Class _2_Hi2lX^ Book jtl-qU- Copyright}^". fe COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. PLUMBERS' MANUAL AJNTD TEXT BOOK Dictionary of Plumbing Terms tvith Miscellaneous Information Useful to Plumbers. Arranged anc^ Cop\Tighted by F. W. TOWER, Inspector of Plumbing, Springfield, 3Iass. PRESS OF E. M. LYMAlf & SOJf, 1901. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two CoHi^ Received OCT. t1 1901 Q Copyright entry CLASS ^ XXa No. COPY a ,V ^ Entered Accordi>g to the Act of Cojjgkess IN the year 1901, By F. y^. TOWER, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress At Washington. d LC Control Number tmp96 026511 PREFACE. It is essential to the future prospects of tlie Plumber that he be thoroughly equipped for his duties. It is necessary that the work of the Plumber should be intelligently arranged and conscien- tiously performed. This book is designed to give helpful informa- tion to all engaged in the Plumbing Industry. F. W. Tower, June 1, 1901. Springfield, Mass. TOPICS. WATER AND ITS DISTRIBUTION. Gravity Supply. Wells. Pumps. Hydkaulic Ram. Water Meters. Filters and Filtration. Boilers. Tanks. Metals. Solder. Plumber's Joints. WASTE AND DRAINAGE VENTILATION. Ventilation. Drainage. Subsoil. Traps and Siphonage. Fixtures: Sinks, Lavatories, Baths, Laundry Tubs, Urinals, Water Closets. Miscellaneous. Questions and Answers. Plumbers' Dictionary. WATER. Water is next to air in importance for support- ing life and is of more consequence than food. Not only is water necessary for supporting life, but also for maintaining it in a healthy condi- tion. The water supply must be free from im- purities, and next to quality, quantity is necessary. Perfectly pure water can only be obtained arti- ficially by distillation ; when met with in the natural state it is never pure. Rain water con- tains the impurities which it has contracted by passing through the atmosphere. Spring and river water is still more impure, as it contains the mineral constituents which it has dissolved from the strata with which it has come in con- tact. In the pure state and at the ordinary tempera- ture, water is transparent, free from taste and smell, and almost colorless. It is about 770 times denser than the atmosphere, and is the standard to which all specific quantities of solid and liquid substances are referred, the temperatures in the United States being taken at 60° Fahrenheit. At 39.2° water is at its greatest density, expand- O WATER. ing whether its temperature be increased or di- minished. Water occurs in the solid state at temperatures below 32°, and in the gaseous state ^t tempera- tures above 212°, but it evaporates at all temper- atures, aqueous vapor constantly being present in the atrriosphere. Water is almost inelastic. Its specific heat is higher than that of any other substance, and is a very poor conductor of heat, although heat is rai)idly diffused throughout its mass by convec- tion, warm water being lighter than cold. In freezing, water expands with a i^ressure of 30,000 lbs. per square inch, the ice being about one- eleventh larger than when liquid. At the boiling l)oint, a given bulk of water is converted into 1600 times its volume of steam. Water is com- posed of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The most of those bodies which depend on the fluid state, and that, indeed, by which this state is mainly distinguished from the solid, is the power to transmit pressure equally in every di- rection. By this singular power to transmit pressure, a fluid becomes, in the strictest sense of the term, a machine, — and one of unequalled simplicity and almost unlimited power. This property of liquids points them out as an easy, simple and effectual means of transmitting force to any dis- tance, and under circumstances in which other WATER. 9 mechanical contrivances would be totally inappli- cable. It is only necessary to install a tube filled with a liquid from the point where the force origi- nates, to the point to which it is to be transmit- ted ; and as the shape or position of the connect- ing tube or pipe does not affect the property of the fluid which it contains, there is scarcely any conceivable impediment which can prevent the transmission of the force from one point to the other. A pressure excited on the liquid at one end of the tube will be communicated to any surface in contact with the liquid at the other end, whether the tube be straight, curved or angular, or whether it pass upwards, downwards, or in an oblique or horizontal direction. In the same manner and upon the same princi- ple as it transmits and modifies other forces, it conveys the effect of its own weight through the dimensions which it occupies in the vessel which contains it. This weight exerts a certain pressure on every part of the surface of the containing vessel with which it is in contact. Generally the effect is totally different from that which would be produced by a solid. There is one general principle by which the pressure of a liquid on the surface of the vessel which contains it may always be ascertained. Each part of the surface of the vessel, in contact with the liquid, sustains a pressure equal to the weight of 10 WATER. a column of the liquid below the surface. Gen- erally in every vessel whose sides are perpendic- ular, and whose bottom is horizontal, whatever its shape in other respects, the pressure on the bottom will be equal to the whole weight of the fluid which it contains, while the pressure on each square inch of the perpendicular sides will be equal to the weight of a column of the liquid, whose base is a square inch, and whose height is equal to the depth of the part of the surface of the vessel below the upper surface of the liquid in the vessel. Not only the surface of the vessel which con- tains a liquid, but likewise every part of the liquid itself, sustains a pressure from the weight of the liquid above it, and also transmits this pressure in every direction around it, downward, laterally, obliquely, etc. If it did not encounter an equal pressure in all directions it would move in the direction in which its force was unresisted, but in a vessel no such motion takes place, and as the particles of the fluid remain at rest it follows that they are maintained in their places by forces pressing them equally on every side, and from every possible direction each of which is equal to the weight of the perpendicular col- umn of fluid above the particles so pressed. Whatever be the shape of the vessel which con- tains a liquid, each square inch of its surface suf- fers a pressure equal to the weight of a column of the liquid, whose base is a square inch, and WATER. 11 whose height is the depth of that part of the sur- face of the vessel below the surface of the liquid. If the surface which sustains the pressure be horizontal, every part of it being 9ct the same depth will suffer the same pressure. In this case, the total pressure which the sur- face sustains, is the weight of all liquid which is perpendicular over it. If the surface which suf- fers the pressure be not horizontal, its several parts will be at different depths and therefore will suft'er different pressures. The perpendicular sides of a trough, when filled with a liquid, will sustain the same pi^ssure whether the trough be wide or narrow. The pressure on the perpendicular side is entirely independent of the quantity of liquid which the vessel contains. In tall, narrow vessels the lateral pressure very far exceeds the downward pressure which is equal to the weight. The various parts of any surface, whatever be its form, will be subject to pressures, depending on their depths below the surface of the liquid, all points at the same depths having the same pressure. There is a certain pressure or mean of all var- ious pressures, to which the points of the sur- face are subject: and whatever this pressure be, it must be such, that if spread over the whole sur- face, the total amount of the pressure on that surface will not be altered. 12 WATEK. The buoyancy of solids immersed in liquids is frequently used as a means in regulating the supply of reservoirs, in which it is necessary to maintain the liquid at a certain level. If a solid body float on the surface, it will rise and fall with every change of level of the sur- face, if any impediment prevents its ascent or descent on the surface of the liquid, it will exert a force in the one case by its buoyancy, and in the other by its weight, to overcome such im- pediment. The floating body is usually connected by a wire or lever with a valve or cock, which governs the supply. When the vessel is filled to a certain height, the float being raised to that height acts by the wire or lever, so as to close the valve and stop the further supply of the liquid. If, on the other hand, by use or waste, the level of the liquid falls, and the reservoir needs replenishing, the float descends, and, acting on the valve in the contrary direction, opens it and admits the required supply. Examples of this may be seen in the ordinary cistern and for sup- plying water for domestic purposes when the supply is constant and the demand intermittent. In the construction of pipes for the supply of water to cities, it is necessary that those parts which are much below the level of the reservoir from which the water is sui)plied, should have a greater strength than is requisite in those which WATEK. 13 are in more elevated situations. A pressure always acts upon the inner surface of the pipe, tending to burst it, which may be estimated by calculating that in 27.71 inches in depth, a pres- sure of one pound will be produced upon every square inch of surface. If the pressure arising from the weight of a liquid be propoitional to the depth, and that pressure be transmitted equally in every direction, it will follow that the sur- face of all parts of a liquid contained in the same vessel, or in two or more vessels between which there is free communication by tubes or pipes, must be always at the same level, the liquid will by its gravity return to it, the higher parts falling, and the lower parts rising, until the level be restored. The properties in virtue of which liquids main- tain their levels, and transmit pressure, are the cause of most of the phenomena exhibited in the various motions and changes to which water is subject on the surface of the earth. The rain which falls on the tops of mountains and other elevated planes, collects in rills, which uniting, form streams. These descending gradually encounter others until a river is formed, which finally comes to the ocean whose waters had been originally taken up in the form of vapor. Throughout the whole of this period, the only principle in operation is the tendency of a liquid to find its level. 14 WATER. In some cases the rain which is lodged on ele- vated grounds meets a soil of spongy or porous nature, or one which by various crevices is per- vious by water. In such cases the liquid often passes to very great depths before it encounters a barrier formed by an impenetrable strata. When it does, and is confined, it is subject to a considerable hydrostatic pressure from the water which fills the more elevated veins by which it is fed. This pressure frequently forces the water to break a passage through the surface, and it gushes out in a spring, which ultimately en- larges into a tributary stream of some river. In some cases the water which is filtered through the earth is confined by impenetrable barriers in subterranean reservoirs, barriers, the strength of which exceeds the hydrostatic pressure. If the ground perpendicularly above such a barrier be opened, and a pit sunk to such a depth as will penetrate those strata of earth which are impervious to water, the liquid in the subterra- nean reservoir, having then free admission to the pit, will rise in it until it attains the level which it has in the channels from which it is supplied. If this level be above the surface of the ground it will have a tendency to rush upward forming a fountain. If the level of the source be nearly equal to that of the mouth of the pit, the water will rise WATER. 15 to that level and there stand ; it will form a well. If the level of the source be considerably below the mouth of the pit the water will not rise be- yond a certain height, corresponding to the level of its source. The method of supplying water for towns de- pends upon the property of maintaining its level. A reservoir is selected in some situation more elevated than those places to which the water is to be supplied. This reservoir may be fed either from natural sources or by mechanical power. Pipes are conducted from it, usually under- ground, through all parts of the town ; and from the main pipes smaller ones pass into each house. Street mains are almost invariably made of cast iron and usually tar coated. The material of which the house branches are made is of considerable importance, first as re- gards health and secondly as regards expense. Plain black iron pipe is non-poisonous, cheap and easily put together, but soon gathers rust and is eaten away. As the rust gathers on the internal surface the bore of the pipe is gradually closed, thus, after a few years necessitating a new pipe. Iron pipes protected by galvanizing are always rough on the inside and the zinc coating only lasts a short time. The water way of an iron pipe is considerably 16 WATER. reduced when rust forms and the roughness of the rusted surface will also retard the velocity of the water, the friction being so great as to reduce the quantity of water delivered nearly 50 per cent when compared with a new pipe, or one of lead. More water will pass through a lead pipe than through either of the other kinds in a given time, assuming that all other conditions are equal. This is owing to its smoothness inside, and, when properly laid the absence of any sharp elbows or bends, lessens the friction. Also with the use of lead pipe no iron rust enters the storage tank or causes ball valves or faucets to constantly leak. If all lead is too expensive, a pipe of iron, lined wath lead is procurable and if any fear of lead poisoning exists an iron pipe lined with pure tin can be procured. The constant digging up of a city's streets to replace old rusty service pipes of iron entails great expense, and usually this additional re- laying of a service pipe is made at the expense of the householder. All water pipes laid outside of a building should be so far below the surface that frost will not reach them, usually from three to five feet according to the porosity of the soil and the condi- tion of the climate. It is considered prudent to have a stop cock WATEH. 17 box outside the building for the householder to be enabled to control the whole line from the street line to the cellar where another stop cock or wheel valve with waste tube or opening, should be provided to allow all water pipes to be emptied when the valve is closed. This waste opening is necessary to empty the pipes to pre- vent any water remaining in pipe to freeze in cold weather or to allow the pipe to drain in making repairs. The object of the stop cock outside the build- ing is for the purpose of enabling the householder to be independent in controlling his own water supply, as the water department will not allow interference with pipes in the street or their own stop cocks. The service pipe should be laid with an even grade to the stop cocks to enable the water to be drained. If any sags or depressions occur the water will lodge and cause trouble. The proper manner for supporting water pipe of lead in a building is to fasten a board with a ''ground" under the pipe and this furnishes a good support its entire length. Do not use pipe hooks, bands or tacks for sup- porting horizontal pipes of lead, as the lead pipe, will, of its own weight, sag between these sup- ports, especially noticeable in hot water pipes. The heated water will cause the pipe to elon- gate and it never returns to its original position. 18 WATER. The position of service pipes should always be considered as much from danger of frost, the noise they convey and also condensation. In certain conditions of the atmosphere a great deal of moisture will gather or condense on the pipes and drip on walls or floors. This condensation is caused by the difference in temperature between the water in the pipe and the room through which the pipe passes. The thickness and weight of lead pipe for ser- vice should be determined by the pressure ex- isting in the locality in which the pipe is to be used. The fall or head, when water is flowing with- out valves of any kind, allows the use of lighter pipe than when opening and closing of faucets is necessary. The size of pipe from main to building should be considered, taking frictional loss, distance run, and needs of a building into account. A large pipe offers less frictional resistance than a small one by a large per cent. This should be taken into account especially with high buildings and a pipe, that will not form incrustation on its inner surface, will offer less resistance than one with rough surfaces and smaller sizes could be used. Pipes should always be placed away from out- er walls or where cold draughts will strike them, but if unable to so place them always protect them by covering with paper or felting. WATEK. 19 When a heavy pressure is niaintained, a stor- age tank should be placed in the upper part of a building, thus necessitating only one extra heavy cold water service pipe. This method lessens the liability of bursting or straining a pipe vrhen a faucet is suddenly closed. With a tank pressure an even tension is main- tained and lighter weights of lead pipe can be used. The volume of water that will be delivered to a building in a given time depends principally upon the pressure of the water and the diameter of the service pipe. The pressure, however, is the most important because this cannot always be changed to suit the circumstances, while the size of the pipe which supplies the building from the street main may be made to meet the requirements of the building. Ascertain just how high the water will rise be- fore commencing the plumbing work because the system of piping, or the method of supplying and distributing the water, best adapted for the building will depend chiefly upon the height to which the water can be depended upon to rise. This height can be ascertained by applying a pressure gauge to the service pipe and computing the vertical height of a column of water required to counterbalance the pressure indicated. It often happens that the water will rise and sup- 20 WATEK. ply the top floors of a building during the night, but not during the day. This is due to larger quantities of water being drawn from the street mains during the day than during the night. When such a condition as this occurs, it is a simple matter to locate a common house tank above the highest fixture, large enough to hold a three days' supply. The service pipe should be large, so that when the pressure comes on, the tank will fill quickly in order to supply the building when needed. This is called an intermittent supply. The irregular street pressure is often caused by the lower part of a town being mainly devoted to manufacturing purposes, and the upper part to residences. All the systems of plumbing done in the lower portion of a town may be connected directly to the street mains and be constantly subject to the street pressure, while those in the higher section must have storage tanks and operate under tank pressure owing to the intermittent supply. Those parts of the buildings which can be sup- plied from the mains should be directly connected to the street pressure because water taken directly from the mains is more wholesome than that which has stood in house tanks. The most common method of connecting the tank to the street service and the house dis- tributing pipes, and probably the best, is simply FRICTION. 21 to extend the service pipe from the street main up to the tank, taking off as many branches as can be safely supplied at all times by the street pressure. When the water pressure is great enough in the mains, water will rise through this pipe and overflow into the tank, where it is stored until drawn at the fixtures. To prevent the tank from overflowing, the flow into tank should be governed by an automatic regulator. FRICTION. When water flows through any channel, or through pipes under pressure, it meets with re- sistances which retards its motion and reduces its pressure, and these resistances are called friction. Particles of water move with great freedom among themselves, and observed when in rapid motion, they are seen striking the pipe, rebound- ing and striking other particles of water, which in time rub against and obstruct others. The further away from the sides of the channel, which is the cause of this commotion, the less the disturbance and the more rapid the flow. Therefore the greater the head the faster the flow, the greater the commotion caused and the greater the resistance ; also, the larger the channel or pipe, the less would this commotion penetrate the central part of the stream. 22 FRICTIOX. It is to tlie fact of a confined channel and the forward motion of the whole stream that this movement of the particles of water among them- selves, and consequent resistance is due, and so long as there is forward motion this resistance must continue. Areas of circles are to each other as the square of their diameter. Usually it is considered that doubling the size of the pipe decreases the friction loss at the same velocity of motion in the pipe one half, or, the friction loss at equal velocities in different sized pipes practically varies in the ratio of pipe sur- face or circumferance to cross section. It may be stated as near enough for most prac- tical purposes that when delivering the same number of gallons per minute, the friction loss in two pipes of equal lengths, the diameter of one of which is twice that of the other, the loss in the larger will be l-30th of that in the smaller, or the loss in the smaller will be 30 times that in the larger. This relation of volume, or number of gallons per minute, to friction in different sized pipe should not be overlooked when calculating water supplies. In laying pipes all bends and elbows should be avoided as much as possible. When necessary they should be as large as possible and direction changed gradually. Sudden changes destroy the velocity very AIK LOCKS. 23 rapidly and consequently reduce the discharge. A reduction or increase in size of pipe owing to screwing on of branch pipes smaller or greater, also reduces velocity. AIR LOCKS. The effect of the sagging of a lead pipe between its support, is, that air will collect in the high parts of the bends, and will form air locks. These greatly impede the flow of water through the pipe. If the pressure is light and the sags are many they may stop the flow entirely. Thus a long waste pipe in that condition might prevent the passage of water, and would appear to be -choked by refuse, although the trouble was wholly due to air locks. If air has accumulated in the upper bends the water will rise on one side of the bend and slightly compress the air which is entrapped at those points. The air will depress the water on the other side of the bend, raising its surface at the next upper bend. The difference in level between the surfaces of the water on the opposite sides of a bend is the measure of the resistance which the air in that bend offers to the passage of water. The effects of the air accummulations are 24 WATER HAMMEK. chiefly observed in low pressure systems, for instance, those which are supplied with water from house tanks. The reason is, that the pressure due to the head between the air locks and the tank is too low usually to force the air out of the pipe. It is different, however, when the system is under high pressure, because then the pressure is usually sufficient to force the air out of the pipes along with the water. A common cause of air lock in a building is that in which a lead hot water pipe is run over the floor beams for a considerable distance and when the pipe is not supported uniformly throughout its length. WATER HAMMER. Water under pressure in pipes is subject to an accelerating force, or force of gravity, to a certain extent, in the same manner as a body falling through the air. It is subject to resistance by friction against the sides of the pipe just as a body is subject to resistance by the air. When water is flowing through a pipe and is suddenly checked, a noise is heard caused by the striking of the water against the end of the pipe or whatever is i)laced as a barrier to stop the flow. WATER HAMMEIl. 25 The noise is heard at every part of the pipe throughout its length, but not always at the same instant of time. In the case of a long length of service pipe, the noises Jtppear to repeat very quickly, so that the water hammer is known as "chattering." Length of pipe has a great deal to do with the noise, that is, the longer the pipe the greater the noise. When self-closing faucets are used, or quickly turned, w^ater hammer almost always occurs owing to the sudden stoppage of the flow of water. When slow closing faucets are used it is seldom that water hammer occurs. Faucets that gradually check the flow of water are admirable to use to prevent water hammer. ^ot only is the sound of water hammer objec- tionable, but the force created is often sufficient to burst the pipes. Often an initial pressure is increased fourfold by a suddenly closed valve. Experience teaches that an air cushion or chamber is of great value for slowly arresting the flow of water in pipes and preventing sudden shocks. As air is an elastic fluid and cao be either com- pressed or expanded according to the amount of pressure exerted, an air chamber on a line with the water current will act efficiently and satisfac- torily until the air has been exhausted. 26 SERVICE PIPES. This may occur by the great force expended each time the flow is checked and the constant opening of a faucet near the chamber. xl small pipe is not as efficient as one of larger calibre although a long air chamber of sn^all pipe may contain as much air as a short chamber of large diameter. As water absorbs air, provision should be made for admitting air whenever the chamber becomes exhausted. A small air cock attached to the end of the air- chamber will answer the purpose when the water has been shut off. An air chamber should be made of stout mate- rial as it has to withstand a very heavy force when the flow of water in the pipe is suddenly checked. SERVICE PIPES. Various kinds of material are used for service pipes in different localities and chosen usually according to the adaptibility of the water to the material of which the pipe is composed. Plain iron is non-poisonous, cheap and easily jointed, but soon gathers rust filling the bore of the pipe and is eaten away soon requiring new. Galvanized iron or zinc coated will retain its coating on the inside a very little longer than the plain, but when this coating begins to scale, as it will, the water may become dangerous, as the SERVICE PIPES. 21 salts of zinc are poisonous with some waters, if taken in sufficient quantity. Tar coated iron is used extensively on account of its cheapness, is a slight protection on the in- side of the pipe, but its inner surface of tar will be removed by friction in less than a year. Its advantage lies in the fact that outside con- tact with all kinds of soil w^ill not affect it as rapidly as the plain iron. Plain iron being affected by both outside and inside corrosion thus hastening its decay. Enameled or rubber coated is another effort to prevent rapid rusting. When the pipe is cut or bent the coating cracks thus exposing the plain surface to the action of the water. Pure tin pipe is perfectly safe, non corrosive, but diffcult to work, as a special solder called '•Bismuth solder," is necessary to joint if wiped. The pipe is very liable to crack at the edge of joint and leaks are difficult to repair. Tin lined lead pipe is easily worked and less expensive. Brass pipe is very durable, if properly annealed, light, strong and easily jointed. It is said to be poisonous when used to con- duct water for drinking purposes. Copper pipes are not used as a cold supply, but frequently used on hot water connections be- tween range and boiler, being very durable and well adapted for this purpose. 28 wp:lls. Lead pipe is durable, strong and pliable, but witli some soft waters it corrodes and if soluble becomes injurious to health. Lead is generally preferred for house connec- tions owing to the facility with which it can be adapted to the structural requirements. The real objection to it is, that it is attacked by some very soft waters, oxide of lead being formed which is partially soluble. With free carbonic acid, however, the pipe becomes coated with carbonate of lead which is insoluble in water and protects the pipe from further action. In hard water the lead soon be- comes coated with sulphide of lime. Accordingly it is only under exceptional con- ditions that the employment of lead is harmful, but it should be prohibited for the lining of tanks or cisterns for domestic use, where the water may be stored for a long time. Lead and tin linings for iron pipe are now pro- curable and have the rigidity of the iron and the smoothness of bore desirable. In trench work this is desirable as it prevents trapping and avoids obstruction to the flow by being air bound. WELLS. 29 WELLS. When a porous strata such as sandstone or chalk, which has the power of retaining water in its pores or fissures, is above an impervious strata, such as chw, the porous strata will be saturated and the water held up as in a basin, after rains, to a plane inclining toward the low- est lip, which is generally the outcrop of the impervious strata. If the porous strata is near the surface of the ground, the plane of saturation is generally at no great depth; and if a well is sunk to a point below this plane, water will collect in it and stand at the level of the plane. This constitutes a shallow well. Under these circumstances the level of the plane of saturation is very variable, being rapid- ly aftected by the rainfall. As the rainfall in its passage into and through the ground on account of its highly solvent nature, takes up and carries with it any impuri- ties, more particularly of an organic nature, which it meets with on the way, and as the dis- tance through which it has to pass before flow- ing into the well is usually very short, shallow wells are dangerous sources of water supply for domestic purposes. It is only in such cases as where the well is in an isolated position, and sufficiently removed 30 WELLS. from any possible source of pollution, that its use in this connection should be permitted. As the water in shallow wells is usually of a soft nature, the suction pipe should not be com- posed of lead. Deep wells are those which are sunk through an impervious strata to a porous or water bear- ing strata beneath it; the water being held up in the latter by an impervious strata under- neath it again. The terms deep and shallow in connection w^ith wells do not therefore refer to the actual depth of the well, and a shallow well may in fact, be deeper than a deep well. Deep wells, if properly constructed, constitute excellent sources for domestic supply. The rainfall which feeds them is collected upon the exposed surfaces of the water bearing strata, which are usually situated at a distance from the site of the well, and becomes purified in its passage through the ground. On account of its prolonged contact with strata at some depth below the surface, deep well water usually contains a considerable amount of min- eral matter in solution, which it has taken up during its passage, this gives it a hard character. Deep wells have also the advantage of being slowly affected by the rainfall, and the level of the water in them is fairly constant. The level at which the water will stand in a WELLS. 31 "deep well" depends upon the elevations of the collecting ground and the line of overflow. There is a continuous flow of water in satur- ated strata from the collecting area toward th e outlet which is usually the bed of a river, the shore of a lake, or the sea. The surface level of this moving body of water, which may be called its virtual slope, depends upon the resistance of the materials which com- pose the strata through which it flows. Should the point selected for sinking a deep well be situated beneath the virtual slope of the water in the saturated beds, then, when these beds are reached the water will rise to the top of the well and above it to the virtual slope at that point, thus constituting an artesian well. The name is derived from Artois, a province of France, where this form of well was first brought into general use. The artesian well is only a special condition of the deep well. As in wells of this description the water rises of its own accord, either so as to overflow, or to within a certain distance from the surface, it is only necessary to dig the well to a sufficient depth to allow a pump to be installed within 30 feet of the lowest level to which the water rises and to afford sufficient storage capacity. Driven wells consist of iron tubes, in sections, which are driven into the o^round, the bottom 32 • WELLS. section of which is perforated having a steel point to enable it to penetrate. When water is reached it can be easily deter- mined by a peculiar gurgling sound in the tube when struck by a mallet. An advantage pos- sessed by this form of well is that it can usually be withdrawn and driven again in a new situa- tion. Percolation of surface water between the lin- ing of the well and the ground through which it is driven is also prevented. It is generally known that driven wells cannot be successfully made in stony soil, or where the strata of clay is too thick to be penetrated. The tube well is economical and satisfactory when the ground is suitable and where the water stands, or by deeper sinking may be made to rise within 30 feet of the surface. t3t PUMPS. 33 PUMPS. Machines for raising water have been known from very early ages, and the invention of the common pump is generally accredited to Ctesibius teacher of the celebrated Hero of Alexandria, about 224 B. C. Ctesibius did not understand the lift but the force pump. The pressure of the atmosphere was not esti- mated then. It was correctly determined by Torricelli, the Italian, to be 14.7 lbs. per square inch at sea level. The atmosphere will balance, at that level a column of water 33 feet 9 inches high. To raise the water in a pump the action is as follows : Suppose the suction tube to be filled with air at the atmospheric pressure, and the water to be at the same level inside the tube and in the well. Suppose the piston or plunger to be at the end of its downward stroke, the raising of the piston tends to produce a vacuum below it, and the atmospheric pressure, acting upon the external surface of the liquid, compels it to rise in the tube or pipe and follow the upward motion of the piston. The air contained in the suction tube will open the suction valve and rush into the pump barrel. The elastic force of this air being then dimin- ished, the atmospheric pressure will cause the 34 PUMPS. water to rise in the tube to such a height, that the pressure due to this height, "vvill exactly counter-balance the pressure of the atmosphere. If the piston now descends, the suction valve closes, the water remains at the level to which it has been raised, and the air, being compressed in the barrel, opens the i^iston valve and escapes. At the next stroke of the piston, the water will rise still further, and a fresh portion of air will escape. If, then, the length of the suction is less than about 30 feet, the water will after a certain num- ber of strokes of the piston, be able to reach the suction valve and rise into the pump barrel. When this point has been reached the action changes. The piston in its downward stroke compresses the air, which escapes through it, but the water also passes through so that the piston when at the bottom of the pump barrel will have above it all the water that has previously risen into the barrel. If the piston be now raised,the water will follow it in its upward movement, and fill the pump barrel. In the downward stroke this water will pass up through the piston valve, and in the following upward stroke will be discharged at the spout. A fresh quantity of water will by this time have risen in the pump barrel, and the same operation will be repeated. PUMPS. 