOUSE OF T A LOTS. [A. D. 1431. 74. The story of the wonderful raising of the siege of Orleans had spread rapidly, and many strong places surren- dered when it was known that the king was accompanied by the Maid of Orleans. Paris, however, still remained in the hands of the English ; but the king gave her only a feeble support in her efforts to capture it, Jealousy of the great power she was acquir- ing led him to listen to coun- sels which Y/ere directly oppos- ed to his own interests. She withdrew with the army, therefore, t o C m p i e g n e {]co7ig -pydn'), which the Duke of Bur- gundy was pre- paring to at- tack. As the inhabitants of 'da^t place had declared for the king, little mercy could be expected by them if they should fall into the duke's hands. She entered the city to aid in its defense, but, in a sortie, was captured. She was delivered by the Duke of Burgundy 74. What effect was produced in France by the raising of the siege of Orleans J Where was the Maid of Orleans captured., and what was her fate ? cathedral of rheims — (completed in the 15th century.) A. B. 1439.1 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 131 fco the English, who took her to Rouen, where she was con- demned as a witch and burned, and her ashes were scat- tered in the Seine (1431).* 75. The Peace of Arras. — The death of Joan of Arc, however, brought no success to the English arms. The hatred the French felt for them, on account of her crueJ death, gave renewed energy to their army ; while the Eng^ lish cause was weakened by the hostility of the Duke of Bur- gundy„ The English king, Henry VI., had been taken to Paris and crowned there (1431), but no enthusiasm was awakened for him in the hearts of the French. Affairs were now ripe for a treaty of peace, both sides being weary of the war. A congress of most of the powers of Europe was, therefore, assembled at Ar'ras ; and, after much discus- sion, the Duke of Burgundy became reconciled to Charles VII., and recognized him as king (1435). 76. The Duke of Bedford had died only a few days be- fore, and the English in France were now left without a leader. Paris shortly after surrendered, and the English left the city.f The king soon after set himself vigorous- ly to work to remedy the evils which were destroying his kmgdom. He assembled the States-General of the south of France at Orleans, and took measures to free the kingdom from the disorders caused by the petty wars of the nobles, by establishing a standing army and levying an annual tax lor its support (1439). 77. As this measure placed the entire military force of the kingdom in the hands of the king, the nobles objected 5 •■ " When she felt the flames rising around ner, sne besought the priest who at- tended her to leave her. The cardinal of Winchester, and even the bishop of Beauvais, who had been her bitterest enemy, could not conceal their emotion. After her death two of the judges who had condemned her exclaimed, ' Would that our souls were where we believe hers is ! ' rnd Fressart, the secretary of Henry VI., said, as he left the place of execution, * We are all lost ; we have burned a saint ! ' "— GiiizoVs Risiory of trance. t The year after their departure, Charles visited the capital, but only to leave it again^ famine and the plague raging there with such violence as to leave the streets aimosc entirely deserted. So great was the destitution that wolves, it is said, entered the city and carried off dogs, and even children. 75. Was her death of advantao^e to the English ? What led to the treaty of Arras ? 7 6 . How were the English in Prance wealiened ? What measures did the king now adopt ? , . 77. Why did the nobles object to the change ? What was the consequence of this ? What is said of the dauphin ? The Duke of Orleans ? 132 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1448„ and forming a league with the captains of the free lances, which had thriven during the late war, declared the king's act revolutionary, and persuaded the . dauphin, Louis, to allow himself to be placed at the head of a party which should oppose his father. The Duke of Orleans, also, who had been held a prisoner in England since the battle of Agincourt, had just been released, and joined the new party. The people everywhere, however, declared for the king, and this new rebellion was soon suppressed (1440). The next year the war with England was renewed, the dauphin doing good service on the side of the king, his father. 78. Re-organization of the Army. — Steps were soon after taken to organize a standing army, according to the ordinance of Orleans. Fifteen companies each of one hun- dred ^^ lances" was the limit fixed for the size of the army, each lance being formed of six men. The army, therefore, consisted of 9,000 cavalry. Three years later (1448), an army of regular infantry was formed, each parish being required to furnish one veteran soldier for the king's service. The organization of this army of Charles VII. has always been studied with interest, since the standing army of modern Europe owes its origin to it. 79. The Conquest of Normandy. — In 1449, the war with England was resumed. An outrage was committed in Brittany by a Spanish adventurer in the service of England, for which the king and the Duke of Brittany demanded the payment of 1,600,000 crowns. This was refused by thegov-= ernor of Normandy, then an English province, and hostil- ities began at once. Cities and towns surrendered, or were captured by the French, in rapid succession ; and, on the 18th of October, they attacked Eouen. The inhabitants of the city rose against the English garrison, which soon surren- dered. The English were driven to the coast, and there made an attempt to recover their lost ground, a force of 6,000 men being sent over from England to reinforce them. 78. How was the anny now re-orgaiiized ? Why is this organization of special interest ? 79. What produced a new war with England ? What became of Normandy ? A. B. 1456.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 133 After an obstinate battle, the English were forced to retreat ; and Normandy, after a year's campaign, became a French proYince (1450). 80. War in the South. — Guienne and the city of Bor- deaux were captured the following year (1451) ; but the commerce of the latter had depended for so many years on England, that its inhabitants gladly opened their gates to an English army, which was sent to recapture it. The king marched again into the south, and captured several cities. Bordeaux was surrounded by sea and land, and being threat= ened with famine, at length surrendered. A severe punish- ment was inflicted by the king. He deprived the city of its charter, imposed a fine of 100,000 crowns, beheaded one of its citizens who had been most active in the rebellion, ban- ished several others, and built two forts, so placed as to com- mand the city. The small strip of land which included Calais and a few neighboring places were now the only Eng- lish possessions in Erance. The Hundred Years' War was ended (1453). 81. While Charles VH., however, was undisturbed by for- eign war, he Avas annoyed by his son, the dauphin Louis, whose crafty disposition led him into constant plots with the nobles against his father. He became so troublesome at last that the king marched against him, when he fled from his estates in Dauphiny to Burgundy, where he placed himself under the protection of the duke of that province (1456). His intrigues did not cease till 1461, when his father died, leaving him the kingdom for which he had been so long plotting. * 82. The reign of Charles VII. marks the end of the period known as the Middle Ages. The changes made by him in Erance were principally the creation of a standing army, the * With such terror was Charles inspired from the wicked intrigues of his undutiful son, that he was afraid to take food, lest he might he poisoned. "It was In vam that his favorite child offered to taste first the food set before him; and when, at last, he would have made an effort to eat, it was too late." 80. What course was puri^ned by the people of Bordeaux ? How were they pun- ished ? What celebrated war was now brought to a close ? 81. What is said of Louis, the dauphin ? 82. Vv^hat period is closed by the reion of Charles VIT.? What great changes were made by him ? What two persons aided him ? Wliat was Charles called ? 134 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1461. levy of an annual tax to meet the expenses of the govern- ment, and the organization of local parliaments to assist the king in the government of the country. In the first two measures, he Avas aided by Richemont {reesh-mong'),'^ Con- stable of France, and Jacques Ooeur [zJiak kyur), a wealthy citizen of Bourges, whom the king chose as his treasurer The latter had grown immensely rich in the eastern trade, and all his ability and wealth were used in the service of the king. He afterward lost his favor and was thrown into prison, t Charles VII. was, with good reason, called the Victorious, for he made himself one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. 83. The improvements made in the manufacture and use of fire-arms were strikingly shown during this reign. In the capture of the fortress of Cherbourg (sJier'boorg), in 1450, and in the attack on Bordeaux, three years after, cannon were skillfully used by the French, and soon became common in the armies of Europe. By hastening the downfall of feudal- ism, this lifted up the common people, and the same result was aided by the invention of printing. Men began to be valued for their learning and ability rather than for their illustrious birth. A powerful impulse also was given to learning by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453). The fear of the Turks drove from that city into western Europe many scholars who created there a love for classical learning, Avhich bore abundant fruit. The reign of Charles VII. also saw the end of the great schism of the West, which had lasted seventy years, and had been the cause of many wars. 1461 ^^* Louis XI. — When Louis XI. ascended the to throne, his accession was considered by the nobles as their success, since he had for years been intriguing * "Next to Joan of Arc, Richemont was the most effective and the most glorious among-st the liberators of France and the king."— Gniznf. t His house at Bourges is still standing, and is considered one of the most perfect Bpeciraens of the architecture of the fifteenth century. 83. What is said of the use of fire-arms ? What chanse did this produce ? What gave an impulse to learning? What was brought to an end ? 84. How did the nobles regard the accession of Louis XI. ? Were they satlsfiej afterward ? Why not ? A. D. 1466.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 135 with them against their most formidable enemy, -his father. Many of the changes also which he made were so great as to produce dissatisfaction and rebellion among the people, and this gave renewed hope to the nobles. Their joy, how- ever, was of short duration, for new laws were passed im= mediately after, which threatened their most cherished priv- ileges. 85. One of his first acts was the purchase, in 1463, of five cities on the river Somme, which had been delivered to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, by the treaty of Arras, with the understanding, however, that the king should have the privilege of buying them back. By this act he made the duke's son, Charles, the Count of Charolais [shd-ro-la), afterward Charles the Bold, his enemy. 80. League of the Public Good — When the nobles saw that the king intended to pursue his own ends, tram- pling on their rights if necessary to reach them, they called together all the dissatisfied classes in France to resist him. This alliance was called the League of the Public Good (1465). The chief of the league was the king's brother, the Duke of Berri. In striving to reach Paris, the king's army came upon that of the allies, and a severe but indecisive battle was fought. The king entered Paris, however, and signed a treaty with his enemies. Immediately after, dis- turbances in Normandy called him away, and he was forced to sign another treaty to quiet his kingdom. In both of these, the cunning of the king and the insincerity of the nobles are plainly seen. The latter made advantageous terms for themselves, without paying much attention to the interests of the people, who, by entering the league with them, gave them their strength. 87. By stratagem, the following year (1466), Louis gained the greater part of what he had lost by treaty. Normandy had been seized by him when Charles the Bold, Duke of 85. What was one of his first acts ? To wnat did this lead ? 86. Why was the League of the Public Good formed ? Who was its leader ? Were the interests of the people protected by the League ? 87. What did the king do in regard to Normandy ? By whom was his right to do this questioned ? What was the result ? 136 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1468. Burgundy, was unable to preyent it. The latter had just come into full possession of the province of Burgundy by his father's death (1467), and now found allies to question the king's right to Xormandy, in Francis II. of Brittany, and in Edward IV. of England. Louis called together the States- General at Tours (1468), and laid before them the question whether J^ormandy should be severed from France. They objected, and their answer was sent to the Duke of Bur- gundy. In the mean time, Louis had compelled the Duke of Brittany to sign a treaty, which prevented him from act- ing with the Duke of Burgundy. 88. Capture of the King — Believing that he could gain more from Charles the Bold by negotiation than by bat- tle, Louis went to meet him at Peronne {pa-ron), having first, as he supposed, made such arrangements that the Duke of Burgundy would not dare do violence to his person. While he was in his power, however, news was received of a revolt in the duke's Flemish possessions, which Louis was believed to have inspired. The duke, therefore, detained the king, and compelled him to go with him to the attack on Liege, Vvdiich was one of the cities in revolt ; and the king was forced to fight on the side of the duke in quelling the rebellion he had himself incited. * Liege was taken by storm, and given over to all the horrors of rapine and carnage (1468). t 89. The cunning of Louis, and the ease with which he broke his promises, caused him to be regarded always with suspicion, while his oppressions led to frequent complaints * When the king returned to Paris, the contempt of the people was shown in a re- markable way. Cages were hung along the route he took containing jays and magpies, which saluted him with cries of " Peronne ! " the name of the place where he had been duped. Finding that La Balue, one of his counselors, had been a secret adviser of the Duke of Burgundy, the king revenged himself upon him by confining him and one of his, accomplices, the Inshop of Verdun, in iron cages in which they could neither stand up nor lie down at full length. This confinoment lasted more than ten years. t " Every morning the flames were kindled at a fresh point, and more than seven weeks elapsed Ix'fore they were llnally suflfered to expire. The ruins, as at Dinant, were searched, rifled, and leveled. Everything portable and of value was carried off. Not a single building which had been used or inhabited solely by laymen was left standing."— Kirk's Charles the Bold. 88. What was the consequence of the meeting of Louis with the Duke of Biar- gundv at Peronne ? 89. How was Louis rejirarded by the people? Why did Charles the Bold invade France ? What was the result ? A. 1>. 1472.1 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 137 from liis people. He was constantly annoyed, therefore^, by plots against him, the chief instigator of which was his brother, the Duke of Berry. The duke died, howeyer^, in 1472 ; and Charles the Bold avenged his death by in- vading the king- dom, on the pre- text that Louis had poisoned him. After a short cam- paign, which he conducted with great cruelty, he was compelled to make peace. 90. Charles the Bold now applied himself to the in- crease and consoli- dation of his do- mains, and with such success that it was considered the richest coun- try in Christen- dom. He also sought to increase his power and dig- nity by offering the hand of his daughter to the son of the Empe- ror of Germany, Frederic III. armor of charles the bold. 90. What was the position of Chnrles the Bold, and how did he increase Ms influ ence ? What result attended his ambitious designs ? 138 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1471'. who, in return, should proclaim him king. In this pro- ject, however, he was thwarted by Louis, who brought such influence to bear upon the emperor that the alliance between him and Charles the Bold was prevented. Two years after (1475), the duke found himself involved in a war with the Swiss, during the progress of which Louis captured some of his possessions in Picard}^ and Artois. 91. Invasion of the English. — The same year, the King of England, acting on the advice of Charles the Bold, landed at Calais with a large army, with the intention of invading France. The Duke of Burgundy, however, was not in a condition to give him the aid he had promised ; and Edward IV. consented to return to England with his army, on the payment by Louis of 75,000 crowns and an annual pension of 50,000 more, followed by the marriage of the dauphin with Edward's daughter, when they should be of proper age. This bargain was called by the people the merchants^ truce. Two years after, Louis heard with joy the news of the death of his bitterest and bravest enemy, Charleb the Bold, who was killed at the battle of Nancy * (1477). 92. Thus far, the king had been singularly successful in his project of building up a strong and stable government in France. Good fortune, and his own cunning and cruelty, rather than prowess on the battle-field, had been his instru- ments. Several of his most powerful enemies had died within a few years of each other; and, at all times, Louis had been able, by the use of bribes, dissensions among his foes, or politic marriages, to hold them in check. One of his most important plans, however, now failed. * " The Inhabitants of Nancy, who saw the whole from their walls, were so frantic witl: joy as to hurry forth without precaution ; so that some fell by the hands of their friends, the Swiss, who struck without attending. The mass of the routed were impelled by the inclination of the ground to a spot where two rivulets met, near a frozen pond, and the ice, which was weaker over these running waters, broke under the weight of the men-at- arms. Here the waning fortunes of the house of Burgundy sank forever. The duke stumbled there ; and he was followed by men whom Carapobasso had left for the pur- pose. Others believe that it was a baker of Nancy who struck him tirst a blow on the head, and that a man-at-arms, who was deaf, and did not hear that he was the Duke of Burgundy, dispatched him with the thrusts of his \&ncc:'—Mich€leVs Eistot^y of Prance. 91. At whose request did Edward IV. invade France ? Why, and on what terms, did he return to England ? What was this treaty called by tlie i)eoplc ? 92. What is said of the king's success in 'founding a stron'' government ? By what means had he accomplished this y A.. D. 1482.] THE HOUSE OF VALOTS. 139 93. Charles the Bold had left an only child, Mary of Bur- gundy, aged twenty years. So rich was the heritage of Bur- gundy that fiye suitors for her hand appeared. Among them Louis placed his son, the dauphin Charles, then only eight years old. Soon discovering, however, that his suit in be- half of his son was hopeless, he set to v^ork to dismembei Burgundy, and add some portions of it to France. Mary of Burgundy, disgusted with his treachery, married Maximil-^ ian, son of the Emperor of Germany and Archduke of Aus tria (1477). This marriage laid the foundation of the great- ness of the house of Austria, and led to a rivalry which lasted nearly two centuries. Five years after, occurred the death of Mary of Burg-undy and the treaty of peace at Arras, in which the Flemings, wearied with their new master, Maxi- milian, made proposals to Louis to marry the dauphin to Margaret, the infant daughter of Mary, who was to bring with her as her dowry half the pos- sessions of the house of Burgundy (1482). 94. Death of the King. — Louis was now nearly sixty years of age. Though he had oppressed his people and kept him- self almost constantly at war with the nobles, such was his ability, that the territory of France was largely increased during his reign, and its influence was respected throughout Europe. Brutal in dispo- TOMB OF LOUIS XI. 93. What is said of Mary of Burgundy ? Why was Loiiis her enemy ? After the treaty of Arras what good fortune came to Louis ? 94. How had Louis's rule affected France ? What was his character? What is eaid of his fear of death ? 140 THE HOUSE OE TALOIS. [A. J>. 1483. sition, cold-hearted and grasping, he made treaties only to break them when it served his pnrpose, and conquered his enemies by diyiding them ; and, when this did not succeed, made use of violence and murder. ]N"otwithstanding his con- stant wars, he was exceedingly afraid of death. His palace at Plessis-les-Tours [ple^-see-la-toor') was a castle strongly forti= "fied and guarded by armed troops ; and during his last years, he used extraordinary means to prolong his life. He died in 1483, and was buried in the church of Notre Dame at Clery. * 95. In carrying out his selfish plans, Louis made many changes which remained as permanent improvements. One of the most useful of these was the establishment of a postal system, in 1464, which, though used for a long time mainly for his own correspondence, gave rise to the modern mail. He also granted the right of appeal from a lower court to his OAvn, compelled the nobles to take a more active j)art in civil affairs, and extended the freedom of elections. He passed laws, also, for the encouragement of industry, opened new routes of travel and commerce to the East, fostered the art of printing, built many strongholds for the defense of his kingdom, and established or re-organized several schools and universities. The first silk-mills in France were established at Tours during his reign ; and he attracted merchants from different parts of France and Europe to the new markets and fairs which he opened, by granting them more liberal terms than his predecessors. 14§3 9^- Charles VIII. {tlie Affable).— The heir to the to vacant throne was Charles, the youngest child of i45f» Louis, then only thirteen years old. He was ill- * The most extraordinary means were taken to protect the king from danger. Man- traps prevented the approach of every one to the castle ; hesidc which he ■R'as guarded by a band of Scotch archers, and every suspicious person found in the vicinity was im- mediately shot or hung. The trees around the castle constantly had such victims hang- ing from their branches, and the ground was strewed with human bones. The miserable wretch- sought to beg ;ile the weary hours at first v,^i('\ hunting rats, and afterward by watching the dancing of peasants from the castle windovv's. Tristan I'Hermite, his hang- man, Oliver Daim, his barber, and .Tacque Cottier, his physician, were his only companions ; and yet he sought to prolong his life. He tried to keep off death by all the arts of super- stition. He kept various relics about his person, and his cap v,^as stuck around with little 95. Wliat were some of the chanjres jjroduced during his nign ? What new in- diist'ies date from his rci. 1498a the little army returned to France. The distresses of his people now became the subject of the king's thoughts, and he applied himself carefully to remove them. Death sum- moned him, howeyer, at the yery beginning of his labors. While passing along a gloomy gallery in the castle of Am= boise (am-J)tvahs') one day, he struck his head against a door; and, a few hours after, died in conyulsions (1498). With him ended the direct line of the house of Valois. 103. The reign of Charles VIII. is principally noticeable for the change which it marks in the warlike actiyities of France, and in her policy toward neighboring nations. Up to this time, the energy of her kings had been spent at home in contests with the great lords, for the establishment of the royal power. This was now so secure that another outlet was needed, and this was found in foreign war. Charles VIII. was the first French king who, with an army organ- ized upon the modern plan, entered upon a path of foreign conquest. His success was not great, but the example set by him was followed by his successors for many years. State of Society ik France dueikg the Valois Peeiod. 104. States-General. — The grand council of the nation, the States-General, was conyened in 1357, the year after the disastrous battle of Poitiers. The first convocation of this assembly took place during the reign of Philip IV. (1302) ] and this event serves to mark the predominating influence of civil institutions over the military forms of feudalism. In this council, were represented the three orders — the no- bles, the clergy, and the commons, the latter being called the Tiers Etat (third estate).* * " Taking the history of France in Its entirety and under all its phases, the third estate has been the most active and determining element in the process of French civilization." — Guizot. 103. What marked change dates from tlie reign of Cluirles VIII. ? What is said of his success in Italj', and the influence of liis example ? 104. When were the States-General convened ? What did the States-General con- stitute ? When was this council first convoked ? What does this mark ? What were represented in it ? THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 145 1(|5. In the assembly of 1357, the third estate came into conflict with the royal authority ; and, at every subsequent convention, the proceedings showed a spirit of resistance to the corruptions and tyranny of the court, from which re- sulted measures of great advantage to the people. The States- General of 1484 demanded that these assemblies should be called at regular periods, and that taxes should be levied equally upon all classes. The effect of these measures, how- ever, was not lasting; the king only convoked the States when he pleased, and the nobles and clergy together could always outvote the commons. Hence the people, during the troubled period of the Hundred Years' War, made but little improvement in their political condition. 106. At the opening of the proceedings, it was the custom for the king to be present, and to make a short speech, after which the Chancellor of France explained at length the pur- poses of the session. The nobles and clergy remained seated and covered, while the commons stood up with bare heads. After a reply to the chancellor, from the president of each order, the three orders retired to their several rooms. When the deliberations were complete, they again convened, and presented to the king their wishes, demands, or complaints, in the form of suggestions. 107. The king made no reply ; and the assembly, after voting a pecuniary tax, separated. Thus it will be seen that the States-General was not a legislative body, all laws being made by the king, who could listen or not to the de- mands of his people. France was thus virtually an absolute monarchy, the king's power not being limited by any con- stitutional provisions, as the King of England was by the Great Charter. 108. Education, Literature, and Art. — Schools scarcely existed at this time. Scholars wandered about, 105. What is said of the States-General of 1357 ? What of the session of 1484 ? What was the effect of this ? 106. Describe the proceedings at a session of the States-General. 107. Was it a leirislative body ? What was Fr:ince virtually ? 108. What is said of the schools of this period? The University of Paris? Astrology ? 7 146 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. giving instruction to such pupils as they could collect.* The discipline was brutal, as is shown in pictures of the times, the rod being used on all occasions and in the severest manner. The University of Paris was attended by students from all parts of Europe, but little real knowledge was imparted, f Astrology was a favorite science at this period^ ROAD IN THE PIFTBENTH CENTURY. the influence of the stars upon human affairs being uni- versally believed. Even physicians consulted the stars in the treatment of the sick. J 109, Charles V. founded the Eoyal Library of Paris, § and * An old book, entitled the " Scholars' Miseries" (Ifiserice Sckolasticarum) , depicts in a graphic manner the cruelty and severity of the school-masters toward their poor scholars, " whose faces," he says, " were pale and haggard, their liair neglected, and their clothes in rags." t About the time ci the expulsion of the English, in 1436, when Charles VIT. made his triumphal entry into Paris, the university numbered about 25,000 students. The study of tlie Greek language was introduced about that time. t Master Gervaise, astrologer to Charles V., founded a college in Paris for the express purpose of giving instruction in astrology. It was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that this protended science commenced to decline ; and, even as late as the end of tlie seventeenth century, it was practiced in the courts of Europe. At the French court, in the time of Catharine de' IMcdici (about 1550), it was in the highest esteem. J Now the National LiT)rary. It contains at present more than 2,UO(),0Ot) printed volumes, 15(),(KKj manusci'ipts, .•>()!),(K.)i)maps, chaits. etc., l,3(Ki,000 engravings, and a cabinet of coins and medals, containing over 150,0(K) specimens. 1 09. What did Charles V. found ? What is said of this library ? What works are referred to ? What is said of the poetry of this period 'i THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 147 was a generous patron of literature and art. From his father he inherited a collection, of twenty books, which he increased to nine hundred. Among these were many transla- tions, which he caused to be made, of Latin and G-reek authors into French ; but they were, of course, yery imper= feet. Froissarfs Chronicles and the Memoirs of Philippe de Comities are the most noted productions of this periodo Poetry was nothing more than a composition of wretched rhymes ; and the histories generally were a kind of petty gossip, sometimes filled with indecencies. 110. There were French paintings, but they were usual- ly of a very grotesque character, awkward in design, and wretched in execution. Perspective was mainly disregarded ; and the figures often had labels in their mouths to show whom they represented. This mode of representation was very much in vogue, originating, it is said, with the jesting advice of an Italian artist to a French painter. Architec- ture was in a better condition, and many splendid buildings were erected during this period. Allusion has already been made to the magnificent house of Jacques Ooeur. Charles VIII., while in Italy, acquired a taste for architecture ; and, on his return, ordered the erection of the palace at Amboise {am-hivahs'), which he adorned with splendid statues and paintings. 