SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA J. STERLING MORTON AND ALBERT WATKINS ^05 s S sr^ & WESTERN PUBLISHING AND ENGRAVING COMPANY Class E._L Book._ Jl2i GoByrightN". COF^iGifr DEPosrr. JAN 31 Ib2i J. Sterling Morton At 22 years of age School History of Nebraska Based on the History of Nebraska By J. Sterling Morton and Albert Watkins Abridged and Compiled for the Publishers Edited By James A. Beattie, A.M., L.L.D. Member of the Nebraska State Historical Society and of the Mississippi Valley Historical Society; Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Oskaloosa College, Iowa; President of the State Normal School, Peru, Nebraska, and of the Eastern State Normal School, Weston, Oregon; Vice-President and Professor of Education in Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska Western Publishing and Engraving Company Lincoln Nebraska 1920 ■Ml Copyright, 1920, by WESTERN PUBLISHING AND ENGRAVING COMPANY •JAN 1 2 iij20 THE TORCH PRESS LINCOLN. NEBRASKA AND CEDAR RAPiDS, IOWA ©Ci. A 5 14 -J 7^ DBDICATBD To the youth of Nebraska — the sons and daughters of the builders of an enduring com- monwealth — who are to be fitted by instruction and training, by culture and education, and by precept and example to perform the duties, to enjoy the blessings, and to bear the responsi- bilities of American life and citizenship. PREFACE It is the aim and office of this history of Nebraska to give a true and faithful account of that which has been in the past, to the end that the pioneers may not have Hved and toiled in vain, and that their children may understand and appreciate the heritage which belongs to this genera- tion. The pioneers laid the foundations of an enduring commonwealth by years of the most severe toil. As a re- sult of our study and added knowledge, we shall help to make Nebraska a better and a nobler state. This genera- tion has a great opportunity and with it a great responsi- bility. The history will enable us to interpret the great movements which have taken place in the social and eco- nomic and in the industrial and agricultural life of the people. The history attempts to record the development from the Indian trail to the Union Pacific railroad ; from the sand hill grass to alfalfa; from small and inferior Indian corn to the vast crops of to-day; from the settlement in the east to the occupation of the west; from the prohibition struggle of the territorial days to the passage of the pro- hibitory amendment in 1916; and the long struggle to free the state government from the railroads and other corpora- tions. The student who can see and interpret individual, com- munity, and state life in connection with the results which have come from the larger movements within the common- wealth will acquire a knowledge of men and society, of economic and industrial growth, and of institutions and development which will not soon be forgotten. The greatest care has been exercised in the selection of the illustrations. They are true to life and to the condi- tions of the times when they were taken by the photogra- phist. In offering this text-book to the youth and schools viii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA of Nebraska it is in the hope that its study will create a greater love tor the state, a greater admiration for the pio- neers, and a greater desire to improve the Nebraska which these courageous men and devoted women made possible. We feel assured that a study of Nebraska's past will make better men and women of the boys and girls and as a re- sult make a better state in which to live. The editor and publishers are under lasting obligations to many who have shown interest in the publication and to many others who have rendered valuable assistance. The original abridgment of the Morton-Watkins History for this work was made by Dr. A. O. Thomas, of Maine, form- erly State School Superintendent of Nebraska. The com- pilation he made was gone over line by line and sentence by sentence before the material came into the hands of the editor. While the foundation remains the same — the Mor- ton-Watkins History of Nebraska — it was found neces- sary, in order to adapt it to young students and classes in school, to rewrite and rearrange nearly all the material se- lected. Thanks are due to the librarian of the State Historical Society — Mrs. Clarence S. Paine — for the use of valuable material which is in her care. The obligations of both edi- tor and publishers are acknowledged to many whose names we are not at liberty to record here, and especially to Pro- fessor C. N. Anderson of the State Normal School at Kearney for helpful suggestions, for reading parts of the manuscript, and for the Outline of Nebraska's Growth and Development. Grateful acknowledgment is made, also, to Professor Hutton Webster of the University of Nebraska who read the manuscript and by suggestive criticism added to the educational value of the book. J. A. B. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION xxi QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES. . .xxvi CHAPTER 1 1 Nation Ai, Conditions — Early Opinion of Nebraska Erroneous — Topography and Geology — Altitude — Rainfall — Streams and Lakes — Water Power — Average Temperature — Killing Frost — Plant Life in Nebraska — Native Trees — Wild Flowers — Animal Life — Our Smaller Animals. CHAPTER 11 18 The Indians — Indian Tribes and Their Distribu- tion — Indian Homes — Indian Warfare — Indian Lands Ceded to the United States — Some Famous Indian Chieftains — Coronado's Expedition — The Mallett Brothers. CHAPTER III 33 The Expedition of Lewis and Clark — VlEwing the Border — The Camp at Council Bluffs — White Traders Precede Lewis and Clark — The Return Trip — Crooks and McLellan — Zebulon M. Pike — Route of the Expedition — A Rival Spanish Expedi- tion—The Astoria Expedition — Astorians Take AN Unknown Route — The Wanderings of Robert Stuart — IMajor Long's Expedition — The First Steamboat on the Missouri River — The Yellow- stone Expedition — A Newspaper Account of the X SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA First Steamboat to Ascend the Missouri River — Manuee de Lisa — Lisa's Expeditions — Lisa's Last Sojourn in Nebraska — Milton Sublette — Captain Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville — Fremont's First Expedition — Colonel Kearny's Expedition — Peter A. Sarpy — Peter J. DeSmet. CHAPTER IV 55 Early Indian Travel — The Santa Fe Trail — The Oregon Trail — Starting Point of the Oregon Trail — The First Route to the Columbia — Itinerary of THE Trail — The Course of the Trail — Numbers of THE Emigrants — Ash Hollow — Court House Rock — Chimney Rock — Scotts Bluff — Travel on the Oregon Trail — Interesting Notes on the Oregon Trail — The Mormons and Their Trail Through Nebraska — The Overland Mail — Russell, Majors, AND Waddell — Through Mail to the Pacific — Re- turned Use of the Northern Route — Benjamin HoLLADAY — The Pony Express — Operation of the Pony Express — Hazards of the Trip — Route of William F. Cody — The Pony Express a Financial Loss — The First Telegraph Company. CHAPTER V 17 The Missouri River Traffic — Keel Boats — Mack- inaw Boats — The Cargoes — Captain Joseph La Barge — Volume of River Traffic — Idea of Navigat- ing THE Platte — The Steam Wagon — Territorial Roads — Building of the Union Pacific Railroad — Asa Whitney's Proposition to Build a Pacific Rail- road — Project Approved by the Congressional Com- mittee — The Act of 1862 — Organization of the Company — The Terms Changed by Act of 1864 — TABLE OF CONTENTS xi The: Act of 1866 — The Platte Valley Route — Breaking Ground — Progress of the Road — The Burlington and Missouri River Railroad — The Chicago and Northwestern Railroad — Other Rail- roads — The Cattle Trail — Cattle Towns — Devel- opment OF THE Ranch. CHAPTER VI 100 Extent of Louisiana — Conditions Leading to the Purchase — Extent of the Purchase — The Popula- tion AT THE Time of the Purchase — Napoleon Asks FOR Protection of Inhabitants — Some Results of the Purchase — The First Nebraska — Government OF THE Unorganized Territory — Organizing Ne- braska Territory — Indian Rights in Nebraska — The Slavery Question — States Admitted Before Nebraska — Slavery, Missouri Compromise^ Kansas- Nebraska Bill — Territorial Government. CHAPTER VII 109 The Coming of the People — The Government — The First Nebraska Officers — Early Locations — A New Town, Omaha — Early Towns — Arrival of THE Territorial Officials — Governors During the Territorial Period — Thomas B. Cuming — The First Counties — The First Census — Legislative Districts and Apportionment — The First Thanks- giving. CHAPTER VIII 123 Calling of the First Legislature — The First Elec- tion — The First Capitol Building — Territorial Legislatures — ■ The First Legislature — Governor Cuming's Message — The Second Governor — Gov- ernor Izard's Arrival — Locating of the Capital — xii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The Laws of the; First Session — Provision for Sec- ond Census — Prohibition in Nebraska — Property Exemptions and Interest Rates — Establishing a Common School System — Territorial Roads — Claims and Claim Clubs — First Farms. CHAPTER IX 134 United States Surveys — The First Courts — The Second Census — Election of 1855 — "Wild Cat" Banks — Territorial Finances — The Second Legis- lature — County Lines — School Report — The Youthful Commonwealth — Third Legislature — The Capital Controversy — More Bank Charters — Repeal of the Criminal Code — Izard, Cuming, and Richardson — The Fourth Legislative Session — Coming of Governor Richardson — A Better FeiSling. CHAPTER X 148 Death of Acting Governor Cuming — First Political Conventions — Postponement of Public Land Sales — Need of More and Better Laws — The Fifth or Special Legislature — Resignation of Governor Richardson — Appointment of Governor Black — Public Land Sales — Proposed Annexation to Kan- sas — First Democratic Delegate Convention — First Republican Delegate Convention — The Elec- tion — The Sixth Legislature — The Governor's Message — Enactments of the Sixth Legislature. CHAPTER XI 159 The First Statehood Election — The Congressional Campaign of 1860 — The Morton-Daily Contest — Departure of Governor Black — Legislative Sessions — Free Homestead Law — Three Important Ques- tions — Civil War Incidents — The Enabling Act — TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii Union Pacific Railroad — 'Election of First Statf Officers — Interesting Topics of Territorial Period — • The Advance Guards of Civilization — First Mili- tary Post — Early Expedition Against the Arikaras — Inter-tribal Warfare — Early Treaties — Posts to Protect Friendly Indians — The Second Military Post in Nebraska Territory — The Grattan Mas- sacre. CHAPTER XII 174 Avenging the Grattan Massacre — The Battle Creek Campaign — The Sioux Uprising — Indian Hostilities During the Civil War — Protection Against the Indians — The First Regular Military Organization — Nebraska in the Civil War — Mis- sionaries AND Churches — The First Sermon — — Samuel Allis — Father Pierre J. DeSmet — The Presbyterians — Churches Established — Territor- ial Products — Nature's Products — Gold in Ne- braska Territory — Salt in Nebraska — Coal — A Prosperous Year — The Territorial Fair — Orchards — The Territorial Press — Other Papers. CHAPTER XIII 186 Beginning of the State Government — Removal of THE Capital — Founding State Institutions — Es- tablishing Lincoln — Political Campaign of 1868 — First Legislative Session at Lincoln — Election of United States Senators — Subsidies to Railroads — The University of Nebraska — Report of the Com- missioners OF Public Lands — Scandals in State Government — Butler's Third Nomination — Butler's Third Election — Industrial Conditions — Various Kinds of Houses — Immigration — State Finances — Some Static Institutions — Encouraging xiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Immigration — Electing a Unitkd States Senator IN 1871 — The First Arbor Day — Impeachment oe Governor Butler — Impeachment of Auditor Gil- LispiE — The Burning of the Asylum — Constitu- tion OF 1871. CHAPTER XIV 200 Campaign of 1872 — Inaugural Address of Governor Furnas — Agitation for Capital Removal — Prohi- bition — Indian Troubles — Farming in 1873 — Farmers' Organizations — Political Convention of 1874 — Capital Removal Again — Constitutional Convention — Organizing the Convention ' — Convention Procedure — The Constitution Rati- fied BY THE People — Constitutional Amendments — Grov^th in Population — Growth of the Schools — The Grasshopper Plague — Indian Troubles — Temperance Movement — Foreign Immigration — Improvements — Message of the Retiring Governor — Enactments of the Eighth Legislature ^ — Enact- ments OF THE Ninth Legislature — The Slocum Law — The Railway Strike of 1882 — The Farmer's Alliance. CHAPTER XV 215 Western Settlements — The Cattlemen — Woman Suffrage — Telephones — Anti-Prohibition Con- vention — The Political Situation — Convict Labor — Re-election of Governor Nance — The Campaign OF 1882 — Political Unrest — The Campaign of 1884 — Railway Commission Established — State Insti- tutions Established — Arbor Day — Law Affecting Railroad Charges Passed — Important Acts of the Legislature of 1887 — The Political Trend of 1888 TABLE OF CONTENTS xv — The Populists — The: People's Independent Con- vention OF 1890 — The Campaign oe 1890 — The De- feat OF THE Prohibition Amendment — Canvass of THE Vote — Indian Ghost Dance Troubles — The Beginning of Trouble — The Death of Sitting Bull — The Battle of Wounded Knee — The Finding of Zintkala Nuni (Lost Little Bird) — Beet Sugar In- dustry — Alfalfa. CHAPTER XVI 234 The Message of Governor Boyd — Important Acts of THE Legislature of 1891 — The Boyd Contest — The Rise of William Jennings Bryan — Politics of 1892 — Industrial Conditions and Drought — Further Reform Movement — World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago — Allen Elected United States Senator — Politics of 1894 — Bryan-Thurston Campaign — Length of Term — Shortage of State Funds — State Flower and Name — The Campaign of 1896 — The Legislature of 1897 — Creameries and Cream Sepa- rators — Sale of the Union Pacific — Nebraska in THE Spanish-American War — The Trans-Missis- sippi AND International Exposition — The Election OF 1898. CHAPTER XVII 249 The Legislature of 1899 — The Election of 1900 — Legislature of 1901 — Governor Savage — Election OF 1902 — A Political Awakening — The Republican Convention of 1904 — Kinkaid Homesteads — An Elective Railway Commission — Prices of Land, Irrigation, Dry Farming — A Ten-Years' Struggle — NoRRis Brown Elected United States Senator — The Legislature in a New Role — The Campaign of xvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 1908 — LiCGiSLATioN OF 1909 — Eight o'clock Ci^osing Law — Politics of 1910 — County Option — Laws of THE Session of 1911 — Amendments to the Constitu- tion — Campaign of 1914 — Campaign of 1916 — Leg- islature OF 1917 — Making a "Bone-dry" Law — Ad- ministration OF Keith Neville — Administration of S. R. McKelvie — Progress in Nebraska. CHAPTER XVni 266 Semi-Centennial Celebration — Committee Ap- pointed — Plans of Celebration — The Lincoln Cel- ebration — Statewide Celebrations — The Haskell Ode Contest. THE WORLD WAR 272 HISTORICAL OUTLINE 287 JOHN LEE WEBSTER 292 INDEX 293 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS J. Sterling Morton as a Young Man Front An Early "Dug Out" 2 Modern Farm Home 3 Deadwood Stage 4 Map Showing Rivers oe Nebraska 6 Scene in Nebraska Sand Hills Today 7 Cement Mill at Superior 8 Falls on the Snake River 10 A Typical Nebraska Lake 12 The Islands, Platte River 13 Buffalo Bull and Calves 16 In Western Nebraska in 1876 17 Map Showing Location of Indian Tribes 19 Indian House Architecture xA.mong the Plains Tribes 22 Marpiya Luta (Red Cloud) 25 Sentegaleska (Spotted Tail) 26 Pit-a-le-Shar-u (Man Chief) 27 Logan Fontenelle 29 Map of Missouri River Basin 31 Lewis and Clark 34 Lewis and Clark Monument 36 Pierre Choteau, Jr 38 Early Missouri River Steamboat 43 Manuel de Lisa 45 Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville 48 John C. Fremont 50 xviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Peter A. Sarpy 51 Ni-co-Mi (Voice of the Waters) 52 Peter J. DeSmet, S. J 53 Map of Oregon Trail 57 Scenes at Ash Hollow 59 Court House Rock 61 Chimney Rock 63 Scotts Bluff and Vicinity. 65 Ill-Fated Hand Cart Expedition Leaving Florence in 1856 69 One Type of Famous Concord Stage Coach 72 First U. P. Railroad Bridge Across Missouri River AT Omaha, 78 Map of Nebraska Territory, 1854 80 Skirmish with Indians while Building U. P. Railroad 84 Building the U. P. Railroad in Nebraska 86 Thomas C. Durant 87 Grenville M. Dodge 89 Famous Lincoln Car 91 Engine No. 1, U. P. Railroad 94 U. P. Overland Limited, Showing Double Track. . . 95 Map of Louisiana Purchase, 1803 102 Pony Express and Overland Mail Station, Fort Kearny, Nebraska 106 Fort Laramie in 1836 110 Site of Fort Kearny 112 Francis Burt, First Governor of Nebraska Ter- ritory 114 Map Showing Original Eight Counties of Ne- braska 119 First Territorial Capital Building at Omaha 125 Old Conestoga Freighter 127 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix First Claim Cabin in Nebraska 131 Map Showing U. S. Land Surveys. 135 Belekvue, Nebraska, 1856 137 Ferry Across the Elkhorn River 140 Old Trading Post, Bellevue, in 1854 145 Bad Lands 149 Four of the Nine Survivors oe La Fleche's Police Force 155 Pine Ridge 161 William Walker at age 33 164 Gen. Henry Leavenworth 168 Pawnee Earth Lodge- Village, Genoa, 1875 ' 170 National Cemetery at Old Fort McPherson 174 Hadley D. Johnson^ 178 Nebraska Orchard 181 Col. Robert W. Furnas and Staff 184 Block House at Old Fort Kearny 188 Winnebago Grave Yard 190 Overland Mail on the "Old Trails" Route 193 Robert W. Furnas 201 In Western Nebraska in 1876 205 Grasshopper Scene, 1874 206 Pawnee Village Site 211 Si-Ri-Lai-Shar-Roon-u (They Make Him Chief) . . 216 Scene in Morton Park, Nebraska City 219 Monument to J. Sterling Morton 219 Home of J. Sterling Morton 221 Group of Omaha Indians 229 Stacking Alfalfa Near Kearney 232 Falls of the North Loup River 235 Toadstool Park, Sioux County Bad Lands 237 Is-Sai-Lu-Rai-Kar-Ik-U (Dwell in Sight) 241 ScHLEGEL Rapids and Falls 243 XX SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Fire Chief of the Omaha Tribe 247 Omaha Agency View 251 Santee Agency School Building 257 Nebraska's Strategic Commercial Position 263 John L. Webster 267 INTRODUCTION General Statement. — Nebraska has developed within the memory of some of her citizens from an unsettled prairie to a desirable place in which to live. The census of 1910 reported the population to be 1,192,214. The cen- sus to be taken in 1920 will, no doubt, find a population of more than 1,750,000. Many of the conveniences df life have come to the state within the last twenty years. Among the most signal and valuable are the farm telephone, the automobile, the cream separator, the improved farming implements, rural mail delivery, daily papers, good roads, and more and better schools. During this period of twenty years women's clubs have come into great promi- nence in Nebraska. To the intelligence and activity of the women we are largely indebted for better schools, for better living conditions, and for the increased number of public libraries. Nebraska now has ninety-three organized counties, many growing towns and several prosperous cities. Eighty-eight of the counties enjoy railway facilities within their borders. Almost every town has its schools, banks, stores, shops, telephones, lumber yards, public libraries, churches, and good homes. Practically all the land in Nebraska is owned by intel- ligent and experienced farmers, who bring to their aid much scientific knowledge. Many of the best farmers take advantage of the suggestions and information con- tained in the bulletins which are sent out from the agri- cultural college, from the agricultural schools, and from the xxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA experimental stations. Add to this the influence of the best agricultural and industrial productions which the State Board of Agriculture places, year by year, before the eyes of all, and we have, in part, the explanation of Nebraska's progress. When we include the life and teaching, the devotion and influence of the churches, the schools, and the institutions of higher education, we have named the phys- ical, the intellectual, the moral, and the spiritual forces which have caused the desert to blossom, the plains to be carpeted with grass, and the valleys to be covered with com. Early Inhabitants and Their, Homes. — Before the white man came to Nebraska and before the Indians, known to us, were here, another people occupied the plains. AH our knowledge of them is gained from the excavations of their homes and, graves. These people were mostly in Eastern Nebraska, along the Missouri River, where water, wood, fish, and fruit could be had. They had no horses and possessed only crude weapons and farm implements. They depended for the most part on the productions of nature. They usually built their homes of earth and on the tops of the hills. The hilltops gave them protection and af- forded a view of an approaching enemy. Their houses had pits dug in the floor about four feet deep. In these pits they hid whatever they considered of value. In the middle of the earthen floor were fire-pits which were used for heating and cooking purposes. Their Tools and Implements. — Excavations on the sites of these homes reveal many objects including arrows, knives, axes, hammers, and spear heads. All these were made of stone. The natives had instruments for sewing clothing, boring holes, and doing finer work of various kinds. These instnmients were made of bone. The ex- INTRODUCTION xxiii cavations have also uncovered articles of pottery in red, black, and yellow colors. The articles of pottery were made of clay, then colored and afterward hardened by burning-. Their Religion — Further Excavations. — We know, also, from their mode of burial, that they believed in a spirit world and in a future life. Excavations are being made at the present time by Robert F. Gilder of Omaha. As a result of his work we may know more, at no distant day, of these early inhabitants of Nebraska. Modern Nebraska. — Definite knowledge of Nebraska began with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Before that date white traders and explorers had entered the Ne- braska country and a little knowledge of the land had been gained. In Six Sections. — To understand the development of Nebraska and as an aid to the memory it is best to con- sider its history in six sections. Into this number the his- tory naturally and easily separates itself. First Section. — The first section covers the natural features and conditions ; the land, streams, minerals, na- tive timber, wild fruit and flowers, grasses, and animals. These conditions ought to be carefully studied, not simply to gain information of the things mentioned, but also to learn how they have been adapted to the use of man and how they have modified the course of the white man's life. In this section we learn of Nebraska as the physical foun- dation of the present and the futvire civilization. Second Section. — The second section considers the coming of the white man to Nebraska. It treats, also, of the knowledge gained of the Indian people who were in pos- session of the country. This section takes up the discov- eries, explorations, and expeditions. It covers in time the xxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA period from about 1800 to 1835 or 1840 when the Oregon Trail began to be well traveled. Third Section. — The third section gives the history of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, the stage coaches, the overland mail, the pony express, the telegraph lines, and the extension of the railways. The period covered extends from about 1830 to the end of the territorial or- ganization and the beginning of statehood in 1867.^ Fourth Section — Two Parts. — The fourth section treats of the Louisiana Purchase and the organization of Nebraska Territory. It deals with the civil government of Nebraska from the time of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. Fifth Section. — The political history of Nebraska be- gins with the fifth section. It covers a period of time fiom the organization of the Territory in 1854 to the beginning of statehood March first, 1867. Sixth Section — Two Parts. — The sixth section covers fifty years. The period extends from the admiss- ion of Nebraska into the sisterhood of states, March 1, 1867, to March 1, 1917. The section marks the beginning of the World War and the entrance of the United States on the side of freedom, democracy, and righteousness. The period naturally divides itself into two parts: (1) From 1867 to the Populist Revolution in 1890; and (2) from 1890 to March 1, 1917. The section is concluded with a short account of the semi-centennial celebration and a few pages relating to the World War. In the light of the scope and character of the work as indicated by the foregoing general statement it remains to point out some of the results which ought to be secured: 1 The Union Pacific railroad was begun in 1863, but was not completed until 1869. INTRODUCTION xxv 1. Thoughtful people agree that history is the one sub- ject which enriches the life, and above all others found in the course of study, inspires hope and confidence in the future. This is true of community and state history, in a marked degree, because it is concrete. Many of the events have taken place within the limits of personal know- ledge, and are on that account of double the value. History cultivates intelligence, awakens interest, challenges atten- tion, provokes thought, calls for discrimination, creates a desire for knowledge, inspires action, and feeds the love of accomplishment. 2. Thus history ties into one bundle yesterday, today, and tomorrow. This causes the lessons which come out of the past to be appropriated, life, in the present, to be more useful, and the forecast of the future to be more accurate. It is in anticipation of these results in life and character that this text is sent out to the teachers and schools of Nebraska. QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES The Questions, Problems, and Exercises are to be used during the year as the teacher may direct. They are of four classes: (1) Questions which relate to Indian life, methods, customs, and character; (2) Exercises based on the facts, and are intended to be, in the most practical way, a guide in the every-day use of English and in one phase of composition; (3) Problems and studies which will create interest in Nebraska life and history and will add mater- ially to the information in the text; and (4) Questions suggested by statements in the text, by the progress of the people, by the conditions which existed at different periods, and by the lessons which the history teaches. Those in Number 4 should be taken up at the time the text brings them out or in a short time after it has been studied. The questions, problems, and exercises in each set are numbered for ready reference. They can be taken up in any order and at such time as the teacher finds best adapted to the needs and progress of the class. Find out from your father, or mother, or grandparents, or neighbors, or some book, or the State Historical Society, Lincoln, Nebraska, the answers to the following questions relating to the Indians who occupied the plains of Ne- braska when the white man came : 1. How did Indian agriculture differ from the agricul- ture with which we are acquainted? 2. What kind of grain did the Indians raise which we cultivate ? QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxvii 3. Did the Indians raise any grain which we do not cultivate ? 4. What part did Indian women take in the cultivation of the soil? 5. To what kind of work did Indian men devote their time? 6. What farm tools did the Indians have? 7. How did the Indians harvest the grain they raised? 8. What vegetables did the Indians cultivate? 9. How did the Indians prepare their food? Did they bake bread? Did they boil meat? Did they boil potatoes? 10. Did the Indians have more than one variety of corn ? 11. Where and in what kind of soil did the wild rice used by the Indians grow? 12. Did the Indians have and use sugar? If so, where and how did they get it? 13. Did the Indians use salt ? If so, how did they get it ? 14. What kinds of berries were gathered and used by the Indians ? 15. Did the Indians prepare any berries for use in winter? If so, how did they prepare them? 16. Did the Indians know about squashes, pumpkins, and watermelons? If so, did they use them? 17. Did the Indians have any domestic animals before the coming of the white man? 18. How did the Indians obtain the meat they used? How did they cure and keep the meat? How many kinds of meat did they have? 19. Did the Indians have poultry? Did they use eggs? 20. Did the Indians plant and cultivate gardens? 21. How far did the Irfdians have to go sometimes to get the different kinds of food on which they lived? xxviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 22. How did the Indians protect themselves from the heat of summer and the cold and storms of winter? 23. Did the Indians build villages? If so, what were they like? Were they permanent? 24. Can you learn what is taught in the Indian school at Genoa, Nebraska? 25. Who furnishes the money with which the school at Genoa is supported? How many pupils are enrolled this year? Do they have a high school course of study? 26. Could we live in the same way the Indians lived? 27. When we compare the food on our tables with the food on which the Indians lived what lessons do we learn? 28. Did the Indians use hot water? If so, how did they heat it? 29. In what way did the Indian young people come to know the traditions of their tribe? 30. Why was the place now known as Lincoln called by the Indians the "Salt City"? 3L It is said the Indians subsisted on the natural re- sources of the region where they lived? Do we do that? 32. How many different kinds of material did the In- dians use in making clothing? 33. What was the worship of the Indians before the coming of the missionaries? 34. Had the Indians of Nebraska developed a written language. If so, what kind of characters did they use? 35. Did the Indians have figures, numbers, and letters? 36. Could the Indians count as high as 1,000? 37. Did the Indians have machinery of any kind? If so, what kind, and for what was it used? 38. Did the Indians have any instruments with which to weigh, and did they have any units of dry or liquid measure ? QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxix 39. Did they measure land and distances? If so, how? 40. Who was probably the greatest and most intelligent Indian chief who lived within what is now Nebraska? 41. What places can you give which were named in honor of some Indian chief? 42. What places can. you give which were named in honor of Indian tribes? 43. What methods did the Indians employ to determine the time of day? 44. Did the Indians count time by years, and did they know the ages of the members of their tribe? 45. What are some of the most prominent traits of char- acter of the Indian people? As a practical method of correlating English Grammar and Composition with the history of Nebraska, appoint one or more of the pupils, from time to time, to write letters to certain persons in schools for information in relation to suggested subjects and others which the teachers may name. That the efforts and exercises may be of the great- est value to the writers of the letters and to the other members of the class the following suggestions are offered : (1) Let the writer keep a copy of his letter; (2) let the letter and the reply be read to the class; (3) let the mem- bers of the class have free and full opportunity to ask questions and to discuss the letter and the reply; (4) let careful consideration be given to the form, tone, style, spirit, and penmanship of the letters; (5) let the language be carefully examined to see if it is clear, simple, direct, natural, and specific; (6) let attention be called to the spelling, the punctuation, and capitalization ; and (7) let the words, phrases, and sentences be examined in the light of intelligent usage. Great care should be taken to culti- vate good taste, good business forms, and a pleasing style. XXX SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 1. Ask a pupil to write a pupil in the same grade in Weeping Water to learn how it came to be named Weep- ing Water; another to Plattsmouth to learn how it came to be named Plattsmouth; and another pupil to write to Ohiowa to learn how it came to be called Ohiowa. 2. Write two pupils in the schools of Emerson to learn if the Emerson School District is all in Thurston County, or in Dixon County, or in Dakota County. If not all in any one of the three how is it situated so far as the counties are concerned? 3. Appoint a pupil to write to a pupil in Central City asking why the term ''Central" is a part .of the name; an- other to Hayes Center ; another to Beaver City ; another to Beaver Crossing; and another to Clay Center. In each case let the questions relate to the name and to the two words which make up the name. 4. Request four pupils to write four pupils in differ- ent parts of Sioux County asking for a description of the "Little Bad Lands." 5. Ask a tenth grade pupil to write a tenth grade pupil in Bayard relating to "Chimney Rock," asking (a) why it is so called; (b) its size and appearance; (c) its direction and distance from Bayard; and (d) how many miles can it be seen ? 6. Appoint three students — one in the 8th, one in the 9th, and one in the 10th grade — to write to those in corresponding grades in Rulo and ask them about the mon- ument in the corner of the state ; (a) how far it is from Rulo; (b) of what material it is made; (c) how high it is; (d) what is its shape; (e) by whom was it put up; and (f) what is the inscription? 7. Detail a boy and a girl in each of the three grades — 8th, 9th, and 10th — to write pupils in the corresponding QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxi grades in the Nebraska City schools concerning the *'Steam Wagon.'' Let such questions as the following be asked: (a) what was the "Steam Wagon"; (b) who invented it; (c) where was it built and by whom; (d) for what purpose was it built; (e) how far out of Nebraska City did it go; (f) with what was the wagon loaded; (g) for what place did it start; (h) why was the steam wagon abandoned; and (j) where is it now? 8. Have some boy to write a boy in Nebraska City and ask him about the stone pillar which was placed in 1914 near the Burlington railway station ; (a) who placed it there ; (b) why was it placed there; (c) what is the inscription on the stone; and (d) what does it commemorate? 9. Appoint two pupils to write to two in the correspond- ing grades in McGrew and two to write to Melbeta asking about a large "sand blow-out" which is situated between the two towns. Let the teacher suggest the questions it will be proper to ask, or let the pupils frame their own questions. 10. Suggest to two pupils that they write to two of the same grade in Central City to learn about the "Lone Tree Monument." Let the pupils frame their own questions or have them use the following : (a) what does the monument commemorate; (b) where is it placed; (c) what is its ap- pearance; (d) what is the inscription; (e) when was it erected; (f) by whom was it put there? 1 1 . Let a pupil write someone in the schools in Nebraska City about the monument on the public square and another pupil write to learn about the monument in Morton Park. Let the pupils under the guidance of the teacher suggest the questions which they desire to ask. 12. Appoint pupils to write pupils of their own grade in the schools of Lincoln and ask about the monument in inemory of Abraham Lincoln. xxxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 13. Suggest to pupils that they write to pupils in Bridge- port to learn about "Court House Rock" and "Jail Rock." 14. Ask two pupils to write to Bellevue and suggest the use of such questions as: (a) where is the monument in Bellevue placed; (b) what does it commemorate; (c) when and by whom was it erected; (d) of what material was it made; and (e) what is the inscription on it? 15. The pupils who are^old enough to appreciate may be asked to write the teacher a letter about some store, or in- dustry, or manufacturing plant of which they may have personal knowledge. Let the letters cover the following outHne; how was it started; how has it been developed; what means have been employed to develop it ; the method of putting the product on the market ; the distance the pro- duct has to be shipped; to whom is the product sent; the names of the people who started the enterprise; the men who have done most to develop it; the difficulties en- countered; and the advantages to the community. 1. What can you learn about the life, rank, activities, and character of John C. Fremont, who led in 1842 an ex- ploring expedition across what is nqw the state of Nebraska? 2. If all the counties in the state were the same size and each county contained as many square miles as there are in the county in which you live — assuming that the area of Nebraska is 76,510 square miles — how many counties would there be in -Nebraska? 3. What reason, or reasons, can you give for calling the northwest part of Nebraska, with the adjoining portions of South Dakota and Wyoming, "The Wonderland of Amer- ica"? 4. In whose honor was the county in which you live named ? QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxiii 5. Do you know of any books which have been written by men or women who Hve in Nebraska? If so, what are the titles of the books and who are their authors? 6. Who was President of the United States when Ne- braska was organized into a territory in 1854? 7. Who was President of the United States when Ne- braska became a state, March 1, 1867? 8. W^ho was President of the United States when Ne- braska became fifty years old as a state March 1, 1917? 9. Who raised the largest number of bushels of corn per acre within a circle whose center is your home and the radius five miles? 10. Who raised the largest crop of wheat per acre, this year, in your school district? 11. What different newspapers, issued in Nebraska, can you name and tell where they are published? 12. What newspapers and magazines do you have the opportunity to read? 13. Does the Oregon Trail pass over any part of the county in which you live? If so, where in the county? 14. Have you seen any of the monuments which mark the Oregon Trail? If so, where and of what material are they made? 15. By whose authority has the Oregon Trail been marked? What inscription is on each monument? 16. How far is it, measured on a straight line, from the northwest corner of the state to the pillar near Rulo? Can you determine the distance on a map on which the scale is given ? 17. What counties in Nebraska do not, at this date, have any railway mileage? 18. What two counties have the largest number of miles of railway? xxxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 19. How many miles of railroad are there' in the state? 20. Which is the largest and which the smallest county in the state? 21. In honor of whom was the smallest county named? 22. Who is the oldest man and who is the oldest woman within a radius of five miles of your home? 23. When was the school house in your district built? What did it cost? By whom was it erected? 24. Solve the problem : How many states of the size of Rhode Island could be made out of Cherry County? 25. How many counties of the size of Cherry County could be made out of Nebraska, assuming the area of the state to be 76,510 square miles? 26. If each county in the state of Ohio were the size of Cherry County, how many counties would Ohio have instead of the 8^ she has now? 27. If all the counties in Nebraska were the size of Adams County, how many counties would we have? 28. What counties in Nebraska were named in honor of men who have been Presidents of the United States? How many? 29. What counties in Nebraska were named in honor of men who were generals in the Civil War? How many? 30. What counties in the state were named in honor of men who have been governors of Nebraska? How many ? 31. When does the legislature meet and what is the pay of each member? 32. How many members are there in the House and how many in the Senate? 33. How many of those who have been governors of Nebraska are living? Do you know any of them? 34. What was the amount of the irreducible school fund QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxv at the close of the last year? (The State Superintendent or the State Auditor can give you the exact amount.) 35. Name the members of Congress from this state and give the home post office of each. 36. Name the United States Senators from Nebraska and give the home town of each. 37. How many members are there in the Supreme Court of Nebraska? How many of them can you name? 38. Ask each member of the class to report on the life, work, and character of a former governor, giving special attention to his qualities as a man and as a citizen. 39. Name one of the former governors and let each mem- ber of the class the next day report some of the irtiportant events in his administration. 40. If the area of Nebraska is 76,510 square miles and the area of Sarpy County is 225 square miles, how many counties would we have if all were the size of Sarpy County ? 41. Make a list of the railways of the state. How many do you find? 42. Find from the ticket agent about how many pounds of butter and how many dozens of eggs were shipped from your railway station last year. 43. Find from the grain elevator how many bushels of corn and of wheat were sent from your town last year. 44. Let each member of the class make a list of the towns and cities in Nebraska in which he or she has been. After the members have compared their lists let each pupil express his choice of the one in which he would like to live, and give the reason. 45. Name the four normal schools, the town in which each is situated, and give the name of the president of each school. «xxvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 46. Make a list of the colleges and universities in the state and tell the town in which each is situated, and also give the church or religious body by which each is con- ducted. 47. Where are the two state agricultural schools and what can you tell about their work? 48. Where are the state experimental farms and sta- tions ? 49. Who is the state senator and who is the state rep- resentative from your district? Do you know them per- sonally ? 50. What is meant when it is said the legislature passed a joint i^esolution? 51. Who is lieutenant-governor o^ Nebraska? What are some of his duties? 52. Have you been in the state house? How much did the legislature appropriate to build a new state house? 53. Who is the state school superintendent? What are some of his duties? 54. How many children of school age are there in your county ? 55. What is the largest city in which you have been? What are some of the things you saw while in that city? 56. What is the most wonderful machine you have seen ? What use is made of it? 57. Whom do you consider the foremost citizen of Ne- braska ? Why ? 58. Whom do you consider the foremost citizen in your county ? Why ? 59. How many of the institutions of Nebraska are under the management of the board of control? 60. When you have completed the high school course where do you intend to go to school? Why do you select that institution of learning? SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA CHAPTER I Natural Conditions. — The school geographies of only seventy-five years ago described the larger part of what is now Nebraska as an uninhabitable portion of the continent lying in the Great American Desert, unable to support a population and of small economic value. It was necessary for those who viewed the country to do so principally from the routes along the water courses. When they ventured beyond the valleys, they saw endless stretches of level lands covered with various grasses and seemingly devoid of water ; or they caught glimpses of long, low ranges of sand-topped hills. But the plains country held a peculiar wealth and charm not discerned by those who viewed it first; and the early settlers found the struggle sufficient to produce men- tal acumen and to stimulate their greatest efforts and high- est ambition. The sand-topped hills and the illimitable plains have become the pastures and gardens of the nation. Early Opinion of Nebraska Erroneous. — The early opinion of Nebraska was certainly not creditable to its natural resources. Washington Irving, though a delight- ful writer, loses prestige as a prophet when we read his statement: *'It is a land where no man permanently abides. . . . Such is the nature of this immense wil- derness of the west, which apparently defies cultivation and the habitation of civilized life." Cooper, the leading story 2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA teller of his day, observes in The Prairie that the plains are **in fact a vast country incapable of sustaining a dense popu- lation in the absence of the two great necessities" — wood and water. Long, in 1819, painted a most dismal picture of the future of Nebraska: The rapidity of the current [of the Platte] and the great width of the bed of the river preclude the possi- bility of any extensive inundation of the surrounding Photo by S. D. Butcher An Early "Dug Out" country. The bottom lands of the river rise by an im- perceptible ascent, on each side, extending laterally to a distance of from two to ten miles, where they are termi- nated by low ranges of gravelly hills, running parallel to the general direction of the river. Beyond these the surface is an undulating plain, having an elevation of from fifty to one hundred feet, and presenting the aspect of hopeless and irreclaimable sterility. But this great plain, which at first view appeared so useless, was only waiting for civilized man and his inventive genius, as exemplified in the steam railroad, when it was SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 3 ready to furnish comfortable homes for thousands of people and to become the natural gateway to the west for millions more. Every student of Nebraska history marvels at the transformation of a seeming desert into the present state^ within the period of two generations. Valuable lessons are to be learned from the sacrifices and strenuous efforts of Nebraska pioneers in wresting from an apparently worthless Photo by S. D. Butcher Modern Farm Home country the beautiful homes and rich farms occupied by the present generation. Topography and Geology. — The surface of Nebraska is well illustrated in the accompanying map. The state is divided into three regions : The Loess, Sand Hills, and High Plains. These are subdivided according to topog- raphy into eight areas. The Loess region occupies the eastern part of the state. It is so named from the character of the soil, which is a fine loam deposited ages ago as set- iL I- i I ^1 o. O w o < C/2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 5 tlings from muddy water. This part of the state is quite rolling, in some places even hilly, and is watered by many small streams. The Loess region gradually approaches a plain, as can be seen by the map. About one-fourth of the way into Nebraska it develops into somewhat more sandy soil. This central part of the state, known as the Sand Hills region, has many rich localities where farming is carried on very profitably, while the more sandy sections are given to combined farming and stock raising, by using the native grasses for grazing and hay. The surface is level and slightly rolling, and small streams are not so numerous as in the eastern portion. The High Plains region is composed mostly of a sandy soil, often traversed by deep canyons showing, in the north- west part of the state, considerable rock croppings. I'he roughest part of this section, known as the Pine Ridge, is dotted with groups of pine trees. While profitable farm- ing is carried on to some extent in this region, much of it is given over to stock raising by use of the native grasses. In Box Butte, Dawes, Sheridan, and other counties, potato raising is carried on extensively. It is in this district that the potash lakes have recently (1917) been made to yield a large return of potash to their fortunate owners. Potash is the natural element of the soil for potato fertilizer. The soil of Nebraska is very deep, covering the rock formation to a depth of as much as one hundred feet under the Loess or alluvial deposit soil in the southeastern part of the state, and to a depth of three hundred feet and more in the Sand Hills district. Limestone is found along the streams in southeastern Ne- braska. From an economic point of view this is the most important geological formation in the state, since it yields the material for lime, rubble, rip-rap, building, smelting, SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 7 sugar refining, and ballast, as well as enormous quantities of clay for brick, tile, and terra cotta. Cement is found in certain rock formations near Superior and may be discovered in other parts of Nebraska in paying quantities. Various cleansing powders, which have for their body a soft chalk rock, have been found in southern Nebraska. Putty is prepared from soft rock found in the Photo by S. D. Butcher Scene in Nebraska Sand Hii.i w i-> 14 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The extension of native plants has been principally along the pathway of the streams. The banks of the Niobrara River, which flows through the mountainous regions and foothills of the Rockies, abound in many mountain species. A number of trees and shrubs native to Nebraska came from the west. Nebraska is more favorably situ- ated for the development of a diversified plant life than many of our neighboring states. The plains region was originally covered with buffalo and grama grasses, especially on the far-reaching and level divides; a coarse bunch grass generally covers the sand hills to the west; while blue stem abounds in the rolling regions in the east- ern section, especially since cultivation began. Native Trees. — Sixty-four species of native trees are found in Nebraska. There is, however, no place in the state where all these trees grow together. There are nine- teen species in the northwestern portion of the state, twenty-seven in the northeastern, fifteen in the south- western, and fifty in the southeastern. Wild Flowers. — Nebraska has a rich flora, and its wild flowers include many species whose beauty has attracted florist and gardener. There are probably three hundred species of flowering plants notable for their attractiveness, among which may be noted lillies, buttercups, orchids, poppies, capers, violets, mallows, evening primrose, wild rose, lupines, prairie clovers, morning glories, pentstemons, verbenas, sunflowers, asters, goldenrods, and many others. Not a few of the species of the southern half of the state have come from the plains of the southwest, some even from Texas and New Mexico. Others appear to have mi- grated from the great northern plains of the Dakotas, and still others from the east and from the west. Animal Life. — A casual comparison of past and pres- SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 15 eiit conditions shows that the native animals have greatly changed since Nebraska was first settled. Many of the earlier forms have disappeared or become restricted in their distribution. On the other hand, several forms have greatly increased in numbers and have extended their range as well. Fifty years ago our plains were covered with immense herds of bison, or American buffalo, and elk in large bands roamed throughout the middle and western portions of the future state. Both species of deer, the white-tailed or Virginia, and the black-tailed or mule, were to be seen in our woodlands, among the fringes of brush and trees that marked the smaller water courses, or in the tall grasses of the sand hills, where they hid during the day from their enemies. The antelope ranged the prairie at will, even to within a comparatively short distance from our eastern borders. Some mountain sheep, too, were at home in the rougher country of the northwest, while at times small bands of wild horses also galloped over the plains.^ In a measure dependent upon these for their food supply were foxes, wolves, panthers, lynxes, and even a few bears. Where the bison, elk, deer, and antelope once browsed our grasses, we now have instead herds of cattle and sheep. The larger and fiercer carnivora, along with forms upon which they were dependent, have been killed or driven away. Our- Smaller Animals. — The beaver, otter, wolverine, badger, and several others of the fur-bearing kinds are now very scarce where they were once common or even abundant. The muskrat is still plentiful about Nebraska lakes and streams and its fur, in the proper season, is a source of revenue to the trapper. A few of the rodents, such as are favored by the cultivation of the soil and growing of grain, 1 These were descended from horses formerly traded to the Indians by early explorers and permitted to escape and run at large until a wild state was reached. HH CTJ o c ^ ;9 O H CM « O O O ^ SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 17 instead of diminishing have increased. These include the prairie dog, pocket gopher, and ground squirrel. QUESTIONS — CHAPTER I 1. What is meant by economic value? 2. What rivers unite to form the Missouri River? 3. How are environment and topography used in the text? 4. How can the water in the streams be used by farmers, towns, and cities? 5. Let each member of the class, working by himself, make a list of the trees in the school district. Then have the pupils compare their lists. 6. Have the pupils make lists of the wild flowers in the com- munity. Then have them compare their lists. 7. How many of the class have seen the wild animals mentioned in the text? CHAPTER II The Indians. — When Nebraska was first discovered by the white man, the territory was in the hands of the Indians. They evidently came to this country from east of the Appalachians and overran the entire Mississippi Valley. The tribes occupying this section belonged to two linguistic families, the Algonkian and Siouan. The Nebraska Indians were grouped in seven tribes speaking six different lan- guages.^ The herds of buffaloes, which roamed over the prairies, supplied almost every need of Indian life. Buffalo meat provided food; buffalo skin furnished material for clothing and tents ; and the bones of the buffalo made use- ful implements. Buffalo ''chips''^ were the fuel supply, not only of the Indians but also of the early white settlers. How much of the food supply of the Indians was furnished by agricultural pursuits is not known, but the Indians grew corn, beans, squashes, pumpkins, usually in a primitive manner, and gathered some vegetable food from wild rice which grew in the lakes of the state. From other native plants they obtained fiber for ropes and cordage. Some of the streams furnished fish of various kinds. The Nebraska country, on the whole, did not lack the necessary supplies of food. Indian Tribes and Their Distribution. — The Dakotas, commonly called the Sioux, occupied that part of Nebraska lying north of the Platte River and west of a line nmning 1 The Dakotas or Sioux, the Poncas, the Omahas, the Otoes, the IMissouris, the Pawnees, and the Arapahoes and Cheyennes. 2 Dried droppings of the buffaloes picked up on the prairies. 