35 From the time the water has entered the pump barrel, at each up\yarcl stroke of the piston a volume of water is discharged equal to the eon- tents of the pumj) barrel. In order that the water may be able to rise into the pump barrel, the suction valve must not be more than 33 feet above the level of the water in the well, other- wise the water would stop at a certain point in the tube, and could not be raised higher by any further motion of the piston. In order that a quantity of water may be re- moved equal to the volume of the pump barrel, it is necessary that the piston, when at the top of its stroke, should be not more than 33 feet above the water in the well. Practically, the pump barrel should be not more than about 25 feet above the surface of the water in the well, but the spout may be more than 33 feet above the barrel, as the water after rising above the piston is simply pushed up by the latter, an operation which is independent of atmospheric pressure. Pumps in which the spout is at a great height above the barrel are commonly called Lift Pumps, but they are not essentially different from the suction pump. Pumps being machines which serve to raise water either by suction, by pressure, or, by both efforts combined, are consequently divided into or classed as suction or lift pumps, force pumps, and suction and forcing pumps. The various parts entering into the construction 36 PUMPS. of a pump are tlie barrel, the piston, tlie valves and the pipe. The barrel is a cylinder of metal in which is the piston operated by a brake or handle. The piston is a metal cylinder provided with a leather disc or valve and working with gentle friction the whole length of the barrel. The valves are discs of m'etal or leather which alternately close the apertures which connect the barrel with the pipe. The lower valve of a pump is fixed in the pipe below the barrel and rises or falls as the plunger or piston rises or falls. A force pump delivers the water under press- ure ejecting it forcibly or delivering it at an elevation. The single acting force pump, is that in which the lift and delivery is alternate. The double acting is that in which the passages are duplicated so that a lift and delivery are obtained by each motion of the plunger ; the pump has a distinct water way both above and below the piston so as to both draw and force water at each stroke, thus causing a continuous stream which is rendered more uniform by an air chamber. The object of the air chamber, is to provide a cushion of air to give elasticity or spring to the column of water being delivered. It also gives a uniform flow of water, the ex- panding air exerts its force on the water between PUMPS. 37 the up and down stroke of the piston, assisting materially in the action. At elevations above the sea's level, water can only be lifted to a height in feet about equal to the number of inches at which the mercury in the barometer stands, one inch of mercury corre- sponding to about 13 inches of water. When trying to find a leak in a suction pipe, water will not be found on the outside surface of the pipe, as the air is trying to get in, rather than the water trying to get out of the pipe. Listen for a hissing sound and when located it will be usually found where the pipe has chafed against a rough surface or in a defective joint. When a jerky motion attends the working of the brake or handle, it usually indicates a leak unless the suction pipe is very long. When a partial stream is produced, that is, one not equal to the capacity of the pump barrel, the upper valve is partially worn and needs ad- justment. When the water leaves the pump, the lower valve needs repairing. As the level of water in wells is subject to changes, it is necessary to construct the rod and cylinder, at such a length that the sucker may always work within 26 or 28 feet of the water. By observing this precaution, water may be raised by pumps from wells of all depths ; for after it has once entered the barrel, it is then raised independently of the atmosphere, and to 38 PUMPS. any height to which the cylinder is extended. When pump rods are required of great length, they should be made of pine. This wood does not warp and as it is rather lighter than water, its weight has not to be overcome, like iron rods, when raising the sucker. The more rapidly the handle of a pump is operated, the more water will be obtained up to a certain limit. A steady stroke is better because time must be given the water to flow into it. It can do so only at a certain rate, and it is im- portant to avoid anything that will check the easy flow of water, an elbow for instance. If necessary to change the course of a suction pipe, a long easy bend is by far the best as the friction in long pipes is considerable. The horizontal distance between the cylinder or working part of the pump and well is, in theory unlimited, but in practice it seldom ex- ceeds one or two hundred feet. In all cases where long pipes are used, their bore should be enlarged in proportion to their length, or the speed with which the piston is raised should be diminished; because time is re- quired to overcome the inertia and friction of long columns of water in pipes, thus a piston or sucker should never be raised faster than the pipe can furnish water to fill the vacuum formed by its ascent. PUMPS. 39 In pump pipes having too small a bore, it often happens that the sucker is forcibly driven back when quickly raised, because the water had not time to rush through the pipe and fill the vacuum in the cylinder as rapidly as it was formed. Sometimes a valve called a foot valve, is placed on the bottom of a suction pipe in the water, its object being to simply help the lower valve of the pump and relieve it of a part of the strain. It holds the water up, especially if the lower valve in the pump leaks, owing to poor fittings, or if sediment gets under it, which is a very common trouble. When this occurs, the air, pressing on the water in the suction pipe, restores the equilibrium and the water falls back to the level of the water in the well, or the pump has run down. When wishing to raise water higher than the spout a lift and force pump is used. This has a close top, an additional valve and usually an air chamber. When this pump is worked, instead of the water flowing out of the spout of the pump, it is lifted or forced to whatever distance or height it is required. The power or strength to be applied has to be greater, and the different parts of the pump stronger, in order to stand the extra strain. 40 THE HYDRAULIC KAM. as water is heavy and the 14.7 lbs atmospheric pressure gives no assistance. Once the water gets above the piston in the pump, it is a dead weight. There are many forms of pumps, and the mod- ifications are almost countless. The newer productions necessarily combine the essential principles of the atmospheric pump, the difference usually being in the nice adjustment and large delivery, together with the combina- tions to ensure ease of working. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. The discovery of the underlying principle of the ram and the merit of its application is prob- ably due to John Whitehurst, of Derby, England, who, in 1775, first called the attention of the public to this invention. In 1796 J. M. De Montgolfier, invented a machine acting on the same fundamental prin- ciple, but in some respects greatly improved. Whitehurst's ram was operated by the opening and closing of a waste valve, which was done by hand, while Montgolfier's accomplished the same results automatically and made the machine of practical use. The principle upon which all types of hydraulic rams operate is simple. THE HYDKAULIC KAM. 41 A column of water is set in motion by opening a waste valve, and after a certain velocity is ac- quired, the waste valve is suddenly closed. The moving column, by this means, has ac- quired certain energy which it expends in forcing a portion of its volume through a check valve and to a higher head than its source. This operation being repeated at frequent in- tervals produces a flow of water in the desired direction and to the desired height, under proper conditions. The actual closing of the valve takes place very suddenly, and the momentum of the column of water, which was moving with increasing speed through the drive pipe, will very rapidly force some water through the air chamber valve into the air chamber. Immediately after this a rebound takes place, and for a short interval of time, the water flows back up the drive pipe and tends to form a vacuum under the air chamber valve, this opens the impetus valve and admits a little air which accumulates under the air chamber valve and is forced into the air chamber with the next shock. This air keeps the air chamber constantly charged, otherwise, the water, being under a greater pressure in the air chamber than it is in the reservoir, would soon absorb the air in the chamber and the ram would cease to work until the chamber was recharged with air. 42 THE HYDRAULIC RAM. The rebound also takes the pressure oft: the under side of the impetus valve and causes it to drop and the operation is repeated. A steady flow of water is maintained through the delivery pipe by the pressure of the air in the chamber, this air also acts as a cushion when the impetus valve suddenly closes and prevents undue shock to the parts of the ram. This being automatic and the simplicity of the operation of the machine together with its effec- tiveness and desirability, renders it decidedly the most important and valuable apparatus yet devel- oped in "hydraulics" for forcing a portion of a running stream of water to any elevation propor- tionate to the fall obtained. It is applicable when no more than 18 inches fall can be had, yet the greater the fall applied, the more powerful the operation of the machine, and the higher the water may be conveyed. The relative proportion between the water raised and wasted, is dependent entirely upon the relative height of the spring or source of supply above the ram, and the elevation to which it is required to raise, has some bearing on the quantity of water raised and discharged by the ram, as the longer the pipe through which the water has to be forced by the machine, the greater the friction to be overcome, and the more the power consumed in the operation. It may be safely calculated that about one- seventh part of the water can be raised and de- THE HYDKAULIC KAM. 43 livered at an elevation above the ram live times as high as the fall which is applied to the ram, or one-fourteenth part can be raised and dis- charged ten times as high as the fall, and in that proportion as the fall or rise is desired. Thus, if the ram be placed under a head or fall of five feet, of every seven gallons drawn from the spring, one may be raised 25 feet or half a gallon 50 feet. When a sufficient quantity of water is raised with a given fall it is not advisable to increase said fall, as, in so doing, the force with which the ram works is increased, and the amount of labor which it has to perform greatly increased, the w^ear of the machine proportionately increased, and the durability of the ram lessened, so that economy in the expense of repairs would dictate that no greater fall should be applied for j)ropel- ling the ram than is sufficient to raise a requisite supply to the place of use. . In many cases the ram and feed pipe are too large for the supply of water at some seasons of the year, and the consequence is, that the water in the feed box falls until air enters the feed pipe when the ram will stop with the outlet valve closed. The water then rises in the feed box and over- flows, and it is found that the ram has stopped when there is plenty of water. In order to avoid this trouble a regulator or 44 THE HYDRAULIC EAM. brass valve having a float attached, arranged to suddenly close when the float sinks, may be used. The regulator is put on the upper end of the feed pipe so that the face of the valve will be perpendicular. Then, when the water in the* feed box is lowered, the regulator closes and stops the ram until the water rises again. The depth to which the water may fall is reg- ulated by the position Of the float. In some cases, where galvanized iron feed pipes are used, the strokes of the ram, after a few years, become very weak, caused by the rust accumulat- ing on the inside. Sometimes the quantity of water a ram raises becomes less and less and finally stops, although the ram continues running. This is caused either by a hole in the rising pipe or a defect in the air chamber valve. The cost of power, attendance and mainten- ance being practically nothing and the first cost of the machine being very low, it is evident that no type of machinery can compete with the hydraulic ram, when the conditions are such that it can be used. WATER METEKS. 45 WATER METERS. Statistics prove that the consumption of water^ in cities in the United States, has gradually in- creased within a few years to such an extent that provisions for supply cannot keep pace with the reckless waste that now characterizes the use of water. The selling of water by meter measurement is just and equitable and prevents waste. A water meter is a water engine, the motive power being the water which passes through it under pressure, requiring only enough power to overcome the friction of its moving parts and to drive the clock work of the index. The pointers on the dial are at the end of a train of mechanism and cannot move unless water is passing through the meter. In practice, a meter is seldom looked at. It must be absoluely reliable, doing its work with precision and without the necessity of such fre- quent care and examination as the general run of machines. It must be constructed of the best material, selected with reference to resisting the action of all kinds of water met with in every-day practice, and with few moving parts. Variations in the pressure should not affect its accuracy. Sudden opening or closing of faucets should not cause any error in registration as it must not 46 WATER METEKS. obstruct the flow, cause serious loss of pressure, or become liable to damage by water hammer. Strainers are required in locations where the water contains floating matter or an excessive amount of grit, gravel, scale, etc. In setting a meter avoid the use of paint or red lead on pipe joints between water main and meter, as it is liable to work into meters and clog the working parts. The supply should be blown out before connecting, to eject lead filings, iron scales, gravel, etc. It is also desirable to place a check valve be- tween house fixtures and meter when hot Vv'ater is liable to siphon from boiler. Every consumer, who takes water by measure- ment, owes it to himself to know that he is pay- ing for no more water than he receives, and should learn to read the meter, being careful to observe that there is no waste of water. If any leak is found, it should be repaired, at once^ as any waste however small is registered, and the Water Department has no alternative ,but to charge for the full amount, whether con- sumed or wasted. A meter will not register more water than passes through it, and if desirous of proving a meter it is easily done. Watch the hand on the dial registering the smallest number of cubic feet. If the hand moves at all, there is a leak, the extent being- shown by the movement of the hand. If the FILTEISS. 47 hand remains stationary, draw into a receptacle, the capacity being known, an amount of water and it will be found on referring to the dial that too much water has not been registered. If the lowest circle registers one cubic foot for each 7.48 gallons passed, the hand will make one com- plete revolution, and the hand of the next high- est circle will move one point. In this manner one can be satisfied of the accuracy of the meter bill at any time. Straight reading registers avoid errors being claimed and they interchange with the dial reoisters. FILTERS. There can be no dissent from the position that the household water supply should be rendered as pure as possible. Dr. Keeley says, "The water of the earth, as a rule, is not fit to drink."' "There is no other source of disease so prolific as water." The widespread prevalence of typhoid fever may be practically looked upon as a result of the l)ollution of the drinking water. While cases doubtless occur in which the dis- ease cannot be traced to the water supply, these constitute the variating minority. The importance of having it of pure quality is self evident. 48 FILTERS. Pure water or water free from all sorts of iin- cleanliness is demanded today by the sanitary conscience of the public. Two alternatives are necessary, — either to pre- vent the entrance of impurities to the source of supply, or resort to some method of purifying the water. In most instances the changing of the source of supply is impracticable or too expensive and the only other resource is filtration or boiling the water. Water is no more necessary to life than pure water is to health. Because persons have drank questionable water and still live, is no evidence that they would not have lived better on pure water. It is reasonable, if badly polluted water causes severe and fatal disease, that slightly impure water may slowly undermine the health by being the cause of a host of ailments, for which the sufferer finds no apparent cause. Owing to its absorbent qualities, pure water is never found in nature. Formerly filtration simply meant straining out from water all impurities, thus changing a dirty or muddy water into a clean and limpid fluid. It did not contemplate the changing of organic compounds into inorganic compounds or the re- moval of minute organisms which are now recog- nized as the causes of specific diseases. FILTEKS. 40 It is now known that water may be perfectly- clean and limpid and yet be extremely impure. It is also known that sewage water full of or- ganic matter can be rendered absolutely free by filtration. The experiment made by the Massachusetts State Board of Health, conducted at Lawrence, proved conclusively that water, no matter how polluted, can be rendered absolutely safe and pure by simply filtering the same through sand filters, provided certain conditions are observed regarding the construction of the filters, the rate of filtration, etc. In sand filtration two processes must be observed, one the straining out of the bacteria, and the other, the conversion of the organic com- pounds. These imply that the materials, of which the filter is composed, shall be sufiiciently fine to hold back all suspended matter, and that a sufli- cient supply of oxygen shall always be present to oxidize it. A filter may be a vessel, chamber, or reservoir through which water or other liquid is passed to arrest matter mechanically suspended therein. The idea does not necessarily include specific chemical action, though doubtless animal and vegetable charcoal have a faculty for absorbing gases and deleterious and effete matter, especially organic. The domestic filter, the one the individual 50 FILTERS. liouseholder uses for preserving health to his family, range in eflficiency from the simple strainer of wire or sponge to the scientifically elaborated ones for the whole house service. The simpler and older patterns considered the matter only in the light of straining the larger deleterious matter suspended in the water so that one drawing water in the dark need not fear the absorbing of the animal life when using water drawn from an acqueduct supply. These filters are still on the market in the form of the sand, charcoal and quartz filling chamber, often seen attached to the cold water faucets. Now it is sought to destroy the bacteria held in suspension or the organic beings always found in water to a greater or less extent, according to the source of sux)ply and its water shed. We cleanse the water and also supply oxygen after the limpid fluid has passed certain stages in the filter and the pleasant taste to the palate is retained. Experimenting has brought the domestic filter to such a state of excellence in its results that no one need be without one, who cares for the purity of the water he drinks. Pressure filters generally speaking, are the most popular and satisfactory, even though the bacteria and suspended matter may be forced into the texture of the filtrant and never com- pletely dislodged by any method of washing as yet applied. FILTERS. 51 Those eniployin,^ solid porous material are usually considered capable of removing all sus- pended matter, and rendering muddy water per- fectly clear, although the clearness of the water is no indication of its purity. The impurities which occur in ordinary water are of two kinds. Mechanical, or those held in suspension by the water, and Physical, or those held in solution. The Mechanical impurities are mud, leaves, vegetation, fish, frog spawn, insects, etc. The Physical impurities are solutions of min- eral decaying animal matter, albuminous slimes, etc. The leaching from privy vaults and drains are the most harmful poison that usually get into the water supply. The mechanical impurities are far less danger- ous, being easily seen and quite easy to remove. ISTearly all mechanical impurities can be re- m^oved by filtration through sand or other suit- able material, but the danger lies mainly in the matter held in solution and which is consequently invisible. ^lineral. poisons can be neutralized by the use of chemicals, and sometimes by heating and settling, or by distillation. The organic poisons from sewage, etc., can only be entirely removed by distillation, but a careful repeated filtration through sand and bone charcoal will, in most cases, improve the water 52 FILTERS. sufficiently to make it suitable for drinking and cooking purposes. Bone charcoal is often employed as a fitting medium because it exerts a chemical action upon the organic matter in the water, and renders it inert and harmless. The charcoal, however, gradually becomes sat- urated and clogged with refuse, and loses its value as a purifying agent, therefore, it must be renewed at intervals. Water that has grown stale by standing may be greatly improved by the process called aeration and made suitable for drinking purposes, pro- vided it has not been otherwise polluted. The object to be attained is to expose the water to the action of air to the greatest practi- cable extent. In the process of aeration the water absorbs a considerable quantity of air and is greatly im- proved in appearance and taste. The process of aeration is adapted only to the purpose of freshening water and rendering it more palatable, and is not serviceable for actual purification. In all apparatus designed to aerate water, care must be taken to exclude all dust from the air, because dust is very liable to carry with it many kinds of germs which give rise to putrefaction and disease. In all varieties of filters the velocity of the water passing through them should be low FILTERS. 53 enough to permit the first sediments to deposit themselves upon the surface of the beds of filter- ing material. Otherwise, in treating muddy water, it will retain a muddy color. Filtering material becomes gradually clogged by the accumulation of refuse matter upon the surface of the bed, the flow of water is checked and the usefulness of the apparatus is greatly impaired. This can be remedied, however, by reversing the direction of the flow of water at suitable in- tervals. Thus, the accumulation can be washed away and run to waste and the filter can be operated almost continuously, A filter which cannot be thus reversed should not be employed if it can be avoided, because the care and trouble which will be required to keep it in good working order will be so great as to lead to almost certain neglect. A filter which is neglected is liable to become foul, and thus give rise to the very danger that it is intended to prevent. Filters should be kept full of water as alternate wetting and drying of putrescible matter greatly hastens putrefaction and increases the growth of disease germs. A filter which is thus operated is liable to become a source of poison instead of a protection against it. 54 BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. A filter to purify all the water is as essential as lieat and light. It saves labor and repairs on boilers, it saves the cleaning of tanks, preserves plumbing, does away with the grit and sand in water and makes cleanliness and comfort. It gives tenants pure drinking water, and its tendency is to make them permanent occupants. Whether from motives of economy or desire to be healthy and clean, there is scarcely any known condition under which water is used which would not be improved by filtration. BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. A boiler, as understood in plumbing, is a res- ervoir for storing hot water. The heating is done by means of a water front or hollow casting, usually placed in the side of the fire box of a range or heater. Attaching this water front with the boiler by means of pipes, filling the boiler with water and starting the fire allows the heat from the fire to warm the water in the * 'front," and the water, being made lighter or expanded by heat, rises through properly graded pipes to the boiler. The inlet or cold water connection, of the water front, should be at the lowest edge of the casting, and arranged to allow all water and sed- iment to be easily removed. BOII.EKS AND CIKCULATION. 55 The outlet or hot water pipe, should be at the highest point of the front to avoid an air chamber and allow the heated water an uninterrupted flow to the boiler. The water when heated is expanded or made less dense, and the outlet or flow pipe, should be larger than the feed or cold pipe to allow for this expansion. After heating, the water being less dense than that already in the boiler, will rise to the highest point possible and allow the cold that has flowed into the front, to replace the water just heated, thus forming a circulation. If no water is drawn, the water continues to circulate and radiates heat from the sides of the boiler, thus cooling near the outer edges and creating a secondary circulation. To understand how water can become heated and delivered hot at the faucets of the various fixtures, in a building, it may be well to know the principles of water circulation by the action of gravity. In hot water circulation, as in ventilation, the gravity of the water or air must vary in order to change position. When a body of water is increased in tempera- ture, it expands and thus occupies more space; when decreased in temperature, it contracts and occupies less space. By the action of gravity, the power which moves the water and causes it to circulate, is 56 B0ILEK8 AND CIRCULATION. meant, that power whicli is usually expressed by the term weight. The smaller the space a given weight of water occupies, the greater the density, and the greater the space, the less dense will the water become. If the density of the water be uniform, through its whole body there would be no circulation as it has equal weight and one part cannot displace another. Thus in a boiler attached to a range, the coldest particles will fall to the bottom and the hottest rise to the top of the boiler. The rising of the hot and the falling of the cooler water is called circulation. The reason that hot water flows from the boiliBr is simply because the water pressure in the feed pipe forces the hot water through the pipes when a hot water faucet is opened, and the quantity thus drawn off is replaced by cold water from the source of supply. No matter how much water is drawn it is re- placed and it is impossible to empty the boiler in this way as it is fed from the top through a tube extending nearly to the bottom and drawn out through the upper coupling provided to con- nect with fixtures for hot supply. It will simply fill the boiler with cold water. The application of the principle that warm water rises and cooled water falls, is what a prac- tical man should know. BOILEK^ AND CIKCULATIOX. 57 Water is like air, heat it and it rises. Deprive it of heat and it flows back to the starting point. The principle of circulation never varies. All horizontal circulation is forced and unnatural. Hot water rises, cold water descends in vertical lines of direction. It is the natural way and is in exact accord with the law of gravitation. Every movement horizontally creates friction and resistance, and checks the speed with which the water should leave the boiler. The matter of friction must be carefully attended to and all sharp bends and contractions in the pipe must be avoided. Abrupt enlargements of the pipes or depress- ions create friction and impede the flow. The higher the flow pipe from a water back can rise, before it enters the boiler, the more rapid the circulation will be and the water that can be warmed in a given time, the water front being equal in every other respect. The side coupling of the ordinary boiler is too low, if one desires to receive the best results in a given time with a given size of water front. The rapidity of circulation depends on the difference in weight of the two columns. The longer these columns are, the greater the differ- ence will be. Heating water extracts the air and this air will accumulate in high points of circulation pipes, unless provision is made to release it. 58 BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. .When confined, it often completely checks the flow of water under light pressures. When first opening a hot water faucet the water is seldom hot, owing to the cooling process of radiation, w^hen flowing through the i^ipes. To ensure an immediate supply of warm or hot water, the hot water pipe is extended to the highest or most distant fixture from the boiler, and then returned, without branches, to the bottom of the boiler by means of a tube extend- ing from a third coupling on the top of boiler, to near the bottom, in the same manner that the cold supply is connected, or to the cold feed i^ipe to the water front, or to the side coui>ling of boilers usually used for the hot water connection from water front. When this last method is used, the hot flow pipe from water front must connect to the hot w^ater distributing pipe near the top of boiler, unless a special tube is provided in the boiler higher or nearer the top. The cold feed pipe should at its lowest point, be provided with a sediment cock to allow the boiler to be drained and for repairs. Pressure boilers are usually made of galvanized iron and guaranteed to resist a pressure of 150 to 200 lbs. As these boilers contain, at times, extremely hot water, and the galvanizing is often very poorly done, this coating of zinc, as a protection to the iron, is of short duration. I30ILEKS AND CIKCULATION. 5^ This alternate cooling and heating of the boiler contents, causes expansion and contraction^ thus hastening the peeling of the coating, espec- ially on its interior surface, and soon the boiler begins filling with rust and scale, that frequently enters the water front and partially if not wholly closes the lower water passage. When this period arives, the water has to enter the water front through the upper coupling or flow pipe and return through the same j)ipe. This causes resistance and produces very dis- agreeable sounds, often straining the stove con- nection and eventually breaking the pipe. Frequently a boiler is set so that the lower coupling is lower than the water front. If a hot water faucet is opened at or below the level of the boiler and the water being shut off, siphonage is liable to take place through the main shut off waste tube. When the water is again turned on, if a fire had remained in the range, the sudden entrance of cold water into the front, is liable to break it. Water passing through a galvanized iron boiler will, after a time, become more or less affected by rust. As these boilers are usually used under high, pressures, the tension is often severe and uneven throughout the system and an earlier wearing out of the materials on the water supply is the result. 60 BOILERS AXD CIIICULATIOX. Altliougli the first cost is less, in tlie long run the pressure system is not economical. Copper boilers are usually used when supplied from a tank or cistern and are also made for heavy and vacuum pressures. These boilers are usually tinned on the inside. The tubes for the supply and circulation are also made of copper with a small hole drilled near the upper end to admit air to prevent si- phonage. Galvanized iron boilers also have a tube, often of plain iron, with hole drilled, but this hole being small, rust will soon close it and siphonage is not i^re vented. To ensure the boiler being constantly filled and also maintain an even pressure, a tank should be installed in a building above the highest fixture and provided with an adequate supply. The pressure on the boiler and pipes is thus more uniform, not excessive, and the supply pipes may be of lighter w^eight, if of lead, thus lessening the cost. When a fixture is a long distance from the boiler, the water cools and often an undesirable wait is necessary, unless a circulation pipe is in- stalled to keep the water moving. When a circulation pipe is connected to the boiler, the expansion pipe is usually and prop- erly taken from its highest point and extended above the highest level of the water in the tank. This pipe is intended to provide air, to prevent BOII.EKS A.ND CIKCULATION. 61 siphonage or collapse, and also allow overheated water to escape, thus preventing undue pressure on the boiler or pipes. The hot water pipe from the range to boiler should always rise, for if a sag or trap is formed, circulation is checked, the pipe is strained and disagreeable thumping sounds are heard. These pipes should be of brass or copper, owing to their rigidity and freedom from rust, etc. Sounds coming from defective water backs and improper pipe connections between the range and boiler differ greatly. What might be called the rumbling noise is due to air being forced through water and often there is an air space in the w^ater back above the upper connection which acts as an air chamber pocket in which air accumulates while the water is cold, and when the fire is started in the range the confined air expands and forces part of the water from the water back, so that the expanded air can escape to the boiler. If the cause is an air pocket in tlie water front the rumbling noise will be heard shortly after the fire is started more than at any other time, because then the greatest difterence of degrees of heat exist in the water front. If the circulation is defective by improper bends or stoppages in tlie pipes, the noise would be a cracking, snapping, tliumping noise due to 62 BOILEKS AND CIRCULATION. a vacuum being rapidly formed in the pipes from {?team. This kind of noise would continue longer than from confined air and much more annoying. Usually a range boiler is set vertically but con- ditions often require them to be set horizontally. It is advisable that such a boiler should be espec- ially tapped to obtain the best results. The cold water should enter at the top and a tube should extend nearly to the bottom more than half the length of the boiler from where the hot water pipe leaves it. The lower circulation or cold water pipe to the front should be taken froni the bottom to allow the boiler to be emptied or drained in case of repairs. The hot water service to fixtures, leaves the top to avoid air traps and sluggish circulation. It is necessary to so tap the boiler that the same conditions may exist in the horizontal posi- tion as in the vertical, having no air traps, dead water or dipped pipes. " , .5e I>OUBLE BOILERS. 