11 L The drama was confined to the Mysteries andifo- ralities, the former being plays representing incidents and events in sacred history. In 1385, at the marriage of Charles VI. and Isabel of Bavaria, a play was acted before the royal pair, entitled "'The History of the Death of our Saviour," the performers being all monks. The play lasted eight days, having eighty-seven characters, the chief of whom was St. John. In 1402, the king granted letters- patent to some of the citizens of Paris to form an associa- tion to represent the Mystery of the Passion. This is the origin of the modern tragedy in France ; as the performance 110. What is said of PaintiTi; cc -»-> O 2 tS t, OS « ^'^"^ o ^ o V ^'^ P- t- c3 o'g-a -4-" i-i a •S- r-O o s ^ o P - C e » •!= So Cj 0) !h p^ 33 a >--3 o ?o& fifcS OS j^ c; 35 a O) CS cS Ehoc . A.. ». 1514.] THE VALOIS-OELEANS BRAN^CH. 159 11. Spain now became the ruling power in Italy; and Julius II., who had died in 1513, was succeeded by Leo X. The Holy League of 1511 was confirmed, and preparations for the invasion of France were at once begun. Turning his back, however, upon the dangers which threatened him, Louis again entered Italy, and attacked the Swiss in Kovarac He was beaten, and being driven out of Italy, returned to France to await the storm which was gathering (1513). A short distance from Calais he met the English, who, with the Emperor Maximilian, had invaded France. He was again beaten, his army plying their spurs so vigorously in flight, that the battle has been known as the Battle of the 8purs (1513). 12. The Swiss, meantime, had entered France and pene- trated as far as Dijon {de-zhong'), where the French army met them. They returned to Switzerland, more, however, on account of the gold which was given them than from the prowess of the French soldiers. A treaty of peace was signed there ; and Louis, weary of war, shortly after signed another truce at Orleans (1514). Henry VIII. of England, however^ refused to be bound by this treaty ; and another was concluded with him at London, one of the conditions of which was the marriage of Louis, who was now a widower, with Henry's sister, Mary, a girl of sixteen. 13. After a great expenditure of blood and treasure, France was now at peace, and the king had leisure to turn his atten- tion to the civil affairs of his kingdom. This was the more desirable, since his foreign wars had not increased its ex- tent, while its industries had suffered by the uncertainty and the heavy taxes to which they had been subjected. TJnfor= tunately, however, Louis did not long survive the treaties he had made. The life of gayety upon which he entered with 113 young wife undermined his constitution, which was 1 1 . What effect had the death of Pope Julius II. on the Holy League ? Was Louis successful in the battle of Novara ? Wliat name has been given to the battle of Guinegate ? Whj^ ? 12. Why was the invasion of France by the Swiss abandoned ? What led the king to sign the truce of Orleans ? How was Henry VIII. pacified ? 1 3 . To what did the king now turn his attention ? What was the immediate cause of his death ? WTien did it occur ? THE yALOIS-OKLEA:N'S BRANCH. [A. ». 1515. already sliaken by previous illness ; and less than six months after his second marriage he died, at the age of fifty-three (1515). 14. Louis XII. has been affectionately called by the French the Father of Ms People. This title was given him by the States-General for the great success which attended his administration of the internal affairs of France ; and here was the field of his true glory. He encouraged agri- culture, trade, and commerce, built many public works, and brought artists from Italy to aid in that revival of literature and art which afterward received the name of the Renais- sance [re-nd-sahns'), or neiv hirth. He checked the luxury of his court, limited his private expenses to the income from his estates, and collected and distributed the public money with such strict economy that taxes were reduced one-third. * 15, Anne of Brittany. — Cardinal Amboise. — In all these reforms, Louis had two noble advisers, Anne of Brit- tany and Cardinal Amboise. The influence of the former, whom the king tenderly loved, was always exerted on the side of right and justice. Of a gentle disposition and gen- uine piety, her example changed the feasting and revelry of a royal court into the quiet of a well-ordered household. The king mourned her death sincerely ; and, though he shortly afterward married, his marriage was rather a matter of policy than affection. In Cardinal Amboise, the king found a minister who sympathized with all his measures for the good of his people. So successful was he, so influ- ential in the Church, and so popular in France, that Louis, who had advanced him to the highest dignities in his power^ even thought of him as the successor to the papal chaira The reverses, however, which the French arms met in Italy destroyed his prospects in this respect. * So different was his method in this respect f ror? that of his predecessors, that it made him the subject of ridicule, which drew from him the famous reply, " I would rather my courtiers should laugh at my meanness than that my people should weep at my ex- penses." 1 4. What title has been given to Louis XII.? Mention some of the benefits con- ferred by him on France. Vv hat famous sayinir of his is recorded :' 1 5. Who were the kintr's ])rincipal advisers ? TIow was the influence of Anne ol Brittany exerted ? What in said of Cardinal Amboise ? A. B. 1515.] THE VALOIS-ORLEAKS BRAKCH. 161 1515 ^^« ^Francis I. — The justice and wise economy to of Louis XII. had produced in France a condition of prosperity which now enabled her to act with power in the affairs of Europe. Her territory was compact^, her people more united than ever, and the authority of the king was undisputed. On this solid foundation the new king stepped, and for thirty-two years wielded her resources., giving France, in many respects, her most brilliant reigm TOMB OF LOUIS XII. AND ANNE OF BRITTANY AT ST. DENIS. since the days of Charlemagne. Louis XII. having left no son to succeed him, the crown devolved upon Francis of An- gouleme, a descendant of Louis, Duke of Orleans, who was assassinated by John the Fearless in 1407. He was brave and handsome, well educated, rash, and fond of luxury and pleasure; but impatient of restraint, and at times cruel. His vices and his virtues were extreme. He taxed his peo- 16. What was the condition of France at the accession of Francis!.? What was the character of Francis ? 162 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRAKCH. [A. ». 1515. pie heavily, yet spent tlieir money with such an open hand, and guarded the kingdom so successfully against its most formidable enemy, that the splendor of his reign has drawn attention away from its glaring defects. 17. Invasion of Italy. — Francis I. was, in many re- spects, the exact opposite of Louis XII. His policy, there= fore, almost entirely reyersed that of his predecessor. The court again became the center of gayety and luxury ; and following the impulses of his nature, he resolved to lead the armies of France once more in a foreign war. He turned, therefore, to Italy, the field of the late reverses to the arms of France, and crossing the Alps at a spot till then deemed impracticable, descended their southern slopes with a large army and an immense number of cannon. Prominent among the leaders of this army were the Chevalier Bayard and the Duke of Bourbon, recently made Constable of France. * 18. Battle of Marignano. — So unexpected was the French advance that Prosper Colonna, the leader of the papal army, was captured at Villafranca, with seven hun- dred of his knights. The king pressed on, and coming up with the main army of the Italians and Swiss at Marignano, near Milan, defeated it after a desperate struggle, which lasted all day and night, and far into the following morning (1515). The fighting was so obstinate that the opposing armies be- came hopelessly entangled. The king slept through the night on a gun-carriage ; and the Chevalier Bayard, lost among the Swiss, crept back to his army on his hands and knees in the darkness. The admiration of the king for the valor of Bayard was so great that he caused himself to be knighted by the latter on the field of battle. 19. Ambition of Francis I. — The king now concluded * The wealth and haughty bearing of the constable were such that Henry VIII. said to Francis I. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, " If I had such a subject, his head should not stay on his shoulders long." 1 7. How docs Francis I. c()mi)are with Louis XII.'? Who commanded the French arms wlicn Francis I. inv.-ulcd Italy ? 1 8. Wliat general was first cai)tured by the French ? How long did the battle of Marii,'nano last ? Mention some incidents of the battle. 19. Between what i)owers was the treaty of Perpetual Peace concluded ? What ambitious project did he afterward entertain 'i Who was his competitor ? A. I>a 1519.] THE YALOIS-ORLEAI^S BRAKCH. 163 — 1 a treaty of peace with tlie Swiss at Fribourg^ in Noyember, 1516, which has been called the Perpehtal Peace ; '^ and an- other with the Pope, which repealed the Pragmatic Sanctioij of Charles VII., and deprived the clergy of many of the priyileges which had been granted them by Louis XII. For three years, France remained at peace ; but, in 1519, the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, filled the mind of the king with the daring tliought of making himself his suc- cessor, and lifting France to the height of glory she attained during the reign of Charlemagne. For the high office of Emperor of Germany, however, he had a formidable com- petitor in Charles of Austria, who, by the death of Ferdi- nand the Catholic, in 1516, had become King of Spain, With him, Francis signed a treaty of peace at that time, by vhich both were pledged to an alliance offensive and defen- sive ; f and, now that an active rivalry had sprung up between them for a new dignity, Francis wrote to confirm his pre- Tious pledge of friendship. 20. The election was held, and Charles of Austria was chosen Emperor of Germany, with the title of Charles V. (1519). Before this, he had been King of Spain, ]^aples, Sardinia, Austria, and the Netherlands. With this new crown placed on his head, he became the undisputed sove- reign of Germany, master of Naples ; and, through his con- trol of the commerce of Flanders, could force England into an alliance with him at any time. France was almost sur- rounded by this new and mighty empire which had sprung up in a day, and was filled with alarm at the danger in which she was placed. Francis I., therefore, forgot all his assurances of friendship, and prepared for war. 2!. The Field of the Cloth of Gold.— The only pow= erful nation near enough to be of service to Francis as an * TMs treaty secured peace between 'Franee and Switzerland for nearly three centu- ries being unbroken down to the commencement of the French Revo.ution. t This was the treaty of Noyon, signed in 1516. 20. Who became Emperor of Germany? What was the extent of his power? What course did Francis I. take ? n^^^i^ ^« 21. What was the object of the conference known as the Field of the Coih o* Gold ? Describe it. 164 THE YAL0IS-0ELEAi3"S BRAXCII. [A. ». 1520. ally was England. He invited the English king, Henry VIII., therefore, to a conference in Erance. The two kings met (1520) at a place near Calais, and their followers gave themselves tip to the most costly sports and ceremonieSo Enormous sums were lavished, each king striving to outdo the other in the richness of his apparel, the splendor of his retinue, and the costliness of his banquets. Many a courtier squandered his whole estate in this single festival of eighteen days. So magnificent was the display, that tlie meeting has always been known as the '^Eield of the Cloth of Gold." The object, however, for which this gorgeous meeting was called by Erancis I. was not attained ; for Charles V. had previously visited England,* and won over the king by his fiattery, and his powerful minister AYolsey by the promise of the papacy ; and now Henry formed an alliance with Charles against Erance. 22, Deprived of aid from without, the Erench king now made vigorous preparation for a war which he saw must be long and bloody. He put his army in motion at once, hoping to thwart the plans of his adversaries by the raj^idity of his movements. He sent an army to assist in prolonging a revolt which had broken out in J^avarre, but before it reached the scene of action the revolt was suppressed. An- other army, under the Duke of Bouillon, marched on Lux- embourg ; a third under Bayard entered Mczieres {?na-ze- dr'), which was threatened by the army of the Emperor, commanded by the Count of Nassau. 23. Siege of Mezieres. — Battle of Bicoque. — Me- zieres was so stoutly defended by Bayard, that the emperor's forces, after three weeks, gave up the siege. The French arms, however, now met with a serious reverse in Italy. * Charles had acted with characteristic promptitude and sagacity. He landed at Dover May 2Gth, 1520; and, although Wolscy liad previously inclined to the interests of France, yet by the flattering distinction vvith which he treated the cardinal, the costly presents which he made to him, and, above all, by the artful intimations which he made use of in regard to the cliair of St. Peter, he completely gained him over to his own interests. The meeting of Henry and Francis took place immediately afterward (June 7, 1520). 22. What did Francis now do ? Who were the French commanders ? 23. Who were successful at Mezieres? What disaster happened to the French arms ? What was the result of the battle of Bicoque t Where is Me'zieres ? A. ». 1522.] THE YALOIS-ORLEAKS BRAXCir. 1G5 The Spaniards attacked Lautrec (lo-trelc'), the French com- mander in Milan^ with a superior force. His Swiss soldiers were dissatisfied at not receiving their pay ; but, after much trouble, were brought to face the enemy at Bicoque {be-hoh'), where they were beaten and forced to retreat (1522). This battle gaye Charles V. the undisputed control of Italy. FRANCIS I. 24, Treachery of Bourbon.— Beath of Bayard.— A greater disaster, however, now happened to Francis I. This was the desertion to the enemy of his powerful and most trusted general, the Constable of Bourbon, who had formed a plot with Charles V. for the dismemberment of France. This was followed by the invasion of the kingdom at three points : in the northwest, by the English ; in the north, by 24. What course did the Constable of Bourbon now take ? Give an account of the death of Bayard. THE YALOIS-ORLEAKS BRANCH. A. ». 1525.1 THE VALOIS-ORLEAN"S BRANCH. IG? the Germans ; and in the south, by way of Guienne. In all these places, the invaders were repulsed ; but in Italy the Erench army, under Bonnivet {hon-ne-vd'), was forced to retreat, and suffered a serious loss in the death of Bayard, who was killed while attempting to check the enemy,* 25. Invasion of Italy. — Capture of Francis I.— Charles V. now attacked Marseilles, hoping by an easy Yic= tory there to become possessed of Provence, and establish a foothold in the south of France. The siege, however, was more difficult than he had expected, and was finally raised by Francis I., who came in person to its relief. Bourbon withdrew with his army beyond the Alps ; and Francis, with an army of more than 40,000 men, now found himself be- fore Italy with no enemy to oppose him. He invaded it at once. Milan fell without a battle, and the king marched to the attack of Pavia, having first detached a small army to reconquer Naples. Bourbon, however, returned to Italy with his army, rallied the allies of the emperor there, and hastened to the relief of Pavia. A great battle was fought before the walls of the city, in which the French, after des- perate fighting, were routed ; and Francis was taken prisoner (1525). 26. Release of Francis I. — The king was at first im- prisoned in a castle near Milan, but afterward he was sent, at his own request, to Madrid ; and his mother, Louise of Savoy, was made Eegent of France to govern it until the king's return. After nearly a year's captivity, Francis was released, having first signed a treaty by which he ceded to the emperor his Italian possessions and a part of France. On the banks of the little river Bidassoa {he-das-so'ah)^ on the southwest border of France, the king was set freCj having first delivered his two sons to the emperor, as hos- * The Constable of Bourbon, who was following the retreating French, came upon the dying knight, who had been placed at the foot of a tree, with his face to the enemy, and Bought to console him. " I die an honest man." said the knight, " and need no pity ; you have sore need of it, who are fighting against your prince, your country, and your oath." 25. Was Charles V. successful in his attack on Marseilles? What conquests iu Italy did Francis make ? What was the result of the battle of Pavia ? 26. How long was the king a prisoner ? On what terms was he released ? Where was he released ? 108 THE VALOIS-ORLEA^^S BRAXCH. [A. ». 132S. tages for the fulfillment of the treaty. Springing upon hia horse on the French side of the riyer^ with the exclamation^ " Once more I am a king ! " he started on his return to the capital. 27. The Holy League. — When the king reached Paris, the representatives of the people refused to confirm that part of the recent treaty which required the cession of Burgundy to Charles V. The latter accused the king of bad faith. Francis answered him angrily, and began a correspondence with Pope Clement YIL and other powers, which led to the Holy League (1526), for the rescue of Italy from the bands of brigands and free lances which the many wars there had produced. Bourbon, with the imperial army, besieged and captured Kome the following year, losing his life in the attempt ; and for many months the capital of the Christian world was given over to his infuriated soldiers, who avenged his death with the most dreadful atrocities. * 28. The king complained bitterly of the sacrilegious ac- tion of the emperor's army in the Holy City, and sent Lau- trec again into southern Italy to reconquer Naples. Want of money for the payment of his troops, and the plague, which carried off their commander, reduced the army to great straits, and the expedition was forced to abandon the prize for which it had suffered so much (1528). f The diplo- * "It is impossible to describe, or even to imagine, the misery and horror of the scenes which followed. Whatever a city taken by storm can dread from military rage unre- strained by discipline ; whatever excesses the ferocity of the Germans, the avarice of the Spaniards, or the licentiousness of the Italians could commit, these wretched inhab- itants were obliged to suffer. Churches, palaces, and houses of private persons were plundered without distinction. No age, or character, or sex was exempt from injury. Cardinals, noble's, priests, matrons, virgins, were all the prey of soldiers, and at the mercy of men deaf to the voic?" of humanity. Nor did these outrages cease, as is usual in towns which are carried by assault, when the first fury of the storm was over. The im- perialists kept possession of Rome several months ; and, during all that time, the inso- lence and brutality or th? soldiers hardly abated. Their booty in ready money alone amounted to a million of ducats ; what they raised by ransoms and exactions far ex- ceeded that sum. i;o'.iie, though taken several times by the northern nations, who over- ran the empire in the fifth and sixth centuries, was never treated with so much cruelty by the barbarous and heathen Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now by the subjects of a ■Catholic monarch."— /?'>&prteow'.s HMnni of Charles V. t The defection of the great Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, also contributed to the defeat of the French. Affronted by the French king, he went over with his whole squadron to the enemy ; and tlie French fleet was unable to maintain the blockade of Naples. Moreover, on his return to Genoa, Doria excited a revolution, by means of which the French were expelled, and the republic was restored. 27. What caused a renewal of the war ? For what purpose was the Holy League formed ? 28. Why did Lautrec fail to capture Naples ? How did Francis now defend him- eelf against the emperor ? A. U. 1533.] THE YALOIS-ORLEAKS BRANCH. 169 macy of the king now rescued France from the dangers which had threatened it, by confining the emperor's atten- tion to the defense of his empire, which was menaced on the east by the Sultan Soliman. An invasion of the Turks was brought about by the cunning of the king, while he further weakened the emperor by causing the withdrawal of England from its alliance with him. 29, The Women's Peace. — These dangers disposed the emperor to treat for peace. Louise of Savoy and the em- peror's aunt, Margaret of Austria, therefore, met at Cam- bray ; and a peace was there concluded, by which the emperor renounced his claim to Burgundy, while insisting upon all the other conditions of the treaty of Madrid. This was known as the Women's Peace, and lasted six years (1529- 1535). Francis I. applied himself, during the interval, to measures for the relief of France from the dangers with which his powerful and skillful adversary constantly men- aced it. He re-organized and strengthened the army, made an alliance with the King of England, and won over the Pope by the marriage of his son Henry to the Pope's niece, Catharine de' Medici {med' e-clie) (1533.)* 30. League with Turkey » — As a matter of policy, Francis I. made an alliance with the Turks, their friendship being the surest guaranty which the king could have against attacks from the emperor. This alliance, however, of a Christian king with infidels was also the greatest offense which Charles could urge against him in the eyes of Europe * An episode in the long struggle between these skillful adversaries happened the fol- lowing year, and illustrates their characters in a striking manner. The city of Ghent had rebelled against the emperor on account of the heavy taxes imposed upon it, and sent an envoy offering to transfer its allegiance to the King of France. The king ad- vised the emperor of this proposition, and proposed that he should cross France in or- der to reach Ghent by the shortest route. The novel offer was boldly accepted by the emperor, and he was sumptuously entertained by the king, wlio accompanied him the greater part of the way. The king used all his arts to impress the emperor with the fact that he was entirely at his mercy, hoping that Charles in return would speak in open approval of some of the king's ambitious projects in Italy. The wary emperor, how- ever, rode luxuriously the whole length of France at the king's expense, and left Iiim r.5 last with only vague promises. Two years after they were at war as before. 29. V>Y whom was the treaty known as the Women's Peace concluded ? How long did peace last ? What measur^^s did Francis take for the safety of France ? 30. Why did the kintz; enter i'lto a league with the Turks ? How was this leajrue regarded in Europe ? What was the effect of the capture of Nice ? How were the emperor's plan-? frustrated '.' 170 THE VALOIS-ORLEAN'S BRAKCH. [A. ». 1544. to justify his own constant quarrels with him. In 1543, a combined French and Turkish fleet attacked and captured the city of Nice. For this act the emperor denounced Francis as an enemy to Christianity. He made a new alli- ance, also, with the King of England, whose army was im- mediately landed in Picardy, and advanced on Paris, while the imperial army pushed on through Champagne to meet him ; and the Spaniards from northern Italy attempted an invasion by way of Piedmont, but were defeated with great loss. In the north, the emperor's plans were frustrated be- cause the English failed to co-operate with him. * Thus the triple invasion of France failed, and the emperor signed a treaty of peace with Francis (1544) ; and two years after, the kings of France and England signed another. 31. On the return of peace, the king turned his attention to the Reformers, f or Protestants, who had greatly increased in number. He was persuaded by evil counselors that his difficulties had arisen mainly from his mildness in dealing with them ; and the censure he had received from the Pope and the Church for his alliances with the Turks weighed upon his mind. He now resolved upon severe measures against them. Many executions were ordered in different parts of France, which were attended with treachery and great cruelty. The most infamous atrocity of this nature, however, which darkened his reign, was his persecution of the Waldenses, or Vaudois {vo-diuah')^ who lived in the val- leys of Piedmont and Provence. 32. Massacre of the Vaudois. — This sect arose in the twelfth century from the preaching of Peter Waldo. Among other religious tenets, they had always insisted upon •'heir right to a free reading of the Bible. They were mostly peasants of pure life and simple manners ; and, though they * The imperial army advanced as far as Meaux, about 25 miles from Paris. t These were the followers of IMartiii Luther, who, in the first part of the sixteenth century, opposed the doctrines of the Church of Rome. They had greatly increased in France at the time referred to. The change they effected In religious matters is called in history the Reformation. 31. To what harsh measures did tlie king now resort ? Wliere did the Vaudois live ? What was their rhrrnc'^e" f Their principles ? 32. Give an acco' ;H "f *he wassacre or the Vaudois. A. ». 154T.] THE YALOIS-ORLEAKS BRAl^CH. 171 had before been threatened with the king's displeasure, had not, up to this time^ been seriously molested. In 1545, however, the soldiers of the king suddenly appeared with fire and sword amongst them, and a general massacre began. Three thousand were burned or slaughtered, more than six hundred were sent to the prison ships, and the remainder, scattered in the woods and mountains, died of hunger and exposure. Their country was laid waste, houses and even trees being included in the general de- struction. 33. Death of Francis I. — Other measures for the per- secution of the Eeformers were resolved upon by the king, but were interrupted by his death (1547). During his latter years, he had been gloomy and morose, and bore little resem- blance to the handsome young monarch whose boisterous gayety shocked the quiet disposition of Louis XII., and drew from him, just before his death, while thinking of his plans for the future of France, the famous remark that '' That boy of Angouleme would spoil every thing." A life of pleasure and excess had made him prematurely old, and brought him to the grave at an age (fifty-two) when he should have been in the fullness of his vigor, and at a time when powerful agencies were at work in Europe, destined to influence ma- terially the fortunes of his kingdom. It was during this reign that Jacques Oartier {kar-te-a) attempted the settle- ment of Canada (1534-5). 1547 ^^' ^©i^ry ^1-5 who succeeded his father, Avas in to all respects his inferior except, perhaps, in his fond- ness for physical exercises, in which he excelled. Being little inclined to assume the cares of state, he permitted the affairs of his kingdom to drift along in the dangerous cur- rent in which his father had thrown them. His most trusted advisers in the administration were the Constable Montmorency and the Duke of Guise [giveez) ; while his court 33. How old was the king at his death ? What is said of the change in his dispo^ sition ? What settlement, was attempted ? 34. By whom was Francis I. succeeded? What is said of Henrj^ II.? By whom was he ruled? What is said of the government ? 172 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BEANCH. [A. D. 1553. was ruled by his favorite, Diana of Poitiers.* Corruption ruled in every department, offices were openly bought and sold, and a swarm of favorites crowded the court and squan- dered the public money. 35. As a consequence of this waste, heavy taxes were neces- sary, and the attempt to collect them produced an uprising in Guienne, the year after the king's accession. The gadelle, or salt tax, became so odious there that the peasants rose in a body and marched through the province, killing the king's collectors and burning their houses. So strong were they that the first troops sent against them were defeated, and the Constable Montmorency found it necessary to take the field in person. He conquered them ; but after he had pun- ished them with great severity the tax was reduced in that province, its strong English sympathies making it prudent to favor it. A war with England was also entered upon in aid of Scotland (1550) ; but the French attack was limited to the capture of Boulogne, which had remained in the hands of the English since the year 1516. 36. Henry II. formed an alliance also with the Protest- ants of Germany, in opposition to the Emperor Charles V. Having secretly won over one of the imperial generals, Maur- ice of Saxony, the king marched into Germany, and captured the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, in the spring of 1552. The emperor returned in the autumn with 60,000 men, and laid siege to Metz. It was defended with the greatest valor and obstinacy ; and Charles V., after a two months' siege, in which his troops suffered incredible hardships from cold and disease, was forced to retire, leaving vast numbers of dead and wounded in his deserted camps (1553). * Diana of Poitiers was the brilliant star of the court, and all other favorites bowed before her. She was the widow of the Sieiir de la Breze, seneschal of JSormandy ; and though several vears older than the king, yet by her wit and her beauty, which she re- tained to an extreme old age, slie so completely captivated him. that he resigned himself and his kingdom almost entirely to lier guidance. So wonderful was her intlvience that the people accused her of using sorcery to accomplish her purposes. Catharine de Medici, the young queen, remained throughout the reign neglected and without in- fluence. 35. ¥'hat was the consequence of this? What is f^-^iA oi X\\Q gabelle f What in- Biurection took i>lace ? What war v.'as undertaken ? What incidents are mentioned ? 3(5, Whiit cities were captured by the French y How did the emperor retaliate? Wb.'it \\i\i tile result of the siege of Metz ? Ac ». 155T.] THE VALOIS-OELEANS BRANCH. 