18 20 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA in a southwesterly direction and crossing it at the forks, near the present city of North Platte. The Poncas occupied the territory on the Missouri River north of the Niobrara, partly in Nebraska and partly in South Dakota. The Omaha territory stretched from the Missouri River west to the Sand Hills and from the Platte River to the Niobrara. The Otoe and the Missouri tribes held the country along the Missouri River from the Platte to the Big Nemaha. The Pawnee country lay west of the Otoe and Omaha, extend- ing from the Niobrara southward across the Sand Hills region, the Loup River, the Platte, and the Republican to the Solomon River in Kansas. Southwestern Nebraska formerly belonged to the Arapahoe and Cheyenne Indians, who lived together. Indian Hom€s. — The Omaha, Otoe, Missouri, Ponca, and Pawnee Indians dwelt in fixed villages along streams where wood and water were plentiful and where crops could be gathered from the rich valley soil. Their homes were of frame work covered with earth; their tents were of bufifalo skins. For traveling they constructed a rude vehicle by fastening two poles to a horse, one on each side, letting the two rear ends drag on the ground. Between these two poles, just behind the horse, was suspended a buffalo skin to hold the children and baggage. The men usually rode ponies ; the women often walked. The following extract from an article in the Huntsman's Bcho, published at Wood River Center,^ Nebraska, in 1859, contains an interesting description of the home life of the Pawnees : The Pawnees number at present about four thousand souls and a fraction over, and when "at home" live in a 1 Wood River Center was a little west of where the town of Wood River is now located. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 21 cluster of huts built with crotches and poles, covered, top and sides, with willows, then with grass and dirt, giving the appearance at a little distance of an immense collection of "potato hills," all of a circular shape and oval. The entrance is through a passage walled with earth, and the hole in the center at the top serving both for window and chimney, the fire being built in the middle. Along the sides little apartments are divided ofif from the main room by partitions of willow, rush, or flag, some of them being neatly and tidily constructed ; and alto- gether these lodges are quite roomy and comfortable, and each is frequently the abode of two or. more families. In these villages there is no regularity of streets, walks, or alleys, but each builds in a rather promiscuous man- ner, having no other care than taste and convenience. The tribe is divided into five bands, each being under a special chief or leader, the whole confederation being un- der one principal chief. Each band has its habitation separate and distinct from the other, three bands living in villages adjoining and all composing one village; the other two villages, some little distance. There is fre- quently some considerable rivalry between several bands in fighting, hunting, and other sports, and not infre- quently one band commits thefts upon the effects of an- other. The females are the working bees of the hive; they dig up the soil, raise and gather the crops, cut timber and build the lodges, pack wood and water, cook, nurse the babies, carry all the burdens, tan the skins, and make the robes and moccasins. The lords of the other sex recline by the fire or in the shade, kill the game and their enemies, do the stealing and most of the eating, wear most of the ornaments, and play the dandy in their way to a scratch. They are of a tall, graceful, and athletic figure, as straight as an arrow and as proud as a lord, whilst the squaws are short, thick, stooping, poorly clad, filthy, and squalid. Parentless children and the very aged are sometimes left behind, or by the wayside, to perish as useless. Indian Warfare. — The Indians were not always at SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 23 peace with each other. Their hunting grounds often over- lapped (see map of tribes), and disputes about boundaries sometimes led to conflicts. In the earliest times they used the rude weapons of primitive peoples, but later as white men began to come into the country firearms were intro- duced. The Indians were experts with the spear and with the bow and arrow. To win in warfare, the Indian relied largely on out- numbering his enemy or outwitting him by ambush or other stealthy practices. His modes of warfare were not success- ful against the whites, when both sides were approximately equal. Two of the most noted western massacres, those of Colonel Fetterman's and General Custer's bands, were ac- complished by Indians who outnumbered the whites by ten to one, or more.^ Indian Lands Ceded to the United States. — The Paw- nee Confederacy comprised four tribes : the Grand Pawnee, the Wolf Pawnee, the Republican Pawnee, and the Tapage Pawnee. They ceded all their lands to the United States in accordance with an agreement and accepted a new reserva- tion in Indian Territory, now a part of Oklahoma. The Omahas were removed in 1854 to their reservation at Winne- bago, where they remain. The Otoe and Missouri Indians lived on the south bank of the Platte River in Saunders County near the site of Yutan, which place is named after their chief tan, Itan. They were shifted from reservation to reservation until 1881, when they went to their new home in Indian Territory. The Poncas were removed to a reserva- tion on Ponca Creek in 1877. The Cheyenne and Arapahoes ceded all their territory to the United States in 1867 and then took up their abode in Indian Territory. 1 Assign the Fetterman and Custer massacres for outside work and report in class. 24 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The Dakotas or Sioux Indians were hostile and gave great trouble by coming down into Nebraska on marauding expeditions. By the treaty of April 29, 1868, they were limited to a reservation mostly in South Dakota but ex- tending into Nebraska as far as the Niobrara River, with privileges of hunting in part of Nebraska. The people of Nebraska protested against the permission thus granted to hostile Indians to trespass on their state. In 1876 another agreement was made by which the Dakotas gave up forever the right to come into Nebraska on these expeditions. They are now (1919) on various reservations in South Dakota. Only the Santees live in Nebraska. They were removed to a small reservation on the south side of the Niobrara River in Knox County. While it was inevitable that the Indian would be com- pelled to surrender his hunting grounds and cede his vast territory to his white brother, superior in civilization and progress, he should not be blamed for the defense of what to him was his country and his home. Some Famous Indian Chieftains. — Among the famous Indian chieftans who have ruled over the Nebraska tribes are ''Red Cloud," "Spotted Tail," and "Man Chief," repre- senting the Sioux and the Pawnees, and Logan Fontenelle representing the Omahas. Marpiya Luta ("Red Cloud"), chief of the Ogallalla Sioux, was born in 1821, in what is now Deuel County, Ne- braska. He won his name at the age of sixteen. He was a courageous leader of his people against the Crows, Sho- shones, and Pawnees, He slew "Bull Bear," a prominent Sioux chief, in a tribal feud. He planned and led the fight against Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, in 1866, when nearly one hundred soldiers were slain. ^ He abandoned the 1 This was the massacre of Colonel Fetterman and his men. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 25 war path in 1869 and remained at peace with the whites thereafter. Sentegaleska (''Spotted Tail") was a Brule Sioux chief From a photograph owned, 'by Mr. A. E. Sheldon. Marpiya Luta (Red Cloud) Chief of the Ogallala Sioux, at the age of seventy years of northwestern Nebraska. He "got his man" ^ at the age of eighteen and rose rapidly thereafter, finally becoming hereditary chief of the entire Sioux nation. He was friendly 1 "Got his man" is a Western expression used for killing a man, usually in defense of one's person or certain rights. 26 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA to the whites and was always trustworthy in his deaUngs with them. "Crow Dog" murdered him in 1881. Pit-a-le-shar-u ("Man Chief"), a leader of the Pawnees, Photograph owned by the Nebraska Historical Society. Sentegai^eska (Spotted Tail) Hereditary Chief of the Sioux was born in 1823 and lived south of Fremont until the Pawnees removed to a place near Genoa. "Man Chief" was one of the great Indian orators. It is said of him that he ruled by persuasion and not by arbitrary power. "The white people I love" was one of his favorite expressions. His f^v^--..^^¥te-I ±rom a photograph in the Coffin Collection, in the Museum of the ^ebiaska State Historical Society. PiT-A-LE-SHAR-U (MaN ChIEF) Head chief of the Pawnees 28 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA memory is honored in the name of the town of Leshara in Saunders County. Logan Fontenelle was a son of Lucien Fontenelle who was connected with the Missouri Fur Company about the time of Manuel de Lisa's death, 1820, Lucien Fontenelle spent most of his time at Fort Laramie in what is now Wy- oming. He came to Bellevue in 1839, where he lived with his family until his death in 1840. He married a woman of the Omaha tribe and they had five children. One of them, Logan Fontenelle, born in 1825, became a chief of the Omahas and a man of mwch note among the Indians and the early settlers. He was educated in St. Louis, but was compelled to leave school at the age of fifteen on ac- count of the death of his father in 1840. Soon after he became government interpreter, a position which he held until 1853. He was a man of strong character and high ideals, and an advocate of temperance and other better habits among his tribesmen. His death occurred at the early age of thirty years, but he had accomplished much good even in so short a life. His memory is honored in the name of Omaha's beautiful hotel. The Fontenelle. Henry Fontenelle has given this account of his brother's death : In June, 1855, Logan went with the tribe as usual on their summer buffalo hunt, and, as usual, their enemies, the Sioux, laid in wait for the Omahas in vicinities of large herds of buffalo. The first surrounding they made on the buffalo the Sioux made a descent upon them in overwhelming numbers and turned the chase into battle. Four Omahas were killed and several wounded. In every attempt at getting buffaloes the Sioux charged upon them. The Omahas concluded it was useless to try to get any buffalo and retreated toward home. They trav- eled three days and, thinking they were out of danger, Logan one morning in company with Louis Saunsoci and SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 29 another Indian started ahead of the moving village and were about three miles away when they espied a herd of elk in the distance. Logan proposed chase, they started ; Engravvng from a photograph owned by John Q. Go8S, Bellevue, Nebraska. Logan Fontenei^IvE (Shon-ga-ska) Elected principal chief of the Omahas that was the last seen of him alive. The same moment the village was surrounded by the Sioux. About ten o'clock in the morning a battle ensued and lasted until three o'clock, when they learned that Logan was killed. His body was found [in the vicinity of the present city of 30 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Fremont] and brought into Bellevue and buried by the side of his father. Coronado's Expedition. — Francisco Vasquez de Coro- nado, governor of Galicia, a western border province of Mexico, was probably the first white man who traversed a portion of what is now the state of Nebraska.^ Spanish records tell the story of this brilliant adventurer, his march from the City of Mexico to the land of Quivera, and the thrilling adventures of the journey. At the present site of the town of Great Bend, Kansas, Coronado found the first Quivera village. He first met In- dians of that name not far from Kingsley and Larned, Kan- sas. Failing to find the expected gold and other riches, there was nothing left for him to do but to fall back upon the riches of the soil. Jaramilloy one of the chroniclers of the expedition, says that "some satisfaction was experienced on seeing the good appearance of the earth," and Coronado himself writes that the soil was "fat and black" and "the best I have ever seen for producing all the products of Spain." Nothing resulted from Coronado's expedition that is of special interest to Nebraska. The Mallett Brothers. — The earliest authenticated ex- ploration by white men on Nebraska soil was that of two brothers, Pierre and Paul Mallett, and six other Frenchmen in June, 1739. The Mallett brothers had probably come up from New Orleans the year before and had wintered near the mouth of the Niobrara River. An account of their journey from that neighborhood to Santa Fe forms a part of the Margry Papers. These consist of reports to the French authorities at New Orleans by early French ex- plorers of the Trans-Mississippi country. They have been 1 In July, 1541, with thirty Spanish horsemen, he reached Quivera, "in the 40th degree of latitude," near the Nebraska-Kansas line. i 32 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA printed by Margry of Paris. The Mallett brothers travelled from near the mouth of the Niobrara south to the Platte, which they named the "River Plate." They followed this stream in a westerly direction for about two hundred miles, probably discovering the mouth of the Loup River and the forks of the Platte. They passed out of Nebraska to the southwest on their way to Santa Fe and reported a plains country, a part of the way being without wood even for a fire. QUESTIONS — CHAPTER II 1. How many of the class have seen Indians of the tribes men- tioned in the text? 2. How many of the class can tell the places named in honor of an Indian tribe? 3. What is the meaning of Niobrara? 4. In what county is Winnebago? Why is it so-called? 5. Compare Nebraska with Kansas in area, population, and num- ber of counties. CHAPTER III The Expedition of Lewis and Clark — Its Purpose. — In 1803, before there was any particular thought or pros- pect of the acquisition of Louisiana by the United States, President Jefferson conceived the idea of sending an expe- dition to explore the Missouri River country for the pur- pose of promoting trade. Immediately after the purchase, Congress made an appropriation to cover the expense of such an expedition. ,On Monday, May 14, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition left its camp at Wood River, a small stream which empties into the Mississippi opposite the en- trance of the Missouri. The following description of the comipany and outfit is taken from the Journal of Lezvis and Clark : The party consisted of nine young men from Ken- tucky, fourteen soldiers of the United States army who volunteered their services, two French watermen, an in- terpreter and hunter, and a black slave belonging to Cap- tain Clark. All of these except the last were enlisted to serve as privates during the expedition, and three ser- geants appointed from amongst them by the captains. In addition to these were engaged a corporal and six soldiers, and nine watermen to accompany the expedition as far as the Mandan nation, in order to assist in carry- ing the stores, or repelling an attack, which was most to be apprehended between Wood River and that tribe. The necessary stores were subdivided into seven bales and one box containing a small portion of each article in case of accident. They consisted of a great variety of clothing, working utensils, locks, flints, powder, ball, and articles of great use. To these were added fourteen bales and one box of Indian presents distributed in the same 33 v1 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 35 manner and composed of richly laced coats and other articles of dress, medals, flags, knives, and tomahawks for the chiefs, ornaments of different kinds, particularly beads, looking glasses, handkerchiefs, paints, and gener- ally such articles as were deemed best calculated for the taste of the Indians. The party was to embark on board of three boats : first was a keel boat fifty-five feet long, drawing three feet of water, one large square sail, and twenty-two oars ; a deck of ten feet in the bow and stern formed a fore- castle and cabin, while the middle was formed by lockers which might be raised so as to form a breastwork in case of attack. This was accompanied by two perioques or open boats, one of six and the other of seven oars. Two horses were at the same time to be led along the banks of the river for the purpose of bringing home game, or hunting in case of scarcity. Viewing the Border. — Proceeding up the Missouri River, the expedition came in sight of Nebraska July 11, 1804, and camped on the Missouri side opposite the mouth of the Big Nem.aha. On the following day some members of the expedition explored the lower valley of that river. This expedition is of peculiar importance as it gives the first historical glimpse of the eastern border of the state. The explorers first camped on Nebraska soil July 15, near the mouth of the Little Nemaha. They camped July 18 not far from the present site of Nebraska City. On the 21st of July the party camped on the Nebraska side, just north of the Platte. They passed on up the river the next morning and camped on the eastern banks where they remained five days. They explored the country in all directions and sent out for the Indians to meet them at a council at a point ten miles up the river. At this point dispatches and maps were prepared to be sent to the President. They left their horses on the western bank and continued their journey. 36 SCHOOL PIISTORY OF NEBRASKA The Camp at Council Bluffs. — The camp on July 30th at Council Bluffs ^ was the most important on Nebraska soil. Subsequently it became the site of the first military post established in Nebraska. There is no doubt that the recommendation of Lewis and Clark determined the loca- tion of what was afterwards known as Camp Missouri, later Lewis and Clark Monument as Fort Atkinson, and finally as Fort Calhoun, a little north of Omaha. A few days later in the vicinity of Winnebago the ex- plorers tell in their journal of catching over four hundred fish from the Omaha creek with an improvised seine. They record a council held with the Otoes and Missouris, who were then at war with the Omahas and very much afraid of war with the Pawnees. Within a day or two they record the death of Sergeant Floyd, "one of the nine young men from Kentucky," on the Iowa side near the present site of Sioux City. He was buried near the Floyd River which bears his name. In 1901 a monument one hundred feet high 1 On the west side of the Missouri River ahoiit ten miles north of Omaha. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 37 was dedicated to his name as a mark of esteem for the courage and effort that led him to explore the unknown west while in the service of his country. White Traders Precede Lewis and Clark. — At Council Bluffs a council with the Indians was held. There were fourteen Indians present at the meeting, six of them being chiefs. These Indians were accompanied by a Frenchman who resided among them. The explorers moved up the stream and on the 4th of August they came upon a trading post on the Nebraska side, a fact which shows that they were preceded by the French traders. The expedition fol- lowed the Missiouri to its head waters, and after passing over the Rocky Mountains followed streams which flowed into the Columbia River, down which they passed to its mouth. The Return Trip. — Lewis and Clark on the return trip reached the northwestern corner of what is now Nebraska August 31, 1806, and left the southeast corner September 11th, having made the uneventful journey in twelve days. The upstream passage of this part of the route had required fifty-seven days. Crooks and McLellan. — On the return of Lewis and Clark in 1806 they brought with them to St. Louis Shahaka, the chief of the Mandan Indians of the "present South Da- kota. He went to Washington for consultation with Presi- dent Jefferson, under the promise of safe escort back to his home. The next summer Ensign Nathaniel Pryor, who had been a sergeant in the Lewis and Clark party, under- took to escort the chief up the river to his home. The com- mand consisted of fourteen soldiers in all, but it was united with a party of thirty-two men led by Pierre Chouteau.^ 1 Pierre Chouteau was heavily interested in fur trading throughout the northwest. One of his many posts was at Bellevue, Nebraska. See his biography. 38 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA When they attempted to pass the Lower Ankara village in northern South Dakota, the Indians attacked them and drove them back. On their return they met Ramsey Crooks Pierre Chouteau, Jr. A master mind in the early fur trade and Robert McLellan, two intrepid explorers and fur traders of the northwest, who with a company of eighty men had started up the Missouri River to gather furs. Crooks and McLellan established a camp probably near Bellevue and remained there until the spring of 1810. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 39 Zebulon M. Pike. — July 15, 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, with a party consisting of two lieutenants, one surgeon, two corporals, sixteen privates, and an interpre- ter, started from Belle Fontaine, four miles above the mouth of the Missouri River, on the expedition which re- sulted in the discovery of Pike's Peak. The expedition was sent out by General James Wilkinson, then commander- in-chief of the army of the United States and also gover- nor of the Louisiana territory. The object of the expedi- tion was to establish friendly relations with the Indians of the interior and probably also to gain information relative to the Spaniards, who were dissatisfied with the sale of the territory by Napoleon. Route of the Expedition. — Pike and his company trav- eled up the Missouri River to the mouth of the Osage and then up this stream to the Osage villages near its source. Thence the party took a northwesterly course, probably entering Nebraska near the point where the Republican River leaves the state. The party camped on the north side of the river near the Pawnee village. A Rival Spanish Expedition. — Shortly before Pike came to the Pawnees, they had been visited by an expedi- tion under the Spanish lieutenant Maygares, who marched from Santa Fe with about six hundred soldiers and two thousand horses and mules. A large number of men and horses unfit for service were left at the crossing of the Arkansas River. The trail from that river to the Pawnee village was plainly marked. Pike's party found a Spanish flag flying over the council lodge of the Pawnees. This Spanish expedition was evidently sent to intercept Pike and also to make an alliance with the Indians. The Astoria Expedition. — In 1810 John Jacob Astor of New York organized the Pacific Fur Company, a part- 40 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA nership including himself and several others, among whom was Wilson Hunt, for the purpose of colonization and trade at the mouth of the Columbia River. Astor was encour- aged in his enterprise by the United States government. The partners, with the exception of Hunt, sailed by the ocean route in September, 1810, and founded Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia. In October of the same year Hunt started up the Missouri in order to reach Astoria by the overland route. The expedition came to the mouth of the Nodaway River in November and went into winter quarters. The party consisted of about sixty-five men, five of them partners in the enterprise. On the 28th of April, 1811, they reached an island in the mouth of the Platte. They halted for two days on the bank of the Missouri a little above tlie mouth of Papillion Creek, and therefore on or near the site of Bellevue. Astorians Take an Unknown Route. — Hunt and his company did not follow the Missouri to its source, as did Lewis and Clark, but stopped at the Ankara villages which were situated near the mouth of the Grand River, now in South Dakota. Here they bought horses from the Indians and secured supplies for their journey. They traveled through an unknown country and suffered greatly from the cold. They reached the mouth of the Columbia in two parties early in January and February, 1812.^ The Wanderings of Robert Stuart. — On the 28th day of June, 1812, Robert Stuart started from Astoria with five of Hunt's original party on a return trip overland. At Fort Henry, on the north fork of the Snake River in south- eastern Idaho, he was joined by four or five men who had been detached by Hunt on the 10th of the previous Octo- ber to hunt and trap. In bearing south, to avoid the Black- 1 See Irving's Astoria. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 41 feet Indians, they fell in with the Crows, who stole their horses and other equipment, leaving them afoot over a thousand miles from white settlement. They traded a pis- tol, a knife, and an ax to the Snake Indians for an old horse on which to carry their luggage. They crossed the mountains in Wyoming and came out on the plains at or near the South Pass. The Union Pacific railroad was af- terward built near this pass. Stuart has left a written ac- count of this journey. It is a valuable description of the country traversed and a great aid in locating the Oregon Trail. After a journey of terrible hardship they estab- lished winter quarters on the North Platte, not far east of the place where it issues from the mountains in Wyoming. At the end of six weeks they were driven out by the Indians and proceeded three hundred and thirty miles down the Platte; and then despairing of being able to pass safely over the desert plain covered with snow which confronted them, they retraced over seventy-seven miles of their course until they found a suitable winter camp in what is now Scotts- bluff County, where they went into winter quarters on the 30th of December, 1812. On the 8th of March, 1813, they tried to navigate the stream in canoes but found it imprac- ticable and proceeded on foot to a point about forty-five miles from the mouth of the Platte, where they embarked April 16, in a large canoe made for their purpose by the Indians. Major Long's Expedition. — Major Stephen H. Long, of the United States topographical survey, set out on June 6, 1820, to explore along the shores of the Platte. The ex- pedition under his command comprised six regular soldiers and eleven other men, most of whom were specialists needed in the scientific expedition. The Pawnee Trail was fol- lowed southwesterly to the Platte Valley; from that place 42 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA the expedition proceeded along the north side of the river to the forks, and the.nce followed the south bank of the South Platte to the Rocky Mountains. By the end of June they were able to see the mountains. They discovered the important peak located in Estes Park, Colorado, which bears the name, Long's Peak. The First Steamboat on the Missouri River. — Such importance as may be attached to Long's expedition, 1819- 1820, is due to the fact that it was the occasion of the pas- sage of the first steamboat up the Missouri, and the estab- lishment of the first military post within the limits of the territory. The post was first called Camp Missouri ; its name was later changed to Fort Atkinson after its founder. Gen- eral Atkinson, the commander of the Yellowstone expedi- tion. This fort was probably abandoned because of the failure of the up-river fur-trading enterprise. Subsequent- ly, a fort was established at Leavenworth, Kansas. Fort Atkinson was not in the line of travel as it was then de- veloping, while the new Fort Leavenworth marked the be- ginning of the Santa Fe and Oregon Trails, where traffic was of considerable and growing importance. The Yellowstone Expedition. — This was undertaken for the purpose of finding out whether it was practicable for steamboats to navigate the Missouri River, and to es- tablish military posts, one of them as high as the mouth of the Yellowstone River, near the western boundary of North Dakota, to protect American traders and trappers from the Indians and from British traders and trappers who per- sisted in trespassing upon our territory. The expedition comprised a military division and a scientific division. Henry Atkinson commanded the first, and Major Stephen H. Long the latter. A Newspaper Account of the First Steamboat to As- 44 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA cend the Missouri River. — The Franklin Intelligencer of May 28, 1819, which was published at Franklin, Missouri,, made the following announcement : With no ordinary sensation of pride and pleasure we announce the arrival this morning of the elegant steam- boat. Independence, Captain Nelson, in seven sailing days (but thirteen from the time of her departure) from St. Louis, with passengers and a cargo of flour, whisky, iron castings, etc., being the first steamboat that ever attempted to ascend the Missouri. The grand desidera- tum, the important fact is now acknowledged that steam- boats can successfully navigate the Missouri. A few months after the arrival of the Independence at Franklin another attempt was made to ascend the Missouri. The government of the United vStates, wishing to send a military expedition up the Missouri, contracted with James Johnson to transport the soldiers and their supplies in steamboats as far as Council Bluffs. The expedition, which should have started early in the spring, did not leave St. Louis until July. This put them into the Missouri in the late summer season, when the stream is usually low. Four boats undertook the journey: the Calhoun, the Bxpcdition, the Thomas Jefferson, and the Johnson. The Calhoun was unable to navigate the Mississippi on account of a break- down of her machinery. The Thomas Jefferson went about one hundred and sixty-five miles and stopped forty miles below Franklin, Missouri. The Johnson stopped about forty miles below the mouth of the Kansas River. Keel boats were brought into service when each boat failed, but the expedition got no further than Council Bluffs, which was about half the distance to the mouth of the Yellow- stone, the destination. A better managed expedition in 1820 carried a full cargo of supplies to the military post at Coun- cil Bluffs without difficulty. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 45 Manuel de Lisa. — The earliest settlements blend with the expeditions of discovery and exploration. Manuel de CL> C-^a.n^a/yC <^J-a, Lisa seems to have done his share in opening the way for those who were to come after. He was doubtless the most remarkable man among the early explorers and traders of 46 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA the Missouri River country. "In boldness of enterprise, persistency of purpose, and in restless energy he was a fair representative of the Spaniard of the days of Cortes. He was a man of great ability, a masterly judge of men, thor- oughly experienced in the Indian trade and native customs, intensely active in his work, yet withal a perfect enigma of character which his contemporaries were never able to solve." He was selected to command nearly every expedi- tion sent out by St. Louis companies of which he was a mem- ber. Lisa was born of Spanish parents in Cuba in 1772. Lisa's Expeditions. — The return of Lewis and Clark excited Lisa's ambition to establish trade on the upper Mis- souri, and in 1807 he led an expedition as far as the mouth of the Big Horn, where he established a post called Fort Lisa. Under the direction of the Missouri Fur Company of St. Louis, in which he was a partner, he led the expedition of one hundred and fifty men to the Big Horn post, but returned to St. Louis for the winter. Every year from 1807 to 1819, inclusive, with but one possible exception, he made the upper Missouri trip, twice to the Big Horn, a distance of two thousand miles, several times to Fort Mandan, fifteen hundred miles, the rest of the journeys being to Fort Lisa at Council BlufYs,^ six hundred and seventy miles. After he established Fort Lisa (later Fort Calhoun) in 1812, he spent most of his winters there, returning each spring to St. Louis. Fort Lisa was six miles below the original Council Bluffs where Lewis and Clark held council with the Indians in 1804. Lisa's Last Sojourn in Nebraska. — Lisa's last sojourn in his Nebraska home was in 1819, and at this time his wife, whom he had recently married in St. Louis, was with him. Mrs. Mary Lisa is believed to be the first white woman 1 There is a tradition that Lisa visited the site of Bellevue in 1804 and gave that place its name. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 47 to reside in Nebraska or to ascend the Missouri. Lisa kept one woman of the Omaha tribe as wife, and there is a tragic story of his final separation from her before his last trip back to St. Louis and of her giving up to him their two children to be educated because she thought it would be best for them. Lisa died in St. Louis in 1820. Milton Sublette. — In the spring of 1830 Milton Sub- lette followed nearly the same trail that the returning Astor- ians, under Robert Stuart, had traversed in 1813. There were few traces of the Stuart trail, and Sublette could only follow it in a general way. He had ten wagons and a party of men. They also took with them a cow that they might have milk to use on the trip. They reached the Wind River Mountains in Southwestern Wyoming in July. They ob- tained from the Indians a large quantity of valuable furs and returned to St. Louis the same fall. Their wagons left sufficient imprint on the prairie up the valley of the Little Blue and the Platte to be followed by other travelers, and thus was established the famous highway that became dis- tinguished as the Oregon Trail. Captain Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville. — Captain Bonneville was a diligent wanderer rather -than an explorer ; he owes his fame largely to the fact that the fascinating Irving was his historian. Bonneville was born in France in 1796, and when a small boy was brought to this country by his mother, his father being detained in France by Na- poleon on account of having issued some offensive political pamphlets. Bonneville was appointed to West Point, grad- uated there in 1819, and was then named on the staff of General Lafayette, with whom he toured the United States and afterwards went to France as his guest. He saw some service in the American army on the frontier, but wishing to engage in the fur trade, secured leave of absence. He 48 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA took a party of about one hundred men with twenty four- horse wagons over the Oregon Trail in the spring of 1832. This was the first wagon train over that part of the trail known as the cut-off between Independence and Grand Benjamin Louis Eui.ai.ia Bonnevii.i.e Island. Bonneville traveled over the whole northwest mountain region, including the Columbia River country, until the spring of 1835. The gallant captain was a con- spicuous figure in the Seminole War, and later went with his command into Mexico.^ Fremont's First Expedition. — In 1842 Lieutenant J. C. 1 While Captain Bonneville's travels resulted in little benefit to Nebraska, they will be found interesting reading as described in Washington Irving's Bonneville's Adventures. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 49 Fremont was detailed "to explore and report upon the country between the frontiers of Missouri and the south pass in the Rocky Mountains and o.n the line of the Kansas and great Platte rivers." The expedition consisted of twenty-seven men. Kit Carson, the famous guide, was a member of the party. They left Chouteau's trading post about twelve miles above the mouth of the Kansas River in June, following the Oregon Trail to the mountains. On the return journey the expedition followed the Platte to its mouth. Fremont's early attempt to navigate the river proved to be a failure. His own account is interesting : At this place [the junction of the North Platte and the South] I had determined to make another attempt to descend the Platte by water, and accordingly spent two days in the construction of a bull boat. Men were sent out on the evening of our arrival, the necessary num- ber of buffalo bulls killed, and their skins brought to camp. Four of the best of them were strongly sewed together with buffalo sinew, and stretched over a bas- ket frame of willow. The seams were then covered with ashes and tallow and the boat left exposed to the sun the greater part of one day, which was sufficient to dry and contract the skin and make the whole work solid and strong. It had a rounded bow, was eight feet long and five feet broad, and drew with four men about four inches of water. On the morning of the 15th we em- barked in our hide boat, Mr. Preuss and myself with two men. We dragged over the sands for three or four miles, and then left her on the bar, and abandoned en- tirely all further attempts to navigate this river. The names given by the Indians are remarkably appropriate; and certainly none was ever more so than that which they gave to this stream — "the Nebraska, or Shallow River." In 1843 Fremont made a second expedition into the plains region. He passed up the Kansas and Republican rivers to what is now Dundy County, Nebraska, and then journeyed 50 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA in a northwesterly direction to the Platte River, which he followed to the mountains. Colonel Kearny's Expedition. — May 18, 1845, Colonel Stephen W. Kearny started from Fort Leavenworth ''on an John C. Frlmont expedition through the Indian country." His command consisted of five companies of the first regiment of dra- goons, two hundred and fifty in number. Kearny followed the Oregon Trail all of the way through the Nebraska coun- try. Colonel Kearny is honored in Nebraska by having his SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 51 name given to old Fort Kearny, established in 1847 near the present site of Nebraska City/ Peter A. Sarpy. — This pioneer was born in 1804. But little is known of his early life except that he was of French uroiu an oca uugaerreOi,ype luiceri in i^oo at Council Bluffs, loiva, and given to the Nehraslca State Historical Society by J. Sterling Morton. Peter A. Sarpy extraction and was educated in St. Louis where his relatives, the Chouteaus, occupied a high social position. His father was said to be the first white man to attempt to navigate the Missouri in a keel boat. About 1823 Sarpy came to Nebraska as a clerk for the American Fur Company and a 1 The fort was afterwards removed to a site eight miles southeast of the present city of Kearney. 52 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA year later succeeded to the managership of the post at Bellevue. Soon after this he estabHshed a post on the Iowa side of the river which he named Trader's Point. This Ni-co-Mi (Voice of the Waters) Indian wife of Peter A. Sarpy post was used for the accommodation of the whites, while the Bellevue post chiefly supplied the Indians. In 1853 he established ferries across the Elkhorn River near where the town of Elkhorn now is and on the Loup River near the present site of Columbus. Sarpy loved the freedom of the SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 53 west and was intimately associated with the Indians, being honored with the title of "White Chief" by the Omahas. He married according to the Indian custom Ni-co-mi, a woman of the Iowa Indians, to whorfi he was greatly attached. Peter J. DeSmet, S. J. Sarpy County was named in his honor and an imposing monument stands at his grave in Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis. Peter J. DeSmet. — Father DeSmet, born in Belgium in 1801, came to St. Louis in 1829, and became missionary to the Indians of the Platte and upper Missouri in 1838. He was the first Catholic missionary in this territory, where he worked for thirty years. He was a man of keen insight 54 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA into human nature, of rare judgment, and of sterling char- acter. He often greatly aided the government and the Indians in arriving at agreements when making treaties. The Indians, who almost 'idolized him, called him "Black Robe." He was highly respected by the fur traders and other whites with whom he came in contact and was greatly trusted by the government. Father DeSmet had ample faith in the future of the Nebraska plains and early proph- esied that homes, schools, hospitals, and cities would some day arise on them. He died in 1873 and is buried in St. Louis. ^ QUESTIONS — CHAPTER III 1. Why was the Oregon Trail so named? 2. Who were Lewis and Clark and what can you tell about them.'* 3. What kind of a boat is a "keel boat" ? 4. What can j-ou learn about Crook and McLellan? 5. What can you tell about John Jacob Astor? 6. Who was Robert Stuart and whv is he mentioned? ^ See Chittenden and Richardson's Life, Letters and Travels of father DeSmet. CHAPTER IV Early Indian Travel. — There is as yet but little knowledge of prehistoric or Indian routes of travel in Ne- braska. The Indians do not seem to have had any fixed or definite routes. T. S. Huffaker, who came to Council Grove, Kansas, in 1846 as a missionary and teacher, makes the following statement : When I first came among the Indians, now more than half a century ago, there were at that time no well de- fined trails, but between the several bands of the same tribes there were plain beaten trails. Each band had a village of its own, and they continually visited each other. The dififerent tribes would change their location perpetually, and never remain in one location long enough to mark any well defined trails, in going from tribe to tribe. It is probable that the prehistoric routes were several miles in width, merely following the same general direction and not traveled sufficiently to form beaten trails. The stealth of the Indian naturally kept him from establishing a plainly defined road. However, in some places in Nebras- ka there are evidences of paths and roads made by pioneer white men. Later two well defined and important routes across the* plains country were established, namely, the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, The Santa Fe Trail. — This road came into existence for travel between Missouri River points and the settle- ments of New Mexico. It was surveyed by the govern- ment probably in 1820, and the first wagon train passed over it in 1828. While it has little connection with the history 56 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA of Nebraska, it furnished a story replete with Indian and other adventures and became the first means of opening communications with the American Southwest.^ The Oregon Trail. — This was the most notable route of its kind in the country. By 1843 it had become a well defined road for trade and other traffic between St. Louis and the mouth of the Columbia River. The general line of this trail had been used by the Indians from time imme- morial; not as to its whole length, but in parts here and there. The white man developed it into a continuous route. Starting Point of the Oregon Trail. — While St. Louis was the true eastern terminus of the route, the overland trail really began at Franklin, Missouri, two hundred and fifty miles above the mouth of the Missouri River. After some years Independence, situated near the mouth of the Kansas River, superseded Franklin as the starting point. When the river carried away the Independence landing, Westport, now within the boundaries of Kansas City, be- came the starting point. The first traffic by way of Frank- lin and Independence, which began about 1820, was with Santa Fe, and it is not possible to say when travel over the eastern end of the Oregon Trail began. The First Route to the Columbia. — The first travel to the Columbia was along the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers. The western end of the journey evidently followed what later became the Oregon Trail. Hunt's Astorian ex- pedition (1811) ascended the Missouri to the Arikara vil- lages, but followed the trail from the junction of the Port Nehf River with the Snake River. Hunt was probably the first white traveler over the western end of the route. There was no pathway to the Columbia River, and the Indians at the head waters of the Snake River were ignorant of any 1 See Henry Inman's Old Santa Fc Trail. 58 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA way to reach it. Stuart and Crooks on their return journey followed the general course of the Oregon Trail to Grand Island, Nebraska, with the exception of a detour in south- eastern Idaho. Bonneville passed over the cut-off from Independence to Grand Island, thus connecting the two ends of the route destined later to carry an immense travel across the continent. Bonneville's was the first wagon train over this end of the trail. Itinerary of the Trail. — A fairly accurate itinerary of the Oregon Trail is given in the notes of Fremont and other travelers as follows : From Independence for the distance of forty-one miles it is identical w'ith the Santa Fe Trail; from the junction to the Kansas River it is eighty-one miles; to the Big Blue River, one hundred and seventy- four miles ; to the Little Blue River, two hundred and forty-one miles ; to the head of the Little Blue River, two hundred and nine- ty-six miles ; to the Platte River, three hundred and sixteen miles ; to the lower ford of the South Platte River four hundred and thirty-three miles; to the upper ford of the South Platte River, four hundred and ninety-three miles : to Chimney Rock, five hundred and seventy-one miles ; to 'Scotts Bluff, six hundred and sixteen miles. Adding the distance from the north w^est boundary of Nebraska to Fort Vancouver, the western terminus, makes a total of 2,020 miles. The Course of the Trail. — The trail crossed the Ne- l)raska line about four miles w^est of the southwestern cor- ner of Jefferson County; it left the Little Blue River at a ])end beyond this point, but returned to it again just beyond Hebron. It left this stream finally at a point near Leroy and reached the Platte River about twenty miles below the western end of Grand Island. Proceeding along the south Ijank of the Platte, it crossed the south fork about SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 59 sixty miles from the junction, and touched the north fork at Ash Creek, twenty miles beyond the south fork crossing. Numbers of the Emigrants. — Travel by emigrants across the plains by the great trail to California and Oregon, Scenes at Ash Holeow chiefly the latter region, set in extensively in 1844. Francis Parkman, who left St. Louis in the spring of 1846 on a tour to the Rocky Mountains, came upon the old legitimate trail of the Oregon emigrants at the junction of the St. Joseph Trail. Bryant, another traveler in the West during 60 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA that year, noticed many emigrants to Oregon and California over the trail. Bryant reports that his party met five men, who, in coming from Fort Laramie, had counted four hun- dred and seventy west-bound emigrant wagons. Ash Hollow. — In western Nebraska there were sev- eral clearly defined landmarks which served to hold the trail to definite lines. One of these landmarks was Ash Hollow, nineteen miles from the forks of the Platte. Stansbury has the following description of the crossing between the twO' forks and of Ash Hollow itself : To-day we crossed the ridge between the north and south forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen and one-half miles. As we expected to find no water for the whole of the distance, the India rubber bap^s were filled with a small supply. The road struck directly up the bluff, rising quite rapidly at first, then very gradually for twelve miles, when we reached the summit, and a most magnificent view saluted the eye. Before and be- low us was the north fork of the Nebraska, winding its way through broken hills and green meadows. Behind us lay the undulating prairie rising gently from the south fork, over which we had just passed. On our right a gradual convergence of the two valleys was dis- tinctly perceptible; while immediately at our feet were the heads of Ash Creek which fell off suddenly into deep, precipitous chasms on either side, leaving only a high narrow ridge or backbone, which gradually de- scended until, towards its western termination, it fell off precipitately into the bottom of the creek. . . . The bottom of Ash Creek is tolerably well wooded, princi- pally with ash and some dwarf cedars. The bed of the stream was entirely dry, but towards the mouth several springs of delightfully cool and refreshing water were found, altogether the best that has been met with since leaving Missouri. We encamped at the mouth of the valley, here called "Ash PIollow." Court House Rock. — The next noticeable landmark 62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA on the trail was Court House Rock, so named by emigrants from St. Louis because of a fancied resemblance to a well known structure in their own city. It was some distance south of the road and the Platte. When Samuel Parker, the missionary, traveling on the opposite or north side of the river, passed Court House Rock in 1835, it was evidently unnamed, for he spoke of it as "a great natural curiosity which for the sake of a name I shall call the old castle." Par- ker described this formation as more than fifty feet high and covering more than an acre of ground. Bryant in 1846 went about seven miles towards it from the road and de- scribes it as from three to five hundred feet high and about a mile in circumference. Chimney Rock. — Captain Bonneville describes this next natural wonder as follows : '*It is called The Chim- ney. The lower part is a conical mound, rising out of the naked plain ; from the summit shoots up a shaft or column about one hundred twenty feet in height, from which it de- rived its name. . . . It is a compound of clay, with al- ternate layers of red and white sand stone, and may be seen at a distance of upwards of thirty miles." According to Bonneville's authority the total height of the formation was more than one hundred and seventy-five yards. Fre- mont and Palmer each described it and estimated its height. This peculiar formation stood as a silent monument mark- ing the way for early travelers. Scotts Bluff. — The bluff is situated on the south side of the Platte, about three-quarters of a mile from the bank. It rises about eight hundred feet above the river and com- mands the valley for many miles in each direction. Scotts Bluff derives its name from a trapper, who, with five or six others, was returning by boat to the settlements. Scott became ill and was deserted by his companions, who re- Engraving from photograph by John Wright. Chimney Rock 64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA ported that he had died and had been buried along the bank of the river. After being deserted, he traveled about sixty miles to the bluff and perished there. Papers and clothing found upon the body furnish unmistakable evidence of his identity. Scott's name is also perpetuated in that of Scotts Bluff County. Travel on the Oregon Trail. — The greatest volume of travel passed over the trail during the years between 1832 and 1860. Thousands upon thousands of people during each summer season journeyed along this noted highway toward the Great West so rich with furs, gold, and other valuables. The travelers formed really a moving com- munity in which occurred births, weddings, funerals, re- ligious services, and other interesting events. During a part of this time the government maintained well equipped wagon trains over this route. Father DeSmet tells us that each train .consisted of twenty-six wagons, each wagon drawn by six yoke of oxen. These trains sometimes made a continuous line fifty miles long. The wagons were manned like ships at sea and each wagon had a captain who drove the six yoke of oxen. Thus each train had twenty-six captains and three hundred and twelve oxen, all under com- mand of a master wagoner. Interesting Notes on the Oregon Trail. — Joel Parker, an early traveler, thus described camping on the trail: The manner of our encamping is to form a large hol- low square, encompassing an area of about an acre hav- ing the river on one side; three wagons forming a part of another side, coming down to the river; and three more in the same manner on the opposite side; and the packages so arranged in parcels, about three rods apart, as to fill up the rear and the sides not occupied by the wagons. The horses and mules, near the middle of the day, are turned out under guard to feed for two hours, SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 65 and the same again towards night, until after sun- set, when they are taken up and brought within the hol- low square, and fastened with ropes twelve feet long to pickets driven firmly in the ground. The men are Engravivg from photograph by John Wright. ScoTTs Br,uFP AND Vicinity divided into companies, stationed at the several parcels of goods and wagons, where they wrap themselves in their blankets and rest for the night. The whole, how- ever, are formed into six divisions to keep guard, re- lieving each other every two hours. This is to prevent 66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA hostile Indians from falling upon us by surprise or com- ing into the tent by stealth and taking away either horses or packages of goods. The History of the American Fur Trade ^ contains the fol- lowing description of the Oregon Trail : This wonderful highway was in the broadest sense a national road, although not surveyed or built under the auspices of the government. Only on the steppes of Siberia can so long a highway be found over which traffic has moved by a continuous journey from one end to the other. Even in Siberia there are occasional settlements along the route, but on the Oregon Trail, in 1843, the traveler saw no evidence of civilized habitation except four trading posts, between Independence and Fort Van- couver. As a highway of travel the Oregon Trail is the most remarkable known in history. Considering the fact that it originated with the spontaneous use of travelers; that no level established its grades ; that no transit ever located a foot of it ; that no engineer sought out the fords or built any bridges or surveyed the mountain passes ; that there was no grading to speak of or any attempt at metalling the road-bed; and the general good quality of this two thousand miles of highway will seem most extra- ordinary. Father DeSmet, who was born in Belgium, the home of good roads, pronounced the Oregon Trail one of the finest highways in the world. At the proper season of the year this is undoubtedly true. Before the prairies became too dry, the natural turf formed the best roadway for horses to travel on that has probably ever been known. It was amply hard to sustain traffic, yet soft enough to be easier to the feet than even the most perfect asphalt pavement. Over such roads, winding rib- bon-like through the verdant prairies, amid the profusion of spring flowers, with grass so plentiful that the ani- mals reveled in its abundance, and game everywhere greeting the hunter's rifle, and finally, with pure water in 1 Vol. I., pp. 460-463. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 67 the streams, the traveler sped on his way with a feeling of joy and exhilaration. But not so when the prairies became dry and parched, the road filled with stifling dust, the stream beds mere dry ravines, or carrying only alka- line water which could not be used, the game all gone to more hospitable sections, and the summer sun pouring down its heat with torrid intensity. It was then that the trail became a highway of desolation, strewn with abandoned property, the skeletons of horses, mules, and oxen, and, alas, too often, with freshly made mounds and head boards that told the pitiful tale of suffenngs too great to be endured. If the trail was the scene of romance, adventure, pleasure, and excitement, so it was marked in every mile of its course by human misery, tragedy, and death. The immense travel which in later years passed over the trail carved it into a deep furrow, often with several parallel tracks making a total width of a hundred feet or more. It was an astonishing spectacle even to white men when seen for the first time. It may be easily imagined how great an impression the sight of this road must have made upon the minds of the Indians. Father DeSmet has recorded some inter- esting observations on this point. In 1851 he traveled in company with a large number of Indians from the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers to Fort Laramie, where a great council was held in that year to form treaties with several tribes. Most of these Irtdians had not been in that section before, and were quite unprepared for what they saw. "Our Indian com- panions," says Father DeSmet, "who had never seen but the narrow hunting paths by which they transport themselves and their lodges, were filled with admiration on seeing this noble highway, which is as smooth as a barn floor swept by the winds, and not a blade of grass can shoot up on it on account of the continual passing. They conceived a high idea of the countless White Na- tion, as they expressed it. They fancied that all had gone over that road and that an immense void must exist in the land of the rising sun. Their countenances testified 68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA evident incredulity when I told them that their exit was in no-wise perceived in the land of the whites. They styled the route the Great Medicine Road of the Whites." Over much of its length the trail is now abandoned, but in many places it is not yet effaced from the soil and may not be for centuries. There are few more impres- sive sights than portions of this old highway today. It still lies there upon the prairie, deserted by the traveler, an everlasting memorial of the human tide which once filled it to overflowing. Nature herself has helped to per- petuate this memorial, for the prairie winds, year by year, carve the furrow more deeply, and the wild sun-flower blossoms along its course, as if in silent memory of those who sank beneath its burdens. . . . Railroads practically follow the old line from Independ- ence to Casper, Wyoming, some fifty miles east of In- dependence Rock ; and from Bear River on the Utah- Wyoming line to the mouth of the Columbia. The time is not distant when the intermediate space will be occu- pied, and possibly a continuous and unbroken move- ment of trains over the entire line may some day fol- low. In a future still more remote there may be realized a project, which is even now being agitated, of building a magnificent national road along this line as a memorial highway which shall serve the future and commemorate the past. The Mormons and Their Trail Through Nebraska, — The Latter Day Saints, commonly called Mormons, orig- inated in New York in 1830. They taught certain peculiar religious beliefs, among which was polygamy. Largely on account of the practice of the latter, the Mormons were driven westward by their neighbors. They traveled by stages and in 1846 arrived at the Missouri River nearly opposite the present city of Omaha. The first company consisted of several hundred people, who built a ferry with which to cross the river. Though all the country west of the Missouri was "Indian country" and white men at that time .5 W I ^ ^ < 70 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA were forbidden to enter it, these determined Mormons went forward. By the close of 1846 there were about 12,000 of these people on both sides of the Missouri River. The Mormons built a village of 538 log houses' and 83 sod houses on the site of where Florence, a suburb of Omaha, now stands. They also erected a flourishing mill costing about $8,000, established schools, and set up a Mor- mon church. The settlement received the name Winter Quarters. About this time five companies of the Mormon men enlisted in the United States army to serve in the Mex- ican War. The money they received was used to help sus- tain the village of Winter Quarters, as there had been severe want during the sickly winter, and a malarial epidemic had caused the death of about 600 people. In April, 1847, the first band of Mormons started west- ward to find a home beyond the mountains where they could not be molested in their religious teachings and practices. Included in this caravan and the ones following it during the next two years were several thousand people, hundreds of wagons, and a few thousand cattle. The Mormons devel- oped a trail along the north side of the Platte River through- out the entire length of the state, from Florence to the northwest corner of Scotts Blufif County. While this trail was the main one used by the Mormons, they also followed other trails through Nebraska, including the Oregon Trail. These trails they marked by distributing sun-flower seed, so that the growing plants would show the way to those who came after them. They settled in the valley of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, and are to be credited with the pioneer development of that country.^ 1 It should be noted that man}^ of the Latter Day Saints did not believe in polygamy. Those who refused to practice it remained in Nebraska and other states farther east. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 71 The Overland Mail. — The discovery of gold in Cali- fornia and the founding of the great Mormon settlement at Salt Lake City led the Federal government to establish the "Overland Mail." The first contract was let in 1850 to Samuel H. Woodston, of Independence, Missouri. The service was monthly, and the distance between terminal points, Independence and Salt Lake City, was twelve hun- dred miles. The mail route was soon extended to Sacra- mento, California. The service was by stage coach, and the route was substantially the same as the Oregon Trail as far as the Rocky Mountains. Foit Kearny, Fort Laramie, and Fort Bridger were important points along the route. In 1857 a weekly mail service began. Russell, Majors, and Waddell. — The contract for carrying the mails was secured in 1859 by Russell, Majors, and Waddell. This firm soon became the most extensive freighters in Nebraska. They changed their river head- quarters from Leavenworth to Nebraska City. The firm's records disclose that over eight thousand tons of supplies were carried from Nebraska City and Leavenworth to Salt Lake City in 1858, requiring over three thousand five hun- dred wagons and twelve thousand ox teams to transport them. This firm also controlled the Leavenworth and Pike's Peak Express. After taking the mail contract, the two stage lines were consolidated under the name of the Central Overland California and Pike's Peak Express. Through Mail to the Pacific. — The first through mail to the Pacific coast was opened by the post office depart- ment September 15, 1858, and ran from St. Louis through Texas via Fort Yuma to San Francisco; it was operated principally by John Butterfield. The opening of this new route was made necessary by the deep snows which inter- fered with the use of the northern route in winter. The 72 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA trips were made semi-weekly with Concord coaches drawn by four or six horses ; the schedule time was twenty-five days. Renewed Use of the Northern Route. — The outbreak of the Civil War caused the southern route to be aban- One Type of the Famous Concord Stage-coach doned. A daily mail was then established over the north- ern route. The first through daily coaches on the line left St. Joseph, Missouri, and Placerville, California, July 1, 1861, the trip occupying a little over seventeen days. The Concord coaches used on this, the greatest stage line ever operated, accommodated nine passengers inside, and often one or two sat with the driver. Sometimes an extra seat was made outside just back of the driver. • As many as fifteen passengers might travel in and on a coach. Until 1863 the passenger fare was $75 from Atchison to Den- SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 73 ver; $150 to Salt Lake City, and $225 to Placerville, Cal- ifornia. The fare was subsequently increased when the currency of the country became inflated. Benjamin Holladay. — The transportation magnate of his day was Benjamin Holladay. A native of Kentucky, he came at an early age to western Missouri and entered business. During the Mexican War Holladay obtained con- tracts for furnishing provisions for Colonel Doniphan's regiment. At the close of the war he was known as a busi- ness man of wealth and prominence. In 1865 he obtained contracts for carrying mail from Nebraska City and Omaha to Kearney City. In the early 'sixties he purchased from Majors, Russell, and Waddell the Pony Express line, then running to Salt Lake City. This merged into a stage route with the finest line of coaches ever run in America. It made fast schedule time from Atchison, Kansas, to San Francisco, passing through Nebraska over the Oregon Trail and covering the two thousand miles in seventeen days. The Pony Express. — In 1854 Senator W. M. Gwin, of California, rode to Washington on horseback. B. F. Fick- lin, superintendent of the firm of Russell, Majors, and Wad- dell, was his traveling companion during a part of the jour- ney. The idea of the pony express grew out of this trip. Senator Gwin introduced a bill to establish a weekly mail on the pony express plan. The bill failed, but through the efforts of Gwin the express was established by Russell as a private enterprise. It began operation between St. Jo- seph and Sacramento in 1860. Financial aid w^as not given by the government, although it gave a million dollar sub- sidy to the slower daily mail which superseded the pony express. Ordinary letters were carried by the slower service. The original charge by pony express for each letter of one-half ounce was five dollars, but this was later 74 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA reduced to two dollars and fifty cents. This sum was in addition to the regular charge for postage. Operation of the Pony Express. — The Pony Express ran regularly each week ^ from April 3, 1860. It carried letter mail only, and passed through Forts Kearny, Lar- amie, and,Bridger, Salt Lake City, Camp Floyd, Carson City, the Washoe silver mines, Placerville, and Sacramento. The letter mail was delivered in San Francisco within ten days of the departure of the; express. In Nebraska the express followed the line of the Oregon Trail. Telegraph dispatches were delivered in San Francisco in eight days after leaving St. Joseph, the western terminus of the tele- graph line. A copy of President Lincoln's First Inaugural Address went from St. Joseph to Sacramento, approxi- mately two thousand miles, in seven days and seventeen hours. W. H. Russell, president of the Central Overland Cali- fornia and Pike's Peak Express Company, was the magnate of this enterprise. About five hundred of the fleetest horses were used; there were one hundred and ninety sta- tions distributed along the route from nine to fifteen miles apart. Each of the eighty riders covered three stations or an aggregate of about thirty-three miles, mounting a fresh horse at each station. The maximum weight of letters car- ried was twenty pounds. Hazards of the Trip. — Sure footed and tough western horses were used on the mountain stages. Pleat and alkali in summer, snow and torrential streams in winter, and hos- tile Indians the year round made these trips exceedingly difficult and hazardous. Armed men on bronchos were stationed at regular intervals along a large part of the trail ^ The express later made semi-weekly trips under a contract auth- orized by act of Congress of March 2, 1861. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 1^ to protect the riders from Indians. Of a necessity these riders were distinguished for remarkable endurance and courage; many of them afterwards became famous as hunt- ers and Indian fighters of the great plains. Route of William F. Cody. — Colonel William F. Cody, who afterward became a distinguished citizen of Nebraska and who owned ''Scout's Rest Ranch," near North Platte, was one of these riders. He covered the route between Red Buttes, Wyoming, and Three Crossings on the Sweet- water River. This was a distance of about seventy-six miles — one of the most difficult and dangerous stages on the whole road. Sometimes in an emergency Cody con- tinued his trip to Rocky Ridge, a distance of eighty-five miles, and then back to the starting place. Red Buttes, covering the whole distance of three hundred and twenty- two miles without rest and making not less than fifteen miles an hour.^ The Pony Express a Financial Loss. — The Pony Ex- press, after being operated for about eighteen months, was superseded by the telegraph. It proved a financial failure and entailed a loss of more than two hundred thousand dollars to those who operated it. The loss was probably due to the enormous number of men, horses, and equipment re- quired to keep it going and to the fact that the field of oper- ation was necessarily so far from the management and base of supplies. Considering its remarkable speed, so nearly approximating that of a railroad train, the pony express is one of the most interesting and picturesque enterprises on record. The First Telegraph Company. — The Missouri and Western Telegraph Company completed the first telegraph 1 See Last of the, Great Scouts (William F. Cody, "Buffalo Bill") by Helen Cody Wetmore, his sister, and Zane Grey. 76 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA line from Brownville by way of Omaha to Fort Kearny in November, 1860, where the store room of Moses H. Sydenham was used for the first office.^ The Hne continued on from this place to Salt Lake City, where it met the line coming east from San Francisco. gUKSTlONS CIIAPTKR IV 1. What is the distinction between emigrants and immigrants? 2. Why was the "Pony Express" so called? 3. What can yon find out about Brownville and its history? 4. Who was Tecumseh and what can you learn about him? 5. How is the name of General Leavenworth kept in the minds of the people? 1 The tek'graph Hnc from St. Joseph to Brownville was completed in August, 1860. CHAPTER V The Missouri River Traffic. — Though there was some steamboat traffic on the lower Missouri River before 1830, it was not until that year that the American Fur Company, un- der the control of John Jacob Astor and his son, William B. Astor, began to make ready for the regular navigation of the upper river/ The company built the steamer Yellow- stone, so named probably because its objective was the mouth of the Yellowstone River, near the western boundary of North Dakota. On the first trip, in 1831, the boat did not go farther than Fort Tecumseh, opposite the present site of Pierre, South Dakota. In 1832 the Yellozvstone reached Fort Union and demonstrated the practicability of upper river navigation. Fort Benton, in central Montana, marked the head of navigation on the Missouri. The coming of the railroad into the upper Missouri region cut off the river traffic. The Northern Pacific reached Bismarck in 1873 ; the Northwestern reached Pierre in 1880 and Chamberlain in 1881. River transportation for freight and passengers was carried on for more than forty years. It is probable that the last trip from St. Louis to Fort Benton was made in 1865. This means of reaching the vast interior of the great plains proved to be of inestimable value in settling Nebraska. The navigation of the Missouri, however, was always attended with considerable difficulty, owing to the shifting sand bars which continually changed the channel. Keel Boats. — Until the introduction of steamboats, ^ Captain Chittenden's Early Navigation on the Missouri River is interesting reading in this connection. 77 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 79 the traffic of the fur traders was carried on in keel boats. They were from sixty to seventy feet long, and, with the exception of ahout twelve feet at either end, were occupied by an inclosed apartment in the shape of a long box con- taining the cargo. The boats were ordinarily propelled by a cordelle, a rope about three hundred yards long, one end of which was attached to the boat while the other was in the hands of twenty to forty men who traveled along the shore of the stream and hauled the boat after them. Sometimes when the wind was favorable, sails were used. Poles and oars were brought into use in emergencies. It is not strange that with this laborious means of reaching the inter- ior a journey by keel boat from St. Louis to the upper river should require four to six months. Mackinaw Boats. — The mackinaw was propelled by four oarsmen and was used only on down-stream trips. It was somewhat smaller than the keel boat and of a tem- porary nature. The fame of the bull-boat,^ which was used on the shallow tributaries of the Missouri, was built of willow saplings lashed together with rawhide and covered with the skins of buffaloes. This craft was buoyant and flexible and well adapted to the sandy shallows of the Platte and other smaller rivers. The Cargoes. — Boats passing up the river were in- spected rigidly to see that they had not on board intoxicating liquors, which it was unlawful to carry into the "Indian country." Smuggling was not infrequent, and nearly every cargo had a generous supply of liquor secreted somewhere on board. The cargoes of the boats in the earlier river navigation consisted of merchandise for Indian trading, out- fits for trappers and hunters, stores for the military posts, and, in addition, passengers. ^ See page 49 for Fremont's description of a bull-boat. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 81 Captain Joseph La Barge. — The principal figure among the early steamboat captains who frequented the Missouri River was Joseph La Barge. To the captains and pilots of his day he was what Kit Carson and^Buffalo Bill" were to the plainsmen. Born in 1815 of a French-Canadian father and a Spanish-French mother, he entered the service of the American Fur Company at the age of seventeen. In the spring of 1833 he conducted a fleet of mackinaw boats from the upper waters of the Missouri to St. Louis. In 1834 he was in the employ of Peter A. Sarpy. Soon after this he began his career of more than forty years as captain and pilot of various steamboats on the Missouri River. He died in 1899 at St. Louis. Volume of River Traffic. — The records of those early days show that in 1858 there were fifty-nine steamboats on the lower Missouri. During that year there were three hun- dred and six steamboat arrivals at the port of Leavenworth, and the freight charges collected amounted to $166,941.35. It is said that in 1859 more vessels left St. Louis for the Missouri River than for both the upper and lower Missis- sippi. In 1857 there were twenty-eight steamboat arrivals at Sioux City before July 1. Sioux City was then a mere village. There were twenty-three regular boats on that part of the river, and their freight tonnage for the season was valued at $1,250,000. The period covered between 1855 and 1860 was the most important in the history of the Missouri River traffic. It was just before the coming of the railroads. Idea of Navigating the Platte. — Those who are fa- miliar with the Platte look with considerable interest upon the early attempt to improve that river for navigation pur- poses. The territorial legislature memorialized Congress to grant John A. Latta of Plattsmouth twenty thousand acres 82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA of land in the Platte Valley on condition that, before Octo- ber 1,1861, he "shall place on said river a good and sub- stantial steamboat and run the same between the mouth of the said Platte River and Fort Kearny and do all the ne- cessary dredging, knowing there is a sufficient volume of water in said river, which is a thousand miles in length." A Nebraska City paper published a statement that "the little boat built for the purpose of navigating the Platte passed here on Sunday morning. It was a little one-horse aiTair and will not, in our opinion amount to much. If the Platte River is to be rendered navigable, and we believe it can, it requires a boat sufficiently large to slash around and stir up the sand, that a channel may be formed by wash- ing." These early pioneers do not seem to have fully com- prehended the difficulties of navigation to be encountered in the shallow waters and shifting sands of the Platte. The Steam Wagon. — It is interesting to note the struggle made by early men of the territory to find a more suitable means of transportation. The Scientific American in August, 1862, copied from the Nebraska City News an account of a trial trip of a steam wagon which had started for Denver "drawing three road wagons containing five tons of freight, two cords of wood, and crowded with ex- cited citizens." This article goes on to relate that there were five regular stage routes between the Missouri River and the west, all of which centered at Fort Kearny, and that the stage fare for a single passenger from Nebraska City to Denver was $75 ; the time taken for the trip was one week, traveling night and day. "The citizens of Ne- braska, in view of these facts, have regarded the intro- duction of the steam wagon with enthusiasm as a great improvement upon the slow and expensive system of animal teaming on the prairie road." The SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 83 steam wagon met with an accident about twelve mfles out of Nebraska City. The trip was finally abandoned at this point. Territorial Roads. — Since Nebraska was in fact and in law exclusively "Indian country" prior to the time of its organization as a territory (1854), it had no roads except such as had been selected in the natural course of travel, and no bridges except those which had been built voluntarily at otherwise impassable crossings. The first travelers of necessity forded the smaller streams and sometimes made circuitous routes in order to find suitable fords. The first appropriation for a highway within the present limits of Nebraska was made by an act of Congress February 17, 1855, which authorized the construction of "a territorial road from a point on the Missouri River, opposite the city of Council Bluffs, in the territory of Nebraska, to New Fort Kearny in said territory." On the 3rd of March, 1857, Congress appropriated $30,- 000 ''for the construction of a road from the Platte River via the Omaha reserve and Dakota City to the Running Water River," under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior. George L. Sites, who seems to have been placed in charge of the construction of this road, was sent out to examine the route and report on the means of expending the funds. He reported that it was not the intention to build a road thoroughly graded and bridged, but to meet the immediate demands of the settlers in that region, and that the sum appropriated was sufficient for this purpose. In February, 1855, Congress appropriated $30,000 "for a military road from the Great Falls ^ of the Missouri River in the territory of Nebraska ^ to intersect the military road 1 In what is now Montana. 2 Note the map on page 80 for the extent of Nebraska at this date. 84 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA now established leading from Walla Walla, Washington, to Puget Sound," and in 1856, $50,000 "for the construction of a road from Fort Ridgely, in the territory of Minnesota, to the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains in the territory of Nebraska." In March, 1865, an appropriation of $50,000 was made for the construction of a wagon road from the A Skirmish with Indians whii.e liuii^DiNG the Union Pacific Railroad mouth of the Turtle Hill River to Omaha, and from the same point to Virginia City, Montana. The main purpose of these roads was national ; that is, to provide for the transpor- tation of troops and supplies into the country. Encourage- ment and accommodation of local settlements was a sec- ondary matter. Building of the Union Pacific Railroad. — The build- ing of a railroad connecting the east and the west was in the minds of many long before the project was really under- SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 85 taken, but such an immense enterprise could not succeed without the financial support of the government. Many a traveler on his way toward the setting sun contemplated the great Platte Valley as a natural highway, and no doubt had visions of a steam railroad which would shorten the toilsome journey across the continent. It is not strange that so nat- ural a development should be in the minds of many men at the same time, and that the building of the Union Pacific Railroad should be in the minds of many simultaneously. General Leavenworth, the commanding officer at Council Bluffs, in 1825 made an elaborate report urging a Pacific railroad for military purposes. General Fremont, when he explored the great mountain pass at the head of the Platte Valley, wrote : "This will one day be the route of a railroad that will span the continent from ocean to ocean." Within two years of the introduction of the steam railroad into America, a journal published at Ann Arbor, Michigan, proposed a Pacific railroad. John Plumbe, a civil en- gineer, called the first public meeting at Dubuque, Iowa, to promote the project. General Curtis, in 1839, drew up a petition and secured signers and forwarded the pe- tition to John Quincy Adams, who presented it to the House of Representatives with recommendations. The pioneers of Nebraska realized what such a project would mean and actually promoted a Pacific railroad. This statement is attested by a notable memorial to Congress, adopted at a mass meeting held in Omaha January 29, 1859. Asa Whitney's Proposition to Build a Pacific Rail- road. — Asa Whitney, a merchant of New York, en- gaged in trade with China, made the first definite proposition for the building of a Pacific railroad. His first memorial to Congress on the subject was presented in 1845. In the third memorial piresented in March, 1848, he proposed to •■"^.■i- '■'-•' * SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 87 build a road from Lake Michigan to the Pacific coast, an estimated distance of 2,030 miles, on condition that the United States would sell him a strip of land sixty miles wide along the line at sixteen cents an acre. These lands, or the proceeds from their sale, were to be reserved to keep the railroad in operation and repair until it became self-sup- Thomas C. Durant Chief promoter, Union Pacific Railroad porting, and the remainder was then to revert to the builder of the railroad. Whitney estimated that only the first eight hundred miles of the grant of land would be valuable. He calculated the cost of the road at $60,000,000. Project Approved by the Congressional Committee. — The committee on roads and canals of the House' of Rep- resentatives submitted a report on this memorial in March, 1850. They approved the project for the following reasons : That it would cement the commercial, social, and po- litical relations of the east and the west; would 88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA be a highway for the commerce of Europe and Asia to the great advantage of this country ; would tend to secure the peace of the world; and would transfer to the United States a part of the commercial importance of Great Britain. The committee preferred Whitney's plan to that of any others which had been submitted, as it was purely a private enterprise in which the government would be in no way entangled. Bills embodying Whitney's proposition were in- troduced into both houses in 1850, but no vote was taken. The building of a Pacific railroad became a question of im- portance from this time until the final passage of the bill which authorized the building of the road. The Act of 1862. — By Congressional action in 1862 a subsidy of alternate sections in a strip of land ten miles wide on each side of the track was granted to the Union Pacific Railroad. In addition to this subsidy the credit of the United States in the form of United States bonds was loaned in the following amounts : For the parts of the line passing over level country, east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, $16,000 per mile; for the one hundred and fifty miles west of the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains and the like distance eastward from the western base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, $48,000 per mile ; and for that part of the line running over the plateau region between these two mountain chains, $32,000 per mile. These bonds ran for thirty years^and drew six per cent interest, payable semi-annually. They consti- tuted a loan of credit and were to be repaid by the railroad company to the United States at their maturity.^ Organization of the Company. — The capital stock of the company consisted of $100,000,000 divided into shares 1 Grenville M. Dodge and Thomas C. Durant are possibly the two men who, more than all others, overcame the tremendous diffi- culties encountered in completing this enterprise. Grenvii.i,e M. Dodge Major-general U. S. army, member of Congress, and construction engineer Union Pacific railroad. 90 SCHOOL HISTORY OF xNEBRASKA of $1,000 each. When two thousand shares were subscribed and $10.00 per share paid, the company was to organize by the election of not less than thirteen directors and the usual officers. Two additional directors were to be appointed by the President of the United States. The President was also to appoint three commissioners to pass upon and certify to the construction of the road, as a basis for the issue of the government bonds and transfer of the lands. The line was to begin at a point on the 100th meridian, near Cozad, Ne- braska, between the south margin of the valley of the Re- publican River and the north margin of the valley of the Platte River. The company was also to construct a line from a point to be fixed by the President of the United States, to connect with the initial point on the 100th meridian.^ The Terms Changed by Act of 1864. — Through Con- gressional action in 1864 the company was permitted to mortgage the road to an amount equal to the loan of the United States bonds, and the lien or security of these bonds was thus made second to the authorized mortgage ; the land grant was doubled (from Omaha to Ogden, Utah, it amount- ed to more than 11,400,000 acres) ; and the reservation in the first act of coal and iron lands from the grant was given up. The number of directors to be elected was increased to fifteen, and the number of the government directors to five. The Act of 1866. — The provisions of this Congres- sional act fixed the Union Pacific as the main line ; and thus finally was settled a struggle for supremacy between par- tisans of the northern and southern routes to the Pacific which had been in controversy for twenty years. - 1 Council Bluffs was selected as this point by President Lincoln. 2 The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad was later built over the old route of the Santa Fe Trail. I 8 -^ s '^ on 92 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The Platte Valley Route. — U'hile several meritorious routes from the Missouri River to the mountains were pro- posed, the Platte Valley in point of directness and uniform grade was by far the best ; and political influences and eco- nomic conditions just then particularly favored the northern route. Because of war conditions the South had little or no influence in Congress, and the country tributary to the southern route was demoralized where it was not actually devastated by war. On the other hand, Chicago was rap- idly gaining a prestige in commerce, and the Platte Valley road provided a direct line to the westward. Four great lines of railroad were pushing out from Chicago to the west and would reach the Missouri River at some point on the eastern boundary of Nebraska. It was expected that the Union Pacific would temporarily, at least, connect these four roads with the Pacific coast and would receive a large vol- ume of business from them.^ Breaking Ground. — December 2, 1863, when the first shovel of dirt was turned for the Union Pacific, was a jubi- lee day in Omaha. A. J. Hanscom,- a prominent citizen of Omaha, presided over the formal ceremonies. The shovels were manipulated by Alvin Saunders, governor of Nebraska, B. E. B. Kennedy, mayor of Omaha, and George Francis Train, one of the promoters of the road. The orator of the occasion was A. J. Poppleton, who later served as general attorney for the road. In his address he referred to Omaha as having four thousand people and predicted a 1 The railroads did not stop long at the Missouri River but pushed westward through Nebraska as rivals to the Union Pacific. However, with the rapid agricultural development of the West, there has re- sulted a volume of freight and passenger traffic that taxes the oper- ating capacity of all of them. 2 Hanscom Park was presented to the city of Omaha by A. J. Hanscom and S. A. Megath and named for the former. Experts pronounce it to be one of the most beautiful parks in the United States. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 93 great future. Congratulatory telegrams were received from many noted people, among them being President Lincoln, Opdyke, mayor of Nfew York, Seward, secretary of state, and Brigham Young of Salt Lake City. Progress of the Road. — The road was completed to the 100th meridian October 5, 1866, and by August 16, 1867, 188 miles more were completed, thus carrying the work to within thirty-seven miles of the western boundary of Ne- braska. The remaining 667 miles to the meeting at Promon- tory, Utah, were finished May 10, 1869. At this point the Union Pacific met the Central Pacific, which was started July 10, 1865, at the Omaha end and was the first track laid in Nebraska. Many difficulties had to be overcome in the construction of this road. Money was hard to obtain for large enter- prises in those early days. Capitalists were unwilling to in- vest large sums in an undeveloped country. Men and sup- plies had to be brought overland two hundred miles from the nearest railroad terminus east of Omaha or transported up the Missouri River by boat. After the laborers were brought to Nebrska, they often deserted and went prospecting for gold in the Rocky Mountains. Ties and heavy timbers had to be brought to the treeless prairie from far up and down the Missouri. Mountains and deserts had to be crossed. Water was lacking, especially in the alkali sections. Foun- dries and machine shops, as well as all other conveniences of a settled country, did not exist. Finally the Indians, jealous of this invasion of their country, impeded the pro- gress of the surveyors and other laborers. It was neces- sary to keep soldiers with all advance parties. Even then Indian attacks and thefts of supplies were sometimes suc- cessful. The construction trains, however, were amply supplied with rifles and other arms, and it was boasted that SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 95 a gang of track-layers could be changed into a battalion of infantry in a moment.^ The railroad was at length completed in 1869, and thus West and East became one and undivided.^ The Burlington and Missouri River Railroad. — The amendatory Union Pacific act of 1864 granted to the Bur- Union Pacific Overland Limited showing double tel\ck ^ lington and Missouri River Railroad Company, a corpor- ation organized under the laws of the state of Iowa, right of way two hundred feet wide and ten alternate sections of land per mile on each side of the railroad ''from the point where it strikes the Missouri River, south of the mouth of 1 See Davis, The Union Pacific Raihuay, and White's History of the Union Pacific Raihvay. 2 Owing to the great cost of the railroad, the passenger fare was fixed at ten cents per mile, but was reduced to seven and one-half cents per mile in September, 1869. 3 The Union Pacific system is now double-track entirely across Nebraska. 96 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA the Platte River, to some point not farther west than the 100th meridan of west longitude, so as to connect by the most practical route with the main track of the Union Pa- cific Railroad, or that part of it which runs from Omaha to the said 100th meridian of west longitude." From that time forward the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad began a progressive program of road building until at the present time it is spread out like a fisherman's net over the entire South Platte country, and has in many places penetrated the region of the North Platte. It has always been the policy of this railroad to build numbers of feeders to the main line in the country through which it runs. This plan not only develops the territory and increases farm values, but is of great convenience to the inhabitants. The longest line enters Nebraska at Rulo in the southeastern corner and passes out at the northwest- ern corner. A traveler on a fast train on this line reaches Rulo about the middle of the afternoon, eats his evening meal on the dining car as he leaves Lincoln, retires as he reaches Grand Island, arises at six for breakfast as he leaves Crawford, and leaves the state a little later at Mansfield, having traveled a distance of five hundred and forty-seven miles. The Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. — The Chi- cago and Northwestern Railroad, which entered the state at Blair, has also pushed its lines into many sections and has thus become a factor in the development of the common- wealth. Other Railroads. — A number of other roads have en- tered to share the growing traffic, among them the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, but none of them gained the territory and the prestige of the Union Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Burlington and Missouri River railroads. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 97 The Cattle Trail. — From 1865 to 1885 the ''cattle trail" from the gulf coast country in Texas to the succu- lent pastures of the north, and eventually to market, was in constant use. The mild climate of the south provided a suitable breeding place, while the rich pastures and tem- perate climate of the northern ranges not only produced a better quality of beef, but, also, it was estimated, added at least two hundred pounds to a four-year-old animal. Cattle- men were not slow to discover this advantage, and although the trail was at times infested with Indians,^ the adven- turous spirit of the cattlemen and the enormous profits led to the steady use of the trail. It is estimated that from 8,000,000 to 10,000,000 cattle were brought over the trail. By starting the cattle on the fresh young grass of the southland, they were able to keep, most of the way, in the fresh young grass as the season advanced. Cattle Towns. — These were the points where the trans- continental railroads crossed the trail in the 'seventies into cattle markets and shipping points. These places became known as "cow towns" and in their palmy days were among the most striking features of the early life of the great plains country. They were well supplied with saloons and were the rendezvous of cattlemen and cowboys. Dodge City, Kansas, on the Santa Fe Railroad, and Ogallala, Nebraska, on the Union Pacific, were the two leading cow towns. It is estimated that in 1885 nearly 500,000 cattle were shipped from these two points.- 1 The Indians often killed the drivers and stampeded the cattle. At times the government provided small guards of soldiers at the western posts. After the Custer Massacre in 1876, the Indians were more closely guarded b}^ the federal government and the great plains of the Dakotas and Montana were opened to the cattlemen. During the later years the cattle trail reached from Texas to Fort Benton, Montana. 2 See Great Plains, by Randall Parish, for a description of the cowboys and cattle towns of this period. 98 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Development of the Ranch. — After 1885 the cattle trail began to decline in importance and gave way to the stationary ranches. These large ranches with thousands of head of cattle developed along the Republican, Platte, Loup, Dismal, and Niobrara rivers. The buffalo grass, which furnished such perfect feed in the summer season, when cured on the ground was equally good food in the winter. The cattle were branded and allowed to range at will until the annual round-up season when the young calves were branded and became a part of the herd. QUESTIONS — CHAPTERS V, VII, VIII, X 1. Have we any territories now? If so, what are they? 2. How many of the class have seen a stage coach of the kind mentioned in the text? 3. What is probably the reason President Franklin Pierce ap- pointed a man (Burt) so far from Nebraska as South CaroHna to be ''Territorial Governor"? 4. Let the class trace on their maps the route of Francis Burt from Pendleton, South Carolina, to Bellevue, Nebraska. 5. When will another census be taken by the Federal Govern- ment? 6. How often and in what way is the census taken? 7. As we do not now have a county by the name of Forney what has become of it? 8. What is meant by a memorial to Congress? 9. What is the distinction between "the capital" and "the capitol"? 10 What are bank charters? Why are they necessary? 11. Why is the person who presides in the "House" called "Mr. Speaker" ? * 12. What can you learn about James W. Woolworth? 13 'What ar.e public lands? Are there any in your county? 14. What can you learn about the life and character of Thomas A. Hendricks? 15. How many of the class know how candles were made in the pioneer days. 16. How was slavery introduced into the United States? SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 99 17. About how many slaves were there in the United States at the time of the Civil War? 18. Were there at any time persons held in slavery in Nebraska? If so, where and how many? 19. How many nationalities are there in your county? 20. What can you learn about Experience Estabrook? 21. What are some of the duties of the auditor and the secretary of state? 22. How are taxes for the support of the state government as- sessed? 23. How is it determined how much tax each ought to pay? 24. How does Nebraska compare in area and population with each state by which it is touched? 25. Is there a natural curiosity in your county? If so, what is it and where is it? CHAPTER VI . Extent of Louisiana. — This vast territory embraced the whole western half of the Mississippi Valley as far as Texas. It had no very definite boundaries. The owners of Louisiana, together with the United States, controlled the navigation of the Mississippi River, a matter of great commercial importance aside from the intrinsic value of the territory itself. Conditions Leading to the Purchase. — The territory known as Louisiana originally belonged to Spain, but a treaty between Spain and France in 1800 transferred the title to France. As a result of this transaction citizens of the United States encountered difficulties in the control of river navigation at New Orleans and appealed to President Jefferson for help. Jefferson planned to buy, if possible, the land upon which New Orleans is situated, and sent a committee to negotiate the purchase. Bonaparte was at the time expecting war between England and France. He knew that in case of hostilities England could send a fleet to take possession of Louisiana and he was determined that the country should not fall into British hands. The Amer- ican commission had been instructed to pay $2,500,000 for the site of New Orleans, but Napoleon made a proposition to transfer the whole of the territory of Louisiana for $20,- 000,000. England was likely to declare war at any time, and Napoleon would not give the Americans time to con- sult the President. It was finally agreed that France should transfer to the United States all the territory of Louisiana for $15,000,000. Of this amount France received in United 100 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 101 States bonds $11,250,000 and $3,750,000 was paid to Amer- ican citizens for their claims against the French govern- ment. Extent of the Purchase. — The land acquired under this purchase was almost twice as large as the previous area of the United States. It cost about two and three-fifths cents per acre. From this vast territory twelve great states have been created, namely, Louisiana in 1812, Missouri in 1821, Arkansas in 1836, Iowa in 1846, Minnesota in 1858, Kansas in 1861, Nebraska in 1867, Colorado in 1876, Mon- tana in 1889, South Dakota in 1889, North Dakota in 1889, and Wyoming in 1890. A portion of Colorado, Minnesota, and Wyoming was not included in the purchase. The Population at the Time of the Purchase. — The e timated population of the land ceded by Napoleon in 1803 was 50,000 whites, 40,000 slaves, and 2,000 free blacks. More than four-fifths of the whites and all of the blacks ex- cept about 1,300 lived in or near New Orleans. The remain- ing population was scattered throughout the country now in- cluded in Arkansas and Missouri. The population of the country now embraced in the purchase is approximately 15,000,000, of which Nebraska has 1,192,214 according to the 1910 census. Napoleon asks for Protection of Inhabitants. — Napo- leon sought to preclude the subsequent cession of the terri- tory to any rival powers and to protect the inhabitants, who were mainly French and Spanish, in the enjoyment of their religion and racial rights by inserting the following guaranty in the treaty : The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incor- porated in the Union of the United States and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the federal constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 103 <(dvantages, and immunities of citizenship of the United States ; and in the meantime they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, proper- ty, and the religion which they profess. Some Results of the Purchase. — Though this vast territory had actually been pressed upon the American ambassadors, its acquisition was indeed a triumph for the young republic. Says Thomas M. Cooley: Of the transcendent importance of that event, aside from the expansion of territory, we get some idea when we reflect that the Missouri Compromise, the annexa- tion of Texas, the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Ne- braska Bill, the Dred Scott case, and at length the Civil War, were events in regular sequence directly traceable to it, not one of which would have occurred without it. The First Nebraska. — Nebraska is an Otoe Indian word meaning "Flat Water." It was used by the Indians to designate the Platte River, which has been jocosely de- scribed as being "a mile wide and an inch deep." The word Nebraska as first used by the white men applied in a general way to the Platte River and its tributaries, as well as to all the valleys drained by them and the plains adjacent to these valleys. This general territory had no definite boundary but embraced what is now Nebraska and in a vague way those parts of Kansas, Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana lying nearest to the Platte. Govermnent of the Unorganized Territory. — This un- organized Nebraska territory was governed from various outside points without officers of its own and without repre- sentation. The unorganized part of the upper Louis- iana country was first attached to Indiana Territory, which had been organized in 1800. On this account, we may say that Vincennes, Indiana, was the first capital of Nebraska, 104 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA and that William Henry Harrison, then governor of Indiana and later President of the United States, was the first gov- ernor of Nebraska. From 1805 to 1812 Nebraska formed a part of the territory of Louisiana with its capital at St. Louis. From 1812 to 1821 it was attached to the territory of Missouri. When Missouri became a state in 1821, Ne- braska was left practically without government, until 1834. In this latter year laws were passed by Congress forbidding white men to hunt, trap, or settle within the "Indian coun- try" and making it a crime to take intoxicating liquor within the district. Organizing Nebraska Territory. — Attempts were made in Congress to pass an act organizing Nebraska as a territory in 1853. These led to the passing of the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. This act definitely organ- ized Nebraska as a territory, including the present Nebras- ka, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, and northern Col- orado. Indian Rights in Nebraska. — Indians had inhabited the territory, of Nebraska for many years. In organizing the territory their claims had to be recognized. They re- sented the white man's entrance upon their lands and es- pecially disliked anything like permanent improvements, as they thought these foreshadowed the loss of their hunting grounds. They harassed travelers over the trails in earlier days and sometimes stole or burned their wagons and other property and massacred the owners. In order to protect the white travelers and settlers it was necessary to organize the territory, so as to have officers to enforce law and order and to extinguish the Indian title to the land. In the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill the Indians were guaranteed title to their lands until they should voluntarily come into the territory, or otherwise cede their lands to the government under terms to be agreed upon. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 105 Some of the Nebraska Indians ceded their lands as tribes and moved to Oklahoma, where they still have reservations. Others (nearly 4,000) still live- in Nebraska. Their lands have been surveyed and are usually owned in regular farm tracts. In most cases they rent farms to white men and live idly from the proceeds.- They spend their time in loafing, visiting each other, and telling stories of the old days of hunting and warfare. The Omahas and the Poncas are the only original Nebraska Indians still living in the state. The Winnebagoes, the Santee Sioux, and the Sauk (Sac) and Fox were moved into the state by the government in early days. The Omahas and the Winnebagoes, num- bering about 1200 each, live in Thurston County. The Ne- braska Poncas, numbering about 300, live near the mouth of the Niobrara River. The Santee Sioux, numbering about 1100, live in Knox County. The Sauk (Sac) and Fox, numbering about 100, live in southeast Nebraska and northeast Kansas. Indians now have all the rights of white citizens in Nebraska. The Slavery Question. — The great question involved in the admission into the Union of all states carved out of the Louisiana territory, previous to the Civil War, was slavery. Since the South favored slavery and the North opposed it, every state that applied for admission into the Union became the subject of more or less debate in Con- gress as to whether it should enter as a free or a slave state. The southern members not only wanted the additional slave states for commercial and financial reasons, but also for the purpose of adding to the number of their senators and rep- resentatives in Congress. This would enable them to strengthen the forces that were trying to hold the nation in line for slavery. Naturally the northern members opposed this movement and demanded that the states be admitted as free states. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 107 States Admitted before Nebraska. — The states formed from the Louisiana territory and admitted into the Union before Nebraska were Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas. Their admission brought forth some discussion of the slavery question, but the debate in Congress and the local dissensions in each state grew par- ticularly violent in the case of Missouri and Kansas. Armed forces opposed each other, and many crimes, including mur- der, were committed.^ Missouri came in as a slave state under the Missouri Compromise in 182L Kansas entered the Union under the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 186 L This bill left the decision as to slavery or not to be decided by the citizens of the new state. Slavery, Missouri Compromise, Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — The Missouri Compromise Act was passed by Congress in 1820. It provided that Missouri should be admitted as a slave state, but that there should be no slavery- forever in any other territory north of the parallel of 36''30', which is the southern line of Missouri. This act made Nebraska free territory. When, however, the Kansas-Ne- braska Bill was passed, leaving the question of slavery to be settled by the citizens of each state, confusion and con- troversy resulted. People of both factions rushed into Kan- sas and tried to control the elections. The quarrel became bitter and led to fights and murders. Nebraska, being newer territory and further north, escaped the bloody strife from which Kansas suffered-^ In 1861 the legislature of Ne- braska passed an act abolishing slavery, and in 1863 the Emancipation Proclamation was issued by the President. 1 See Robinson's history, The Kansas Conflict. 2 From 1855 to 1860 ten to fifteen slaves were held in Nebraska. Most of these were at Nebraska City. There was one auction sale of slaves on December 5, 1860, in the streets of Nebraska City. Two slaves were sold, Hercules and Martha. 108 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA As Nebraska was not admitted as a state until 1867, the slavery question did not form an issue at the time of ad- mission. Territorial Government. — By the passage of the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill, Nebraska territory was made into a po- litical division with its own government. It was now to have its ov/n capital, governing and clerical officials, county divisions, land surveys, and other conveniences necessary to civilized habitation. Under this organization some of its officials were appointed by the President of the United States and some were selected by the people. It had now to pass through thirteen years of territorial government until settlement and growth should prepare it for statehood. CHAPTER VII The coming of the People. — In 1854, when the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill established the territory of Nebraska, there were very few white people living in the country. The congressional act of 1834 had forbidden white men to enter the "Indian country," and this remained the law until 1854. At the latter date probably about six hundred white people lived in the territory under permission of officers of the government. There were three hundred at Fort Lar- amie (in Wyoming), two hundred at Fort Kearny, and the rest scattered at other points. A good many half-breeds descended from white and Indian marriages and probably a few white traders are not included in this estimate. While still a part of the Louisiana Territory, Nebraska had received much advertising throughout the East. Ac- counts of buffalo hunts and Indian fights circulated freely and created much interest. Washington Irving and other writers who traveled through the "Indian country" at an early day wrote interesting tales of their experiences, John C. Fremont and other army officers who had been much impressed with the fertility of Nebraska's prairies returned to the eastern states, and by their glowing stories still fur- ther aroused the desire to see and possess this western land. When the Kansas-Nebraska Bill opened the territory for settlement, there was a rush of people to obtain the benefits to be derived from occupying the new land. The first set- tlers made their homes along the Missouri River, where water and timber were plentiful and where wild fruit, fish, and small game supplemerited the food supply imported by 109 110 SCHOOL HISTORY OF 'NEBRASKA boat up the river or produced from the soil. Both of these sources of supply were sometimes limited. The open prai- ries, exposed to blizzards and susceptible to drouths, did not prove inviting to the white man until railroads came to carry his crops to market and bring him the conveniences of life. The Government. — Under the United States terri- Engraving from History of Wyoming, by C. G. Coutant. Fort Laramie in 1836 torial law, the officers of the territory were partly appointed by the President and partly elected by the people. The governor, the secretary, the marshal, the district attorney, and the judges, of which Nebraska had three, were appoint- ed by the President^ A delegate to Congress,^ members of 1 These officers were not necessarily residents of the territory at the time of their appointment. They were often without property or other interest in the territory and carried their effects in a carpet- bag, the traveling bag in vogue in those days. They were sometimes unpopular with the TDcopIe, and this style of government was called "the carpet-bag government." 2 A territorial delegate to Congress could report and advise in the interests of his territory but could not vote. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 111 the upper and lower house of the territorial assembly or legislature, and county officers were elected by the people. The First Nebraska Officers. — President Franklin Pierce named the following officials for the first govern- ment of the Nebraska territory and the United States sen- ate confirmed them : Francis Burt, of South Carolina, gov- ernor; Thomas B. Cuming, of Iowa, secretary; Experience Estabrook, of Wisconsin, United States district attorney; Fenner Ferguson, of Michigan, chief justice ; E. R. Har- den of Georgia, and James Bradley, of Indiana, associate justices of the supreme court; and Mark W. Izard, of Arkansas, United States rnarshal. Each of the judges of the supreme court was judge also of one of the three judi- cial districts into which Nebraska was divided in January, 1855. It was necessary for these appointees to come to Nebraska and organize a government before an election could be called for the minor officials. As they were not appointed until the summer of 1854 and had to make the long journey from their several states to Nebraska by stage- coach or on horseback, it was not until December 12th of the same year that the first election was held in Nebraska. Early Locations. — While there had been much travel and some traffic in Nebraska previous to 1854, there were very few definite settlements. Fort Calhoun was estab- lished under the name of Fort Lisa in 1812. Bellevue was established about 1820 by the fur traders, and was later given considerable impetus by the location of the Presby- terian Mission there in 1846. Winter Quarters, the old Mormon village on the northern border of the present Oma- ha, dates back to 1846. Fort Kearny was first located by the government near the present site of Nebraska City in 1847 and was moved a year or two later to a point about eight miles southeast of the present city of Kearney. This SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 113 move was made to protect travel on the Oregon Trail from the Indians. None of these locations had any early perma- nent growth except Bellevue, where the buildings of the American Fur Company, Indian Agency, and Presbyterian Mission were located. These were the only places of note within the boundaries of the present state of Nebraska. A New Town, Omaha. — When in the summer of 1854 enterprising citizens came across the river from Council Bluffs, Iowa, and plotted a new town on the west shore, they called it Omaha City, after the prominent Indian tribe of that name.^ Omaha at once became a rival for territor- ial honors of Bellevue, as well as of other towns that sprang up later. Omaha and Bellevue at once entered into a strife as to which should become the capital of the territory. Each town had a newspaper. The Bellevue Palladium was published for Bellevue at St. Mary, Iowa, and the Omaha Arrow was published at Council Bluffs, Iowa. Each paper set forth the reasons why its town should be made the cap- ital. The Palladium observes that Bellevue is admitted by every important observer to be the most commanding and beautiful location. The Arrow replies that Omaha "is nevertheless a handsome place," and then adds in detail: It occupies a beautiful plateau, sloping well to the river. The view is extensive and picturesque, taking in a long reach of the river both up and down, the broad rich bottom lands dotted over with fields, houses, and cattle. . . and a strange, romantic, and bewildering background of indented and variously formed bluffs. Early Towns. — The first number of the Arrow, on 1 Alfred D. Jones was the first postmaster of Omaha. Before' there was a postoftice building, he carried the letters in his hat, as he went about his work. When requested for mail he removed his hat, sorted the letters, and returned the ones not called for to the hat- postoffice. From a photograph owned by the Nebraska Slate Historical Society. Francis Bi^rt, first Governor of Nebraska Territory SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 115 July 28, 1854, gave a description of all the towns worthy of its notice, in the following language : Omaha City may be considered among the first in importance. It is situated directly opposite Bluff City upon a delightful and sightly eminence overlooking the country on all sides for miles around, bringing in view the city of Council Bluffs, town of St. Mary, Trader's Point, and Council Point in Iowa, and Winter Quarters in this territory. It extends directly to the river land- ing, and back upwards of a mile, and some mile and a half up and down the river. There are some fifteen hundred lots surveyed, together with a large square on the summit for the capital. . . An extensive brick yard is in successful' operation and a large amount of prime lumber and shingles is looked for daily. A numr ber of houses are already reared, and hundreds are an- ticipating building this summer and fall. Preparations are in progress for rearing a large and commodious building immediately, to be used at present as a state house and for offices for the various departments pro- vided it should be required by the executive. A good and commodious ferry boat runs every day regularly between this city and Council Bluffs. . . . The next in im-. portance is Bellevue, some ten miles below this city. It is situated about three miles from the river upon a high and beautiful eminence, commanding a view for many miles around, including Bluff City, St. Mary, and Chou- teau. There is timber in the bottoms below the site and a continuous body all the way .to this city. There are good springs of water at hand, with good farming lands around. The old Mission house, the government Agency buildings, and trading house of the American Fur Company are near this site. Mr. Sarpy has a new steam ferry boat which continues to run across through the business part of the year, but is now laid up until spring. Ferrying is, however, done with a few boats at present. (Old) Fort Kearny is situated some eighteen miles below the mouth of the Platte and is also on the river and is also a beautiful and charming location with 116 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA all necessary advantages for being rapidly built into a thriving city. We cannot speak from much observation of this point. Winter Quarters is also located upon the river some miles above this city ; it is pleasantly situated upon a high bench and inclined plane, giving a fair and pretty view of the country for a great distance around, and is the old site of the Winter Quarters of the first Mormon pioneers. The town is now being surveyed and improvements and public buildings are now being erected. There is good water, plenty of rock, considerable timber, and excellent farming lands adjacent. A flat boat ferry is kept in operation for the benefit of the settlers, etc. Ft. Calhoun is some fifteen miles still up the river and is expected to be laid out upon the site of the old fort, which is upon a ranch or plateau some fifty or one hundred feet above the river. The article goes on to say that there are other beautiful townsites up the river and suggests that large towns will some day be established on the Elkhorn River and Loup Fork of the Platte. This was a prophecy of the future Fremont and Columbus. It is worth noting that the people .of that day thought only of building along the streams and did not comprehend the value of the upland prairie for lo- cations of towns and not even for farms to any extent. The few who to a partial extent did see the future of Nebraska's prairie, and took advantage of the opportunity, have been richly repaid for the privations and hardships they en- dured in connection with their pioneer efiforts. Arrival of the Territorial Officials. — During the fall of 1854 the officials appointed by President Pierce to govern the new territory arrived. Governor Burt came from South Carolina and was accompanied by his son, then a boy, later a doctor in New Mexico. Several of his South Carolina neighbors also came with him to settle in the new country. A letter from his son. Dr. Armistead Burt, describing the SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 117 journey to Bellevue, is interesting in this connection. It gives us some idea of the methods of traveUng in the early days: Governor Burt journeyed from Pendleton, South Carolina, to Athens, Georgia, in his own conveyance; thence to Nashville, Tennessee, by rail; from Nashville to Louisville, Kentucky, by stage coach; by rail to Chi- cago and on to Alton, Illinois; thence to St. Louis by boat; then up the river to St. Joseph by boat; the river being low, the boat could go no further. Being anxious to reach the end of the journey, he hired a hack and traveled in it to Nebraska City, which then contained one house, where he lodged one night. Next morning he hired a two-horse wagon from the only citizen of the city, and traveled in it to Bellevue, reaching there the same evening. Burt was not a strong man physically and the change of food and water on the way, some of which was none too good, together with the fatigue from a journey which lasted more than two months, caused him to arrive at Bellevue in a much weakened condition. He went imme- diately to bed and was never able to get up. He took the oath of office before Chief Justice Ferguson on October 16, at the age of forty-seven years, and passed away on October 18, being governor only three days. Governors during the Territorial Period. — Five gov- ernors and two acting governors served during the thirteen years when Nebraska was a territory. They were the fol- lowing : Francis Burt, Governor, October 16, 1854, to October 18, 1854. Thomas B. Cuming, Acting Governor, October 18, 1854, to February 20, 1855. Mark W. Izard, Governor, February 20, 1855, to Octo- ber 25, 1857. 118 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Thomas B. Cuming, Acting Governor, October 25, 1857, to January 12, 1858. W. A. Richardson, Governor, January 12, 1858, to De- cember 5, 1858. J. SterHng Morton,^ Acting Governor, December 5, 1858, to May 2, 1859. Samuel W. Black, Governor, May 2, 1859, to February 24, 1861. J. Sterling Morton, Acting Governor, February 24, 1861, to May 15, 1861. Alvin Saunders, Governor, May 15, 1861, to February 21, 1867. Three of these governors — Burt, Cuming, and Saun- ders — have counties named in their honor. Streets in Omaha are named for Cuming and Izard. While all of these governors were instrumental in organizing and admin- istering the government of Nebraska, those w^ho stand out as leaders are Cuming, Morton, and Saunders. * These three men had much to do with shaping the history of the ter- ritorial period. Thomas B. Cuming. — According to the United States law governing organized territories, on the death of the gov- ernor of a territory the secretary becomes acting governor and so remains until another governor is appointed by the President. Thomas B. Cuming became acting governor of Nebraska. He held this position until Governor Izard ar- rived in the territory on February 20, 1855. Cuming again became acting governor after Izard resigned on October 25, 1857, and continued in office until W. A. Richardson, the third governor of Nebraska, entered upon his duties, Jan- uary 12, 1858. Cuming was taken ill during the fall of 1 Morton was appointed secretary of Nebraska Territory on the death of Secretary Cuming in 1858. ooSvionoa vD svaoo 120 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 1857 and died on March 23, 1858, when only twenty-nine years of age. Though he was acting governor of Nebraska only a few months, he accomplished the work of organizing the Nebraska government so well that many of his contem- poraries consider him one of the greatest, if not the great- est, of early Nebraskans. He was a man of strong will, good judgment, and prompt and energetic action. These characteristics coupled with integrity of character gave him the desirable qualities found in a leader. The First Countiesi. — Under the authority of the law of the United States controlling territories, Cuming di- vided that portion of the territory along the Missouri River into eight counties, namely, Burt, Cass, Dodge, Douglas, Forney, Pierce, Richardson, and Washington. They in- cluded the regions where people had begun to settle and establish their homes. The First Census. — On Saturday, October 21, 1854, Cuming issued a proclamation announcing that a census would be taken of the inhabitants of the territory and that the enumeration would begin on October 24 1854. Another proclamation was issued on October 26, giving instructions as to the duties of the deputy marshal who was to take the census in the six districts into which the territory had been divided for that purpose. According to these in- structions the work was to be completed by November 20, 1854. The following table shows a white population of 2,732 and thirteen negro slaves. As a record of the first census of Nebraska it is interesting in detail. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 121 CDNSUS, NOVEMBER 20, 1854 "^■^ ^j ^j ^^ ^>mi yi Dist. County || | |^ | I L ll„ ^oJ.jU-M jii-o j::rt jiS'O Jl(ua!C ^^ ^:g ^§ ^^ ^g CO fa^T^ 1. Richardson 236 26 181 190 214 4 851 2. Pierce and Forney 185 24 138 127 131 9 614 3. Cass 95 16 101 44 97 353 4. Douglas 250 29 120 131 115 645 5. Dodge 74 1 8 13 10 106 6. Washington and Burt 89 7 12 28 27 163 Totals 929 103 560 533 594 13 2,732 Legislative Districts and Apportionment. — After the census had been taken. Acting Governor Cuming appor- tioned the eight counties into legislative districts and as- signed to each county or district the number of representa- tives to be elected to the first territorial assembly or legis- lature. Burt, Dodge, Douglas, and Washington counties, north of the Platte River, were apportioned twenty-one members of the legislature, while the other four counties, south of the Platte, were assigned eighteen members. Doug- las County, which contains the city of Omaha, had twelve members of the legislature. Burt, Dodge, and Washing- ton were north of Douglas and had a combined representa- tion of nine members, who would naturally vote with Doug- las for Omaha as the capital. The friends of Bellevue read in this apportionment the doom of their hopes for the cap- ital.i 1 Cumming lived in Omaha and consequently was considered by South Platte people to have been partial in making this apportion- 122 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Le:gisi.ative; Apportionment Counties Members of Members of Council House Richardson 1 2 Pierce 3 5 Forney 1 2 Cass 1 3 Douglas 4 8 Dodge 1 2 Washington 1 2 Burt 1 2 Total 13 26 The First Thanksgiving. — On November 18, 1854, Cuming issued a proclamation appointing Thursday, Nov- ember 30, as Thanksgiving Day. ment. A committee of Bellevue citizens passed resolutions asking President Pierce to remove him from office. Cuming appeared be- fore the legislature the following January and stated that the com- plete canvas of the census returns showed the apportionment to be correct and the census as shown in the table above to be incomplete. However the census as shown in the table is the census of record. Governor Cuming also wrote a letter to President Pierce, saying: "I understand that petitions are in circulation asking my removal from the office of governor. These petitions have been prepared and are being distributed by speculators whose fortunes have been marred by the location of the capital [at Omaha]. My only request is that if any charges shall be made I may not be dealt with with- out the opportunity of answering them. . . . Great fortunes have been invested in rival points for the capital, and the exasper- ation expressed and desperate persecution resorted to by the dis- appointed are not unnatural and were not unexpected. I am pre- pared, however, to prove by letters and certificates that I have re- fused bribes and relinquished gratuities, and have located the capital where my pecuniary interests were least considered, at a point which I believe would give satisfaction to the people and stability to the territorial organization." CHAPTER VIII Calling of the First Legislature. — On November 23, 1854, Cuming proclaimed that an election should be held December 12, 1854, to choose a delegate to Congress and thirty-nine members of the first territorial assembly, or legislature, which had been called to meet January 8, 1855. On December 20 the last proclamations pertaining to the territorial organization were issued; one convened the leg- islature on the 16th of January instead of the 8th of Jan- uary, 1855, while another announced the organization of the courts and designated judges of probate, justices of the peace, sheriffs, constables, and clerks for the several coun- ties. In this latter proclamation, the three judges appoint- ed by the President were placed, one over each of the three judicial districts into which Nebraska was divided. The First Election. — On December 12, 1854, the first election was held. Thirty-nine members were chosen for the territorial legislature, thirteen for the council (upper house or senate), and twenty-six for the lower house (house of representatives). Napoleon B. Giddings was elected the first delegate to Congress over four opponents. He was a native of Ken- tucky, spent most of his life in Missouri, and came to Ne- braska City occasionally, where he was a member of the townsite company. The First Capitol Building. — The first capitol build- ing was erected by the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry Company, which had been incorporated under the laws of Iowa. The company operated a ferry between Council 123 124 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha. In order to further Omaha's opportunity to become the capital of the territory, the com- pany erected a capitol building and announced that the "whole arrangement" was made without a single dollar of cost to. the government. Territorial Legislatures. — There were twelve legisla- tive sessions during the thirteen years of the territorial period. These were convened at different dates, one each year, but usually during the winter months when the rural members could best afford to leave their farm work. The first session was naturally the most important, as it enacted the fundamental laws for the future Nebraska.^ The First Legislature. — The first legislature of Ne- braska convened in the new capitol building at Omaha on January 16, 1855. It was composed of a council of thir- teen members and a house of twenty-six members. Some of the legislators were men of strong personality. Among them was Joseph L, Sharp, who was elected president of the council. He had formerly been a member of the legisla- ture of Illinois and also of Iowa. His previous experience made him a valuable member of Nebraska's first legislature. Sharp represented Richardson County and presided over the council with dignity and wisdom. Another law-maker of experience in the council was Origen D. Richardson, of Douglas County. He had served in the Michigan senate and had been governor of that state. He possessed hon- esty and sound judgment. He probably planned and shaped more legislation than any other member of either house. Andrew Hanscom was elected speaker of the house and Reverend W. D. Gage served as chaplain in both house and council. 1 On account of the importance of the first legislature, it is here treated separately, while the leading enactments of the eleven other legislatures are considered in the order of their occurrence. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 125 Governor Cuming's Message. — The chief points advo- cated by Acting Governor Cuming in his message were the following : A memorial to Congress in behalf of the Union Pacific Railroad up the Platte Valley; preliminary arrange- ments for telegraphic and mail communication with Pacific First Territoriai, Capitoi. Building of Nebraska at Omaha, 35x75 Feet. Cost about $3,000. coast points ; the building of stockades for soldiers on the western trail; organization of military companies as a pro- tection against the Indians ; enactment of a code of laws for the government of the territory; and the establishment of public institutions. The Second Governor. — Mark W. Izard of Arkansas, United States marshal for the territory of Nebraska, re- ceived the appointment as governor of Nebraska and took the oath of office on December 23, 1854, in the city of 126 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Washington, before an associate justice of the Supreme Court. Izard came to Nebraska with some experience in legislation. He had been prominent in the legislature of Arkansas, both as president of the senate and speaker of the house. Governor Izard's Arrival. — Izard arrived in Omaha from Washington on the 20th of February, 1855, and on the same day Cuming introduced him to the joint session of the legislature. He at once took up the duties of his of- fice by delivering his message to this joint session. He rec- ommended that the laws of Iowa be adopted for temporary- purposes, "as a large portion of our citizens at present are from that state and are more or less familiar with its sys- tem," and that the property of settlers on lands occupied by them but not yet surveyed be treated as taxable. In general, Izard adopted the recommendations which Cuming had made in his message a few days previously. Locating of the Capital. — The momentous contest of the session was opened by tlie introduction of bills for the location of the seat of the territorial government. Omiha, Plattsmouth, Bellevue, and Brownville were candidates for this honor. Bills to locate the capital, in which a blank space was left for the name of the town, were introduced — one in the council and one in the house. The struggle became very bitter, not only in the legislature, but also between the different sections interested. A vote favoring Plattsmouth, Cass County, passed the council, and a vote of twelve in favor to thirteen against was taken in the house. At this point the Plattsmouth adherents decided the matter by voting for Omaha. The Laws of the First Session. — The laws passed by the first legislative session were classified in eight parts. o o W a t/3 w W o I w !z; 6 s o 128 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The first part, a civil code, was taken from the Iowa code.^ The second part comprised laws of a general nature pre- pared by the legislature itself. The third part was a criminal code taken from that of Iowa. The fourth part located and established territorial roads. The fifth part defined the boundaries of twenty-four counties ^ and located the county seats or provided for their location. The sixth part provided for the incorporation of indus- trial companies ^ and towns and cities.* 1 A code is a group of laws relating to the same subjects or to the same territory. 2 The twenty- four counties included the original eight and six- teen additional ones. The boundaries of the first eight were changed and fixed temporarily. The name of Pierce was changed to Ottoe (Otoe) and Forney to Nemaha. These eight counties exist at the present time but with their boundaries somewhat modified. Of the sixteen new counties, eight still retain their respective names and at least a part of their original territory, though greately changed in boundaries. They are Buffalo, Cuming, Gage, Dakota, Lancaster, Saline, Pawnee, and York. The remaining eight, Blackbird, Clay, Greene, Izard, Jackson, Johnson, Loup, and McNeale, have disap- peared from the map. Clay and Loup remain in name but far west of their first location. 3 Under these laws two salt companies were chartered to operate the salt deposits in Lancaster County. In the early days of the ter- ritory a considerable amount of salt was obtained from this district. Two railroad companies were also chartered to build west through Nebraska, one up the north side of the Platte River and one a little further south. These companies were also empowered to build telegraph lines. Nothing however was done until about ten years later under the organization of the Union Pacific. * Many towns and cities were chartered under this act. Promoters of townsites preferred to use "city" in order to give their towns a high-sounding title, but often a "city" was only a stretch of prairie with a few stakes driven into the ground. Some townsites never got beyond this stage. The Nebraska Medical Society was also chartered, together with three educational institutions. Only one of these, the Nebraska University, came into being. It was located at Fontenelle in Washington County but ceased to exist in 1873. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 129 The seventh part provided for the incorporation of bridge and ferry companies and authorized the keeping of ferries and the building of bridges. The eighth part consisted of joint resolutions adopted at the session. Provision for Second Census. — Under part second of the legislative enactments provision was made for another census to be completed by October 11, 1855. The previous census had been unsatisfactory to the South Platte people. It was thought that a new census would show a majority of the people living south of the Platte, and a new legis- lative apportionment, based on a new census, would give the South Platte district a majority in the legislature, and possibly at a future time change the capital to their district. Prohibition in Nebraska. — Nebraska's first prohibition law was an act of Congress in 1843 to keep intoxicating liquor out of the "Indian country." The earliest territorial legislation against intoxicants is found in part second of the laws of the first legislature. A committee was appointed to make a report, from which the following extract is taken : That in the opinion of this committee, the traffic in intoxicating drinks is a crime, and they would be un- willing to legalize this crime by the solemn sanction of a law granting license for its commission. They are un- willing to elevate to respectability by legal sanction any trade or traffic that tends to demoralize [the] community, retard the progress of education, impoverish the people, and impose on the sober and industrious part of the com- munity, without their consent, a tax which must neces- sarily be incurred to take care of paupers and criminals manufactured by the traffic. They are unwilling to make a traffic creditable the evils of which cause hunger, shame, distress, and poverty. A bill was introduced prohibiting the manufacture and 130 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA sale of intoxicating liquors in the territory. The bill passed both houses of the legislature by a large majority.^ Property Exemptions and Interest Rates. — At this first session a law was passed exempting the property of a married woman from liability on account of the debts of her husband,' but no general exemption of homesteads or other property was made.^ An interest rate of 10% was fixed where no other rate was provided by contract, and the contract rate was left without limitation. Establishing a Common School System. — The law "to establish a common school system" conferred upon the ter- ritorial librarian the duties of territorial superintendent of public instruction, at a salary of $200 a year, and provided for the organization and support of common district schools. A superintendent was provided for each county. He had general supervision of the schools of the county and made reports to the territorial superintendent. The county super- intendent was required to visit the schools of his county at least twice each term and was authorized to examine those who desired to teach, to grant certificates to the successful candidates, and to apportion the county school tax. A dis- trict school board was provided to manage the afifairs of the district and, before employing teachers, to examine them in reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography, history of the United States, and English grammar. Territorial Roads. — Part fourth of the laws of the first session contained ten enactments to locate and establish ^ This prohibition law remained on the statute books until 1858, when it was repealed by the enactment of a license law. It required fifty-eight years, or until 1916, for the citizens of Nebraska to con- clude to "manifest their determination to sustain" a prohibition law. 2 A $500 property exemption was granted to married persons or the heads of families, and the exemptions permitted under the Iowa Code were of course allowed in Nebraska. See exemption laws in the Nebraska Code for a complete list passed later. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 131 ten territorial roads. These roads were intended to connect the principal towns and settlements of the territory. They were therefore mainly near the Missouri River, but one was located between Brownville and Marshall's trading point on the Big Blue River; another extended from Ne- braska City west to Grand Island ; while still a third reached From drawing by Geo. Simons, in the frontier sketch hook of N. P. Dodge. First Ci,aim Cabin in Nebraska Built by Daniel Norton, between Omaha and Bellevue, in 1853 from Bellevue to Cuming County. Commissioners to build the roads and a surveyor were provided. Their expenses were to be paid pro rata by the counties through which the roads passed. The survey of each' road was to be recorded in each of the counties through which it passed. In general, these roads followed the best natural highways, that is, the most level country with the fewest streams to bridge. There had been no land surveys in Nebraska and there were no section lines at that time. This act further provided that 132 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA all public roads should be sixty-six feet wide, and this width has been adhered to down to the present time. Claims and Claim Clubs — First Farms. — Before the legislature convened, before surveys were made, and before section lines were established in Nebraska, people had begun to settle on the land in the eastern part of the state and to stake out farms. These settlers were called squatters, or claimants. No settler knew where his farm line was, ex- cept by agreement with his neighbors. He farmed the land around his home. This condition existed for about two years. Surveys were then made, and the land was offered for sale by the government.^ In order to protect themselves in the possession of the lands on which they had settled, the claimants organized claim clubs and adopted rules, which ir. effect became laws, to govern their rights on their claims. This system was doubtless borrowed from Iowa, where it had been in use for some time. There is evidence that the rules of these clubs were en- forced with equity and firmness. The settler who came into this voluntary court of equity was protected in his rights from the time he squatted on his claim until he obtained title to his land after its sale by the government. The rules of the several clubs did not greatly differ in substance. The first claim club association of Nebraska, of which we have any record, was organized at a meeting held under "lone tree," the western terminus of the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry, on July 22, 1854. The following reso- lution was adopted by the club : We whose names are hereto subscribed, claimants up- on the public lands, do hereby agree with each other 1 There was no free homestead law in Nebraska until 1863. The government sold the land to bidders, usually for a small price. Many- acres of land in Nebraska passed from the government into the hands of the first owners at $1.25 per acre. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 133 and bind ourselves upon our honor that we will protect every lawful claimant in the peaceable possession of his claim, and that in case his claim is jumped ^ we will, when called upon by the Captain of the Regulators, turn out and proceed to the claim jumped, and there endeavor to have the matter settled amicably by an arbitrator, and, if they cannot agree, they shall choose a third; but if it cannot be so settled, we will obey the captain in care- fully and quietly putting the jumper out of possession and the claimant in. We further agree with each other that, when the sur- veys have been made and the land offered for sale by the United States, we will attend said sales and protect each other in entering our respective claims, each claimant furnishing the money for his said entry. After the sales we are to deed and re-deed to each other so as to secure to each claimant the land each has claimed, according to the lines now existing. , It must be understood that these rules were not the law but simply rules of the claims clubs.^ Such neighborhood associations served their purpose very well until the land was surveyed and could be bought from the government.^ 1 Many of the claimants put more or less expensive improvements on their claims. This they did at their own risk, as they had no title to the land. In case a second party moved on to a man's claim he was called a ''claim-jumper," and the members of the club were bound by agreement to get rid of him. 2 The claimants were apparently wrong in at least one respect. They tried to hold 320 acres of land, whereas the government al- lowed them only 160 acres. The territorial legislature passed laws allowing 320 acres and otherwise governing claims, but these laws were contrary to government regulations and could not be enforced. 3 Under act of Congress (1854) Nebraska lands were granted to settlers in 160 acre tracts. This pre-emption act provided that each settler could obtain his 160 acres by selecting it, living on it six months, and paying the government $1.25 per acre for it. The free homestead law was not in effect until 1863. CHAPTER IX United States Surveys. — By an act of Congress, ap- proved July 22, 1854, the President was authorized to ap- point a surveyor-general for the territories of Nebraska and Kansas. All lands to which the Indians had given up their title or should give up were to be surveyed. John Calhoun was the first surveyor-general. The first survey was the running of the base line, the boundary line between Kansas and Nebraska. This line was surveyed west from the Mis- souri River on the 40th parallel for a distance of one hun- dred and eight miles. Here it crosses the sixth principal meridian, which forms the west line of Jefferson, Saline, Seward, and Butler counties. At that time it was the western boundary of the Omaha Indians land cession. To this base line and the sixth meridian parallel survey lines were run at mile intervals. County lines were located, and townships six miles square, each containing thirty-six sec- tions of land, were numbered. The townships were num- bered north and south from the base line and designated townships number one, two, three, etc. They were numbered east and west from the sixth meridian, and designated range one, two, three, etc. The sections were numbered as shown in the map. A section of land 640 acres, contains four quarter sec- tions of 160 acres each, the usual size of a farm. The quar- ter sections are recorded as the northeast, southeast, south- west, and northwest quarter sections. For convenience, the roads or highways are placed on the section lines between 134 LINE ^o*A, PARALLEL C^ANSAS) These townships are six miles square. The shaded township^ is four north of the base Hne and range seven east of the sixth prin- cipal meridian. 136 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA the farms, and reduce the acreage of the farm by the num- ber of acres in the road.^ The First Courts. — The first court of record within the territory was held March 12, 1855, at Bellevue, the first judicial 'district.^ Judge Fenner Ferguson presided. The Palladium' of March 21, 1855 says: The court was organized by the choice of Silas A. Strickland of Bellevue, clerk. Several foreign-born residents made their declaration of intention to become citizens. No other business of importance coming up, the court adjourned to April 12. The first session of the supreme court is thus noted in the Palladium of February 21 : The first session of the supreme court of Nebraska is now being held at the capital (in Omaha), Honorable Fenner Ferguson, Chief Justice, presiding. The court convened on Monday, the 19th instant. J. Sterling Mor- ton, of Belleview^ has been appointed clerk of the court Honorable E. R. Harden is prevented by indisposition from attendance, since the first day of th^ session. He is at his lodgings at Belleview, where every attention to his health and comfort is bestowed. The Second Census. — The first census, as we have seen, was unsatisfactory to the South Platte people. After the adjournment of the legislature a second census was 1 The highway is sixty-six feet wide and takes thirty-three feet from the quarter section on each side. The reduction on each square one hundred sixty acres, with a road on each side, is approximately four acres. This shortage is not considered in buying and selling land. 2 A judicial district consists of one or more counties, its size depending on the population and amount of business in the district. It is presided over by one or more judges as the volurne of court work may require. There are at present eighteen judicial districts in Nebraska, including the ninety-three counties. 3 The early way of spelling Bellevue. It was so called by the early explorers, possibly first by Manuel Lisa. Belle and vue are French words meaning "beautiful view." SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 137 taken in 1855 to ascertain the correct number of inhabitants. It gave Nebraska a population of only 4,494. This number was a disappointment to those who had supposed that many pro-slavery and anti-slavery immigrants would rush into Kansas and Nebraska to establish control of these territories Draiving by Simons, from N. P. Dodge sketch book. Bei^levue, Nebraska, 1856 No. 1 (near center), old home of Peter A. Sarpy; No. 2 (in fore- ground), Sarpy's new home; No. 3, Indian mission; hill on extreme right, present site of Bellevue College. for their respective parties. The supposition proved to be true of Kansas only, as Nebraska was so far north that the pro-slavery people considered it a coming free state and devoted their efforts to holding Kansas in line for slavery. For the first few years following 1854 Kansas gained in population faster than Nebraska and in February, 1855, counted 8,601 people within its borders. Election of 1855. — The election was held on the first Tuesday of November. The officers elected were a delegate 138 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA to Congress, a territorial auditor, treasurer, librarian, and twenty-six members of the lower house of the general as- sembly. Each of the several counties elected a probate judge, sheriff, register,^ treasurer, and surveyor. Each pre- cinct chose two justices of the peace and two constables. A district attorney for each of the three judicial districts was also chosen. The chief interest in this election centered in the contest between Bird B. Chapman and Hiram P. Bennett for the office of delegate to Congress. Chapman was from Omaha and represented the North Platte district. Bennett came from Nebraska City and represented the South Platte dis- trict. Political parties were not yet developed in Nebraska, and the only contests of note were between the North and South sections. The returns showed 528 votes for Bennett and 575 for Chapman. The election board, perhaps because of some legal irregularity, threw out the votes of Richardson, Da- kota, Washington, and Otoe counties. This action gave Chapman 380 votes and Bennett 292. Bennett contested the election by appealing to Congress for the seat of the dele- gate from Nebraska. The house committee on elections counted the vote of the four discarded counties, which would have seated Bennett, but the house itself, supporting the committee's minority report, rejected the vote of white citi- zens on the Indian Reservation. This action gave Chapman a lead of six votes and the house seated him by a vote of 69 to 63. Thus Chapman became Nebraska's second dele- gate to Congress. "Wild Cat" Banks. — The first and second legislatures chartered a number of banks to operate in Nebraska. There 1 The register keeps a record of legal papers, such as deeds, mortgages, etc. - SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 139 were eight or rftore of them, located at Omaha, Florence, Brownville, Nebraska City, Bellevue, Desoto, and Tekamah. There were also some banks operated without special legis- lative charter.^ Under these bank charters five men were required to put into the bank or promise so to do within a given time, an amount of securities in the way of valuable property, such as stocks, bonds, and mortgages, to secure the payment of the money the bank issued and circulated. Each bank printed its own bills and paid them out through loans and otherwise, but always with a promise to redeem them on demand. With several banks printing bills and circulating them without restraint money became plentiful in the territory and property values rose rapidly. Serious trouble resulted. Some of the bankers did not deposit suf- ficient security to redeem their bills and others failed to deposit any security whatever. There were as many differ- ent kinds of money as there were banks. Each bank was responsible for its own money alone, and, if a bank failed, its money became valueless at once. The failure of one or two banks led to confusion and distrust of all paper money. By 1857 it became apparent that the banks were not able to redeem the money which they had circulated. The "Panic of 1857" led to a general failure of banks, not only in Nebraska, but throughout the United States. Paper money, in consequence, had no value. People could not buy anything or pay debts except with silver or gold money, which was very scarce. Nebraska suffered with the rest of the country, and many years passed before her people 1 These "wild cat" banks were so-called on account of the unsafe way in which they were' conducted and the unsound currency which they issued. They were located in various states, but more particu- larly in the western states where the settlements were new and money scarce. There was a strong demand for the paper money they were empowered to issue. The questions involved in banking had not received the attention that has since been given them. 140 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA again enjoyed good times. They profited, however, by this experience and passed better banking laws. A bank failure is now almost unknown in Nebraska. Territorial Finances. — The territorial auditor and treasurer made their respective financial reports to the sec- ond legislature. The legislature had provided for a tax 1 i Nr ' ^^: Wn- ' '%v- • , \ J-- ^ ^T^7i ■ >-.,.^ >rjg; ■' ^^^^g^ ««fS?*?^^1»-^> -x'. . ' - ^ ■Y A :^i-\,^ '" •U- «!=«".,.. . . Courtesy Nathan P. Dodge, Cov/ncil Bluffs, Joiva. Ferry Across the Ei/Khorn River Twenty-three miles northwest of Omaha, 1854. Drawing by George Simons, whose uncle, Norton Simons, owned the Bellevue ferry. of two mills on the assessed valuation of the taxable prop- erty in the territory. This valuation proved to be $617,882, on which amount a two-mill levy would be $1,235.76. This was not enough money to meet the expenses of the new com- monwealth; and the auditor was further obliged to report that not a single county treasurer had settled his account with the territory and he had no means of knowing how much had been collected. He reported that he had drawn SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 141 warrants against the territory to meet expenses to the amount of $1,971.29, leaving still a balance of $1000 to meet. The warrants covered incidental legislative expenses which the federal government did not recognize, amount- ing to $1,454.70 and the salaries of the auditor, treasurer, and librarian ^ amounting to $516.50. These warrants were a lien on the territory, drew a specified rate of interest, and were payable when the treasury should have sufficient funds on hand to meet them. Parties receiving them were obliged to wait indefinitely for their money or sell them, at a heavy discount, to men with money to loan.^ It was only natural that the early finances of the territory should get into a more or less chaotic condition. There was little taxable property, and people generally were too busy with private affairs to safeguard public interests. Even when elected to do so, the salary was not sufficiently entic- ing to cause any one to spend much time at public work. The Second Legislature — County Lines — School Re- port. — The second legislature convened at Omaha, De- cember 18, 1855. Governor Izard in his message stated that the foundation of the capitol building was completed and that Surveyor General John Calhoun was rapidly ac- complishing the governmental land survey of the territory. Organizing counties and designating their boundary lines was important work of the early legislatures. At this ses- sion a bill was passed providing that the uninhabited por- tion of Nebraska should be organized into counties, each county to be twenty- four miles square. It would thus com- prise sixteen townships, each six miles square. Although several changes have since been made, making streams the county lines in places, yet the present map of Nebraska 1 The librarian was also superintendent of schools in the territory. 2 Such warrants were often salable in the eastern states. 1421 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA with its straight county Hues ^ shows the effect of this early legislative act. The first school report was made to this legislature by the territorial librarian (now state superintendent). As little had been done in school organization avid work, the report consisted mostly of recommendations for the future. The Youthful Commonwealth. — Nebraska by 1856 began to show features of normal political organization and life. The census taken in the fall of this year recorded a population of 10,716. Public discussion of questions bear- ing on the interest of the territory prepared the way for better government. There was a beginning of a "press," represented mainly by the Nebraska City News, the Omaha NebraskaUy and the Advertiser of Brownville. People were building homes and showing a disposition to remain in Ne- braska as a good place to live. The "carpetbaggers" and land and townsite speculators were less in evidence. Third Legislature. — The third legislature convened on January 5, 1857. It took under consideration four prin- cipal subjects: the division of Douglas County,^ the re- moval of the capital, the chartering of more "wild-cat" banks, and the repeal of the criminal code. This legislature also provided for an increase of the tax levy so that the general expenses of the territory and the school expenses might be met. The Capital Controversy. — The location of the capi- tal was a source of continual wrangle between the North and South Platte sections. The third legislature voted to make Douglas, a new townsite in Lancaster County, the 1 Compare the county map of Nebraska with the county map of Kentucky, Tennessee, or other eastern states. 2 The division of Douglas County was not accomplished. The de- mand for it was the result of a neighborhood feud between Bellevue and Omaha. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 143 capital city, but Governor Izard vetoed the bill. There was not sufficient majority to pass it over his veto. Since the federal government and the people of Omaha had spent more than $50,000 to erect the second building on Capitol Hill, where the Omaha Central High School is now situated, it appeared undesirable to agitate further for capital re- moval at this time. More Bank Charters. — There was a popular demand at the third session for more bank charters. Some strong men in the territory, who foresaw danger in this procedure, opposed the demand. Among these were J. Sterling Mor- ton ^ and George L. Miller.^ However, their opposition could not prevail, and the bill favoring the charters passed both the house and council. Governor Izard vetoed this bill, although he had signed previous ones. Only two banks were chartered over the governor's veto, the Bank of Te- kama and the Bank of DeSoto. This ended the chartering of banks by special acts.^ Repeal of the Criminal Code. — The most extraordi- nary and surprising action of the third session was the repeal of the criminal code. The measure was passed over the governor's veto by the entire vote of the council, except that of George L. Miller, and with only two negative votes in the house. There may have been some connection between this action and the defeat of the bank charters. The crim- inal code contained several penalties against illegal banking. 1 Morton had failed of re-election to the third session because of his strong opposition to the bank charters while a member of the second session. 2 Miller came to Omaha as a doctor, but gave much of his life to politics and journalism. In partnership with Daniel W. Carpenter he founded the Omaha Daily Herald in 1865. This paper became the Omaha World-Herald in 1889 under Gilbert M. Hitchcock, who is still the owner. 3 Banks are now chartered by the state under the state banking law which governs banking in general. 144 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Under the general statutes any number of people could or- ganize for the purpose of transacting any business. With the criminal prohibition removed, this clause permitted free banking. Only six banks, however, took the liberty to issue bank notes without charters. Izard, "Cuming, and Richardson. — Izard was governor during the period of the third legislature, but he resigned in October, 1857. Cuming, who was still secretary of the ter- ritory, again became acting governor. This position he retained until Governor William A. Richardson, the new appointee of President Buchanan, entered upon his duties, January 12, 1858. Cuming was thus governor when the fourth legislature convened on December 8, 1857. Governor Izard is on record as vetoing the capital re- moval bill, the bank charter bill, and the bill repealing the criminal code. All of these vetoes were doubtless to his credit, since the wisdom of the legislature in enacting these measures can now certainly be questioned. Cuming delivered his message to the fourth legislature in December, 1857. It was one of the most important of his official communications. The opening paragraphs read as follows: We are assembled today under the most favorable auspices. The territory of Nebraska has, thus far, achieved all that her friends could ask. Her early or- ganization and rapid progress have signally illustrated the safety and expansive force of the principles of the federal compact, from which naturally sprang her or- ganic act. The imprint of her ''Great Seal" has been genuine. ''Popular Sovereignty" has been vindicated ; "Progress" verified. Peace and good order, practical vigor and manly observance of constitutional obligation have char- acterized the conduct of our people. No dangerous agi- tation or political heresies have been permitted to take pq t O 146 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA root ; but the seeds of industry, education, and law, planted at the commencement by enterprising and prac- tical men, have yielded the legitimate fruit of a safe and efficient self-government. Under such circumstances, and inhabiting a country of such vast extent, natural beauty, and productive wealth — although lamentable dissensions have given to our sister territory a wider notoriety — we may well congratulate each other upon our verification of the polit- ical truth, ''Happy is the people whose annals are tran- quil." The Fourth Legislative Session. — The fourth session convened on December 8, 1857, but accomplished little ben- eficial legislation. The question as to the removal of the capital again came up for discussion. Omaha was willing to make a large donation ^ in order to retain the capital. Early in the session a bill to remove the capital was intro- duced. A majority of the legislators appeared to favor the measure, but the minority, by resorting to strategy, were able to keep it from coming to a vote. Finally a majority from both houses left Omaha and reconvened at Florence. This daring and revolutionary act, which later proved to be illegal, was the outcome of years of sectional strife between the North and South Platte districts. The territory now had two legislatures in session. The legislature at Florence passed several laws, including a capital-removal bill, but since the validity of its acts was denied, no official record of them has been preserved. The legislature at Omaha passed only a few general laws. One of these abolished the use of private seals. Another provided 1 On January 7, 1858, Governor Cuming sent the following message to each house: "I have to inform your honorable body that I have received from Jesse Lowe, mayor of Omaha, a deed of trust to all that portion of land known and designated on the old plat of Omaha City as 'Capital Square' for the use and purposes of the capital of the territory, and the state of Nebraska when it may become such." SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 147 that hereafter the legislature should meet on the first Mon- day in January. There were a few special acts passed re- lating to incorporations and territorial roads. Coming of Governor Richardson — A Better Feeling. — Governor Richardson arrived at Omaha on January 12, 1858, during the session of the fourth legislature. His strong character, thorough education, and experience with men enabled him to exert a quieting influence upon the two factions. He began to advocate movements that tended to unite the North and South Platte districts and to remove contentions from the legislature. He suggested bridging the Platte River so that travel from the South Platte terri- tory to Omaha would be more easily accomplished; also leaving the location of the capital to a vote of the people instead of action by the legislature. He, with other prom- inent men, began to advocate a special session of the legis- lature to consider important matters neglected in the turmoil of the fourth session. These suggestions tended to bring about a more constructive frame of mind on the part of the people and, instead of quarreling over their differences, they began to study measures to correct them. CHAPTER X Death of Acting Governor Cuming. — Death claimed Thomas B. Cuming on the 23rd day of March, 1858, at Omaha. He had been a leader in founding the common- wealth of Nebraska, which stands as an enduring monument to his short but eventful life. J. Sterling Morton as sec- retary of the territory succeeded him. First Political Conventions*. — No political parties ex- isted in Nebraska until 1858. As long as the principal offi- cers of the territory were appointed by the federal govern- ment, political organization seemed unnecessary. There were a few contests between different factions of the Demo- cratic party. Such leaders as J. Sterling Morton thought that sectional voting was quite sure to win for the South Platte country, while under a strict party vote the Omaha politicians might be able to control important questions. A correspondent in the Advertiser insisted that organization was necessary to "purge the party of black republicanism, abolitionism, and whiggism," ^ whose mien was so hideous to Democrats of that day. At a mass meeting called in Omaha on the 8th of January, 1858, a very long platform ^ was adopted. The first resolution declared that ''it is ex- pedient to organize the Democratic party in the territory, and the same is hereby organized." The first attempt to hold a Republican convention in Ne- braska was made on the 18th of January, 1858. Those who attended were too short-sighted to see the rising tide of 1 Black republicanism, abolitionism, and whiggism, were names used at this time to denote the anti-slavery contingent. 2 A statement setting forth the principles of a political party. 