63 DOUBLE BOILERS. If the water pressure is too light to rise to the upper tloor of a building, a pump is usually used to fill a storage tank that supplies water for the upper fixtures and the boiler. To supply these upper fixtures with hot water, a double boiler may be used. Double boilers are usually constructed one within the other, either horizontal or yertical, the outer one being supplied from the street pressure and connected to the water back in the usual manner. The inner boiler is heated by the hot water in the outer boiler by radiation. The inner boiler is supplied from the storage tank but should also haye a connection proyided. through a check yalye, with the street supply, if the tank supply should fail. If this precaution is not obseryed the inner boiler might become broken by the outer boiler's excessiye pressure. The inner boiler should haye its own circula- tion and expansion pipe independent of the outer one. The inner boiler should haye its own sediment yalye so arranged that both boilers must be emptied at the same time, otherwise the outer one might remain full and crush the inner shell. This system is seldom used unless special con- ditions fayor its adoption. 64 TANKS. TANKS. A boiler or attic tank is intended to hold water for tlie use of the household and to always main- tain an even and constant supply for the range boiler. Such a tank should hold at the rate of 25 gallons for each person per day. The house tank should be lined with tinned copper, exposed to the water, and weigh 16 oz. to the square foot. This tinning should be put on the copper with resin, as the coating is more permanent. Tinning copper with an acid solution leaves the surface brighter and clearer when new, but the solution is very apt to be too strong, often eating away the tin or lead in the solder mixture, leav- ing the copper surface exposed. When such exposure occurs, the action of the water on the bare copper, soon causes a green coating or verdigris to form, and as this is pois- onous, the water is affected. A tank should not be so large as to allow the body of water to become stagnant. The needs of a household should be ascertained and the tank made of the size adapted to such needs, and a complete change of the contents of the tank should be made each day. An overflow should be provided adequate for the escape of a large flow, or the diameter should TANKS. ' 65 be at least twice the diameter of the inlet and determined by the pressure at the tank level. A tank may be supplied either by a pump, street pressure or hydraulic ram. If the street pressure is sufficient to raise the water to the tank level, an automatic ball cock should be attached. This valve is useful when the supply is constant and the demand intermittent. The action of a ball cock is as follows : A ball of copper or hollow spherical cylinder of glass attached to a rod working a piston in the shell of a faucet, floats on the surface of the water, and if the water is drawm lower, the float falls with the water and opens the fixture that is connected with a valve controlling the flow of water from the street pressure. When the float drops, the piston opens the valve, allowing the tank to refill and as the float rises, it gradually closes the water way and only the amount used is allowed to enter the tank. When this supply is not available, a ram with its outlet over the tank might be used. When this method is used, an overflow is most imperative, as the ram is constantly forcing water through the open end above the tank. When supplied with a force pump, a strong durable one should be selected and the suction and rising pipe or main, should be of the same internal diameter. If the rising main is of less diameter, less 66 TAI^KS. water will be delivered and the strain on the pump greater, causing the working parts to need repairs much more frequently. With a pump some means of ascertaining when the tank is full is necessary, as an overflow would not notify the operator, unless a pipe is brought from the tank to the pump. A small pipe is usually installed, called the tell-tale, and discharges over the sink or in full view of the operator. A tank should have a stop cock provided near it to control the supply to the fixtures. An air pipe should extend over the tank and attach below the stop cock on the feed pipe. A tank should be regularly cleaned and a standing overflow should be provided to assist in the matter. An expansion pipe from the range boiler should extend above and over the water in the tank, to allow for undue heating of the water in the boiler, thus acting as a safety valve, and also prevent- ing the collapse of the boiler, by admitting air when boiler is emptied for any reason. Special tanks for supplying water closets and urinals are desirable, and the siphon pattern is used to a great extent when an automatic flush is required. This ensures the regular and copious washing of the surfaces fouled and avoids undesirable odors. In the use of a cistern, the water pipes may be ELECTROLYSIS. 67 lighter, and an even pressure maintained, thus lengthening the use of the material and making the work in the average of years, more economi- cal, than with a pressure system. ELECTROLYSIS. The act or process of chemical decomposition, by the action of electricity. Electrolysis is the decomposition by the elec- tric current. When the water mains, or the house service branches, buried in the earth, are near the return wires of the trolley system now in operation in most cities, there is an escape of some of the electric current into the earth, which is more or less moist and is absorbed or charged owing to the fact that water is a good conductor of elec- tricity. Efforts are made to neutralize this waste of current by means of return wires to the power station. It is found that a very feeble current, con- tinued for a long time, will affect metals buried in the moist earth, due to this moisture and the fact that most metals are good conductors. Thus iron and lead pipes are sooner or later de- composed, and when sufficiently weakened the internal bursting force of the water, fractures the pipe and repairs are needed. 68 ELECTROLYSIS. It is seldom, that the plumber, in large cities or where underground electric currents are main- tained, is called upon to make any street repairs, but in some places the plumber is allowed to make street repairs. In buildings, repairs are sometimes caused by electrolysis where battery or telephone wires are attached to water pipes to ground them. Often a plumber, when grasping a damp pipe, will feel a tingling running through his fingers and arm and wonder what caused it. Probably the ground under a live trolley line has become sur- charged with electricity and a water pipe passing through this ground into a building acts as the conductor and caused the sensation felt by the plumber. With a slight current constantly working and the ground in the street being charged from the trolley current, a galvanic action takes place on the surface of the metal pipes and a loosening or dissolving of its component parts is commenced. Electrolysis cannot take place unless the con- ductor is a good one, such as iron, copper, lead, brass, etc. The same electric current decomposes equiva- lent quantities of all the bodies through which it travels, water, earth or metals ; and the quan- tity of a body decomposed in a given time is jjro- portional to the strength of the current. While corrosion to a water pipe may be due to the soil in which it is buried, electrolysis proba- ^lETALS AND ALLOYS. 69 bly affects metal pipes more rapidly when buried in wet soil, than in gravelly or dry soil. Corrosion is noticed at points where the cur- rent may be said to have entered, due to the moisture, as less resistance is offered at some points than others. Owing to the fact that such conditions exist, remedies should be sought and applied to pre- vent as comj^letely as possible, the effects of the waste electric current. Larger wires should be used for ground current, water mains and service branches should be covered with cement or other mineral substance, not a good conductor and re- duce to the minimum the effect of electrolysis. METALS AND ALLOYS. The term metal was applied originally to all bodies possessing certain well defined physical characters, especially their lustre and high specific gravity. With few exceptions, metals possess consider- able hardness and cohesion, and require a high degree of heat to liquify them. Mercury is the only metal which at the ordi- nary temperature of the atmosphere, exists in the liquid state. All others are solid. A pure metal is a simple body or element, which cannot be divided into any number of sub- stances different from its original nature. 70 METALS A^B ALLOYS. " There are compounds of metals which can be divided into their component parts. Ores are metallic compounds which have to be divided, to separate the pure metal from other matters. Thus Lead, Tin, Zinc and Iron are produced from ores, while Copper is found in a metallic condition. The metals constitute about five-sixths of the elementary bodies known to exist. They are dis- tinguished by their power for conducting heat and electricity, as well as their metallic luster. The metals used in the arts and of peculiar im- portance to a plumber, are: — Antimony, Brass, Bismuth, Coi3per, Iron, Lead, Tin and Zinc. The metals. Antimony, Bismuth, Lead, Tin and Zinc are white or inclined to white with blue or yellow tinges. Under the influence of heat. Tin and Lead are fusible below redness. Copper, Antimony, Zinc, Bismuth and Lead are readily fusible in ordinary furnaces, while Iron can only be fused with great difficulty. Malleability, or the property of permanently extending in all directions without rupture, by pressure or hammering, depends a great deal on its tenacity, coupled with softness. Tenacity, or the property of resisting fracture from a tensile or stretching force, is found to vary with the purity, the condition of the metal due to its mode of treatment or preparation, and METALS AND ALLOYS. 71 with the temperature, the tenacity usually di- minishing with an increase in the temperature; the tensile strength is generally decreased after heating to, or above redness, and then allowing it to cool without further treatment, due to the production of a crystalline structure in the metal. Ductility, or the property of being permanently elongated by a tensile force, or of being drawn into wire, is possessed by all malleable metals to a greater or less degree, though the most malle- able are not necessarily the most ductile, the ductility of a metal being more powerfully in- fluenced by its tenacity than is its malleability^ Fusibility, or the property of becoming liquid when sufficiently heated, plays an important part in the use of the various metals. Metals become less tenacious when heated, so as to stretch before breaking when a pulling power is exerted, thus plumbers heat lead pipes when wishing to bend them. Oxygen has a chemical affinity for nearly all metals. Exposed to moisture, or submerged in water, their surfaces will oxidize ; that is, enter into combinations with oxygen, and become what is called tarnished. Tin will resist this action the best. Oxygen attacks Lead very slowly. After the surface has once become covered with oxide, the action is retarded, so that a lead pipe will last a number of years, provided the oxidized surface is not removed or disturbed. 72 METALS AND ALLOYS. Those metals which oxidize by exposure to the air will more readily combine with oxygen when exposed to heat. Lead heated to redness will be changed to dross or oxide of lead. A chemical action takes place between some of the metals known as galvanic or voltaic action. Moisture is necessary to cause this effect. Lead and iron form galvanic action, and the iron disappears near the lead. On galvanized iron, the zinc will be eaten away. Solder on lead ?«nd iron pipe will be eaten away from the same cause. Metals do not unite indifferently with each other but have certain affinities; thus, silver which will hardly unite with iron, combines readily w^ith gold, copper or lead. When two or more metals are combined by fusion it is called an alloy, as copper and zinc form the alloy called brass. Many alloys are composed of definite chemical proportions of their component metals, while in others the metals unite in any proportion. All alloys are opaque, have a metallic luster, are more or less ductile, elastic and m'alleable and are good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting point of alloys is usually below that of either of the simple metals composing them. Alloys in general are more easily oxidized than their component metals. An alloy of tin and lead unites with oxygen so METALS AND ALLOYS. 73 readily as to take fire and burn when red hot. Lead containing Antimony is notably hard, and there is little if any, commercial lead absolutely free from this impurity. The effect of Bismuth when alloyed with other metal is usually to form fusible bodies, which expand on solidifying after fusion. An alloy of three parts lead with two of bismuth, is said to have about ten times the ten- acity of lead alone. Bismuth solder consists of equal parts of lead and bismuth alloyed with two parts of tin. Tin and zinc alloy well together on fusion, the zinc increases the hardness, but lessens the ductility of the alloy. Tin and lead alloy well together in all propor- tions, the metal not separating on cooling after fusion. Plumbers' solder is an alloy of this class. The hardness and tenacity of this alloy is at its max- imum when the metals are present in the jDropor- tions of three of tin to one of lead. Lead and tin are malleable, flexible, ductile and inelastic while cold, but when their temper- atures much exceed about half way toward their melting heats, they are exceedingly brittle and tender, owing to their reduced cohesion. 74* SOLDEK. SOLDER. Solder is a metal or alloy used to unite adjacent metallic edges or surfaces. It must be rather more fusible than the metal or metals to be united, and with this object the components and their relative amounts are varied to suit the character of the work. As the melting point of lead is 617° to 626" according to the purity of the lead, solder must melt at a lower temperature. The solder depends very much upon the nature and quality of both tin and lead. Xo definite rule can be made for the melting points of plumbers' solder, although the follow- ing table is said to be nearly correct. 3 parts lead to 1 of tin, Coarse melts at 480° F. 60 " '' " 40 " '' Plumbers " " 440° " 1 " u cc ;^ u u Yine " '' 370° '' 1 " " '^1% " '' Tin Pipe " " 330° " It often happens that solder will become spoiled by getting zinc or other ingredients into it, which causes the solder to harden or crystal- lize contrary to its nature. This is shown by the solder quickly setting or working badly, while if disturbed when cooling it is a kind of gray blue. This is often caused by dipping brass or copper work into the pot for tinning, and also when soldering brass or copper to lead. SOLDER. 75 If too hot the zinc leaves the copper, and the tin takes it up, because the tin and zinc readily mix. A small portion of zinc will also cause the lead and tin to separate. If there is zinc in solder, heat it to about 900° or nearly red hot, throw in a small quantity of sulphur, (brimstone) which melts at 226°F. This high temperature is needed to melt the zinc, which melts at 773°F., and being lighter than lead or tin, has a tendency to float with the help of sulphur. The sulphur mixes with the zinc and brings up all foreign substances to the surface. Skim the solder well and after the heat is re- duced to about the melting point of solder, add resin or tallow, to free the sulphur, and the sol- der should be clean. Lead and tin can be separated by one rising above the other, so always stir before taking out a ladleful for use. Never stir solder when red hot or burnt. If allowed to burn, the nutriment or binding qualities are gone, and the pliable property which makes the solder work like butter, de- ducts from the ductility always needed in good working solder. Some solder will work well for several heats and then become coarse ; its appearance will be black and dull, become very porous and unrelia- ble without more tin. This is due to the fact that poor tin has been 76 SOLDER. employed or some foreign substance, such as an- timony, has been mixed with it. It will form teats or drops on the bottom of the joint and it will be difficult to make the joint. When this occurs, clean the solder with sulphur and resin and add tin to replace the deficiency caused by cleaning. TThen solder hangs to the cloth it is too fine and needs a little lead, and when it sets too quickly, or too coarse add tin. Never leave sulphur in ladle or solder pot as it cannot be cleaned without considerable trouble. The fluxes generally employed for soldering, are, for iron, borax or sal-ammoniac; for zinc, brass or copper, sal-ammoniac or zinc chloride ; for lead or tin pipe, resin or tallow. A liquid for use in fine solder is made by drop- ping small pieces of zinc into two ounces of mu- riatic acid, until bubbles cease to rise, then di- lute by adding water. In tinning metals, the object is to prepare the surfaces that they may readily unite with the melted solder. The tinning operation is best performed at a moderate heat. When overheated, the coating of solder, or the tinning as it is called, is reduced to a yellow powder and is destroyed. The tin- ning must be restored before it can be used. Resin is recommended as a flux for tinning copper bits which are to be used for soldering lead and for tinning all brass and copper work SOLDEK. 77 upon which soft solder joints are to be wijDed. Articles composed of brass or copper such as faucets, nipples, etc., should be tinned, filing to remove the coating or oxides leaving the metal surface clean, then coating with a fiux. Solder is then applied with a bit entirely covering the filed surface. It is bad practice to dip brass articles into a pot of molten solder which is to be used for wiping purposes, because some of the zinc, of which the brass is partly composed, will melt out and alloy with the solder thus spoiling it. Arti- cles composed wholly of copper, provided they are perfectly clean and free from filings, will do no injury to the solder. Iron articles may be tinned by thoroughly cleaning the surfaces and treating them with sal-ammoniac before applying the solder. Great care must be taken, when filing brass or other metals preparatory to tinning them, that the filings do not fall on the bench or such places that solder falling from wiped joints will pick '^them up. As a precaution, filing should not be done near the place where the wiping is to be done. Solder flows better at high temperatures, pro- vided the temperature is not so high as to oxi- dize it. Solder will flow into a joint until it is chilled, therefore, it flows farthest when it possesses a 78 SOLDER. large excess of heat above that which is neces- sary to maintain it in the fluid condition. The heat necessary for making wiped joints is supplied wholly by the molten solder, thus, it is essential that the solder should possess a considerable surplus of heat. The temperature is limited, however, by the tendency of the solder to oxidize. It is of great importance that all wiped joints should be sound and reliable. Patient practice until one can make a perfect joint is necessary. No wiped joint is perfect un- less strong in body, perfectly fused, clean at the edges, true in form and free from solder inside. In all joints the solder should be well mixed, and so fuse with the pipe that the metals will be perfectly united. t5t ^ PLUMBERS JOINTS. 70 PLUMBERS' JOINTS. The strength of a joint not only depends upon the quantity, but the quality of the solder. Too long manipulation spoils the solder and weakens the lead, the first joint made, if the metals are thoroughly fused, will be the most re- liable even if the shape is not perfect. In making wiped joints, the metals to be joined should be heated to a temperature nearly equal to the fusing point of the solder. Care should be taken that they are not heated beyond this temperature. Fit ends of pipe tightly to prevent solder enter- ing the interior, thoroughly clean all surfaces to to be wiped and immediately cover this cleaned surface, with grease or oily matter, to prevent tarnishing. In shaving, do not dig out the lead, as it is weakened and the joint cracks at the edges, much sooner than it otherwise would. Wiped joints, properly made, are the strongest known to the trade, and generally recognized in the plumbing industry as one method of proving a plumbers' status. 80 VENTILATION. VENTILATION. Nature makes a wonderful provision for creat- ing a constant circulation of the air, or ventila- tion. The sun's rays pass through the air v^ithout heating it, but they heat the surface of the earth at the very bottom of the ocean of air. This in turn heats the surrounding air by each individual atom coming in contact with each other, expanding them, making them lighter and causing them to rise, thus allowing the colder and heavier particles to rush in and replace them. With this great universal moving cause it becomes almost impossible for the air to be abso- lutely at rest. In ventilation as generally applied, the object is to remove vitiated air and supply a better quality of fresh air. Air, and all other fluids, move only when the pressure which impels themi is greater than the pressure which opposes their movement. The circulation of air is directly due to the dift'erence of temperature in the various parts of a building or flue. Whenever the weight of a column of air in a chimney or soil pipe is less than the normal at- mosphere, the internal air cannot balance that of the external air. The result is to drive the internal air upward VENTILATION. 81 and the colder or heavier air will flow in and replace it. Good ventilation is necessary for the mainten- ance of good health. Plumbing ventilation is that part of the general drainage system whose duty it is to carry oft: to the outer atmosphere any gases of putrefaction formed or confined within the system, to prevent back pressure or vacuum on the trap seals or the entrance of sewer air into the building. Many examinations of the air found in sewers has established the fact that no distinct gas that might be termed "sewer gas" exists. The gases found in sewers vary with the matter confined or fermenting. The most noticeable and dangerous gas found in sewers and elsewhere is Sulphuretted Hydro- gen. This is a product of the putrefaction of organic substance containing sulphur, and is one of the causes of the sickening smell of drains, and is easily distinguished by its disgusting odor. Its gaseous state is not permanent. This gas is very combustible, burning with a blue flame like that of sulphur. This gas causes fainting when inhaled in large quantities and depresses the vital energies when breathed for some time. Another gas found in sewers, is gas of Am- monia or Spirits of Hartshorn, as it is sometimes called. It attacks the mucous membrane, the 82 VENTILATION. inside of the nostrils and throat will smart, and tears will run from the eyes. Ammonia gas is generally present in a badly ventilated stable or urinal, and its presence is very painful. Carbonic Acid gas escapes from the decay and fermentation of matters in drains and sewers. This gas will not support life and is not as readily detected as either of those previously named. In places highly charged with this gas, a candle will not burn. Although a drainage system is usually open to the atmosphere, it may not always follow that the normal pressure of the atmosphere is main- tained, as when fluids are in motion or flooding of a sewer causes back resistance. When the pressure in the various parts of the system will vary, some being greater and others less. Any part of the system subject to a pressure greater than the atmosphere, is called a plenum, and any less a vacuum. In house ventilation it is quite as necessary to secure thorough distribution of fresh air, as to provide an outlet and inlet and foul air should be well mixed with that which is pure. There are three general results that changes in atmospheric pressure produces in plumbing ventilation; the increase of the draft of a chim- VENTILATION. 83 ney or flue, back draft or reversal of currents aud tlie increase of evaporation. In plumbing ventilation there are two methods' of producing circulation of the air called the natural and the forced draft system. The natural method, most commonly emj^loyed-, is caused by the difference of temperature between inlet and outlet and the currents move at very moderate velocities. The forced draft method, being niade by me- chanical means, any direction or desired velocity can be obtained. Plumbing has two distinct needs for air circu- lation, the local or house system, and the drain or sewer system. Heat is the great moving j^ower oi air, and in the local system, the heat from fire-place 'or heater is utilized. Usually a chimney is used for the duct and tts construction is of great importance. It should be smooth, preferably of vitrified pipe, circular, and the same diameter throiigh- out its entire length. A separate flue made of vitrified pipe should be used for seat or local ventilation, as its inle- rior is smooth and frictional resistance is less than when laid with brick and square flues. A chimney plays an important part in ventila- tion, even if no fire be burning, as the air in an inhabited building is usually warmer than out"- 84 VENTILATION. side air and it will generally be found that an upward current is flowing. During cold weather the di:fference in tempera- ture between the inner and outer air is usually enough to create a satisfactory draft in a flue in the desired direction, but during mild weather the difference in temperature diminishes, and in summer time the draft is often reversed. A chimney thus, often becomes inoperative as the weather becomes warmer and to maintain a circulation in the desired direction, other means must be used to move the air. Heating the flue by artificial means will pro- duce the desired results or by using fans or blowers. The common and general methods employed are the vacuum and plenum. Circulation is produced by fans, or by heating the air in vertical flues through which the dis- charge of vitiated air takes place. In the vacuum method, the motive force is applied at the outlet ; air is drawn from the room and the pressure being less in the room or flue, than the outer air, the fresh or purer air flows in to replace -the foul or exhausted inner air. - The plenum method, forces the air into the room expelling the interior or foul air and replen- ishing with outer or purer air. This method avoids drawing mouldy orimj^ure air from cellars or drains. - In local venting of urinals and water closets, VENTILATION. 85 the object is to induce an inward air current across tlie fixture, near the body of water con- tained therein, thus dispelling the foul air about the fixture and also freeing the room from foul accumulations. It is of prime importance to arrange a well drawing outlet flue in a bath room or water closet apartment which would tead to create a slight vacuum and cause a constant change of air. Either the vacuum or plenum method will pro- duce the desired result and conditions should govern the choice of methods. . When the conditions are well understood, and ; the foregoing principles practically applied, effective and satisfactory results should beob-- tained. With drainage ventilation the object is to pre- vent the foul sewer air from entering the build-- ing through traps by preventing back pressure, and deoderizing the drain contents by allowing fresh air to flow through the whole system. Opinions differ regarding a standard system of drainage ventilation, although three are more or- less advocated. In one, the sewer is disconnected from the. building by inserting a trap on the main drain, with an inlet pipe near it opening to the outer air near the ground level, thus allowing the heavier or cooler air to enter and crowd out the lighter, intending to produce a continuous inward and So VENTILATIOX. upward air current and deoderizing the wliole pipe system. Another, provides the intercepting trap, but takes its fresh air from near the eaves, or Jow points near roof or belovr the outlet of the soil pipe extension and vrell away from windows, sky- lights or ventilating shafts. The soil pipe extension in the system should be located at some point considerably higher than the inlet opening. Yariations of temperature, between the rising ;Stack on the inside of building and the inlet pipe ..on the outside, govern the practical operation of -this method, working more satisfactorily if the inlet pipe be Jocated in as cool a situation as practicable, in order that the air may be heavier :..and assist the flow downward in the desired .direction. Another, or natural method, omits the trap on the house drain, allowing the current of warm air to rise from the sewer and discharge above rthe building. In this method, each building connected with •the sewer assists in its ventilation and as the trap -as absent, gases do not accumulate or concentrate but are diffused into the atmosphere above the breathing zone. With this method, care should be exercised -that proper positions be obtained for the outlet vextensions above roofs. While it is a matter of little consequence VENTILATION. 87 whether the air in a drainage system flows up or down, it is of great importance that the pipe in- terior should be well aired or deoderized to pre- vent formation of gases, corrosion of the pipe material, or pressure on trap seals. Foul drain air will not always flow in the same direction as the density of the air in the system compared with that of the outer atmosphere, may differ to such an extent as to cause a rever- sal of currents, or, water,flowing down the verti- cal stacks or through the drains, may force it into the sewer or through the fresh air inlet. Frequently, a pipe being partially filled with matter, in passing a branch, creates a vacuum sufiicient to break the water seal of a fixture trap or cause a back pressure of the trap seal, thus allowing sewer air to enter a building. To prevent either vacuum or back pressure, an auxiliary pipe is attached to the branch pipe just in front of the trap outlet or sewer side of seal, to prevent air being forced through the trap seal in either direction. With this arrangement, there is no compression of air, but a natural and simple circulation throughout the whole system. Each line of air pipe should extend as straight as possible up to and through roof or connect with short branches to a main vertical stack used for air only. This main air line should have its internal diameter of such an area, that a sudden demand 88 VENTILATION. for air from each separate branch simultaneously, would be promptly supplied. Each back air pipe, should be at least one size larger than the waste pipe it serves, especially if long or containing many angles. Back air pipes, when necessarily placed in a horizontal position, should be so arranged that the drip of condensation will flow to the trap or some low point of escape as steam and vapors condense rapidly in a waste or soil pipe, eventu- ally closing a trapped air pipe, thus obviating the duty it was intended to perform. In connecting a back air branch to a main line, place the branch high enough to avoid the pos- sibility of the air pipe acting as an overflow or waste pipe for the fixture. Unless some such precaution is taken the waste in becoming choked would make the air pipe serve as the waste and eventually clog it. When back air or relief pipes can be connected at or near the base of the soil pipe lines, it is advisable as scale or water falling through it will be more readily disposed of and often avoid stop- page of the air pipe. When practicable, ventilation pipes or soil and waste pipe extension, should run beside a heated flue, the result being to rarify the drain air, causing it to rise and assist naturally in ventila- ting the whole system. DKAINAGE. 89 DRAINAGE. The general arrangement of pipes placed in a building for conveying waste matter from the plumbing fixtures to a convenient point of dis- charge, may be termed the drainage system. This part of the general system is installed es- pecially for the removal of waste by the water carriage method. The term "drainage" properly includes the removal of subsoil and surface water as well as waste, and most plumbers arrange piping for both waste and clean water. When both house and surface drainage are united in one common outlet to the sewer it is called the "combined" system, and when divided the " single" or separate system. The system of collecting and disposing of waste matter and waters of communities, could prop- erly be termed sewerage. Sewers are the receivers of house drains. Experience has demonstrated the desirable material to be used in a drainage system, both inside and outside of a building. There are three grades of drain pipe quite com- monly used, — Cement, Slip Glazed and Salt Glazed Clay Pipe. Cement pipe in common use is seldom found of good quality and is not sufficiently strong or durable to be reliable. 90 DKAINAGE, "Slip glazed" pipe is made of what is known as "fire" clay, such as fire brick, which retains its porosity even when subjected to intense heat, as it is glazed with another kind of clay known as "slip" which, when being subjected to heat melts, creating a very thin glazing, but being a foreign substance to the body of the pipe is lia- ble to wear or scale off. "Salt glazed" clay or vitrified pipe, is made of a clay, which, when subjected to an intense heat, becomes vitreous or glass like, and is glazed by the vapor of salt, which is thrown into the fire, creating a vapor which unites chemi- cally with the clay and forms a glazing which will not scale or wear off and is not affected by acids, steam or gases. It unites with the clay in such a manner as to become a part of the body of the pipe. Salt glazed pipe can only be made from clay that will vitrify, that is, when subjected to an intense heat, will come to a hard, compact body, not porous. The material of outside drain pipes should be vitrified, because if porous, the impure contents of the drain would be absorbed, would have less strength to resist pressure, and would be affected by frost. Inside drains should be made of cast iron, of extra heavy weight, and if treated with a coating of asphalt or tar, corrosion is retarded, although DRAINAGE. 91 defects in casting, such as sand holes or flaws are covered temporally. It is claimed that cast iron pipe for drainage work under-ground is unsafe, but if covered with tar most soils do not aft'ect it, while greasy matter on the interior prevents corrosion, and it is now generally conceded that cast iron is per- fectly safe for under-ground work and much to be preferred, in made land, to vitrified, on ac- count of fewer joints, its rigidity and freedom from fracture. Cast iron pipe depends upon leaded joints for connections, but if steam or excessively hot water is allowed to pass through them constantly! the lead is loosened separating the joints and caus- ing leaks. To avoid this, the joint should be m^ade of iron borings, sulphur and sal-ammoniac, well mixed and caulked in the same manner as the leaded joint. The diameter of house drains should be as small as consistent with the needs of a building, as the cleansing or scouring force is greater and the chance for obstruction is less, as the friction and velocity is greater. A velocity of three feet per second is desirable to effectually clear all drains of refuse, and a fall of one-fourth inch per foot is needed to produciB that velocity. All drains should have open ends to avoid the formation of vapors. 