173 37. Abdication of the Emperor. — The war now raged for three years^ with increased violence and varying success, in the north of France, the Netherlands, and Italy. In 1556, however, an unexpected event freed France from her great adversary. Charles V. abdicated, leaving Austria and the title of emperor to his brother Ferdinand ; and Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands to his son, who became king with the title of Philip II. of Spain. The old emperor, weary of his struggle with France, which he had carried on with only short intervals for thirty-five years, went to seek in the quiet of the monastery of Yuste (yoos'ta) the peace for which he had fought so constantly-, but without success. 38. The danger to France was not lessened by the abdica- tion of Charles V. Though the girdle of hostile states which surrounded her was now controlled by two monarchs instead of one, its strength was increased by the addition of Eng- land, whose queen, Mary, had recently been married to Philip II. Henry at once sent an army, under Francis of Guise, into Italy, where Pope Paul IV. aided him^ hoping in this way to drive the Spaniards out of Italy. He was beaten, however, by the Spanish commander, the Duke of Alva. Another expedition under Montmorency, which had gone to invade the Netherlands, was also defeated with great loss at St. Quen'tin, by the Duke of Savoy;* and Montmorency, with many other nobles, was taken prisoner (1557). f * " By this defeat a deadly blow was struck to the very heart of France. The fruits of all the victories of Francis and Henry withered. The battle, with others which were to follow it, won by the same hand, were soon to compel the signature of the most disastrous treaty which had ever disgraced the history of France. The fame and power of the constable faded— his misfortunes and captivity fell like a blight upon the ancient glory of the house of Montmorency— his enemies destroyed his influence and popularity, while the degradation of the kingdom was simultaneous with the downfall of his illustrious name. On the other hand, the exultation of Philip was keen as his cold and stony nature would permit. The magnificent palace-convent of the Escurial, dedicated to the saint on whose festival the battle had been fought, and built in the shape of a gridiron, on which that martyr had suffered, was soon afterward erected in pious commemoration of the event."— Motley's Eine of the Dutch Rejmblic. t " The spoil was enormous, and the plunder of St. Quentin was not unjustly revenged. Jewels, plate, and money were deposited on the altars of the churches, and the inhab- itants, carrying with them the clothes w^hich they wore, were sent as homeless beggars across the channel."— i^'rowde'^* History of England. 37. What unusual event took place in 1.556 ? How was the empire divided? Whither did the emperor retire ? 38c Was the i)ower of the league weakened by tlie abdication of Charles V.? How was it strengthened ? Witlx what reverses did the French now meet ? 174 THE VALOIS-ORLEAls^S BRANCH. [A. D. 155t B9. The Dnke of G-iiise, howeyer, who had returned from Italy, advanced a few months after upon Calais, which had been left with only a small garrison, and captured it ; and the English were thus deprived of their last possession on the soil of France (1558).* The same year, the alliance of England and Spain fell to pieces by the death of Queen Mary, and the accession of Elizabeth, who was a Protestant. Philip II. now conceived a new project, which he occupied many years in carrying out. This was the destruction of Protestantism .by a union of all the Catholic countries in a war against it. He signed a treaty of peace, there- fore, with the King of France, in which the latter kept the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, and a part of Piedmont ; but gave up in the Netherlands more cities and castles ^Hhan could have been taken from him in thirty years of defeat." 40. To bind this peace, a double marriage was arranged : the first, that of Philip II. to the king's daughter Elizabeth ; the second, that of Philibert Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, to the king's sister. Before the departure of the princesses, Henry gave a brilliant entertainment in their honor. One part of this consisted of a tournament, this being a sport in which he excelled. When the combat was almost finished, he called for a lance, and entered the lists against Count Montgomery, the captain of his guard. Both lances were broken by the shock of their meeting ; but, the count failing to lower the stump which remained in his hand, it struck the king's helmet on the visor, and a splinter entering his eye, pierced the brain. He was carried from the lists mor- tally wounded, and eleven days after died (1559). * " Calais was called tho ' brightest jewel in the English crown.' A jewel it was— use- less, costly, but dearly prized. Over the gate of Calais had once stood the insolent in- scription :— ' Then shall the Frenchmen Calais win. When iron and lead like cork shall swim ; ' and the Frenchmen had won it— won it in fair and gallant &ght."—-F?'ouae's Riston/ oj England. .39. What successes of the French immediately followed ? Whnt great project did the Kins;^ of Spain form ? Wliat chann\ FA. B. 1589. section ii. The House of Bourbok. Extending from the Accession of Henry IV. (1589) to that of Louis XVI. (1774). 15^9 1. Henry IV.— Henrj III. was the last of the to house of Valois. At his death, the Catholics nonii- nated Cardinal Bourbon as his successor; but the Huguenots supported Henry of Navarre. The latter was the son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine de Bourbon, a lineal de- scendant of St. Louis. For a long time the Catholics in France had been outspoken in their opposi- tion to the elevation of a heretic to the throne. The nomination of Henry of Navarre, therefore, who was a Huguenot, was followed by the withdrawal of many moder- ate Catholics who had, up to this time, supported him. He gave up the siege of Paris, and retired to the northern part of France to await reinforcements from England. 2. Battle of Ivry. — The Duke of Mayenne, the leader of the League, followed him, and a battle was fouglit near Dieppe {de-ep'), in which Henry was victorious. The mar- tial spirit of Henry IV. is shown by the message which he sent to his friend-in-arms Crillon, after the battle of Arques : '^ Go hang yourself, brave Crillon ; we've had a fight at Arques, 1 , Who became the rival candidates for the throne at the death of Henry HI.? Who was Heniy of Navarre ? What followed his nomination ? x-^'P^ ^^^^'^ P^^"'^y ^^^^ Mayenne the leader ? What important battle was fought I What was the result ? ° HENRT IV, A. I>. 1593.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 195 tind you weren't there. " Then having received the promised aid from England, he returned to the siege of Paris, but was again compelled to retire before the superior force of Mayenne. The latter, feeling the necessity of a victory to strengthen his cause, followed Henry, and a more decisive battle was fought at Ivry (eev're) (1590). "^ The result was a complete victory for Henry, who generously ordered his sol- diers to spare the Frenchmen whom they should find among the vanquished, f 3. The King becomes a Oatholic. — Forabout four years the war continued, but without decisive advantage to either side. Both were weary of it, and Henry saw that his most trusted adherents were discouraged. He resolved, therefore, upon a bold step which should dissolve existing parties, and bring peace to his distracted country. On the 25th of July, 1593, he went to the church of St. Denis and solemnly renounced the Huguenot faith, taking that of the Catholic Church in its stead. J By this act both sides wer-e thrown into confusion, and Henry's cause made such prog- ress tnat Mayenne was compelled to agree to a truce. 4. Paris, however, yet remained to be captured ;§ but * Though the forces of Henry were inferior in number to those of the League, he did not hesitate. Scorning the proposition to retreat which some of his advisers had made, he pointed to the white plume above his helmet, and directed his soldiers to make that their rallying point in case they lost their standards, since they would always find it in the path of honor and glory. t " The poverty of Henry in the early part of his career was the subject of many witti- cisms, in which he himself often Indulged. The day before the battle of Ivry, it led to a scene between him and Marshal Schomberg which places in a striking light not only his magnanimity, but the generous spirit of the marshal and his readiness at repartee. Schomberg had demanded of Henry money for the payment of his suffering troops. The latter answered h::stily, ' A brave man never asks for money on the eve of battle.' The following day, repenting his harsh words, he sent for the marshal, before the battle, and said, ' This day, marshal, will be, perhaps, my last. I would not rob a brave man of his honor. In you I recognize a true soldier, incapable of any act of cowardice. Embrace me!' 'Sii'e,' said the marshal, 'yesterday you wounded me; to-day you kill me.' A few hours after, the marshal was 6.eiid."—Guizot''s History/ of France. t " There is no measuring accurately how far ambition, personal interest, a king's ego- tism, had to do with Henry IV. 's abjuration of his religion ; none would deny that those human infirmities were present ; but all this does not prevent the conviction that patriot- ism was upDermost in Henry's soul, and that the idea of his duty as king toward France, a prey to all the evils of civil and foreign war, was the determining motive of his reso- lution."— 6!^?«:j;or.9 History of France. ? Henry could have taken the city some time before, had he consented to an assault. "I am," said he, "the true father of my people. I would rather never have Paris than possess it by the death and ruin of so many persons." When the people, during the siege, were greatly pressed by fanihie, a deputation v/as sent to the kincr to ask permis- sion for the sick and aged to leave the city. He granted it at once, saying, "Thej^ can- not help the crimes of others ; I will hold out my arms to them." About 4,C00 persons departed, crying out with all the strength left to them, " Long live the king ! " 3. How long did this war continue ? What act at length made a decided, change in favor of the king ? When did this take place, and where ? 4. When did Henry enter Paris ? What followed ? 196 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOJs^. [A. ». 1594. Brissac, its commander, made a secret agreement with Henry to admit him ; and, at 4 o'clock on the morning of March 22d^ 1594, Henry entered the city, and going to the cathedral, gave thanks for his victory. A general pardon immediately followed.* The Spanish troops were permitted to leave the city, Henry himself accompanying them to the city gate, and salnting them ironically, as they passed out, with the words, " Go bear my compliments to your master, hut don t come back.^' CASTLE OP NANTES.t 5. The capture of Paris was a death-blow to the League^ Many provinces and cities acknowledged the king's authority at once ; others, after more or less jBghting or negotiation. | * "The king's entry was quite triumphal. He was met at different parts by the public bodies, who offered their homage, while the provost presented the keys of the city. The streets resounded with shouts of Vive le Boi! and the power of the League was, in a mo- ment, replaced by the authority of the lawful sovereign, who now appeared as generally beloved as he had lately been execrated by the m\x\tit\\ae:'—Broioniny's Hifitory of the HtKnicnntK. t The Castle of Nantes is an irregular Gothic structure, built in the fifteenth century. Here the discarded Anne of Brittany found an asylum ; and here it was that Henry IV. signed the Edict of Nantes. It was famous also in the subsequent history of France. t The prospect for a lasting peace seemed bright, but was suddenly overcast by^ an attempt which was made to assassinate the king. A young man named Jean Chatel 5, What was the result of the capture of Paris ? What brought Mayenne to terms 1 A. ». 1600.] THE HOUSE OF BOUKBON. 19? Mayenne, aided by the Spaniards^ still kept up the struggle for the expiring League in Burgundy ; but a battle was fought which resulted in a victory for the king, and led to a truce (1595). 6. Henry had been crowned at Chartres {sliartr) in 1594 ; but one ceremony still remained to be performed to strengthen him at home and abroad. This was the absolu- tion of the Pope, which had been denied him for several years but was now granted. The surrender of Mayenne followed shortly after. The peace of the kingdom was also further secured by the famous Edict of Nantes (1598), by which all the privileges granted to the Huguenots in previous treaties were restored to them. Entire liberty of conscience was conceded to them, and they were admitted to all offices of honor and emolument. 7. Having obtained from the Pope a divorce from his wife, the dissolute and shameless Marguerite de Valois, he married Mary de' Medici, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Florence and niece of the Pope (1600). His attention to the interests of the people caused him to be much beloved by them. Toward the peasantry he showed particular re- gard,* and they in return manifested the greatest affection for their good king. 8. The long continuance of the religious wars had disor- ganized everything. By the construction of roads and canals, the king brought all parts of the country into ready communication ; he encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manufactures, mining, and every other department of industry were fostered by his beneficent measures, in de- vising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright (shah-teV), having been admitted to the king's presence, aimed a blow at his breast, but succeeded only in wounding him in the lip. As he had been educated by the Jesuits, this act led to the burning of his teaclier and the expulsion of the order from France. * This is illustrated by the kindly words : " If I live, every man shall have a fowl to put in his pot for his Sunday dinner." 6. What two acts now confirmed the power of Henry ? What were the provisions of the Edict of Nantes ? 7. From whom did Henry obtain a divorce ? Whom did he marry ? How was he regarded by the people ? 8. What did he do to benefit the country ? By whom was he aided ? 198 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". [A. ». 1610s Duke of Sully.* The latter re-organized the finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 9. Henry was, however, still regarded by many with sus- picion as the secret enemy oi the Church. Biron and Bou- illon, one his most trusted general, and both his former companions, conspired against him and were punished ; the first losing his life, and the second finding safety only in flight. This distrust, how- ever, was more than balanced by Ms rapidly increasing pop- ularity. He formed a plan, during his latter years, for the re-organization of Europe, and for the foundation of hu great Christian confederation of nations, to guarantee civil and religious freedom, and to preserve the balance of power by diminishing the influence of suixT. the imperial house of Austria and the excessive power of Spain, f One of the first steps in this project was the deliverance of the JSTetherlands from Spanish misrule. He had Just set on foot a formidable expedition to accomplish this, when, riding out in his car- " riage one day in Paris, he was stabbed by a native of An- * The Duke of Sully was born at Kosny, near Nantes, in 1550. He belonged to a noble Protestant family, and took part with Henry in all his wars, becoming- his chief adviser. H(i was not crcatoi Duke of Sully till 16.)i). Hi=i J/"-^'mO-.s% which he wrote after his re- tirement, is one of the most interesting and valuable books of the time. t The Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed religions were to be on an equal footing. The association was to comprise six hereditary monarchies : France, Snain, England, Den- mark, Sweden, and Lombardy ; five elective monarchies : the Empire, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and the Papal States; and four republics : Venice, Genoa and Florence, Switz- erland, and the Netherlands. 9. How was the kinir regarded ? Wlio conspired against him ? What plan did he form? Give an account of his assassinai ion. A.. ». IGIO.] THE HOUSE OF BOUIiBOl^. 199 gouleme, named Ravaillac {rah-val-yah'), who had followed him from the Louvre (loovr) for the purpose (1610) * 10. Henry IV. has always been regarded with affection by the French on account of the political changes which he made, and the charm of his personal character. He was braye, generous, and witty ; a natural orator, and possessed of an unfailing good-humor, which often conciliated his en- emies and smoothed away many difficulties, f .His skill as an administrator is shown in the success with which he rec- onciled opposing interests and parties ; while the great re- sults produced during his reign by the dissolution of the League, and the guaranty of religious freedom to all sects constitute a lasting claim upon the gratitude of his country- men. The colonial possessions of France in North America were commenced during this reign by means of the settlements and explorations made by Samuel Champlain, who founded Quebec in 1608, and by the settlement of Acadia I at Port Royal, by the wealthy Huguenot, DeMonts {diimong'}(1605). 1610 ^^' Louis XIII. — Mary de' Medici had been to crowned by her husband on the eve of his departure for his campaign in the J^etherlands. She now be- came regent during the minority of her son, who was af- terward known as Louis XIII. Under her administration, much of the work performed by Henry IV. was undone. A crowd of favorites swarmed around the court, and squan- dered the public money. Prominent among these were two Italian adventurers § whom the regent had brought with her * " The punisTiment of Eavaillac was of barbaric severity. The hand with which he had assassinated the king was burned off over a slow fire, the fleshy parts of his body were torn with pincers, molten lead and boiling oil were poured into the wounds, and he was then quartered [torn to pieces by horses]. His remains were burned to ashes and scat- tered to the winds, and his relatives were banished or forced to change their names."— JJv,r7i7/\'i Historij of France. t His life was attempted twenty times ; and his sudden death after a long career of danger, and when at the height of his power, has probably contributed somewhat to tL3 admiration in which he is held. X Acadia was the name then given to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the adjacent islands. § These were an obscure adventurer named Concini, and Leonora, b?s wife. The latter was a foster-sister of Mary de' Medici, ard was made the first lady of her bedchan:'-;cr. Concini received the title of Marquis D'Ancre. and was made Marshal of France. lu the change of affairs that ensued they were put to death. 1 O. What was the character of Henry IV.? How is his skill shown ? What French colonies were planted in America ? 11. Who succeeded Henry IV.? Who became regent on the death of Henry IV.? Who were her favorites ? Wliat was the character of the court ? 300 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1615. to Paris. Sully resigned his office in disgust, and Oonde re- turned. The latter retired, however, and organized a party in opposition to the regent. Civil war was threatened, but was averted by a treaty in which the regent made great concessions. 12. The majority of the king was proclaimed in 1614, and the States- General assembled the month after. The meeting is memorable chiefly from the bold attitude taken by the third estate, and from the first appearance in a civil character of the young bishop of Lu9on {loo-song'), who afterward became famous as Cardinal Eichelieu {reesh'e-lu). It was the last assembly, also, from that time till 1789. Little was done by the States-General to satisfy the party of the nobles led by Conde, and the latter withdrew and in- stigated a new revolt. A double marriage took place at this time (1615), that of the king and his sister;. the former with the daughter of the King of Spain, the latter with his son ; and, the next year, the king conciliated Conde, making important concessions to him. 13. Conde now returned to Paris, where he completely eclipsed the Italian favorite and overshadowed the king him- self in the regard of the people. His boldness aroused the suspicion of Mary de' Medici, who caused him to be arrested for conspiring against the king, and threw him into prison. The weakness of the king was, by this time, so apparent that a change of advisers was determined upon. Among the changes made was the appointment of Eichelieu as minister of foreign affairs. This step was taken by the king on the advice of De Luynes {loo-een') an early companion and favorite, who had won the king's favor by his skill in train- ing falcons for the royal sport of hawking. This person was now advanced to the highest dignities. 14. The exile of Mary de' Medici to Blois checked for a time the civil war which was threatened. The queen- 12. When was the majority of the king proclaimed? What meeting was held? For what is it noted ? What marriage took place ? What reconciliation was effected ? 13. What is said of the influence of Conde ? What was done by Marj-^ de' Medici ? What changes were made .imong the king's advisers ? By whose advice ? Who was De Luynes ? 1 4. What prevented civil war ? In what way did Mary de' Medici annoy the king ! What reconciliation was effected ? What followed ? A. D. 1621.] THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOK. 201 mother, howeyer, formed a rallying point for all who were discontented with the king ; but Eichelieu brought about a reconciliation, and Oonde was also released from prison and received into favor by the king. Nevertheless the in- fluence exerted by De Luynes, the grievances of Mary de' Medici, and those of the Huguenots together formed suffi- cient grounds for a new revolt ; and the king was again obliged to march into Normandy to suppress it. He also besieged the queen-mother in Angers and compelled lier to submit. 15. Since the death of their champion, Henry IV., the Huguenots had watched the course of events with great misgiving. Finding little hope for their cause in the course pursued by the king, they now formed a project for the es- tablishment of a Huguenot republic in France, similar to that of Holland. Eochelle (ro-sheV) was the center of their power. The Duke of Bouillon was made commander-in- chief of their army ; and the money collected for the royal treasury, as well as the property of the Catholic Church, was seized to defray the expenses of the soldiers (1621). 16. De Luynes was at once made Constable of France, and marched against the Huguenots; but his death occurred soon afterward.* Within a year, ^B the Huguenot CO mm an der ofMontpellier, then besieged by the Eoyal- ists, conclud- * De Luynes was ineflacient aad avaricious, and, by his selfish eagerness to enrich him- self and his relatives, he soon became very unpopular. He died unregretted, even by the king, whose favorite he had been. CASTLE OF LUYNES. 15. What did the Hugusnots attempt? What city was their capital? Who was their commander ? 1 6. Who was created constable ? What events followed ? 9* JB02 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOX. [A. ». 1627. ed a treaty of peace (1622), after which Montauban {mont- o-hahn') and Eochelle were the only fortified cities in the possession of the Hnguenots, 17. Two years after the death of De Lnynes, Eichelieii, who had been made cardinal through the influence of Mary de' Medici, was admitted to the councils of the king. He was made prime minister in 1624; and his power was felt at once in every department of the government. He introduced order into the chaos left by De Luynes, and marked out a bold policy to be pursued by the king toward the Huguenots, the nobles who conspired against him, and the great powers of Europe. His first step was the arrest of the king's secre- tary of the treasury, who stood in his way. This was fol- lowed by the marriage of Henrietta Maria, the king's sister, to the son of James I. of England ; and as the latter died before the ceremony took place, the bridegroom became king of England, under the title of Charles I. 18. The vigor of Eichelieu, and the harsh measures to which he resorted against all incompetent officers, soon raised up enemies among the pleasure-loving courtiers, and led to a conspiracy against him and the king. The leaders of the plot were the Count of Chalais and the king's brother, Gaston, Duke of Anjou, who seemed likely to succeed to the throne, as Louis had no children. On discovering their in- tention, Eichelieu took the severest measures. Some of the lords were beheaded, others exiled ; and even the queen her- self was humbled for her supposed complicity. The king's brother Avas then married, receiving a large estate and the title of Duke of Orleans. * 19. Siege of Rochelle. — The hopes of the Protestants of Eochelle were revived, in 1627, by the arrival in their * He had basely betrayed and deserted his accomplices in order to save himself. Chalais was beheaded at Nantes ; and It is said the blundering executioner succeeded in performing his office only after the thirty-fourth blow of the ax. The young, queen was summoned before the council and reprimanded. 17. What new influence now made itself felt? What steps did Richelieu take to Etrengthen the kinp; ? What marriajj^e took place ? 1 8. What conspiracy was formed ? How was it suppressed ? 19. Give an account of the .siege of Roclielle. By whom were the Hnguenots Bustained ? Were they successful '? What was done after the surrender of the city ? A. D. 1629.] THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOK. 203 harbor of an English fleet, commanded by the famons Duke of Buckingham. Eichelieu marched with a formida- ble army to the siege of the city. The English, after some slight successes at first, sailed away at the end of four months ; and Eichelieu constructed a great dike to close the harbor in case they should return. The supplies of the city were cut off by the inyesting army, and the inhabitants were reduced to the greatest extremities. * The city surrendered after a fifteen months' siege (1628) ; and the king entered in triumph, Eichelieu in person deliyering him the keys. Se- vere measures were taken to prevent the stubborn city from ever again forming the nucleus of a revolt against the king. Many of its special privileges were taken away, and its forti- fications were demolished. 20. The Huguenots, after their defeat at Eochelle, re- treated to the south of France, where, under the Duke of Eohan, they still kept up the struggle. The royal army, however, pursued them from city to city, slaughtering them with merciless severity, and razing the fortifications of their cities to the ground, till the Duke of Eohan fled for safety to Italy, and the political power of the Huguenots was en- tirely broken. The treaty known as the Udict of Grace brought to a termination the long religious war (June, 1629). 21. On Eichelieu's return from his triumphs in the south he found but a cold reception awaiting him at court. The king had been attacked with a dangerous illness ; and, in anticipation of his death, a new plot had been formed against the cardinal, by Mary de' Medici, and many of the nobles. * " Eemembering how Alexander the Great had taken Tyre, he began to build up the entrance of the gulf. The Huguenots at first laughed loud when they saw his soldiers, all turned engineers for the nonce, tumbling the rocks into the sea for the foundation of the mole ; but when the structure topped the water and began to grow out into the deep, very blank they looked. Still the masonry increased, until a dark mass of cemented rocks half a mile long, closing in the harbor, completed the circle of blockade. Earl Lindesay came with ships from England, but could do nothing to aid the besieged. Fam- ine ground them with its slow and terrible pain, until they had no resource left but to yield up to the triumphant Richelieu the last hope of the Huguenots. The siege Jiad lasted more than twelve months. Of fifteen thousand who had begun the defense, there remained only four thousand wasted specters."— i>r. Collier. 20. What course did the Huguenots take? How were they defeated? How did the iono; religions war end ? 21 . What led to a plot against Eichelieu ? Who wore concerned in it ? What was llie result of it 5' ^04 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON^. [A. D. 1632, Louis, who had never loved his great minister, promised to dismiss him, and arrangements were made for his with- drawal. But the king suddenly restored Richelieu to favor, and the latter took stern and summary vengeance upon the conspirators (1630).* 22, The great and increasing power of Austria still con= tinned a menace to the peace of Europe, and Eichelieu en- tered into an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, to reduce it. f By this agreement, the King of Sweden was to lead against Austria an army of 30,000 men, France bind- ing herself to pay 400,000 crowns annually for its support. Gustavus Adolphus thus became the head of the Protest- ant party in Europe. The war in which he now engaged, known as the Thirty Years' War, had been begun in 1618. He suddenly appeared in Germany with his army, J and won a decisive victory at Leipsic ; but ended his career as suddenly at the battle of Lutzen, which was fought the following year (1632). 23. The enemies of Richelieu in France were active in spite of their many defeats. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, en- tered into a conspiracy with Henry of Montmorency, the Governor of Languedoc, and the king sent Marshal Schom- berg to attack them_. A battle took place ; but the Duke of Orleans fled at the beginning of the action, and made peace with the king by complete submission. Montmorency was w^ounded and taken prisoner, and, the following month, was beheaded, his estates being confiscated. Owing to his high birth and chivalrous character, his fate caused general regret * The triumph of Kichelieu was complete. Marillac, the keeper of the seals, who owed his position to the favor of Richelieu, was thrown into prison ; his brother, a marshal of France, was beheaded; the king's mother and the Duke of Orleans were driven into exile, and many conspirators were obliged to seek safety in flight. The day on which the tables were thus suddenly turned has always been called the Da>/ of the Dnpert. t Said Richelieu to the German princes : " It is, no doubt, a great affliction for the Chris- . tian commonwealth that none but the Protestants should dare to oppose such pernicious designs ; they must not be aided in their enterprises against religion, but they must be made use of in order to maintain Germany in the enjoyment of her liberties." t " This snow-king will go on melting as he comes south," said the emperor, Ferdinand, on hearing that Gustavus Adolphus had disembarked from Sweden. 