148 3, i 150 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA anti-slavery sentiment which within two years was to sweep over the Northwest and to land the Republican party in power by the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860. The first Nebraska platform of the Republican party, as adopted at this meeting, was not much more than a timid protest against the actions of the Democratic party then in power. The Democratic convention at Plattsmouth, June 3, 1858, was the first delegate political convention held in the terri- tory. Under this arrangement a number of delegates were sent from each county to the convention. It was the duty of the convention to nominate party candidates for office and otherwise to look after the interests of the party, in- cluding the adoption of a platform. This method of nomi- nating candidates was superseded by the system of primary elections in 1907. Democratic tickets were nominated in Douglas and Otoe counties, and in both cases they were op- posed by independent tickets. Candidates on independent tickets claimed to be independent of party affiliations. Postponement of Public Land Sales. — The govern- ment proposed to offer the public lands for sale when the survey was finished. The settlers had spent all their money for improvements and had little or nothing with which to buy their farms. They feared that these would be bought by speculators and that they would lose the money invested in improvements. They were greatly disturbed by a deci- sion of the United States land commissioner, Thomas A. Hendricks, on August 2, 1858, that failure to make pay- ment on their lands before the day of public sale would forfeit all their rights. At a meeting held at Brownville the settlers sent a committee to Washington to protest against the sale. These delegates presented an address to the President, which set forth that "owing to excessive rains SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 151 during the summer not only was there an entire failure of the wheat and oats crop, but as a consequence an accumu- lation of sickness heretofore unknown in that region." It seemed that scarcely a dollar could be raised for the pro- posed sales, and after the sales, the land being subject to private entry, the claims and improvements would be at the mercy of land "jobbers" who were hovering around the land offices. The government postponed the sale for one year. It required a full week for the news of the post- ponement to reach Nebraska. When it finally came, there was great rejoicing among the settlers. The following item, which appeared in the Advertiser ^ indicates the feeling : The whole city was brilliantly illuminated; nearly every window was filled with burning candles; bonfires were kindled in the streets and on the tops of the sur- rounding hills ; fireballs flew in the evening until about 8 o'clock. Honorary guns were fired for the President of the United States. Need of More and Better Laws. — Soon after the elec- tions, which were held on the first Monday of August, Gov- ernor Richardson issued a call for a special session of the legislature. He stated in his call that "great confusion and uncertainty characterize the laws of the territory." There was some doubt, at first, as to where the session would take place. As we have learned, an attempt had been made to move the capital to Florence, but the federal authorities rec- ognized the minority which remained in Omaha by issuing pay checks to them and not to those who sat in Florence. The Fifth or Special Legislature. — This session of the legislature met September 21, 1858, and made many import- ant enactments. Among them were a criminal code, a code of procedure, a merchant's lien law, an improved revenue law, a liquor license law, a general law giving county com- 152 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA missioners power to grant licenses to operate ferries, a law providing for a territorial board of agriculture, and a new apportionment of members of the legislative assembly. Dis- gust with the Florence fiasco, the firm and effective attitude of Governor Richardson, and the growing feeling that the removal of the capital at this time was impracticable, all combined to bring about good results at this session. Coun- cilman Robert W. Furnas reported early in the session that the "capital question is not spoken of by anyone." A me- morial to Congress to appropriate $30,000 to complete the capitol building at Omaha passed the house without division. Resignation of Governor Richardson. — The governor- ship of the territory again became vacant in December, 1858, by the resignation of Governor Richardson. His departure was a loss to Nebraska. He returned to Illinois and after- wards succeeded Stephen A. Douglas as United States Sen- ator from that state. GOVERNOR BLACK'S ADMINISTRATION Appointment of Governor Black. — Judge Samuel W. Black was appointed governor of the territory in Febru- ary, 1859, and assumed the office on the 2nd of the following May. His appointment was gratifying to the people be- cause he was already a citizen of Nebraska. He had been sent from Pennsylvania as judge of the second judicial dis- trict in 1857. Public Land Sales. — Sale of the public lands was now accepted by the settlers without remonstrance, not because it was desired, but rather because it was regarded as inevi- table. The sales were advertised to take place at Nebraska City August 1 and 29, 1859 ; at Omaha July 5 and 25 ; at Dakota City July 18; and at Brownville August 8 and Sep- tember 5. The sales were confined to certain townships SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 153 north of the base Hne and east of the sixth meridian.. An interesting picture of conditions and the fatherly treatment of real settlers by the government is afforded by the account of the first day's sale at Brownville : On Monday last the office at this place opened for private entries. Colonel Nixon very generously refused to receive applications for private entries before 12 o'clock, giving the settlers opportunity to file during the forenoon under the benefit of the 15th section of the act of 4th September, 1841, by which a year's time is se- cured in which to pay for the land. One hundred and twenty-seven filings were made before 12 o'clock, fifty- two of which were made before breakfast. As a rule the settlers were able by this time to buy their land, each his own claim. Some borrowed money to make payments, but the rate of interest was so high that they often lost their claims in the end. Proposed Annexation to Kansas. — During the later 'fifties there was some agitation in favor of the annexation of the South Platte country to Kansas. It was proposed to take the territory lying between the Platte and Kaw rivers in Kansas and form a state, the western boundary of the proposed state being near the one hundredth meridiait. The scheme of annexation seems to have been generally fav- ored by the people living south of the Platte, and in consid- erable measure by the people of Kansas north of the Kaw. The strength of the movement must be attributed to three sources : the earlier bitter feud between the north and south Platte sections, the difficulty in crossing the Platte, and the prospect of a speedier admission to statehood. The success of the Republican party in 1860 put an end to the annexa- tion question, as it assured early admission of Kansas into the Union as a free state.^ 1 The Republican party was the anti-slavery party, and the election 154 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA First Democratic Delegate Convention. — It must be remembered that during the formative period of the terri- tory of Nebraska the Democratic party was in national con- trol and the earliest officers were appointed by federal au- thority. It was natural, therefore, that the offices in the Nebraska territory should be filled by Democrats. The first territorial Democratic ticket was nominated by the convention held at Plattsmouth August 18, 1859. Gen- eral Leavitt L. Bowen of Sarpy County called the conven- tion to order. Mills S. Reeves of Otoe County was made temporary chairman, and James W. Pattison of Omaha, temporary secretary. Silas A. Strickland of Sarpy County was elected permanent chairman. According to the report of the committee on credentials ^ delegates were present from all of the twenty-four counties represented in the ap- portionment law of the preceding general assembly or leg- islature. The convention chose Experience Estabrook as the Democratic candidate for delegate to Congress. The following resolution was also adopted by the convention : RESOI.VED, that to carry out the object set forth in res- olution No. 5 of the resolutions adopted by this conven- tion, it is necessary that a special session of the general assembly of Nebraska territory be called for the pur- pose of authorizing the people to form a constitution preparatory to admission into the Union as a state ; and we recommend to his excellency, Governor Black, to call a special session of the general assembly for that purpose at such time as to him may seem proper. contest of 1860 was based almost entirely on the slavery question. Many northern Democrats were also opposed to slavery. 1 Each county held its convention, usually at the county seat, be- fore the state convention. The number of delegates was apportioned to each county according to its population. These delegates were given credentials (written certificates of entry) to the state conven- tion. The first dutv of the state convention was to appoint a com- mittee to examine these credentials and determine each delegate's authority to sit in the convention. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 155 First Republican Delegate Convention. — The first territorial convention which can be called Republican met in the school house at Bellevue at eleven o'clock in the fore- noon of August 24, 1859. Samuel G. Daily was nominated for delegate to Congress. Though attended by the leading Republicans of the territory, the convention avoided the g^n ■BBy^^^fflrJ^^Slt^^^i ^^K^ iPIPI '^P^cHH^ fff n tk jH^L ^JS^/M^ ^^Kf- ^^^t^^^ ^'^l B Four or the Nine Survivors oe Chiee Joseph LaFelche's PoEicE Force designation of Republican and styled its nominees the Peo- ple's Territorial Ticket. Its demand for a homestead law, for a Pacific railroad, for statehood, and its denunciation of the slave trade were similar to declarations on the same subjects in the Democratic platform. The convention also declared for popular sovereignty. The Election. — The Democrats triumphed in the elec- tion, securing about two-thirds of the members of the general assembly. They also had a majority in the council, which had been chosen the year before. There was a spir- 156 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA ited contest between Daily and Estabrook for delegate to Congress. The territorial board of canvassers found three hundred majority for Estabrook and gave him a certificate of elec- tion, but Daily appealed to the newly elected Republican House of Representatives at Washington. Judge Alfred Conkling, father of Roscoe Conkling, prepared Daily's pro- test and the House declared he was entitled to his seat. The Sixth Legislature — The Governor's Message. — The sixth legislature convened at Omaha December 5, 1859. Governor Black in his message spoke of the "lack of a penitentiary," requested the organization of counties fur- ther west where settlers were already found, cautioned against financial measures tending to increase the public debt, and recommended the passage of a usury law.^ He also referred to outbreaks by the Pawnee Indians : During last spring and in the early part of the sum- mer, the settlers, particularly in the Platte Valley and about the Elkhorn River, as well as in other places (south as well as north of the Platte), were subjected to depre- dations and outrages by the Pawnee Indians, of the most aggravating character. For a season no one within reach was safe in person, habitation, or estate. The citizens residing in the districts not very thickly settled were exposed to personal insult and violence, and their property not only stolen, but boldly taken or driven away in the presence of themselves or families. Houses were broken into and plundered of their entire contents, and in some cases families were turned out without a home. Post offices were entered by vio- lence, and the mail of the United States either robbed or destroyed. The people of the neighborhood or- ganized as well as they could for their protection, and, finally, about the first of July, appealed to the Execu- 1 Interest rates were so high that borrowers had great difficulty in meeting their obligations. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 157 tive for assistance. During my temporary absence from the capital and with the approbation of Mr. Secre- tary Morton, an expedition was organized under the mil- itary direction of General Thayer, and started, as prompt- ly as possible, for the scene of the trouble. Information being communicated to me by express, I started imme- diately for the capital, having with me a few government troops, under Lieutenant Robertson, of the dragoons, and arrived in Omaha on the evening of July 5th. With these troops and some volunteers, I came up with the expedition early on the morning of the 8th. The whole force numbered about 200 men, and was placed under the immediate command of General Thayer. After a forced march of four days, we overtook the Indians, who had by this time set forth on their summer hunt. After the first demonstration, they surrendered, unconditionally, and submitted to reasonable and just terms. Enactments of the Sixth Legislature. — The principal enactments of the sixth legislature were as follows : an act providing for an election to be held the first Monday in March, 1860, to decide whether or not the people desired self-government ^ and to elect delegates to a convention which should prepare a state constitution; an act concern- ing the judicial authority of justices of the peace and pro- cedure before them; and an act providing that a delegate to Congress be elected in 1860 and every two years hereaf- ter, and that his term of office should begin on the 4th of March next after his election. A bill prohibiting slavery in the territory was also passed by both houses, but was vetoed by the governor. This legislature also authorized the organ- ization of several new counties. The report of the auditor to the legislature showed some financial improvement, for the counties were now beginning to levy taxes. However, few remittances came in from 1 An election to vote on statehood. 158 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA county treasurers, and the territorial warrant account, in consequence, was continually increasing. It was necessary not only to levy taxes against the property of the territory, but also to compel county treasurers to collect them and make early and regular remittances to the territorial treas- urer. CHAPTER XI The First Statehood Election. — As the agitation for annexation to Kansas subsided, the question of statehood arose, especially with the people of the South Platte coun- try. The first statehood election was held March 5, 1860. Two thousand, three hundred and seventy-two votes were cast against, and 2,094 were cast for state government. Many minor questions and neighborhood differences cloud- ed the main issue in this election. It is possible that a full and fair vote would have placed Nebraska in the list of states then instead of seven years later. The Congressional Campaign of i860. — The con- gressional campaign of 1860 was both interesting and im- portant. At that time a change was sweeping over the entire country. The Democratic party, which had held almost undisputed sway for so many years, gave way to the Republican party. The Democratic candidate for delegate to Congress was J. Sterling Morton, while the Republicans nominated Samuel G. Daily. Morton received the larger vote and the canvassing board declared him elected, but some time later Governor Black, in whom the law placed author- ity to issue certificates of election, issued a certificate to Daily on the ground that fraud had been committed in cer- tain counties. The Morton-Daily Contest. — The political event of the summer of 1861 was the contest for the delegate's seat in Congress. Richardson of Ilhnois, Vborhees of Indiana, and Vallandigham and Pendleton of Ohio advocated the 159 160 SCHOOL HIS'TORY OF NEBRASKA cause for Morton on the floor of the House, while Dawes, chairman of the committee on elections, very ably conducted the case for Daily. The committee's report was in favor of Daily. Departure of Governor Black. — Governor Black left the territory May 14, 1861, for his old home in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.^ As his successor President Lincoln ap- pointed Alvin Saunders of Iowa. GOVERNOR SAUNDERS'S ADMINISTRATION Legislative Sessions. — Governor Saunders served the territory of Nebraska as governor from the time he en- tered on his duties May 11, 1861, until he was succeeded by David Butler, the first governor of the state, in 1867. During this time there were five legislative sessions held on the following dates : The eighth session convened December 2, 1861. The ninth session convened January 7, 1864. The tenth session convened January 5, 1865. The eleventh session convened January 4, 1866. The twelfth session convened January 10, 1867. Free Homestead Law. — Governor Saunders's admin- istration saw the United States free homestead law - go into effect. This law became effective in 1863. It provided that a settler could have 160 acres of land by living on it five years and paying a filing fee of about fourteen do]- 1 On his arrival in the east Black raised the 62d regiment of Pennsylvania volunteers and entered the Civil War. He was killed in the battle of Gaines' Mill (1862), while leading his command in a desperate charge. 2 The first 160 acres of land in the United States to be filed on under this act were in Gage County, Nebraska. The "homesteader" was Daniel Freeman, who filed his papers just after midnight on January 1, 1863, having come from a party to the land office for the purpose. See Dobbs' History of Gage County, Nebraska. 162 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA lars. The preemption law under which 160 acres cost $200 was still in effect also. Three Important Questions. — Three subjects largely absorbed the interest of the people during this administra- tion. One was the Civil War, another was the admission into the Union as a state, while the third was the beginning of the Union Pacific railroad. The Civil War really in- volved two questions, slavery and the disruption ^ of the United States. Nebraska chose the right side of both of these questions. Civil War Incidents. — Although a very newly settled country, Nebraska furnished three thousand soldiers for the Union in the. Civil War. This was about one-tenth of the entire population. There was a great scarcity of money in the territory. The quota assessed to Nebraska in 1861 as a war tax was about $20,000. This amount seems very small to the present generation but it was a very heavy bur- den at that time. The federal government paid the terri- torial government about $20,000 annually for the expense of the legislative session. At the urgent request of the people, Congress credited the territory with the amount of the war tax in place of one appropriation for the legislative expense. There was accordingly no session of the legisla- ture in the winter of 1862-1863. The members were elected at the fall elections of 1862, but they did not convene, owing to the lack of funds. The Civil War did not extend into Nebraska, but there was some fighting in Kansas. Much of this was carried on by a rough class of people who took advantage of war 1 The Southern states seceded and wished to form a separate gov- ernment in which slavery could be retained. The North claimed that the United States was one nation and indivisible, and that a state or states could not withdraw from the Union and set up a separate government. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 163 times to pillage, plunder, and burn the property of their antagonists. Some of these so-called ''Border Ruffians" came across into Nebraska occasionally and carried on their nefarious work. They were called "Jayhawkers." ^ They claimed to steal only from those who favored the South, but it appeared that they stole wherever there was anything of value to carry away. Governor Saunders, in a procla- mation, threatened arrest and severe punishment to all "Jayhawkers" caught breaking the law in any way in Ne- braska. In his message to the legislature of January 7, 1864, Governor Saunders spoke highly of the courage and patriot- ism of Nebraska's soldiers. "A Nebraska soldier, whether called upon by his country to confront the wily savage on the frontier, or the rebel hosts in battle array, has never shrunk from duty, quailed before dangers, or turned his back on the foe." The governor recommended that the legislature take action to assist the widows and orphans of those who had given their lives for the preservation of the Union. The Enabling Act. — On April 19, 1864, the President approved an act of Congress to enable the people of Ne- braska to adopt a constitution, organize a state, and enter the Union on an equal footing with other states. But the discouraging effect of the Civil War, with the resultant light immigration to the West, and the Indian troubles all united to retard action at this time and delayed admission for nearly three years. Statehood. — Statehood was the most important ques- 1 Two alleged Jayhawkers, arrested in Johnson County, ^ were brought to Nebraska City, where one was shoved under the ice of the Missouri River and the other one was released but was followed and shot. As a result of this mob action a local newspaper announced that "Jayhawking is about played out in Nebraska." Engraving from a photograph owned by the Nebraska State His- torical Society. W1LI.1AM Walker at the Age oe 33 Provisional governor of the proposed territory of Ne- braska, 1853. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 165 tion of 1866. Though party Hnes were not strictly drawn, the RepubHcans generally favored, and the Democrats gen- erally opposed, the change to state government. A joint resolution submitting a state constitution to the people passed the council by a vote of 7 to 6, and the house by vote of 22 to 16. This constitution was not prepared by any designated authority, but by politicians who were anxious for statehood. It was rushed with unseemly haste through the legislature ; it was not even read the third time, was not referred to a committee, and was not printed. The con- stitution was submitted to the people at the fall election of 1866 and was adopted by a vote of 3,938 to 3,838. On the third day of the session of the 29th Congress, December 5, 1866, Senator Wade of Ohio introduced a bill for the admission of Nebraska into the Union. The bill passed on the 9th of the following January to allow negro suffrage. On the 19th of January the House passed the bill by a vote of 103 to 55, after adopting a similar amend- ment. The following day the Senate concurred in the House amendment. On the 29th of January President Johnson vetoed the bill on the ground that the part of it composed of the Boutwell amendment was unconstitutional, and he suggested that the conditions ought to be submitted to a vote of the people. On the eighth of February the bill was passed in the Senate over the president's veto ; the next day the bill passed the House also and thus became a law. The state legislature of Nebraska, which had been elect- ed in the fall of 1866, convened in special session February 20, 1867, in response to the proclamation of Governor Saun- ders issued on the 14th of that month for the purpose of complying with the conditions imposed by the acts of Con- gress. The senate was composed of eight Republicans and 166 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA • nine Democrats. A bill accepting the conditions for ad- mission was quickly passed by both branches of the legisla- ture. On the 21st they agreed to a joint resolution to send a copy of the act to the President and also one to John M. Thayer, who had been elected United States Senator, and then adjourned. On the first of March, 1867, President Johnson issued a proclamation declaring that *'the admission of the state into the Union is now complete." Union Pacific Railroad. — The Union Pacific Railroad, begun in 1863, was completed in 1869. This road, which passes through Nebraska from end to end, has been of vast importance to the state's commercial interests. It is now a double track throughout the state, and its splendid trains glide over one of the best road beds in America. Election of First State Officers. — In the Republican and Democratic political conventions of 1866, the following candidates were nominated for officers of the new state: Republican Democrat For Congress T." M. Marquette John R. Brooke For Governor David Butler J. Sterling Morton For Secretary (of State) John Gillespie CharlesW. Sturges For Auditor T. P. Kennard Guy C. Barnum For Treasurer Augustus KountzeSt. John Goodrich For Chief Justice... Oliver P. Mason William Little For Associate Justice Lorenzo Crounse B. E. B. Kennedy For Associate Justice George B. Lake Edward VV. Thomas The Republican candidates were elected, with the excep- tion of Oliver P. Mason. David Butler became the first governor of the new state on February 21, 1867, the date SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 167 when the Nebraska legislature accepted the congressional terms of admission. Interesting Topics of Territorial Period. — Before pro- ceeding to study the statehood period of Nebraska history, there are a number of topics of the territorial times which can be read with interest and profit. The Advance Guards of Civilization. — The soldier and the missionary have been the advance guards of civili- zation and no history of the territory would be complete without some account of each. Nebraska not only fur- nished a large quota of soldiers for the Civil War but also had to protect her citizens and property from the marauding Indians. The Indian question in the Missouri Valley was largely influenced in early days by the attempts of the Brit- ish to retain control of trade with the Indians. The first military force that entered the upper Missouri country was sent there for the purpose of protecting the country and its fur trade against the British. First Military Post. — A military expedition under the command of Colonel Henry Atkinson went as far up the Missouri River ^ as "Camp Missouri," just below Council Bluffs, and there established a military post in the upper Missouri country, September, 1819. By the end of the year a strong fort and barracks for one thousand men had been erected by the troops. This post, afterward known as Fort Atkinson, was garrisoned by a regiment of infantry and a regiment of riflemen. On the 23rd of September, 1820, Atkinson, now brigadier-general, and Benjamin O'Fallon, Indian agent, made a treaty with the Omaha tribe for a tract of land fifteen miles square around Council Bluffs. General Atkinson was commandant of this fort 1 In the very early day, practically all travel "up the Missouri" started from St. Louis. 168 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA until 1823, when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-Colonel Leavenworth, who remained in charge until 1825. His suc- cessor. Colonel Woolley, was commandant until the fort was abandoned in 1827. ^-^rtlKiif'iflflBlWi'/--;^.,. Generai. Henry Leavenworth Early Expedition Against the Arikaras. — The Arikara Indians ^ had attacked and defeated a company of volunteers under Colonel Ashley of the Rocky Mountain Fur Com- 1 The Arikaras lived on the Missouri River within the limits of what is now South Dakota. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 169 pany. Colonel Atkinson, with two hundred and twenty men, two six-pound cannon, and several swivel guns, left Fort Atkinson on June 22, 1823, to avenge the defeat. Colonel Leavenworth's force traveled partly on foot and partly in three keel-boats, and was forty-eight days in ascending the river to the Arikara village, a distance of six hundred and forty miles. Major Pilcher, then president of the American Fur Company and stationed at Fort Lisa at the time, over- took and passed Colonel Leavenworth and awaited him at Fort Recovery with a force of forty white men and several hundred Sioux Indians. General Ashley's command also joined Colonel Leavenworth at this place. The whole force then attacked the Indians on the 9th and 10th of August. The Indians abandoned their villages. The fighting was in- decisive and the casualties small. Colonel Leavenworth's command reached Fort Atkinson near the end of August without having subdued the Arikaras. Intertribal Warfare. — During the early days of travel across the plains military posts were an absolute necessity. Trouble between the whites and the Indians could be ex- pected at any time. There were constant intertribal wars. G. C. Matlock, agent at the upper Missouri agency, wrote that war is the natural element of the untaught Indians. The overlapping of hunting grounds, no doubt, had much to do with the constant turmoil among the tribes. Early Treaties. — On the) 16th of May, 1825, General Atkinson and Benjamin O'Fallon, government Indian agent commissioned to trade with the Indian tribes of the upper Missouri, left Fort Atkinson with an escort of sol- diers and proceeded up the river to a point one hundred and twenty miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone. The expedition arrived at Council Bluffs on its return in Sep- tember. Treaties were made with the numerous tribes who 170 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA lived along the river. The treaties contained an agreement on the part of the Indians to arrest all foreign intruders and turn them over to an agent of the federal government. While the Indians were constantly at war with each other in the plains west of the Missouri, they were generally at peace with the white settlers until the whites, after the or- ganization of the territory, began to crowd in and encroach Pawnee Earth Lodge Vii^i^age, Genoa, 1875 upon the game regions of the Indians. Consequently, pre- vious to the year 1854, serious disturbances on our frontier were infrequent. Posts to Protect Friendly Indians. — There were still tribes of wild Indians,^ and attacks were frequently made by them not only upon the white settlers, but also upon friendly tribes. In 1847 the secretary of war recommended the establishment of a small military post at the mouth of the 1 These were Indians who did not enter into treaty relations with the government and did not receive government support. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 171 Platte for the protection of the Omahas, Otoes, Poncas, and other weak tribes on the Platte and Missouri rivers, in con- nection with the post to be established near Grand Island, afterward called Fort Kearny. The Second Military Post in Nebraska Territory. — Fort Kearny was built in 1847 near the center of a tract which subsequently became the town site of Nebraska City. The fort stood too far from any line of travel, and the gov- ernment soon abandoned it. Meanwhile Congress had pro- vided for the establishment of military posts along the Oregon route. New Fort Kearny, the first of these posts, was formally established in May, 1849. The fort at that time was in command of the famous Colonel Bonneville, with two companies of infantry and one of dragoons. The Grattan Massacre. — In 1854 one of the worst tragedies in the history of our intercourse with the Indians occurred in the Platte Valley near Fort Laramie.^ A Brule Sioux Indian killed and appropriated a lame cow belonging to some Mormon emigrant. According to the story of the Indians, the cow had strayed into their camp, which was sit- uated on the Oregon Trail. The Mormon appealed to the commandant of the fort for pay for his cow.^ Lieutenant John L. Grattan with twenty-nine men and two howitzers marched to the Indian camp under orders to bring in the Indian that killed the cow. His friends, how- ever, refused to give him up. Lieutenant Grattan was young and not experienced with Indians. He ordered his men to fire the cannon and muskets on the thousands of Indians, men, women, and children. Before they could re- load their guns, these thirty men were mowed down by In- 1 Within the limits of the present state of Wyoming. 2 The government held itself liable for the depredations of its Indian wards. 172 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA dian bullets and arrows, not a man escaping. Chief Bear was also killed. The Indians then broke into the govern- ment store houses and stole quantities of goods. Two white traders, Bordeaux and Chouteau, who had married Indian women and were living near, persuaded the Indians not to murder other white people. The Indians then scattered and rode throughout Wyoming and the Dakotas, everywhere urging other Indians to make war on the whites and drive them from their hunting grounds.^ 1 This was the beginning of the great Sioux War, which lasted until the winter following the battle of Wounded Knee. This battle took place on December 28, 1890, in South Dakota, near the Ne- braska line, just north of Rushville, Nebraska. It resulted from the attempt to arrest the Sioux Indians for leaving their reservation. Thirty-two soldiers were killed and one hundred and fifty-six In- dians, some of the latter being women and children. The Sioux War covered a period of more than thirty years. However, on October 27, 1877, five thousand Indians with their cattle and ponies left Ne- braska for their reservations in South Dakota, thus ending the dis- turbances in Nebraska. CHAPTER Xll Avenging the Grattan Massacre. — General William S. Harney, already noted as an Indian fighter, was sent in the fall of 1855 to punish the Sioux for the Grattan massacre. On the evening of September 2, General Harney's command csmped at the mouth of Ash Hollow which, on account of the water, wood, and shelter it afforded, had long been a favorite halting place for the California and Oregon emi- grant trains. This resting place of the emigrants was nat- urally under the eye of hostile Indians ; it was near here that General Harney found and nearly annihiliated the supposed murderers of Grattan and his men. According to local traders and Indian agents, Harney's achievement was an un- warranted butchery rather than a victory, but in any event the battle was a lesson to the hostile Sioux. The Battle Creek Campaign. — In 1859 it was reported that 30,000 Indians of the upper Missouri agency were rest- less and discontented. About the first of July messengers from Fontenelle^ brought news to Omaha that the Pawnees were committing depredations upon the property and out- rages upon the persons of settlers in the Elkhorn valley from Fontenelle northward. The settlers asked for immediate assistance. When the message came Governor Black was at Nebraska City, more than a day's journey distant. In the meantime. General Thayer, in command of the militia of the territory, proceeded to the place of the disturbance with the light artillery company of Omaha. The expedition over- took the Indians on the morning of^the 12th in the vicinity 1 Fontenelle is a small village in Washington County. 173 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 175 of Battle Creek ^ and at once attacked them. They pre- ferred to retreat rather than make a stand. The campaign soon ended when the Indians promised to make amends for their past conduct and to remain peaceable in the future. The Sioux Uprising. — The great Sioux uprising in Minnesota in 1862, when six hundred and forty-four set- tlers and ninety-three soldiers were killed, left a hostile spirit among the Indians. In the spring of 1863 General Sully with three hundred and fifty soldiers went up the Missouri River from Sioux City to cut off the retreat of such hostile Indians as General Sibley might drive out of Minnesota and eastern Dakota. On the 3rd of September, General Sully engaged the Sioux, who numbered from twelve to fifteen hundred warriors. After a shary, short fight just at dark the Indians were routed with about one hundred and fifty killed and the loss of all their effects ex- cept their arms and their ponies. When the Nebraska men came up with the Indians they dismounted and fought on foot with Enfield rifles at sixty paces. There were among them probably the best shots in the world, and their fire at close range was murderous. The loss to the Nebraska regi- ment was two killed, thirteen wounded, and ten missing. The 6th loWa regiment lost eleven killed and eighteen wounded. Indian Hostilities during the Civil War. — The Civil War required all of the military forces of the country, and in consequence Indian hostilities against the whites increased from year to year. In 1864 and 1865 murders and other outrages, on the upper Platte in particular, were numerous. The outrages extended through the westerly settlements of Nebraska and produced resentment against the federal government for neglecting to provide better defense throughout the territory. Even when the army was 1 Battle Creek, Nebraska, is named from this Indian campaign. 176 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA released from the Civil War, response to the Indian situa- tion was slow. Protection against the Indians. — In 1866 it was de- cided to take military steps to protect the West against the Indians. General W. T. Sherman made a month's tour of the plains in the summer of 1866 and proposed to restrict the Sioux to territory north of the Platte River and the Ar- apahoes, Cheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, Apaches, and Navajos to territory south of the Arkansas River. This plan would have left all of southern Nebraska and northern Kan- sas free from wild Indians. It was gradually carried out during the next ten or fifteen years. The First Regular Military Organization. — Although Acting Governor Cuming issued a proclamation calling for two volunteer regiments since "different tribes of Indians, within the limits of the territory, have made manifest their purpose to commit hostilities upon the pioneers of Nebraska, some of them openly threatening to root out. the frontier settlements," the first military organizations were author- ized by the act of the second session of the legislature, January 23, 1856. The act provided for the organization of two brigades, the first from the North Platte section, and the second from the South Platte. The governor was com- mander-in-chief of these forces, and a major-general and two brigadier-generals were chosen at a joint session of the assembly the day following the passage of the act. John M. Thayer was chosen major-general ; Leavitt L. Bowen, brigadier-general of the 1st brigade, and Hiram P. Downs brigadier-general of the 2nd brigade. Nebraska hi the Civil War. — Nebraska did its part in the Civil War. While there was but one regiment of in- fantry and only a few companies of cavalry bearing the name of Nebraska, yet many Nebraskans joined the ranks from SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 177 other states. The territory furnished 3,307 men and officers out of a total of 30,000 population. The 1st regiment of Ne- braska volunteers was organized in June, 1861, with John M. Thayer, colonel. The organization of the regiment was completed by the 30th of July, and on that day the first battalion, under the command of General Thayer, left Omaha by steamboat to join the forces in Missouri. General Thayer's regiment rendered splendid service during the Civil war. Missionari'es and Churches. — Owing to federal restric- tions against the white people entering the territory previous to 1854, the missionary work among the Indians was limited. The work usually took two forms, the day school which the children and sometimes the grown Indians attended, and the religious instruction in the church and Sunday school. In making treaties with the Indians for their lands, the government often agreed to furnish them a school, a black- smith,^ and later a "boss" farmer. The day school was for the purpose of teaching reading and other elementary sub- jects. Reading ^ was taught both in the Indian and the English languages. These government schools were few in Nebraska previous to 1854 but became more numerous and substantial after that date. The religious instruction was introduced by missionaries from the various churches. The churches sometimes under- took to support schools also, but without much success. Lack of funds was the chief drawback. One early mis- sionary in Nebraska paid $22.50 for logs for a school house 1 The Indians received tools, farming implements, harnesses, etc., in these treaties, but they did not know how to use or to repair them. The blacksmith and the "boss" farmer were therefore neces- sities. 2 The first book made in Nebraska was a collection of hymns by Reverend Moses Merrill for use among the Otoes. This hymn book was called Wdtwhtl Wdzvdklha Eva Wdhone'tl. 178 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA and then abandoned the work because there was no more money. The First Sermon. — Moses Merrill, a clergyman of Hadley D. Johnson First delegate to Congress from the unor- ganized territory, now known as the state of Nebraska. Elected October 11, 1853. the Baptist church, preached the first sermon in Nebraska. This was at Bellevue in November, 1833. Mr Merrill la- bored among the Otoes, who called him "The-man-who-al- ways-speaks-the-truth," until his death in 1840. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 179 Samuel Allis. — Samuel Allis of the Congregational church came to Bellevue in the fall of 1834 as missionary to the Indians. He went to the Wolf Pawnees and traveled with them on their hunts two winters and one summer and learned their language and methods of living. In 1836 he was married, and both he and his wife worked among the Pawnees until 1846, when they were compelled to return down the Platte to Bellevue on account of a threatened at- tack on the Pawnees by the Sioux. Father Pierre J. DeSmet. — Father DeSmet of the Catholic church worked among the Indians of the West for thirty years after 1838. He devoted only a little of his time to Nebraska Indians, chiefly to the Sioux in west- ern Nebraska. He often preached to large out-door audi- ences and baptized great numbers. The Presbyterians. — The Presbyterian church ob- tained a strong foothold at Bellevue in 1848 by erecting at that place their principal mission building for the western Indians. Their work was largely with the Otoes, Omahas, and Pawnees, all of whom came to Bellevue to trade. How- ever, Reverend John Dunbar of this church had begun work among the Omahas in 1834. Churches Established. — Within three or four years following the organization of the territory in 1854, 'we find the Baptists, Catholics, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Methodists, Christians, Episcopalians, and Lutherans labor- ing earnestly to establish their respective churches among the white settlers. They also worked among the Indians. Territorial Products. — Nebraska is first an agricul- tural state, but during the period immediately following 1854 the products of agriculture were limited, as there were only a few people tilling the soil and these few were en- countering all the difficulties of farming in a new country. 180 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The tough prairie sod was hard to plow. After plowing it had to 'Vot" one or two yfears before it would produce well. Droughts, grasshoppers, and prairie fires all tended to retard agriculture. In spite of these difficulties, however, corn, wheat, and other standard farm products were successfully raised during the territorial period. Alfalfa and sugar beets have become profitable crops within recent years. Nature's Products. — During the early years of the territory, much food and other products were derived from the resources of nature. Wild fruit, fish, and game, espe- cially the buffalo, were much relied on for food. Buffalo skins and those of other animals were used for clothing and shelter in remote districts. In parts of the state stone was found for houses, while in other parts the settlers built *'dug-outs" in banks of earth, after the Indian fashion. Other homes were built of logs. During this period saw- mills began to turn out lumber from cottonwood and other native timber. Gold in Nebraska Territory. — Gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains in 1859 near Pike's Peak and within the limits of Nebraska Territory. This section was later given to Colorado when that state was formed.^ Salt in Nebraska. — An effort was made during the territorial period to market salt from the salt springs in Lan- caster County. Considerable salt was secured for local use but the cost of production, owing to the limited deposits and lack of cheap fuel for refining, proved too great. The pro- ject was finally abandoned with two results: the salt "ex- citement" was largely responsible for locating the capital at Lincoln, and the excavations of the operators filled with water and later became a bathing and boating pool. 1 The largest lead refinery in the world is in Omaha. It is known as the American Smelting and Refining Company. Gold, silver, and copper are also refined at this smelter. Xf;craska Orchards 182 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA . Coal. — Coal was early discovered near Nebraska City and used to some extent by local inhabitants. There is still some coal mined in that vicinity, but the deposits are not sufficiently extensive to be of commercial value. A Prosperous Year. — It v^as not until 1859 that a good crop of corn ^ and other agricultural products was harvested. The corn was hauled to the Missouri River and sold at a good price, 85 cents a bushel or more. Enough wheat was also raised to make it certain that Nebraska climate was suitable for the production of this cereal. The Territorial Fair. — The first Nebraska Fair oc- curred in September, 1859, at Nebraska City. It might be called a thanksgiving fair for the victory won over the "Great American Desert." Robert W. Furnas ^ served as president. Orchards. — These were planted in Nebraska before 1860. On September 19 1861, the Advertiser, speaking of peaches says, "They have done well in this section of Ne- braska the present season. Trees have 'literally broken down' [with the weight of fruit]." The Territorial Press. — The first newspaper published in Nebraska was the Palladium at Bellevue. The second was the Arrow at Omaha. The first number of the Palla- dium was issued July 15, 1854, at St. Mary, Iowa, acioss the Missouri River, but the paper bore the Bellevue headline. It was moved to Bellevue in November, 1854, The Arrow was published in Council Bluffs, Iowa, but bore the Omaha headline. It had its beginning and ending in 1854. Its editor was J. E. Johnson, a Mormon who came to Council Bluffs 1 It must be remembered that we obtained our first corn from the American Indians. Coronado found Indians raising corn in 1541. Samuel Allis speaks of the Pawnee Indians having a good corn crop in 1835. 2 Furnas was later governor of Nebraska, and his name was given to Furnas County. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 183 in 1848. He later went with the Mormons to Salt Lake City, Utah. In his first issue of the Arrow he says. "Well strangers, . . . wherever in the wide world your lot may be cast, and in whatever clime this Arrow may reach you, here we are upon Nebraska soil, seated upon a stump of an ancient oak, which serves for an editorial chair, and the top of our badly abused beaver [hat] for a table.^ . . There sticks our ax in the trunk of an old oak, . . from which we purpose making a log for our cabin and claim. Yonder come two stalwart sons of the forest [Indians] bedecked in their native finery. . . . The shades of the rainbow appear on their faces. They extend the hand of friendship with the emphatic cuggy-cow (*how are you, friends') and, know- ing our business, request us by signs and gestures to 'write' in the Arrow to the great Father [the President] that the Omahas want what he has promised them, and they ask us also to write no bad about them." Thus ran part of the first editorial written in Omaha. The Nebraska City News, the third journal in Nebraska, was founded during 1854. During much of its career it has been under the management of J. Sterling Morton and of Thomas Morton. The first agricultural paper was the Nebraska Farmer published at Brownville by Robert W. Furnas. It was established in 1860, the year after the first agricultural fair. The Advertiser of Brownville was also owned and managed by Furnas during its early days. Its publication began in 1856. The Omaha Daily Herald was started in 1865 by George L. Miller and D. W. Carpenter. It had only fifty- three actual subscribers at first. It was later consolidated 1 The Arrozv was published when there were hardly any buildings in Omaha. 184 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA with another Omaha paper called the Evening World and became the JVorld-Herald, the leading Democratic paper of Nebraska, owned (1919) by Gilbert M. Hitchcock. Coi.. Robert W. Furnas and Stafi^ • Second Nebraska Cavalry, 1863 The Nebraska Republican began its career in 1858. It supported Republican principles, but was later super- seded in the field of politics by the Omaha Bee founded in 1871 by Edward Rosewater. The Bee remains in the hands of the Rosewater family, Victor Rosewater having suc- ceeded his father. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 185 The Huntsman's Echo was published by J. E. Johnson at Wood River Center ^ in 1859. Johnson had moved from Omaha to Wood River Center in that year. This paper was published only about three years. The Fori Kearny Herald was in 1862 the paper pub- lished farthest west in Nebraska. Moses H. Sydenham was the editor. He had a trader's store at Fort Kearny and had this to say of his paper : Of course, the paper w^as published more to advertise the qualities and most favorable features of what was then known as the ''Great American Desert" than for anything else, and the expense came out of my [other] earnings. . . . There were no settlers from whom to receive subscriptions and no business men to help with their advertisements. ... At the head of my edi- torial column I had the picture of an aboriginal Indian on the war path, waving his long spear. . . . Be- neath the Indian I had the words "Passing Away." This picture was permanent with every issue. Other Papers. — There were many other newspapers during the territorial period. Some survived and some were combined with others, and some failed for want of support. The Omaha Nehraskan, the Florence Courier, the Nebraska City Press, the Deutsche Zeitiing, the Wyoming Telescope, and the Nebraska Daily Statesman were among those that helped shape the trend of early affairs. There were also several daily papers launched, but they usually found them- selves in advance of the times and gave up the struggle. ^ Near the present Wood River. CHAPTER XIII ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR DAVID G. BUT- LER, 1867-1873 Beginning of the State Government. — The enabling act passed by the federal government April 19, 1864, author- ized the governor of the territory to proclaim an election of delegates to a constitutional convention. The election occurred on the 6th of June, 1864, but a majority of the voters declared themselves against the proposed statehood. In 1866, however, the territorial legislature submitted a con- stitution which was later ratified by the people. Governor David Butler assumed the duties of the office to which he had been chosen on March 27, 1867. Removal of the Capital. — The legislature was con- vened at the call of Governor Butler on May 16, 1867. The purpose was to pass such laws as the governor thought nec- essary for the new state. The most important work of this session, accomplished by the passage of an act approved June 14, 1867, was the decision to remove the capital .from Omaha to a location either within the county of Seward, or the southern half of Butler or Saunders counties, or that part of Lancaster County north of the south line of township nine. The new capital city was to be called Lincoln. The governor, the secretary of state, and the auditor were con- stituted a commission to fix upon a new site before July 15, 1867. The commissioners were to select not less than six hundred and forty acres for the site of the town, have it surveyed, and 186 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 187 fix a minimum price on the lots of each alternate block. These lots were to be sold to the highest bidder, and the pro- ceeds deposited with the state treasurer as a state building fund. Out of this fund a capitol, "to be designed as part of a larger edifice," was to be completed before November 1, 1868. Founding State Institutions. — The original bill carried a provision that the state university and the agricultural college, united in one institution, should be situated within the city, and the state penitentiary within or adjacent to the city. An attempt was made to take these institutions from the capital city and locate them a different places in the state, but without avail. Establishing Lincoln. — On July 29, 1867, the commis- sion chose nine hundred and sixty acres in Lancaster county for the site. On August 15 they made proclamations of the event, and the next day a survey of the streets, alleys, and lots WRS begun. Sale of the lots started on September 18, 1867, but the demand was not active. The people were ac- customed to establishing their towns on streams and were doubtful of the success of the town located on a high and open prairie. Many of the citizens were opposed to taking the capital from Omaha, while others desired to have it lo- cated at Nebraska City. The Salt Creek valley near Lincoln proved unattractive in its appearance, though there was a hope that it might produce salt in profitable quantities. These objections all combined to make this first efifort at establishing Lincoln a real struggle. It became the practice to bid in lots and hold them for an advance without paying for them. The commissioners in their report admitted that they violated the law that the proceeds of the sale should be deposited in the state treasury. The Commonwealth (an early local newspaper) on 188 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA September 7, 1867, contains a notice of the capital commis- sioners to architects — dated August 28 — for plans and specifications for a building to accommodate the six execu- tive offices and the two houses of the legislature, the cost Block House at Old Fort Kearny, Nebraska City not to exceed $40,000. From plans for the capitol the com- missioners adopted those of John Morris of Chicago. During the fall of 1867 Lincoln began its growth as a city. A news item published at this time recites that "Lin- derman's portable [sawmill] down the Creek, and Young's steam sawmill west of Market Square, are busy sawing lum- ber. A great deal is coming in from Nebraska City, also. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 189 Forty farm houses are in sight from the rising ground east of Market Square." Political Campaign of 1868. — Both the Republican and Democratic conventions were held at Nebraska City in 1868 for the nomination of candidates for state offices. The political campaign that fall was bitterly waged. The Re- publicans won the election by majorities ranging more than two thousand. First Legislative Session at Lincoln. — The first legis- lative session at Lincoln convened January 7, 1869. The officers of both houses were unanimously elected. Edward B. Taylor of Douglas County was president of the senate, and William McLennan of Otoe County speaker of the house. Election of United States Senators. — The most excit- ing procedure of this session was the election of a United States Senator to succeed Tipton. In the first caucus Sena- tor Tipton commanded less than a third of the votes, but was finally elected over several opponents for the long term. Thayer was elected for a term of four years. ^ Subsidies to Railroads. — The most important ques- tion of the session was that of giving public lands to en- courage the building of railroads. A strong public senti- ment existed in favor of the general policy of subsidizing railroad companies with these lands, and the only important dispute concerned the extent of the grants and the manner in which they should be awarded. While the wisdom of subsidizing railroads and other private enterprises with public property is open to question, there were strong argu- ments in its favor in this case. Without railroads there 1 The two United States Senators from Nebraska were at that time elected by a majority vote of the state legislature. Later this law was changed, and United States Senators in Nebraska are now elected by the people. 