92 DKAIXAGE. This may be avoided by extending pipes to the highest part of the building, through the roof and placed to be well exposed to air currents. This pipe should be enlarged at least one size, just below the roof, in cold climates, to prevent hoar frost accumulating and closing the air pas- sage in cold weather. Soil pipe extensions allow air to enter the drains, prevents accumulation of gases as well as pressure on trap seals. These pipes extending from the sewer through a building, allow unwholesome odors to be dif- fused into the atmosphere thus becoming harm- less. When installing soil and waste pipes, concen- trate as much as possible and avoid horizontal branches of great length. Vertical stacks should be run as direct as pos- sible, avoiding offsets as the flow of air or waste is retarded greatly. Soil, waste or vent pipes should be placed to be easily accessible, as frequent inspection is desira- ble and in case of repairs also. All soil, waste and air pipes must be air and water tight and the pipes must be of sound ma- terial. All joints in soil waste, back vent and all con- necting pipes, including lead bends, ferrules and traps should be tested with air or water before any plumbing work is used and a final one when fixtures are in position. DRAINAGE. 93 Soil pipe extensions, should be as far as prac- ticable from windows, skylights, vent shafts or chimney flues, to avoid foul oders entering a building. All soil pipes should be well supi^orted to prevent sagging or separation of joints. Connections between lead and iron pipes should be made by means of a brass ferrule, leaded into hub of pipe, the lead pipe soldered to the brass by a wiped joint. Lead and iron do not maintain a durable or safe connection when soldered, on account of galvanic action between the metals. All changes in direction, in soil or waste pipes, should be with long sweep bends or Y branches, and when placed horizontally, cleanouts, should be inserted at each angle or change in- direction. Leader or rain water ccmduCtorSj when inside a building, should be of cast iron and when the leader opens near a window or ventilating shaft it must be suitably trapped, placed to avoid freez- ing and also accessible for cleaning or inspection. Tank overflows and safe wastes should not con- nect directly with the drain, but should be placed where its discharge would indicate the existence of an overflow or leak. ^'^ . Refrigerator wastes should not connect directly with a drain or waste pipe but should discharge into a receptacle suitably trapped and supplied with water. All drain, soil and waste pipes should be kept free from deposit and special flushing apparatus 94 SOIL AND VENT OUTLETS, should be provided if the house fixtures do not properly cleanse them. With good material, suitable ventilation, and thorough workmanship, a safe and sanitary sys- tem of drainage would naturally result, jDromot- ing health and prolonging life in so far as hygienic plumbing could preserve it. SOIL AND VENT OUTLETS. The soil pipe extensions or vent outlets above the roof should be placed, if possible, above the highest parts of a roof and as far away from all openings through which drain air might enter, as conditions will allow. If adjoining buildings should be higher than the building ventilated, foul air might enter the higher one from the soil pipe outlets. To avoid this, the vent pipes should be ex- tended above the roof of the highest building. The distance from windows considered safe at which vent outlets may be placed, is usually specified in plumbing regulations from 15 to 25 feet. As such outlets necessarily extend some dis- tance above roofs and are exposed to a greater or less degree to the outer air, it frequently happens in cold climates, in extreme cold weather, that these pipes become filled with frost SOIL AXI> VENT OUTLETS. 95 and ice, thus checking the circulation of air. As it is of great importance to keep these out- lets open to prevent back pressure, some means should be provided to avoid this condition, and maintain circulation. As the cause of this frost is the precipitation of vapors or moisture when coming in contact with the outer or colder air, a jacket should be placed around the exposed pipe, to prevent the vapors condensing or until they have actually left the pipe. If a jacket is an objection, the pipe may be en- larged just below the roof, providing a larger opening, thus prolonging and frequently prevent- ing the stoppage of this extension. With an outer covering, the warm air in the pipe will maintain the temperature at such a degree that a clear opening will be ensured dur- ing the most severe weather. Ice formations are not liable to close vent pipe extensions, when the building is supplied with cold water only. Air absorption is less when a good draft exists, therefore less ice formation. ^ ^ 96 SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. Frequently buildings are located where the land is damp, swampy or on a side hill where water from the surface gathers around the foun- dation walls and percolates into the cellars, often forming pools. This causes the cellar air to be damp. This cellar air will pass through the floors, walls and partitions, bringing the unpleasant odors into upper living rooms. If poor plumbing fixtures are placed in the cellar, poorly ventilated or connected, or a de- fective drain is installed, these odors mingle with this damp air also. Malarial affections are often the result of damp and unventilated cellars. To avoid damp cellars, or the entrance of water, the proper time to guard against it is, when the foundation is being laid, as a suitable drain can then be more easily laid below the level of the foundation or cellar. Drain pipes with unce- mented joints, or horse shoe tiles, may be laid outside and below the level of the walls. In the trench with these pipes place loose gravel, cinders or broken stones, to prevent any stoppage of the drain, to filter the water, and allow the water to collect in and around the drain, instead of reaching the walls of the build- ing or percolating into the cellar. SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. 97 Similar pipes could be arranged within the building if springs existed or it became necessary to dispose of surplus water. The outlets for these subsoil drains are easily arranged when the sewer or house drain allows a gravity fall, as a back water valve and water sealed trap may be branched from the house drain, with a leader or rain water pipe connected, to assist in maintaining a sufficient water seal, if the subsoil water flow was not constant. The back w^ater valve would prevent the en- trance of sewage, into subsoil drain, if a stoppage occurred in the main drain. Particular care should be taken to guard against this danger, as the foul matters would contaminate the ground under the building. Often the cellar floor level is below the drain outlet and the subsoil water cannot be carried » away by gravity. To avoid the use of pumps, an automatic machine, called a cellar drainer, may be placed in a collecting pit and operated from the water supply, the pressure of which should be not less than 25 lbs per square inch to be effective. The supply being connected, the action of the machine, is similar to that of a ball cock in a cistern and operates to open the supply when the pit has filled to the adjustment of the machine. A strainer surrounds the outlet to jDrevent chokage and a fine stream of water is ejected through the outflow pipe with such force, com- 98 TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE. bined with the atmospheric pressure, as to lift the contents of the pit, to the desired level, if that level will not exceed 8 or 10 feet above the machine, and to a convenient point of discharge. When the pit is nearly empty or the body of water removed from the under surface of the hollow cylinder, the float decends and checks the flow until the filling of the pit renews the opera- tion. Some suitable and effective means should be employed to prevent the accumulation of moist- ure within a building. TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE, A siphon is understood to be a bent tube hav- ing one end longer than the other: used for trans- fering liquids from higher to lower levels over an intervening higher point than the vessel desired to empty. The principle upon which a siphon operates is due to the pulling action of the fluid in the long leg reducing the atmospheric pressure at its crown and the weight of air on the surface of the water, when the short leg is immersed, presses the water over the crown in the effort to maintain an equilibrium. The pressure at the crown of all siphons must be less than that of the atmosphere, therefore the tube must be air tight at the crown. TKAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. 9P A very small opening will admit air enough to break the action of a siphon. As the pressure of the atmosphere is the force which operates a siphon, it follows that the height to which a siphon will lift water cannot exceed 33 feet and 9 inches as the atmosphere balances a water column at this height. A trap made the above depth cannot be siphoned for this reason. The object of a trap, in plumbing, is to prevent the entrance of foul air into a building, and is a depression, bend or chamber, for the retention of water. This water obstructs the passage of air under certain conditions. The trap is the only protection against the entrance of sewer air, and the method of main- taining a seal is the most important part of a drainage system. The trap seal is endangered hy evaporation, back pressure, and siphonage. Evaporation takes place only from the surface of fluids, more rapidly in warm than in cold sit- uations and much more rapidly in a dry, than in a damp atmosphere. Evaporation consiste'in the formation of vapor, by the air which comes in contact with its sur- face and is more rapid in a current of air, than it is when the air is still. By experience, it is found that evaporation is more rapid* inptke open air, than in the house, 100 TRAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. and, that conditions being equal, is most speed- ily effected during a strong wind. Thus trap evaporation, is hastened by a special vent or air pipe attached to the crown. Back pressure, or absorption, is caused by a pressure of air upon the sewer side of the seal of a trap, greater than the atmospheric pressure upon it on the house side. Several varieties of gas are soluble in water, but in different proportions. Water is said to be saturated when it has in solution all the gas it can hold. If water is saturated with gas, and the pressure is reduced, or the temperature raised, the capac- ity of the water to hold the gas is reduced and some will be liberated. If air in a waste pipe be compressed against the trap seal, its pressure will increase and the water line depressed. This is termed back pressure or plenum, and if it becomes great enough to lower the level of the water to a point below the tongue of the trajj, sewer air will be forced through the trap, into the building. To prevent back pressure, a relief or circula- tion pipe should be attached to a waste pipe near the trap, on the sewer side of its seal, to convey any foul air or gases out of the building and maintain free circulation of air. Siphonage is caused by the removal of the atmospheric pressure from the sewer side of the TRAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. 101 trap seal by the pulling action of a falling column of water, either through the trap or a pipe branch, to which it is connected. The cause is simply unequal pressure. The atmospheric pressure must be the same on each side of the water seal. By introducing a sufficient volumn of air into the top of any siphon, in this case the trap, the siphonic action can be destroyed. By introducing air, equilibrium will be main- tained, and the water in the trap, or short leg of the siphon will be level and the long leg, or waste pipe, will be replaced by air. Before siphonage can take place the outlet end must be lower than the level of the water in the trap. A trap when discharging draws more or less air with the water and carries with it either in solid form or spray, a certain amount of the water which forms the seal. When the atmospheric pressure on the house side of the trap seal is greatest, it presses its way through the water seal to fill the vacuum, often taking with it enough water to leave the trap without seal. An air pipe, of sufficient area, prevents the dis- turbance of the seal from back pressure and also prevents siphonage as well as allowing a free circulation of air throughout the waste pipe svstem. 102 TKAPS AND SIPHONAGE. The crown of a siphon is the usual place to attach an air pipe to break siphonic action. This method is usually followed to prevent trap siphonage, but the trap is not only used to pre- vent sewer air from entering a building, but is an outlet foi waste water from the fixture, to which it is attached. This waste is not always clean, and grease, lint, etc., gradually attach and remain on the interior walls of the pipe or trap. In the overflow the current of water is directed to the crown of the trap and eventually the air inlet will become filled with this coating and when this period arrives the air pipe on the crown is useless. This gives a false sense of security and is dan- gerous because siphonage is usually the result. If connected on the vertical pipe a little below the crown, filth will not collect to choke the back air pipe, evaporation is prolonged as no air cur- rent passes immediately over the water seal, no oscillation by air currents to induce a lowering of the seal, and each discharge of the fixture will tend to wash away any accumulation that might have been left at any previous discharge. Traps should be of such size as to entirely dis- place their contents each time a fixture is discharged and a depth of seal that will not check the velocity of discharge, but will resist evaporation and back pressure to a great extent. TKAPS AND SIPHON AGE. 103 The depth of seal, resists back pressure more than a large body with a shallow seal. The seal is the distance between the bottom of the tongue and the overflow point. This is the depth which prevents the gases on one side of the trap seal from having communi- cation with those on the other side. A three inch seal, is considered from expe- rience, likely to produce the best results, as too deep a seal obstructs the velocity of flow, and thus retain waste matter in the trap chamber. All traps should have a cleaning opening and should have its cover placed below the water seal. A ground joint cleanout should be inserted in each back air pipe near its junction with the trap to allow an opportunity for cleaning both vent and waste in event of chokage. It is advisable to use a trap that will effectu- ally scour itself by its own action in the passage of water through it and to place the vent pipe In such a position that at no time can filthy fluids enter or obstruct it to nullify the object for which it is intended. With a relief pipe properly connected, back pressure and siphonage are avoided and the ven- tilation of the drainage system is much improved. 104 GREASE TRAPS. GREASE TRAPS. The frequent stoppage of drain pipes, which receive the waste water from hotel kitchens, eat- ing houses, restaurants, or where much dish washing is done, causing annoyance and expense, requires that some method should be employed to prevent this fouling and chokage. Hot water thrown into a sink usually carries with it grease in a melted state, which solidifies upon coming in contact with the cold pipe and adheres to it. To prevent the grease accumulating to a dan- gerous extent, a quantity of lye, which is a solu- tion of caustic soda or potash, may be used, as the lye changes the grease into soluble soap, which dissolves and flows away with the water. An intercepter or grease trap is considered preferable if properly constructed as the grease is solidified before entering the drain, thus pre- venting the formation of gases. Water and grease enter the trap with other matters discharged, where solid matters whose specific gravity is greater than that of water, will settle in the bottom of the trap, while solids having less specific gravity, such as grease, will float, thus allowing the grease to rise and accu- mulate, while the water will discharge into the drain. In order to accomplish the above results, some GREASE TKAP8. 105 different arrangement must be used than simply- preventing the admission of sewer air. A partition is placed in the trap to prevent too rapid a current, as grease would flow out if no impediment was interposed. A relief pipe should be connected near the trap to prevent accumulations of foul odors and main- tain an equal air pressure on both sides of the trap seal. Grease accumulations can be removed through the trap screw provided on the top of the trap and another trap screw should be provided, on the outlet pipe, for cleaning purposes. To allow the grease to rise to the top, the trap body should be large, so that the flow will be sluggish and the partition checks the velocity, thus allowing the grease to separate and accumu- late on the surface of the water. The inlet and outlet should be at or near the bottom. The object is to provide a trap large enough to receive a considerable discharge of greasy matter and hold it until the grease has risen to the sur- face, where it is held until removal, leaving the water below comparatively free from grease. 106 SINKS. SINKS. A sink is a tray into which waste water is poured to be disposed of by means of a pipe con- nected to a drain. Sinks are used in kitchens for washing cooking utensils, etc., in pantries for washing silver and table ware. Slop sinks are used in hotels, office buildings, and in residences where large families have con- siderable refuse water from chambers or sleeping rooms. A kitchen sink is usually made of cast iron, although steel, soapstone, slate and crockery are used extensively. In regular work the sink is usually set up 28 or 30 inches from the floor. A sink should have a strainer firmly fastened and not easily removed except by some compe- tent person who can properly replace same. It is intended to prevent the entrance of im- proper matter to the waste pipe and avoid chokage. The trap for a sink should be ventilated in such a manner that refuse or grease will not obstruct or in any way close the air passage. This vent pipe should rise vertically, from waste connection, to a height above the point where any back flow could cause a stoppage, usually 33 inches above the flow. SINKS. 107 If possible use a 45° angle outlet on the trap branched to a perpendicular pipe, the lower end serving as a waste outlet and the upper end be- ing extended as the continuation for vent pipe. With this angle branch, the solid matter will have a continuous downward course, thus caus- ing a better cleansing force and the pipe will remain clean longer. For hotels and cooking establishments, a "grease trap" should be provided, as a large amount of greasy matter is carelessly thrown down a sink and causes continual stoppages in the waste pipe if one is not provided. The cold supply for a sink should be taken directly from the source of supply, usually, in towns or cities, from the street main, and an ample supply should be arranged for through pipes of large caliber especially when the press- ure is low, as this fixture is in constant use an ample and quick supj)ly is apparent. The hot supply, should be through an inde- pendent pipe from the reservoir and the faucets should be set from 9 to 11 inches above the bottom of sink. All kitchen sinks should be set up open, with brackets or legs, without enclosing the space underneath, as filth is usually found to collect and with irregular and careless cleaning allows the spaces to become in a short time a breeding place for vermin. 108 SINKS. With the fixture open, if anything is spilled about the sink or floor it is quickly seen and remedied. All kitchen sinks should be provided with with some form of drainer for allowing the moist- ure from dishes to drain into the sink. These drainers should be made of slate as it is non-absorbent and will clean readily. As an iron sink has a flange with a raised edge the fitting of a drainer should be carefully and tightly made, to prevent the water getting between the edges. A back or spatter protecter of the same mate- rial as the drainer, should be placed back of the sink to prevent water reaching the wood work and hastening its decay. With an open sink, a non-absorbent drainer and back piece, the objectionable odor so often noticed about such fixtures will be greatly less- ened if not wholly obviated. Steel sinks are pressed into shape by powerful machinery, are light, durable, cleanly and diffi- cult to break. This sink has a waste coupling connection with separate bolt connection for strainer, a great im- provement over the iron sink, and is very conven- ient for the plumber when making repairs. These sinks come galvanized, painted and enam- eled. Soapstone is smooth and quite hard, although SINKS. 109 not as hard as slate. It is considered non-absorb- ent, in some grades. This sink can be made with high back or end thus making one joint only, which prevents liquid matter getting against the wood work. With soapstone drainer also properly attached the outfit is quite desirable. Slate sinks are made in much the same manner as soapstone, the material being much harder and non- absorbent is generally chosen by good judges for sanitary work. The waste connection for both soapstone and slate is made of brass, with triangular frame and locknut, so arranged that a tight and reliable joint is made. This brass bell is furnished with strainer and solder coupling, making a durable, neat and satisfactory connection with the waste pipe. Crockery or vitreous ware sinks are baked without joints and arranged to be fitted with legs and usually conceded to be the most sanitary material that can be used. With this material and plated connections a very neat appearance is obtained. A pantry or butler's sink is intended for table ware only and is usually made of copper, well tinned, usually of oval outline, and shallow. These sinks may be made of slate or stoneware and provided with marble or slate drainers, thus preventing the swelling and warping of wood 110 SINKS. work so often seen where wooden drainers are used. When sinks are fitted with wood work exposed to alternate wetting and drying, the wood rapidly decays, and also absorbs and retains any filthy matter that may have been on the dishes used. Objection is often made that a marble or slate drainer is a cause for the breaking of glassware. To overcome this objection a rubber mat may be placed on the drainer, which is easily cleaned. Pantry sinks are provided with a plug or stopper to retain the desired depth of water nec- essary to submerge the articles being cleansed. A grease trap should be provided as well as a suitable overflow. This overflow may enter the waste before entering the trap, but preferably a separate connection to the trap should be made. If the waste was choked the overflow might avoid damage if separately connected. The supply to a pantry sink is usually through tall pattern faucets, to allow a tall vessel or pitcher being placed below them. The better material for a pantry or butler's sink is undoubtedly slate or vitrified ware, but the additional cost is an item always considered. With the later pattern water closets, such as washdown and siphons, the need of a toilet sink in the average house is lessened, but in hotels, apartment and office buildings the need is greater, as large quantities of matter undesirable in any 8IXKS. Ill other receptacle, can be better and more properly taken care of with such a fixture, than by using a water closet for the purpose. This sink, often made of cast iron, either plain, galvanized or enameled, should have a firmly fastened strainer, but with rather larger openings than usually made for kitchen sinks, to allow larger matter to pass through. The diameter of the waste should be, at least, two inches, and an ample supply of cold water should be provided to thoroughly and effectively wash the contents into the drain and sewer. Any matter that will not pass through the strainer should be shoveled out and burned. A tank should be connected to a toilet sink in the same manner, and at about the same height as for a water closet. If faucets are used in connection with a toilet sink they should be placed high enough above the flange to enable a pail to be placed under them. This sink is preferably made of vitrified stone- ware, provided with flushing rim and trap well vented. Xo part should be left so that filth can collect and wood work should be abolished. 112 LAVATORIES. LAVATORIES. Lavatories or wash basins for the face and hands only, are necessary in up to date plumb- ing. In the average work round basins are usually used, yet the oval pattern is becoming more and popular. The oval pattern allows more elbow room, and also a larger opening, thus lessening the splash- ing of water over the slab or floor. Three kinds .of marble are used in setting lava- tories. The kind known to the trade as American, is soft, white, easily stained, and absorbs greasy matter readily. The Italian marble is hard, veined and white, obtains a good polish but stains, although not as readily as the American. The marble known as Tennesee stone, is very hard, procurable in dark colors only and very de- sirable on account of less liability to stain or absorb greasy or oily matter. This marble is desirable in colors when wish- ing to harmonize with wood finish. A marble slab should be countersunk on its upper surface to retain the spattered water and allow the surplus water to be returned to the bowl. LAVATORIES. 113 A basin should be set up open on brackets or legs and all pipes exposed. This allows leaks to be readily detected, promotes cleanliness and ventilation, and ensures better workmanship. The basin should be set 28 to 30 inches from the floor to the top of the marble and provided with a back or spatter protector 12 to 16 inches high extending the length of the top. Beveled or O. G. edges make a desirable finish although a roll rim effect to compare with the bath tub is now in favor. When ordering a marble top for a basin, the market size of the bowl should be given, as the marble cutter allows one inch for each side of the bowl for the width of the flange. In attaching a basin to a slab three or four holes are drilled on the under side and special screw with expanding head is inserted. This screw is provided with clamp and nut and after wetting and spreading evenly plaster or cement, the nuts are tightened and the basin is firmly attached and suspended when in its proper position. Plaster or cement is used in preference to putty or white lead because the oil in the latter would become absorbed and stain the marble through to its polished surface. Plaster, repeatedly wetted, will soon wash away, thus loosening the joint and allowing the spattered water to run between the slab and 114 LAVATORIES. bowl, thence to the floor, which is very undesir- able. Cement mixed with plaster, about half and half, is more desirable than plaster alone. Cement or plaster will not stain the marble as they are of a mineral nature like the marble and have an affinity for each other. The edges or flanges of the earthenware basins are seldom perfectly true, being warped in bak- ing, therefore such flanges should be ground to a flat level surface in order to make a satisfactory joint between the marble and basin. The overflow is the weak point about a wash basin as usually installed. When the ordinary basin is discharged the waste backs into 'the overflow, fouling it and allowing the filth thus deposited to discharge offensive odors into the room. A basin should be without mechanical parts in the waste pipe, either inside or outside the bowl, as they frequently get out of order and add foul- ing surface for the adhesion and accumulation of filth. No basin should be used which has concealed spaces with which the washing water comes in contact while being used. This means much to those who are particular as to whatthey washin. The siphon basin is now considered the most desirable, as the contents of the basin are dis- charged by siphonic action, the trap will always be clearer owing to the powerful flushing and LAVATORIES. 115 scouring force caused by the rapid discharge. By lifting the plug and immediately dropping it back into place the water rushes out through the overflow, that connects with the waste pipe, below the plug. If by accident or design faucets are left open the water after attaining !ts proper level, finds free access through the outlet, and if the flow continues, a siphonic action is produced, thus causing a rapid discharge of the bowl contents and preventing an overflow. The contents of the basin cannot be discharged without flushing the overflow. The overflow should be as large as the waste pipe. The siphonic action prevents clogging of the waste as it clears out matter such as hair, lint, etc., with its thorough scour. Basin cocks of various patterns are on the market and as ornamental or expensive ones can be obtained, as may be desired. To avoid overflow and damage, self-closing faucets may be used, so that a careless person could not leave the water running. The objection to a self-closing pattern is, the strain on the service pipe when closing. When a column of water is suddenly checked, the strain on the pipe is greatly increased. The compression pattern is more suitable and better adapted for varying pressures, especially, very high ones. 116 BATHS. The outlet of a basin should be at least 1% inches in diameter, although nearly all manu- facturers make them smaller. The waste pipe and trap should be not less than the outlet in diameter. With the combined slab and basin in one piece of crockery, with standard of porcelain, with proper sized outlet, a very sanitary appliance is produced and should satisfy the most fastidious. BATHS. A bathing tub, is a receptacle holding liquids for persons, in which to plunge or wash their bodies. A receptacle in which the whole or a part of the person may be washed or bathed. The word bath is also applied to any artificial contrivance which is to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for applying water to the body in the form of a shower, a vapor bath by steam, etc. Greater improvement in bath tubs have been made within a few years than in any other plumbing fixture except water closets. The first well defined demand for open fixtures, complete in themselves, without needing expen- sive finish after being set in position, brought out the tub now known as the steel clad bath. BATHS. 117 The tub consists essentially of a copper lining placed in a steel case, between which is a sheath- ing of non-conducting material, probably asbes- tos, which checks the loss of heat from the water by radiation through the walls of the tub. This tub is furnished with a neat polished hard wood rim securely puttied down to prevent water from getting between the two metal shells or allowing filth to gather under rim. These tubs have ornamental legs, stand free from the floor and walls and are practically self finished, the outside being tinted to suit the pur- chaser. The all porcelain roll rim baths, are very sub- stantial and cleanly, standing free from walls and being without wood work are quite sanitary. Overhead showers with water proof curtains as well as needle spray attachments are also easily fitted to these baths. Altogether these later bath patterns, with proper furnishings leave little to be desired even by the most fastidious. The plumber sometimes has occasion, or is called upon, to fit up a Russian or Turkish bath, or put in connections for same. A Russian bath, commonly called a vapor or steam bath, is a process of subjecting the bather to a warm atmosphere saturated with vapor for a certain time, then rubbing down and finally given a cold douche. A Turkish bath is a process of subjecting the 118 BATHS. bather to a dry atmosphere having a high tem- perature to induce perspiration, this exposure is followed by water baths and rubbing or knead- ing. High grade baths of this character usually consist of plunge, needle or spray, sitz, douche and showers, with hot and cold supplies, in the different apartments. A bath should be supplied through large pipes, to avoid long waits, and with large outlet to empty rapidly also scour the interior of the waste. All baths should have a large overflow, not only to convey waste that is displaced by the sudden entrance to the bath by the bather, but provide for the inflow if the pressure is excessive. The foot of a bath should be away from the outer walls of a building, to prevent both trap and supply pipes from freezing. The waste from a bath tub should be not less than 13^ inches in diameter, to empty quickly, prevent lining becoming fouled and avoid chok- age. Avoid running the back vent from the bath trap in an horizontal position, as filth will set back. As this pipe is level and no water flowing through it except when choked, the vent soon becomes useless. The vent should be vertical to a point above where it is possible to fill with waste or water backing up. LAUNDKY TUBS. 119 When this feature is observed, whatever rises in the vent pipe falls back into the waste by its own weight. Always keep the trap from under the tub and locate it so that it will be easily accessible. Baths should be free from wood work. This ensures cleanliness and promotes ventila- tion. No absorbent material should be used in the room or about the tub and the room itself should be amply ventilated. LAUNDRY TUBS. Laundry tubs or wash trays are an essential and labor saving fixture. The fact that this fixture is not usually in daily use should emphasize the need of especial care in its selection and setting. The material used for this fixture should be first considered in regard to cleanliness and dura- bility. Wooden trays should not be used for the reason that wood decays rapidly when alternately wetted and dried: and the porous nature of the wood readily retains the matter from the soiled linen. As a non-absorbent material is desirable for this fixture, slate, soapstone or stone-ware vitri- fied would be desirable. Soapstone and slate trays are made from slabs 120 LAUNDRY TUBS. fitted to the desired shapes bolted and ground together. The vitrified stone-ware is made without joints, hard and practically indestructible from the ordi- nary use of such a fixture. The faucets for a laundry tub should be so arranged that water will enter near each corner provided with side or end handles. The reason faucets should be at the back cor- ners, is to allow room for the head when stooping. Otherwise, the person using the tub would be constantly hitting the head, or in raising the clothes catch them on the tubes or handles and tear them. The waste outlet should be in one corner to be out of the way as much as possible. If the waste plug is in the center instead of the rear corner, the clothes are liable to loosen the outlet plug by catching the chain and thus empty the tray. The trap for this fixture should be preferably of deep seal to prolong evaporation and resist back pressure as the fixture is seldom used. As lint and other matter from clothing is liable to collect in this trap, frequent examina- tions should be made; and all undesirable collec- tions removed. When laundry tubs are located in an exposed place and water pipes liable to freeze, shut offs should be placed beyond frost and readily accessible. URINALS. 