22. What was the next project of Richelieu ? What alliance did he form ? State the conditions. Give the subsequent history. 2B. What other conspiracy was formed ? What measures Avere adopted to subdue It '/ With what result ? What reconciliation took place 'i A. B. 1G3T.] THE HOUSE OF BOUliBON". 205 in France. Richelieu soon after succeeded in removing the Duke of Orleans from the influence of the queen-mother, and bringing him back to France, where a public recon- ciliation between him and the king took place, which was attended with great rejoicing (1634). 21. War with Austria — France, under the guidance of Richelieu, now entered upon a war with Austria and Spain on the grandest scale. Five armies Avere organized, and the war was begun at once in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, and in Italy. The king's generals were victorious in the Netherlands, in a battle near Liege (1635) ; but this was followed, the next year, by an invasion of the enemy, who penetrated to within fifty miles of Paris, and might easily have captured it, so great was the terror into which its in- habitants were thrown. In Italy, the Duke of Rohan re- pulsed the imperial army, but finally lost the province through Spanish intrigue. The war in other quarters was not successful, owing to misunderstandings between the allies of France. 25. In the midst of foreign war, and notwithstanding the severe punishments which had always followed the discovery of plots against his authority, Richelieu found himself con- stantly obliged to be on the alert for new ones. The queen, in 1637, was discovered to be in secret correspondence with the court of Spain, in opposition to the interests of France ; and the king himself, through the influence of the women of the court, or through his jealousy of the power of his great minister, v/as frequently in dispute with him. Not- withstanding all these annoyances, however, Richelieu pro- secuted his plans boldly, and often with pitiless severity. Sometimes on the field of battle, oftener by treaty or intrigue, he moved on to the end he proposed, "trampling all opposi- tion under foot," as he himself expressed it, and "covering all mistakes with his scarlet robe." 24. In what war was France now engaged ? What force did she put in the field f What invasion took jilace ? With what result ? What else is said of the war ? 25. What new plot was now discovered ? Why was the king himself sometimes discovered in these plots ? What course did Richelieu always pursue ? 206 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOK. [A. D. 16?' . 26. Fourth Conspiracy. — On every side the war went on ; in Italy, in the Netherlands, in the south of France ; at home and abroad, by land and sea. In 1642, Eichelieu introduced to the king, as a companion, Henry, Marquis of Cinq-Mars {sanh-mar'), then nineteen years of age, hoping in this way to keep a watch upon the king. Louis soon became attach- ed to Mm, and advanced him rapidly ; and this so turned the young man's head that he demanded a seat in the council,* which being refused by Eichelieu, he entered in- to a conspiracy against his be- nefactor. His accomplices were the Duke of Bouillon and his relative De Thou {too), and the ever-ready Duke of Orleans. A secret treaty was concluded with Spain, a copy of which, by some unknown means, was furnished to Richelieu, who was then lying sick at Narbonne. The Duke of Orleans was apprehended, and frightened into revealing the full extent of the plot. The Duke of Bouillon was arrested at the head of the army in RICHELIEU. * He even insisted upon beins present durinjj the private interviews of Eiclielieu with the king; whereupon his presumption was severely rebuked by the ha;.ghty minister. For this he vowed vengeance, and resolved upon the removal and death of the cardinal. 26. Who was Cinq-Mars ? What did he demand ? With whom dJcL he intrigue against the authority of Richelieu ? What was the result ? A. ». 1643.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOIT. 20? Italy, and escaped death only by the surrender of his prin- cipality of Sedan. Cinq-Mars and De Thou were executed. This was the last plot which Richelieu was called upon to punish (1642). 27. The same year, Mary de' Medici died in Cologne ; and Richelieu, while actiyely engaged in carrying on the war in the south, was taken ill, and soon recognized that his end was near. He was borne back to the capital with the most affectionate care by his attendants, and with the deference and luxurious surroundings which only a monarch could command. A crowd of courtiers thronged the ante-chamber of his dwelling, and the king himself came twice to visit him. He died in 1642, at the age of fifty-seven years ; and the king survived him less than six months.* Filled with regret for the harshness which he had permitted his minister to use, Louis pardoned, almost without exception, those whom the latter had exiled. Before his death, he confided the regency to his wife, Anne of Austria, leaving as his successor a child less than five years of age (1643). 28. Louis XIII. was so completely overshadowed by his minister, that his real character has been difficult to ascer- tain. In early life, his inclinations were frivolous, and he showed little liking for the cares of state. This seems to have been the opinion of Richelieu, who, at times, provided him with boyish amusements to prevent him from interfer- ing with the affairs of state. Occasional acts and speeches show that he was heartless ; but one of his early instructors declares that he had his family's genius for war ; and con- siderable self-control must certainly be accorded to an abso- lute prince who could so far check his own impulses as to retain for a lifetime a minister who was distasteful to him, and who constantly belittled him by his mere presence. * Eichelieu died without fear. The bishop of Lisieux, who stood at his bedside, said, " Such firmness astonishes me." Among his last words were these : " I have loved justice and not vengeance. I have been severe to a few that I might be a benefactor to many. 27. When and where did Mary de' Medici die ? Give an account of the death of Richelieu. What is said of the last days of the king ? 28. Why has it been difficult to ascertain the character of Louis XIII. ? What was his character, so far as is known V 208 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. [Ao !•. 1643. 29. Character of Richelieu. — Concerning Eichelieu himself little disagreement exists. His was one of tlie great minds of the seventeenth century. He combined in a sin- gular degree a capacity for planning great enterprises with the ability to form the combinations necessary to make them suc- cessful ; the skill of the statesman with the ability of the general ; the address of the man of the world with the love of letters which usually characterizes the solitary student. "With a profound knowledge of human nature, he read easily the characters of those around him ; and such was the fer- tility of his resources, that, though he lived for eighteen years in the midst of conspiracies against his power, and e^-en against his life, he thwarted them constantly to the end. More conspicuous, perhaps, than any other quality was his unconquerable will. Before this all others bent — nobles, members of the royal family, even the king himself. Prime minister and cardinal, the powers of both his high offices were freely used in carrying out his civil policy, which was steadily directed to the aggrandizement of France ; and, at his death, he left a fortune of 1,500,000 livres, as a gift to the kino: whom he had served. 30. Civil Policy of Richelieu. — The constant aim of Eichelieu at home was the increase of the royal power. To this end he abolished the offices of constable and grand ad- miral ; substituted for governors of provinces intendants, who were more immediately under the control of the king, and who gradually concentrated in their hands all civil power ; demolished fortresses captured from nobles in re- volt, confiscated their lands, and annulled their titles and dignities. Abroad, he directed all the energies of France to the destruction of his most formidable rival in Europe — the Spanish branch of the house of Austria. His preparations for this purpose v/ere immense ; and, when the struggle came, the means he had provided and the efforts he put 29. How does Richelieu rank amons; the men of his time ? In what respects was he preat ? By what ])c)wer were all his faculties directed '? 30. What'means did he adopt to increase tlie kiuK"s power ? What was his princi- pal aim abroad ? What was the result of his e£forts ? What did he leave ? A. ». 1643.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 209 forth astonished even the king. The result of his labors was the establishment of absolute pov/er in the hands of Louis XIII. SI. Art and Literature. — The encouragement given ^^^^ jfii^ VERSAILLES UNDER LOUIS XIIT. (CHIEF ENTRANCE.)* by Richelieu to art, and particularly to literature, was great and of lasting effect. Many institutions still remain which were either established or largely aided by him. He founded the celebrated French Academy, and the botanical and zo- ological garden, called the Jardin des Plantes {zJiar-dang'da plalint), the former, for the regulation of the language and the creation of correct literary models ; the latter, for the promotion of scientific inquiry. The Sorbonne also was re- organized by him, and the royal printing-office established ; while many beautiful specimens of architecture still bear * Versailles is situated about ten miles from the center of Paris. The palace under Louis XIII. was a mere hunting-lodge. It was Louis XIV. who built the splendid struct- ure in which that monarch and his successors resided until the Revolution. 31 . Was the reisjn of Louis XIII. favorable to art and literature ? Mention some of the institutions founded or aided bj' Richelieu. What other changes were made by his advice ? 210 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOi^. [A. H. 1648. witness to liis cultiyated taste. By liis advice, also, France was provided with a permanent navy ; and, during his admin- istration, the first French newspaper was founded. 1643 ^'^'' Lo^^s XIV., afterward known as Louis the to Great, or the Grand Monarque [gralmd mon-arlc), was less than five years old when he was left the undis- puted heir to the throne of France. His mother was made regent during his minority, and Cardinal Maz'a-rin was chosen as her chief counselor (1643). The Thirty Years' War was still raging in Europe ; and the French arms, under Conde and Turenne, were everywhere victorious. Austria, finding herself attacked on every side, now sued for peace ; and the Thirty Years' War was ended by the treaty of West- phalia (1648).* 33. During these stirring events, the nobles of France, always ready to wrest from the king the power they had lost, formed a party for the purpose, but found themselves op- posed by Cardinal Mazarin. They now attempted to dis- grace and depose him ; and in this effort they were aided by the unfortunate condition of the affairs of the kinsrdom. Enormous taxes had been levied by Eichelieu to carry out his great designs, and large sums were still needed. Maza- rin, who was hated on account of his foreign birth, employed as one of his agents a fellow-countryman, who made him- self odious by the harshness with which he collected the heavy taxes required. 34. The War of the Fronde.— The people of Paris rose in revolt and barricaded the streets. A popular party was formed to resist the royal authority represented by Maz- arin ; and, though the cardinal yielded at first, he after- '^ The result of this long struggle was the guaranty of civil and religious liberty in Europe, and the acquisition by France of the province of Alsace, the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, and the little city of Pignerol {peen-yer-ole), which gave her a foot, hold in Italy. 32. How old was Louis XTV. when he became kiiifr? Who was his principal adviser ? When did the Thirty Years' War fnd ? By what treaty ? What was the result of it ? 33. By whom was Mazarin opposed ? What had produced the heavy taxes which tlie kin. 1652. was a brother of the great Conde^ the Dukes of Bouillon, Beaufort (bo' fort), Longueville [long-veel), and La Rochefou- cauld [rosh-foo-ko'). The great Conde at first had taken sides with the court. 35. The king and his mother^ with their adherents, left Paris suddenly ; and the excited populace took possession of the city. Being without any definite aim, however, and having no strict organization, they were easily beaten in the first battle ; and the regent, v/ith the king, re-entered Paris. Fearing arrest, the greater part of the nobles who had taken part in the Fronde left the city. The Prince of Conti, however, and the Duke of Longueville remained, and were suddenly arrested in tlie Louvre, together with the greau Conde, who had joined the Fronde because his services to the royal party had not been rewarded. When the news of these arrests became known, war broke out at once in Bur- gundy, N"ormandy, and Guienne ; and Mazarin, alarmed at the storm he had provoked, left France, and took up his residence at Cologne (1651). One of his last acts previous to his leaving, was the liberation of Conde, Conti, and Longueville. 36. On the return of Conde to Paris, his ambition soon brought him into conflict with De Eetz ; and Mazarin took advantage of this to re-enter France with an army, which he placed at the disposal of the king. Cond^ with- drew into Guienne to encoura2:e the revolt there, while the king's troops, under the command of Turenne, marched to attack the Frondeurs on the Loire ; and, though beaten at first, succeeded finall}'" in checking them. Conde com= manded the Frondeurs in these engagements, though his presence among them was not at first known. Both the king's troops and those of the Fronde now hastened to Paris, each hoping to capture it. The Parisians, however, 35. Which piclc was at first AMctorions in Paris ? Was the success of th'> Fronde lasting? Whom did the king arrest? What did these arrests produce? What did Mazarin do ? 36. Wliat course did Mazarin afterward take? Who commanded the opposing armies ? To whom did Paris finally open its gates? Why did the \ictorious Fronde fail ? A. D. 1653.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". 216 closed the gates of the city, and the two armies met again outside the walls. After a bloody battle, the gates of the city were opened to Conde, and the cannon of the Bastile opened fire upon the king's army, by order of the daugh- ter of the Duke of Orleans (1652). The royalists then with- drew ; and the Fronde, though victorious, soon fell to pieces through the jealousies of rival leaders. 37. Coronation of the King. — Negotiations now took place between the king and the people of Paris, with a view to the return of the former to the capital. M a z a r i n, in order to facili- tate these, again left France, and the king, being entreated by the people,returned to Paris. Conde fled, and a sen- tence of death was afterward pronounced against him. Many of the leaders of the Fronde, includ- ing De Eetz, were imprisoned mazarin. or banished. In the quiet which settled down upon Paris, Mazarin again returned, and was intrusted Avith greater power than before. The last blow to the existence of the Fronde was given in 1653, by the submission of Guienne, to which province most of the insurgent leaders had fled. 37. What did the people of Paris do? How were the Frondenrs punished! SVheu was the king crowned ? 214 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOK. [A. ©. 1661. The following year tlie king was crowned at Rheims (1654). 38. Mazarin, meanwhile, had formed an alliance with Cromwell ; and English troops, as the result of this, had fought at Dunkirk, in the army of the king ; but, a year after, the peace called the Peace of the Pyrenees was con= eluded (1659), by which Conde was received into fayor by the king, and the latter was betrothed to Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. On the 9th of June follow- ing, the marriage was celebrated with great splendor, in a lit- tle city in the extreme south of Prance. Maria Theresa re- nounced all right to the crown of Spain, and brought to the king 500,000 gold crowns as her doWry. The death of Maza- rin followed closely the marriage of the king. It happened in 1661, and marks the close of the first epoch in the long reign of Louis XIV. Immediately after the death of Mazarin, the king, being then only twenty-three years old, gave evi- dence of his determination to exercise absolute power. * 39. One of his first acts was the arrest of his Secretary of the Treasury, Pouquet [foo-ha), who had grown enor- mously rich, while the finances of the kingdom were left in great disorder. He lived with more than royal magnifi- cence, and on the king's assumption of power, gave a costly entertainment in his honor. The king attended, and on leaving, ordered his arrest. All the members of his family were banished ; and, after a trial which lasted three years, Pouquet was condemned to imprioonment for life. The title belonging to the office he had held was changed from su- perintendent to that of controller -general, and Colbert {hol-ldr') was appointed to succeed him. *" Under Cardinal Mazarin, there was literally nothing bnt disorder and confusion. He had the council held whilst he was being shaved and dressed, without ever giving any- toody a seat, and he was often chattering with his linnet and his monkey all the time he was beting talked to about business. After IMazarin's death, the king's council assumed a more decent form."— ie P. DanieVs Hlstoire de Prance. 38. What alliance did France now form ? ITow did the Peace of the P^Tcnees jiffect the fortunes of Conde ? Whom did the king marry ? What was her dowry ? When did the death of Mazarin occur? What does this mark? What disposition did the king show ? 39. Give an account of the arrest of Fonqnct. Who wag appointed to succeed him ? How wa.i the title of tlie oflice changed? A. ». 1667.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 215 40. Several incidents related of the king, at this stage of his career, indicate his pride and his extravagant notion of the honor due him, and show in what danger the peace of Europe lay from his whims. A dispute having arisen be- tween the French and Spanish embassadors at London,* Louis threatened the King of Spain, who was his father-in- law, with war ; and nothing but the humblest public declar= ation of the Spanish king's inferiority prevented it. A more serious insult offered to the French embassador at Rome led to the seizure of Avignon, f and the threat of an invasion of Italy. The latter was averted only by full, and even abject, apologies. A solemn treaty was concluded between Louis and the Pope, fixing the rank of each ; and the former set up a monument in Rome to commemorate the reparation made for the insult. 41. With a view to future safety, Louis bought Dunkirk from the English, as a harbor for his growing navy ; con- cluded a treaty for the cession of Lorraine and Bar ; and renewed that which Henry IV. and Louis XIII. had entered into with the Swiss cantons. Three years after (1665), Philip IV. of Spain died, and Louis laid claim to a part of his possessions^ though he had solemnly renounced his right to them at the time of his marriage. Such bad faith was resented by Spain ; and, two years after, a war began. The king himself and Turenne laid siege to Lille, and captured it in nine days ; and so powerful was the French army, that the entire province was conquered in two months. 42. Franche-Comte was invaded also by Conde, in 1667, and subdued after a three' weeks' campaign. Such rapid successes alarmed the states of Europe, especially Holland, who felt herself peculiarly exposed to danger from her war- *The Spanish minister claimed the right of precedence before the French embassador at a diplomatic reception, and this the latter was determined not to yield. tAfter the end of the great schism, Avignon was governed by the legates of the Pope, and was not restored to the government of France till 1791. 40. What is said of the character of Louis ? W^hat power? were threatened with war by Louis ? Why ? How was the Pope's apology commemorated ? 41. What measures did Louis take to strengthen himself? What claim did he make ? What was the result ? What province was conquered ? 42. What conquest did Conde make ? Where was Franche-Comte ? 'See Progress- ive Map, No. 2.) What action did Holland take ? To what did this after ,vard lead '? 216 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOis". [A. ». IG-yS* like neighbor. She formed an alliance, therefore, with Eng- land and Sweden, and brought about a treaty (1668). This interference of Holland, however, and her commercial riyalry with France, induced Louis, two years after, to declare war against her. The ridicule, also, which the Dutch made of the king's pretensions, and even of his person, contributed to the bitter feeling with which he regarded them. 43. Only after ample joreparation, did the king enter upon this war, which he designed should end in the conquest of the Netherlands. He first took measures to dissolve the alliance which had existed against him. Sweden was de- tached from it by an annual subsidy, and England was induced to unite with France against Holland by the pay- ment of a large sum of money, and the promise of certain islands on the Dutch coast. Money was also used by the king to induce some of the European powers to remain neu- tral, while the active aid of the Duke of Savoy and of some of the German princes was secured. Everything being ready, war was declared ; and the king in person, with Conde and Turenne, at the head of an army of 80,000 men, crossed the Ehine (1672). He was joined by his Grerman allies with 20,000 more; while the combined French and English fleet, numbering ninety vessels, sailed to attack the coast cities of Holland. 44. Against this formidable array Holland, thus suddenly attacked, was for the moment powerless. Her people were divided into two parties : one composed of the nobility, with William, Prince of Orange, as their leader; the other, of the merchants and burghers, who formed a republican party, whose chiefs were two brothers, John and Cornelius De Witt. Holland, however, was rich, and was possessed of a powerful navy, commanded by the two most renowned ad- mirals in Europe, De Ruyter {ri'ter) and Van Tromp. The 43. What preparations did Louis make for the invasion of Holland ? With what force did he cross the Rhine ? Who were the French commanders ? What other points were attacked, and in what waj^ ? 44. How was Holland divided? What is said of the Dutch navy ? What con- quests w ere mad.; by the French ? How did the quarrel between tlie nobility and burghers of Holland end ^ A. ©. 1675.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 217 first successes were all on the side of the French. Several oi the Dutch provinces were captured, and Amsterdam was threatened. The republicans demanded peace ; the Prince of Orange declared for war. A struggle ensued in which the De Witts were killed by an enraged populace, and the Prince of Orange was intrusted with the supreme power, ander the title of Stadtliolder (1672). 45. Under the vigorous administration of the Stadtliolder, the tide of war rapidly turned in favor of the Dutch. Am- sterdam was relieved from the presence of its besiegers by cutting the dikes, and flooding the marshes which surrounded the city ; De Euyter and Van Tromp destroyed or put to flight the fleet of the allies ; and the Prince of Orange, by skillful negotiations, separated the English from the French, and formed alliances with Austria and Germany, which brought their armies to his aid. Two years after the French army crossed the Ehine, the aspect of the war was entirely changed; the greater part of Europe was involved in it, and France stood alone confronting a powerful league. 46. Before the formidable coalition, Louis XIV. recoiled. He withdrew his forces from Holland, and invaded Franche- Comte. In six weeks, Vauban, the French commander, with 25,000 men, conquered the province. Turenne, at the same time, marched against the allies, who were slowly jDreparing to invade France by way of Lorraine. He crossed the Ehine with an army of 20,000 men, laying waste the country as he passed, engaged the enemy in many battles, and after a short but brilliant campaign, remarkable for the rapidity of his movements and the impetuosity of his attack, completely routed the allies, and returned to France with the gratitude of the people and the special approbation of the king (1675). 47. Conde, meanwhile, held back the allies in the north, 45. How was the ability of William of Orange sliown ? What method was taken to relieve Amsterdam ? What was the position of France at the end of two years ? 46. What effect did the activity of the Stadtholder have upon the campaign in Holland ? What success attended Vauban in Franche-Comte ? What is said of the campaign of Turenne ? 47. How was Champagne invaded ? What was the effect of the battle of Seneffe? Give an account of the next campaign of Turenne. What was the consequence of the death of Turenne ? 10 218 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. [A. ». 167 S. where an army of 90,000 men, commanded by the Prince of Orange, attempted an inyasion of Champagne. In the bat- tle of Seneffe (1C74), though both sides claimed the yictory, the advance of the Prince of Orange was checked, and he was compelled to abandon his proposed inyasion. The fol- lowing spring the contest was renewed. Turenne, com- manding the army of the Ehine, after seyeral weeks spent in obseryation and maneuyering before the Austrian general, Montecuccoli [mon-ta-hooh'ho-lee), finally made a stand at Salzbach. "While making his final dispositions for the bat- tle, howeyer, he was killed by a random shot from one of the enemy's batteries, which carried ay/ay, at the same time, the arm of his lien tenant-general of artillery (1675). The death of this great general had the most disastrous eitectupon the military for- tunes of the French.* The army of the Rhine fled; M ont e cuc- c o 1 i entered Alsace, from which, h w- eyer, he was af- terward driyen by n d 6 . This was the last campaign of that illus- t r i u s com- mander. He THE GREAT CONDE. * France considered herself lost. " The premier-president of the court of aids has an estate in Champagne, and the farmer of it came tlie other day to demand to have the contract dissolved. He was asked why ? He answered that in M. de Turenne's time one could gather in with safety and count upon the land, in that district : but that since his death, everybody was going away, believing that the enemy was about to enter Cham- pagne."— ZeWers of Madame de i^cvig/ic. ^. ». 1683.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOI^. 219 soon afterward retired from the army, and died in 1686. 48. These reverses were ill balanced by slight successes in Germany and the J^etherlands (1677), and the naval suc- cesses of Duquesne {-hane) and D'Estrees {des-tra), the for- mer in the Mediterranean, in 1676, the latter on the northern coast of South America, in 1678. In the former, De Euyter lost his fleet and his life ; and the French navy became master, for a time, of the Mediterranean. The French king, now beset on all sides, sued for peace ; and the treaty of Mmeguen {ne-ma' ghen) was signed in 1678, by which the king surrendered all his conquests in Holland, but retained twelve fortified cities in the ^Netherlands, the province of Franche-Oomte, and the city of Fribourg. 49. Louis XIV. was now at the height of his pov»^er. Arches were erected in his honor at two of the city gates of Paris, the gates St. Martin and St. Denis ; the authorities of Paris conferred upon him the title of Le Grand (the Great) ; and he was recognized generally as, more than any other sovereign, the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. His rest- less, grasping nature now led him to look more carefully into the treaty of Westphalia, where he found some vague expressions which might be interpreted in his favoro* On this pretext he seized Strasbourg in 1681, and alarmed Aus- tria by his demands ; while his navy, two years later, swept the Mediterranean of the Algerine pirates, and bombarded not only Algiers but Genoa, which had aided them. A quarrel with the Pope also sprung up, the chief cause of which was the opposition of Innocent XI. to the French candidate for the papal chair. 50. In 1683, the queen died, and Louis afterward secretly * " Louis XIV. was the victim of three passions which hampered, and in the long- run destroyed, the accord between king and minister : that for war, that for limgly and courtly extravagance, and that for building and costly fancies."— Guizot. 48. What successes by sea rlid the Fiench meet with ? What terms were granted to France at tlie treaty orNimeiruen ? 49. What is ?aid of the power of the king at this time ? What did he do in re- gard to the treaty of Westphalia V What action did he take ? 50. What change iu the king's family relations took place ? Why was the League of Augsburg formed ? !20 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". [A. B. 1685. married Madame de Maintenon [mahn-tci-Jiong'), who subse- quently exerted great influence over liim. His overbearing spirit, and warlike acts in time of peace, had produced a feeling of general distrust in Europe, which led to the for- mation of another coalition against him, called the League of Augsburg. This was an alliance of nearly all the great powers of Europe, of whom Louis, by his aggressions, had CHATEAU OF MADAME DE MAINTENON. become the common enemy. The Protestant members of the league especially felt themselves justified in joining it, because Louis had revoked, the year before (1685), the famous Edict of Nantes. 51. Revocation of the Edict o£ Nantes. — The king was now growing old. His military reverses in the !N"etherlands, the powerful coalition which the Protestant 51. What Iffl to tho rovocation of the Edict of Nantes ? -Its effect ? How many persons were driven out of Franco by the revocation ? A. ©. 1689.J THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". 221 Prince of Orange succeeded in forming against him, and the sudden withdrawal of the liberal influence of Colbert, who died in 1683, led him, under the influence of Madame de Maintenon, to change the policy of conciliation he had thus far pursued toward the Huguenots. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes* was, therefore, ordered (October 22, 1685) ; and the changes it proposed made a profound sensa- tion not only in France but throughout Europe, f The number of Huguenots driven out of France by this act has been estimated at about 500,000, the great majority belong- ing to the industrial classes of society. I 52, The Catholic King of England, James II., having been dethroned, took refuge at the French court ; and, Louis supporting his cause, war was declared between France and England (1689). All the great powers of Europe were combined against the French monarch, who at once put his forces in motion to forestall the action of his enemies. He sent an army into Germany, captured several cities, and ruthlessly devastated a large tract of country (the Palat'i- nate) in order to prevent it from being used by his adver- saries. § 53. The greatest opposition to the new King of England, * " It can never be known, -witli anything approaching to accuracy, how many per- sons fled from France in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Vau- ban, writing a few years after, said that ' France had lost a hundred thousand inhabitants, sixty millions of money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thcusand tried soldiers, six hun- dred officers, and its most flourishing manufactures.' " — Smil&fi^s HiiQiienoU. t One of the most odious methods employed by the king to convert tlie Reformers was that of quartering his soldiers in their houses, where they practiced all manner of ex- cesses. As the dragoons distinguished themselves in this work, these outrages have been called in history the Brarionadeii. " The revocation," says Guizot, " ordered the de- molition of all the chapels ; ministers were ordered to leave the kingdom within fifteen days ; the schools were closed ; all new-born babes were to be baptized by the parish priests ; and religionists were forbidden to leave the kingdom."— G'w/so^. X A whole district of London is peopled by the descendants of the Huguenot refugees, who transported their silk manufactories from France to Spitalflelds. Many found a home in northern Germany, being gladly welcomed, as they brought with them their arts, their thrift, and their industry. § Some one (it is said, the minister Louvois) had persuaded Louis that the safety of the state required that a desert should be placed between the French frontier and the armies of the enemy. Hence he ordered the great towns of Treves, Worms, Spire, and Heidelberg to be destroyed. Every building, from the magnificent palace of the Elector to the meanest peasant's cottage, perished in the flames. Not even a church was spared ; and the very cellars were blown up. Farms, crops, vineyards, everything was destroyed; and a once blooming country Avas suddenly converted into a smoldering wilderness. More than 100,000 homeless people wandered about cursing the merciless tyrant who had plunged them into such direful misery. 52. Why was wa'- declared between France and England? Against whom had Louis to contend ? What course did he pursue ? What cruel measure did lie carry our ? .5 3. Give an account of the invasion of Ireland. What battle was fought? Its result ? 223 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOIs'. [A. ». 1690. among liis own people, was in Ireland. Louis, therefore, sent James II. with a naval force and an army to invade it. Landing in the south of the island, he marched north, his army being constantly swelled by the disaffected Irish. The forces of William, on the other hand, landed in the norths 10 ILongLtade West from. Gxeenwich. and marching south, met the invaders on the banks of the river Boyne (July 12, 1690), and completely routed them. James II. fled from the field, and returned to France. 54. From 1690 to 1693, the war went on, on all sides, with vigor. In the southeast, the French encountered the 54. Between what j'enrs was the war actively cirricd on ? Wlmm did the French encoiintLT in Savoy ? Wliat pert^unago appears hero ? Wiiat naval battle occurred '{ What waa the result ? A. ». ITOl.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 223 Duke of Savoy and defeated him ; but were forced to retreat by Prince Eugene, who here began the military career which was afterward so brilliant. A French fleet, which was in- tended to assist in another invasion of England, attacked the combined Dutch and English fleets off Cape La Hogue (hofi), and escaped only with partial destruction (1692)o 55, Treaty of Ryswick, — The struggle, which had been waged by both sides for seven years as a war of devas- tation, now began to weigh heavily upon the resources of both. For three years it had been carried on without decis- ive results. The sacrifices of France had been enormous, and Louis had lost many of his great ministers and generals. The Duke of Savoy was the first to abandon the league against him, and this was the signal for a general with- drawal of the other powers. The treaty of Eyswick was signed ni 1697, Louis relinquishing nearly all his conquests, and recognizing the Prince of Orange as King of England. 56. The approaching death of Charles II. , King of Spain, was the cause of great anxiety in Europe, since many of the reigning monarchs were related to him by ties of blood or marriage, and might consider themselves his heirs ; and thus a dispute in regard to the succession might again bring on a general war. In the year 1700, Charles died, naming Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., his heir. Louis consented to this arrangement ; * but the other powers were alarmed, since the union of France and Spain under one king threatened the peace of Europe. This alarm was now increased by the expulsion by Louis of the Dutch garri- sons from certain places in the Netherlands, and by his open defiance of William III., in recognizing as the lawful King of England the son of James II. , that monarch having recentl}/ died (1701). The designs of the French king were now un- ♦ When the young kin? set out from Versailles to take possession of the Spanish throne, Louis XIV. afEectionately embraced him. and his last words to him were : Go, my son, go ; there are no longer any Pyrenees ! " By this he intimated that the two kingdoms were really united. 55. How long was the war waq;ed ? What had been its result? Who deserted the league ? What treaty was signed ? 56. "What caused anxiety in Europe? Whv ? When did Cliarles of Spam die 1 WTiom did he name as his heir ? What course did Louis pursue ? What followed ? 224 THE HOUSE or BOURBOX, A. D. 11(04:,] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. 225 masked^ and England,* Holland, Grermany, and Austria entered into the ^^ Grand Alliance" against him (1701). f 57, The War of the Spanish Succession. — The French permitted Prince Eugene to inyade northern Italy and capture a portion of it, almost without striking a blow, Villeroi (yeel-rwali), a favorite of Madame de Maintenon, then took the command. This general was defeated by Prince Eugene, who afterward captured the French com- mander himself in Cremona. The French succeeded in checking the progress of Prince Eugene, and gained some slight successes in Italy ; but these were the only good for- tune that France, in this war, was destined to enjoy. 58. Battle of Blenheim, — The death of William of Orange did not interfere with the prosecution of the war. An insurrection of the Protestants of the Cevennes took place at this time, known as the war of the Camisards {Jcah- me-zahr'),X which was encouraged by the enemies of the king, and accompanied by atrocious cruelties on both sides. It was finally suppressed, but with the loss of at least 100,000 lives (1704). About this time, a dreadful disaster to the French arms occurred in the north-east. The English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene completely routed the French in the battle of Blenheim [blen-lmne), inflicting such terrible losses upon them that none of the king's attendants dared to tell him of the news (1704). § This duty was finally * Before war was formally declared by the English parliament, William of Orange met with an accident which proved fatal. He fell from his horse, and broke his collar-bone ; and in about a fortnight afterward expired (March 8th, 1702). t Portugal some time after joined the league, while France could only number as her allies Spam, the Dukes of Savoy and Modena, and the Elector of Bavaria. X The Camisards derived their name from the camUa, a white frock which they wore, so as to be distinguished at night. They were the descendants of the Waldenses and AI- bigenses who had taken refuge in the Cevennes, and had adopted the Calvinistic faith. The insurrection commenced in 1702. Troops of robbers who infested some parts of Languedoc afterward assumed their name ; but they themselves are represented as an honest and peaceful people. The persecutions to which they were subjected drove them into rebellion. § " The battle of Blenheim, in which from 60,000 to 80,000 men were engaged on either side, cost to the vanquished 12,000 men killed, besides a greater number made prisoners. The quantity of cannon, colors, and other trophies was immense. But its effects were greater than all. The French armies were obliged to evacuate Germany altogether, abandon Bavaria, and retire behind the Ehine. Marlborough proved to Vienna another Sobieski."— (7?'oi«e'.s History of France. 5 7. Where did the war begin ? What was done then ? What distinguished gen- eral fought against the French ? Who took«tlie command of the French army ? What followed ? 58. What was the effect of the death o^' the King of England ? What revolt oc' curred ? What great battle was fought ? Where is Blenheim ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) What was the result of this battle ? 226 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. [A. ». 1707. imposed upon Madame de Maintenon. By this defeat, a large tract of country^ including Bavaria, was gained by the allies, who now threatened an invasion of France. 59. Another victory, not less signal, was won by the Duke of Marlborough, two years after, at Eamillies (ram-e-leez). Yilleroi was beaten with a loss of 20,000 men, and all of the Spanish Netherlands was reclaimed by the conqueror„ In Italy the French were laying siege to Turin ; but the inca- pacity of their commander was so great that Prince Eugene^ after incurring numerous risks unmolested, broke through their lines and compelled them to abandon the siege (1706). All of the French conquests m Italy were lost by this disaster ; and tlie allies, under Prince Eugene and the Duke of Savoy, invaded France and laid siege to Toulon. Here, however, their good fortune failed them ; after suffering serious losses they were compelled to retreat. In Spain, the prospect for Louis was not less gloomy. The English captured the stronghold of Gibraltar (1704), which commands the Medi- terranean ; Philip V. abandoned his capital ; the Archduke Charles of Austria, who had been declared the rightful King of Si3ain by the allies, landed in Spain, and captured Barcelona (1705). He soon afterward entered Madrid, and was proclaimed king (1706). 60. Notwithstanding these reverses, Louis still dared to take the offensive. James the Pretender, the son of James 11. , was provided by Louis with a fleet ; and an effort was made to carry him to Scotland, and there proclaim him King of England. This enterprise had the promise of success, from the fact that the Scotch were at that time especially disaffected toward the English on account of the passage of the '^Act of Union.'- It was foiled, however, by the English admiral B^Tig (bmg), who captured several vessels of the French fleet, and compelled the remainder to re- turn to France (1707). The following year, Marlborough 59. What is gaid of the battle of Ramillies ? Where is Ramillies ? How was Italy- lost to the French ? Give an account of the proLrress of the w.ir in Spain. f»0. What measure did L uis uudcrr.ike .-igainst England ? Its result? Who waa James the Pretender '; What other engagements look place ? A. ». 1709.1 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 227 and Prince Eugene again joined their forces, defeated the French at Ondenarde {oo-de-narcT), and besieged and cap- tured Lille. 61 o The road to Paris was now open to the allies, and the terror and discouragement which this condition of affairs produced were increased by a threatened famine, which tho severe winter of 1709 occasioned. So bitter was the cold that all the olive trees j)8rished, the seed was frozen in the ground, and no harvests were gathered the following sum- mer. The inhabitants of Paris were reduced to great ex- tremity ; and the general discontent found expression in riots, attacks upon the king in pamphlets, and demands for the conclusion of a treaty of peace. The king yielded and sent ambassadors to the allies ; but the terms insisted upon were so humiliating that he refused them, and his exas- perated people sustained him in a ncAV and desperate effort to retrieve his fortunes on the battle-field. The king sent his gold plate to be melted and coined, the rich contributed freely to the general fund, and volunteered as private sol- diers to defend their country. 62. Battle of Malplaquet. — With the new army thus placed in the field, Villars marched against the allies and met them at Malplaquet [7nal-plah'lca), where a terrible bat- tle was fought (1709). The struggle was so desperate that, though the allies remained in possession of the field, they lost 20,000 men, while the loss of the French was only 8,000. Villars was wounded, however, and the capture of the for- tress of Mons (monz) by the allies speedily followed. In the midst of active hostilities, Louis continued his propositions for peace ; but one condition, constantly insisted upon by the allies, prevented a treaty. This was, that Louis should abandon his grandson in Spain, a step which the king's sense of honor would not permit him to take. t great battle fouirht, and when ? Where is Malplaquet ? (See map, page 54.) What was the loss on each side ? On what condition did the allies insist ? 228 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. [A. O. ItlS. 63. Peace of Utrecht. — Fortune, however, now came to the aid of France. The Duke of Venclome defeated the army of the archduke in Spain (1710), and reinstated Philip V. on his throne. The league also gave signs of dissolution. Intrigues at the English court led to the recall of the Duke of Marlborough ; and the Archduke Charles, who was sud- denly made emperor by the death of his father, became, by this event, so powerful as to create a feeling of jealousy to- ward him among the other members of the league. A truce was agreed to by England, and preliminaries of peace were signed in London (October 8th, 1711). G-ermany, how- ever, continued the war. Prince Eugene, with a large army, undertook a new invasion of France, but was met by Marshal Yillars and routed (1712). This defeat saved France, and hastened the treaty of peace, which was signed at Utrecht (April 11, 1713). Other treaties were afterward concluded with Germany and Austria, and France was once more at peace. 64. By these treaties, France renounced her claim to the throne of Spain, refused to advocate further the claim of James the Pretender to the English throne, closed the har- bor of Dunkirk, signed a commercial treaty with Holland and England, and ceded to the latter important possessions in the l^ew World, consisting chiefly of Acadia^ in which Port Eoyal, the principal settlement, had been taken in 1710, and named Annapolis, in honor of the English queen, Anne. The resources of France had been exhausted by the long struggle, and her condition at its close was deplorable.* 65. Death of Louis XIV. — The gloom thus produced in the mind of the king was now increased by the infirmities * In 1694 Fdnelon had said in a letter to the kins: : "Tour people are dyin^ of himfrer ; the cultivation of the soil has been almost entirely priven up ; city and country are alike depopulated : trade languishes, and commerce is annihilated." Seven years after, the war of the Spanish Succession broke out, and raged for twelve years, filling France with untold misery. 63. Wliat chanjre took place in the aspect of nffairs ? What was airreed to by Ensfland ? Wliat victory did the French pain ? Wliat treaty was signed a few month's after ? 64» What were the conditions imposed upon the kinc by the treaty of Utrecht ? What American possessions were given up ? Wliat was tlie condition of France ? 65, How was Louis bereaved ? Who of his immediate family remained ? When did his death occur ? A. »» 1715.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOjq-. 229 01 age and by severe domestic afflictions. His only legitimate son, tlie dauphin ; the yonng dauphiness,* who was the idol of the king; her husband, the Duke of Burgundy, f and two grandsons, died within three years. Of all his family, his grandson, the King of Spain, and his great-grandson, the Duke of Anjou, alone remained. On the 1st of September, 17153 the king himself died, at the age of seventy-seven, leaving his kingdom utterly bankrupt and exhausted. He was succeeded by Louis, his great-grandson. J 06. Louis XIV. had wielded the scepter seventy-two years. His is the longest reign, and, in many respects, the most mo- mentous and instructive in French history. Falling heir to the throne at the age of five, he entered, eight years later, into possession of that absolute power which the progress of affairs had gradually prepared for him ; and, at the age of twenty-three, proudly declared his intention of exercis- ing it. His famous answer, "To me!" given at this pe- riod, to the members of his council, when they asked him, on the death of Mazarin, to Avhom they should in future ad- dress their communications on state affairs, afterward re- appeared in his still more famous declaration, "1 am the State. " This latter expression seems an idle boast ; yet never, perhaps, was any king more justified in making it. 67. His character and personal appearance at this time have been carefully described. He was of middle height 9.nd well proportioned, with blue eyes, a large and shapely * On the death of Louis, the dauphin, his son Louis, Duke of Burgundy, became the dauphin ; and his wife, Adelaide of Savoy, Vv'ho is here referred to, the dauphiness. She died in February, 1712, and her husband f ollovt^ed her withm a v/eek. tThc loss of this orince occasioned great sorrow. He had been instructed by Arch- bishop Fenelon ; and great expectations were therefore entertained of his virtue and capacity. i " At eight o'clock on the following morning Louis XIV. expired. As he exhaled his last sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the state apartment which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the populace, by whom the court-yard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces cmong the crowd, exclaimed in a loud voice, ' The king is dead ! ' Then seizing another staff from an attendant, without the pause of an instant, he flourished it in the air as he shouted, ' Long live the king ! ' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apartment answered buoyantly, 'Long live the Mng." "—i'ardoe''s Louis XIV. 66. Hovi^ long did Louis XIV. reign ? What is said of the importance of his reien ? 67. What was the personal appearance of Loui^ XIV. ? What is said of his edu- cation and manners ? What of his character ? 230 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOX. [A. ». 1715. nose, an expressive mouth, and waving masses of chestnut- brown hair. He was an excellent horseman, and fond of manly sports, taking special pleasure in hunting and in the work necessary for the proper conduct of war. He was tiioroughly self-possessed and courtly, though he had never been taught even to read. He thought quickly but spoke deliberately, and with a certain preciseness and carefulness of accent that fixed the attention of the listener. At once generous and haughty, he was impatient of counsel, and formed sudden resolutions which were changed only with the greatest difficulty. His favor was shown by rewards distributed with a lavish hand, while his punishments were summary and severe. 68. The virtues and vices which accompany the exercise of unlimited power were manifested during his reign in a striking manner. He made his court and capital the gayest in Europe. In dress, manners, and everything that per- tains to luxury and taste, the fashion there prevailing be- came the fashion of the civilized world. Poets, painters, men of letters, and artists of every kind, attracted by his mu- nificence as well as by the patronage of the nobility whom he gathered round him, crowded to Paris, and found in its brilliant and intellectual society a congenial home. He gave a new impulse to science, letters, and art, projected great public works, and left numerous enduring monuments of his public spirit and his taste, as well as also of his folly and recklessness. * 1715 ^^' Louis XV. — Proud as the French were of to the Grand Monarque, loy was everywhere manifest- 's 'j'^zfl. J. ^ J J ed at his death ; for his pride, luxury, and extrava- gance had been the cause of immense sufiering and distress. *His last -words to his Erreat-Gjranclson who succoo tied him were : " My child, you are about to become a great kins; do not imitate me either in my taste for btiilding or in my love of war. Endeavor, on the contrary, to live in peace with the neip^hboring nations v render to God all that you owe, and cause his name to be honored by your subjects. Strive also to relieve the burdens of your people, which I myself have been unable to do." 68 o What further is said of his rei2;n ? To what did ho cive an impnlse ? 69. What feclini; was manifested at the death of Louis XIV. ? Wliy ? Who wa$ made regent 'i Under whose instruction was Louis XV. placed ? Wliat wa-s one of the first acts of the regent ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBOIT. 231 pa S'aa (T> g P fog; 33S ■C o 2- 0-- Z. • 2 B' li- So - -i-Q, p _ •f- C ft o :td t-3 o ^ <^ 232 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOX. [A. ». 11' IS. Philip, Duke of Orleans, was made regent, to act during the minority of Louis, and the Abbe de Fleu'ry, noted for his virtues and his accomplishments, \vas appointed confessor to the young king. One of the first acts of the regent was to enter into an alliance with England against Spain, which was also joined by Holland (1717).* 10. Spain, however, had recently become a formidable power, through the wise administration of her prime min- ister, Cardinal Alberoni {alil-he-ro'ne). She looked upon George I. as a usurper, and upon the Duke of Orleans as holding his office of regent illegally, because it was in defi- ance of the will of Louis XIV. Alberoni now saw an op- portunity of restoring to Spain her ancient power at the ex- pense of a general war in Europe. He set up the claim of his master Philip V. to the throne of France, he being grandson of Louis XIV. ; and entered into negotiations with Charles XII., of Sweden, and Peter the Great, of Kussia, to overthrow George I., and seat the Pretender in his place. He also hoped, while Europe was thus engaged in war, to seize Sicily, and Avrest Sardinia from the Emperor of Austria, who was then on the verge of war with the Turks, 71. In this plot, however, he was foiled by the Abbe Dubois idu-hwah'), the prime minister and former preceptor of the Duke of Orleans, into whose hands the correspond- ence of the Spanish ambassador at Paris fell. The principal sufferers by the discovery of this plot Vv^ere the Duke and Duchess of Maine and the nobility of Brittany, who were nearly all engaged in it. The triple alliance was now made quadruple by the entrance of Austria (1718) ; and it was thought that Spain would sue for peace, but she had already invaded Sardinia and had almost conquered Sicily. The • * Philip V. of Spain accused the regent of conspiring against his young charge with the intention of seizing the crown for himself. George I., then King of England, entered into this alliance the more readily since one of its conditions was that the Duke of Or- leans should banish from France James the Pretender, who also aspired to the English throne. __^ 70. Wliat had increased the influence of Spain? What views wore entertained by the Spanish (Jovernmeiit ? What claim was set up ? What negotiations did Albe- roni enter into ? What also did he ho{)e ? 71. How was Che plan foiled? What followed? What new war was caused! How did it end? A. B. 1718.] THE HOUSE OF BOUEBON". 233 exposure of the designs of Spain at once produced a war between that country and France ; and in this the English fleet played a prominent part^ bringing it to an end fortunate for France, Alberoni retired in disgrace ; Spain accepted the terms of the alliance, and gaye up the Netherlands ; the power of Austria in Italy was confirmed, the emperor re= ceiving Sicily in exchange for Sardinia, which was given to the Duke of Savoy (1720). 72. Financial System of John Law — About this time, France was wonderfully excited by the financial system of a Scotch adventurer named John Law. The enormous public debt bequeathed to the kingdom by Louis XIV., the great depression in business, and the general bankruptcy which threatened almost every one, caused the people to lend a willing ear to any measure of relief proposed. Law founded a bank in 1716, and made a proposition to pay off the public debt and make money plentiful by an enormous issue of paper money unsupported by specie. His project was regarded with favor by the government ; and, in 1718, his institution was made a royal bank. To this he united a company which had the exclusive right of commerce with the valley of the Mississippi. 73. Rumors were circulated of the discovery of vast mines of gold and silver in the New World, and the shares of the company sold for many times their par value. The com- merce of the Indies and of Senegal was afterward joined with that of the Mississippi in one great company, and Law was made Controller- General of France. The shares of the com- pany sold at tv/enty, thirty, and even forty times their face value. The thirst for speculation increased with astonishing rapidity, and pervaded all ranks.* Fortunes were made in a day. Bills were issued to an amount equal to eighty times * The rich brought their plate and jewels to be converted into stock ; the poor, their scanty earnings for the same purpose. 72. Who wns John Law ? What schemes did he propose ? How was his project received '? T3. Give an account of the excitement produced by Law's scheme. How did it end ? What became of Law ? 334 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOX. [A. fi>. 1726. that of all the silver in the kingdom. The whole vast sys- tem, however, rested almost solely on credit. At the first demand for specie, it crumbled and fell. Fortunes were lost as rapidly as they had been made ; ruin succeeded ; and Law, proscribed and exiled from Erance, took refuge in Venice. * 74. The recklessness 23roduced by this wild speculation was increased by the depression which followed it, and was reflected in the manners and morals of the people. The shameless conduct of the regent's court did nothing to check this ; and the example thus set was followed, in great measure, throughout France. Disease now came to add its horrors to the misery of the bankrupt people. A vessel from Syria entered the. port of Marseilles, and introduced a pesti- lence which swept over Provence, carrying off more than 80,000 persons (1720). Two years after, great anxiety was caused by the illness of the young king ; and, on his recov- ery, he was crowned at Eheims, and the following year his majority was declared (1723). The death of Cardinal Du- bois occurred the same year. 75. In 1725, the king was married to the daughter of the King of Poland, that monarch having lost his throne through the reverses of his protector, Charles XII. of Sweden. Fleu- ry. Bishop of Frejus {fra-zJioo'), afterward cardinal, now be- came minister (1726). He had been the preceptor of the king, and was highly esteemed by him. The new prime minister, by his good judgment and economy, did much to restore the finances of the kingdom to a healthy condition, while his placid temperament preserved it for many years from war. The death of Augustus II., King of Poland, * '• A few days before the Parliament denounced Law's establishment as fraudulent and bankrupt, his carriage was assailed by the mob in the court of the Palais Roj;al, and torn to pieces, he himself escaping into the palace. Several persons had been stifled at the door of the bank on that very day, while seeking to change ten-franc notes to buy provisions in the market."— Crozoe's History of Finance. 74 o What is said of the state of manners and morals? Describe the Plague of 1720. When was the king crowned ? When was his majority declared ? When did Dubois die ? 75. To whom was the king married ? How did Floury become prime minister? What is said of him ? What caused a dispute ? Who were the rivals for the Polish throne ? Who were their respective supporters ? A. ». 1740.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOJ^. 235 however, in 1733, gave rise to a dispute over the succession ; his son, Augustus III., Elector of Saxony, and Stanislaus Lec~zyns'ki, the father-in-law of Louis XV., being competi- tors. The former was supported by Eussia and the Emperor Charles VI. of Austria ; the latter, by France, Spain, and Sardinia. 76. During the war that followed, nearly all Italy was lost to Austria ; France became master of the province of Milan ; and Spain, of Naples and Sicily. The war was ended by the treaty of Vienna (1735). By this, Stanislaus received as his portion the province of Lorraine, which, at his death, was to revert to France. Shortly after (1740), Europe Avas again thrown into commotion by the death of the Emperor of Aus- tria. Notwithstanding the precautions he had taken to con- firm the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, five other claimants presented themselves : Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria ; Augustus III. , Elector of Saxony ; Philip V. , of Spain ; Frederick II. , King of Prussia ; and Charles Em- manuel, King of Sardinia. 77, "War of the Austrian Succession. — The war that ensued is known in history as the war of the Austrian Suc- cession. The King of Prussia was the first to move. The greater part of Silesia was soon wrested by him from Maria Theresa (1740). France took the side of the Elector of Ba- varia, acting with Prussia to make him emperor. A French army of 40,000 men entered Bavaria, captured Lintz, threat- ened Vienna without attacking it, and invaded Bohemia, the capital of which, Prague, was carried by storm. Charles Al- bert was there crowned King of Bohemia, and soon after returned to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor under the name of Charles VII. Maria Theresa was not appalled by the gravity of the situation. She called upon her faith- ful subjects, the Hungarians, to defend her, arousing their 76. What events of the war are mentioned ? How was Europe again thrown into commotion ? 