190 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA could be only a limited market for the land and its products, and so no general settlement. The settlers who had cast their fortunes with the plains country could not afford to await the voluntary coming of the railroads. The measure adopted provided that two thousand acres should be given for each mile of road that any company would construct ready for rolling stock within the state ; but Winnebago Grave Yard near Winnebago Agency ten consecutive miles should be built within one year from the passage of the act and before any land could be awarded. To prevent injurious competition with the lands retained by the state, the railroad companies were prohibited from selling their subsidy lands for less than $1.25 an acre. To prevent "large tracts of land from being held for any considerable length of time, thereby retarding settlement and cultivation," the companies were required to offer annually at public sale all lands which they should still hold after five years from the time they were acquired. The act contained the conserv- ative provision that it should not remain in force more than SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 191 five years. The Union Pacific and Burlington companies ob- tained limited participation by the provision that companies which had received grants from the federal government should be entitled to two thousand acres for each mile of road thereafter constructed, but only to the extent of twen- ty-five miles. The University of Nebraska. — Another important act of the session was that which provided for "the establish- ment of the University of Nebraska." The legislative act stated that the university was established "to afford to the inhabitants of this state the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various branches of literature, science, and arts." The University was opened on September 7, 1871. There were twenty students in the University proper and one hundred and ten in the preparatory school. Report of the Commsissioners of Public Lands. — The commissioners appointed under the law of 1867 to select lands granted by the United States to the state reported that they had chosen 650,393 acres. Under date of 1869, John Gillespie, the state land commissioner, reported that there had been sold up to the close of the fiscal year, November 30, 1868, 21,944 acres of school land at an average price of $10.53 an acre. The highest price was $28.82 for land sold in Lancaster County, and the smallest price, $4.40, for land in Sarpy County. Scandals in State Government. — Dissatisfaction with the work of the capital commissioners resulted in the pas- sage of a senate resolution requiring them to report the amount they had received from the sale of Lincoln lots and the number of lots which remained unsold. A joint com- mittee of the two houses was also appointed to investigate their transactions. The commissioners reported that they had received $296,268 for the lots and that six hundred were 192 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA sold. The investigating committee found that the commis- sioners had sold land without authority of law ; that seventy- five acres for an asylum had been obtained on very advan- tageous terms, being a partial donation to the commissioners by some citizens who hoped to get the influence of the com- missioners later in building up a little town around the asylum, and that the commissioners had advanced about $4,000 to the contractors in excess of work and materials furnished. They also found in their report that no deeds had yet been given for lots and land bid off at the sales of 1869 in the sum of nearly $150,000 and that the commis- sioners had promised time to buyers. There were other seeming irregularities, and yet the legislature, by a joint resolution, declared that the commissioners had acted in good faith in the discharge of their duties ; and that "in exceeding the appropriation in the amount of land and lots sold and in increasing the size of the public buildings now in course of erection at Lincoln, they have been governed by an honest purpose to subserve the best interests of the state." Butler's Third Nomination. — The Republican con- vention for 1870 met in Lincoln on the 10th of August. Governor Butler after a sharp contest was nominated for the third time. His principal competitor was Robert Fur- nas. Butler's Third Election. — A new political force made its appearance during the campaign of 1870 in the form of a third party organization, composed mostly of Republican dissenters and, in effect, chiefly an ally of the Democratic party. The political canvass was violent, even for a frontier state. The Democrats, led by an able press, opened up on their opponents in vigorous fashion and especially against Governor Butler, whom they accused of many irregularities 194 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA in his previous two terms. They demanded the right to ex- amine the books of the administration, but were refused. The Democrats were aided by anti-Butler Repubhcans. Governor Butler won over his Democratic opponent, Crox- ton, by 2,478 votes. This was a reduced majority and in- dicated the strength of the attack against him. Industrial Conditions. — During the preceding two years 2,382,157 acres of land had been entered — 918,081 acres as homesteads and the remainder as preemptions. The entries at the Lincoln land office were 877,129; at the Beat- rice office, 381,931; and at the Dakota City office, 737,176 acres. Thus the growth of the North Platte and the South Platte sections was nearly equal. The Union Pacific Rail- road had sold 289,644 acres of its land grant in the state since July 28, 1869, and the Burlington Railroad 61,303 acres. Various Kinds of Houses. — Some houses in early days were built of lumber which was sawed at the sawmills located along the streams where timber was most abundant. Many others were built of logs cut from the timber, often hauled to some distance, and put in place by the new owner. Out on the prairie where there was no timber except at a distance, the early homesteaders plowed up the prairie sod, cut it into short lengths, making a block of sod about 12x18 inches in size, and laid these blocks into walls for a house. Other homes were made by digging into banks of ground and covering the top with brush or a few poles sup- porting dirt or sod for a roof. These "dug-outs," as well as the sod houses, were more comfortable in cold weather than the log or frame houses. The sod houses, especially, were often very neat and commodious. The roofs were sometimes made of lumber and shingles while the walls were plastered with the soft, moist chalk-rock found in some parts of the state. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 195 Immigration. — When the Civil War was over and the government was able to give attention to the marauding western Indians, the plains of Nebraska became more invit- ing to eastern people seeking new homes and farms of their own. At the same time, the railroads were anxious to get their share of land under the grants they held from the government and were pushing out branch lines into various parts of the state.^ But immigrants did not all come by railroads. It is interesting to note that on May 17, 1871, as many as sixty-seven immigrant wagons passed through Lincoln. A little later the average number of wagons pass- ing daily through the capital city was estimated to be thirty- three. Nearly all of the immigrants sought farm homes in Nebraska. The settlements along the Missouri River in 1854 were gradually extended, until even the western part of the state became dotted with homes. By the year 1900 the "frontier" in Nebraska had disappeared.^ State Finances. — The financial showing of the state, as presented in the governor's message, was still unfavor- able. The governor pointed out that a large number of warrants on the treasury remained unpaid, and that they had been at a discount of from 10 to 15 cents on the dollar much of the time during the last two years. The assessed valuation of the state had increased from thirty-two mil- lion dollars in 1868, to fifty-three million in 1870. The total amount of public lands received by the state was 727,960 acres. This was exclusive of the 2,643,080 acres of common school land, of which 72,578 acres had been sold at an aver- 1 As the railroads pushed out into the state, small towns sprang up about every ten miles on each road, with their stores, lumber yards, banks, and newspapers, and kept pace with the development of the farming community. Counties were also surveyed, county seats established, and government land surveys were advanced far- ther and farther west, 2 Frontier is the name of one of Nebraska's western counties. 196 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA age price of $8.93 per acre. Of the 500,000 acres of public improvement lands, 257,312 acres had been awarded to rail- road companies as bonuses. Some State Institutions. — The temporary peniten- tiary, which had cost the state $6,661, was ready for occu- pancy in July, 1870. Convicts had been brought there from the county jails, where they had been previously I'^ept, and now numbered thirty-seven. Stout and Jamison, the con- tractors for the erection of the permanent buildings, em- ployed the convicts for 42 cents per day. A. R. Hoel, the first warden, was appointed April 1, 1870. The hospital for the insane was accepted November 8, 1870, and the patients, who had been kept at the asylum at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, and at various county jails in Nebraska, numbering over thirty, were now in their new quarters. Encouraging Immigration. — The early settlers real- ized the benefits to be derived from increased., population. Accordingly a state commission was organized to encourage immigration. The members resided in New York City. In 1871 railroad excursions were running into Nebraska from eastern points. Trains brought a party of editors from Indi- ana and later a party of farmers and mechanics from the same state. In 1872, trainloads of passengers, numbering five hundred to seven hundred to each train, arrived in Ne- braska from Iowa and other states farther east. Electing a United States Senator in 1871. — The elec- tion of a United States Senator during the legislative session was attended by unusual circumstances. The Democrats were hopelessly in the minority. They decided to vote for a Republican candidate, Phineas W. Hitchcock, who was pit- ted against John M. Thayer and Alvin Saunders. The Democrats seemed especially anxious to defeat Thayer, the ^'regular" Republican candidate. Hitchcock was elected. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 197 Thayer was more objectionable to the Democrats than either of the other candidates because he more particularly repre- sented the national administration. After General Thayer's defeat h'e was appointed governor of Wyoming.^ s^ The First Arbor Day. — Nebraska, by nature, is large- ly a treeless state. On this account J. Sterling Morton early saw the necessity of increasing its timber acreage. On Jan- uary 4, 1872, he was successful in getting the state board of agriculture to adopt a resolution to appoint a day to be known as Arbor Day. The first Arbor Day in Nebraska was celebrated on April 10 of the same year.^ Impeachment of Governor Butler. — Sentiment in favor of the impeachment of Governor Butler had grown steadily in the minds of the members of the legislature and engaged their attention as soon as the senatorial election was out of the way. There were apparent discrepancies in the report of Governor Butler on public land sales and the deposit of the money received for the land. It appeared that Butler had withheld from the treasury certain sums that he had received for the sale of state lands. On investigation Audi- tor Gillispie reported that ''said money has never been paid into the treasury of state and no report has been given by the treasurer for said amount ; and further, that there is no entry upon the books of this office at this date showing such credit." When asked for an explanation, the governor ad- mitted the truth of the charges against him. He was con- victed before the senate and was removed from office. It appeared from the trial that the governor had loaned the state money to himself and had given real estate mortgages as security. 1 When Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a state, Wyom- ing was made a territory and was governed from Washington as Nebraska had been. 2 In 1885 the state legislature made the 22d of April, Morton's birthday, a legal holiday to be known as Arbor Day. 198 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA By act of March 3, 1873, the legislature authorized a com- mission, composed of the governor,^ the secretary of state, and the treasurer, to settle all claims of the state against David Butler by taking from him a warranty deed for lands in lieu and release of all mortgages against him; but neither his residence nor his lands in Lancaster County should be in- cluded in the deed. On the 24th of April following, this commission reported that it had taken a deed to thirty-four hundred acres of land in Gage, Jefferson, and Pawnee coun- ties, which had been appraised at $7.00 per acre and which covered the amount of indebtedness and the interest at 10 per cent. The session of 1877 expunged the records of the impeachment and removal trial. Impeachment of Auditor Gillispie. — Gillispie, after the impeachment of Governor Butler, incurred the anger of the governor's friends. A movement was soon on foot to impeach the auditor for alleged irregularities, which in- cluded the excessive payment of warrants, the unfair letting of printing contracts, and negligence in forcing Butler to a strict compliance with the law. Those who had opposed Butler were in the majority and they succeeded in preventing the vote on impeachment by breaking the quorum from time to time until both houses agreed to adjourn the session. The Burning of the Asylum. -^ The asylum for the in- sane was burned on April 17, 1871. The fire was thought to be of incendiary origin. Originally the building, which was to cost $50,000, cost $150,000. Some people asserted that the fire was intended to cover up poor construction. The insurance company offered to reconstruct the building on the original plans for $95,000. Constitution of 1871. — The chief care of the compilers 1 William H. James, secretary of state, became governor on the removal of Governor Butler. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 199 of the constitution of 1866 was to bring about statehood, and so they had contrived that it should resemble the territorial organic act ^ as closely as possible. The constitutional con- vention met in the hall of the house of representatives in Lincoln at two o'clock in the afternoon, June 13, 1871. A committee on membership was appointed and fifty-two mem- bers were accorded seats. The constitution which they framed was copied after that of Illinois. Five important sections were submitted separately to a popular vote, but only one, which provided for the submission of a prohibition proposition, was acted upon favorably. The constitution it- self was rejected at the election held September 19, by 641 votes. 1 The congressional act organizing the territory of Nebraska. CHAPTER XIV Campaign of 1872. — Henry C. Lett of Nemaha County headed the Fur ion ^ ticket as a candidate for governor. The Repubhcans nominated Robert W. Furnas for the same office. While not credited with as much native abihty as his opponent, Furnas had the advantage of mihtary prestige, and was a pioneer of Nebraska in horticulture and agricul- ture. The Republican party was again success tul. ADMINISTRATION: OF ROBERT W. FURNAS 1873-1875 Inaugural Address of Governor Furnas. — Governor Furnas, in his inaugural address to the fifth legislature, urged a revision of the constitution as soon as possible; re- commended the development of coal and salt deposits by the state; and insisted that the Indians should be removed from the state. Agitation for Capital Removal. — Members of the leg- islature who opposed Lincoln as the state capital sought at this session to locate it at some ether place. A majority of the legislature seemed at first to be in favor of the removal. On the 11th of February a bill was introduced providing for a commission which should have full power to choose a site of not less than six hundred and forty acres in any one of the counties of Merrick, Platte, Butler, or Polk ; divide the site into lots; and expend $150,000 of the proceeds of their 1 A "Fusion" ticket is made up of candidates from each of two or more parties whose political principles are similar. In this cam- paign the "Fusion" ticket represented Democrats and liberal Re- publicans. 200 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 201 sale in the construction of a new capital. They were to bestow " a suitable name" upon the city to be thus estab- lished. It soon appeared, however, that the claims of rival communities would not permit them to unite on any one From an unpublished daguerreotype taken in 1855. Robert W. Furnas place. Lincoln was easily able, therefore, to hold the cap- ital. Prohibition. — In January, 1874, an attempt was made to form a political party in Nebraska to be known as the Prohibition party. The principal object was to prevent the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. This attempt was not successful, but those interested agreed to vote with the Democratic or Republican parties, the intention being to 202 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA favor the party more inclined toward prohibition. This was the attitude of prohibitionists in Nebraska for many- years. Later, in 1874, a municipal temperance party was organized in Lincoln, and a temperance convention adopted resolutions advocating the organization of a Prohibition party. This was the beginning of a movement which finally culminated in state-wide prohibition in 1916. Indian Troubles. — Indians and trappers on the Loup River had a fight near Taylor, in Loup County, in which several white men and Indians were killed. Indians also committed constant depredations against settlers in south- western Nebraska. These Indian troubles were creating a strong demand that all Indians be confined to reservations in Nebraska or sent to Oklahoma. Farming in 1873. — Nebraska is first of all an agricul- tural state. When crops are affected, the people feel the immediate results. In 1873 there was an extensive drought. Prairie fires ran through the dry grass and often through the cultivated fields, destroying grain and buildings. Grass- hoppers also appeared in untold millions and ate the crops. In addition to those serious losses, Nebraska felt the evil effects of the panic of 1873, which swept over the entire country. Nebraska farmers stared almost hopelessly at the following market report : Wheat, per bushel, 40 cents. Corn, per bushel, 10 cents. Eggs, per dozen, 5 cents. Butter, per pound, 19 cents. Cattle and hogs, per hundredweight, $2.00 to $2.50. Corn was burned for fuel, as it could not be sold for enough money to buy coal. Some farmers gave Nebraska up as a farming country and moved away, but the majority stayed by their farms and continued to develop the state. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 203 Farmers' Organizations. — About this time a farmers' organization, known as the Grange, came into prominence. The object was self -protection in buying goods and selling farm products. In many localities Grange stores were organized, but they did not as a rule prove successful. The Grange is still in existence (1919) in some localities. In late years (about 1885) the Farmers' Alliance became a fac- tor in trade. These organizations gave the farmer much prominence and a rightful position in the world of commerce but did not result in much, if any, immediate financial benefit. Since the advent of rapid communication by mail and tel- egraph, rapid transit by rail and automobile, and the edu- cative influence of daily papers, farmers, villagers, and city people have been drawn more closely together. The present farmers' organizations are more nearly along the lines of increasing the production, conserving soil and effort, and improving the quality of all farm products.^ Political Convention of 1874. — I'he state conventions of 1874 were held in Lincoln. Silas Garber of Webster County was nominated for governor on the Republican ticket, and James F. Gardner of Richardson County was nominated for the same office by the People's Independent party. The Democratic party nominated Albert Trux- bury of Otoe County for governor. The first Prohibition convention to nominate a ticket appeared this year. The Republicans won the election, and Garber succeeded Furnas as governor of Nebraska. 1 The Farmers' Union devoted considerable attention to methods of selling farm products and buying supplies. 204 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR SILAS GARBER, 1875-1879 Capital Removal Again. — Even before the opening of the regular session of the legislature it was reported that an attempt would be made to remove the capital to some point nearer the center of the state. The people of Kearney went so far as to select a commanding site just north of the city for the capitol when it should be removed to their city. While the sentiment for a more central location seemed strong, differences among the supporters of the movement enabled Lincoln to hold the balance of power. Constitutional Convention. — In preparing for a consti- tutional convention there was some discussion as to whether the delegates should be appointed by the legislature or elected by the people. The latter procedure prevailed, and sixty-nine members of the constitutional convention were elected by the people April 6, 1875. While an attempt was made to ignore party lines in the election of delegates, parti- san spirit appeared in most counties. The delegates num- bered fifty Republicans, sixteen Democrats, and three Inde- pendents. Organizing the Convention. — The convention met on the 11th of May in the hall of the house of representatives in Lincoln. Alexander H. Connor of Buffalo County was temporary chairman, and Guy A. Brown of Lancaster County temporary secretary. The committee on creden- tials consisted of twelve members, one from each senatorial district. John Lee Webster of Douglas County was chosen permanent president. A committee of twelve was appointed to recommend a method of procedure. On the second day a committee on rules reported in favor of adopting the rules of 1871 with slight alterations. A contest for membership SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 205 occurred in three counties, and a committee was appointed to hear the evidence of the contestants. Convention Procedure. — The convention considered three plans of procedure. The first was to take the old con- stitution as a model and, through a small committee, make such alterations and additions as seemed desirable; the sec- ond was to work upon the rejected constitution of 1871 in Photo by S'. D. B>:frhr,-. In Western Nebraska in 1876 the same way ; the third was to proceed to form a new con- stitution without any specific model. By the first two meth- ods most of the work could have been done in committee of the whole. The last plan was adopted, as it provided for a larger number of committees and permitted all members to take an active part in the deliberations of the convention. The report of the committtee of twelve was therefore re- jected, and that of the committee-on rules providing for thirty-two committees was accepted. The Constitution Ratified by the People. — The work of the convention was concluded on the 12th of June, 1875, 206 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA and was ratified at the general election on the second Tues- day in October by a vote of 30,202 to 5,474. Under the constitution of 1866, the upper house of the legislature con- sisted of thirteen members and the lower house of thirty- nine. The new constitution limited the senate to thirty and OraSSHOPPKR ScKXE, Pl^ATTSMOUTH, NEBRASKA, 1874 the house to eighty-four members until 1880, when the sen- ate might be increased to thirty-three and the house to one hundred. This was done at the session of 1881. Constitutional Amendments. — • The constitution has been amended from time to time during recent years. The most important of these amendments provide for the initia- tive and referendum, set up a board of commissioners for SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 207 state institutions, regulate municipal and miscellaneous cor- porations, and prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating liquors. Growth in Population. — A report of the secretary of the state on the census showed that the increase in popula- tion of Nebraska from 1855 to 1860 was 542 per cent; from 1860 to 1870, 327 per cent; from 1870 to 1876, 109 per cent. The population in 1874 was 223,657; in 1875, 246,280; in 1876, 257,747. The federal census in 1880 gave Nebraska a population of 452,402, and in 1910, 1,192,214. Growth of the Schools. — Improved industrial condi- tions were reflected in the growth of the public schools. Ac- cording to the report of the superintendent of public instruc- tion for 1873 and 1874, there were 1,345 school houses in the state valued at $1,300,000, while, at the close of the fiscal year 1872, there were only 538 schoolhouses valued at $700,- 000. The number of school children at the close of 1872 was 51,123; at the close of 1874, 72,991. The apportion- ment of school money for 1871-1872 was about $370,000; that for 1873-1874 showed an increase of nearly $100,000.^ The Grasshopper Plague. — The grasshoppers, or Rocky Mountain locusts, during the years 1874 to 1876 did much damage to Nebraska crops. The settlers feared that this pest might continue to visit the country year after year. The settlers did not know, however, that the grass- hoppers made visits to the plains country only at infrequent intervals. Early travelers in Nebraska refer to visits of the grasshoppers at intervals of from eight to ten years. In his famous Ash Hollow campaign in 1855, General Har- ney and his command, when encamped near Court House Rock, observed that the grasshoppers filled the air and were 1 Write to Superintendent of Public In^ruction, Lincoln, Ne- braska, for a recent report. 208 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA an inch thick on the ground. They destroyed "every blade of grass." W. A. Burleigh, in his report as agent of the Yankton Indians for 1864, said that crops were promising in that part of the country until the grasshoppers came in the latter part of July. The air was so filled with them as to produce a hazy appearance of the atmosphere, and every tree, shrub, fence, and plant was literally covered by them. In many places they carpeted the ground to a depth of from one to two inches. They appeared in a cloud from the northeast and, extending over a belt two hundred and sev- enty-five miles in width, passed on towards the southwest, devastating the country and leaving it as suddenly as they came. One who has not seen these grasshopper raids can have little conception of them. On one occasion the insects came in late June, when the corn was waist high and the small grain was almost ready for harvest. Suddenly the sun was darkened as by a cloud ; the pests were everywhere ; they fairly covered the fields until they hid the grain ; and by nightfall the raiders had stripped the fields and had moved on to other localities. Much of the southern and southwestern parts of the state had been settled so recently that the farmers had no surplus supply of grain. To be thus deprived of their crop in a day's time meant starvation or assistance. As many as ten thousand people in the state became dependent as a result of the grasshopper plague. It was necessary to furnish them with food and clothing for the year, and also with seed grain for the next season. The national Congress and the state legislature made appropriations and relief societies were organized. The farmers remained on their farms and tried again. After a year or two good crops came and the grasshoppers disappeared. They have not visited Nebraska since 1875. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 209 Indian Troubles. — The Nebraska legislature in 1875 adopted a joint resolution demanding the removal of the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies from Nebraska. The Indians continued to be troublesome along the line of the Union Pacific from Fort Kearny westward. They also molested gold-seekers traveling through northwestern Ne- braska to the mines in the Black Hills. In 1874 six com- panies of cavalry and eight companies of infantry were sent to suppress a threatened outbreak at the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies in Nebraska. On June 23, 1875, a treaty was signed at the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies which relinquished the Indian rights. The removal of the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies from Nebraska in No- vember, 1877, ended Nebraska Indian troubles; and after Red Cloud and his band were finally settled at Pine Ridge agency in 1878, that formidable chief became permanently peaceful. Most of the Pawnee and Ponca Indians were re- moved from Nebraska about this same time. Northern Nebraska was now open to settlement by the whites. Temperance Movement. — There was a growing con- viction that the traffic in intoxicating liquors should be ex- terminated. During this administration, the anti-saloon effort was put forth in the form of Good Templar ^ societies and Blue Ribbon Clubs. ^ Temperance people advocated signing a pledge to abstain from tasting intoxicating liquor. Groups of women held meetings in or near saloons urg- ing people to temperance. All of this effort had its effect in advancing the cause in Nebraska. Foreign Immigration. — During Governor Garber's term many colonies of foreigners settled in Nebraska. This 1 The Good Templars were secret societies for advancing the cause of temperance. 2 The blue ribbon was worn as a badge and signified that the wearer was a member of a club. 210 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA was largely the result of the advertising which the immigra- tion committee and the railroads were giving Nebraska as the land of free homes. The immigrants represented Ger- many, Sweden, Bohemia, and other countries. They have made good citizens and are rapidly becoming Americanized. Improvements. — By the year 1878 the trouble with grasshoppers and Indians had passed and rains had become more frequent and abundant. Good crops were harvested and prices advanced. People began to feel encouraged and to improve their farms and look forward to better days. About this time the first telephone was installed in Lincoln and a phonograph was placed on 'exhibition. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR ALBINUS NANCE, 1879-1883 Message of the Retiring Governor. — In his message Governor Garber reported as outstanding ten-year grass- hopper bonds of 1875 to the amount of $50,000. The gov- ernor also reported "that for some time past the outer walls of the capitol have been considered unsafe." Architects had been employed to examine the building, and ''they pro- nounced the north wall in danger of falling." It was re- built, but the time was not far distant when a new building must be erected. Enactments of the Eighth Legislature — Several im- portant laws were passed by the eighth legislature, which convened in 1879. It was provided that all impeachments of state officials should be tried before the supreme court, but judges of the supreme court should be tried by the dis- trict judges. A state commission consisting of three mem- bers was established, but no salaries were allowed the com- missioners and their expenses were limited to $500. A 212 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA bounty of $2.00 was laid on wolves, wildcats, and coyotes whenever any county should vote to give such bounty. A contract for leasing convict labor at the penitentiary was awarded to W. H. B. Stout. Counties were required to pay $3.33 an acre for six rows of trees planted along half section and north section lines east and west and cared for not less than five years. County treasurers were made eli- gible to office for only two consecutive terms. The sum of $75,000 was voted to build the west wing of a new capitol, and the sum of $10,000 to establish and maintain a boys' industrial school at Kearney, provided that city would fur- nish a site of not less than three hundred and twenty acres. An act was also passed providing that when the term of the United States senators then serving should expire, the electors might express by ballot their preferences as to successors. Enactments of the Ninth Legisliature. — The ninth legislature, which met in 1881, made an appropriation of $100,000 for the purpose of constructing the east wing of the capitol. Acts were passed regulating railroad traffic, the location of railroad offices, freight rates, discriminations, and rebates. These acts all tended to secure better service for the public and equal treatment of various classes of shippers. A state normal board consisting of seven members was authorized. The state superintendent and the state treasurer were to be ex-officio members, and five members to be appointed by the governor. The Slocumb Law. — Probably the most important act of the ninth legislature was the enactment of the Slocumb law, designed to regulate the sale of intoxicating liquors. It applied directly to the operation of saloons and provided that a license should be paid the governing board, county, or city, under which the saloon was operated. The Slocumb SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 213 law required a minimum license fee of $5(X) from each sa- loon, except in cities of over 10,000 people where the mini- mum was $1,000. The law did not regulate the maximum license fee. The smaller towns often charged $1,000 to $2,000 license for each saloon and used the money for school and other public expenses. This law was little changed until the adoption of the constitutional amendment in 1916 prohibiting manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors within the state. The Railway Strike of 1882. — Early in 1882 the la- borers employed in grading the grounds of the^Burlington and Missouri River Railroad Company at Omaha struck for higher wages. The strike soon extended to other industries in the city. On the 9th of March the governor was notified by Mayor James E. Boyd of Omaha of a formidable riot in that city. The mayor asked for a military force to protect the people of Omaha from mob violence by strikers and their sympathizers. On the same day the governor received a similar request from the sheriff and a number of Omaha business men. The governor thereupon placed the nation- al guard under orders to be held in readiness for duty, and he made a formal requisition upon the President of the United States for troops to aid in suppressing domestic violence. The President responded to the requisition of the governor, and on the morning of the 11th of March a force of about six hundred men reached Omaha and were placed under the mayor's orders. The arrival of troops permitted laborers who had taken the place of the strikers to work without molestation. Rioting continued for several days, however, and the troops, both state and national, were sub- jected to tYtry sort of insult and abuse. The final restora- tion of order without great loss of life was largely due to the forbearance of the soldiers under the most exasperating 214 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA circumstances. It is worthy of note that the great papers of the state, with the exception of the Omaha Bee, sympathized with the railroad company, as did also the state government. The Farmers' Alliance. — Between 1880 and 1890 the Farmers' Alliance, an organization of farmers for mutual protection and advancement of mutual interest, flourished in Nebraska. Discussions of important questions were held in homes and school houses. Politics received its share of attention and a new party came into being. This was the Populist party, which gained control of the state in 1890. CHAPTER XV Western Settlements. — Though the eastern part of the state developed rapidly, much of the western part re- mained unsettled until after 1890. Within a few years following this date railroads were built up the Republican Valley, the Elkhorn Valley, and into other sections of the state. Immigrants came with the railroads and sometimes in their covered wagons even ahead of the railroads. The last part of the state to be occupied was the Sand Hills re- gion. The settlers built their sod houses in the flat valleys, which were then covered with wild hay.^ The Cattlemen. — Farmers in the western part of the state had much trouble with cattlemen, who had driven their cattle from the south country to feed on the rich grasses of the prairie both summer and winter. The cat- tlemen often fenced in large ranches, each ranch embracing enough land to make many farms. Most of this land be- longed to the government, and was meant for settlers under the preemption, homestead, and tree-claim acts.^ The gov- ernment finally ordered all fences taken down, but the cat- tlemen did not obey at once. Sometimes the settlers cut the ranchmen's fences and the ranchmen destroyed, or let their herds destroy, the farmers' crops. There were many fights, and occasionally men were killed on both sides. ^ 1 Wild hay furnished feed for live stock and, when twisted into long tight wisps or ropes, made very good fuel for cooking meals and heating the "soddy." In some cases special iron drums were used in which to burn the hay. 2 Under the tree-claim act a settler could get 160 acres of land by planting ten acres in trees and caring for the trees eight years. 3 See History of Custer County, published by Western Publishing and Engraving Company, Lincoln, Nebraska. 215 216 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA From 1880 to 1884, there were some hard winters with a heavy snowfall. Thousands of cattle perished for lack of food and shelter. The hard winters were followed by heavy Si-Ri-Lai-Shar-Roon-u (They Make Him Chief) summer rains. These conditions discouraged the cattle- men, who began to give up ranching. Henceforth the set- tlers were free to establish their farms. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 217 Woman Suffrage. — The legislature of i8§i passed a constitutional amendment relating to woman suffrage. It was submitted to the voters at the following fall election, but was defeated. Telephones. — Lincoln and Omaha were connected by- telephone as early as 1882, and other towns subsequently. The farm telephone, however, did not come into use until after 1900. Anti-Prohibition Convention. — An anti-prohibition convention took place at Omaha on September 11, 1882. Resolutions were adopted, including a declaration that "we will not support any man for any office who will not satisfac- torily pledge himself to oppose any and all attempts to force upon the people a prohibitory law." The Political Situation. — The Republican state con- vention met at Omaha on October 1, 1879. It was called to order by James W. Dawes, chairman of the state committee. Monroe L. Hayward of Otoe County was made temporary and permanent chairman; William M. Robertson of Madi- son County was chairman of the resolutions committee. The platform congratulated the country on the successful resumption of specie payments in that year and insisted that the credit of the government be kept as good as gold. The Democratic state convention met at Lincoln on Sep- tember 9th. Stephen H. Calhoun of Nebraska City was chairman of the resolutions committee. The resolutions as- serted that the Republican administration made treaties with the Indians only to violate them, thus turning the enraged Indians on unprotected settlers. The resolutions also de- nounced the Republican party for keeping a standing army to intimidate the voters of the South. The convention did not declare itself on the money question, but left that feature to the next national convention. 218 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Convict I^abor. — During the campaign of 1880 the op; position attacked the Republicans for making a bad contract with Stout relative to convict labor. J. Sterling Morton made a statement in the Omaha Herald that whereas until 1871 Stout was paying forty-two cents a day for the labor of the convicts, the state now paid him sixty cents a day for taking care of them. The Republicans replied that Stout was paying the salary of the warden and other employees and was to build two hundred and forty cells at his own expense. They insisted that the penitentiary was costing less under the new contract than under the old. Re-election of Governor Nance. — In 1880 Albinus Nance was again the RepubHcan candidate for governor. The Democratic candidate was Thomas W. Tipton. Nance won by an increased majority over his rival. The Campaign of 1882. — The Republicans nominated James W. Dawes of Saline County for governor. The Democratic party chose J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska City for the same office. The Republican ticket was success- ful in the election. Dawes received 43,495 votes to Morton's 28,562, although Morton ran well ahead of his ticket. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JAMES W. DAWES, 1883-1887 Political Unrest. — The administration of Governor Dawes opened with a growing sentiment in the state against monopoHes and a tendency to abandon the old parties. Peo- ple felt that the railroads, breweries, and other corporations were interfering too much in politics and asking too many favors. Farmers especially felt that their interests were being neglected by the legislatures and that those of the cor- porations were being favored. Several members represent- ing the new movement had been elected to the legislature of SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 219 Scene ik Morton Park, Nebraska City t J&.'J^£^.W | January, 1883, but not a sufficient number to gain a majority on reform questions. The reform sentiment became stronger in the state in 1884-1885. The Campaign of 1884. — The Republican convention met at Omaha August 27, 1884. Considerable opposition 220 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA to the renomination of Dawes for governor developed, but it was overcome. The platform declared strongly for the regulation of the railroads according to a fixed principle and pointed with satisfaction to "the efforts of our party" dur- ing the last session of the legislature to accomplish this re- sult. The platform also commended the efforts of senators and congressmen from Nebraska to secure immediate issue of patents to lands earned by the railroads under the national land grant, with the intent that these lands should be taxed. The Democratic state convention met in Omaha Septem- ber 1 1 ; James E. Boyd was chairman. The convention united with the Anti-Monopolist party ^ in the distribution of nominations, the Democrats taking those for the office of governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treas- urer, and two presidential electors, the remaining nomina- tions being conceded to their partners. J. Sterling Morton for the third time was nominated for governor. Dawes received 72,835 votes and Morton 57,634. The progressive forces ^ united in all of the congressional districts and by nominating progressive men gained promi- nence. While the Republican candidates won, it was by greatly reduced majorities. Railway Commission Established. — By 1884 a formid- able anti-monopoly and especially anti-railroad sentiment had been created in the Republican party. The legislature elected that year — the session of 1885 — established a rail- road commission consisting of the secretary of state, the auditor, and the attorney general. The actual work of the commission was done by three secretaries appointed by the board. It soon developed that the authority of this board 1 The Anti-Monopolists were dissenters from the old parties. In this campaign they "fused" with the Democrats. 2 Progressive forces, reformers, and anti-monopolists were largely the same. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 221 was merely advisory. Accordingly, a new commission was created in 1887. It was composed of the three executive officers named by the first act, together with the state treas- urer. The law creating the commission had its origin in a storm of protests against rebates, discriminations, and high rates. ^ The law was passed upon by the United States Su- preme Court in 1900 and was declared void. Home of T. Sterling Morton State Institutions Established. — The legislature auth- orized the "Nebraska Institute for Feeble-Minded Youth," to be established at Beatrice on condition that the city would donate forty acres of land for the institution. Fifty thous- and dollars was appropriated to construct and furnish the necessary buildings. A ''Hospital for the Insane of Ne- braska" was established at Norfolk, conditioned upon the do- nation by the city of three hundred and twenty acres of 1 Rebates were given to heavy freight shippers and discrimina- tions were made in favor of them. -^ \. 222 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA land. Arbor Day and Memorial Day were set apart as hol- idays. Arbor Day. — The state board of agriculture, at its January meeting, 1874, requested the legislature to make the second Wednesday of April of each year a legal holiday. Governors were also asked to issue proclamations exhorting the people to observe the day by planting forest, fruit, or ornamental trees. Accordingly, on the 31st of March, 1874, Governor Furnas issued a proclamation designating Wed- nesday, April 8th, of that year, as Arbor Day. This was the first official recognition of the event. Successive governors issued similar proclamations, annually, until the 22d day of April of every year — the anniversary of J. Sterling Mor- ton's birthday — was made a legal holiday by act of the leg- islature of 1885. Law" Affecting Railroad Charges Passed. — The first law directly aft'ecting railroad charges was passed by the legislature of 1885. The act divided railroad fares into two general classes east and west of the 101st meridian.^ In the eastern territory, Class A included roads whose gross earnings were as much as $4,000 per mile, and Class B those roads whose earnings were less than that amount. The fare in Class A roads should not be more than three cents per mile, and in the western territory not over four cents per mile. Not more than half-rate should be charged for children under ten years of age. On the day this bill was made the special order in the senate — January 27th — John M. Thurston for the Union Pacific and J. W. Deweese for the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad submitted a protest against the proposed act, assigning as objection the sparse settlement of the state. A bill prohibiting railroads giving free passes to office holders of the state was in- 1 The 101st meridian is a little west of North Platte. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 223 definitely postponed in accordance with the recommendation of the railroad committee. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN M. THAYER, 1887-1891 Important Acts of the Legislature of 1887. — The act of 1885, fixing classified passenger rates, was amended by establishing a general rate of three cents per mile. An act was passed abolishing the railway commisssion and estab- lishing a "board of transportation." The Hatch law, an act of Congress appropriating $15,000 per year to carry on ex- periment stations, was accepted on behalf of the university ; and the organization of the university battalion was styled University Cadets. A tax of three-fourths of a mill was authorized for the years 1887 and 1888 to complete the main wing of the capitol building. A "Bureau of Labor, Census, and Industrial Statistics" was set up. A compulsory edu- cation law was passed. "An Asylum for the Incurable In- sane of Nebraska" was founded at Hastings, on condition that not less than one hundred and sixty acres of land should be given for that purpose. The sum of $75,000 was appro- priated for buildings. "The Nebraska State Board of Phar- macy," to consist of the attorney general, secretary of state, treasurer, and commissioner of public lands and buildings, was organized. The office of state oil inspector was also created. The Political Trend of 1888.— The Republicans re- nominated Governor Thayer without opposition. The de- clarations of the platform were mainly devoted to national questions, among them a denunciation of capital organized in trusts. The platform approved the acts of the railway commission. 224 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA In the Democratic convention John McShane was nomi- nated by acclamation. The platform demanded reform in railroad rates, attacked the trusts, favored an elective rail- road commission, and adopted an anti-prohibition plank. Thayer received 103,983 votes to 85,420 for McShane. The Populists. — The Populist movement became very important by 1890. It evidently had its beginning in the Grange, the Alliance, and the Knights of Labor. The first organization of the Farmers' Alliance in the United States took place during 1879. Its principal activity was in the northwestern states. The first branch in Nebraska was or- ganized in Gage County in 1880. A state Alliance came into existence as a secret society at a meeting held in Lin- coln. A constitution and by-laws were adopted, together with a declaration of principles. The hard times ^ which began to be grievously felt in 1890 pushed the organization into practical politics. The call for a "People's Indepen- dent ^ State Convention" was issued over the signatures of the secretary of the Alliance and the Knights of Labor. The convention was called to meet July 29, 1890, at Lincoln, for the purpose of nominating state officers. All those who ac- cepted the declaration of principles published by the peo- ple's committee were invited to take part in the movement. The intention was to nominate a full set of state officers on a third ticket. The People's Independent Convention of 1890. — The convention met in Lincoln July 29. It was called to order by J. H. Powers of Hitchcock County, president of the State Farmers' Alliance. Powers was nominated for gov- ernor. 1 Hard times were usually the result of dry weather and "tight money," or low prices for farm products. - "Independent" meant independent of the parties, Democratic and Republican. i SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 225 The platform declared that our financial system should be reformed by the restoration of silver to its old time place in our currency and its free and unlimited coinage on an equality with gold, and by increasing money circulation until it should reach the sum of $50 per capita. Land monopoly should be destroyed either by elimination of ownership or by graduated taxation. Public ownership and operation of railroads and telegraphs, the reduction of freight rates in Nebraska to a level with Iowa rates, reform of the tariff, eight hours a day for labor except in agriculture, and the Australian ballot system were other reforms demanded. A few years later William Jennings Bryan accomplished the definite fusion of Populism with the Democratic party. The Campaign of 1890. — The Populists held imposing meetings at which their favorite orators spoke with great fervor. At a Wymore mass meeting in September there were 1,015 teams and 9,000 people in Hne"by actual count"; at Hastings the same week there were 1,600 teams and 12,000 people. A demonstration at Lincoln in crowds and pageantry rivaled a circus parade. Though the temper of the movement was overheated and the public speeches some- times visionary, the people knew what they wanted. Within twenty years their demands — except as to the money policy — were substantially comphed with so far as the forms of law could grant them. In the election Boyd, the Demo- cratic candidate, received 71,331 votes, and Powers, the Populist, 70,187, while Richards, the Republican nominee, fell to 68,878. The remainder of the Republican ticket was elected. The Defeat of the Prohibition Amendment. — The pro- hibition amendment to the constitution submitted at this election was strongly contested. It was claimed that the vote of Douglas County was corruptly swollen to secure the 226 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA defeat of the amendment. For the whole state, the vote stood 82,292 for and 111,728 against. The vote in Douglas County was 1,555 for and 23,918 against.^ Canvass of the Vote. — The canvass of the vote by the legislature according to the constitution was an exciting epi- sode. The two houses met in joint session on the 7th of January. Lieutenant— Governor Meiklejohn, president of the senate, announced the purpose of the joint convention. The speaker of the house said he had in his hands the re- turns of the several counties of the votes cast for the state officers. A member offered resolutions setting forth that contests were pending before the joint convention between John H. Powers, Independent candidate for governor, and James E. Boyd, Democratic candidate, and between the Republican and the Independent candidates for the other state offices. The confusion in regard to the proper pre- siding officer was finally remedied by placing the speaker of the house in charge. In joint convention the Democrats and Republicans greatly outnumbered the Populists, and it was the part of politics for these forces to stand together, for by so doing they could control the situation. On the 26th of January the senate sustained the election of James E. Boyd and appointed a committee to wait upon him and ask if he had a message to deliver and to appoint a time to hear it ; the house was asked to concur. The house final- ly, on the 4th of April, concurred. Indian Ghost Dance Troubles. — In the fall of 1890 there was an outbreak of the Sioux Indians at the Pine Ridge agency in South Dakota just north of Cherry, Sher- idan, and Dawes counties. Hunger and discontent together 1 The vote of a large city (Omaha in this case) is usually favor- able to the saloon. The amendment would not have carried, how- ever, even without Douglas County. A prohibition amendment did not carry in Nebraska until 1916. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 227 ^vith the influence of a young Piute Indian were responsible for the 'outbreak. The Indian in question had Hved for some time with a white family in Nebraska and had gained a confused knowledge of the Christian religion which led to his assuming the character of the Messiah. Many of the northwestern Indians believed in him. He claimed to have received from God a revelation of the ghost dance.^ The Beginning of Trouble. — The first mutterings of dissatisfaction came from Pine Ridge. This is the largest of the Sioux agencies, having six thousand of the wildest and most warlike Indians of the Sioux tribe. Pine Ridge is remote from white settlements and joins the Rosebud reservation on the west, where there were 4,000 more Sioux of about the same condition and temper. The local agents declared the situation beyond their control, and the war de- partment was called upon for assistance. Upon the appear- ance of the troops a large number of Indians of the Rosebud and Pine Ridge agencies, led by Short Bull, Kicking Bear, and others, left their homes and fled to the Bad Lands north of the White River in South Dakota. In their flight they destroyed the homes of the friendly Indians and forced many of the latter to follow them. They succeeded also in capturing a large portion of the agency beef herd.