121 URINALS. On general principles a urinal is a necessity, but from a sanitary point of view it is one of the fixtures that require more thought and skill on the part of the plumber than any fixture with which he has to deal. In private houses urinals should not be placed, but in public places, such as hotels, schools and railroad stations, they become a great conven- ience as well as a necessity. A urinal itself should be made of vitrified earthenware and efficiently trapped; the trap well ventilated. Also ventilated across the water level, always maintained in sanitary urinals, inducing an in- ward air current into a flue either heated or by mechanical blower. This flue should be independent of all other local vent pipes and made of cast iron, as the ammonia in urine would corrode sheet iron in a short time. This odor is very penetrating and irritating to the wind pipe and nasal passages, and especial care should be used to dispose of it. A pipe conducted to the outer air would be preferable, as then the atmosphere deodorizes the fumes very quickly and effectively. A urinal should be set in a stall with slate walls and floor of same material, and should or- 122 XJKINALS. dinarily set 22 inches from the floor to the top of lip. With a shallow body of water spread over the lower enlarged portion' of the fixture, the back and side moistened constantly, and an auto- matic flush at frequent intervals, a urinal will be kept as nearly sweet and clean as it is possible. With these precautions, it still requires con- stant personal attention, as this fixture is more liable to be abused than any other known to the plumber. In schools, other than the individual fixture is used ; owing partly to the danger of breakage of crockery, and to the larger number liable to need such a fixture. A slate back with floor depression or trough, is quite often used, and a stream of water allowed to flow constantly. This method seems to prove, by experience, more satisfactory than others. With the best arrangement known, without other care or attention than simply allowing the flow of water to cleanse the surfaces, the fixture would become foul and ill-smelling, and become a nuisance in a very short time. The floor and walls of a room, where a urinal is located, should be made of non-absorbent ma- terial, thus allowing the use of hose for washing all exposed surfaces. Urinal traps should not be made of brass as UKINALS. 123- the acids attack the metal and rapidly cause cor- rosion. Installing a siphon urinal, with a large body of water in the bowl, prevents the urine from coming in direct contact with the walls, and makes it possible to keep the fixture clean and free from odor, without the constant care and attention heretofore necessary in keeping the usual pattern of urinal even in an endurable con- dition. The large body of standing water in the bowl greatly reduces the fouling surface, and renders it possible to have urinals as free from odor as other plumbing fixtures. ^ dt 124 WATER CLOSETS. WATER CLOSETS. A water closet is an appliance, to receive the excrement from the person, and by flush or flow of water, discharge its contents into a drain or soil pipe connected with a sewer or cesspool. A water closet is the most important plumbing fixture in a building, and should be selected and installed with particular care. It should be made of vitreous ware, strong, neat, simple, securely trapped with water seal visible and accessible. All parts so constructed that they may be thoroughly and effectually washed, the tank flush copious, powerful and noiseless. It should contain a large and deep body of water to prevent its becoming offensive. The practice of exposing fixtures has brought about greater improvement in the appearance of water closets, than any other feature of modern plumbing. The short hopper and combination pattern con- sist of a trap above the fioor, and the short hop- per having an oval or square bowl clamped to the iron trap, with the combination pattern, the whole is made in one piece of crockery. This form has a flushing-rim with perforations to evenly distribute the wash or flow to all parts of its interior. The cleanliness of this pattern depends wholly WATER CLOSETS. 125 upon the flushing to moisten its whole interior surface, and its efficient working is due to the shape of the bowl and the height of the tank. Hoppers made in one piece of crockery, com- bining both bowl and trap, are well adapted for general usage. Because of their peculiar construction, they are strong and durable, as well as neat and sani- tary, where a strong, hard usage and inexpensive all eathern-ware closet is required. As soil will cling to the surface of this form of bowl unless the interior is moistened before use, the flush is often insufficient to keep the bowl clean. Owing to the contracted area for the water space, the hopper pattern was supplemented by the washout pattern with a depression or water bed, this large area being filled with water in addition to the body of water in the trap. This in a measure remedied the trouble as re- gards the clinging of the soil to the bowl, but the soil was expelled with such force on its way to the trap, that the walls above the trap and below the water bed were fouled, thus being uncleanly, and this pattern is losing in favor mainly on this account. The depression is usually about 1% inches in depth and if deeper, the objection arises, that when the flush commences the soil is not washed out wholly and frequently more than one flush is needed to cleanse the fixture. 126 ' WATER CLOSETS. All earthern-ware closets should be made of vitrified clay as the texture is hard and such ware is not liable to crack or ''craze. " A safe connection for setting or connecting an all earthen-ware closet to the soil pipe, is a brass floor flange soldered to the lead bend, pipe, or ferrule, and made gas and water tight with leaded joint at soil pipe branch. Floor flanges are provided with lag screws with nut and bolt, and with white lead putty a relia- ble joint is secured. Another attachment is now coming into notice for connecting a closet to the soil pipe consisting of a brass threaded nipple firmly attached to the closet, this part having a thread so adjusted that when screwed to the fiange soldered to the lead bend, a tight and reliable joint is secured. 'With either of these connections the shrinkage of the floor will not affect the joint and allow sewer air to enter the premises. With no flange, the shrinkage of the wood work would loosen the joint or the drying and cracking of the putty would allow passage of foul air. When connecting a closet to the flush pipe, place a rubber joint or elbow upon the supply coupling of the closet. This prevents breakage from vibration or the settling of the building. A good joint of this kind is essential in all crockery closets. The "back air" pipe should be taken from the 1 WATER CLOSETS. 127 lead bend under the floor or from special fitting in the soil pipe. When attached to the crockery the tension of the rigid connection causes the crockery to snap and break away from the main body of the closet or when the wood work shrinks and floor settles. It is also found that connections made with brim- stone also break and loosen and this form of con- nection is not considered safe as sooner or later the crockery is broken. The wash down hopper combines the short hopper and washout, with this difference, the body of trap is enlarged in the lower portion of the bowl so that a deep seal and enlarged water pool is combined, to receive foul matter, and when flushed the soil is pushed down and out of trap preventing the adhesion of any objection- able matter. With a standing pool of water about 7 inches in diameter and a three inch trap seal good re- sults will be obtained both in a practical and sanitary point of view. When hard usage is common or carelessness, this pattern would supersede nearly all the closets on the market. It combines the water bed of the washout and the scouring down pour of the short hopper. The siphon closet resembles in outward appear- ance the washout pattern, but operates by un- balancing the atmospheric pressure by filling the outlet leg of the closet and siphonic action is 128 WATER CLOSETS. produced by so shaping the down limb or outlet of the trap as to make it possible for the out flowing water to drive out and exclude the air from the outlet of the trap, which when filled with water, forms the long leg of the siphon. Jet action works in conjunction with siphonic action and adds a powerful cleansing force to the fixture when in operation. Siphon closets should not have a back vent at- tached at the crown of the trap. To admit air at this point of the outlet or siphon pipe, cuts off the effective force and in discharging the fixture, breaks the siphon, and requires a much larger quantity of water at each operation. The siphon jet closet combines the jet action and siphonic principle. Jet action is in plain sight and if properly constructed the jet closet does not require more than a gallon of water for each discharge, which should be appreciated when water is metered, and the scouring effect is as efficient as though the closet used more water. These closets if scientifically constructed, have from 33^ to 4 inches of water seal in the trap and a total depth from surface of water to bottom of outlet of 7 inches. The protection against sewer air is almost absolute. The depth of water in the bowl and trap making it almost impossible for air to escape into the room, WATEK CLOSETS. 129 The outlet of the trap is always in sight, and the water level if lowered is quickly noticed. The bowl holds enough water to deodorize faecal matter and prevents the fouling of the walls of the closet. The trap cannot lose its seal by any well known causes without the fact being known. Each discharge of the tank thoroughly scours and flushes the walls of the bowl and outlet pipe. No siphon jet fixture should be specified or used unless it is tested under water pressure before shipment and guaranteed to be perfect in construction and operation by a responsible factory. It is dangerous to use a cheap fixture of this type because to experiment with goods not tested or guaranteed is sure to result in trouble and ex- pense in the end. The pneumatic siphon requires two traps and its operation is as follows: — The water in a specially fitted tank, being started downward to the closet, surrounds the conical upper end of the air pipe at the top of tlie flush pipe. This air pipe is connected to the flush pipe and the space between the closet trap. The falling water exhausts the air between the traps and the air is mingled with the down flowing water to the closet. The air between the two traps being exhausted, the space is filled with watei from the tank 130 WATER CLOSETS. through the discharge outlet of the bowl, draw- ing all contents of the bowl with it. When the water in the tank is exhausted, the upper end of the flush pipe becomes free to admit air between the two traps which immediately breaks siphonic action and the bowl fills to its overflow through a service box in tank. The semi-pneumatic siphon is a combination of the pneumatic and siphon jet principles. The flush water divides immediately after entering the bowl, part going to the siphon jet and part to the flush rim of the bowl as usually arranged, except, that the part of the water which operates the jet passes through a con- tracted nozzle. This nozzle has a trap to prevent air getting into the flush pipe or rim of the closet from the space between the two traps. The trap helps to spray the water as it issues from the injector nozzle, by which action the fouled air from between the traps is exhausted with the water into the soil pipe. Exhausting the air from between the traps is the feature similar to pneumatic closets, while the jet action is a counterpart of what is em- bodied in the siphon jet closets, with the excep- tion of the trapped spraying nozzle, which serves in conjunction with the pneumatic feature. The triple jet siphon, when the water reaches the bowl, Is divided into three parts, one going to the flushing rim, one to the up jet and the WATER CLOSETS. 131 other to the down jet, all acting simultaneously and it is claimed to be more effective and less noisy than other patterns. Siphon jet closets are less noisy in their action than other forms and in this respect at least are especially adapted to private residences. In general those closets that retain a body of water in the basin are considered the best in ratio to the water surface exposed and also its depth, as faecal matters are at once immersed thus preventing foul odors arising. A water closet of whatever style, should have a tank supply, and the flush pipe should be not less than 1% inches to secure a satisfactory sup- ply, to ensure the discharge of its contents. Tanks are made to regulate the amount, or can, by holding the valve open, discharge their entire contents. A trickling stream of water is no benefit to a closet in respect to cleanliness. The sudden discharge of a large quantity of water is much more effective and economical for the water supply. Tanks should be placed in such a position that they can be easily inspected, cleaned and ven- tilated. It is unwise to connect a water closet to a tank that supplies the house boiler as the overflow pipe allows the foul air about a closet to rise to the tank ; this air is absorbed by the water, contami- 132 WATER CLOSETS. nating and rendering the water unfit for domestic use. A ventilating pipe should be attached to the closet bowl, of suitable area, above the normal water level, and extended to a heated flue if possible. The object of this pipe is to conduct foul air from the space between the seat and water, while the closet is in use, also to assist in chang- ing the air in the water closet apartment by in- ducing an inward air current towards the closet ajiid over the water into this flue. A back air pipe should be connected to pre- vent the unsealing of the trap by a rush of water past the branch or by the discharge of an upper closet into the same soil pipe. The floors under a water closet should be of marble, slate or some non-absorbent material. No boxing in of a water closet should be allowed. With open work about a closet the nearest approach to perfect freedom from unpleasant odors is obtained. The room in which the closet is situated should be well lighted and ventilated, and the whole apparatus, tank and connections, should have regular attention to keep them in proper con- dition. With the modern approved pattern of closets, no good excuse exists why the water closet and its surrounding cannot be kept clean and free from air pollution. MISCELLANEOUS, 133 MISCELLANEOUS. Velocity. A heavy body falling freely ac- quires a velocity of 32.2 feet per second. . The velocity imparted to water by a given head is the same as that acquired by a heavy body in falling through a height equal to the head; therefore, to find the velocity of water: multiply the height by twice 32.2 and extract the square root of the product, and the velocity in feet per second will be obtained. To find the velocity of water passing through a straight horizontal pipe of any length and diameter, the head of the fluid above the center of the orifice, being known: multiply the head in feet, by 2500, and divide the product by the length of the pipe, in feet, multiplied by 13.9, divided by the interior diameter of the pipe in inches ; the square root of the quotient will be the velocity in feet, per second. To find the head necessary to produce a re- quired velocity, through a pipe of given length and diameter, (Winslow) : multiply the square of the required velocity, in feet- per second, by the length of the pipe, multiplied by the quotient obtained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the pipe in inches, and divide the product by 2500; the quotient will be the head in feet. To find the number of U. S. gallons contained in a foot of pipe of any diameter: multiply 184 MISCELLANEOUS. actual sectional area of the pipe in square inches by 12, and divide by 231, the quotient will be U. S. gallons. To find the thickness of lead pipe required, when the head of water is given: multiply the head in feet, by size of pipe wanted, expressed decimally, and divide by 750: the quotient will give thickness required, in one-hundredths of an ilich. To find the quantity of water flowing through a pipe of any length and diameter: multiply the velocity in feet per second, by the area of the discharging orifice in feet, and the product is the quantity, in cubic feet, discharged per second. Flow of water through orifices : To find quantity discharged per minute, mul- tiply area of the orifice in square feet by the square root of the height of the level of the water above the orifice, in feet, and the product multiplied by 297.6 will equal discharge in cubic feet, nearly. A column of water 12 inches high exerts a downward pressure of .434 of a pound to the square inch. This pressure per square inch is due to head, (height that the water rises above opening) irre- spective of volume or anything else, except ver- tical height of column, A column of water of square inch base 27.71 inches high, gives one pound pressure. To find the pressure, in pounds per square inch. MISCELLANEOUS. 135 of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. A gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches, or 294 cylindrical inches. A cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons. A cubic yard of water contains 201.97 gallons. Water at the average temperature of 62° weighs 62.32 lbs, per cubic foot, and 8.33 lbs, per gallon. A cubic foot of water at 62° is nearly one ounce lighter than water at 39°, or maximum density. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. The diameter of a circle, multiplied by 3.1416 equals the circumference. The square of the diameter of a circle multi- plied by .7854 equals the area. Dividing the circumference of a circle by 3.1416 equals the diameter. The square of a radius of a circle multiplied by 3.1416 equals the area. The circumference of a circle multiplied by 0.1591 equals the radius. The radius of a circle multiplied by 6.283+ equals the circumference. Water pipes are round instead of square because water naturally whirls in circular motions and presents less friction than in square or other shapes. Proportion of rain water conductors to roof surface : 136 MISCELLANEOUS. One square inch of leader opening to 2400 square feet of any roof surface. The maximum rainfall as shown by statistics, is about one inch per hour, except during very heavy storms, equal to 22.633 gallons per hour for each acre, or 377 gallons per minute per acre. Owing to various obstructions, not more than 50 or 75 per cent of the rainfall will reach the drain within the same hour, and allowance should be made for this fact in determining size of pipe required. The following . table gives friction loss in pounds pressure, for each 100 feet of length in different size, clean iron pipe, discharging given quantities of water per minute and velocity of flow in pipe per second. VAn. %in. lin. l%in. lyAn. Gals, discharged /2 /4 /* /a per minute, 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. Velocity per sec- ond, 8.17 3.63 2.04 1.31 .91 Friction loss in pounds, 24.6 3.03 .84 .31 .12 10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. Velocity per sec- & » & & & ond, 16.3 7.25 4.08 2.61 1.82 Friction loss in pounds, 96.0 13.0 3.16 1.05 0.47 15 gal. 15 gal. 15 gal. 15 gal. Velocity per sec- & & & & ond, ' 10.9 6.14 3.92 2.73 Friction loss in pounds, 28.7 6.98 2.38 .97 MISCKLI,ANKOU8. 137 The friction loss is for plain pipe laid on a uni- form grade and in straight lines. Any variations from these conditions will increase the friction and lessens the discharge. The following table may often save time in giving areas of the following size pipes in square feet. DIAMETER. AREA. DIAMETER AREA. K in. .0003 1% in. .0167 % in. .0008 2 in. .0218 V. in. .0014 3 in. .0491 % in. .0021 4 in. .0873 % in. .0021 5 in. .1364 1 in. .0055 6 in. .1063 1% in. .0085 7 in. .2673 1% in. .0123 8 in. .3491 Lead Pipe. Weight, calibre and outside diameter. CALIBRE. WEIGHT PER FOOT. OUTSIDE DIAMETER. inches Ibs.-ozs. inches. 1-0 1-4 41-64 35-50 H 1-8 3-4 % 1-12 25-32 % 2-0 41-48 Y2 1-8 13-16 % 1-12 41-48 % 2-0 7-8 % 2-8 46-48 % 3-0 1 1-48 1^^ MISCELLANEOUS. CALIBRE. WEIGHT PER FOOT. OUTSIDE DIAMETER inches Ibs.-ozs. ] inches. % 4-0 1-8 '% 1-12 59-64 % 2-0 48-50 % 2-4 % 2-8 1-24 % 2-12 1-20 .% 3-0 5-64 % 2-0 1-16 % 2-4 5-64 % 2-3 1-S % 2-12 3-20 % 3-0 1-6 % 3-8 14-64 % 4-0 17-64 1 2-0 1-4 1 2-4 17-64 1 2-8 7-24 1 3-0 11-32 1 3-8 3-8 1 4-0 1% 2-8 5-12 1^ 3-0 17-32 1% 3-8 37-64 1% 4-0 5-8 1% 3-0 3-4 1^ 3-8 25-32 1^ 4-0 . 13-16 MISCELLANEOUS. 139 Table showing the weight of lead pipe required for a given head (or fall) of water. The weights given are of sufficient strength to allow the water to be shut off, (or stopped.) When water is allowed to run constantly, lighter weights can be used — say two thirds of those given. i-^ I— I ^ ^ iT O -^ CT 4i^ 03 hd S 2 CJ ^ ^ wW t—t' 1— I o h en o w fco tc t-^ t— 1 o o X o *»^ to iO io to to ■ H-i h-l I— I 00 o 1—1 o to X ■>^ 4^ *^ w bO to h- 1 1—1 X o X X o 1—1 bO X Ci c^ >;^ w bO bO o o X C 3 O H-i h-i 1—1 t-i o w' ::.^ h-i ^ 1-1 O X o oc O -a rt *>. CO bO bO O O O O O X o booci::^4^ wco ^ ooooo xo s i2! bo • n 5 '"' O 2 ? 3 o 140 MISCELI.AIS^EOUS. A cubic foot of air at 32° F., under a press- ure of 14.7 lbs per square inch, weighs 0.08 lbs. One cubic foot of air equals 1.292 ounces, or .23 oxygen and .77 nitrogen. Ammonia gas, can be detected by using red litmus paper. It will turn blue or yellow. Carbonic acid gas can be detected by using moist, blue litmus paper. It will turn red if this gas is present. The poicer necessary to raise water depends upon the height to be overcome and the quantity to be delivered. To determine the necessary power to work a pump: — Multiply the number of gallons desired per minute, by 8.33, (weight of one gallon of water) then multiply the product by the height in feet to which the water is raised, and it gives the number of foot pounds. Divide the product by 33000, (one horse power) and the result is the horse power, or its fractional part, required to do the work. The capacity of a pump can be determined easily when the diameter of cylinder and length of stroke are given. Square the diameter and multiply by .7854 which gives the area. Multiply this product by length of stroke, multiply this product by num- ber of strokes per minute resulting in number of cubic inches delivered in one minute. To reduce to gallons, divide by 231, (the number of cubic MISCELLANEOUS. 141 inches in a gallon) and the quotient gives num- ber of gallons delivered per minute. The diameter of the suction pipe should not be less than about half the diameter of pump cylinder. Ikon Rust Cement. Composed of iron borings or filings. Sal-ammoniac 1, sulphur 1, vrhiting 4. Mix with water and use. It formes a dense rust, used for stopping joints or cracks in iron work. Ikon Pipe Joints. Ground litharge, 10 pounds best quality, 4 pounds best Paris whiting, 2 pounds dry red lead, % pound yellow ochre, ^ ounce hemp cut fine ; mix thoroughly with boiled linseed oil to the consistency of thick putty and make joints in usual manner. This mixture sets quickly when heat is applied. It repairs boilers, resists fire, and will set in water. Lateral Pressure. The rule for calculating the lateral pressure is generally applicable to all cases when the vessel containing the liquid has a flat, horizontal bottom and perpendicular sides. Find the number of square feet in the sides be- low the surface of the liquid, multiply that by the number of feet in half the depth of the liquid, the product will express the number of solid feet of the liquid, the weight of which is equal to the lateral pressure. The number of square feet in the sides may be found by multiplying the number of feet in the circumference of the bottom by the number of t in the depth of the liquid. 142 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. METALS AND ALLOYS. What is a metal ? An elementary mineral substance possessing considerable specific gravity, hardness and cohe- sion and requiring a high degree of heat to liquify. Give the symbol, ore and composition of the metals of interest to plumbers. METAL. SYMBOL. ORE. COMPOSITION. Lead Pb Galena Lead & Sulphur Tin Sn Tinstone Tin & Oxygen Zinc Zn Blende Zinc & Sulphur Glance Copper & Sulphur Copper Cu Pyrites Iron, " Magnetite Iron Fe Hematite Iron & Oxygen Give the relative tenacity of the above metals. Lead 1 or lowest ;. Tin IK times that of lead. Zinc 2 (( u (( n ^ Copper 18 4h (C (C i( Iron r^ • J.1 n •Liij U 4i J _^ J.1- - r j._l_ Give the relative malleability of the 5 metals. Copper, Tin, Lead, Zinc and Iron. What does tenacity denote? The relative power of resistance the metals have, to being torn apart. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 143 On what does the malleability of a metal depend? A great deal on its tenacity, coupled with soft- ness. What is the melting point of iron and some of its properties ? Melts at 2.786° F., is very ductile and mal- leable and appears in three forms, malleable, or wrought, in its purest state, or cast, when con- taining carbon in different proportions. At what temperature will zinc melt and what are its peculiarities? Melts at 773° F., is somewhat brittle and fairly permanent in air. It is a protecting coating for iron under the name of galvanized iron, and dissolves easily in acids. What are the peculiarities of Tin and its melt- ing point? Melts at 428°, is a brilliant white metal in the pure state and produces a peculiar crack- ling noise when bent, called the "cry" of tin. It is very malleable, but also slightly ductile. What is Copper, its melting point and some of its uses? An elementary metallic substance of a pale, red color, moderately hard, malleable and ductile. Copper fuses at 1996°, F. It is the most use- ful of all the metals for alloy. Mixed with tin it forms bronze : with zinc it forms brass : is a 144 QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. good conductor of heat and electricity and one of the most useful of metals. What is Brass, its uses and melting point? It is composed of Copper and Zinc of diiferent proportions and has no certain temperature for fusing as the component parts vary; about 1100 °,F. It is one of the most useful of alloys, -more fusible than copper and not so apt to tarnish. It is malleable when cold but not so when heated. Describe the properties of lead, its melting point and some of its uses? Lead is of a bluish gray color, very soft and of slight tenacity. Its proper name is Galena or Sulphide of Lead. It melts at 612 to 617 degrees, F., according to its purity. It is used in the arts and sciences, and combines with other metals in various alloys. What are alloys and some of their properties? An alloy is a combination by fusion of two or more metals. All alloys are opaque, have a rrietallic luster, are more or less ductile, elastic and malleable, also good conductors of heat and electricity. What is solder, and of what is plumbers' solder composed ? A metal or alloy to unite adjacent metallic edges or surfaces and is composed of lead and tin in diiferent proportions. QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 145 What are the proportions of Lead and Tin in plumbers' solders, and their melting points? Coarse mixture, 3 lead, 1 tin, melts 480° Plumbers' '' 60 '* 40 ^' " 440° Fine '* 1 " 1 " " 370° Tin pipe '* 1 '* 1^ " " 330° What spoils solder and how should it be cleaned ? Allowing Zinc or Antimony to mix with it and by burning it. Clean it by heating the solder to 900° or more, introducing sulphur, which helps impurities to rise. When this is skimmed, put in resin, and the mixture should be purified. This high tem- perature is needed to melt Antimony which fuses at 834°, and Zinc at 773°. Why should solder never be allowed to burn? Because the pliable property and nutriment are extracted. What are some of the fluxes used in soldering different metals ? For iron, borax or sal-ammoniac. For zinc, copper or brass, — sal-ammoniac or zinc chloride. For lead or tin pipes, — tallow or resin. Also, for iron and zinc drop small pieces of zinc into two ounces of muriatic acid until bubbles cease to rise; then add a little water. 146 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. PUMPS. What is a pump ? A machine for raising water or fluids, consist- ing of a barrel or cylinder, a piston or bucket and lower valve. What is the principle on which the action of a pump depends and what enables it to lift water? Atmospheric pressure forces or presses the water into a vacuum formed by the working of the piston to a hight not exceeding 33 feet, this hight being the limit that air will sustain a column of water. What is the practical hight a pump can lift water and discharge the capacity of the barrel ? From 25 to 28 feet, or for each inch the mer- cury rises in the barometer allow for 13 inches of water to rise. What is the difference between a lift and force pump ? A lift pump simply raises the fluid to a spout where it overflows. A force pump delivers the fluid under pressure so as to eject it forcibly or deliver it at an elevation. Describe a single and double acting force pump? The single acting is that in which the lift and delivery are alternate. The double acting is that in which the passages QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 147 and valves are dnplicated, so that a lift and delivery are obtained by each motion of the plun- ger or piston. What is the object and advantage of using air or vacuum chambers on pumps? The air chamber is intended to equalize the flow of fluid from a reciprocating pump. The action of the pump being intermittent. The body of air confined in the upper part of the chamber forms an elastic cushion, by compres- sion and expansion, against which the water strikes when lifted. The object is to avoid the jar which occurs when a column of water is sud- denly arrested. In pumping from wells what precaution should be taken with end of suction pipe ? It should have a perforation on end of pipe in well, or a fine wire basket, to prevent leaves, sand or sediment being drawn into valves of pump. What is a driven well? An artesian well? A driven well is one where the suction pipe is driven into the ground until water is found (not exceeding 33 feet) and pumped out. An artesian well is one where the pipe is driven into the ground to a deep water bearing strata, the hydrostatic pressure of which will deliver the water without pumping. How is a leak found in a suction pipe? As air endeavors to enter the pipe no water will 148 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. be seen but a hissing sound will be heard if an opening has been made. What are the essentials of a durable and prop- erly set pump ? Simplicity, strength, tight joints and allowance made in selecting a pump, that the diameter and length of suction will not require an air chamber. What is the benefit of a foot valve in connection with a pump? When lower box of pump leaks, the foot valve being tight, holds the pipe full, and avoids the necessity of repriming the pump. Especially beneficial on long suction pipes. Will a long horizontal suction pipe make any difference in the working of a pump ? Yes. More friction makes the pump work harder and wears the pump, making repairs necessary more frequently. t5t t3t QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 149 HYDRAULIC RAM. What is the principle on which the hydraulic ram operates? Momentum and reaction. The column of water is set in motion by opening a waste valve, and after a certain velocity is acquired, the waste valve is suddenly closed. The moving column has by this means acquired certain energy, which it expends in forcing a portion of its volume through a check valve and to a higher head than its source. What length should a feed or drive pipe be to operate the ordinary ram ? From 25 to 50 feet in length, in order to get a sufficient bulk of water to operate the ram, and as the proportion between the supply and de- livery head becomes greater, the length of the drive pipe must be increased. What proportion should the size of drive pipe be to the delivery pipe ? About three times the area. About what per cent will the common hy- draulic ram deliver? From 50 to 65 per cent, according to design and adjustment. What rule is usually applied to determine the hight that a ram will deliver water? For each foot fall of drive pipe, it is claimed 150 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. that 5 feet of water will be raised in the delivery pipe. How is the flow adjusted? By raising or lowering nut on impetus valve, the valve action will be made fast or slow. What conditions are needed to ensure proper and economical results? Ample supply, allowing waste to equal three (3) times that delivered. At least 18 inches fall on drive pipe. Area of drive or supply pipe to be twice that of delivery, and strong valves and working parts, especially the impetus valve. tit ,3t WATER AND ITS DISTRIBU= TION. What is water and in what condition does it exist? It is composed of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Free from taste and smell when pure, and almost colorless. It solidifies at 32° or less, becomes a liquid between 32° and 212°, and gaseous at 212° and above. When is water at its greatest density and what are some of the peculiarities of water? Its greatest density is at 39.2° as it expands whether its temperature is increased or dimin- ished^ It is almost inelastic, a bad conductor of QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 151 heat, expands and becomes lighter when heated, and is a very important solvent and dilutent. What is specific gravity ? The ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an equal volume of some other body, taken as a standard. This standard is usually water for solids and liquids, and air for gases. Is water ever naturally pure ? No. In rain water it absorbs the impurities of the air. Spring and river water contains the more impure mineral constituents which it dis- solves when coming in contact with the different strata. Distilling will purify it. What column of water gives one pound press- ure to the square inch ? 27.71 inches at 39°. One ounce lighter at 62°. How many gallons in a cubic foot of water? 7.48+ gallons. Usually called 73^ gallons. What is the expanding pressure of freezing water, and is ice larger than when liquid? Pressure about 30,000 lbs to the square inch. Ice is one-eleventh larger and lighter than water. What expansion does water undergo in its con- version into steam ? A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic foot of steam of the atmospheric pressure. What are the advantages and disadvantages of lead, plain iron, galvanized iron, brass, block tin, 152 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. tin-lined lead, lead-lined iron and tin-lined iron water pipes ? 1. All Lead. Advantages : Pliability, strength, durability. Disadvantages: Danger from corrosion and poisoning. 2. Plain Ikon. Advantages: Cheapness, ease of putting together, and safety from poisoning. Disadvantages : Want of durability, owing to rust eating holes in it, filling from same cause, and being affected by contact with most soils. 