77. What war ensued ? Who was the first to move ? Whdt did he accomplish ? Whose sido did France take ? What was done by the French army ? What fol- lowed ? Whnt was the conduct of Maria Theresa ? What other movements are mentioned ? 236 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBON". [A. D. 1743. patriotism by showing tliem her infant child,* and detached Frederick II. from the coalition by ceding Silesia to him. The Elector of Saxony retired from the contest also^ while the King of Sardinia, and England, with her powerful navy, entered it on the side of Austria, 78. The French army in Prag'ue was in imminent dan2:er„ Its retreat was cut off by the recajjture of Lintz ; and it was saved only by the rapid movements of the army in Bavaria, which entered Bohemia and captured Egra, thus opening a way of escape. England now took a more active part in the war. George II. in person, and his son, the Duke of Cum- berland, entered Bavaria with an Anglo-German army, and met the French at Dettingen (1743), where an almost certain victory for the French was changed by an imprudent act into a bloody defeat. By this misfortune, they were compelled to retreat from Bavaria and Germany, and the newly-made Emperor of Germany, Charles VIL, was forced to sign a treaty, in which he surrendered Bavaria to Maria Theresa till the end of the war, renounced all claim to the throne oi Austria, and bound himself to remain neutral. 79. In the midst of these disasters. Cardinal Fleury died (1743) ; but the war was continued. Terms were offered by France, but refused by Austria. War w^as, therefore, de- clared by France against Austria and England. Louis XV. now entered into a new alliance, and the scene of conflict * "The queen repaired to Presburgh a few months afterward as a fugitive from Vienna. All the Magnates and other orders were then assembled in Diet. Ori the 11th of Reptember, a day whose memory has ever since been cherished in Hungary, she sum- moned them to attend her at the castle. Tliey came, and when marshaled "in the great hall, the queen appeared. She was still in deep mourning for her father, but her dress v^^as Hungarian, the crown of St. Stephen was on her head, and the scimctar of state at her side. Her step was firm and majestic, but her voice faltered, and tears flowed from her eyes. For some moments she was unable to utter a single word, and the whole as- sembly remained in deep and mournful silence. At length her infant son, afterward Joseph II., was brought in by the first lady of the bedchamber, and laid on a cushion before her. "With an action more eloquent tlian words, the queen took him in her arms, and held him up to the assembly; and wliile sobs I'till at intervals burst through her voice, she addressed the assembly in Latin, a language which she had studied anr spoke fluently. When she came to the words, 'The kingdom of Hungary, our person, car children, our crown are at stake ! ' the whole assembly drew their sabers half-way from the scabbard, and exclaimed, 'Our lives and our blood for your majesty! We will die for our king, Maria Theresa ! ' "—Lord Mahon's History of England. 78, Wliat was the situation of the French army, and how was it saved ? Between whom w as the battle of Dettintjen fought ? Wliat" was the result ? 79. When did Fleury die? Wliy was the war continued? What country became Ihc scene of conflict ? Who commanded the French troops in tlie Netherlands ? Why did Frednick the Great re-enter flic conte-t ? What was the effect of his action ? A. U. 1745.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". 237 was changed to the Netherlands, where the French troops were commanded by Marshal Saxe, the king himself appear^ ing in the midst of his army. Frederick the Great of Prus- sia, meantime, jealons of the increasing power of Austria, entered the field against her, invading Moravia and Bohemia, and capturing Prague. By this act, the campaign on the Eliine was for a time arrested ; and Charles VII. returned to Bavaria, but only to die there. His successor concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa, renouncing all claim to the territory of Austria. 80. Battle of Fontenoy. — In the Netherlands, how- ever, the war went on. The English, Dutch, and Austrians, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, attacked the French at Fontenoy [fon-ta-nwah') (1745). In this ac- tion, at which Louis XV". and the dauphin were present, and which Marshal Saxe directed from his litter, the French won a glorious victory, which opened the way to the subjugation of Flanders. The following year the French entered Brus- sels in triumph. The election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, under the title of Francis L, followed ; and the brilliant victories of the King of Prussia led to the treaty of Dresden, by which Frederick II. retired from the contest, and left France without an ally in Germany. 81. The successes of the French in Italy had been not less signal than those in the north. Aided by Spain, Naples, and Genoa, they wrested from Austria nearly all her posses- sions there ; but lost them the year after, through the rup- ture of the alliance with Spain, and the superior force which Maria Theresa sent there. At this time, also, the unwel- come news reached France of the capture of Louisburg,* in North America ; while the failure of the expedition of Charles Edward, the Pretender, increased the general gloom. * Situated on Cape Breton Island, east of Nova Scotia. It was one of the most strongly fortified towns in America. 80. Give an account of the battle of Fontenoy. Who were the opposing com- manders ? Who now became emperor ? What was the result to France of the treaty of n.esflen ? - • ■ . 8 1 . What was the fortune of France in Italy ? Give an account of the mvasion of Charles Edward, the Pretender. Where was he defeated ? ^38 TEE HOrSE OF B0UKB0:N". [A. Do 1'3'48. This prince, starting with a single yessel of war in 1745, landed on the west coast of Scotland, j)roclaimed himself regent, and, aided by the Scotch, gaye battle to the English at Preston Pans, and defeated them ; but his course was checked in the battle of Cullo'den (1746), and the reyolution, which Louis XV. had hoped would paralyze the activity of the English, was suppressed. 82. These reyerses, howeyer, and the losses of France in Italy, were more than balanced by brilliant successes in the north, under Marshal Saxe (sax), which created such alarm in Holland, that the Prince of ]^assau was proclaimed stadt- holder. England and -Holland were now disposed to treat for peace, and France was easily influenced in the same di- rection by the advance of a Eussian army toward the Rhine. Negotiations were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a general peace was declared (1748). The result of this for France was the surrender of all her conquests in Europe and the Indies. 83. A great change in the conduct of the king was shortly after noticed. The affection with which he had been re- garded gave place to an indifference which was produced by the change in his manner of living, and the questionable acts which he committed. Religious quarrels, in which the Parliament took part, led to the banishment of its members, and the establishment of a royal chamber in its place. The Parliament Avas afterward recalled ; but the quarrels between it and the king went on, and led to disorders in Paris and throughout France, which ended in an attempt upon the king's life by a Avretch named Da'mi-ens. 84. The Seven Years' War.— These differences were scarcely adjusted when war again broke out. The treaty of Aix-la-chapelle had not settled definitely the limits of the colonies of France and EnHand in America. Commissioners 82. What were the successes of the French in the north ? What was the result ? 83. What treaty ended the Avar? How was the unpopularity of the kintr pro- duced ? What attempt was made on his life ? 84. What was the cause of the Seven Years' \\ar? What were the first actions in America ? How was Europe divided ? A. B. 1T57.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 239 met in Paris for this purpose in 1750, and for five years the discussion was carried on. Without waiting for their con- clusions, however, the colonists in America began the con- test. A French officer, Jumonville, on his way to summon the English to leave the Ohio, was attacked and killed by a small force of Virginians and Indians under Washington (May 28, 1754). The following year, the English gene- ral, Braddock, commanding an expedition against Fort Du- quesne {-hane), was drawn into an ambuscade by the French and Indians and defeated, losing his life; while an English fleet captured two French war vessels and three hundred merchantmen. War was afterward declared. On the side of France were Austria, Eussia, and Saxony ; on that of England was Prussia, under Frederick the Great. 85. Frederick at once put his army in motion and invaded Saxony. He then passed on into Bohemia, where he defeat- ed the Austrians, returned to Saxony, and joining the Saxon forces with his own, re-entered Bohemia, and again won a decisive victory at Prague (1757). Here for a time his vic- torious career was checked, he being defeated by the Austrians and driven out of Bohemia. Meantime, a French army entered Hanover and routed the English. The King of Prussia then finding his only ally beaten, and being menaced by the Eussians, the Swedes, and the Austrians, sued for peace. 86. So imminent seemed the ruin of Frederick that the allies refused to treat with him. He determined, therefore, to strike one more blow. Leaving Silesia suddenly, he en- tered Saxony with 20,000 men, and chose his battle-ground at Eosbach, where he was confronted by a French and Ger- man army of 50,000 men. The battle which followed was a complete victory for the King of Prussia (1757). Turning then upon the Austrians, he overtook them at Lissa, defeated them, and sent Ferdinand of Brunswick into the west to take 85. Mention the events connected with the campaign of Frederick the Great. Why did he sue for peace ? 86, How was the energy of Frederick now shown? Who commanded the French in the battle of Rosbach ? Its result ? What followed ? 240 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBO:?^. [Ao 15. 1763. command of the Hanoverian troops^ whieli crossed the Rhine and inflicted another defeat upon the French (1758). The following year, the French won an important victory at Hes'se ; but the loss of the battle of Minden in "Westj^halia the same year, and the Jealousies of rival commanders, re- sulted in permanent disadvantages to their arms. 87, The Campaign in America. — The efforts of the English forceSj after the accession of William Pitt to the ministry, had been successfully exerted against the French colonies in America, and culminated in the capture of every important post contended for, including the city of Quebec (1759). The battle for the possession of the last place is memorable for the heroic deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm, the respective commanders. All Canada thus fell into the hands of the English, and a part of the French possessions in the West Indies met the same fate. 88. The supremacy of the French in the East Indies was also lost. Notwithstanding the bravery of the French com- mander, Lally, Lord Clive captured Pondicherry (1760),"^ and put an end to the French rule in India. It was at this time that the Duke of Ohoiseul [sJiivali-zul'), who had been ap- pointed minister of war, formed the idea of uniting all the members of the Bourbon family in an alliance for the pres- ervation of the territory of each. This alliance, known as the Family Compact, was formed in 1761. It included France, Spain, ISTaples, and Parma. England declared war against Spain, and invaded Portugal ; but Europe was tired of war, and many political changes had taken place which were favorable to peace. In 1763, the treaty of Paris was signed by France, England, Spain, and Portugal. By this treaty France relinquished nearly all her possessions on the continent of North America. * Pondicherry {pon-de-sher'-ry) is a maritime town in the south-eastern part of Hlndo- Stan, or India. 87. What were the chief events of the war in America? Why is the battle of Quebec memorable ? What was the result of it V What other French possessions were taken by the Enpli.^h '? 88. Who "rescued the East Indies from the French control ? Wlio became the French minister of war ? What idea did lie form ? What was the Family Compact ? What treaty ended tlic Seven Year.-' war ? What loss of territory did France sustain J A. I>. 17114:,] THE HOUSE OF BOL'JIBOX. 241 89. The result of the Seven Years' War was the firm establishment of tiie empire of Austria, and the sudden rise of Prussia to the front rank of the great powers of Europe, and the destruction of the naval power of Franco in favor of England. In December, 1765, occurred the death of the dauphin ; and, the following year, that of King Stanislaus. By the latter, the province of Lorraine was reunited to France. Two years after, the queen, abandoned by the dissolute king, died after a six months' illness. In 1768, the territory of France was increased by the addition of the island of Corsica, the inhabitants of which had rebelled against their Genoese masters, who called in the aid. of France. After a war of several years, Genoa relinquished her claim to France, who carried on the war another year, at length putting to flight the native General Pa-o'li (1769). 90. Suppression of Parliament. — One of the last public acts of Louis XV. w^as also one of the most unpop- ular. This was his arbitrary dissolution of Parliament (1771), growing out of the trial of the governor of Brit- tany. The people took the side of the Parliament, and the most energetic remonstrances were made to the king, but without avail. Other odious measures followed, one of the most tyrannous of which was the lettre de cachet {hah-sha), or sealed letter, by which any citizen could be arrested and deprived of his liberty by any person who had sufficient in- fluence to procure the letter from the king directing it. In the midst of general discontent produced by bad laws, an enormous public debt, and ruined agriculture and commerce, Louis XV. died (1774).* - Seldom has a monarch lost the affection of his subjects more thoroughly, or with bet- ter reason, than Louis XV. Long years of bad government had brought the people of France to regard their new sovereign with hope ; and so confidently did they look to him for relief that, in 1744, when he went to join the army and was taken sick at Metz, the grief of the people was profound and unmistakable ; and when the news of his returning health was received, grateful prayers v/ere publicly offered up for the recovery of the Well Beloved, as he was affectionately called. The radical change in his conduct, how- evjr, which occurred soon after, alienated their affections ; and the affairs of the king- dom were brought to such a condition that the king uimself, though conscious of the 89. What was the result of the war ? What deaths occurred at this time ? What province was restored to France ? How ? (See page 235, t TO.) What territory was acquired '? What general was* defeated ? 90. To what despotic measure did the king resort ? Describe the lettre de cachet. When did the king die ? 11 243 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOif. 91. The result of the rule of Louis XV. was to bring the power of the king into public contempt, and to pave the way for that destruction of it, at the hands of an outraged peo- ple, which followed soon after. ^'' Notwithstanding the im- mense harm, however, done by his acts and his example to the material and moral welfare of the nation, some encour= agement was given to letters and art, and particularly to science. The revolution which occurred in religion, philoso- phy, and science at this time gave to France some of her most eminent writers. Many public works were undertaken and buildings erected which remain as evidences of the ten- dencies of the time. Chief among the latter were the Mili- tary School, the School of Surgery, the Pantheon, and the porch of St. Sulpice {sool-peece'). State of Society DURii^'G the Bourbois" Period. 92. This period in French history is known as that of the absolute monarchy ; for the king absorbed all the powers of the government, as there was no established check upon his authority. The Parliament of Paris, when called together, sometimes endeavored to assert the power of the people in opposition to that of the monarch ; but the latter could always dismiss it when he perceived that it was becoming refractory, f 93. The nobles, except those connected with the court, were poor and helpless ; for, though their castles were in grave danger which attended his course, could see no way of relief, but consoled himself with the hope that the storm which was approaching would break upon his successor. His belief, in this respect, is well exoresscd in the famous words of his favorite, Madame de Pompadour : " After us, the deluge ! " _^' '' ^ strong, firm hand was needed to grasp the scepter so triumphantly borne by Louis AlV. for seventy years ; but Louis XV. was as weak as he was vicious. His reign is the decrees of the monarch. Louis XIV., in the pride of absolute power, did not even call that, and completely silenced the Parliament of Paris, when it presumed to restrict him in his arbitrary measures. This arrogant disposition was displavcd by him in his famous response to one who sooke of the State— L't'/^f, c'ent moi : (The State, it is myself !) The power of the monarch had, indeed, become supreme. 91. How did the rule of Louis XV. affect the royal power ? What revolution ia referred to ? What did it give France ? What edifices were erected ? 92. What name is given to this period ? Why ? What body attempted to check the royal authority ? 93. What is said of the nobles ? The middle classes ? The nea^antrv P THE HOUSE OP BOURBOlN-. 243 ruins, their fields uncultivated and unproductive, and they themselves with scarcely the means of subsistence, their pride of rank forbade that they should labor to improve their condition.* The middle classes {bourgeoisie), mer- chants, trades-people, artisans, etc., were often affluent, sometimes rivaling the nobility in the richness of their houses, in their dress, and in their equipages. The general condition of the peasantry of France, during this whole period, was one of wretchedness and squalor, f 94. When Henry IV. ascended the throne, (ho whole country was in an impoverished and desolate condition, the effect of the destructive religious wars which had been waged with such fury and for so many years. J Under the first of the Bourbons, who cherished the love of his coun- try and his people, great improvements were m.ade ; and the freedom granted by the Edict of Nantes gave an impulse to every kind of industry, which was further promoted by the wise m.easures of the famous Duke of Sully. 95. The succeeding monarchs, selfish, dissolute, and vain- glorious, stimulated commerce and manufactures, and en- couraged science and art; but they were regardless of the happiness and prosperity of the people, the fruits of whose industry they wasted in their wars, their extravagant enter- * "In 1627, a terrible lesson was given to those of the nobility who thonght that the law was not made for them. Counts De Bouteville and Des Chapelles were executed in the Ptece cle Grede in consequence of a duel. Bouteville had previously fought thirty-one duels, and he had returned from the Netherlands expressly to fight this duel in the P,ace Boyal in defiance of the king and his edicts. Before the laws against dueling, made through Richelieu's influence, in the eighteen years following 1609, no less than 4,000 gen- tlemen, it is said, had perished in single combat ; and after Richelieu's death dueling recommenced with such fury that, from 1643 to 1654, no fewer than 940 gentlemen were slain by this means."— Z>?ir?/.//'.*j Hiatnru of .France. t The noble exercised absolute power over the peasants living on his e.'itate, and there were thousands of serfs who were bought and sold with the land. Large tracts of land were set apart for hunting ; and the starving peasant was often forbidden to till his ground lest it might disturb or injure the game. The gabelle was a most oppressive tax. each family being required to buy a certain quantity of salt at least four times a year whether it was needed or not. The peasants were also compelled to labor upon the pub- lic works— building roads, bridges, etc., any required time without any compensation, and sometimes to perform the most menial and degrading services for their tyrannical masters, who trampled under their feet even the most sacred rights of their dependents. t " A contemporary estimated in 1580 that at least 800,000 persons had perished by the war or by massacre ; that nine cities had been destroyed ; a.50 villages burned ; and 128,000 dwellings demolished. The work-shops were unoccupied, commerce was suspended, farms desolated, and everywhere brigandage. Such was the state from which Henry IV. was to rescue France." — Daruy^s Hintory of France. 94. What was the condition of the country when Henry IV, commenced to reign ? What did he accomplish ? Who aided in these measures ? 95. Wli at was the conduct of succeeding monarchs? The result? What nearly ruined France ? 244 . THE HOUSE OF bourbo:n". prises, and their luxurious excesses. Splendid buildings and works of art commemorated their taste and refinement, while the great mass of their subjects lived in penury and servitude.* The revocation of the Edict of ITantes by Louis XlVe almost ruined the kingdom. 96. Manufactures, Oommercej etc. — Commerce and manufactures of various kinds were encouraged by Henry IV.; t ^^t it w^s during the reign of Louis XIV., and under the administration of Colbert, that every department of in= dustrial and commercial enterprise received its greatest im- pulse. He established companies to trade in the East and West Indies, J; thus forming a rival of the Dutch; he pro- moted the manufacture of fine cloths, encouraged the culti- vation of mulberry trees, and the art of making plate glass. which had been imported into France from Venice. 97. The manufacture of porcelain, at Sevres {sevr), and the world-renowned Gobelin tapestry, date from this pe- riod. Machinery for weaving stockings was imported by Col- bert from England, and lace-making was introduced from Elanders and Venice. Roads were improved, and commerce greatly promoted by the construction of the great Canal oi Languedoc, to connect the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediter- ranean (1664-1681). 98. Among the most important reforms introduced during *This Is particularly true of the reign of Louis XIV. Magnificent entertainments, long and ruinous wars, and the construction of splendid palaces and other buildings, to gratify the ambition, luxury, and ostentation of the Grand Monarqne, so drained the country that nearly one-tenth of the people were reduced to hopeless beggary. Money was loaned at twenty-five per cent. New and constantly increasing taxes were made necessary to meet the current expenses ; and the public debt rose to an amount equal ai the present time to $8,000,fKlO,0(X). t"The enlightened policy of the king is seen in the foundation of m.anufactures of the fine crape of Bologna, of Milanese gold thread (of which there was imported an- jaually a quantity to the value of 1,200,000 crowns), of the finest tapestry, of gilded leather, of glass-ware, of cloths, etc. In 1604, the king convoked an jURemUn of Com- merce, in which was proposed, among other things, a general reformation of the trades and the introduction of the rearing of horses to avoid the necessity of importing them from Germany, Spain, Turkey, and England."— /y/rr«?/'.s^ Jlifitori/ of France. t Through the influence of Colbert, the colonial policy of France was extensively de- veloped. Two great companies were created: the East India Company, for the con- trol of the commerce of the East ; and the "West India and African Company, which con- trolled the trade of North America, the Antilles, and the west coast of Africa. The most vigorous measures were taken to enco'irage emigration and commerce between the mother comp.;nies and the colonies a project which Richelieu had conceived, buS had oniy in part realized. 96. B\' whom were commerce and manufactures encouraged ? What else was es- tablished or encouraged ? 97. Wliat manufactures were introduced ? How was commerce promoted ? 98. Vv^at reforms wereeifccted ? What schools established ? What was done b> Vauban ? Whnt wa-< introdviced ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBOI^, 241) the same reign was the re-organization of the army and navy, accomplished under the direction of the great war minister, Louvois (loo-vwah'). For the army, schools of artillery were founded at Metz, Douai, and Strasbourg ; and the art of for- tification was carried to a high degree of perfection by Vau- ban. The bayonet as now used was invented at Bayonne (hence its name), in 1640. Marine arsenals were built at Brest, Rochefort, Toulon, Havre, and Dunkirk.* PAVIfvION OF HBNRT IV. AT ST. GERMAIN. 99* Buildings. — l^umerous buildings of great magnifi- cence were erected during this period : only a few can be here referred to. Without loving the arts as did his imme- diate predecessors, Henry IV. was not wanting in a taste for splendid architecture. He caused a beautiful pavilion to be constructed at St. Germain, where Francis I. had built rather a fortress than a royal residence ; and finished the fagade of the Hotel de Ville, which had been commenced by Francis I., besides erecting or completing many other structures. * One hundred vessels of war were built in the year 1672 alone ; and, in 1681, ttof French navy consisted of 230 vessels, requiring for its service 160,000 men. 99. What buildings were erected by Louis lY. ? U6 THE HOUSE or UOURBOX. Richelieu had a great love and taste for architecture. The Palais Cardinal,* left unfinished by him, was subse- quently completed, and became the residence of the king under the name of the Palais Royal. This great minister also rebuilt the Sorbonne. KOTAL COITRT — VERSAILLES. 101. During the reign of Louis XIV., France, and espe- cially Paris, was adorned with parks and public buildings to an extent previously unknown. The most celebrated Df these were the Observatory, the Church of Val-de-Grace (vahl-diiJi-gr alls'), the Colonnade of the Louvre, the Hotel des Invalides (ahng-val-eecT), the Place du Carrousel (Icar- roo-zel'), the Place des Victoires (plahs da vic4war'), Place * " For f?cven years the famous Le Mercier labored to perfect It as a building ; and dur- ing his lon^r adnfilnlstration, the cardinal never ceased to decorate it with everything rare or luxurious."— James. 1 00, What builfliiifrp v rrc erected by Richelieu ? What vas rsfablished by hini ? 101 . What buildings were erected or improved by Louis XIV. ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 24? Vendome,* and additions to the Tnileries ; but, beyond all others in extent and magnificance, is the celebrated pal- ace and gardens of Versailles {yar-sdW), In this last work, enormous sums of money were consumed, vastly exceeding those expended by any other monarch of France. The Pan- theon f was commenced during the reign of Louis XV. ; and many other beautiful buildings were erected. i02. Science, Art, Iiiterature, etc. — ^Many scientific and literary institutions date from the time of Richelieu. He established the French Academy {VAcacUmie Frangaise) in 1635, designing, by its means, to improve the language and the literary taste of the French people ; and besides re- building the Sorbonne, he built the College du Plessis [pies- see'), founded the royal printing press, and the Garden of Plants [Jardin des Plantes), especially for students of medi- cine, and was a great patron of men of letters, among them Corneille [kor-ndT), the dramatist. 103. Mazarin X was also a friend to art, literature, and edu- cation. He collected a grand library for the use of men of letters, founded the College of the Four Nations for pupils of the University who belonged to the Spanish, Italian, Ger- man, and Flemish provinces recently annexed to the king- dom, and bequeathed to this institution 800,000 crowns. He imported from Italy a number of paintings, statues, and other works of art, and was a great patron of music. He also founded the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1G55). In the subsequent part of this reign the Academy * " Louis XIV. has been accused of intolerable pride, for suffering the base of his statue in the Place des Victoires to be surrounded with slaves in fetters ; but neither this statue, nor that in the Place de Vendome, was erected by him. The former is a mon- ument of the greatness of soul of the first Marshal de Feuillade, and of his gratitude to his master. He expended on this statue 500,000 livres (about $100,000), and the city added as much more to render the place regular."— Fo/to«re'.'^' Age of Lnuin XIV. t The Pantheon was built at the instance of Madame de Pompadour, the king's mis- tress, to replace the old church of St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris. It was com- menced in 1T64, and completed in 1790. It was designed to perpetuate the memory of illustrious citizens ; and now contains cenotaphs and tombs of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other distinguished men. t Mazarin was remarkable for his avarice. He accumulated a private fortune amount- ing to fifty millions of francs ($10,000,000), equal to about donble that sum according to the present value of money. 1 02. What literary institutions were established by Richelieu ? Of what was he a patron ? 103. What institutions wore founded and endowed by Mazarin ? 'US THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOX. ^.r-rnmfd illli;ilMii;r!i!iiiii;»iiii";imii:™riiiiMriiim'ii;rmi!:!rni;iiii|ii!;ii;'l!ii[ll!l'l|l)li||^ «',iliiu;ll;iyi!i|j^ THE HOUSE OF BOURBOi^. 249 of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres (1663) and the Academy of Science (1666) were established,* 1^4. The progress of literature and science v/as very re- markable during' the reign of Louis XV. The annals of poetry, philosophy, and physical science were enriched by the genius and the discoveries of a host of illustrious men. The Observatory was erected at Paris during the same period ; and the celebrated astronomers, Roemer (from Den- THE MILITAKY SCHOOL. mark), Huyghens (from Holland), and Cassini (from Italy), were induced by Colbert to settle in France, f The Military School was built during the reign of Louis XV. 105. Music and the Drama. — The Italian Lulli * "The French Academy continued in its work of preparing a dictionary of ihe lan- gruage ; and in order to hasten its accomplishment, Colbert prescribed the number of hours for each of its sessions. The Academy of Inscriptions coinposed inscriptions for medals, escutcheons, and for the monuments designed and embellished by the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. The mission of the Academy of Science was indicated by the inscription on the medal struck in honor of its foundation : ^atirrce ^nventiriandm ct'per- f^cicni'is nrtibi'-:-h()upes ? What was in vogue? What is said of Mary de' Medici ? Table linen? Coaches? THE HOUSE OF BOURBON'. 