3. Galvanized Ikon. Advantages: Cheap- ness, and they are slightly more durable than plain iron. Disadvantages: Some water decom- poses zinc, and the salts are poisonous if taken in large quantity. 4. Bkass Pipe. Advantages: Durable and safe when properly coated with tin, strong and easily jointed. Disadvantages: Supposed to be poisonous when not properly tinned. 5. Block Tin. Advantages: Perfectly safe. Disadvantages: Expensive, difficult to work, hot water affects it injuriously. 6. Tin-lined Lead. Advantages: A good pipe for cold water ; strength and durability of lead, and purity of tin, make it perfectly safe; to work it properly and safely, Bismuth solder should be used to joint it ; also insert well-tinned ferrules. 7. Lead-lined Ikon. Advantages: Rigidity of iron, smoothness of bore of lead, no rust to collect or close bore of pipe ; durable ; less cost QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 153 than all lead for heavy pressures. Disadvan- tages: Corrodes and collapses in iron shell. 8. Tin-lined Iron. Advantages: Perfectly safe, rigidity of iron, as pure as glass. What must be guarded against in using tin- lined lead pipe ? Care must be taken in making joints to avoid too high temperature as the tin will run and the joint will be weakened at that^ point. How should a lead pipe be joined to an iron pipe? By a wiped joint to a brass ferrule on soil pipe and a brass solder nip or union on supply pipes. Should the supply pipe be so arranged that it can be emptied, and why? Yes; it should descend gradually to the lowest convenient point where it can be shut off to pre- vent freezing and for needed repairs. What means should be adopted to give uniform supply to fixtures so that drawing water on lower floor will not stop or lessen the flow on an upper floor to a serious extent ? Proportion branches according to pressure and hight of building, also supply each floor with separate branch from enlarged main pipe in cellar ensuring more uniform supply. What precaution should be taken to prevent pipes from freezing, and what means are used to thaw when frozen ? 154 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. Place pipes away from outside walls or ex- posed places; also protect pipes with felting, paper, etc. When frozen thaw by applying heat externally or by injecting steam or hot water into and around pipe. In laying supply pipes under upper floors what precaution can be taken to protect the ceiling below from leaks, should any occur? By placing them in a lead-lined box, having a waste pipe from the lowest point of box. If a street supply pressure is insufficient to reach upper floors, what arrangement can be made to supply upper fixtures ? Install a tank and force pump, with large ris- ing main pipe to avoid frictional resistance, especially in high buildings. Can a water supply pipe be so arranged that drawing water on the lower floors will not retard or stop the flow on the upper floors to a serious extent? Yes. A pipe of sufficient area should be extended from lower floor or street main to high- est point needed and branching smaller pipes on each floor would allow the full capacity of the faucet to be discharged without perceptible loss. It is presumed that the pressure head would de- liver the water on highest floor. Can supply pipes be so arranged that water may be drawn through the same pipe from either street main or tank ? QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 155 Yes. A check valve arranged to close against the street pressure near the tank would allow the tank to supply when the street pressure was too low to rise to tank. A check valve should also be placed at the i3oint where the street press- ure arises at lowest ebb and tank pressure will close. This method would be practicable only when the street pressure varies so as to allow the tank to fill at stated periods. Under what conditions will water hammer occur and how remedied? Under high pressures and on long lines of pipe where few angle fittings are installed. Reme- died by placing air chambers, of sufficient capac- ity, at the extreme ends of pipe line, thus reducing the shock caused by suddenly check- ing the flow. What effect, on the flow of water, is caused by air locks in supply pipes? In low pressure work, such as tank or spring supply the air will retard and often completely stop the flow by being confined in such quantities as to overcome the weight of water due to the head. Under what conditions would a safety and vacuum valve be needed and where placed ? Safety valves are intended to open when an excess of pressure on the boiler prevails and relieve the strain in the boiler and pipes from interior pressure. Vacuum valves are intended 156 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. to operate when the exterior pressure exceeds the interior pressure. These valves may be com- bined and attached to hot water pipe over boiler. Safety valves are not needed when the boiler is supplied from tank and an expansion pipe pro- vided. Vacuum valves are needed if boiler is liable to have a vacuum formed within it because the atmospheric pressure will crush it unless the vacuum is destroyed. What effect has the contracted vein on the flow of water from tanks, etc. ? The flush pipe is not completely filled and the scouring force and velocity is lessened. The capacity of the pipe is reduced. At what temperature will water evaporate? At all temperatures. More rapidly when cur- rents of air pass over it, especially if the air be warm or dry. Of what benefit to a water supply system is a pressure regulator? When the pressure is excessive it prevents water hammer, undue strain on pipes and pro- longs the life of pipes and water fixtures. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 157 HEAT AND VENTILATION. What is a ventilator? An arrangement or duct for supplying fresh air and removing foul air from rooms or close places. What two methods of ventilation are usually used? The "vacuum" by withdrawing the foul air and allowing the fresh air to flow in and supply its place. This requires air ducts and heat to produce a vacuum or induce a current, by chang- ing density of atmosphere. The "plenum" by forcing in fresh air which drives the foul air before it to the outlet. This method requires fans and mechanical motive power but is more positive under all conditions. What method is usually used in the average house in a toilet room, and how applied? The "vacuum" method. A toilet room to be rightly ventilated, the air should be induced to enter through and across the bowl of a water closet and connected by an air duct with a heated flue if possible. When a chimney or heated flue is not available, heat should be artificially sup- plied. A proper inlet should be provided of sufficient area, and its base near the ground level, and the outlet extended through roof or into chimney at high point, with branch for each water closet fixture. This method depends upon 158 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. the air being less dense in the building than at the ground level outside, to induce an upward current. By this method, the air about a water closet will seldom find its way into the room, thus keeping the room sweet and wholesome. What is heat and its effect ? A condition of matter which can be transferred from one body to another and produces, 1st, — an increase of temperature and expansive pressure. 2nd, — a change of volume. 3d, — a molecular change, as from a solid to a liquid, or from liquid or solid to a gaseous state. Into what distinctive terms can heat be divided? 1st, — "Latent," or the heat which is absorbed by bodies in passing from one state to another, but it does not manifest itself by producing an increase of temperature. 2nd, — "Specific," or the quantity of heat re- quired to raise the temperature of a body of a given weight one degree ; the unit of measure being the quantity required to raise the same weight of water to the same temperature. 3d, — "Convected, " as when a liquid is heated from below, currents of liquid rise from the bottom to the top, until the liquid acquires a uniform temperature. This movement of heat by waves of matter is known as "convection. " 4th, — "Radiated, " when heat moves through space like light in all directions. li QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 159 In what way does the specific heat of a body enable the quantity of heat in it to be deter- mined*? If any body has only half the specific heat of water, then a pound of that body will, at any given temperature, have only half the heat in it that is in a pound of water at the same tempera- ture. The specific heat of air is 3.75 times less than that of water. An amount of heat, there- fore, that would raise a pound of water 1°, would raise a pound of air 3.75°. The specific heat of air is .2669°, that of water being 1°. How can an intelligent understanding of the theory and principles of heat help the plumber? That, by applying the expansive properties of heat, he may be enabled to properly adjust the inlet and outlet for ventilating a plumbing system, as well as make proper connections for warming water for domestic purposes. What precaution should be used in connecting and placing local vent pipes ? Avoid dead levels and square angles. En- deavor to secure as vertical or rising positions as possible, with long sweeping bends in order to avoid frictional resistance. Slant pipes from fix- ture in same manner as a waste pipe would be placed to drain a fixture, — with this difference, — air rises, water falls. What is the i)rimary object of ventilation, and 160 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. the effect, in a general way, of bad ventilation upon human beings ? The primary object is the removal of vitiated air and air of better quality is supposed to flow in and replace it. The general effect is the low- ering of the vital energies of persons, producing, what is called "general debility" thus becoming more susceptible to disease. Upon what principle is natural ventilation based? The circulation of air is directly due to the difference of temperatures or densities, in the various parts of a building or flue. Whenever the weight of • a column of air in a chimney or soil pipe is less than the normal atmosphere, 14.7 lbs., the internal air cannot balance that of the external air and results in driving the internal air upward and allowing the heavier air to flow in and replace it. In arranging local or seat ventilation what method should be adopted to produce the most positive circulations in the average case? Vent pipes should be arranged with few angles or abrupt changes of direction. Connecting to a heated flue, a gas jet burning in a flue, or a forced draught produced by mechanism. Are cowls or ventilators helpful in plumbing ventilation when fresh air is most needed? Ventilators prevent the rain entering the duct to which they are connected and often assist an QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 161 upward draught when a strong wind is blowing. Ventilation is most needed when the air is stag- nant or saturated and natural methods in warm weather are not positive owing to the fact that variation of densities is not enough to produce circulation. Ventilators are detrimental under such conditions. What is generally considered drainage ventila- tion? Drain extensions from sewer to roof with branch lines from each fixture connected with separate circulation pipes are usually considered sanitary. Drainage ventilation depends upon an ample and constant current of air through every part of the system to prevent unequal pressures. Will drain air always flow in the same direc- tion when proper inlets and outlets are provided, if all fixtures are at rest? No. Because the conditions of the atmosphere vary. The density of the air often being less at the base so that a reverse current is produced. Air is liable to remain stagnant in pipes except when the atmospheric conditions are very pro- nounced, such as a strong wind or extreme cold weather. What conditions would promote a continuous upward current in drain ventilation ? When the inlet at a low level allows the free admission of air to naturally rise through the 162 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. system of pipes to the outlet above the building. These conditions are best attained when the upper section of piping is heated enough to create a slight vacuum so that cooler air may re- place the heated air and thus create an upward and continuous current. DRAINAGE AND BACK VENT PIPES. What is a sewer? An underground channel for conveying the surface water and liquid refuse matter of cities and towns. What is a drain? "Drain" signifies any kind of channel for con- veying liquid, which may be open or closed in. Usually understood to be the pipe leading from a building to a sewer or cesspool. There is a difference between a house drain and a sewer. Sewers are the receivers of house drains. What is a soil pipe ? That part of the interior house pipes of metal, used to receive the discharge from fixtures such as water closets, etc. All pipe above the high- est fixture is termed the soil pipe vent, intended to admit air into the drainage system. What is a waste pipe? QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 163 The smaller branch pipes of metal connected to the soil pipe and fixtures, such as a sink, wash bowl, etc. Of what material should drain, soil and waste pipes be made ? Earthenware, brass, lead, cast iron and wrought iron lead lined. What are the important requirements in regard to soil and waste pipes? Fall, size and kind of pipe, joints and venti- lation. What fall in a drain pipe is necessary to pro- duce a velocity of three feet per second and why is this velocity needed? %" per foot is needed to produce the nec- essary volume to float solids and scour or cleanse the interior walls of the pipe. What kind and size of pipes should be used for a building ? For outside pipe the salt glazed or vitrified pipe is preferable. Inside pipes should be cast iron under ground and brass or lead lined wrought iron above ground. The size of glazed pipe for ordinary buildings should be Q" and soil pipe not less than 4^^ in diameter, governed to a great extent by needs of building, but several small pipes are recommended in place of one of large diameter. 164 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. How and of what material should joints be made on glazed and iron piijes? Joints on vitrified pipe should be made with Portland cement, hub well filled, allowed to set and interior thoroughly cleaned. Joint allowed to set before trench is filled. On cast iron pipe fill hub % with oakum, then pour full with heated lead, xls lead shrinks when cooling tamp lead firmly to fill hub tightly, as this makes the joint water and air tight. On brass or wrought iron pipe have thread well cut, leaded and screwed tightly. How are drain and soil pipes tested ? With water ^ a severe and sure test, air^ an even and reliable, smoke^ for old work is satisfactory, and oil of peppermint for a chemical test. In what lengths are cast iron pipes made, and why is extra heavy pipe recommended ? Five feet without hub. Extra thick pipe will stand caulking better and is less liable to con- tain imperfections when casting, su<5h as sand holes, etc. What should be the thickness and weight of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6'^ extra heavy soil pipe? 2, 3 and 4:" should be % " thick, 5 and 6" should be 5-16" thick. The weight per foot of 2" 3" 4" b" %" 53^ lbs. 9% lbs. 13 lbs. 17 lbs. 20 lbs. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 165 What is the important consideration in the , strength of cast iron pipes? i That it be cast even, of uniform thickness and free from flaws and sand holes. What is meant by sand holes and flaws? Holes caused by detached particles of sand, from core box or mold, mixed with the metal, thereby causing an imperfect flow of metal. Flaws are caused by bubbles of air or gas that generate in the molds and force themselves through the molten metal during the process of pouring the casting. How should soil pipes be supported, how much lead should be calculated to a joint and what is the least depth the ring of lead should be in caulking? Hangers, hooks, brackets or piers placed as near the hub as possible. The lead should be 1 5^ ''deep and allow 12 oz. to each inch in di- ameter. Describe in detail how joints in cast iron pipes should be made and why, also how joints are caulked when pipes run in a wall recess ? Picked oakum twisted and forced into hub of pipe or fitting, with yarning tool to the depth of ^'', then fill with molten lead by one continuous pour until hub is filled, then caulk with steel caulking tool to expand the lead, (as lead con- tracts in cooling). For horizontal pipe, use a gasket or rope to wind around the pipe to cover 166 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. the open space between hub and pipe and leave a small opening on top to pour in lead. When in wall recess leave joint loose every few lengths, so that pipe may be turned, and for final joints cut wall to make room to work if necessary. What is a rust joint? How made, and when should it be used? Made of iron borings, used to conduct steam and hot water and by taking iron borings, free from oil or grease, 5 lbs., 1 oz. Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz. Sulphur; mix dry first, then mix with water to a thick paste, place in hub of pipe and caulk same as lead. Apply oakum first. Why are putty, mortar and cement joints objectionable? Because they are porus and brittle and will crack and leak both liquids and gases ; mice eat putty and such joints are not reliable. Is there any objection to building a soil pipe into a wall ? ^Yes. The wall is liable to settle and break the pipe ; it is inaccessible and difficult to repair. State chief sanitary requirements of soil and drain pipes? They must be air and water tight, all bends and branches have a proper sweep and provided with enough water to thoroughly flush the en- tire line; hav« no dead ends for sewer air to collect in, open above roof ; have proper grade QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 167 and all joints carefully and substantially made. Should drains and soil pipes be vented and why? Yes. All drains should be arranged so that vapors formed in them will not be confined or produce pressure. To avoid this, extend pipes through roof and leave ends open. Where should the upper end of soil and vent pipes terminate ? Above the roof and well exposed to air currents and as far as possible from windows and air shafts. Is it a safe plan to ventilate a soil pipe into a chimney flue? No; unless chimney is made for that purpose only, as, when the chimney is cold or no fire, there is often a down draft, thus forcing sewer air into living room. Sewer air also loosens the mortar between the bricks, thus opsning the drain to living rooms. What is meant by a " dead end " on a drain, soil or waste pipe and why is it dangerous ? One not ventilated; it is dangerous because sewer air collects and produces pressure that un- seals trap and is also liable to corrode or eat through iron or lead pipe and thus enter the building. Why do soil and waste pipes need venting? 1st, to prevent water being siphoned from trap ; 168 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 2nd, to relieve and prevent air compression, or concentration of sevrer air; 3d, to prevent this air corroding the pipe. What influence has length of soil pipe to do with their ventilation ? Water falling, does so at the same speed as or- dinary bodies, less friction on sides of pipe, and air resistance which increases as it becomes more and more compressed. Long stacks acquire same velocity and air must enter through vent pipe at top, at same speed, to keep the seal in trap. What effect has length of vent pipe on the re- sistance to trap siphonage ? Where long pipes are used the air cannot pass through quickly enough to prevent a partial vacuum, and some air is drawn through trap, thus lowering if not wholly breaking the water seal. Thus with bends and long runs of vent pipe, the diameter must be enlarged in order to supply air as fast as needed, to prevent trap siphonage. The air of the vents should always exceed in sectional area that of the drains, as the vent pipes act as chambers for air, to supply any vacuum that may be formed, rather than to es- tablish currents to carry away offensive odors. Dependence is placed on proper flushing of the pipes to keep them clear of matters likely to de- compose. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 169 What is meant by a vacuum ? An empty space ; a space in which there is neither water, air, or anything that we know of. With what velocity does air rush into a vacuum ? At the sea level, with 14.7 lbs. atmospheric pressure the velocity would be about 1.33 feet per second. The square root of the height in feet multiplied by 8.021 will give the velocity. How should vent pipes be run to avoid the water from condensation of vapors filling same ? Placed on an incline so that no traps will be formed in it and as near vertical as possible. Avoid return bends if possible as the balance of air is usually equalized at the crown of bend forming an aiir trap. ^ ^ 170 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE. What is the object of a trap as used in plumb- ing? A trap is a crook or bend in a pipe which forms a pocket or depression for the retention of water. This water obstructs the passage of sewer air. The object is to prevent the passage into a build- ing, of foul air from the sewer or drain. Will the water in a trap absorb foul odors and emit them again ? Yes; to a certain extent if sufficient pressure exists. How is trap absorption avoided? By changing water in trap often, and by the use of a ventilation pipe that allows air to circu- late through it on the sewer side of water seal, thus preventing pressure. What is the object of a trap where the drain pipe enters the building? To prevent the entrance of sewer air into a house from the street sewer. Is there any other theory on this point ? Yes, that there should be no trap at front wall. Sewer air should not be confined but allowed to mingle and become diluted with fresh air. Also, if a continuous pipe extends from sewer through roof it relieves all pressure and the scouring force is not hindered. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 171 What are the claims made for the intercepting trap ? One principal claim is that a contagious dis- ease in an adjoining building might be conveyed to the adjoining premises through the sewer con- nections. Another claim is that where no main drain trap is placed, dangerous communicable diseases are spread through the agency of a de- fect in the drainage system. Another claim is that it is unsafe Jto ventilate the public sewers through our private houses, as the roof openings are often below adjoining premises and the sewer air would enter windows above such openings. What is the object of extending a pipe from the outer air to the drain pipe just inside the in- tercepting trap ? To allow (or produce) an inward current of fresh air to pass through pipes, thus deoderizing the foul air and preventing the ultimate corro- sion of the material of which the pipe is com- posed. Is this method reliable and effective? The theory is correct as cold air should enter the inlet as the density of the air is greater at the ground level than at the roof. It has proven unreliable in many cases, owing to the fact that the present method not being intelligently in- stalled, and traps formed in the drain, below the ground level, the density of the moist air being as great or greater than the outside fresh air, 172 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. prevents a movement of the air in the right di- rection, and then the fresh air inlet becomes an outlet for foul odors when the fixtures are dis- charged. Does it make any difference where this pipe enters a soil pipe, so long as it is inside the point where the trap is placed? It should connect with a branch as near trap as practicable, or that portion between it and trap will form a dead end and compiess the air. What causes a pressure from the sewer on the main trap ? Difference in temperature between sewer and house, snow and ice covering the opening in street man-hole, tide flowing in and sudden emptying of street sewer after heavy rain storm. Can difference in temperature between air in a sewer and in a drain pipe unseal trap ? Yes. If sewer is confined or has long dead end near trap. When open man-hole is near, it will not unseal trap. What is understood as the seal of a trap? How is a seal measured? What is considered a sufficient seal ? The depth of water from overflow point of out- let to the dip or tongue. The seal is measured from these points. A safe seal should be at least (3) three inches. Does a large body of water in a trap afford as QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 173 much resistance to pressure from sewer as the depth of seal ? No. It is the depth of seal and not the amount. AVhat is the effect of a column of water passing through an upright pipe and completely filling it, when branches are connected ? It will create a vacuum and if traps are not vented will cause them to lose their water seal. If a drain pipe empties into a stream or on the surface of the ground and has no connection with sewer or cesspool, is a trap useful or desirable ? Yes; as foul air is generated, and when the pipe is of some length it is safer to trap it. When traps are emptied of water to prevent freezing, how can sewer air be excluded ? Fill traps with glycerine, as it will not fraeze or evaporate. What is an air lock ? The space in pipe, between two traps, where air is confined. How does it affect the flow of water ? It is like an air chamber and retards or stops the flow of water. It is an obstruction. Explain the reason for siphonage of traps and how it can be prevented. To siphon a trap, a part of the air is withdrawn by a descending column of water so that the 174 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. atmo&pheric pressure is less on one side of the water seal than on the other and the atmospheric pressure will force out the water until it supplies the vacuum, thus making the air pressure the same on both sides. It is for this i^urpose that traps are vented, so that the vents may supply the air and not oblige the taking out of the water to get the air from the house side of the water seal. What is double trapping and its effects? One trap under fixture, the other on main drain. Its effect is to confine the bad air between them and impede the flow of water. What is a " by pass" in ventilation? When the waste pipes of several fixtures are so connected that they have a trap common to more than one of the fixtures, the attempt to ventilate the traps may produce an open path around some other trap into a room, thus letting sewer air into the dwelling. What are the points to be considered in venti- lating traps ? The vent pipe should be so connected that grease cannot choke it or iron scales close the bore of pipe. This air pipe should be of larger area than trap outlet so that an ample supply of air can be furnished when trap is discharged. What system of air vent pipes would be con- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 175 sidered adequate to supply the requisite amount of air in all or the majority of cases? Another air pipe of equal area to the main soil pipe stack, with separate connecting branches for each fixture. What are the essentials in a trap as us^d in plumbing ? Traps should be of such size as to entirely dis- place their contents each time a fixture is used, and a depth of seal that will not check the velocity of discharge, but loill resist back press- ure and evaporation to the greatest extent. What objection is brought in the use of "revent" pipes when attached to the crown of traps ? The crown of trap receives the upflow of the discharge and portions adhere, from time to time, until the vent becomes closed. When this time arrives the vent becomes useless. How can a vacuum be formed in a soil or waste pipe and how effect a trap seal ? A column of water falling through a vertical pipe will lessen the normal air pressure on the inside of pipe and the air pressure on the house side of trap seal being at such times greater than the interior resistance, has a tendency to replace the water seal with air and produce siphonage. What influence has evaporation on trap seals? Evaporation gradually lowers a trap seal and 176 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. when seal is broken the trap is useless. A vent pipe usually hastens evaporation as an air current conveys water vapor readily. Should a trap be provided with a vent pipe? Yes. To furnish air to prevent siphonage, corrosion of metal and ventilation. How should a vent pipe be connected to a trap to prevent evaporation and chokage ? With trap connected on outlet with Y angle joint the flow of water is directed downward so that waste matter will not rise in vent and cause chokage. Evaporation is hastened when the vent pipe is connected over the water in body of trap. With vent pipe extended from waste line exten- sion the air current is one side and its action is less direct thus prolonging evaporation. ^ QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 177 GREASE TRAPS. What is the object of a grease trap? To prevent the accumulation of grease in the drain and soil pipe thus causing chokage, trouble and expense. The trap holds the grease, allow- ing it to collect, cool, and solidify, when it can be removed. Into what general classes can grease traps be divided? Two. First, those in which the grease is chilled until it solidifies by the air surrounding it, and second, by a water jacket surrounding the trap to cause the same effect. What is the general construction of a grease trap ? Inlet and outlet at base, with partition to check flow of grease, large area to hold accumulations, cleaning hand-hole and a relief pipe for gas to escape, in addition to regular back vent pipe. Where are grease traps usually required or needed most? In hotels, restaurants and eating houses. Which form or principle will produce the most satisfactory results, and why? The one with water jacket, because the water in the jacket absorbs heat from the water in the trap much more rapidly, thus chilling the grease much sooner. 1T8 QUESTIO]JfS AND ANSWERS. BOILERS. Of what material are boilers usually made and how are they placed ? ;, Iron, galvanized; Copper, tinned on inner sur face. Placed either horizontally or upright, and arranged &o that proper connections may be made with heating apparatus. How should a boiler be attached to a range water back or heater to work effectively? The bottom coupling of boiler should attach to a pipe connected to the lower opening of water back and the upper opening of water back should be connected by a larger pipe to the side coup- ling of the boiler or reservoir. Explain the method or circulation in a water back, boiler and fixture pipes? The boiler being full and the fire in range started, the heat of the fire warms the water in the "front." Being made lighter by heat, and expanded, the water rises through side coupling of boiler to top of same. As the water in boiler is surrounded by a metallic shell, this surface radiates heat and the water constantly cools, and by the passage of the heated water through the boiler, the cold constantly descends. When water is drawn at any fixture it is cooled by pass- ing through the i3ipes, by radiation. To ensure an immediate supply of hot water at QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 179 any fixture, the hot water pipe is extended be- yond each fixture, and a circuit pipe returned to the boiler, entering same through cold Water tube provided for such purpose, or connected to the cold supply pipe from boiler to water front out- side of boiler. What causes the rumbling sound in hot water pipes about range and boiler? Sediment in water front ; air space above outlet opening in front; stoppage of free circulation causes steam to form, when the cold water enter- ing front causes the steam to condense, forming a vacuum, thus causing a snapping or rumbling. What is the common cause of water front ex- plosions'? The stoppage of circulation causes steam to form rapidly, and when confined, an explosion must occur. When the water in a boiler is making steam rapidly, what effect will drawing off the hot water have? When cold water is admitted, the steam con- denses rapidly, causing a vacuum ; this causes an uneven or unbalanced atmospheric pressure and insures collapse. Is a collapse more liable to occur when the water pressure is light? Yes; as steam is formed more easily and less pressure is required to expel water from boiler. 180 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. The expansive force of steam will more readily cause the water to leave the boiler and collapse is therefore more imminent. What are the usual safeguards against the collapse of a boiler? For a pressure boiler, a vacuum or check valve. For a tank job, an expansion pipe extended from hot water pipe over and into tank above water level. What is the object of a sediment cock ? It is the outlet for cleaning boiler and used to empty boiler for repairs. What is the object of an air hole near the upper end of tube in boiler ? To prevent boiler from siphoning. What is the object of a double boiler? To furnish heated water in the upper and lower parts of a building independent of each other. Is it necessary to connect both boilers with water back ? No; as the water in inside boiler is heated by convection from outer boiler. The outer one being connected to water front only. What kind of pipe should be used between the boiler and water front ? Cold water pipe may be either lead, brass or copper. Hot water pipe should be brass or copper, as they resist the effects of hot water best, are rigid and do not disintegrate. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 181 Does a sag or trap in the hot water pipe make any difference in the heating or circulation ? Yes. Circulation is impeded and a slight ob- struction in pipe causes the rumbling sound so often heard in connection with boilers. What would you recommend in choosing a boiler for domestic use, the cistern or pressure pattern? Give reason for choice. The cistern pattern would be the most desira- ble, if properly piped, because the pressure is even and the stock would wear longer. The variable street pressure is not satisfactory as the strain is uneven and an earlier wearing out of material results. 182 QUESTIONS -AND ANSWEKS, BATHS* What is a bathf'tiib or what is ^termed a bath ? A bath tub is a receptacle holding liquids for persons to plunge or wash their bodies. A vessel in which the whole or a'part of the person may be washed or bathed. : : .^ The word bath is also aipplied '-t^o any artificial cohtri Vance which is -to siifiiply thef place of a bath;" as a Bh<)we^^%ath^^ or an apparatus for applying water to" the body in the form of a shower ; a vapor bath, by steam, etc. - What styles of portable bath tubs are in gen- eral use ? Steel ; copper-lined, — Iron ; enameled with roll rims, — Marble and porcelain. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the kinds described? Steel clad, copper-lined are light and retain heat from hot water; being tinned, the tin soon wears off, when verdigris forms, which is danger- ous ; and the copper ig liable to become punct- ured with careless use. The tub is set up on legs and is cleanly. Iron, enameled, is strong, cleanly and serviceable, but does not retain heat from hot water well and in poor grades the enamel is liable to crack. Marble and porcelain are cleanly and the best for good work, but liable to fracture. QUESTIO]*^S AND ANSWERS. 183 How should a bath be supplied? Through large supply pipes to avoid long wait- ing. Size of pipe % or finches. A combina- tion bath cock with rose sprinkler, makes a satis- factory bibb. _^ What are the sizes of wasjte pipes usually used for bath tubs? 1/^? 1/^ and 2 inches. The larger the waste outlet the more quickly will the bath empty and less liability for scum and sediment to remain on the inner surface of tub, What precaution should be taken with the overflow from: a bath :tub ? See that it is properly trapped, and of suitable capacity. How should a trap be located that serves a bathtub? Keep trap from under tub and; avoid placing bact vent in a horizontal pos^ition, as the vent is liable to become choked and t^us become useless. Yent pipe should b^^'lijyright to a point above where it is possible-tojftll with waste matter by backing up,, when pij)e^rai;e choked. What' sanitary features shopid be observed in choosing and^settin^ albath tub:? l'^--^' ' ' Baths should be set up free irom all wOod work, with legs and roll rim, thus^ %,Wewing ?i-ee eircu- latton Of air at all pdifits. The roorn^ shMild always be well ventilated and no absorbent -ma- 184 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. terial should be used in the room, on or about the tub. WATER CLOSETS. What requirements should a sanitary water closet possess ? It should be simple, neat and compact in de- sign, durable, of smooth material with ample standing water in bowl. All parts exposed to fouling should be thoroughly scoured, powerful, copious, yet noiseless flush from tank, securely trapped, its water seal visible and accessible, free from mechanism and economical in the use of water. What principles or patterns in closets are now on the market? The Hopper principle, consisting of the Short and Combination Hopper, Washout and Wash- down patterns. The Siphon, Pneumatic, Jet Siphon, and Triple Jet action. Describe the Short Hopper? It consists of a trap usually of iron with oval or square bowl clamped to trap. Joint between trap and bowl made with white lead putty and sometimes with rubber gasket. The bowl has a flushing or perforated rim and depends upon the flush and height of tank to wet and scour the interior surface properly. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 185 Describe the Washout closet ? A flushing rim tank hopper with outlet front or back with a water bed containing a shallow pool of water so that soil will not be retained on the interior surface. Needs tank action to flush and expel contents. Describe a Washdown closet? It combines the short hopper and washout, with this difference; the body of trap is enlarged and the lower part of bowl also, so that a deep seal and enlarged water pool receives the soil ; thus the objection to the soil sticking to sides of bowl is overcome. It combines the water bed of the washout and the scouring down pour of the short hopper. Describe a siphon closet ? The siphon closet resembles in outward appear- ance the washout pattern but operates by unbal- ancing the atmospheric pressure by filling the outlet leg of closet with water, creating sufficient vacuum to overcome the air pressure on the drain side of water seal. Siphonic action is produced by shaping the outlet of trap so that the overflow of water drives out and excludes the air from outlet, which when filled with water, forms the long leg of siphon. How are siphon closets classified ? There are three general classes, jet siphon, pneumatic and semi-pneumatic. 186 QUESTIONS A]^J) ^NSWER^. What effect has jet action on the water passa- ges and soil pipe? . In connection with siphonic action a wonder- ful cleansing and scouring action is produced, thoroughly cleaning the pipe. ,.,.;.:.:. : Where should a siphon closet h^ve its back air pipe connected, and why? "^-^ ; :, On lead bend below closet, because if connected above water level in siphon pipB, a vacuum would be hard to form, and the effective force used in discharging the fixture is cut off. A much larger flush pipe and quantity of water would be needed. How is the siphon closet superior to the wash- out or short hopper ? ■ From a sanitary stand point; 1st, the bowl holds a deep body of water, with large surface which prevents soil adhering to walls of closet. 2nd. The etepth of water in bowl makes it difficult for air to escape from the sewer to room, especially wi'th a pnetiniatic closet. - Bd; The outlet of trap is visible and if the water level is miaintained the bowl contains enough water to deodorize faecal matter ^nd pA- yents the walls of the closet from becoming foul. 4th. The jet action is so powerful that the bowl contents are ejected with great force and a thorough cleansing 4s produced. _>:- li 11 What especial : merifcis cl?iimed' -for the: pneu- matic siphon? i ■':':-: I .■■^- . I: L j;:: v^':::a y QUESTIONS AJJI) ANSWERS. 187 Because of the two trap^ it requires an abso- lutely air tight joint between them to effect a satisfactory working of the el oset. The failure of this closet to work properly, is evidence that an imperfect joint exists between the traps. The lower trap in such a case then becomes a safe-guard against the entrance of sewer air. What is the operation of the Semi -Pneumatic closet? It is a combination of the pneumatic and siphon jet principles. The flush water divides immedia4:ely after entering the closet, part going to the siphon jet and the other to the flush rim of the bowl, except that the part of the water which operates the jet passes through a con- tracted. nozzle. This nozzle has a trap to prevent air getting into the flush pipe, from space between the two traps. The trap helps to spray the water similar to an injector, by which action the air between the traps is exhausted with the water into soil pipe. Exhausting the air between the traps is the feature similar to pneumatic closets, while the jet action is the counterpart of what is embodied in the siphon jet closets, with the exception of the trapped spraying nozzle which serves in conjunction with the pneumatic feature. What general principle should be followed in lecting a water closet? Those closets that retain a body of water in the 188 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. basin are considered the best in ratio to tlie water surface exposed and also its depth, as soil is at once immersed, thus preventing the escape of foul odors. What is the object of a local or seat vent on a water closet ? To convey foul air from space about the inter- ior of the bowl while the closet is in use, and to assist in keeping the air changed in the water closet apartment. What is a good height for a cistern above a closet and why should it never be used for boiler supply ? About 6 feet to ensure a through flush ; because the flush pipe allows the foul air from closet to rise to tank ; this air is absorbed by the water, contaminating and rendering it unfit for household purposes. QUESTIONS AND ANSWEBS. 189 SINKS. Of what material are kitchen sinks made? Cast iron, plain, galvanized and enameled. Steel, painted and enameled, Soapstone, Crockery and Slate. How should a kitchen sink be fitted and con- nected? With strainer, fastened, trap, (preferably a grease interceptor) with back air pipe so attached that grease cannot close bore of pipe. Ample water supply through compression bibb, (both hot and cold.) Set up open (28 or 30 inches from floor) on legs or brackets; drainer and back spatter board of marble, slate or soapstone, so fitted that moisture cannot collect in crevices and breed vermin. How are waste connections made ? On iron sinks, with lead pipe, by means of collar (slipped over pipe) that has ears or lugs to allow bolts to hold in position. On steel sinks the fixture is made with a solder union fitted for both lead and iron pipe. On crockery, slate or soapstone, a special plug is made for fitting to fixture with lock nut and solder coupling. What are the merits or demerits of the different materials as used for a sink? Plain iron sinks rust easily, but with care when new, this may be obviated by oiling the surface 190 QUESTION'S AND ANSWERS. before water is allowed to enter it. Cast iron cracks easily, then no reinjedy. Galvanized iron sinks are fairly durable but the coating wears away, leaving them no better than plain iron. Steel sinks cannot be broken, but when painted or galvanized, after short usage, the coating is eaten away. When enameled, they are quite durable, unless, being so light, extreme heat would crack the enamel. Plain steel sinks wear well. Soapstone is soft and crumbles but is quite durable and is less liable to cause the breaking of dishes on account of the surface being less harsh than slate. Crockery is hard and glazed so that it is non- absorbent, but dishes are readily broken and extreme heat or careless use is liable to "fracture. Slate is hard, non-absorbent, and is considered very durable. The texture of the stone is such that it is tenacious and not easily fractured. Of what material are pantry sinks usually made and how installed? Of copper, well tinned, square or oval, enam- eled steel and crockery. Often provided with slate or marble drainers, and covered with rubber mats to prevent breakage of crockery. The preferred setting, for sanitary reasons, should be with slate or marble drainer, shallow sink, provided with standing overflow and \% " waste, provided' with QUESTIONS AND ANSWP^RS. 191 grease trap. Supply through tall faucets to allow the use of pitchers. What objections exist when wooden drainers are used about sinks ? With wood work exposed to alternate wetting and drying, the wood rapidly decays and also absorbs and retains any filthy matter that may have been on the dishes used. This filth attracts vermin that are difiicult to exterminate. Where is a slop sink needed and of what material should it be made? N'eeded in hotels, apartment houses and ofiice buildings. While often made of cast iron enam- eled, the vitrified stone ware are considered the most sanitary on account of their non-absorbent properties. Enameled iron shrinks and cracks and becomes quite objectionable when cracked. How should a slop sink be installed? No wood work, flushing rim, tank supply; also faucets for hot and cold water if desired ; waste at least 2'^ in diameter, with firmly fastened large strainer; trap back vented and no part left so that filth can collect about it. 192 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. LAVATORIES. How should a lavatory or wash bowl be Id- stalled? Set up about 30 inches from floor with marble slab and countersunk face, bevel or O. G. edge, 1%" thick, on brackets or legs, with high backs. Bowl may be either round, square or oval ; should have large outlet, 1% to 1% '', and well trapped, also trap back vented so that air pipe should not act as an overflow. Hot and cold supply through Yq " pipe and compression basin cocks. Basin clamped to marble slab of Italian, Tennessee, or any hard marble with all pipes exposed. What grades of marble are commonly used for plumbing slabs and their adaptability ? American^ white medium texture, easily stains and absorbs oily or greasy matter readily. Italian^ mottled veins, hard texture, stains, but not as easily as American, and obtains a good polish. Tennessee^ in colors only, very hard and will not stain or absorb oily matter. Considered best for plumbers' use. How is a wash bowl measured and what sized opening is made in marble? Measured on outside rim of flange, or market size. Opening in slab is made two inches smaller as the flange is usually one inch wide. When ordering a marble slab, the market size of bowl should be given. State if one or two cock holes QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 193 are wanted, chain stay or other patented appli- ance, and how many basin clamp holes needed. What style of overflow is recommended, and why? The old style of common or patent overflow is so seldom used that occasional use does not keep it clean, and soap, hair, etc., accumulate, chok- ing the passage, and the construction is such that it is difiicult to clean. Several styles of overflow more or less complicated are on the mar- ket, but the simplest and most effective is the siphon overflow, as it has no mechanical parts and the siphonic action is powerful, leaving both waste and overflow clean. What should be observed in choosing a wash basin, from a sanitary point of view ? Large outlet, no concealed fouling space, over- flow as large as outlet, no mechanism. URINALS. How should urinals be fitted up, and where are they not advisable ? They should be set in a stall with slate parti- tions and floor of same material. Floor should have grooved trench to allow the collection of drippings. The urinal proper should be lipped of vitrified earthenware, supplied from an auto- matic flush tank, or a constant supply of running 194 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. water. Each urinal should be separately trapped and vented. The bowls of this fixture should be made to retain a body of water and preferably operated by siphonic action. Urinals should not be placed in private houses. How high should a urinal be set from floor to lip? 22 inches. What method of ventilation is beneficial for a urinal ? Vacuum induced current, drawn into and across body of water so as to avoid any odor coming into room. What pattern is considered the most sanitary for a urinal, and why ? The sij)hon, because the bowl holding a shallow seal of water, the urine nut coming in direct con- tact with the porcelain, makes it possible to keep the fixture cleanly and free from odor, without the constant care and attention hereto- fore necessary in keeping the usual pattern even in an endurable condition. The siphonic action is effective, regular and automatic. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 195 LAUNDRY TUBS. Of what material are laundry tubs made, and which are advisable to use. Wood, slate, soapstone, granite or cement and earthenware. Soapstone, eaithenware and slate are non-absorbent and therefore considered the most desirable. How should laundry tubs be fitted for use ? On metal legs or frames, provided with large outlets, fixed strainer, properly trapped with deep seal, back vented and provided with ade- quate supply of hot and cold water. Supply should have stop cocks when fixture is set in an exposed place. VALVES. What pattern valves are there now in the mar- ket and giving good results ? The Cage, with standing overflow. The Si- phon, with whole curved pipe lifted from seat. The Hinged valve attached to side of siphon tube rigidly fastened in tank. The solid weighted valve with spindle for guidance. The float or pneumatic valve with a hollow cylinder to contain air to cause a slow closing action of the valve, etc. 196 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. TANKS. What are tanks for ? To contain and furnish water for the supply of fixtures in buildings. How are tanks usually supplied ? By pump, hydraulic ram or gravity pressure from private or public water works. Of what are tanks usually made ? Of wood, lined with tinned sheet copper or sheet lead; also of iron either cast or wrought; wood and slate are also frequently used. What is the best lining for a tank for a house from which water for drinking and cooking is used? A wooden tank lined with tinned sheet copper. Those lined with zinc or lead are prohibited for domestic use in New York City. Are safes advisable under tanks in buildings ? Always, except when tanks are placed on roofs ; then they are not needed. Especially needed under iron tanks to carry off water of condensa- tion from bottom and sides. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 197 Where should the safe overflow pipe be carried ? To an open sink, properly trapped and vented, but never into a soil or waste pipe. Where should the tank overflow discharge? For a tank on roof the overflow may discharge on roof; for tank below roof, it should discharge into a sink or other water supplied receptacle that is properly trapped. Why should a tank room be thoroughly ven- tilated? Because water absorbs foul gases and odors and thus becomes unfit for use. How can this be proved in a simple manner? By placing a pail of water in a newly painted room ; the smell of the paint will decrease, and when examined, an oily scum will be found upon the water. What should also be kept in mind in regard to contaminated water? That possibly it might be taken for domestic purposes, therefore dangerous. Is it advisable to cover tanks? It is ; and provision should also be made for ventilation. Should a water closet tank and house or boiler tank be one and the same ? No. A separate tank for closet, as foul odors are likely to rise through the flush pipe and be 198 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. absorbed by the water in tank, thus rendering it unfit for domestic use. Of what size should a tell-tale pipe be and where run ? 3/8 to 3^ inch and run to a point where the dis- charge of water could be readily seen by one operating the pump. What is the advantage of a large pipe between pump and tank ? There is less friction; therefore the pump works easier and to better advantage. What proportion should the overflow pipe bear to the supply pipe ? Its area should be at least double that of the supply pipe? How do tanks get dirty and what ill effects come from an unclean tank ? From sediment in water and not being properly protected. Such water is unfit for use, even for washing. Sanitary experts admit that a great deal of sickness and disease is directly traceable to impure drinking water. How are the contents of a square tank esti- mated ? Get area of base by multiplying length by breadth; this amount by the height, all inches; divide this result by 231, the number of inches in a standard U. S. gallon and the quotient will QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 199 be the number of gallons contained in the tank. How are the contents of a cylindrical tank obtained? Square the diameter, multiply by the height in inches and divide by 294 the number of inches in a gallon. How is the lateral pressure of a liquid in a tank estimated ? Get area of sides, multiply this result by one- half the depth and this amount by 62.32, the number of pounds in a cubic foot. ^ ^ 200 plumbers' dictionary. PLUMBERS' DICTIONARY. Air Chamber. A cavity containing air to act as a spring for equalizing the flow of a liquid in hydraulic machines. The object is to avoid the jar which occurs when a column of water in motion is suddenly arrested. It is intended to equalize the flow of water from a reciprocating pump. Air, however, is gradually absorbed by the water. Adjutage. The spout or nozzle of a funnel. A tube, funnel shaped, attached to the discharg- ing orifice of a vessel in order to obviate the resistance to the discharge incident to the con- traction of the fluid vein. This resistance may amount to 0.45 of the whole theoretical delivery. The addition of a funnel shaped tube to the opening will cause a greater discharge, the head and vertical area remaining the same. Aqueduct. A channel for conveying water. Alloy. — Chem. Combination of metals with each other are called alloys. Alloys are generally more tenacious but less malleable and ductile than might be expected from their composition. Fusible Alioy, usually of lead, tin, and bismuth, compounded in such definite proportions as to melt at a given temperature. Ammonia — Chem. A colorless gas, with a plumbers' dictionary. 201 peculiar pungent odor. It is a combination of three volumes of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, but it cannot be formed directly from these gases. It is a product of the decomposition of animal matters containing nitrogen. One volume of cold water absorbs 670 volumes of ammonia, or nearly half of its weight. Antimony. A metal of a bluish white color. It is so brittle that it is easily reduced to powder. It melts at 842°. Type metal is an alloy of lead and antimony ; on account of its expanding at the moment of solidifying (a property possessed by neither metal separately), it takes a very sharp impression of the mold. Atmosphere — Air. An envelope of gaseous matter surrounding any substance, generally used in reference to the earth's atmosphere. The true composition of the atmosphere was not known until 1774, when Lavoisier stated that it consisted of two gases, one of which was a sup- porter of life and combustion, and the other the reverse. The former is known as oxygen and the latter he called nitrogen and showed that the atmos- phere contained about one-fifth of its volume of oxygen, and four-fifths of nitrogen. It has also a little carbonic acid. Though invisabJe, except in large masses, and without smell or taste, yet it is a substance pos- sessing all the principal attributes of matter: 202 PLUMBEES' DICTIONARY. being impenetrable, ponderable, compressible, dilatable, and its particles are operated on, like those of other bodies, by chemical action. Air currents, or winds are caused by the varia- tions taking place continually in the condition of the air, as respects heat, moisture and rarity. When the air over a given place becomes rarified, that is vrhen the atmospheric pressure there becomes relatively small, that region at once becomes a center toward which inflowing air currents direct themselves. According to the nature, extent, and continu- ance of this diminution of pressure, the nature of the resulting air current varies within very wide limits. The higher we go into the air, the colder the temperature becomes, because we move farther out of the range of the earth's reflected heat. Basin. A water vessel. A place for washing. A lavatory. A hollow vessel or dish to hold water for washing, and for various other uses. Bath Tub. A receptacle holding liquid for per- sons to plunge or wash their bodies. A vessel in which the whole or a part of the person may be washed or bathed. The word bath is also applied to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for supplying water to the body in the form of a shower, usually a stream distributed by a strainer plumbers' dictionary. 20:3 or a vapor bath by steam. All being intended for the health of a person. Bibb. A faucet having a bent down nozzle : a bibb cock. A faucet or rotary valve, usually taking its name from its peculiar use, as self- closing or compression, etc. Blow Pipe. A tube through which a current of air is forced, in order to direct a flame and con- centrate its heat at a particular spot. The blow pipe is used in soldering metals. When a stream of air is blown through it into a gas, oil or spirit flame, a long, narrow dart of flame is produced. It is very eflScient whenever it is required to sub- ject a small body to a strong, intense heat. Boiler. A strong metallic vessel, usually of wrought iron plates or copper, in which heated water is stored to be distributed to the plumb- ing fixtures in a building. A reservoir forming a permanent attachment to the stove or heater. Brass. An alloy of copper and zinc, of a yellow color, usually containing about one-third of its weight of zinc : but the proportions vary. It is more fusible than copper and not as liable to tarnish: it is malleable when cold but not so when heated. Branch. Any part extended from the main body of a thing. In plumbing, a pipe or metal connection extended from the main line of pipe. 204 PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. Burning. Joining metals by melting their adjacent edges, or heating the edges and run- ning into the intermediate space some molten metal of the same kind. The superior quality of the burning process arises from the fact that the joint will withstand the same heat as the body of the article. It is liable to be stronger as the article joined has more tenacity than when soldered. The article burned together being homogene- ous, the parts expand and contract evenly by changes in temperature; the solders have a greater range of expansion by given changes of temperature than the metals they connect. The solders oxidize more or less freely than the metals they connect, and establish galvanic circuits which destroy the integrity of the joint ; especially in the presence of heat, moisture or acids. As an instance, the leaden vessels or tanks for acids, cannot profitably be united with tin solder, as the acid acts so freely on the tin. This is now performed by burning together^ the heat being applied by the airo-hydrogen blow pipe. In burning^ a heat is required sufficient to melt the original metal, and a flux is seldom used. In soldering^ a lower heat is used and a more fusible metal employed, assisted by a flux. By-Pass. When the water pipes of several fix- plumbers' dictionary. 205 tures are so connected that they have a trap common to more than one of the fixtures, the attempt to ventilate the traps may produce an open path around some other trap into a room, thus forming a ^'by pass. " Capillary. The term capillary is from the Latin capillus, a hair. Kesembling a hair, fine, minute, small in diameter. Capillary attraction or repulsion, the cause which determines the ascent or descent of a fluid in a tube above or below the level of the sur- rounding fluid. Generally an epithet applied to things on account of their hair like fineness. This is probably only a form of cohesive attrac- tion. The power of capillary attraction is mani- fested in a variety of common occurrences. Bread dipped in water, the whole is moistened ; towels, lamp wicks or string. Frequently the cause of trap seals being broken. Cohesion and capillary attraction are the attraction of mole- cules. The first operates when the molecules of a body are attracted towards each other: the sec- ond when the molecules of a liquid are attracted by those of bodies adjacent to them. Caulking — Plumbing, The process of filling the hub of a cast iron pipe by filling with oakum and lead, being driven in with a caulking chisel. The oakum and lead are caulked separately. Cement. A uniting composition which is 206 PLUMBEES' DICTIONARY. plastic when applied, but hardens in place. Hydraulic cement is made from argillaceous limestone, the presence of the alumina conferr- ing the power of hardening under water. The Portland cement of England, is made of chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway. Chabcoal. Coal made by charring wood under turf or in other circumstances to exclude air. Wood coal. Compasses. An instrument for describing circles, measuring figures, etc., consisting of two pointed branches or legs, usually joined at the top by a rivet on which they move. Cistern. An artificial reservoir or receptacle for holding water or other liquids. Tanks or cisterns have always been very com- mon in lands subject to occasional abundant sup- ply, with intervals of drouth. The modern cistern used in houses when the water supply is intermittent, has a main service pipe provided with ball cock, house distribution pipe, and standing waste pipe or overflow to allow excess of water to run off or to allow the cistern to be emptied for cleaning. Coupling. A contrivance for connecting the parts of a machine, pipes, etc. Clamp. Something that fastens or binds. In plumbing a basin clamp is attached to the marble plumbers' dictionary. 207 slab and fastened to support or bind the bowl or basin. Also, a band of brass or other metal bent so that by passing around or over a pipe it will be supported. Sometimes called clip or clips. Cock — Air Cock. A faucet so attached to a pipe that upon opening, confined air is allowed to escape. Ball Cock. A faucet which is opened or closed by means of a ball floating on tlie surface of the water in a tank, allowing the cock to remain open until the water has attained a certain height, when it is closed by means of a rod con- nected with the rising ball, falling again as water is withdrawn. It constitutes an automatic arrangement for maintaining the water level. It is useful when the supply is constant, and the demand intermittent. Basin Cock. A faucet for regulating the flow of water into a basin, bowl, or lavatory. Some operate by turning, partially or wholly unclosing the mouth of the supply pipe. Others operate by vertical pressure on a button or lever, thus depressing a spring valve and opening the water way ; the pressure being relieved the flow ceases. Some are called compression, others lever pat- terns. Hopper Cock. A valve either self-closing or of the compression pattern, for hopper water closets usually attached to street supply direct. 208 plumbers' dictionary. Two-way Cock, A faucet or stop cock through which water may be distributed to each of two branches; to either of them separately, or be entirely shut off. Stop Cock, A faucet in a pipe to open or close the passage. Usually one with a plug and lever handle although compression patterns are common. Conduit. A pipe or passage, usually covered, for conducting water, etc. Generally pipes of wood, iron, etc. Copper. Name derived from the latin cuprium corrupted from Cyprian, the isle of Cyprus, where the metal was originally found. It is of a pale red color, very hard, tough and elastic. It expands when solidifying and is a good conductor of electricity. Copper Bolt. A piece of copper riveted to an iron shank or made to swing on a swivel joint, provided with a suitable handle. It is used in soldering. If not previously tinned, heat to a dull red, file to a clean metallic surface; then rub immediately with resin or sal-ammoniac together with a few drops of solder. When com- pletely coated wipe clean and the tool is ready for use. DiSENFECTOR. An apparatus for disseminat- ing a gas, vapor, or fine spray for the purification plumbers' dictionary. 209 of the air and the counteraction of contagious influences. The modes vary: Atomizers for spraying; vessels in which gases are made by chemical action ; vapors generated by the heat of lamps placed beneath vessels containing the ingredi- ents; tray in which the materials are exposed to the ordinary currents of air ; particles for burn- ing; earth and charcoal for absorbing. Disinfectant. A substance that is capable of neutralizing whatever may produce infection : effluvia from drains, garbage, vaults, etc. Among disinfectants are chlorine, chloride of lime, carbolate of lime, carbolic acid, chloride of zinc, sulphurous acid fumes, roasting coffee, etc. The most powerful disinfectants are chlorine, in the form of chloride of lime, and carbonic acid in solution. Drain. A sewer, a pipe covered in to remove surface or waste water. A pipe from sewer to house in modern plumbing. Subsoil Brain, A pipe or series of pipes laid below the soil to accumulate surplus water and drain to some convenient point, to reclaim other- wise unprofitable land. An under drain. In plumbing, these pipes are laid about a building below the level of the cellar to collect water or prevent its entrance to avoid dampness. 210 plumbers' dictionary. Drainage. The method of conveying water from the soil by means of closed drains or trenches — usually understood as closed drains. The system of drains and their operation, by which water is removed from towns, etc. The system of collecting and disposing of house excrement and waste from towns, lands, etc., — more properly called sewerage. Drain Pipe. Clay pipe known as drain tile, laid beneath the surface of the soil, to carry off superfluous water. Drain tiles of many forms, and made of baked earthenware. Some are slip glazed and some, are salt glazed or vitrified. The vitrified are the best. Earthenware. Made of earth, burnt or baked clay. The change wrought in clay, sand, and flint by the ceramic and vitrifying process is wonderful. Trenton, N. J., claims to rank as the chief manufacturing center of this industry in crockery, and Akron, Ohio, for drain tile — glazed or vitrified. ^ Elbow. An abrupt angle. The junction of two parts having a bent joint. Evaporation. The formation of vapor at the surface of a liquid, the opposite of ebullition, which signifies the formation of vapor within the mass of a liquid. The vapor and the fluid from which it rises, are always of the same tempera- ture. plumbers' diction aky. 211 Faucet. A form of valve or cock in which a spigot or plug is made to open or close an aper- ture in a portion which forms a spout or pipe for the discharge or passage of a fluid. Beer Faucet. For drawing certain descriptions of beer it is desirable to foam it, which is done when the beer has not life enough of its own, by means of a piston which ejects air along with the beer into the glass or pitcher. As the piston descends, air is ejected at the central aperture, mixing with the beer which passes out at the annular orifice around the air opening. Self-closing Faucet. A faucet having a valve which is held down to its seat by a spring to pre- vent the escape of liquid, and is raised by means of a lever when liquid is to be drawn. Ferrule. A short tube or thimble made usually of brass or lead, used by plumbers Ib connecting lead with cast iron pipe. Filter. A vessel, chamber, or reservoir through which water or other liquid is passed to arrest matters mechanically suspended therein. A cistern having a permanent chamber which has filtering material intervening between the supply and discharge. Filtration. The process by which a liquid is freed from solid bodies intermixed with it. or from any impurities which it holds in suspension. 212 plumbers' dictionary. by passing it through filtering paper, sand, char- coal, or a porous kind of stone, etc. Float. The hollow ball, either of metal or glass, of a self-acting faucet, which floats upon the surface of the water in a cistern, rising to regulate the supply. Flushing. To turn on a sudden and copious dash of water, as in flushing a sewer or water closet to cleanse it. Flux. A salt, added to assist the fusion of a mineral or metal. The term given to any sub- stance employed in the arts which facilitates the fusion of the metal. Flue. A passage, constructed in a building, for carrying off smoke, gas, etc. An air passage, as for ventilating a room, etc. Fluid. A body whose particles move easily among themselves and yield to the least force impressed and which when that force is removed, recovers its previous form. Capable of flowing. Water, air and steam are fluids. Force — Physics, Any cause which can move a body, change its motion, or keep it at rest when other forces are acting upon it. In statics, force is synonymous with pressure, and is measured by comparison with a unit of weight; thus a statical force is usually described as a pressure of many pounds. In dynamics, a force is that which produces or plumbers' dictionary. 