351 the wealthy inhahitants of the cities often displayed regal luxury and splendor.* The use of paneled wainscoting, and gilt leather for the walls, was quite prevalent. Mary de' Medici brought from Italy a refined and luxurious taste, and liberally patronized the eminent artists of her time, f Table linen, especially the finer qualities, was considered an article of luxury. Coaches, introduced during the previous period, slowly came into use. During the reign of Henry IV. they were used only by ladies. The king had a singular fear and dislike to riding in a coach. 108. Dress. — There was great extravagance in dress among the higher classes. So profuse were the gold, silver, and jewels with which the ladies adorned themselves that they were scarcely able to move. The Marechal de Bas- sompierre says, in his Memoires, that he once had a coat, trimmed with pearls, that cost more than 20,000 livres (about 14,000). J During the reign of Louis XIV. the ladies were accustomed to carry looking-glasses in their hands, to ad- just their complicated finery. The men wore wigs sc finely curled that, for fear of disarranging them, they carried their hats in their hands instead of wearing them on their heads. The costume of the Grand Monarque was very splendid and elaborate. 109. Distinguished Men. — This period was prolific of great men in every department of life and genius. A few only can be mentioned under each head. Among poets and ^> The hall in which the body of the Constable Montmorency lay in state in his own house is described as having " walls hung with crimson velvet, bordered with pearls." The pillows of the bed on which he lay were " covered with gold tissue, and the quilt was of cloth of gold bordered with ermine, and was thirty yards square." + " Tapestry was the most common and the most expensive of the arts, and the hang- ing? of a single room often reached a sum which would be equal, in these times, to one hundred thousand dollars. The floors of the palaces were spread with Turkey car- pets. Chairs were used only in kings' palaces, and carriages were but just introduced, and were clumsy and awkward. I\iules were chiefly used in traveling, the horses being reserved for war. Dress, especially of females, was gorgeous and extravagant ; false hair, masks, trailed petticoats, and cork heels ten inches high, were some of the peculiari- ties. The French, then, as now, were fond of the pleasures of the table, and the hour for dinner was eleven o'clock. Morals were extremely low, and gaming was a universal passion, in v/hich Henry IV. extravagantly indulged."— Z^orrt's Modern Historii. X The following is a description given of the dress of a fine gentleman in the begin- ning of the seventeenth century : " He was clothed in silver tissue, his shoes were white, as also his stockings. His cloak was black, bordered with rich embroidery, and lined with cloth of silver. His bonnet was of black velvet ; and he wore, besides, a prof usiOD of precious stones." 108. What is said of the fashion of dresss ? 109. Mention some of the most distinguished poets of the period. 252 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOST. dramatists, Corneille (1606-1684:), considered the father oi French tragedy, and Kacine {rah-seen) (1639-1699), his great rival in the same field ; Moliere {mo-lyclr') (1622-1693), a comic dramatist of great genius ; Voiture (vwah-ture) (1598-1648), and Boilean {bwah-lo) (1636-1711), distin- gnislied poets, the latter a special favorite of Lonis XIY„ To these may be added Scarron (1610-1660), the husband of Madame de Maintenon, and La Fontaine (1621-1695)^ sometimes called the modern ^sop, * BOILEAU S HOUSE. 110c The most distinguished pulpit orators of the age of Louis XIV. were Bossuet {hos-wa) (1627-1704), Bourda= * "No nation could present, at the time of Louis XIV., so mai^nificeut a collection of literary i)roductions. Italy and Germany were in a complete moral decline ; Spain, like a ricli ruin, preserved, from its lost fortunes, only a few precious jewels, showiiia: a few eminent painters and writers. England, at the besrinning of the century, had had its Shakespeare : in the middle, its ^Milton ; and at the end its Drydcn ; but this literature did not pass beyond the island where it bsMonscd. France, on the contrary, was really at the head of modern civilization ; and by the acknowlcdsrcd supe"'ority of its taste, it made all lMir(;i)e accept the peaceful dominion of its artists and its writers."— Z)?«'«///'s History of Ff(in<:('. 110. What pulpit orators are referred to ? What celebrated writers ? For ^vliut poted ♦ THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 253 loue ipdr-da-loo') (1632-1704), and Massillon (m«s-5eeZ-?/ow^') (1663-1742) ; to whom maybe added the illustrious preacher and writer Fen'e-lon (1651-1715), author of TeUmaque {The Adventures of Telem'aclms), a school-book in use at the pres- ent day. Madame de Sevigne {se-veenyo!) (1626-1696), cele- brated for her charming letters, represents her sex among the crowd of literary personages of the times. La Eoche- foucauld (1613-1680) was the author of a book of Moral Maxims that was universally read and admired. HERMITAGE OF ROUSSEAU— MONTIHORENCY. 111. Among historians must be mentioned De Thou {ioo^ (1553-1617) and Mezeray {im-za-ra) (1610-1683), who each wrote a history of France, and the Abbe de Fleury, the au- thor of a history of the Church ; among writers of fiction and litterateurs, Balzac (1594-1654), considered the best French prose writer of his time ; Pas-cal' (1623-1662), who wrote the Provincial Letters ; Le Sage isazli) (1668-1747), the author of Gil Bias, and La Bruyere (1644-1696) ; also Rousseau [roo-so') (1712-1778), one of the most eminent writers of the period just preceding the French Revolution. Ill, Mention some of the historians of the age. Some of the writers of prose. 354 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOJ^". 112. In addition to tliese^ must be mentioned the musi- cian Lulli (1663-1687), the founder of the French opera ; the painters Poussin (jjoos-sang') (1603-1665), Claude Lor- raine (1600-1682), and Lebrun (1619-1690) ; the architects Mansard (1645-1708) and Claude Perrault {per-ro') (1613- 1703) ; the philosopher and scientist Des Cartes (1596-1650)^ and the physicists Mariotte (mali-re-of) (1620-1684), and STATUE OF VOLTAIRE. Delisle {de-leeV) (1675-1726) ; and toward the ond of the period Buffon {boof-fong') (1707-1788), the noted natural- ist ; Diderot {de-de-ro') (1713-1784), and D'Alembert {dd- long-bdr') (1717-1783), authors of the famous Encyclopcedia 112. What musician is mentioned? Painters'? Architects? Scientists and physicists ? Mathematicians ? Other writers ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. ^55 (in 22 folio volumes) ; and Layoisier {lah-vwah-se-a) (1743- 1794)^ the father of modern chemistry ; La Place {lah plalis') (1749-1827), perhaps the greatest of modern mathemati- cians ; and Legendre (??:^-^^o^^r') (1752-1832), the author of various mathematical works of singular merit. 113. Above and beyond all the literary men of his time must be mentioned Vol-taire' (1694-1778), who, whether as wlc, poet, historian, or philosopher, shone with a luster sur- passing all others. Unfortunately a skeptic in religion, he scoffed at divine revelation ; and, hence, the brighter his genius shone, the more baleful was his influence upon the moral and religious progress of his time. * To Voltaire, Mon- tesquieu {mon-tes-kuh') (1689-1755), f Rousseau X and the En- cyclopcBdists is attributed, in part, that dreadful overturning of the institutions of society that formed so terrible a charac- teristic of the great French Eevolution. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1&*^P» Henry IV. Reigned 21 years. 3-^1 Battle of Ivry. 1593. Frotestantism renounced by Henry IV, 1594. Paris entered by Henry IV. 1598. Edict of Nantes publislied. 1610. Louis XIII. Reigned 33 years. 1614. Assembly of tlie States-General. 1624. Richelieu made prime minister. * Voltaire's true name was Arouet, He was born in Paris, in 1694 ; and at the age of twenty-one was sent to the Bastile for a satire on Louis XIV., of which, however, he was not the author. In 1718, he puWished the tragedy entitled (Eclipe, and in 1723, the poem La Henriade, in which he defended religious toleration. He subsequently spent three years in England, and some time afterward resided at the court of Frederick of Prussia on terms of intimacy with that monarch. His writings are very numerous. As a work of history his Age of Louis XIV. is greatly admired. t Montesquieu was the author of a work entitled The Spirit of the Laics, which is still a standard. His influence, though revolutionary, was beneficent ; and his writings were far in advance of the age, in the lofty spirit of freedom and humanity with v/hich they are replete. Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, and the philosoohers and free-thinkers of their age hurried on a mighty convulsion which conld notlonaj have been delayed. t " The writer who acquired the most 'extensive and pernicious influence over the mind of France at this period was undoubtedly Jean Jacques Kousseau. In his works on the Inequalittj of the Condition of Mankind, in his Emile, Contral Social, cind Noievelle Beloise, he developed his notions on the reconstruction of society with a subtlety, a charm of style, a specious air of philanthropy, a false morbid sensibility, peculiarlv attractive to the French character, t>ut the effects of which went directly to undermine and subvert the verv foundations of religion, morality, and legitimate government."— /S^wdewi's Hi8- tory of France. 113. What is said of Voltaire ? Of Montesquieu ? 356 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBOK. 1628. Surrender of Eochelle. 1629. Edict of Grace. 1642. Conspiracy of Cinq-Mars and others against Riclieliei!^ 1642. Death of Richelieu. 1643. Louis XIV. Reigned 72 years. 1648. Treaty of Westphalia. 1648. War of the Fronde. Lasted five years. 1654. Louis XIV. crowned at Rheims, 1661. Death of Mazarin. 1667. Invasion of Franche-Comte by Conde. 1674. Battle of Seneffe. 1675. Death of Turenne. 1678. Treaty of Nimeguen. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1686. Death of the Great Conde. 1689. War between France and England. 1690. Battle of the Boyne (July 12). 1692. Naval battle off Cape La Hogue. 1697. Treaty of Ryswick. 1701. The Grand Allianc3. War of the Spanish SuccessioB.- 1704. Battle of Blenheim. 1706. Battle of Ramillies. 1708. Battle of Oudenarde. 1709. Battle of Malplaquet. 1712. Defeat of Prince Eugene by Marshal Villau-a.. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Louis XV. Reigned 59 years. 1717. The Triple Alliance. 1718. Financial enterprise of John Law. 1723. Death of Cardinal Dubois. 1735. Treaty of Vienna. 1740. War of the Austrian Succession. 1743. Battle of Dettingen. 1743. Death of Cardinal Fleury. 1745. Battle of Foutenoy. 1743. Treaty of Aix-la-Cnapslle. 1757. Battle of Prague. 1757. Br.ttle of Rosbach. 1759. Taking of Quebec. 1761. Family Compact. 1763. Treaty of Paris. 1769. Conquest of Corsica. Defeat of Paoli, 1774. Death of Louis XV. THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 25? GENEALOGICAL TABLE OP THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. Robert, Count of Clermont, married to Beatrice, Younger son of St. Louis. Heiress of Bourbon. I Louis, I)uke of Bourbon. Peter, Duke of Bourbon. James, Count dc la Marche. I John, Count de la Marche. I Louis, Count of VendOme. I John, Count of Vendome. Francis, Count of Vendome. Louis. Charles, Duke of Vendome. Antoine, Duke of Vendome, married Jeanne d' Albret, I Queen of Navarre. Henry IV. Louis XIII. Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Elizabeth, Christiana, wife of wife of Pliilip IV. of the Duke of Spain. Savoj'. i Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., King of England. 1 Louis XIV. I Louis (died 1715). Philip, Duke of Orleans. Louis. Duke of Burgundy. Philip V. of Spain. Charles, Duke of Berry. I Louis XV. I Louis (died 1765). Louis XVI. Louis XVIII. Louis XVII. {never reigned). Charles, Count of Artois, afterward Charles X. I 1 Louis, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Angouleme. Duke of Berry. Henry, Duke of Bordeaux. Ctount of Chambord (Henry V), Louisa, Duchess of Parma. 258 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. PAGE 1. When did the reign of Henry IV. begin and end ? 194, 199 2. Give his previous history 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188 3. Give the history of the Holy League 184, 185, 186, 194, 196, 197 4. State why, when, and how Henry IV. became a Catliolic 195 5. Give an account of his admission into Paris 186, 194, 195, 196 6. Give all the facts respecting the Edict of Nantes 197, 220, 221, 243 7. What did Henry IV. accomplish for France ?. . . 195 to 199 8. Describe his character and death 198, 199 and note 9. What evils followed the death of Henry IV. '? 199, 200 10. Give an account of De Luynes 200, 201, 202 11. Give an account of the siege of Rochelle 202, 203 12. Of the troubles caused by Mary de' Medici 197 to 207 13. When did the reign of Louis XIII. begin and end ? 199, 200, 207 14. Give an account of Richelieu 200 to 210 15. Of ills alliance with Gustavus Adolphus and consequences 204, 205 16. Give an account of the war with Austria 205, 206, 207 17. Of the plots and conspiracies of the Dake of Orleans 202, 204, 205, 206 18. What account can you give of Cinq-Mars and De Thou ? 206, 207 19. Describe the character of Richelieu 200 to 208, 246 20. Describe the character of Louis XIII 207 21. What was the civil policy of Richelieu ? 208, 209 22. State what he accomplished for art and literature 209, 210 23. When did the reign of Louis XIV. begin and end ? 210, 214, 229 24. Describe his character 215, 219, 220, 229, 230 25. Name the important events of his reign 210 to 230 26. Narrate the cause and events of the wfir of the Fronde 210, 211, 212, 213 27. Repeat all that is stated respecting Mazarin , 210 to 214, 248 23. Give an account of Louis XIV. 's war with Spain 214, 215 2:^. State the causes of and preparations for his war with the Netherlands. 215, 216 30. Narrate, in order, the events of that war 216, 217, 213, 219 31. Repeat all that is stated of General Turenne 210, 212, 215, 217, 218 32. State the causes of Louis's war with the great powers of Europe 219, 220, 221 33. Relate the events of the war and state how it wjis closed 219 to 223 34. What causes led to the " grand allance " against Louis ? 223, 225 35. Narrate the events of the " War of the Spanish Succession " 225 to 228 36. What concessions was France by treaty compelled to make ? 228 .37. When did the reign of Louis XV. begin and end ? 230, 241 38. Name, in order, the principal events of his reign 232 to 241, 247, 249 39. Give the plan and history of Law's financial system 233, 234 40. State, in full, the causes of the " War of the Aust: ian Succession " 234, 235 41. Give, in outline, the events of that war 235, 236, 237, 238 42. Give the caMse< and events of the " Seven Years" War " 238, 239, 240, 241 43. During the Bourbon period what was the condition of the people ?. . . .242, 243, 244 44. What is stated of manufactures and commerce during that period ? 244, 245 45. Of buildings, parks, palaces, gardens, etc. ? 245, 246, 247 46. Of science, art, lireratuie, etc. ? : 247, 249 47. Of music, the drama, and interesting events ? 249, 250 48. Of houses, furniture, table linen, and coaches'? 250, 251 and note 49. Of extravagance in the dress of the women and men ? 251, and notes 50 Name the most distinguished poets and dramatists 251, 252 51. Name the other distinguished literary persons 252 to 255 A.. ». 1^74.1 KEVOLUIIONAEY FRANCE. 269 SECTIOlSr III. Eevolutionary Frakce. Extending from the Accession of Louis XVL ilTi4>) to the present time. 1^^^ lo Louis XYI.^ — The corruptions and abuses oi to the government of France under its reckless^ extrava- ^^^^ gant, and licentious idngs, during the period of the '^absolute monarchy," had slowly but surely prepared the way for the troubles and agitations which threatened the nation, when Louis XVI., a grandson of Louis XV., as- cended the throne at the age of twenty. '•' The finances were in great disorder, the public debt enormous, the royal power was despised ; and a great and growing discontent, fostered by a spirit of criticism and inquiry, which had been increas- ing for years, surrounded the new king with dangers at which a bolder spirit might have quailed. Though his man- ners were simple and his life pure, he was wanting in that power of will necessary for the correction of great abuses. 2. The new king recalled the Parliament of Paris, which had been exiled by his predecessor, and devised many meas- ures for the permanent welfare of Franco. He appointed as his prime minister and adviser, Maurepas [mo-re-pah'), an old courtier, who had been banished from the court for many years. Maurepas called successively to his assistance Turgot (toor-go') and Malesherbes {mal-zdrh' ) , the former a man of ability who had attracted attention by reforms which he had instituted in an inferior position. TJie changes pro- posed by him, however, though just, were of so sweeping a * When word was brought to Louis that the king was dead, he and his young wife, Marie Antoinette, by one impulse, threw themselves on their knees and exclaimed, O God ! guide and protect us ; we are too young to govern ! " 1 . When and at what &«:& did Louis XVI. ascend the throne ? What is said of this period ? What was the reason of the popular discontent ? Whit was the character of Louis ? 2. What were some of his first acts? Whom did he appoint i)rime minister? Whom did Maurepas call to bis aid ? Wliat course did Turgot pursue, and what was the result ? 260 REYOLUTIONAEY PRANCE. [A. D. l'y'3'6. character that the enmity of the privileged classes was roused against him ; and the king himself, who had at first sup- ported him, at length grew weary of the constant opposition he encountered, and demanded his resignation (1776).* A similar fate attended Malesherbes. 3. Necker. — New expenses were soon to be incurred on account of the war in which England was then engaged with her American colonies, and in which France was almost cer- tain to be involyed. An experienced financier was therefore necessary to take charge of the treasury. Such a man was found in Necker, a Genevese banker, whose ability was gen- erally recognized. In America, events were moving rajDidly. The Eevolution broke out, the first battle in which was fought at Lexington, in 1775. This was succeeded, the fol- lowing year, by the Declaration of Independence, and the ar- rival of three American commissioners in France, sent to ask the recognition of the new republic from Louis XVI. (1776). 4. Alliance with the United States. — Whatever hesitation the king may have felt in giving the commission- ers a favorable answer, he was entirely overborne by the al- most unanimous consent of the French people. The Ameri- can Eevolution v/as looked upon as the direct expression of principles which had been growing more popular in France year by year. Among the commissioners was Benjamin Franklin, whose fame as a man of science had preceded him, and whose simple garb and manners created among the peo- ple a wonderful enthusiasm, which soon sjoread to the court, and powerfully aided the cause of the colonies. The Mar= quis of Lafayette and many other young men volunteered on • The weakness of the king: is illustrated by the fact that he permitted Turgot to re- sign, though he fully recognized the wisdom of his measures, and himself sympathized with him. This is shown by his remark : " Turgot and I are the only ones who have the good of the people at heart." He busied himself also with the most frivolous subjects, when the affairs of his kingdom were in a situation of extreme grav^tJ^ One day the minister entered the room of the king, who proudly called his attention to the paper he was writing, with the remark, " I am working too, you see." He was devising a plan for the destruction of rabbits in certain parts of France. 3. Who was the puccessor of Malesherbes ? What were his qualifications? Wliy was an experienced financier needed 5* What events of the American Revohition are mentioned ? 4. What was the feelinf? of the people toward America ? Who was sent by the United States as ambassador to France ? What was tlie result of his embassy ? A. D. 1782.1 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 2G1 the side of the United States, and the king conchided a treaty with the new republic (February 6, 1778). 5. England declared war at once. France sent a fleet under Count d'Estaing (des-tahng'), to the aid of the Amer- icans, and acting on the terms of the Family Compact, made an alliance with Spain. In Europe the war began with a naval engagement between the English under Admiral Kep- pel, and the French under Count d'Orvilliers (dor-veel-ya), m which neither was victorious (July 27, 1778). The de- signs of D'Estaing were frustrated by storms and the small- ness of his fleet ; and the French successes in America were unimportant, and confined principally to the West Indies and the coast of South America. The powers of the north of Europe entered into a league for the protection of their commerce ; and Spain, having joined her naval forces with those of the French in the Mediterranean, they together blockaded the fortress of Gibraltar. 6. Minorca was wrested from the English by Spain ; but the blockade of Gibraltar was raised by Admiral Kodney, who came to its relief after its garrison had withstood with great obstinacy a skillful and formidable attack. In the West In- dies, the French also suffered a defeat at the hands of Rod- ney, who attacked the Count de Grasse, then attempting to get possession of the island of Jamaica, and defeated him with great loss (1782). In the East Indies, the English were almost uniformly successful, their conquests extending to many of the possessions of Holland, which had entered the league against England. Much enthusiasm, however, was roused in France by the naval victories of the French com- mander, Sulfren [soof-frong') ; but his successful career was suddenly arrested by a declaration of peace. 7. Treaty of Versailles. — This was hastened by the reverses which the English arms had experienced in America, 5. What course did England take? What did France do? What naval engage- ments followed ? Why was D'Estaing unsuccessful ? What league was formed ? 6. What was the result at Gibraltar ? In the West Indies ? In the East Indies ? T. Why did England consent to th treaty of Versailles ? What changes were made In the territories of the powers that signed the treaty ? What is said of the conduct of the queen ? How did the people re'gard her ? 262 eeyolutio:n^aiiy France. [a. d. itst. the overthrow of the war party in England^ and the advent to power of a party favorable to peace. By the treaty of Ver- sailles (September 3, 1783), the independence of the United States was acknowledged ; Spain retained possession of Min- orca and Florida ; while France recovered her colonies, and acquired possession of several new ones in Africa and the West Indies. The dismissal of Necker, in 1781, v/as succeed- ed by the death of Maurepas, and by the active interference of the queen in public affairs. Marie Antoinette (fui-iwali- net') * had at first given no attention to matters of state. Secluding herself with a few favorites, she did not, hesitate to show her contempt for the fashions and manners of the court, and thus roused a hostility among the people of all classes, who gave expression to their dislike by calling her the ^^ Austrian woman." 8. The Finances. — Through the influence of the court, Calonne (kah-lon') was made Controller General of finance. He made a short-lived reputation by substituting for the wise economy of Necker a system of extravagance and dis- play, based upon the theory that he who would borrow money on favorable terms must not appear needyo The day of settlement came in a short time, however, and Calonne, having submitted to an assembly of the notables a confused account, was dismissed in disgrace (1787). His successor was Brienne {Ire-en), who had been one of the most active enemies of Calonne ; but his success was no greater than that of the minister whom he had supplanted. The measures he proposed were opposed by the Parliament, and led to a quar- rel, in which the latter, supported by a powerful public opinion, finally triumphed. Brienne retired, leaving the finances in great disorder ; and Necker was recalled. The •' "Marie Antoinette was very beantiful, thoughtless to a degree of childishness, and willful to an cxces:^ of obstinacy. Her education had been exceedinglj^ neglected, and her mind was totally uninformed. She had been tanght some few accomplishments, but excelled in none. Conscious of her own ignorance, she disliked knowledge in other women, and it is said tliat sense and information were always a bar against her favor. Her manners v/ere singularly engaging and fascinating to those she liked, and with whom she could feel at her ease. She was warm in her friendships, and was benevolent and tender-hearted almost to an excess."— Jfrs. Markham. 8 . Who became Controller General of finance ? What was liis career ? Who suc- ceeded him ? Who was recalled ? What was assembled '( A. D. 1789.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 263 States- General was assembled the following year to deliber- ate upon the ailairs of the nation (1789). 9. The situation was one of extreme peril. The king's want of ability, the hatred against the queen, which was openly expressed, the mismanagement and conf asion in the treasury, taxes so largely increased that trade and commerce were paralyzed, and the violation of the right of personal liberty by the lettre de cachet/^ together formed a combina- tion of evils which could not fail to be followed by the grav- est consequences. Clubs Avere formed all over France, at which were upheld the principles concerning the rights of man which able writers had for years been advocating. More- over, the successful establishment of the new republic of the United States, founded on these principles, gave a remarka- ble impulse to the popular cause. 10. The nobility and the clergy together owned nearly two-thirds of the land, but, being privileged orders, paid no taxes for it ; while assessments so heavy as to amount almost to confiscation were made upon the remaining third, which was owned by the people, or third estate. The latter, there- fore, demanded and were allowed as many representatives in the general assembly as the other two orders together. The excitement, however, which attended the elections for depu- ties foreshadowed the storm which was approaching. One of the most eloquent, at this time, in urging the claims of the people was the Count of Mirabeau [me-rah-ho'), who afterward took a leading part in the deliberations of the States-General. Two general objects were desired by the third estate : a way out of the difficulties then existing, and a prevention of their recurrence. The first they hoped to * " The lettre de cachet was usually carried into effect, by the oflacers of police ; some- times the arrest was made at the dwelling of the individual, sometimes on the roads or in the streets by night ; but, in all cases, it appears to have been accomplished with as much secrecy as possible, so that it was no uncommon thing for persons to be missing for years without their friends being able to discover what had become of them."— DavenporVs Hlstorv of the Bantu e. No fewer than 14,000 of these letters, it is said, were issued in the interval between the accession of Louis XVI. and the meeting of the States-General in 1789. 9. What was the condition of the country ? W^hat Is said of the ciubs ? Why waa the example of the United St^ites influential ? 10. What proportion of the representatives in the States-General did the third estate demand ? Why ? Who became the champion of the people during the elec- tions ? What two objects were desired by the third estate ? 2G4 EEVOLUTIOi^ARY FRAIs'CE. [A.D. lTS9c accomplisli by some general measures of reform, especially some more equitable system of taxation which would com- pel the privileged orders to contribute to the general fund ; the second, by the adoption of a constitution which would make the governing power less the subject of the king's caprice. The Geeat Revolutio]^. 11. Opening of the States-General. — The States- General met at Versailles, the king presiding (May 5, 1789).* A quarrel, however, began at once between the third estate on one side, and the nobles and clergy on the other. The privileged orders, w^arned by the violent lan- guage of the tliird estate, united to oppose their demand that the deputies should vote individually, instead of by orders. If the vote should be taken by individuals, the third estate could control the action of the whole body, since it numbered a little more than both the others to- gether ; if it should be taken by orders, the nobles and clergy united would always be victorious. Five weeks were wasted in the discussion, at the end of which time, the third estate and a few of the clergy w^ithdrew ; and, on the night of the 17tli of June, on motion of the Abbe Sieyes (se-a), organized a new body called the National Assembly, f On the 9th of July following, the word Constituent was added to its title, since it was to frame a constitution. * "No event ever interested Europe so mucli as the meeting of the States-General in 1789. There was no enlightened man who did not fo and the greatest hopes upon that public struggle of prejudices with the lights of the age, and who did not believe that a new moral and political world was about to issue from the chaos. The besoi/i of hope was so strong that all faults were pardoned, all misfortunes were represented only as accident ; in spite of all the calamities which it induced, the balance leaned always to- ward the Constituent Assembly. It was the struggle of humanity with despotism. The States-General, six v/ceks after their convocation, was no longer the States-General, but the National Assembly. Its first calamity was to have owed its new title to a revolution ; that is to say, to a vital change in its power, its essence, its name, and its means of authority. According to the Constitution the commons should have acted in conjunc- tion with the nobles, the clergy, and the king. But the commons in the very outset sub- jugated the nobles, the clergy, and the king. It teas in that that the Revolution con- aiHle ■'.''