213 changes motion, and is measured by the velocity it can impart to a given mass in a given time. The pressure in this case is termed the moving force. A force which acts continually on a body, so as to accelerate its motion, is termed an accel- erating force. Fountain. An upward jet of water, natural or artificial. Fountains are of every form and variety, from the simple spring with its natural basin, to the most elaborate structure for the display or supply of water. Modern fountains are for the most part entirely ornamental. This arises from the modern mode of distributing water in pipes through the houses, making the street fountains to a great extent useless. It is found, however, that town populations — both man and beast — require some public supplies of water, and these are now largely supplied by numerous drinking fountains which are being erected in all our principal cities. Fusion. The liquefaction of a solid body by means of heat, such as metals, etc. Fusing Point. Different substances, when heated fuse at very different temperatures, which, however, are the same for the same substances, if the external pressure remains constant. The 214 temperature at which fusion commences, is termed the fusing point. Copper fuses at 1.742° Brass '' ^' 1.652° Zinc ** '* .773°- Lead '' '' .617° Bismuth " '* .500° Tin u i^ .428° FiiiCTiON. That resistance to motion which arises from the roughness of surfaces and the presence of air or water. It is one of the passive resistances to motion, preventing the bodies from sliding upon one another, and depending on the force with which the bodies are pressed together. Galena or Blue Lead. Native sulphurate of lead; from ^^eo to shine. The principal ore from which the metal, lead, is extracted. It is of a shining, bluish gray color. Mineral, 86.57 per cent, lead, 13.43 per cent, sulphur. Gallon. The U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches, 294 cylindrical inches, or 8.33 pounds. Gas. Any permanent elastic aerial fluid whether produced by chemical experiments or evolved in natural processes. Gases and liquids have several properties in common, thus in both, particles are capable of moving: both are com- pressible, though in very different degrees. In density there is a great difference ; water which is a type of liquids, is 770 times as heavy as air, 215 the type of gaseous bodies, while under a press- ure of one atmosphere. The property by which gases are distinguished from liquids is their tendency to indefinite ex- pansion. Matter assumes the solid, liquid or gaseous forms, according to the relative strength of the cohesive and repulsive forces exerted between their particles. In liquids these forces balance; in gases repul- sion preponderates. By the aid of pressure and of very low temperature, the force of cohesion may be so far increased in all gases that they are converted into liquids. Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are the hardest to liquify. On the other hand, heat, which increases the force of repulsion, converts liquids, such as water, alcohol and ether into the aeriform state, in which they obey all the laws of gases. This aeriform state of liquids is known by the name of vapor, while gases and bodies which, under ordinary temperature and pressure, remain in the aeriform state. Glazing. The transparent coating which covers the surface of pottery and is composed chiefly of lead and silex. After the ingredients are ground together, they are calcined with a moderate heat and when cold reduced to a pow- der, which is tempered with water and laid on with a brush. The violent heat of a furnace soon transforms this coating into a perfect glass. 216 plumbers' dictionary. Hanger. That by which a thing is suspended. In plumbing, a metal rod or flat band attached to a timber or some part of a building, to sup- port pipes, etc. Heat. The term heat is not only used to ex- press a particular sensation, but also to describe that particular state or condition of weather which produces that sensation. Heat communi- cated to a substance produces, in general, three kinds of effects. First, an increase of temperature and expansive pressure. Second, a change of volume, nearly always an increase. Third, a molecular change, as from the solid to the liquid, or from the liquid or solid to the gaseous state. The heat which produces the first kind of effect is known as sensible heat, and makes the body hotter. In the second and third kinds of effects, heat disappears and becomes latent^ but may be reproduced by reversing the change which caused it to disappear. Heat — Radiated. That is, it moves through space, like light, in all directions. Bodies possess this power of radiation in different degrees; and it appears, the more highly polished the surface the less is the radia- tion. Heat can be transmitted from one body to another without altering the temperature of the intervening medium. plumbers' dictionary. 217 If we stand in front of a fire, we experience a sensation of warmth which is not due to the temperature of the air, for if a screen be inter- posed the sensation immediately disappears, which would not be the case if the surrounding air had a high temperature. Therefore bodies can send out rays which excite heat, and which penetrate through the air without heating it. Heat thus propagated is said to be radiated and is called radiant heat. Heat — Latent. Latent heat is the heat which is absorbed by bodies in passing from one state to another, but it does not manifest itself by pro ducing an increase of temperature, and is on this account called latent heat. Heat — Specific. Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body, of a given weight, 1°, the unit of measure, being the quantity required to raise the same weight of water, to the same temperature. Water is taken as the standard of comparison. Heat — Convected. When a liquid is heated from below, the currents of liquid ascend from the bottom to the top of the vessel, and the liquid acquires a uniform temperature. This transport of heat, by means of matter, is known as con- vection. The layers of a liquid or gas which are nearest the source of heat, are expanded, and thus become specifically lighter than surrounding portions, consequently they rise; while colder 218 plumbers' dictionary. and consequently heavier portions descend, are heated in their turn and then ascend to make way for other colder portions. Thus, however badly a liquid or gas conduct heat, it can rapidly acquire a uniform temperature by the convection of heat. Hopper. The basin of a water closet or sink, tunnel shaped. Hook. A piece of metal formed into a curve for holding and sustaining pipe, etc. Hydrant. A valve and spout connecting with a water main, by which water may be drawn from the latter. As used in the yards of city houses, the spout is elevated sufficiently to allow it- to discharge into a tub or bucket, the valve being operated by a handle. Provision is also made for allowing the contents of the discharge pipe to run back out of the way of frost. Hygiene. A system of principles or rules de- signed for the promotion of health. Hydraulics. That branch of science which treats of fluids in motion, especially of water, its action in the works and machinery for conduct- ing or raising it. Hydrodynamics. That branch of the science of mechanics which relates to fluids, or which treats of the laws of motion, and action of non- elastic fluids. The principle of dynamics as applied to water and other fluids. 219 Hydkostatics. That branch of scieDce which relates to the pressure and equilibrium of non- elastic fluids, as water, mercury, etc ; the prin- ciple of statics applied to water and other liquids. The science of equilibrium of liquids and other bodies, (especially solids,) in the maintainance of whose equilibrium liquids are concerned. Hydrogen. A colorless inodorous gas, the lightest known substance, being 14% times lighter than atmospheric air. It is very inflam- mable, burning in the air with an almost color- less flame and uniting with the oxygen to form water. Hydrogen is usually prepared by dis- solving zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, when the metal takes the place of the hydrogen which is evolved. Hydrogen is never met with free in nature, but it forms one-ninth part of water, and is a con- stant constituent of organic bodies. The oxidiz- ing properties of hydrogen are very great. When added to various metallic solutions it quickly raises the metal to the highest state of oxidization. Hydrogen was first liquefied in 1877. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. A product of the putrefaction of organic substance containing sul- phur, and is one of the causes of the sickening smell of drains, etc. It is one-fifth heavier than air. Water absorbs about three times its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen at the ordinary temperature. The gas 220 plumbers' dictionary. is very combustible, burning with a blue flame like that of sulphur. The gas causes fainting when inhaled in large quantity, and appears, much to depress the vital energy when breathed for any length of time even in a diluted state. Ice. Water brought to a temperature below 32°. It solidifies with expansion. Ice is spec- ifically lighter than water which is just about to freeze, and therefore rises in it; its in- crease of dimensions is acquired with a force sufiicient to burst the strongest vessels. Sea and salt water freezes at a lower tempera- ture than pure water, but part of the salt separ- ates, and this ice when melted gives water that is fresher than the original. Iron. A metallic element very widely diffused in nature. In the perfectly pure state iron is almost unknown. In the arts it is met with in the forms of malleable iron, steel, and cast, mallea- ble being as free from impurities as it is possible to get it. Malleable, also known as wrought iron, is of a grayish color. Its melting point is 2786°. In dry air malleable iron is unchanged, but air and moisture quickly oxidize it, forming a red rust, which in time would eat through the whole mass. Ladle. A pan with a handle to hold molten metal. Lamp Black. A black pigment consisting of PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 221 pure charcoal, the particles of which are in a very fine state of division. It is principally prepared from refuse tar, resin or turpentine. The tar, resin, etc., is burned in iron pots or a furnace, a quantity of air just sufficient to support combustion being admitted, in order to produce a dense smoke with little flame. The soot obtained from the imperfect combustion of the above mentioned matters and contains resin, nitrogen and sulphur. Lavatoky. a place for washing. Liquid. A substance whose parts change their relative position on the slightest pressure and therefore retain no definite form: a fluid that is not aeriform. All liquids are fluids, but many fluids, as air and the gases, are not liquid. Lead. Lead is of a bluish gray color, very soft and easily rolled out; its tenacity is very slight. The proper name for lead ore is galena, or sul- phide of lead. It melts at about 617°, Lead Sheet. Made by pouring molten lead on an iron table with raised edges and then rolled down to the required thickness. The modern way is to cast a plate of lead and beat and roll the metal to the required thickness. This is called milling. Lead Furnace. The furnace by which the ores of lead are reduced to the metallic state. The 222 8ulphuret, commonly known as galena, is the principle source from whicli the pure metal is derived. The ore having been picked, is broken and washed to separate earthy and silicious matters. It is then roasted until about half the charge is converted into sulphide of lead, when this and the portion which remains intact are thoroughly mixed together, and the heat rapidly increased, by which means sulphurous-acid gas is driven off and pure metallic lead remains. Lead Pot. A crucible or pot for melting lead. Leader. A rain water pipe to conduct to the ground the water collected by the spouting. Main — Hydraulics. A large or principal water or gas pipe. The smaller are termed supply or service pipes or branches. Marble. A granular and crystalline carbonate of lime. There are many fancy varieties used by marble workers ; these have names derived from the geographical position of the quarries, the color, marking, etc. Polished marble is that which has been worked by a succession of materials of gradually increas- ing fineness. Marble is first rubbed with sand- stone and the beater, afterward with pumice stone. It is polished by hand with a linen cushion and emery dust for colored, and powder of cal- cium tin for white marble. 223 Metals, ElemeDtary mineral substances possessing certain attributes, particularly the luster called metallic, by which it is distin- guished from other inorganic substances. With few exceptions metals possess consider- able specific gravity, hardness and cohesion, and require a high degree of heat to liquefy them. The qualities possessed by metals, are luster, or the power of reflecting light ; tenacity, or resist- ance to any attempt to pull asunder their par- ticles; malleability, or the capability of being hammered or rolled in thin sheets; ductility, or the property of being draw^n out into wire ; and fusibility, or the property of becoming .liquid when heated. Meter. — Water. An instrument for measuring the consumption of water. The amount of flow is indicated on dials. Xaptha. Applied to many liquids somewhat similar in physical properties, but differing chemically. It includes most of the lighter and more vola- tile inflammable liquids obtained by destinctive distillation or from mineral oils. Nitrogen. An elementary gas which forms about four-fifths of our atmosphere, the remain- ing one-fifth being oxygen. The two are mechan- ically mixed, not mechanically combined. It is invisible and elastic, without odor or color. It immediately extinguishes animal life. It 224 plumbers' dictionary. cannot support combustion and a lighted candle immediately ceases to burn when placed in it. It has no taste. It is absorbed very sparingly by water, and is a little lighter than atmospheric air. Combined with oxygen, in different propor- tions it forms nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, and nitric acid. Combined with hydrogen, it forms ammonia and enters into the composition of most animal substances. Nozzle. A spout or projecting vent of a faucet, or any discharge pipe, etc. Oakum. The course portion separated from flax or hemp in hackling. Used by plumbers in packing soil pipe joints, etc. Oxygen. An elastic fluid, invisible, without odor, and is a little heavier than atmospheric air. It is the respirable part of air, and was called vital air, from its being essential to animal life ; but it received its present name from its property of giving acidity to compounds in which it predom- inates. It is the most abundant of all the ele- ments, discovered by Priestly in 1774. Oxygen is the most extensively diffused of material substances. In union with nitrogen, it forms atmospheric air, of which it constitutes about a fifth part. Water contains eight-ninths by weight, and it exists in most vegetable and animal products, acid salts and oxides. Oxygen PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 225 gas nowhere exists pure and uncombined. It is a very energetic agent, its most striking property- is that of exciting and supporting combustion. Atmospheric air sustains life only from the oxygen it contains; the exhausted blood abstracts it from the atmosphere by means of the lungs, giving off at the same time carbonic acid gas. Pure oxygen proves too stimulating for animal exi stance. Pipe. A tube for conyeyance of water, air, or other fluid. Clay pipes were used by the Komans for acqueducts, drains, etc. Pipes are now made of iron, both cast and wrought, lead, tin, copper, etc. Aii^ Pipe. A tube by which heated air is con- veyed into an apartment or through which to withdraw foul air from, or force pure air into, close places. Brain Pipe. Clay pipe, known as drain tile, laid beneath the surface of the. soil, below plough depth, to carry off superfluous water and increase the fertility and ease of working the soil. Iron Pipe. Welded iron tubes are made of skelps bent to circular form, heated to a welding heat in an appropriate furnace, and then, on a draw bench, drawn through a pair of jaws with bell mouths. The mouths are opened to receive the end of the skelp and then closed. For cast 226 PLLMBEKS' DICTION AKY. iron water pipes, working tension may be one- sixth of the bnrsting tension. Stone Pipe. What are now known as stone pipes are made of concrete or some other form of vitri- fied stone. Service Pipe. One for conducting gas or water from the street main into a building. Lined Pipe. Lead and other pij)es are lined with tin to prevent the formation of deleterious salts by the action of the water on the lead or other metal. Although the action of pure water upon me- tallic lead when there is no access of air to the pipe is so slight as to be deemed injurious, yet it is found in practice that owing to various causes, all water used for domestic purposes containing air and mineral impurities, the water passing through lead becomes charged to a greater or less extent with the poisonous salts of lead. Tin is much less subject to this action and its salts harmless. Lead Pipe. Lead pipe is made by casting, drawing and pressing. It may be cast in lengths in an ordinary core mold. In drawing, the lead is cast in an iron mold upon a rod o€ the intended bore, leaving the metal thicker than it is in- tended to be eventually. The pipe with a mandril inserted, is then drawn through open- ings in steel plates of gradually decreasing 22^ diameter whicli reduces it to the required thick- ness. In pressing lead pipe the melted lead is forced through a circular throat whose axis is occupied by a mandril. The lead is forced through at such a rate that it solidifies when exposed to cold sur- faces. The machinery for pressing lead pipe was patented by Hague, in England in 1822. Plumbek. The Latin name for lead is Plumbum J hence the nskme plumber as one who works in lead and adjusts lead pijjes and aj^par- atus for the conveyance of water and drainage. The modern plumber is one who installs or arranges pipes for conducting water and sewage. Plumbers' Tools. Turn pin, side edge, shave hook, dresser, tap borer, caulking irons, grease box, rasp, ladle, copper bolt with swivel, bend- ing pin, bossing stick and wiping cloths. Pneumatics. Belonging to the air. The mechanics of gases. This science is usually understood to embrace the motion and equilib- rium of gases. The mechanical properties of the air or other elastic fluids, as of their weight pressure, elasticity and the like. Pump. A machine for raising fluids. The invention is generally ascribed to Ctesibius, about 224 B. C. Atmospheric Pump. One in which the press- ure of the air forces water into the pipe below '228 plumbers' dictionary. the plunger. The principle was explained by Torricelli, the pupil of Galileo, whose attention, as well as that of his master, was drawn to the matter by the unsuccessful efforts of the Floren- tine pump makers, to raise water, by its means, to a height much over 30 feet. In fact, at eleva- tions above the sea level it can only be lifted to a height in feet about equal to the number of inches at which the mercury in the barometer stands; one inch of mercury corresponding to about 13 inches of water. • Air Pump. The essential part in the air pump is a metallic or glass tube answering to the barrel of a common pump, having a valve at the bottom, opening upwards; and a movable piston corresponding I o the sucker of a pump, the piston or cylinder being furnished also with a valve opening outward. Bilge Pump — NauticcA. One for pumping water from the bilge or bottom of a vessel. Centrifugal Pump. A rotary pump in which the fluid is driven outwardly from the center at which it is received and diverted into an upward direction. Cistern Pump. A lift or force pump, for draw- ing water from the moderate depth of a cistern. Double Acting Pump. One which throws water at each stroke. In the upright pump the side plumbers' dictionary. 229 chambers have each of them induction and eduction valves. The horizontal pumf), the cylinder has induc- tion and eduction ports on opposite sides. Force Pump. A pump which delivers the water under pressure, so as to eject it forcibly or deliver it at an elevation. The term is used to distinguish it from a lift pump, in which the water is lifted and simply runs out of the spout. The single aoting, force pump is that in which the lift and delivery are alternate. The double acting, is that in which the pass- ages are duplicated, so that a lift and delivery are obtained by each motion of the plunger. Each stroke causes a continuous stream, which is rendered more uniform by an air chamber. Lift Pump. One by which the liquid to be raised is lifted, instead of forced, from its recep- tacle to the point of discharge. To this class belongs the ordinary atmospheric pump. Pneumatic Pump. An air exhaust or force pump. Plunger or Piston Pump. One having a solid piston instead of a bucket. Plumbers^ Force Pump, One used by plumbers for clearing choked pipes. It may be attached to the delivery end of the pipe and act by suc- tion, or may be applied to effect the desired object by hydraulic pressure. 230 PLTJMBEES' DICTIONARY. Suction Pump. A pump in which the water is raised within reach of the bucket or plunger by atmospheric pressure. The plunger or bucket is placed above the level of the water, the latter rising by atmospheric pressure as the bucket is raised. Between the upward strokes of the bticket, a clack valve below the bucket falls, and prevents the return of the water in the rising tube or suction. Test Pump. A force pump for testing the strength of boilers, pipe, etc., by hydraulic press- ure. It is provided with a gauge for showing the pressure in pounds, applied to the square inch. Pump Box. The casing of the valves. Pump Bakkel. The cylinder in which the pump box and plunger work. Pump Hook. A hook on a long rod used for setting the lower pump box in the barrel. Pump Rod. Piston rod. The rod which is suspended from the end of the brake or handle and attached at its lower end to the bucket or "upper box " or plunger. Ram — Hydraulic. A water raising device in which the concussion produced by arresting a descending body of water is made to force a plumbers' dictionary. 231 smaller quantity of water to a height greater than the fall. The operation is as follows: The water from a cistern or spring flows down the pipe to the air chamber, which has a valve hung to raise in the chamber, the flow of water past this valve strikes another, or waste valve, below, the sudden re- action causes the valve in the air chamber to open and allow a portion of the water to enter; this done the valve drops, causing a flow through the pipe until the water has gained energy to again raise the valve, when the same operation is repeated. The water ram is efficacious only when there is a larger supply of water at com- mand than is necessary to be raised, as only one- seventh of the water is lifted, but its power and constant unfailing action renders it very valuable. Eaeefactiox — Physics, The action of a prop- erty possessed by gases and aeriform fluids by which the intervals between the particles of matter composing them may be increased or di- minished, so that the same weight of the gas occupies a greater space. Rarefaction is produced by diminishing the pressure or by increasing the temperature. It is directly proportioned to the diminution of ijressure, and no limits to it have as yet been discovered. Reservoir. A pond or tank, usually of large dimensions where water is collected and retained 232 plumbers' dictionary. to be delivered to distant places through pipes. The reservoirs of ranges are usually vertical iron or copper boilers, connected by pipes with the water supply of the city or house tank. The water from the street main or tank passes through pipes in the fire chamber, or through a water front and thence to the boiler for storage. A pipe extends from the boiler, or hot water res- ervoir, to the house fixtures, for hot water supply. Kesin. a vegetable product composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. There are many varieties of resins, derived from different species of trees. The most common, known as rosin is derived from the distillation of crude turpentine. The residue left after the distillation of oil of turpentine from the raw turpentine. It softens or melts with heat and is used as a flux by plumbers in soldering. Sanitary Service. The practical application of the laws which govern hygiene. Pertaining to health. Seweh. An underground channel for convey ing away the surface water and liquid refuse matter of towns and cities. Sewage. The surface drainage, excrementi- tious matter, and other fllth carried away by sewers. Sewerage is a term applied to the sew- ers and drains of a community collectively. » plumbers' dictionary. 233 Shave Hook. A triangular plate of steel with sharpened edges, and in scraping the surfaces of metal which are to be soldered. The object being to clean the metal to get a good surface for solder to adhere. Sink. A tray into which slops or wash water are poured to dispose of them by means of a pipe which carries them to a drain. Sinks are used in kitchens, pantries, etc. Siphon. A bent tube having one end longer than the other; used for transferring liquids from higher to lower levels over an intervening higher point than the vessel desired to emjDty. It acts by atmospheric pressure, and cannot be depended upon to act in transferring fluids over this intervening point higher than about 30 feet at sea level, and a less height at great elevations. SoAPSTONE. Steatite. A silicate of magnesia, with a smooth greasy feel like that of soap. It is infusible in any ordinary furnace heat. When strongly heated it loses the small portion of water it contains, becomes harder and suscep- tible to polish. Solder. A metal or alloy used to unite adja- cent edges or surfaces. It must be rather more fusible than the metal or metals to be united, and with this object the component i^arts and their relative amounts are varied to suit the character of the work. The flux for lead is tallow 234 plumbers' dictionary. or resin, for copper or brass, sal-ammoniac and for zinc, chloride of zinc. Soldering. The process of uniting two pieces of the same or different metals by using a metal or alloy which by fusion combines with either. Soldering Autogenous. The junction by fusion of the edges of metal without the inter- vention of solder. The edges being brought together and brightened, are held under a jet of burning gas urged by a blow pipe, which melts the edges so that they run together. Soldering Iron. The tool by which solder is melted and applied in the ordinary method of working. It is, however, a block of copper, called a copper bit, or hatchet bolt, on the end of an iron rod, made either with swivel joint or rigid. It has a pointed or wedge shaped end. It is tinned before using, by heating to a dull red, filing oil the scale, to produce a clean metallic surface, then rubbing, first on a lump of sal-ammoniac, next upon a brick on which a few drops of solder have been placed and afterwards cleaned by wiping on a cloth. Specific GIravity. The relative weight of a ponderable substance compared with another which is taken as a standard. For solids and liquids, water, and for gases, air, are invariably adopted as the standard. PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 235 The specific gravity of a body is found by weighiDg the body in air and then in water. Subtract the weight in water from the weight in air, and divide the weight in air by the differ- ence. The quotient is the specific gravity re- quired. Sprixg. a fountain of water or issue of water from the earth, or the basin of water at the place of issue. Eain penetrates the ground and oozes into and through certain strata, but being obstructed by other strata it forms cavities and subterranean reservoirs at various depths, many of which, when full, force their way out of the ground and form springs. About one-third of the rainfall is supposed to be absorbed in this manner. Stoneware. A grade of ceramic ware of great hardness and value. It is composed of pipe clay calcined and ground flint and sand. The dry clay is pulverized and sifted. The molded article is placed in a kiln with pieces of well sanded clay between theia to present adhesion. A slow fire dissipates the moisture, and the heat is then raised until the flame and ware have the same color. The glaze is then added by pouring com- mon salt into the top of the kiln. This is vola- tilized by heat, becomes attached to the surface of the ware, and is decomposed, the muriatic acid flying off and leaving the soda behind it, to form a fine, thin glaze on the ware, which resists ordinary acids. 236 PLUMBEKS' DICTTONAEY. Street Washer. A name given to a hydrant from which the .street may be washed or sprink- led, by a jet from a hose or nozzle. Sucker. The piston of a pump. Suction. The process of drawing fluids into a pipe or other receptacle by exhaustion of the air. Sulphur. Brimstone — Chem. A substance which is hard, brittle and usually of a yellow color, without smell unless rubbed or heated. It is a non-conductor of electricity. It melts at 216°, becomes liquid at 250°, boiling point 480°, vaporizes at 600°. It is found in Italy and South America. It is of volcanic origen. Tail. Piece. The suction pipe of a pump. It communicates with the pump barrel, through a clack valve, and in the case of metal pumps is in two parts, the upper one of which has a screw thread at its lower end, by which it is secured to the lower part. Tallow. The suet of the ox and sheep, melted and strained. It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Tank. A chamber, cistern or vessel of large size to contain liquids for storage, to dispense as occasion demands. Tapping. Boring a hole in a pipe, etc., to plumbers' dictionaky. 237 insert a branch pipe, faucet or plug as required. Screw threading a hole. Tap Boree. A tapering boring instrument for tapping or opening lead pipe for branches, etc. Tin. a metallic element of crystalline tex- ture. A brilliant white metal. It melts at 428° and volatilizes at a white heat. TiNXiXG. The method of coating other metals with tin. Trap. A depression in a sewer or waste pipe to prevent passage of air. Should be made in such a manner that its seal cannot become affected by the rapid discharge of a liquid through or past it. It is an adjunct to any vessel such as a wash- bowl, water closet, urinal or sink, which dis- charges by pipe into sewers or drains, up which a current of foul air is liable to pass. Some of them are very simple in construction, and con- sist of a bent tube so curved as to retain a certain body of water, thus shutting off the passage of air, and an overflow is afforded to the water as it reaches a certain height. Trap^ Bell Pattern, It consists of a drum shaped cylinder with an inlet pipe at bottom and outlet pipe near the upper end. The inlet pipe being submerged prevents the entrance of foul air and admits the outflow of water. 238 Steam Trap. A self-acting device for the discharge of condensed water from steam engines or steam pipes. The preferable forms are automatic. Some are thermostatic arrangements in which the dift- erence between the heat of steam and the heat of water actuates a valve to discharge collected water; others act by the rising of a float in the water chamber ; others by the w^eight of the col- lected water. Tue:n^ Piis^. a top shaped plug for enlarging pip^s to allow the entrance of another pipe. Union. A tubular coupling for pipe. Ukinal. a vessel to receive urine, usually supplied with running water. This method and periodical flushing are most commonly used. Urine discharged into cold water loses its nox- ious vapor or gas. Yacuum. a space devoid of all matter, and generally conceived by the ancients to exist. An absolute vacuum is considered impossible and when the term, vacuum, is used it indicates a less pressure than the atmosphere or a partial vacuum. Yalve. a kind of lid or cover of a tube or vessel so contrived as to open one way, but which, the more forcibly it is pressed the other way shuts the aperture; so that it admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube, but prevents its plumbers' dictionary. 289 return; or admits its escape, but prevents its re-entrance. Ball Valve. A valve of spherical shape occupy- ing -a hollow, segmental seat; raised by the passage of the fluid and descending by gravity. To i)revent back pressure. Float Valve. A valve actuated by a float open- ing or closing the part according to the level of the liquid in the chamber where the float is placed equivalent to a ball cock. Safety Valve. A valve by means of which a boiler is prevented from bursting by the force of steam. That a safety valve may be relied on, it must be frequently examined, as it is liable to adhere to its seat. Suction Valve. The valve below the plunger or bucket of a pump, and which is lifted by at- mospheric pressure acting upon the water beneath it, as the plunger is raised. Yapor. Yapors are the aeriform fluids into which volatile substances, such as ether, alcohol, water and mercury are changed by the absorp- tion of heat. Yolatile liquids are those which thus possess the property of passing into the aeriform state ; and fixed liquids those which do not form vapor at any temperature without undergoing chemical decomjposition, such as fatty oils. There are some solids, such as ice, which can 240 directly form vapors, without first becoming liquid, vapors are transparent like gases, and generally colorless. The passage of a liquid into the gaseous state is designated by the ge-neral term, vaporization; the term vaporization, especially refers to the slow production of vapor at the free surface of the liquid, and boiling to its rapid production in the mass of the liquid itself. Like gases, vapors have a certain elastic press- ure on the sides of the vessels in which they are contained. Yelocity — Mechanics. Kate of motion ; the relation of motion to time, nieasured by the num- ber of units of space passed over by the moving * uody in a unit of time, usually the number fo feet in a second. Initial velocity is the velocity of a moving body at starting. Uniform velocity is that in which the same number of units of space are described in each successive unit of time. Ventilation. The process of changing the air of rooms and other closed places so that a certain standard of purity may be preserved not- withstanding the vibratijon which the air under- goes from the breath of inhabitants, the products of combustion of illuminating agents and other causes. Carbonic acid forms the most ready index of 241 the ventilation, four parts in ten thousand, as th^ standard for pure air. Waste. The refuse from a fixture. Overflow water from a sink or iy^t*. A pipe for running , ciste water from a pJuinblu^ fixture, such as a sink, etc. Washer. An angular disk of metal, wood or leather, which is placed between surfaces that are secured together, where it forms a packing. Wash Bowl. A lavatory, either oval or round, for the hands or face. Water. Composed of two gaseous elements, oxygen and hydrogen. In the pure state and at the ordinary temperature, water is transparent, free from taste and smell and almost colorless. Water Front. A permanent reservoir at the front of the fire chamber of a stove or range to utilize the heat of the fire in keeping a supply of hot water. The water from the boiler passing through pipes connected with the water front and returned. Water Closet. An appliance with water supply to receive the excrement from the person and by the flush or flow of water, discharges its contents into a drain or soil pipe connected with a sewer or cesspool. Water Meter. A machine for measuring the 242 plumbers' dictionary. amount of water received or discharged througli an orifice. Well. A shaft dug or bored in the ground to obtain water, and walled around with stone or brick to prevenj the i^ides from falling in. Tube Point Well. A spear point at the bottom end of a perforated tube for a driven well. Artesian Well. Named from the French prov- ince of Artois, where they have been used for centuries. Hydraulic Well. A well bored to a consider- able depth until it reaches a subterranean basin. The water then rises in the tube in consequence of the hydrostatic pressure and in some cases will spring into the air from the mouth of the well. Zinc. A metallic element of a bluish white color; somewhat brittle, but malleable when hot, and fairly permanent in air. It melts at 773°. It is a protecting coating for iron, under the name of galvanized iron. Zinc dissolves easily in acids and is largely used for preparing hydrogen, for scientific pur- poses. It is said to be non-poisonous. Zymotic Disease. Any epidemic, contagious or sporadic affection, acting on the system like a ferment. *^ '»i OCT 11 I90I OCT 11 wot Library of Congress Branch Bindery, 1902