— 1)11 moHt's Rccnllcctlo)i^ of Mlraheau. t " What title should the Assembly assume ? This was a question of immense im- portance. It was, so to speak, the baptism of the devolution which was now taking p\ace. A name was being sought. . . . An obscure deputy suggested that of the Jsalional A>isembl>i, and SJ6jes proposed it. Four hundred and ninety-one voices against ninety adopted this simple and superb waxaa.''''— Henri Martin'/,- Hiatory of France. 11. When did the Slati-s-General meet ? What was the nature of the dispute in regard to tlie vote ? How and by wliom was the National Assembly organiztjcl '? How was its name changed ? Why ? R., n. 1789.] REVOLUTIOI^ARY FRAiN^CE. 265 12. Triumph of the Third Estate. — More of the clergy gave signs of going over to the third estate. The court in alarm attempted to persuade the king to declare the meeting of the States-General dissolved ; but this step the king feared to take. He closed and guarded the doors of the assembly chamber, however (June 20), under the pre- tense of making preparations for a royal session to be held there. The president of the Assembly, therefore, called the deputies together in the tennis hall ; and there an oath was taken not to separate till they had prepared a constitution for France. The following day the tennis hall was closed ; but the Assembly having by this time won over a majority of the clergy, the church of St. Louis was opened for their use. At the royal session held on the 23d of June, the hall was surrounded with troops. The king, regardless of the threatening action of the Assembly, addressed the deputies in a tone of authority, and, at the close of his speech, or- dered the three bodies to retire to their respective rooms. The nobles and the clergy went ; the third estate remamed. * Fearing that the king would use force, the Assembly passed an act guaranteeing to its members freedom from arrest. A few days after, forty-seven of the nobility, among them the Puke of Orleans, went over to the Assembly, f 13. Revolt in Paris. — Finding further resistance use- less, the privileged orders now yielded, and shared with the third estate in the labors of the Assembly on terms of equal- ity. The king, however, angry at his defeat, paid little attention to its deliberations, and began to mass troops near Versailles, which soon wore the aspect of a camp, more than * Finding that the deputies of the third estate did not leave the hail, the king's mas- ter of ceremonies returned to repeat the order which the king had given. Mirabeau an- swered him, closing his speech with the following memorable v/ords: "Go tell your master that we are here by the will of the people, and here we shall stay unless driven out by the bayonet ! " t " There no longer exists a Tiers Etat in France ; both name and thing disappeared m the reconstruction of our social system in 1789; but this, the latest in date and least m power of the three ancient orders of the nation, has played a part of which the impor- tance, long concealed from the most searching scrutiny, is clearly perceived at the present d&y ."— T/derry'i^ Tiers fJat, or Third Estate in France. 1'2. What led to the oath of the tennis hall ? What course did the king take? What followed ? What accession did the Assembly receive ? 13. What did the privileged orders finally do ? What did the king do ? Give ap. account of the tumult in Paris. me REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. I>. 1789. 30,000 soldiers being gathered between Paris and Versailles in a short time. This course, instead of intimidating the peo- ple, only added to the general excitement. On the 30th of June, eleven soldiers of the French Guard were imprisoned by their colonel for expressing their joy at the triumph of the Assembly ; but the populace broke open their prison and res- cued them. The excitement was increased by the receipt of the news that the Duke of Orleans and Necker, having recently spoken bold words to the king in favor of the peo- ple, were in danger of being exiled. The crowds that daily THE BASTILE.* assembled in the garden of the Palais Eoyal (pah-Ia rzocili yaliT) stripped the chestnut trees of their leaves, and fasten- ing them on their hats as badges, carried the busts of Necker and the Duke of Orleans through the streets of Paris in tri- umph. * This edifice was begun In 1369, by Charles V., and was enlarged In succeeding reigns. Thousands of persons, many of whom were princes and members of distinguished fami- lies, were here Imprisoned till deatli came to their relief. When the Bastile was captured by the people (1789), seven persons were found in its cells, u»e of whom had been there thirty years. On its site now stands the " Column of July," wtuch was erected in memorj of the pp-txlotB of 1789 and 1830. A. B. 1789.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 267 14. Capture of the Bastile. — The city was now thor- oughly roused. Arms were gathered from all quarters ; a permanent committee of public safety was formed ; and a national guard was organized in the city, consisting of 48,000 men. Word was brought that the cannon of the Bastile * were trained on the city. An attack was at once resolved upon ; and a frenzied mob, vast in number, marched to the assault, broke into the prison, and murdered the governor and many of the inmates (July 14, 1789). f Other officials who had incurred the hostility or suspicion of the mob were massacred ; and their heads, placed on pikes, were carried with savage joy through the city. The king, now thorough- ly alarmed, went to the National Assembly, which he ad- dressed, for the first time, by the name they had themselves chosen, promised to send away the foreign troops he had called to his aid, and to recall Necker, and closed by saying that he placed his confidence in them. J 15, The Revolution Successful. — He gave his con- sent to the principal measures which the people had adopted, and promised to visit Paris, where Lafayette had been made commandant, and Bailly {halil-ye'), the first President of the National Assembly, mayor. Many of the nobles who had opposed the revolutionary measures left France, and Necker * " There were, at an early period, no less than three bastiles at Paris, those of St. Denis, the Temple, and St. Anthony, all of which were situated to the north oi the Seine Eventually, the name was confined to the last of these buildings. The quadrangular cas- tle of St. Denis was demolished in 1671 ; but the tower of tlie Temple, m which the un- fortunate Louis XVI. and his family were confined, outlasted the Bastile itself for nearly a quarter of a century, and was used as a state prison till 1811, v/heu it ceased to exist."— DavennorVs Eisto?'!/ of the BanUle. ■ t " The Bastile soon ceased to exist. It was demolished by order of the civic authori- ties of Paris ; and, when the demolition was completed, a grand ball was given on the leveled space. The capture and downfall of this obnoxious fabric were hailed with de- light by the friends of liberty in every part of the globe, and they long furnished a favorite and fertile theme for moralists, orators, and poets. The site, now known as the Place de la Bastile, was selected as the burial-place of the champions of the Revolution of 1830, and the Column of July erected over the remains. This column is of iron, sur- mounted by a figure emblematical of liberty. The ground was again opened to receive the bodies of those who were slaughtered in the Coup cVetat of Louis Napoleon in Feb- ruary, 1848. Again, in 1871, the bodies of the victims of the communists' reign of terror were deposited here."— Daveyiport^s Hifitorv of the Bastile. X It was near the close of the year 1789 that Dr. Guillotin succeeded in changing the method of capital punishment, by the introduction of the instrument which bears hia name. 14. "What further action did the Parisians take ? Describe the storming of the Bastile. What was the effect upon the lilng ? 15. To what olRces were Laiayette and Bailly chosen? What were some of the results of the popular discontent ? What is said of the National Guard ? What re- markable change took place with regard to the nobility ? 208 KEVOLUTIOiq^ARY FEAJfCE. [A. ». 1T89. was brought back in triumph.* The organization of the National Guard was extended from Paris all oyer France ; and, in many places, the people gave vent to their hatred of the privileged classes in deeds of violence. In all quarters, the demand for the redress of ancient wrongs was so threat- ening, that the nobles themselves volunteered to relinquish their privileges. The Viscount de.Noailles {no-aJiT) set the example, and in a single night session (August 4) the rights of all Frenchmen were made equal. Within less than three months, a startling revolution was accomplished, the entire political fabric of France undergoing a radical change, f . 16. Divisions, however, at once appeared in the ranks of the revolutionists, of which the privileged orders were not slow to take advantage. So serious did these divisions be- come, that the king, entertaining the thought of again ap- pealing to force, ordered the Flanders regiment back to Versailles. On the 1st of October, a feast was given in the Eoyal Theater there to the officers of this regiment, at which were present the officers of many other regiments, even some of the National Guard. The health of the royal family was drunk, and the king himself appeared with the queen and the dauphin. When the excitement v^as at its height, the ladies present distributed white cockades, which were in- stantly adopted throughout the hall, and the tri-colored cockade of the National Guard was trampled under foot. When the news of this event reached Paris, it produced an- other outbreak. The people of that city had been for some * When the king entered Paris he was met by the mayor, who presented him the keys of the city, sayins?, " Sire, I bring you the keys of the good city of Paris ; they are tlie same which were formerly presented to Henry IV. He reconquered his people ; on this occasion, the people have reconquered their king." The vast crowds which accom- panied the king were armed with weapons nf all kinds, and brought with them several cannon ; taut these, In the spirit of reconciliation which then reigned, were partly cov- ered with flowers. In the organization of the National Guard, Lafayette chose as a bridge the ancient colors of the city of Paris (red and blue), and .joined with them the king's color (white). Giving the king one of these badges, he said. "Take it ; this is a badge v/hich will make the circuit of the globe." t "History affords no example of an era in which innovation was so hastily pursued and ambition so blindly worshiped : when the exnerience of ages was so haughtily re- jected, and the fanci(!S of the moment so rasliiy adopted ; in which the rights of property were so scandalously violated, and the blood of the innocent so profusely lavished."— AUsoiVs Hii^tory of the French Revolution. 1 6. Why was the king again encoumged to think of appealing to force ? Describe the banquet of the king'.-; guards. Wliat effect did the news of this have upon the l^eople of Paris ? Who marched to Vcl•snille^^ v A, B. 1789.1 REVOLUTIONARY FRAl^CE. 269 time threatened with famine through the failure of the crops. Crowds of women gathered around the Hotel de Ville, clam- oring for bread and arms. At the height of the tumult/ some one cried, "To Versailles!" The cry was repeated on every side ; and an army of infuriated women began the inarch, followed by the troops, among them the National ROYAL THEATER AT VERSAILLES. Guard, reluctantly led by Lafayette, who had in vain en- deavored to prevent them. 17. After a day and night of great disorder, during which the palace was invaded by the angry mob, and the queen was obliged to conceal herself through fear of personal violence, the king, with the royal family and his guard, consented to go to Paris, where he was joined by the National Assembly. He was now virtually a prisoner in his own capital, where the triumphant revolutionists awaited the action of the As- sembly. The question of the national finances was still 17. Where did the Asseml)ly and the king go? What was the khig's condition there ? What measures did the Assembly pass ? What were the assignats? 270 KEVOLUTIOKARY FRANCE. [A. I>. 1190. uppermost there ; and, all other measures having failed, it was decreed that the property of the Church should be seized for the benefit of the State. As this vast property, however, could not be sold at once, it was decided to issue 400,000,000 francs of paper money, called assignats {ah-seen-yah'), to represent it. The kingdom was divided into eighty-three departments ; reforms were instituted, after much discussion, in the Church and in the judiciary ; and, on the anniver- sary of the taking of the Bastile, an immense concourse of people celebrated the regeneration of the nation in the Champ de Mars [slialing-du-marz). 18. Festival of the Federation. — Preparation for this celebration had ^ been made on the grandest scale. The vast space of the Field of March had been terraced in the form of an amphitheater, in the middle of which was an altar on which the oath of allegiance was to be taken. The king and royal family, tlie officers of the ISTational Guard, the members of the Assembly, and representatives from all the departments of France, seated under their respective ban- ners, with priests, bishops, and soldiers, surrounded the altar and formed the center of an immense multitude of 400,000 persons. Mass was celebrated, the oriflamme of France and the banners of the departments v/ere blessed ; and Lafayette, the commander of the National Guard of France, advanced to the altar, and swore allegiance to the nation, the law, the king, and the constitution. The oath was afterward taken by the king ; and the queen, lifting up the dauphin in her arms, presented him to the people, as if pledging him to abide by the oath of his father (1790). 19. The Jacobins. — Death of Mirabeau. — Notwith- standing the apparent harmony, many dangerous divisions still existed. The uncertainty which everywhere prevailed gave rise to constant discussion, which led to the forma- tion of societies and clubs, the most noted of which was 18. Describe the Festival of the Federation. Who first took iho oath of alle- giance ? IIow was it t.tkon bv the royal family ? ■ 19. What led to the forinatlMn of clubs V Which was the most noted ? Was France quiet nt this time ? What cclebiatcd man died ? What is said of him ? A. ][». 1T91.] KEVOLUTIOITAEY FRANCE. 271 that of the Jacobins.* Outbreaks, at this time, were fre- quent all over France, and Paris was agitated almost daily by the news of some fresh disturbance. On the 2d of April, 1791, Mirabeau died. He had been a prominent actor on the side of the people in the scenes which accompanied the Kevolution, and was regarded by them as their special cham- ^"^o^oz- CASTLE OF IF.t pion; but his influence had also been exerted in favor of moderation. His remains were deposited in the Pantheon with all the manifestations of a national bereavement. % 20. Foreign Plots against France.— Flight of the King.— The radical action of the Assembly in regard to the Church divided France into two parties. The nobles were also secretly hostile to the Eevolution ; and the people having no prominent champion since the death of Mirabeau, * So named from the religious order of that name intone of whose convents its first meetings were held. Under the guidance of able and unscrupulous men, its mfiuence was gradually extended, till it became a great pohtical power. ^„r^.^«itA Aiar t If {eef) is the name of a small island off the south-east coast of France, opposite Mar- seilles. It is wholly occupied by the castle or fortress. Here Mirabeau was impnsonea T" Mirabeau was the most potent man of his time; but the greatest individual con- tending with an enraged element appears but a madman. . . . He did not invent me Revolution, but was its manifestation. But for him, it might perhaps have remained in a state of idea and tendency."— iamarft'we's History of the Girondists. 20. To what source did the kin^ look for aid ? Why ? What action did the prin- cipal powers of Europe take ? Why ? What did the king do ? What was the result i 272 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1791. the king determined to call in foreign power to his aid. This was the more readily promised by the other powers of Europe, since the principles then triumphant in Erance threatened the stability of all monarchical governments. An army of 100,000 men was pledged to enter France ; and Louis, in order to be free to use it, resolved to escape from Paris. He left the city secretly at midnight, June 20, 1791^ and accompanied by the royal family, took the road to the Belgian frontier. Before he reached it, however, he was recognized, arrested, and brought back to Paris, where he was virtually dethroned by the Assembly, v/hich passed an act suspending his powers, and appointing a guard to watch him (July 15).* 21. The Constitution of 1791.— Close of the Con- stituent Assembly. — ^Up to this time, little had been said of the substitution of a republic for the monarchy. ]N"ow, however, it was openly advocated. The members of the Assembly ranged themselves on two sides — -the Eepubli- cans and the Conservatives. On the 17th of July, a paper prepared by the Jacobins and the Cordeliers, and calling for the dethronement of the king by the National Assembly, was laid upon the altar in the Champ de Mars to receive the signatures of the people. The Assembly, however, unwill- ing to resort to such an extreme measure, and jealous of dictation, ordered Bailly and Lafayette to prevent the gath- ering. In the excitement which attended the movement, several persons were killed by the soldiers. The Assembly hastened its labors. The new Constitution was ready in September. On the 14th of that month, the king, having signified his acceptance of it, was restored to his powers ; and on the 30th, the Constituent Assembly, having decreed the * "In the night of June 20th, the royal family escaped from the Tuileries through a gate left unguarded. The king was disguised as a valet cle chanibre, in a gray coat and a peri- wig. The queen had borrowed the passport of a Russian lady. At dawn the tidings spread through all Paris. . . Everywhere the name of the king was erased from the public monuments, and from the standards, and the word royal was replaced by the word na- tional."— HenH Martiii's History of France. 21. What chaiipc in the government was now proposed ? How was this openly shown ? What violent act followed ? What course did the Assembly then take ? A. »» 1T92.] KEVOLUTIUKAKY FKANCE. ,273 ineligibility of its members to re-election, adjourned and passed out of existence. 22. The Legislative Assembly. — The new body created by the Constitution was called the Legislative Assembly. Its members were chosen for two years^ and its first session began on the 1st of October, 1791. It was divided into several parties, of which the chief were the Girondins {zhe-ron-dang'), or Girondists, the Monta- gnards [mon-tan-yar'), or Mountain Party, and the Feuil- Vdnts.{fuh-yah7ig'), or Constitutionalists ; but it was plain, from the first, that its general sentiment was one of hostil- ity to the king.* This was soon apparent by the extreme measures which it took, but which the king vetoed. War- like preparations were still continued by the neighboring powers, and the king was directed by the Assembly to warn them to desist. The Assembly, feeling its action impeded by the conduct of the ministers, brought about their re- moval. Their places were filled by the Girondists, Dumou- riez [dd-moo-re-d') and Eo'land, the former being made Minister of Foreign Affairs, the latter, of the Interior (1792). 23. The quarrel of the Girondists and the Feuillants be- came more bitter ; the king vetoed some extreme measures which the former had advocated, and ended by dismissing his Girondist ministers, and going over to their adversaries. Fresh commotions among the people were the result. On the 20th of June, 1792, a great crowd, armed with pikes, assem- bled, under pretext of celebrating the anniversary of the Tennis Hall Oath, and marching to the doors of the Assem- bly, demanded admittance. It was granted ; and the mul- * The Feuillants professed to be satisfied with the changes In the government already- made, and to support the Constitution. It was, at first, the predominant party. The Girondists were so called because their leaders, Vergniaud, Glrodet, and Gensonnd, repre- sented the department of the Gironde. They were revolutionists, desiring to establish a republic on the ruins of the monarchy. The Mountain Party, so called because they occupied the highest rows of seats in the Assembly, were violent demagogues, represent- mg the views of the Parisian rabble, and led by Eobespierre, Danton, and others of that class. The clubs of the Jacobins and Cordeliers were the nurseries of this faction. 22. What called the Legis^lative Assembly into existence ? What were the parties inti) which it was divided ? What was the attitude of the king toward the Assembly 't Wt at action was taken by foreiiqi powers ? What change of officers was made ? 23. How did the quarrel between the king and the Assembly terminate ? Describe the tumult which ensued. 12* 274 REVOLUTIOKARY FEAN^CE. A. ». 1192.] REVOLUTIONAEY FRAN^CE. 275 titude, swollen by the presence of women and children, passed through the hall singing revolutionary songs and shouting *^^ Long live the nation!" and ^^Down with the veto ! " They then marched to the Tuileries (hveel're)} broke down its doors with axes, and compelled the king to put on the red cap of the Jacobins, which was held up to him on the point of a pike. 24. Lafayette, in the attempt to induce the Assembly to punish the actors in these violent scenes and close the clubs of the Jacobins, failed and lost his popularity.* The Prus- sians, meantime, were marching on Paris. The Dtike of Brunswick, their commander, issued a manifesto (July 26, 1792), in which he declared that the object of his coming was to restore to Louis XVI. his authority. This threat, instead of aiding tlie king, hastened liis downfall. From all the departments volunteers were converging on Paris, in obedience to the call of the Assembly, f The king's abdi- cation was openly demanded by the people, led by Eobes- pierre, Danton, and Marat [md-rali) ; and an attack was made on the Tuileries by an armed mob (August 10, 1792). J The king and the royal family took refuge in the midst of the Assembly ; Avhile a fierce struggle ensued between the Swiss Guard in the Tuileries and the populace, the number of killed being from 2,000 to 5,000. After the sacking of the palace, the insurgents marched to the Assembly, and * A few days after, he left the army, intending to go to the United States ; but was captured by the Austrians and confined in the prison of Olmutz, where he lingered four years. t The volunteers from Marseilles were among the most extreme who came to Paris at this time. They brought with them the famous Marseillaise Hymn, recently composed by a young officer named Rouget de Lisle. The martial fervor of its words and music gave it a wonderful popularity among the troops then gathering at the capital. Other means were employed to inflame the populace and soldiers. One of these was a dance called the Carmagnole, (car-man-yole'),. one of the accompaniments of which was a song describing and inciting the hearer to ferocious deeds. Another was the famous Ca ira, a song which was sung when victims were being carried to the scaffold. ' X " The enraged multitude broke into the palace, and put to death every person found within it. The fugitives, pursued into the gardens of the Tuileries, were murdered under the trees, amidst the fountains, and at the feet of the statues. Some wretches climbed up the marble monuments which adorn that splendid spot. The insurgents re- frained from firing, lest they should injure the statuary, but pricked them vfith their bayonets till they came down, and then slaughtered them at their feet ; an instance of taste for art mingled with revolutionary cruelty, unparalleled in the history of the world." — Alison's History of Europe. 24. What did Lafnyette attempt to do ? How was the king's overthrow has- tened '? What was the condition of affairs in Pans ? What was done by the mob ? What did the Assembly do ? 276 revolutions" AEY FRAKCE. [A. ». 1792. demanded the king's dethronement and the calling of a national convention. It was finally decided to suspend the king from the exercise of his authority^ to dismiss the min- isters, and to call a convention. 25. The Commune. — The Girondist ministers were re- called, and the king, with his family, was placed in prison in the Temple. The Prussians, in the mean time, were_ advan- cing, and everything in Paris was in confusion. In the gen- eral excitement, which every hour grew more intense, a new power arose, which, under the pressure of imminent public danger, grasped and wielded the most despotic sway. This was the Commune of Paris, at whose head v/as Danton, the minister of justice.* Marat and others less celebrated were associated with him. Their first step was to free France from its internal enemies. Tliis was done by an indiscrim- *" Danton was the Colossus of the Revolution— the head of gold, hosom of flesh, loins of brass, feet of clay. He prostrated, the apex of the Convention appeared lower- ed. He had been its clouds, lightning, thunder. In losing him the mountain lost its Dummit." — Lajnartine^s History of the Girondists. 25. What was done with the roj^al family ? How was the action of the authorities in Paris hastened ? What new power arose ? Who were the leaders of the Com- mune ? What infamous acts were committed ? A. B. 1792.] REVOLUTION"ARY FRANCE. 277 inate massacre of all political prisoners then in Paris, which was followed by a general attack upon the prisons. For five days these dreadful atrocities continued ; and women, pau- pers, idiots, and even children, were slaughtered without mercy. ^ 26. War had been declared against Austria in April ; but, at first, the French had suffered defeat ; subsequently the French arms were almost everywhere successful. Dumou- riez [du-moo-re-a) and Kellermann defeated the enemy at Valmy in September, and forced him to retreat ; the siege of Lille was raised shortly after ; Oustine (kus-teen') captured Treves, Spire, and Mayence ; Savoy was subdued ; and Dumouriez won the battle of Jemmapes {zhem-map') , and a week after entered Brussels (November). Previous to this the Legislative Assembly had ceased to exist (Sept. 21, 1792). 27. The National Convention. — The body now in- vested with the supreme power was the National Convention. It was pledged to extreme measures. Its first act was to abolish the kingdom and proclaim the republic. The fol- lowing day (September 22, 1792) was declared to be the first of a new era, the year 1 of the French republic. Thus far the Convention was unanimous, but no further. The more moderate members, alarmed at the dangers toward which the nation was hurrying, attempted to check the haste of the Convention. These were the Girondists, who had controlled the Legislative Assembly, and hoped to control the Conven- tion. They were opposed by the extremists, the Mountain party, who advocated a pure democracy based directly upon the will of the people. Among them were many who had * During the continuance of these scenes some most touching and harrowing inci- dents occurred. Among them is that of Elizaheth Cazotte (kah-zoP), who saved her father's life by her eloquent entreaties j and that of the daughter of the governor of the Invalides, who was compelled to drink a cup of blood which the mob presented her. More affecting still was the fate of the young and beautiful Princess of Lamballe, the queen's favorite, who was brutally assassinated and cut to pieces, her head being placed on a pike and carried in procession before the windows of the Temple, where the royal family were imprisoned. 26. Against what country was war declared? What is said of tlie military suc- cess'-s of the French ? What body had ceased to exist previous to that time ? 27. What was the first important act of the Convention ? What change was made m ihe manner of reckoning time ? What two parties sprang up ? Who were the most noted men among the extremists ? 278 REVOLUTION'ARY FRAKCE. [A. D. 1793. taken part in the previous massacres, Robespierre and Marat being the most prominent. 28. Execution of Louis XVI. — In the new order of things the king had no place. It was, therefore, resolved to get rid of him. Por a long time the Jacobin clubs had been busy creating a public sentiment in favor of his trial and condemnation by the Convention. A fierce debate sprung up on this subject ; but it was finally decided that he should be tried. He was at once separated from his family, and, on the 11th of December, was placed before the bar of the Con- vention to answer the charges which had been brought against him.* Notwithstanding a long trial and an eloquent defense by his advocate, Deseze [duli-sdz'), he was found guilty f and condemned to death. | The sentence was executed by means of the guillotine one week afterward (January 21, 1793). § 29. Coalition against France. — This success of the Mountain party led to renewed attacks by them on the Gi- rondists. A powerful agent in these attacks was the paper of Marat, called the ^^ Friend of the People," which created a strong sentiment against them. The violence and irrespon- sible acts of tlie Convention alarmed Europe. England, under the lead of her minister, Pitt, entered the coalition against France ; and the National Convention ordered a levy * The king was charged with instigating foreign powers to invade France ; with resist- ing the will of the people, and causing the bloodshed of the 10th of August. t The questions submitted to the Convention were : 1. Is Louis Ca et guilty of conspir- ing against the liberty of the people ? 2. Shall the sentence be submitted to the ratifica- tion of the people? 3. What shall be the penalty inflicted? The first question was de- cided in the affirmative by an almost unanimous vote ; the second, in the negative by a large majority; but the sentence of death was decided by only a majority of fifty-three votes out of seven hundred and twenty-one. X Thomas Paine, who was a member of the Convention, said : " What, to-day, appears to us an act of justice, will some day appear only an act of vengeance. France has to-day but one friend, the American Republic. Do not give the United States the sorrow, and the King of England the joy, of witnessing the death upon the scaffold of the man who has aided my American brethren in breaking the fetters of English despotism." §i