^ Others soon joined them until they had a formidable band of about 3,000 Indians. The Death of Sitting Bull. — The ghost dance had gen- erally been discontinued on the reservations, excepting at 1 The ceremonies of the ghost dance began with a fast for about two days. Then followed a sweat bath. The Indians went into their huts or tents, poured water on hot stones, and bathed them- selves in the steam. Afterwards they danced about violently in crowds and called on the "Great Spirit" for help. ~ The beef herd is a herd of cattle furnished by the government to the Indians. They are supposed to care for the cattle, and to kill a sufficient number to keep themselves supplied with beef. 228 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Sitting Bull's camp on the Grand River, and at Big Foot's camp on the Cheyenne. The presence of troops had stopped the dance near the agencies. In December matters seemed to be quieting down, but the agents advised that it would be necessary to remove the leaders, among whom was Sitting Bull, the leading spirit in the Custer massacre of 1875. There was no doubt that he was plotting trouble at this time. It was at his camp and on his invitation that Kicking Bear had organized the ghost dance. On the 12th of December came the order to arrest Sitting Bull. Colonel Drum of Fort Yates was directed to make it his personal duty. The arrest was to be made by the Indian police assisted, if necessary, by the troops. At daybreak on December 15th, 1890, the police and volunteeers, numbering about forty men in all, surrounded Sitting Bull's house. They found Sitting Bull asleep, arrested him, and told him that he must go to the agency. At first he consented, then refused. In the mean- time his* followers to the number of about one hundred and fifty had gathered, and offered resistance. The fight lasted only a few minutes but with terribly fatal results. Six police- men were killed, including officer Bull Head. The Indians lost eight killed, including Sitting Bull and his seventeen- year-old son, Crow Foot, with several wounded. During the fight the women attacked the police with knives and clubs, but notwithstanding the excitement the Indians were dis- armed and placed under guard. The Battle of Wounded Knee. — On the morning of December 29, 1890, preparations were made to disarm all the Indians preparatory to taking them to the agency and thence to the railroad. In obedience to instructions, the Indians had pitched their tepees on the open plain surround- ed on all sides by soldiers. In the center of the camp the Indians had hoisted a white flag, a sign of peace and a guar- 230 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA antee of safety. Behind the camp on a sUght rise was posted a battery of four Hotchkiss machine guns trained di- rectly on the camp. In front, behind, and on both flanks were posted various troops of cavalry, together with the friendly Indian Scouts. Shortly before eight o'clock in the morning the warriors were ordered to come out of the tepees and give up their arms, which they seemed unwilling to do, and a detachment of soldiers was ordered to search the tents. After a thor- ough search they returned with about forty rifles. The search had consumed considerable time and created a great deal of excitement among the women and children, as the soldiers found it necessary to overturn the furniture of the tepees and, in some instances, drive out the. inmates. All of this had its effect on the warriors, who were wrought up to a nervous tension and did not know what was coming next. While the soldiers had been searching for guns. Yel- low Bird, a medicine man, had been walking up and down among the Indians, blowing on an eaglebone whistle and urging them to resistance. He told them that the soldiers would become weak and powerless and that the "ghost shirts" which most of the Indians wore would resist the bullets of the soldiers. As one of the soldiers attempted to raise a blanket of a warrior. Yellow Bird stooped and threw a handful of dirt into the air. This was the signal for hostilities to begin. A young Indian, said to be Black Fox, then drew a rifle from under his blanket and fired at the soldiers. They immedi- ately answered with a volley into the group of warriors, and so near were they that their guns were almost touching. A hand-to-hand fight with knives and revolvers followed, the Hotchkiss guns trained on the camp now opened fire and sent a storm of bullets among the women and children SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 231 who gathered in front of the tepees to watch the battle. In a few minutes one hundred and fifty-six Indians, men, wo- men, and children, and thirty-two soldiers were lying dead or wounded. The tepees had been torn down in the fight and some were burning above the helpless wounded. The surviving handful of Indians fled in panic to a near-by ravine, pursued by the maddened soldiers and followed by a raking fire of the guns. Later in the winter, the surviving Indians i:ame into the town and surrendered. The Finding of Zintkala Nuni (Lost Little Bird). — On January 1, 1891, details of troops were sent out from the Agency to gather and bury the Indian dead and to bring in the wounded who had lain upon the field for nearly four days without protection or assistance. There had been a heavy snowstorm, ending in extreme cold on the third day after the battle, and many of the wounded men and women were found badly frozen. Some ninety warriors were found dead on the field in the circle near the front of Big Foot's tent ; but most of the women and children were found killed or wounded from a quarter to a half mile from the camp, showing that they had attempted to escape after the fight began. A pathetic incident was the finding of a four months' old Indian girl by the side of her dead mother. She was afterwards adopted by Brigadier General L. W. Colby, who was in the command of the Nebraska militia at that time. She was named Marguerite Elizabeth, and the Indian name, Zintkala Nuni, which means "Lost Little Bird." Beet Sugar Industry. — ■ Sugar beets began to attract attention as a Nebraska product in 1890. In this year a sugar beet factory was built at Grand Island. About twenty car loads of machinery were required for the factor}^ Later factories were built in Scotts Bluff county, and other places. The Platte Valley is well adapted to the growth of beets and SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 233 many are now raised there and shipped to the Nebraska sugar factories. The principal obstacle to the beet sugar business is lack of sufficient and dependable labor. Those who are raising beets consider the business profitable. Alfalfa. — About the year 1890 alfalfa was introduced into the state. It is one of the greatest producers in the world, both as to quality and quantity. In Nebraska from two to four cuttings per year can be had, depending on the climate and rainfall. Alfalfa makes the livestock industry, Nebraska's chief asset, very productive and dependable. The hay itself is readily marketable at high prices.^ ^ In 1916 a company was organized in Omaha, with a factory across the river in Council Bluffs, Iowa, to manufacture alfalfa products for hitman food. Its principal output is alfalfa syrup, candies, and tea. The syrup has proved especially satisfactory. CHAPTER XVI ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JAMES E, BOYD, 1891-1893 The Message of Governor Boyd. — On the 6lh day of February, 1891, Governor Boyd delivered his message to the legislature. He counseled acceptance of the decision of the people against the prohibition of the liquor traffic, and gave cautionary advice in regard to railroad regulations. **If your honorable body, however, should decide to take this matter in hand, I would respectfully suggest that your work in this direction be confined to a limited number of commodities in carload lots, such as coal, grain, live stock, lumber and others." Important Acts of the Legislature of 1891. — Probably the most important act of this session was the passage of an Australian ballot act which had been advocated by both of the old parties. Congressional districts were re-appor- tioned and the number raised from five to six ; a state board of health was established; and a ''Girl's Industrial School" was established at Geneva, on condition that forty acres of land should be furnished for the site. An appropriation of $40,000 was made for the erection of buildings and main- tenance. The sum of $100,000 was appropriated for the im- mediate relief of the drought stricken counties of the state. The Boyd Contest. — Governor Thayer held office for eight days beyond his term, pending the decision of the legislature as to Boyd's citizenship. After the legislature of 1891 had decided in Boyd's favor, Thayer applied to the 234 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 235 supreme court for writ to oust Boyd. The court advised Thayer to yield the office to Boyd, but in May the court issued a judgment of ouster against Boyd and Thayer was reinstated. It appeared at the trial that Boyd's father came from Ireland and to'ok out his first naturalization papers in 1890 after the governor-elect had arrived at legal age. The Falls of the North Loup River Plunge, about twelve feet; wi,dth, forty to fifty feet attainment of citizenship by the father did not apply to the son, and the supreme court declared his election invalid. An appeal was then taken to the United States Supreme Court. It decided, February 1, 1892, that when Nebraska was admitted as a state Boyd was a resident of it and there- fore became a citizen by adoption. The Rise of William Jennings Bryan. — The Demo- cratic convention which met April 13, 1892, at Omaha, was one of the most exciting political conventions ever held in the state. By this time Bryan had become a factor in poli- 236 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA tics. Through his personal charm, the fire and spirit of youth and conviction, and his great abihty as a pubHc speaker, he was able to overcome the tremendous odds against his financial theory of the "free and unlimited coin- age of silver." At the time Bryan began to advocate this doctrine, the majority of his party was loyal to Grover Cleveland and approved Cleveland's conservative attitude dh the money question. At the Lancaster County ^ conven- tion, held for the purpose of choosing delegates to the state convention, there was a very heated contest between the Cleveland Democrats and the followers of Bryan. The former were in the majority, but, being unwilling to deal too harshly with so promising and popular a member of the party as Bryan had become, placed him upon the delegation. At the state convention Bryan was given a place on the resolutions committee. The platform makers merely en- dorsed the national platform and said nothing specific about the money question. Bryan, in a minority report, introduced an additional resolution that **We declare ourselves in favor of the free coinage of silver." Half an hour was allowed each side for the debate. Bryan was granted all of the time for the affirmative. After the roll call the chairman announced that Bryan's amendment was defeated. Bryan continued to gain in strength and prominence in the party and in state and national politics until 1896, when he was nominated by the Democratic party on a free silver platform for the presidency of the United States. Politics of 1892. — The Republican convention nomi- nated Lorenzo Crounse of Omaha for governor. The plat- form declared in favor of an elective railway commission empowered to fix passenger and freight rates, and for postal telegraph and savings banks. 1 Lancaster County of which Lincoln is the county seat is Bryan's home. 238 SCHOOL HISTORY OF XE15RASKA The People's Independent party nominated Van Wyck for s^overnor. The platform demanded a reduction of freight rates to the Iowa level and other regulations and reforms. J. Sterling Morton was again the nominee of the Demo- cratic party. A reaction against Governor Boyd had set in, largely because of his veto of the maximum railroad freight rate bill. All three of the candidates for governor entered with spirit into the campaign, Crounse and Van Wyck en- gaging in joint discussion all over the state. Crounse re- ceived 78,426 votes; Van Wyck 68,617; Morton 44,195. The Republicans lost three of the six congressional districts. William Jennings Bryan, Democrat, won in the first; William A. McKeighan, People's Independent, won in, the fifth, and Omer M. Kem/ People's Independent, won in the sixth. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR LORENZO CROUNSE, 1893-1895 Industrial Conditions and Drought. — Governor Crounse's administration was unfortunate in that it occurred at the time of the great financial panic of 1893. This period of national history was marked by scarcity of money, surplus of labor, low wages, strikes, and low prices for farm products. All over the country numbers of banks and mer- chants failed, while laborers in the cities could scarcely get enough to eat because they were working for very low wages or were forced into idleness by lack of employment. Groups of idle men talked over their unfortunate condition and large numbers of them, almost armies, marched across the country to Washington to ask Congress for relief. Conditions in Nebraska were further aggravated by ^ Kem lived in a commodious sod house in Custer County. He is said to be the first Congressman elected from a sod house. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 239 drouth. The repeated shortage of rainfall from 1890 to 1894 was disastrous to crops, especially in the western por- tion of the state. On account of these losses a large number of people became dependent upon public charity, as In the period of the grasshoppers. The legislature of 1891 author- ized the issue of state bonds to the amount of $100,000, for the purchase of seed grain and other supplies to be distrib- uted through a board of relief to those who had lost their crops. The legislature of 1895 appropriated $50,000 for food and clothing and $200,000 for the purchase and distribution of seed and feed for teams. County boards were also author- ized to issue bonds and use surplus county funds for the relief of the distressed in getting their crops started again. In 1891 supplies were distributed to about 8,000 families in thirty-seven counties. In 1895 about 30,000 families in sixty-one counties were assisted. Donations amounting to thousands of dollars were received from people in all parts of the country. During this period many settlers abandoned their holdings and left the western part of the state. Empty houses stood on hundreds of farms. Further Reform Movement. — In his inaugural address Governor Crounse advocated economy in expenditures of state money and a firm but wise control of railroads. Dur- ing his administration some question arose as to the amount of school money in the state treasury. There was supposed to be over a million dollars which had been derived from the sale of state school lands. ^ Crounse took steps to have the 1 The United States had given to Nebraska sections sixteen and thirty-six in every township. This land comprised about 3,000,000 acres and all income from its sale or rent was to be used for school expenditures. About one million acres have been sold and the pro- ceeds placed in the state treasury. Nearly two million acres remain unsold. The rent from these two million acres goes, with the inter- est on the money received from the land sold, to the schools of the state. The state of Nebraska has one of the best school funds in the Union, 240 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA exact amount on hand ascertained and then safely invested in good securities. The legislature passed a joint resolution asking Congress to call a convention for the purpose of amending the con- situation so as to provide for the election of United States senators by popular vote. World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago. — The legis- lature of 1893 made an appropriation of funds to meet the expenses of Nebraska's display at the World's Exposition in Chicago. Nebraska products, despite the drouth and hard times, did credit to the state. Allen Elected United States Senator. — The legisla- ture of 1893 elected William V. Allen United States Sena- tor. Allen belonged to the People's Independent party, which now had two congressmen and one senator in the national Congress. He stood for government ownership of railroads and other public service corporations. Politics of 1894. — The Populist or People's Independ- ent convention w^as held August 24, 1894, at Grand Island- William L. Greene of Buffalo County was chairman. Silas A. Holcomb of Custer County was nominated for governor. The resolutions demanded the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 ; municipal ownership of public works ; liberal pensions for old soldiers and sailors ; national encouragement for irrigation ; compulsory arbitration of la- bor disputes ; a new maximum freight rate law or the enforcement of the existing law ; and the immediate relief of sufferers from the drouth. The repeal by Congress of the purchasing clause of the Sherman silver act was denounced as treason. The Democratic convention met September 26 at Omaha. William Jennings Bryan was unanimously nominated for United States Senator. The convention platform declared SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 241 for the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the consent of any other nation ; tariff reform; and the election of United States senators by IS-SAI-LU-RAI-KAR-IK-U (Dwell in Sight) direct vote of the people. Silas A. Holcomb was nominated for governor. About fifty delegates, however, bolted the convention upon his nomination. Other candidates were 242 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA divided with the PopuHsts. The "fusion" of the People's Independent and Democratic parties was thus effected. The Republican convention met in August at Omaha. Captain C. E. Adams ^ of Superior was made chairman of the convention. Thomas J. Majors received the nomination for governor. Party lines were shattered in the election. The Omaha Bee bitterly opposed Majors on the Republican side, and many Democrats who opposed fusion voted the Republican ticket. Silas A. Holcomb was elected governor over Majors by a majority of 3,702. With this event fusion came into power in Nebraska. Bryan-Thurston Campaign. — The senatorial cam- paign of 1894 was enlivened by the joint debates of John M. Thurston and William Jennings Bryan. Perhaps these two men represented the best platform campaigners the parties have produced. Thurston was elected by the legislature, as the Republicans were in the majority. ADMINISTRATION OF SILAS A. HOLCOMB 1895-1899 Length of Term. — Holcomb served as governor four years, being re-elected in the fall of 1896. Shortage of State Funds. — Further investigation of the school fund was carried on with the result that a shortage of over $500,000 of the state funds was discovered. This money had been lost or stolen. ^ Bartley was state treasurer at this time and bore the brunt of the disaster. He was tried 1 Captain Adams is now (1918) Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Army of the Republic. 2 Laws governing state funds were formerly not so strict as they are now. Treasurers often loaned public funds to friends and other borrowers and kept the interest for themselves. Sometimes treasur- ers' bonds were not good and a shortage meant a loss. It proved to be so in this case. i-r of < ^ \^ U -M Z < :2;^ tn >» o p^ ^<-C < Qi^ rI h-r ^ ?' h4 w ^^ *H U'% s <^ IS •J2 (L> K) J^ a; C3 > 'e ^ •«» 1 O _^ t/3 O ?b 1 "5 dT ;3 bo !? o c C/3 3 244 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA and convicted and received a sentence of twenty years ^ in the state penitentiary. Bartley claimed that the money was taken by others. It was asserted before the RepubHcan state convention that Bartley had paid back part of the money and would pay back more if left alone. State Flower and Name. — On April 4, 1895, the legis- lature adopted the Goldenrod as the state flower of Ne- braska. On the same date Nebraska was given the name. Tree Planter's State. The Campaign of 1896. — The state campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting ever held in the state, owing in part to the hard times occasioned by the drouth, and in part to the nomination of William Jennings Bryan for, the presidency of the United States. Bryan stood upon a radical "free silver" platform. Though the Republicans simply expressed themselves in favor of a "sound dollar," yet they were regarded as champions of the gold standard. Governor Holcomb was re-elected. Bryan carried Nebraska but lost the national election. The Legislature of 1897. — Fusion won the day ini896, and when the legislature convened on January 5, 1897, the Republican party was in the minority. Silas A. Holcomb was governor, and both branches of the legislature were now under the control of the new party. This session of the legislature tried to enact an anti-pass law, but failed.- Several bills were introducted but all were indefinitely postponed. It is said that members of the legis- lature and, in fact, state officers, traveled at will in Ne- 1 Bartle}'^ served about five 3'ears, his sentence being commuted by Governor Savage. -The railroads offered free annual passes to state 'officers and legislatures. This plan placed those who received them under obH- gations to the railroads. In addition to this method the railroads kept lobbyists at the legislative sessions to influence legislation de- sirable to them. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 245 braska on annual passes. The pass was quite a luxury to some members of the new legislature, and no doubt the system was enjoyed by them to such an extent that a neces- sary majority could not be secured for any of the several regulating measures, among which was one limiting pass- enger fares to two cents per mile. The most notable measure adopted was one regulating the stock yards and fixing the charges thereof. This bill was later declared unconstitu- tional on account of a defective title. The right of the initiative and referendum ^ was given to municipalities. Creameries and Cream Separators. — Nebraska, being a livestock state, has from the early days produced an increas- ing amount of dairy products. Formerly milk was left to stand in a cool place until the cream "raised." Then the cream was skimmed and churned into butter by the house- wife, and the surplus above the family needs was sold at the store. This plan was changed in the 'nineties by the establishment of creameries in Nebraska. On March 21, 1898, the Beatrice Creamery Company opened in Lincoln. Dairymen and farmers began selling their cream to the creameries, where it was churned into butter in large quan- tities for market purposes. A little later the cream separator, which separates the cream out of the new warm milk, came into use. This plan leaves the warm milk to be used on the farm, while the fresh cream is shipped to the creameries or butter factories. Thus from a small beginning has grown a great dairy industry. Sale of the Union Pacific. — During this administration the Union Pacific Railroad was sold by court order to satisfy the debts against it. This change did not affect the opera- tion of the road in Nebraska. 1 The right to submit to popular vote an act passed by a legis- lature. 246 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Nebraska in the Spanish- American War. — Nebraska furnished three full regiments and a troop of cavalry for the war with Spain. The First Nebraska Regiment In- fantry was mustered in at Lincoln May 9, 1898. It was ordered to San Francisco and from there to the Philippine Islands, where it arrived and went into Camp Dewey July 17, 1898. The First Nebraska participated in the attack on Manilla August 13. The regiment also took part in several other important engagements and won distinction. It was mustered out at San Francisco August 23, 1899. The total enrollment was 1,376; lost in battle, 21 ; died of wounds, 13 ; 4ied of disease, 30 ; total loss, 64. The officers were Colonel John P. Bratt ; Lieutenant-Colonel George R. Coulton, who was mustered out June 16, 1899, and was succeeded by Frank D. Eager ; and Major John M. Stotsenburg. Others ranking as major were Harry B. Mulford, Fred A. Williams, Wallace C. Taylor, and Julius N. Kilian. The Second Infantry Regiment of Nebraska Guard, the state militia, entered the service of the United States April 27, 1898, and was ordered to Chickamauga Park, Georgia. It was mustered out at Omaha October 24, 1898. The officers were Colonel C. J. Bills ; Lieutenant-Colonel Emil Olson; Majors William S. Mapes and Ernest H. Tracy. This regiment had enrolled during its period of service 46 officers and 1,366 enlisted men. It lost 26 by death from disease and 8 by accident. The Third Regiment Nebraska Infantry was organized at Omaha. On July 13, 1898, it moved by rail to Jackson- ville, Florida, and thence to Havana, Cuba. The regiment was returned to Augusta, Georgia, April 19, 1899, to be must- ered out. It had 61 officers and 1,358 enlisted men, and lost by death from disease 32. Its officers were Colonel William Jennings Bryan ; Lieutenant-Colonels Victor Vifquian and John H. McClay; and Majors Conrad F. Scharmann and Harry S. Dugan. Troop A Cavalry, Nebraska National Guard, located at Milford, was mustered into the United States volunteer service May 14, 1898, as Troop K, Third United States Fire Chief of the Omaha Tribe Volunteers. Troop K was sent to Chickamauga, from which place it was mustered out September 8, 1898. The officers were Captain Jacob H. Culver; First Lieutenant William S. Kinney; and Second Lieutenant Elvin S. Culver. The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition. — The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was held at Omaha from June 8 to October 31, 1898. It was a 248 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA splendid exhibit of the products and resources of that sec- tion of the country west of the Mississippi River, and espe- cially of that part west of the Missouri. The exposition was projected at the annual meeting of the Trans-Missis- sippi Congress held in Omaha November, 1895, William J. Bryan presented a resolution declaring an intention to hold the exposition and requesting Congress to give the usual assistance in such cases. On the 6th of June, 1896, Congress appropriated $200,000 for the purpose of erect- ing buildings and making an exhibit on the part of the fed- eral government. Many states made liberal appropriations for state buildings in which to hold their respective exhibits. The Nebraska legislature appropriated $100,000, and Douglas County appropriated an equal sum. The governor of Nebraska appointed a board of six directors, one from each congressional district. The total cost of the buildings was $565,034, not including state buildings. The earnings of the Exposition were in excess of the expenditures. The executive committee consisted of Z. T. Lindsey, Edward Rosewater, Gilbert M. Hitchcock, E. E. Bruce, A. L. Reed, F. P. Kirkendall, and W. N. Babcock. G. W. Wattles was president of the board of directors. The Exposition with its beautiful buildings and grounds was widely praised throughout the United States.^ The Election of 1898. — In 1898 William A. Poynter, Fusionist, was elected governor over Monroe L. Hayward, Republican, by a vote of 95,703 to 92,982. The other Fusion candidates were elected by majorities about the same as that of governor. At the session of 1899, Monroe L. Hayward, the defeated candidate for governor, was elected to the United States Senate. ^ In 1910 a history of the Exposition was published bj' the author- ity of its board of directors. It can be seen in the Omaha Public Library and probably other city libraries. CHAPTER XVII ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR WILLIAM A. POYNTER, 1899-1901 The Legislature of 1899. — This legislature amended the compulsory^ primary act ; passed a corrupt practices act ; created a food commission by making the governor com- missioner with the power to appoint a deputy commissioner ; established a soldiers' and sailors' home at Milford, and made small appropriations for the soldiers wounded in the Phillipines and Cuba. An act to abolish free railroad passes was indefinitely postponed. On January 9, 1899, a bill guar- anteeing bank deposits was introduced into the legislature. While it was unsuccessful at the time, it marked an agita- tion that later developed into a Nebraska guarantee law. A bill was passed in this same year locating the State Fair at Lincoln. The Election of 1900. — At the presidential election of 1900, McKinley carried the state against Bryan by about 8,000. Governor Poynter was defeated for re-election by Charles H. Dietrich, Republican, by a vote of 113,018 to 113,879. The Republicans controUeJd the legislature. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR CHARLES H. DIETRICH, 1901-1903 Legislature of 1901. — The principal business of the session was the election of J. H. Millard of Omaha and Charles H. Dietrich, the governor, to the United States Senate. The contest continued from January 15 to March 249 250 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 28, the election occuring on the fifty- fourth ballot. David E. Thompson and Edward Rosewater were also candidates, but they finally withdrew, leaving the full Republican vote to Millard and Dietrich. Governor Savage. — Governor Dietrich resigned about four months after his election in order to take up his duties as United States Senator. Lieutenant-Governor Savage then became governor and served more than a year and a half. During this time he commuted the sentence of former State Treasurer Bartley. This made him enemies, as the Hartley defalcation had created factions. He justified this act on the ground that Bartley could pay the state more money if out of the penitentiary. In 1901 the United States furthered the arbor movement in Nebraska by locating two reserves in western Nebraska for experimentation with various kinds of trees. The object was to determine what trees will grow best in sandy soil and with light rain fall. Trees do well almost anywhere in Nebraska with plenty of water. During this administration the Farmers' Union began to organize in Nebraska. It is a society for the protection of farmers' interests and is somewhat similar to the Grange and Alliance. It markets farm products for its members, particularly grain, and owns through its members many elevators throughout the state. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN H. MICKEY, 1903-1907 Election of 1902, — In the fall of 1902 J. H. Mickey, Republican, had been elected over W. H. Thompson, of Grand Island. In the fall of 1904, Mickey was again elected over George W. Berge, Fusionist, by a vote of 252 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 111,711 to 102,568, thus securing two terms of the gover- norship. A Political Awakening. — During the entire history of the territory and state, Nebraska had suffered more or less from the poHtical game as played by the parties who were in turn under the control of the "interests." ^ Nebraska, like mau}^ other states of the Union, was ruled by this "in- visible government." The people, however, were awaken- ing to the true situation and they began to press for reforms in political life. The Republican Convention of 1904. — This convention took the first step towards the election of United States senators by direct vote of the people. This was probably due to the fact that the legislature of 1901 had been in a deadlock nearly the whole of the session over the election of United States senators. Other legislation had been greatly hindered, in consequence. Kinkaid Homesteads. — In 1904 there were about 8,000,000 acres of Nebraska's roughest and most sandy land still belonging to the government. This land was in general only good for pasture, being too sandy to raise crops or wild hay. Homesteaders did not care for it in 160 acre tracts. In 1904, Moses Kinkaid, United States Congress- man from the Sixth Nebraska District, succeeded in get- ting a bill through Congress that permitted all this land to be taken in 640 acre homesteads, the homesteader being obliged to live on the land five years and to place thereon improvements to the value of $1.25 per acre, or $800.00 on a 640 acre tract, before obtaining title from the govern- ment. This land has now nearly all been taken. 1 "Interests" were corporations or individuals desiring legislation that would further their private ends. They were ever present in the legislative lobby seeking with bribes and patronage to influence legislation. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 253 An Elective Railway Commission. — Political conven- tions and legislative assemblies had. on various occasions, taken up the subject of railway regulation, but the dis- cussions were always half-hearted and sometimes were only an attempt to throw dust in the eyes of the people by friends of the corporations. The final struggle came in the session of the legislature of 1905, when Addison E. Cady of Howard County, a member of the state senate, cham- pioned a bill for an elective railway commission ^ as a con- stitutional amendment. It was passed by the legislature and was carried at the general election of 1906 by an almost unanimous vote. Prices of Land, Irrigation, Dry Farming. — During Governor Mickey's administration the farmers had good crops and received high prices for their products. Land notably increased in value. Everybody wanted land. This condition was very beneficial to Nebraska, an agricultural state. In the dryer parts of Nebraska irrigation of low lands was extended, and dry farming was given much at- tention on the high lands. Dry farming derives its name from the method of farming the soil to conserve the mois- ture where the rainfall is deficient. Irrigation became quite extensive along the Platte and Republican rivers, as w^ell as along other streams in the central and western part of the state. In 1906 the United State government built the huge Pathfinder dam on the Platte River across a deep and rocky canyon in Wyoming. This dam holds back the water from the melting snow in the spring. The water is retained until the dry season, when it is sent down the river to irrigate part of western 1 A board of three commissioners elected by the people to regu- late railroad service and charges and, in general, to protect the in- terests of the public in its relation to the railroads. 254 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Nebraska. This system has made Scotts Bluff county both attractive and wealthy. A Ten-Years' Struggle. — The year 1906 marked the beginning of an effort on the part of the people to wrest the state from the control of the "invisible government." The Democratic convention of 1906 nominated for Governor Ashton C. Shallenberger. The platform upon which Mr. Shallenberger stood declared for a full list of reform meas- ures, including an anti-pass law. The Republicans nominated George L. Sheldon of Cass County for governor. He had made a good record as a re- former when a member of the state senate during the pre- vious session of the legislature. The Republican platform demanded a direct primary law ^ for all county and state officers, as well as for United States senators and repre- sentatives ; the passage of a two-cent a mile railroad fare law by the next legislature ; an elective railway commission ; a compensation act for employees of corporations ; and the taxation of railway property in cities and villages. In the election the Republican party was successful throughout the state. However, Gilbert M. Hitchcock, a Democrat, received the election as congressman from the second district. Norris Brown Elected United States Senator. — A feature of the Republican convention of 1906 was the de- feat of Edward Rosewater by Norris Brown in the contest for the United States senatorship. Brown, as attorney- general of the state, had led a successful fight against the trusts and stood with Governor Sheldon in advocating re- forms. On this account he was well established in the good opinion of the people. Brown was nominated on the sixth 1 A law under which candidates for office are nominated b}' a vote of their party instead of by a delegate convention. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 255 ballot. Rosewater's editorial pen had been used in many a political battle, and the enemies he had made by oppos- ing improper influences and exposing various abuses of power were sufficient to accomplish his defeat.^ Brown was elected by the legislature of 1907 and distinguished himself in the United States Senate as the author of the amendment to the federal constitution providing for an income tax law. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR GEORGE L. SHELDON, 1907-1909 The Legislature in a New Role. — The legislature at the session of 1907 shook off completely the control of the "interests." It was backed by the reform governor, George L. Sheldon, who posted the platform upon the wall of his office and checked off each pledge as it was fulfilled by its enactment into law. The following progressive mea- sures were passed: a railroad employers' liability law; a general primary election law; an act revising the pure food law; an anti-lobbying law; a sweeping anti-pass law;. 1 Edward Rosewater, editor of the Omaha Daily Bee, was born in Bohemia, January 28, 1841. He emigrated to America with his parents. He became a telegrapher, joined the telegraph corps of the Union army at Wheeling, West Virginia, and accompanied John C. Fremont in his West Virginia campaign in 1862, He was later at- tached to General Pope's staff for service in the field. For a time Rosewater was assigned to the war department telegraph office, but later became manager of the Pacific Telegraph Company. He filled this position until 1870, when he founded the Omaha Daily Tribune. He was elected to the Nebraska legislature in 1870, and from that time interested himself in various political reforms. In 1871 he established the Omaha Daily Bee. Rosewater might have made his way to the highest political position had be been willing to compro- mise his editorial career with interests which he considered con- trary to the public welfare. ^ In the columns of his newspaper he always took the side of justice as he saw it, and he never lost an opportunity to speak for the rights of the people. He died in 1905. His son, Victor Rosewater, succeeded him in the ownership and management of the Bee. 256 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA a two-cent fare law ; a law for the issuance of mileage books ; a terminal railway taxation law ; a maximum freight rate law; and a law regulating express companies. The pledges of the Republican convention were thus carried out. The Campaign of 1908. — In the campaign of 1908 Ashton C. Shallenberger defeated George L. Sheldon for governor, and the Democrats generally carried the state. Several causes entered into the defeat of the Republicans. The reform legislation of the 1907 session was resented by many of the former political leaders. The passage of a law prohibiting brewers from having financial interest in saloons caused the liquor interests to line up strongly with the Democratic party. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR ASHTON C. SHALLENBERGER 1909-1911 Legislation of 1909. — Several excellent measures were passed in the session of 1909. Among them were the eight o'clock closing law, a law compelling corporations to pay an annual tax, a law providing for the physical valu- ation of railroads, loss by bank failure, and a law providing for the election of the candidate preferred by the people for United States Senator. Eight o'clock Closing Law. — Probably the most im- portant act of the legislature of 1909 was the eight o'clock closing law for saloons. This was the first important amend- ment to the Slocumb license law, which had been in force since 1881. It was a severe blow to the liquor interests of the state. Governor Shallenberger was hard pressed by the ''interests" to veto the measure, but refused to do so. He thus laid the foundation for his defeat in the fol- lowing campaign. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 257 Politics of 1910 — County Option. — In the campaign of 1910 all normal political calculations were upset by the injection of prohibition. Governor Shallenberger's adminis- tration had been so satisfactory that his re-election seemed assured, but he had offended the liquor interest by signing the eight o'clock closing law. James C. Dahlman, Demo- Santee Agency Government Indian Schooe Buieding cratic mayor of . Omaha, entered the primary campaign opposed to Shallenberger and won the nomination by a narrow margin. Chester H. Aldrich, a strong county op- tion ^ advocate and a member of the reform legislature of 1907, won the Republican nomination. The Democrats stood for the Slocumb law, while the Republicans adopted a strong county option plank. Aldrich ^ The county option plan provided that each county should decide the saloon question for itself by a vote of its citizens. 258 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA was elected by a large majority over Dahlman, and with him was elected the entire Republican state ticket. Hitchcock, Democrat, defeated Burkett for the United States senator- ship. The Democrats gained both houses of the legislature, and consequently county option failed. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR CHESTER H. ALDRICH, 1911-1913 Laws of the Session of igii. — The legislature of 1911 was nearly equally divided in membership between Repub- licans and Democrats. Among the more important mea- sures which became laws were those levying a tax for uni- versity extension, establishing the initiative and referen- dum, providing for the commission form of city govern- ment, forbidding the selling of seed with weed seed in it, and protecting the rivers and lakes of the state. Amendments to the Constitution. — At the election in the fall of 1912, five amendments to the constitution were voted on and carried. They were the initiative and refer- endum, elections every two years instead of every year, home rule by cities of the state, a board of control for the asylums and penitentiaries, and an increase of the salaries of legislators from $300 to $600. ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN H. MOREHEAD, 1913-1917 The political condition in Nebraska during the summer of 1912 was very greatly disturbed and materially influenced by the peculiar situation of the parties and the character of the issues as they were related to national policies and politics. The sentiment among Republicans for and against the nomination of President William Howard Taft SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 259 for a second term and his final selection at the convention in July; the withdrawal of Theodore Roosevelt and some of those who desired his nomination from the Chicago con- vention and later his nomination at another convention ; the nomination of Woodrow Wilson by the democratic conven- tion after it seemed almost certain that Champ Clark had a majority of the delegates ; the unrest everywhere es- pecially among the members of certain trades, unions, and classes; the general state of the country in its economic, industrial, and financial outlook — to say nothing of many other elements of distrust and uncertainty — all combined to multiply the issues and to make uncertain the political trend in Nebraska. Out of it all John H. Morehead of Falls City and Chester A. Aldrich of David City were nominated by the two old parties. At the election Morehead received 123,997 votes and Aldrich 114,075. This elected Morehead governor by a majority of 9,922. At the same election George W. Norris of McCook was elected United States senator by a major- ity over Ashton C. Shallenberger of Alma, of 8,605 votes. Campaign of 1914. — In the Republican primaries ^ of 1914, R. B. Howell of Omaha was nominated for gover- nor, while the Democratic party renominated John H. Morehead. The Democrats were largely successful. Morehead was elected governor. Campaign of 1916. — The state election of 1916 was in- fluenced in part by national issues and in part by the pro- posed amendment to the constitution prohibiting the manu- facture and sale of intoxicating liquors within the state. The Democratic party, under the leadership of President Wilson, had passed a number of progressive measures. 1 Under the primary election law candidates are now nominated by a vote of the people instead by a convention of delegates. 260 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA The President, moreover, had avoided alhances with other countries, and the cry "Wilson kept us out of war" was very effective in the campaign. While all of these conditions served to aid the Democratic party, yet it was torn asunder by the temperance issue. Bryan had resigned as secretary of state under President Wilson, and he immediately took up the campaign in Ne- braska for a "dry" state. His brother, Charles Bryan, be- came candidate for governor, with prohibition as a plank in his platform. The Democratic party seemed hopelessly split. The Republicans nominated A. L. Sutton for governor, who made temperance the main issue. The two great issues, Wilson and prohibition, proved to be beneficial to the Demo- cratic party. Many Republicans who opposed prohibition voted the Democratic ticket, because Senator Hitchcock and Keith Neville, the Democratic candidate for governor, were against the prohibition amendment. Wilson carried the state by 41,000 and took with him the entire Democratic state ticket. Hitchcock was re-elected to the United States Sen- ate. The legislature had a Democratic majority in each house. On the other hand, many Democrats who favored prohibition voted for the amendment. It was adopted by about 30,000 majority. Legislature of 1917. — The legislature of 1917 con- tained many farm members. Some excellent laws were enacted, notably a limited suffrage bill ; provision for the use of convict labor; a state hail insurance bill; a bill pro- viding for redistricting of counties for school purposes and the distribution of the burden of school tax ; a bill placing the offices of county superintendent and state superin- tendent on a non-partisan basis ; a measure to meet the government's requirements for federal aid in road build- SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 261 ing; and a measure establishing vocational training in schools. Considerable attention was given to a bill pro- posing a levy fo build a new state capitol. The measure passed the house but failed in the senate. Making a "Bone-dry" Law. — The chief interest of the legislature of 1917 was in a bill to enforce the provisions of the prohibition amendment to the state constitution. The house passed a bill which seemed to meet with the general approval of the people. When the bill reached the senate dilatory tactics were used, but the time came when the measure had to receive consideration. Senator Robertson of Holt County introduced one hundred amendments, practic- ally all in the interests of the liquor dealers. Many of these amendments carried, and the bill went into conference committee. After many days of delay and deadlock Sena- tor Robertson, who had introduced the one hundred amend- ments and who was on the committee, joined those who stood for an effective measure, and the committee report was concurred in by both houses. On the signature of the governor the bill became a law, and thus ended the long prohibition fight in Nebraska. THE ADMINISTRATION OF KEITH NEVILLE, 1917-1919 During the summer of 1916 the political condition in Nebraska was again influenced by national affairs. This time the agitation and dift'erences were more particularly produced by questions which were constantly arising be- cause of our relation to the war in Europe. But great as these issues were, the questions of the greatest moment in the minds of many of the voters in Nebraska were those which related to the state, to the state government, and the 262 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA relation the legislative body sustained to the desire, will, and welfare of the people. All of these questions were of great interest, but the one which received the most at- tention from people of all classes was the proposed amend- ment to the constitution of the state which would abolish the saloon and prohibit the liquor traffic. While national issues had their influence in shaping state events and in- ternal questions of different kind had attention, the deter- mining question was the constitutional amendment and the manner in which it would be treated if it should be enacted into law. The question of the amendment, while it had to do with parties and issues, was in fact a question of the people. Citizens of all parties and those of no party were in favor of and were against the proposed amendment. Keith Neville of North Platte and A. L. Sutton of Omaha were nominated. Neville received 143,564 votes and Sutton 136,811. This vote elected Neville governor by a majority of 6,753 votes. The national issues were great forces at the time of the election — much greater than they were at the time the nominations were made. The cry, "Wilson has kept us out of war," was the strongest single force on election day, so far as Nebraska was concerned at that particular time. The prohibition amendment carried by a vote of (146,574 for and 117,532 against) 29,042 and thus became a part of the organic law of the state. THE ADMINISTRATION OF S. R. McKELVIE, 1919 While the election of 1918 had many issues of interest to the people and to the commonwealth as a whole, it was not complicated to any great extent by national questions. The thing that absorbed the interest of all, as a nation, was the winning of the war. The men and women, and even the children so far as they understood it, of all parties and 264 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA classes were as one, and many other things of importance were left out of consideration. When the place and work of the state in the great war shall be written, it will be known that Nebraska's heart and efforts were right and wrought for righteousness. S. R. McKelvie of Lincoln was elected governor by a plurality of 23,002 and took his place as chief executive in January, 1919. George W. Norris was reelected United States senator by a majority of 20,396. The bill authorizing a constitutional convention to sit in December, 1919, was ratified by a majority of 77,?>Z9. Woman suffrage received 225,717 votes and had 123,292 against it. Thus it became a law in Nebraska by a major- ity of 72,132 votes. PROGRESS IN NEBRASKA The last ten or twelve years have seen unusual progress in Nebraska. This is the case whether we are thinking of its physical welfare, its industrial progress, its educational development, its legislative aspects, or its economic stability. The assurance that good crops of potatoes, of wheat, of rye, of sugar beets, and of many kinds of fruit can be raised, as well as corn, hay, and alfalfa, is a matter of un- told interest to all both for the present and the future. Beginning with 1907 came the free high school tuition law. This was followed by providing aid for weak districts, nor- mal training in the high schools, agricultural education, in- dustrial training, domestic science, county high schools, and consolidation of schools. All this led up to the law passed by the legislature of 1919 to redistrict, by counties, the schools of the state. These steps have been taken that SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 265 Nebraska may offer more and better educational advantages to all the children of all the people. These efforts in be- half of elementary education have been more than equaled by the growth of the normal schools, the development of the colleges, and the enlargement of the state university. Th» bank guarantee law, the workmen's compensation act, and the establishment of the State Board of Control for the management of fifteen of the institutions of the state are most important measures in the interest of all the people of Nebraska. All these things say to us : Study the past that we may know how the present came to be ; study the present that we may appreciate the past ; and study the present in the light of the past and the past in the light of the present that we may be prepared for the future. CHAPTER XVIII THE SEMI-CENTENNIAL CELEBRATIOI^I Committee Appointed. — The semi-centennial celebra- tion of the admission of the state into the Union occurred in 1917, under the direction of the State Historical Society.^ The president of the Society, John Lee Webster of Omaha, appointed a committee of one hundred members, well dis- tributed over the state, to have charge of the ceremonies. Plans of Celebration. — The plans for the celebration included a grand pageant at Omaha in connection with the Aksarben in October, 1916. The parade was composed of beautiful floats, each float representing an event in Nebraska history. A large number of Indians in gaudy attire marched in the parade as a reminder of the very early days, and the old method of travel was represented by oxen pulling a typical ''prairie schooner." More than one hundred thou- sand people witnessed the ceremonies. President and Mrs. Woodrow Wilson were present and reviewed the pageant. President Wilson delivered an address. The Lincoln Celebration. — The Lincoln celebration occurred at the time of the annual commencement of the University of Nebraska in June, 1917. The former Presi- dent of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, delivered an address. Statewide Celebrations. — Celebrations were held in 1 The State Historical Society has headquarters in Lincoln. Its members are citizens of Nebraska who are interested in Nebraska history and in the preservation of historical records. It has a col- lection of historic interest in one of the University buildings. The collection is open to visitors and is well worth seeing. 266 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 267 nearly all the counties of the state, in connection with the public schools, and also at the county seats. A local com- mittee consisting of the county superintendent, the mayor of the city, the president of the commercial club, and the presi- dent of the local women's club was appointed in each county seat to have general charge of all local celebrations. The following is an outline of the program: John L. Webster I. Pre-celebration arrangements. The special study of Nebraska history; the collection of historic data and the marking of places of historic interest; map making: show- ing historical local trails and places of interest in pioneer days. II. Celebrations on February 12th in 6,500 rural and village schools of the state. Patriotic songs and the Ne- braska patriotic ode; a brief history of the purchase of the Louisana territory; territorial Nebraska, and the state today; essays on various phases of local history; stories of the pioneers; brief addresses by local speakers. 268 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA HI. Observances in churches and Sunday schools Feb- ruary 25. IV. General or county celebrations on March 1, in schools, commercial clubs, historical societies, churches, women's clubs. Daughters of the American Revolution, men's clubs, and civic societies. Such celebrations included the following programs : 1. Moving pictures showing local schools, local history, and scenes of state development. 2. Dramatization of local and state history. 3. Addresses on the pioneer days. 4. Nebraska, present and future, by local speakers. 5. Historical carnival or pageant covering local and state themes. 6. County exhibitions and contests from all schools, spelling contests, ciphering matches, essay and oratorical contests, compositions on local history, collections of histor- ical relics, and general school work. 7. Unveiling of pictures and statues of important characters who had to do with the upbuilding of the com- munity. V. March 1, 1917, Nebraska Day in the legislature. A formal recognition of the admission of the state into the Union. STATE SONG The Haskell Ode Contest. — The Honorable John D. Haskell of Wakefield, Nebraska, offered in 1916 a prize of $100 for the best poem suitable for a Nebraska state song, the same to be written by a resident of the state. The prize was awarded to Reverend W. H. Buss of Fremont. Has- kell also gave a prize of $100 for the best musical arrange- ment for the ode. This prize was awarded to John Prindle Scott of New York City. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 269 HYMN TO NEBRASKA BY REV. WILLIAM H. BUSS, ER^MONT Now laud the proud tree planter state, Nebraska, — free, enlightened, great ; Her royal place she has in song: The noblest strains to her belong : Her fame is sure. Then sing Nebraska through the years ; Extol her stalwart pioneers ; The days when, staunch and unafraid. The state's foundations, well they laid, To long endure. The land where Coronado trod, And brave Marquette surveyed the sod ; Where red men long in council sat; Where spreads the valley of the Platte Far 'neath the sun. The land, beside whose borders sweep The big Missouri's waters, deep. Whose course erratic, through its sands, From northland on, through many lands. Does seaward run. The foothills of the Rockies lie Afar athwart her western sky : Her rolling prairie, like the sea. Held long in virgin sanctity Her fertile loam. Her wild-life roamed o'er treeless plains Till came the toiling wagon-trains, 270 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA And settlers bold, far westward bound, In broad Nebraska's valley found Their chosen home. Now o'er her realm and 'neath her sky, Her golden harvests richly lie; Her corn more vast than Egypt yields ; Her grain unmatched in other fields : Her cattle rare. Alfalfa fields, by winding streams ; And sunsets, thrilling poets' dreams. These all we sing, and know the time Has ne'er revealed a fairer clime. Or sweeter air. O proud Nebraska, brave and free; Thus sings thy populace to thee. Thy virile strength, thy love of light ; Thy civic glory, joined with right. Our hearts elate. Thy manly wisdom, firm to rule ; Thy womanhood in church and school ; Thy learning, culture, art, and peace Do make thee strong, and ne'er shall cease To keep thee great. (to be included on occasion) Her heaving bluffs uplift their heads Along her winding river beds. And, pleasing far the traveler's view, — Well guard her Elkhorn and her Blue, Encrowned with wood. And there, by landmarks, ne'er to fail. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 271 Upon the ancient westward trail ; Or graven stone, securely placed, By eye observant may be traced Where wigwam stood. Her honored cities grow in wealth ; In thriving commerce, public health ; Her first, the gateway of the west ; Her Omaha, that will not rest. Nor take defeat. Her capital of worthy fame, That bears the mighty Lincoln's name, And thousands of Nebraska youth E'er summons to her fount of truth. At learning's seat. THE WORLD WAR BY J. A. BKATTIE Every true American takes a just pride in that which the United States helped France, Great Britain, and the other allied nations to accomplish during the last years of the World War. . Likewise every loyal, patriotic citizen of Ne- braska appreciates to the fullest extent the courage and valor of the soldiers and sailors who went from this state to the camps, trenches, and storm centers of Europe when national freedom was in danger. This same appreciation is extended to the Red Cross and to the other divisions of work — work of the most necessary and helpful kind. But at this date we are too near the beginning and the ending of the great struggle to know all the facts and to ap- preciate the zeal and work of those who went from Ne- braska. When time shall reveal all the facts and shall establish the rightful place of each division, in so far as that can be done, some historian will tell the story of the work and sacrifices of those who went from Nebraska. This story will include the struggles, the privations, the sacrifices, and the songs of victory of those who went, who saw, who fought, who conquered, and who returned to the homes and communities from which they enlisted. Likewise the story will contain a faithful account of the soldierly conduct and deeds of valor of those who sleep where the "poppies grow" and whose graves are in the care of the allied nations beyond the seas. While we are waiting for time, study, and research to 272 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 273 make all things clear and for some one to ptit them down by the side of those from the other states in the Union, we may with great profit study some of the causes of the war and learn some important lessons — lessons which are taught by the relations we sustain to them. The lessons we may learn ought to inspire us to be still more loyal in the future than we have been in the past to every principle of right and duty, and still more loyally devoted to every- thing truly democratic in life, in purpose, and in action. Among these things it is worth while for us to learn, is the extent to which the world was involved in the war and the extent to which we are to share in its consequences. Perhaps the best and easiest way to get the right conception of the variety and vastness of the interests which the war involved is to make a group of the nations and peoples who were engaged in the conflict. By this method we shall be able to measure more accurately and appreciate more fully the meaning of this life and death struggle. Not only so, but also we shall come to know how far the forces of evil intended to carry the false teaching and practice ''that might makes right." In all — counting both sides — twenty-eight nations were engaged in the war, four on what is called the side of the Germans, and twenty-four on the side of the allied nations. It will be of value to us to know the strength of these na- tions on both sides. To this end the population is given on the page below. The figures are taken from the most trust- worthy government sources available. The population is stated in each case in round numbers. This method shows the man-power of each nation; and by placing them together the comparative strength is readily seen. On one side were Germany with a populataion of 68,000- 000; Austria-Hungary, 50,000,000; Turkey, 22,000,000; and 274 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Bulgaria, 5,0(50,000. This gives a total population for the four nations of 145,000,000. On the other side, placing them in alphabetical order, the allied nations were as follows : Belgium, 8,000,000 ; Brazil, 23,000,000; China, 420,000,000; Costa Rica, 425,000; Cuba, 2,500,000; France, including her possessions, 90,000,000; Guatemala, 2,000,000; Great Britain, including Canada and her other possessions, 440,000,000; Greece, 5,000,000; Haiti, 2,000 000; Honduras, 600,000; Italy, 37,000,000; Japan, 54,- 000,000; Liberia, 2,000,000; Montenegro, 5,000,000; Nica- ragua, 700,000; Panama, 400,000; Portugal, including her possessions, 15,000,000; Rumania, 7,500,000; Russia, 180,000.000; San Marino, 10,000; Serbia, 4,500,000; Siam, 6,000,000; and the United States, 112,000,000. Putting these numbers together we find that the allied nations possessed a strength represented by 1,417,635,000 people. This shows that the population of the twenty-eight nations engaged in this war was 1,562,635,000. The important nations which were not engaged in the conflict — such as Holland, Switzerland, Spain, Persia, Denmark, Mexico, Norway, and Sweden — had a popula- tion according to the same sources of information of about 135,876,000. By comparing the population of the neutral nations with the populations of those engaged in the war, we find that for every one person not engaged there were twelve or thirteen who were citizens of the nations in the struggle. Even the peoples whose governments had not de- clared war and were, therefore, not officially on the one side nor on the other, were within the circle of war prices, war hatred, war spirit, war dread, and war tendency. Although Holland and Switzerland and the other neutral nations did everything within their power to keep sacredly their treaty obligations and limits and to maintain peaceful relations, SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 275 they suffered in many respects. Their food, clothing^ build- ing material, and almost every other thing which, in any way related to life and industry, to commerce and manufactur- ing, have been subject to the prices, demands, and unrest of the war. While all peoples were not under arms and were not represented on the battle-field, all nations and peoples suffered and that in ways and to an extent that history may never be able to record. Another phase of the war is seen and the destruction of war realized when we ask and answer the question, What were France, Belgium, Serbia, and the other nations in July, 1914, and what was their condition in July, 1919? A little study of the difference in the conditions at these two periods will teach us that while the war was a necessity in order that the democracy of yesterday and the civilization of today might not perish from the earth, the war, from the first to the last, was destruction and that of the most ruth- less and enormous kind. While it is true that there may be worse things than war, this one which began in August, 1914, needs to be studied but a little to know that the de- struction of life and property was upon so gigantic a scale, that the number of. dead arid wounded and the millions upon millions of money seem only so many figures on the printed page — that and nothing more, for the average mind cannot comprehend the sum. That we may realize, as fully as pos- sible, what it all means and know how much better it would be if "nations would not learn war any more," let us ask what France was in July, 1914? The position of the repub- lic of France in the midst of the monarchies of Europe made it a necessity for her to fight for her existence. Because of the situation France came near being overrun and occu- pied by a foreign foe as were Belgium and Serbia. The French as a whole are a practical, patriotic, and 276 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA home-loving people. It was the courage and fortitude of her soldiers, sustained by her patriotic citizenship and in- spired by the aid and spirit of the allied forces, that saved France from complete subjugation. France and her soldiers were sustained while passing through this furnace of fire by the rnemory of her heroic past. The background of her history contributed very great- ly to her spirit and conduct during the war. The glory of Joan of Arc, the greatness and military genius of Napoleon, and the patriotic fervor of La Fayette were seconded by the devotion of the French people. The memory of the spirit of 1870-1871 was a part of the heritage of this most worthy people. Some of the French girls were working in homes in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and Balti- more when the treaty was signed in 1871 which made France pay an indemnity of one billion of dollars to Germany be- sides the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. We are credibly told on good authority, that some of these French girls for the honor of France and because of their love for the home-land saved parts of their wages and sent them back to aid their fathers and mothers, their brothers and sisters, their friends and neighbors to pay the indemnity Germany had demanded in the treaty of settlement. It was a knowledge of the heroic past joined to a realization of that which was involved in the issues of the present which inspired the French at Verdun and at the Marne to stand in solid phalanx and to count their lives not *'dear unto themselves" if the glory of the past might live in the present and that the fields and cities of their fathers might not be trodden under the iron heel of the foe of political freedom and democratic civilization. What France was in July, 1914, is indicated by the diversity of her soil and climate, by the variety of her agricultural products, by the relation her people sustained to her 207,107 square SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 277 miles of surface, by the fact that about three- fourths of the people live in the country and about one-half of the popula- tion live by growing wheat and corn, rye and oats, barley and sugar beets. To these industries they added the raising of cattle and horses, mules' and sheep. Before the war be- gan in August, 1914, France rivaled the world in the pro- duction of lace and jewels, carpets and porcelain, and she stood, at that time, among the first in educational advantages of the European nations. In July, 1919, many of her fields and farms were in desolation and many of her towns and cities were in ruins. Add to these material things the broken families, the deserted homes, the anguish and hopelessness of women and children who are waiting for the sound of footsteps which shall be heard not again, and the thousands upon multiplied thousands of her youth and men of strength who sleep in numbered and in unnumbered graves and we have a beginning of that which the war has cost one of the fairest countries of the earth. Well may we ask : What is the lesson America and the world of mankind ought to learn from this cruel war ? But France is not the only country to know the weight and strength of the iron heel of Prussian autocracy. It does not require much knowledge of Belgium and that which has taken place in that little country to count the cost of war and to measure the worth and opportunities of peace. Bel- gium is only about one-eighteenth as large as France and when the war began had a population of about 8,000,000. In the peaceful days of July, 1914, there were 703 persons for every square mile of surface. At that time, measured by the number of persons in the square mile, Belgium was the most populous country on the globe. Something is known by all of her great cities — Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, Lou- vain and Ghent — and that for which they stood and of which 278 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA they gave promise in July, 1914. Before the war Belgium was the home of many great industries, great public li- braries, great schools of music, great schools of science and the fine arts. Her four great universities were in the same rank as those in the first rank in other countries. To her praise be it said, so far as we are able to judge, it was the courage and promptness of the Belgian king and army that enabled France to gain the time to make prepa- ration, in the beginning of the war, which saved the city of Paris from falling into the hands of the enemy. During the greater part of the 1559 days that war existed Belgium's soil, with the exception of a space of three or four townships, was occupied and her people were subject to the will and dictation of Germany. By means of a small publication in the form of a paper, King Albert kept in communication with his people. The king and queen were for much of the time in one of the small towns of France. From the beginning of the war to its close the king, the army, and the people were inspired with a lofty purpose and animated with undaunted courage. As in the case of France, so with Belgium, a comparison of the condition in 1919, with that in the first half of 1914, shows the desolation war has wrought and requires the civilized world to make such a condition and such destruction of life and property impos- sible in the future. To understand fully the lesson taught by a comparison of Serbia in July, 1919, with what she was in July, 1914, and to know how she came to be involved we must go back a little distance in time. Serbia, considered as a martyr na- tion, teaches the world that all honorable means ought to be employed before a call to arms is made against any people. It is sufficient for the present purpose to state that through the changes caused by the Russo-Turkish War the SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 279 independence of Serbia was secured in 1882 and a youth of thirteen years was placed on the throne. This young man ruled, as regent, under the name of Alexander I until 1893, when he took full control. as king. In 1903 the king and Queen Draga were assassinated and Peter Karageorgevitch was declared king. He was the ruler when the war broke out in 1914. That which furnished the excuse for the war, on the part of Germany, was the assassination of the Aus- trian crown prince while he was in Bosnia. At first Serbia was able to withstand the blows of Germany. But in a very short time the German army sent into Serbia was so great in numbers that she could not stand the shock. The spectacle of the enslavement of some of the Serbian people and the driving of others of them into exile are among the most pathetic and heartless barbarities of the war. The Serbian government and people did everything a brave, capable, and courageous people could do. A glance at the map of Europe will show how difficult it was for France, or Belgium, or Great Britain, or any of the other allied nations, in the early part of the war especially, to come to the aid of Serbia. The only one of the allied nations that could have rendered material aid was Russia, and Russia even at that time, al- though it was not generally known, was in the throes of revolution. While the Serbians were accustomed to war, having taken part in the Balkan wars in 1912-13, and had an army made up of all the men able to bear arms whose ages were between twenty and fifty out of a population of 2,500,000, they were not able to cope with the numbers and strength of German military power. The contrast in Serbia between the condition in July, 1919, and that of July,- 1914, teaches the same lesson which is told and is impressed by the suffering of Belgium and the sacrifices of France. 280 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA CAUSES OF THE WORI.D WAR The lessons which the world war emphasizes for us and for all may be learned by knowing the causes and from them may be determined the things yet to be done before right and reason, justice and humanity, consideration and good will shall rule among the nations of the earth. In the be- ginning of the war the difficulty was between what are called the "Central Powers" — Germany and Austria — and the "Triple Entente" — Great Britain, France and Russia. The clash of arms was very sudden and to many people in all parts of the world it was unexpected. Many prophecies of the war had been made, from time to time, since 1870-1 and more particularly during the ten or fifteen years preceding August, 1914. The anticipations of war were based for the most part on what for the sake of clearness may be placed in three groups : 1. The desire of Germany to extend her trade to all parts of the world and the spirit and methods by which her plans were to be carried into efifect. 2. The desire of Germany to acquire and to control naval stations in great numbers and at places of the greatest advantage. 3. The desire of Germany to wrest from Great Britain her power in western Asia and on the sea. The people and administration of the United States were not particularly concerned with these things except so far as there was un- rest, and as a consequence there was a constant tendency to disturb the peaceful relations which we sustained with all peoples. Even after a German submarine, on May 7, 1915, without any warning, sent the Lusitania, a British steamer, to the bottom of the ocean and with the ship more than one thousand men, women and children, one hundred and four- teen of whom were Americans, the government of the SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 281 United States withheld the declaration of war and made other and added diplomatic efforts to stay the hand of the destroyer. To prevent the possibilities of Germany getting the Virgin Islands and thus gaining control of one of the approaches to the Panama Canal our government bought therh. The purchase was made from Denmark for $25,000,- 000. By this purchase we secured one of the best harbors belonging to our island possessions. Instead of these diplomatic eft'orts and protests having any effect in stopping the war, it became evident that we were becoming more and more entangled every passing day. On the positive side three things were impelling forces in bringing the American government to the place where the declaration of war seemed the least that could be done : 1. Germany, by the exercise of her war power had come into control of a vast empire. Her dictation extended far into Asia, over Turkey and Belgium, and from Austria to the North Sea. 2. The brutal treatment of the people who were in the parts Germany occupied in northern France, Belgium, Serbia, Armenia, and Poland had much to do in causing the government to act. 3. Germany proclaimed to the world by every movement after August 1, 1914, that she was a heartless, selfish autocrat. Germany was a government of military force and that force in control of a small number of "war lords." This meant but one thing if Germany were not defeated on the field of battle. It meant the control and the dictation of a government on the principle that "might makes right." It meant for France, for Belgium, for Serbia, for Great Britain, for the United States and for all other nations which should come within her grasp that which we may ex- press thus : We have the power and, therefore, we will, if 282 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA we please, for "might makes right." This was the tone, the spirit, the arrogancy, and the defiance of the German "war lords." The first manifest result was that on April 6, 1917, Congress declared that Germany had brought on a state of war with the United States. At the same time Congress auth- orized the necessary equipment and the means by which the war could be carried to a successful issue. Among the things which it is well for us Americans to know and to appreciate, in connection with the great war, is the fact that in society everywhere and always, there are constantly two conflict- ing tendencies. One of these is the desire and tendency of the people to take more and more into their own hands the government of themselves and the administration of their own affairs. The other is the desire and efifort of the govern- ing class to restrict more and more the rule of the people and to secure for themselves greater and greater control. One of these is the opportunity of the people to work out their own destiny. The other is the, so called, "divine right of kings." It is seen in the rule of a class without any regard to the wishes of the people. Here were two principles in conflict and this conflict had much to do both as a direct and as an indirect cause of the war. It was the uprising of the people which overthrew the French monarchy and estabHshed, in its stead, a republic. The same kind of a movement separated Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia, and Albania from the rule of the Turkish government. It was the same spirit and principle which separated Belgium from Holland and enabled other peoples to take into their own hands their political destiny. It was a counter movement which caused the formation of the German Confederation. Because Prussia was the strong- est of the states forming the Confederation and Bismarck, the prime minister of Prussia, was a man of "blood and SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 283 iron" the German Empire took on the form, spirit and character of the largest state and became imbued with the desires and thoughts of Bismarck. The spirit and purpose of the Third French RepubHc — which is the government of France today — in 1870 were directly opposed to the autocratic empire on the other side of the Rhine. The same opposition to military life and standards had prevailed in Great Britain for many years. Before the formation of the German Empire and its con- trol by Bismarck, for hundreds of years England and Scot- land and Ireland had prospered under free institutions and representative government. Changes and reforms of various kinds had been brought about by lawful and peaceful means. Because of this Great Britain's old aristocratic form and spirit had been replaced by a government resting on demo- cratic principles. Because of Great Britain's obligation to Belgium deter- mined by treaty agreements, because of the sacred principles for which the people and the government stood, and because of her investments in many parts of the world Great Britain did every thing that diplomatic experience and intelligence could do to prevent the war. Like ourselves. Great Britain was not prepared for war August 1, 1914, except upon the sea. The British navy was prepared for any emergency because it had been developed to protect her merchant vessels which visited all the ports of the world. Another thing which caused Great Britain to de- sire peace on the one hand and to withstand Germany on the other was the relation she sustained to her colonies and the friendly relations these colonies sustained to the peoples of the earth. Great Britain's colonial system had been de- veloped so that while it formed a great empire it was guided by the principles of English liberty and was administered 284 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA by representative government. For an hundred years and more the poHcy of Great Britain had been to organize her colonies into self-governing states. Thus there was w^hat we ' may call a federal government in Canada, in Australia, and in South Africa. They are, in fact, three British democ- racies within the British Empire. Because of this condition, because of the relations Canada and the others sustained to the United States, and because Great Britain felt her re- sponsibility for free peoples and for free expression on the part of the democratic governments of the earth she called to arms when diplomatic efforts failed. The spirit and at- titude, the efforts and sacrifices, the loyalty to principle and desire for the welfare of all on the part of the British, ought not to be forgotten. The British soldier and seaman stood manfully at the post of duty. The generous support of the British people from the islands and from the different provinces are worthy of all praise. The British in this great struggle were worthy companions of France, Belgium, Serbia, Italy, the United States and the others whose swords were unsheathed and whose armies marched at the call of freedom. No small consideration is due to the Red Cross, to the' Y. M. C. A., to the Y. W. C. A., to the churches, to the social and fraternal orders of different kinds, and to many individual men and women. They furnished much of the moral and financial support which made victory certain. History will not let the world forget the uncounted thou- sands of starving people of all classes in Belgium, Serbia, Armenia, and elsewhere who have been fed and clothed by the contributions of the peoples and governments of sym- pathetic nations during the years of this conflict. The grateful peoples of the earth will long remember the ideals, purposes, and cooperation of President Woodrow SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 285 Wilson, Premier Lloyd George, Premier Georges Clemen- ceau, Premier Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and others on whose shoulders the burdens rested and to whom all looked for direction and leadership. To many of those associated with these men equal honor is due. The number is so great that even the names cannot be recorded in this connection. The world of mankind will always owe a debt to Marshal Ferdinand Foch, General Joseph Jacques Joffre, General Julian H. G. Byng, Marshal Douglas Haig, General John J. Pershing and to many other great leaders, in the allied armies and navies who made possible the armistice and the final day of peace. When the full text of the history shall have been written no less honor and no less appreciation shall rest upon the rank and file — the common soldiers and seamen — who fought the battles of freedom. This will apply to those who did faithful service in this land, as well as to those who went to a foreign shore, to those who returned to home and country, and to those whose bodies lie in lands beyond the sea. Remembering the millions of the bravest and strongest sons of Europe and America who sleep beneath the sod as the result of this cruel war the students who study this history will appreciate the poem of Lieutenant Colonel John D. McCrea. It was written during the second battle of Ypres in April, 1915. The author was killed January 28, 1918. Before going to the army he was a practising physi- cian in Montreal, Canada. The words of this poem will help to keep alive, in our memories, the sacrifices of the brave men who fought and died and, as well, our duty to the living. 286 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA In Flander's fields, the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row. That mark our place, and in the sky, The larks, still bravely singing, fly, Scarce heard amid the guns below. We are the dead ; short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow. Loved and were loved, and now we lie In Flanders fields. Take up our quarrel with the foe ! To you from falling hands we throw The torch ; be yours to hold it high ! If ye break faith with us who die, We shall not sleep, though poppies grow, In Flanders fields. HISTORICAL OUTLINE BY PROFESSOR C. N. ANDE:RS0N L Nebraska as nature left it (Observe benefits offered to man and their influ- ence on man) A. Land, streams, drainage. B. Grasses, trees, wild fruits, and vegetables. C. Minerals. D. Fish and game. E. Inducements and obstacles to settlements. II. Indian occupants A. Characteristics of Indians. B. Traders and Indians. C. Reasons why whites dispossessed Indians. (Were both at fault?) III. Travel and trails A. General travels to the northwest. L Curiosity and restlessness. Why? 2. Desire for trade and discovery of gold. (Would you like to explore a new coun- try? Why?) B. Travel and trails in Nebraska. 1. Followed streams. Give three or more reasons. 2. Objects at end of trails. 3. Various trails — Oregon, Mormon, and local trails. Also overland mail, pony ex- press, telegraph line, and Union Pacific 287 288 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Railroad. Trace the development from the Indian path to the Union Pacific Railroad. 4. Cattle trails, south to north. 5. Navigation of Missouri and attempts at navigating other streams. C. Show how all this movement illustrates the ambition of man and advanced civilization. IV. Travel and traffic in Nebraska demand organized gov- ment A. Louisiana Purchase. B. Nebraska organized. 1. Two questions, Indians and slaves. 2. Form of government, part federal and part local. C. Coming of the settlers, desire for land and homes. 1. New towns and newspapers. 2. Claims (first farms). 3. Early locations, where and why? 4. Introduction of counties, schools, roads, and other necessities. D. Legislature and laws. L Fundamental laws passed. E. Land surveys, banks and finance, political par- ties, and other evidences of organized so- ciety. V. Growth and development of Nebraska (Take each of the following topics and others that may be suggested and trace their growth and de- velopment in Nebraska, using this book and others for sources of information. Consult persons of your community who are familiar with these topics.) A. Legislatures and important acts. SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 289 B. Schools. 1. Country schools. 2. High schools. 3. State normals. 4. Agricultural college. 5. State University. 6. Parochial schools. 7. Girls' and boys' industrial schools. 8. School for feeble minded and school for blind. 9. Indian schools. C. Railroads. 1. Building railroads. 2. Land grants. 3. Overthrowing power of railroads in legis- latures. 4. Legislative control of railroads. 5. Service of railroads to Nebraska. D. Extension of settlements from east to west in the state. L Immigration. 2. Struggles of the settlers. 3. Frontier at different dates. E. Farming in Nebraska. L An early farm. 2. A modern farm. 3. Compare the two as to improvements, ma- chinery, and kind, quantity, and value of products. F. The prohibition question. 1. From the early day to the passing of the constitutional amendment in 1916. 290 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA G. Dairy industry. 1. Growth of creameries. 2. Cream separator. 3. Statistics. H. Populist movement of 1890 to 1900. 1. Causes. 2. Actions. 3. Results. I. Banks and banking. (See your local banker.) 1. Early wild-cat banks. 2. National and state banks. 3. Growth. 4. Bank guaranty law. 5. Assets today. J. The Press. 1. Early papers and their names. 2. Additional papers. 3. Chief papers of the state. 4. Benefits. TOPICS FOR WRITTEN RECITATIONS State flower. Trans-Mississippi Exposition. Arbor Day. Kinkaid homesteads. Semi-centennial celebration. Grass-hoppers (consult old settlers.) State penitentiary. State hospitals. State fisheries. Farmers' organizations (can be used as subject for de- bate.) SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 291 Foreign immigration. Telephones (growth of systems). Beet sugar industry. State fair. Churches. (Select others) JOHN LEE WEBSTER The central figure in the semi-centennial celebration was Honorable John Lee Webster of Omaha. Upon the ap- proach of the semi-centennial of the state, he proposed to the State Historical Society the holding of an historical pageant that would symbolize not only the development of the state, but also, the opening up of the great west. The idea appealed to the members of the society. It was such a large undertaking that Webster was galled upon to take the chairmanship of the committee in order to carry out his plans. Webster is w^ell known as a collector of art treasures and is the founder of the Friends of Art Association of Omaha. He received his inspiration for this association from travels in Europe where he visited all of the principal museums, picture galleries, and libraries. These historic relics sug- gested the idea of collecting and preserving important man- uscripts and relics of the history of Nebraska. After in- vestigation, he found a society devoted to this purpose, but there appeared to be but little method in its procedure. Webster at once set to work connecting up the different out- standing features of the history of the state. His endeavors were soon recognized and he was chosen president of the Nebraska Historical Society, which honor he held for many years. 292 INDEX Adams, Captain C. E., 242 Adams, John Quincy, 85 Adelia, 149 Advertiser, The, 142, 183 Agricultural college, 187; see University of Nebraska Agricultural development, 92, 179, 202; education, 264; see Farming Agricultural products, 179, 182 Aksarben, 266 Albania, 282 Albert, King of the Belgians, 278 Aldrich, Chester H., 257, 258, 259 Alexander I., King of the Serb- ians, 279 Alfalfa, 180, 232, 233 Algonkian, 18 Allen, William V., 240 Allied nations, 272, 273, 279; population of, in the World War, 274 Allis, Samuel, 179 Alluvium, 9 Alma, 7 Altitude, 9 Alton, 117 Amendments, see Constitutional amendments American buflfalo, 15, 18, 180; pictures of, 16 American Fur Company, 51, 77, 81, 113, 115, 169 American Smelting and Refining Company, 180 American Southwest, 56 Animal life, 14 Annexation to Kansas proposed, 153 Antelope, 15 Anti-lobbying law, 255 Anti-monopolist party, 220; see Monopolies Anti-pass law, 255 Anti-Prohibition convention, 217 Antwerp, 277 Apaches, 176 Appalachians, 18 Apportionment, 111, 152 Arapahoes, 18, 20, 23, 176 Arbor day, 197, 222, 250 Architecture among the plains tribes of Indians, 22 Arickaree formation, 161, 245 Arikara village, 38, 40, 56 Arikaras, 168 Arkansas, 101, 107 Arkansas river, 39, 17o Armenia, 281 Arrow, The, 113, 182 Ash Creek, 59, 660 Ash Hollow, 59, 60, 173; cam- paign of, 207 Ashley, Colonel, 168, 169 Asia, 88, 281 Associate Justices, 111 Astor, John Jacob, 39, 77 Astor, William B., 77 Astoria, 40 Astoria Expedition, 39, 40, 56 294 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Astorians, 40, 47 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, 90,^ 97 Atchison, 72, 7Z Atchinson, General Henry, 42 Athens, 117 Atkinson, Colonel Henry, 167, 169 Australia, 284 Australian ballot system, 225, 234 Austria Hungary, 273, 281 Austrian crown prince, 279 Babcock, W. N.s 248 Bad Lands, 149, 227, 237; sec Little Bad Lands Badger, 15 Balkan wars, 279 Bank charters, 138, 139, 143 Bank guarantee law, 249, 265 ; see Nebraska guarantee law Banking \7iw,ssee State Banking law ' Banks, 138 ; see State Banking law Baptist church, 178 Barnum, Guy C., 166 Bartley, State Treasurer, 243, 244, 250 Base line, 134, 135 Battle Creek campaign, 173, 175 Battle of Wounded Knee, 228, 230 Bear River, 68 Bears, 15 Beatrice land office, 194 Beaver, 15 Beet sugar* industry, 231 ; see Sugar beets Belgian industries, 278 Belgium, 274, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283; industries of, 278 Belle Fontaine, 39 Bellevue, 28, 30, 2,7, 38, 40, 46, 52, 111, 113, 115, 117, 121, 126, 131, 136, 137, 178, 179 Bellevue College, 137 Bennett, Hiram P, 138 Berge, George W., 250 Big Blue river; see Blue river, big Big Foot, 228 Big Horn river, 46 Big Nemaha river; see Nemaha river, big Bills, Colonel C. J., 246 Bismark, 77, 282 Bison, 15 Black, Governor Samuel W, 118, 152, 156, 160 Blackbird County, 128 Black Fox, 230 Black Hills, 161, 209 "Black Robe", 54; see DeSmet, Peter J. Blackfeet Indians, 40 Blair, 96 Blizzards, 110 Blue Ribbon clubs, 209 Blue river, Big, 58, 131 Blue river. Little, 47, 58 Bluff City, 115 Board of agriculture, sec State board of agriculture Board of Control, sec State board of control Board of health, see State board of health Board of transportation, 223 Boats, see bull boats, keel boats. INDEX 295 mackinaw boats, steam boats ''Bone-Dr}^" law, 261 Bonneville, Captain Benjamin Louis Eulalia, 47, 48, 58, 62, 171 Bonneville's Adventures, 48 Bordeaux, 172 Border, viewing of the, 35, 92 "Border Ruffians," 163 Bosinia, 279 Boundary line, 134 Bounty, on wild animals killed, 212 Boutwell amendment, 165 Bowen, General Leavitt L., 154, 176 Box Butte County, 5 Boyd contest, 234 Boyd, Governor James E., 213, 220, 226, 234, 238 Boys' industrial school, 212 Bradley, James, 111 Bratt, Colonel John P., 246 Brazil, 274 Brick, 9 Bridges, 129; first, 78; locations of, 147 British, 167 British colonial system, 283 British democracies, 284 British Empire, see Great Britain British navy, 283 British traders, 42, 167 Bronchos, 74 Brooke, John R., 166 Brown County, 11 Brown, Guy A., 204 Brown, Norris, 254 Brownville, 76, 126, 131, 152 Bruce, E. E., 248 Brule formation, 149, 161 Brule Sioux, 25, 171 Brussels, 277 Bryan, Charles, 260 Bryan, William Jennings, 225, 235, 238, 240, 244, 246, 248, 249, 260 Bryan-Thurston campaign, 242 Bryant, 59, 62 Buchanan, President, 144 Buffalo, see American buffalo "Buffalo Bill," see Cody, W. F. Buffalo "chips," 18 Buffalo County, 128 Buffalo grass, 98 Bulgaria, 274, 282 Bull Bear, 24 Bull boat, 49, 79 Bull Head, 228 Bureau of labor, census, and in- dustrial statistics, 223 Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, 95, 96, 191, 213, 222 Burt, Dr. Armistead, 116 Burt County, 120, 121 Burt, Governor Francis, 111, 114, 116 Buss, Rev. W. H., 268 Butler, Governor David, 160, 166, 186, 192, 197 Butterfield, John, 71 Byng, General Julian H. G., 285 Cady, Addison E., 253 Calhoun, The, 44 Calhoun, John, 134, 141 Calhoun, Stephen H., 217 California, 59; gold discovered in, 71 Calvary cemetery, 53 296 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Camp Dewey, 246 Camp Floyd, 74 Camp Missouri, 36, 42, 167 Campaigns, see Political cam- paigns Canada, 274, 284 Canvass of the vote, 226 Canyons, 5 Capital, 113, 125. 126, 142, 144, 146, 147, 152, 180, 186, 191, 200, 204; see Territorial capital. Capital commissioners, 186, 191, 192 Capitol building, 187, 210, 212, 223, 261 ; first, 123, 124, 141 Capitol Hill, 143 "Capitol square," 146 Cargoes, 79 Carpenter. D. W., 183 "Carpet-bag government," 110 "Carpet-baggers," 142 Carson City, 74 Carson, Kit, 49 Casper, 68 Cass County, 120, 126 Catholic church, 179 Catholic missionaries, 53 Cattle, 7, 97, 98, 215, 216 Cattle ranges, 97, 98, 215 Cattle towns, 97 Cattle Trail, 97, 98 Cattlemen, 97, 215 Cavalry, Troop A, 247; Troop K, 247 Cement, 7 Cement mill, 8 Census; first, in Nebraska, 120, 121 ; second, 129, 136 Central Pacific, 93 Central Overland California and Pike's Peak Express, 71, 74 Central powers, 280 Cession of Louisiana Purchase, 101 Chalk, 7 Chamberlain, 11 Chapman, Bird B., 138 Cherry County, 11 Cheyennes, 18, 20, 23, 176 Chicago, 92, 117 Chicago and Northwestern Rail- road, n, 96 Chicago, Rock Island and Pa- cific Railroad, 96 Chickamauga Park, 246 Chief Bear, 172 Chief Justice, territorial. 111 Chimney Rock, 58, 62, 63 China, 274 Chittenden, Captain, 77 Chouteau, 115 Chouteau, Pierre, 37, 38, 49, 51, 172 Christian church, 179 Churches, 177, 178, 179 Cities, government of, 258 City of Mexico, 30 Civil code, see Laws Civil war, 72, 92, 103, 105, 162, 163, 167, 176; Indian hostilities during, 174 Civilization, 167 Claimants, 132, 133 Claim cabin, first in Nebraska, 131 Claim clubs, 132 Claim jumper, 133 Claims, 132, 133 INDEX 297 Clark, Champ, 259 Clark, Captain W., 33, 34, 46 Clay, 9 Clay County, 128 Clemenceau, Premier Georges, 285 Cleveland, President Grover, 236 Climate, 97 ; see Temperature Coal, 90, 182 Code of laws, see Laws Code of procedure, 151 Cody, William F., 75 Colby, Brigadier General L. W., 231 Colonies, British, 284 Colonization, 40 Colorado, 101 Columbia river, 37, 56, 68; fur trade, 40, 48, 56 ; settlement, 40 Columbian exposition, 240 Columbus, 52 Comanches,] 176 Coming of the people, 109 Commerce, 88, 100, 166, 212 ; map of commercial position, 263; see River traffic Commission form of govern- ment, 258 Commissioner of immigration, 196 Commissioners of public lands, 150, 191, 192 Committee on elections, 138 Commonwealth, The, 187 Concord Stage-coach, 72; see Stage-coach "Conestoga Freighter," see Prairie Schooner Congregational church, 179 Congress, 81, 83, 85, 88, 92, 104, 105, 107, 165 Congress declares war on Ger- many, 282 Congressional act, 88, 90, 109, 133, 134, 252 Congressional campaign, 159 Congressional committee, 87 Congressional delegate, see Del- egates to Congress Congressional districts, 234 Congressional laws, see Congres- sional act Conkling, Judge Alfred, 156 Connor, Alexander H., 204 Constitution, 157, 163, 165, 198, 204, 205, 206 ; ratified, 205 ; see State constitution Constitutional amendments, 206, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262 Constitutional convention, 186, 204, 225, 226, 240, 264; pro- cedure of, 205 Constitutional delegates, 204 Convict labor, 212, 218, 260 Cooley, Thomas M., 103 Cooper, F. 1 Cordelle, 79 Corn, 182, 202 Corporations, 128, 207, 218; laws of, 128; see Laws Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 30, 182 Coronado's Expedition, 30 Corporation tax law, 256 Corrupt practices act, 249 Cortes, 46 Costa Rica, 274 Coulton, Lieutenant - Colonel George R., 246 298 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Council Bluffs, 44, 83, 85, 113, 115, 124, 167; explorers camp at, 36, 37; military post, 44, 167; trading post, 46 Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry Company, 123, 132 Council Grove, 55 Council Point, 115 Counties, 128, 134, 138, 141, 195, 212; first, 120; first eight or- ganized, 119; map of, 119; high schools in, 264; redis- tricted, 264; reduction in size of, 260 County commissioners, 152 County high schools, 264 County option, 257 Court House Rock, 60, 61, 207 Courts, 136 Cowboys, 97 "Cow Towns," 97 Coyotes, 9 Cozad, 90 Crawford, 96 Cream separators, 245 Creameries, 245 Criminal code, 128, 142, 143, 151; see Laws Crooks, Ramsey, 38, 58 Crops, 180, 182, 202, 207, 210, 239; failure of, 150 Crouse, Lorenzo, 166, 236, 238 "Crow Dog," 26 Crow Foot, 228 Crow Indians, 41 Crows, 24 Croxton, 194 Cuba, 274 Culver, Lieutenant Elvin S., 247 Culver, Captain Jacob H., 247 Cuming, Acting Governor Thomas B., Ill, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 144, 146, 148, 176 Cuming county, 128, 131 Curtisj General, 85 Custer, Colonel, 23 Custer massacre, 97, 228; see Massacres Danlan, James C, 257 Daily, Samuel G., 155, 156, 159 Daily mail, 73 Dakota City, 83, 152 Dakota City land office, 194 Dakota County, 128 Dakotas, 18, 24 Dawes, James W., 216, 217 Dawes County, 5 Dewesse, J. W., 222 Deadwood Stage Coach, 4 Declaration of war, 281 Deer, 15 Delegate to Congress, 110, 123, 137, 154, 157, 159, 178 Democracy, 275 Democratic convention, 148, 150, 189, 217, 220, 224, 235, 240, 254 Democratic delegate convention, 154, 166 Democratic party, 148, 159, 165, 192, 203, 204 Democratic principles, 283 Denmark, 274, 281 Denver, 73, 82 DeSmet, Peter J., S. J., 53, 54, 64, 66, 67, 179 Deuel Countv, 24 INDEX 299 Development, 96 Dietrich, Governor Charles H., 249 Diplomatic efforts to avoid war, 281 Direct primary law, 254, 255, 256 Discovery, 18, 45 Dismal river, 98 District attorney, territorial, 110, 111 District school board, 130 "Divine right of kings," 282 Dodge, Major-General Grenville M, 88, 89 Dodge County, 120, 121 Dodge City, 97 Domestic science, 264 Doniphan, Colonel, IZ Douglas, 142 Douglas, Stephen A., 152 Douglas County, 120, 121. 124, 142 Downs, Hiram P., 176 Draga, Queen of the Serbians, 279 Dred Scott Case, 103 Droughts, 110, 180, 202, 234, 238, 239, 244 Drum, Colonel, 228 , Dry farming, 253 Dubuque, 85 "Dug Out," 2, 180 Dugan, Major Harry F., 247 Dunbar, Rev. John, 179 Dunby County, 49 Durant, Thomas C, 87, 88 Dwell in Sight, 241 Eager, Lt. Col. Frank D., 246 Early locations, \\\ Early Navigation on the Mis- souri River, 77 Early settlers, 18, 28, 104, 132. 150, 153, 156, 160, 170, 173, 196, 207, 216, 239; -.y^^ Settlements Early towns, 113 Economic conditions, 259 Education, compulsory law, 223 ; see School system Eight o'clock closing law, 256 Elections, state, 159, 166, 206, 248, 250, 262; territorial. 111, 123, 137, 155 Election laws, 256; see Direct primary law Elective railway commission ; see Railway commission Elk, 15 Elkhorn, 52 Elkhorn river, 52, 116, 140, 156 Elkhorn valley, 173, 215 Emancipation Proclamation, 107 Emigrant trains, 173 Emigrants, 59, 60, 62, 173 Employees' compensation act, 254, 265 Enabling act, 163 Enfield rifles, 175 England; see Great Britain Episcopalian church, 179 Estabrook, Experience, 111, 154, 156 Estes Park, 42 Europe, 88; war in, 261, 262 Evening World, The, 184 Expedition, The, 44 Expedition against the Arikaras, 168; against the Indians, 157, 168, 169 Experiment stations, 223, 250 300 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Explorations, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 48. 49, 50 Explorers, 15, 30, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 136 Express companies, law govern- ing, 256 Farmers, 215, 218, 253 Farm home, modern, 3 Farmer's alliance, 203, 214, 224 Farmer's organizations, 203, 224 Farmers' Union, 250 Farming, 202; see Agriculture Farms, 136; first, 132 Federal census, 207 Federal constitution, 255 Federal government ; sec Gov- ernment, Federal Feeble minded; see Nebraska institute for Ferguson, Chief Justice Fenner, 111, 117, 136 Ferries ; see Ferry boats Ferry boats, 52, 115, 116, 123, 129, 140, 152 Fertilizer, 5 Fetterman, Colonel, 23 Ficklin, B. F., 73 Finances; see State finances Financial conditions, 259; see Financial panic. Panic Financial panic of 1893, 238 Fire chief, 247 First Nebraska regiment, 246 "Flanders Fields," a poem, 286 "Flat Water," 103 Flora, 109; see Flowers Florence, 69, 70, 146 Flowers, 14 Floyd, Sergeant, 36 Floyd river, 36 Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, 285 Fontenelle, 128, 173 Fontenelle, Logan, 24, 28, 29 Fontenelle, Lucien, 28 Food, 18, 180 ; see Pure food law Food commission, 249 Foothills, 14 Foreign immigration, 209 Foreigners; see Immigration Forney County, 120, 128 Fort Atkinson, 36, 42, 167, 168, 169 Fort Benton, 77, 97 Fort Bridger, 71, 74 Fort Calhoun, 36, 111, 116; see Fort Lisa Fort Henry, 40 Fort Kearny, 4, 24, 51, 71, 74, 76, 82, 83, 106, 109, 111, 112, 115, 171, 188 Fort Kearny Herald, The, 185 Fort Laramie, 28, 67, 71, 74, 109, 110, 171 Fort Leavenworth, 42, 50 Fort Lisa, 46, 111, 169 Fort McPherson, 174 Fort Mandan, 46 Fort Recovery, 169 Fort Ridgely, 84 Fort Tecumseh, 77 Fort Union, 77 Fort Vancouver, 58 Fort Yates, 228 Fort Yuma, 71 Fortieth parallel, 134 Fox Indians, 105 Foxes, 15 France, 100, 272, 275, 276, 277, 279, 280, 28:i INDEX 301 Franklin, 56 Franklin Intelligencer, 44 Free coinage of silver, 236, 240 Free homestead law ; see Home- stead law Free instituitons, 283 "Free Silver" ; see Free coinage of silver Freeman, Daniel, 160 Freight rate law, 256 Freighters, 71 Fremont, 26, 30 Fremont, General, 85 Fremont, Lieutenant J. C, 49, 50, 58, 109 Fremont's Expedition, 48, 50 French government, 101 French industries, 277 French people, 275, 276 French Republic, Third, 283 French traders, 37 Friends of art association, 292 Frontier settlements, 176; see Settlements Frost, 11 Furnas, Colonel Robert W., 152, 182, 184, 192, 200, 201, 222 Fur trade; see Fur traders Fur traders, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 47, 52, 54, 56, 79, 109, 111, 167 "Fusion" ticket, 200 Fusionist, 248, 250 Gage, Rev. W. D., 124 Gage County, 128, 160 Galicia, 30 Game, 109; see Animal life Garber, Governor Silas, 203, 204, 210 Gardner, James G., 203 Gautemala, 274 Genoa, 26 Geology, 3 George, Premier Lloyd, 285 German confederacy, 282 German empire, 283 German military power, 279 Germany, 273, 279, 280, 281 Ghent, 277 Ghost dance; see Indian Ghost dance Ghost shirts, 230 Giddings, Napoleon B., 123 Gillespie, John, 166, 191, 198 Girls' industrial school, 234 Gold, 180 Goldenrod; see State flower Good Templar societies, 209 Goodrich, St. John, 166 Government, Federal, 88, 97 Government agency, 115 Government experiment stations, 250 Government land; see Public lands Government of Nebraska, 103, 104, 108, 110, 111, 165 Government schools, 177 Governor, first, 166 Governors, state, 186, 192, 200, 204, 210, 218, 223, 234, 238, 242, 249, 250, 255, 258, 261 ; territor- ial, 110, 111, 116, 117 Governor's messages, 125, 141, 146, 156, 163, 210, 234, 239; proclamations, 163, 165, 222 Grand Island, 48, 58, 96, 131, 231 Grand Pawnee, 23 Grand river, 40, 228 Grange, 203 302 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Grasshopper bonds, 210 Grasshoppers, 180, 202, 206; plague of, 207, 208 Grattan, Lieutenant John L., 171 Grattan massacre, 171, 173 Grazing, 12 Great American Desert, 1, 2, 9, 182 Great Bend, 30 Great Britain, 88, 100, 272, 279, 280, 283, 284 Great Falls of the Missouri river, 83 Great Medicine Road of the Whites, 68 Great Plains, 97 Great Plains, 2, 3, 14, 41, 54, 77, 97, 190, 195; travel across, 59, 169 Great Salt Lake, 70 "Great Seal," of Nebraska, 144 Great Spirit, 227 Great West, 64 Greece, 274 Green, William L., 240 Greene County, 128 Ground squirrel, 17 ' Gulf coast country, 97 Gwin, Senator W. M., 73 Haig Marshai, Douglas, 285 Haiti, 274 Half-breeds, 109 "Hand Cart Expedition," 69 Hanscom, A. J, 92, 124 Han scorn Park, 92 Harden, E. R., Ill Harney, General William S., 173, 207 Harrison, William Henry, 104 Haskell, John D., 268 Haskell Ode contest, 268 Hat Creek basin, 161 Hatch law, 223 ; see Experiment stations Havana, 246 Hay, 9 Hayward, Monroe L., 217, 248 Hebron, 58 Hendricks, Thomas A., 150 Herd, 98 High Plains, 3, 5 High school, free tuition law, 264 Highways, 83, 85, 134 ; see Roads History of the American Fur Trade, 66 History of Custer County, The, 215 History of Gage County, Ne- braska, 160 History of the Union Pacific Railzvay, 95 Hitchcock, Gilbert M, 143, 184, 248, 254, 260 Hitchcock, Phineas W., 196 Hoel, A. R, 196 Holcomb, Governor Silas A., 240, 241, 242, 244 Holladay, Benjamin, 73 Holland, 274, 282 Homes, 180 Homestead law, 132, 133, 155, 160, 215 Hondurus, 274 Hotchkiss guns, 230 House of representatives; see State house of representatives, territorial house of representa- tives Homesteader, 252 INDEX 303 Homesteads, 194, 252 Houses, 194; see "Dug-out," "Soddy" Howell, R. B, 259 Huffaker, T. S., 55 Hunt, Wilson, 40, 56 Hunting grounds; see Indian Hunting grounds Huntsman's Echo, The, 20, 185 Hymn to Nebraska, 269 Immigration, 163, 195, 196, 209; see Commissioner of immigra- tion, foreign Immigrants, 137, 163, 195, 215 Impeachment, 210; of Governor Butler, 197; of Auditor Gil- lespie, 198 Improvements, 210 Inaugural addresses, 200; see Governor's messages Income tax law, 255 Independence, 44, 56, 58, 68, 71 Independence Cut Off, 48, 58 Independence Rock, 68 Independence party, 204, 224; see People's Independent party Indian; agencies, 113, 115, 169, 173, 257; agents, 167, 169 architecture, 22 ; chieftians, 24 councils, 36, 37, 67; country 50, 68, 79, 83,93, 104, 109, 129: depredations, 156, 167, 171 173 ; ghost dance, 226, 227, 228 homes, 20, 21, 22, 228; hostili- ties during the Civil War, 175 ; hunting grounds, 23, 24, 104, 169 ; lands, ceded to the United States, 23, 104, 105, 134; lan- guages, 18; massacres, see Massacres; Missionaries, 177, 179; question, 167, 227; reser- vations, 23, 24, 105, 138, 202; rights in Nebraska, 104, 209; schools, 257 ; scouts, 230 ; trad- ing, 79; trails, 55; travel, 20, 55; treaties, 24, 54, 167, 169, 170, 177, 209; tribes and their distribution, 18, 19, 24 ; map of tribes, 19; troubles, 163, 168, 202, 209, 226; warfare, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 36, 93, 97, 125, 169; weapons, 23 Indiana, 104 Indians, 18; expedition against, 157 Indian Territory, 23, 103, 104 Industrial conditions, 194, 238, 259 Inhabitants; of Louisiana Pur- chase, 101, 137; of Nebraska territory, 120 Industrial school; see Boys' in- dustrial school, Girls' indus- trial school Initiative and referendum, 206, 245, 258 Insane (Asylum) Hospital, 192, 196, 198, 221, 223; board of control of, 258 Insurance; see State hail insur- ance Interest rates ; see Property ex- emption International Exhibition, 247 Intertribal warfare, 169 "Invisible government," 252, 254, 255 Iowa, 101, 107 Ireland, 283 304 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Iron, 90 Irrigation, 11, 240, 253 Irving, Washington, 1, 47, 109 Island possessions, 281 Is-sal-rai-kar-ik-u; see Dwell in Sight Italy, 274 Itan, 23 Izard, Mark W., Ill, 117, 125, 126, 141, 143, 144 'Izard County, 128 Jackson County, 128 James, William H., 198 Japan, 274 Jaramillo, 30 "Jayhawkers," 163 Jefferson, President, 33, 37, 100 Jefferson County, 58 Joan of Arc, 276 Joffre, General Joseph Jacques, 285 Johnson, The, 44 Johnson, Hadley D., 178 Johnson, James, 44 Johnson, J. E., 182, 185 Johnson, President, 165, 166 Johnson County, 128 Jones, Alfred D., 113 Journal of Lewis and Clark, The, 33 Judges, 210; territorial, 110, 111, 123 Judicial districts, 123, 136 Jumper; see Claim jumper Justices of the peace, 157 Kansas, 101, 103, 107, 153, 162 Kansas Conflict, 107 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 103, 104, 107, 109 Kansas river, 44, 49, 56, 58, 153 Kaw river ; see Kansas river Kearne}^, 51, 73 Kearny, Colonel Stephen W., 50 Kearny's Expedition, 50 Keel boats, 44, 77, 79, 169 King Albert, 278 Kinkaid, Moses, 252 Kinkaid homesteads, 252 Kern, Omer M., 238 Kennard, T. P, 166 Kennedy, B. E. B, 92, 166 Kicking Bear, 227, 228 Kilian, Major Julius N., 246 Kinney, Lieutenant William S., 247 Kinsley, 30 Kiowas, 176 Kirkendall, F. P., 248 Knights of Labor, 224 Knox County, 24, 105 Kountze, Augustus, 166 LaBarge, Captain Joseph, 81 Lafayette, General, 47, 276 Lake, George B., 166 Lake Michigan, 87 Lakes, 9, 11, 12, 15; protection of, 258 Lancaster County, 128, 187 Land, 132; price of, 253; see Public lands Land commissioner ; sec Com- missioner of public lands Land grants, 189, 220; office, 153, 194 Larned, 30 Latter Day Saints ; see Mormons INDEX 305 Last of the Great Scouts, 75 Latta, John A., 81 Laws of Nebraska, 124, 126, 128, 129, 133, 138, 151 Lead, 180 Leavenworth, 71, 81 Leavenworth, General Henry, 85, 168, 169 Leavenworth and Pike's Peak Express, 71 Legislative apportionment, 122; districts, 121; sessions, 160; 162; territorial, 124 Legislature, state, 160, 165, 167, 186, 189, 200, 209, 210, 212, 220, 223, 234, 239, 244, 248, 249, 252, 255, 256, 258, 260, 261; first session in Lincoln, 189; special session, 151; see Territorial legislature Lero}', 58 Leshara, 28 Lett, Henry C, 200 Lewis, Meriweather, 3Z, 34, 46 Lewis and Clark Expedition, 33, 37; monument, 36 Liberia, 274 Liege, 277 Lime, 5 Limestone, 5 Lincoln, 96, 180, 186, 187, 188, 200, 210, 266 ; celebration, 266 ; land office, 194 Lincoln, President Abraham, 74, 90, 91, 93, 150; Emancipation Proclamation by, 107 ; inaugu- ral address, 74 Lindsey, Z. T., 248 Liquor, 79, 104, 129, 151, 207, 209, 212, 256, 259, '262; interests, 256, 257; license law, 151 Lisa, Manuel de, 28, 45, 46, 47, 136; expedition of, 46 Lisa, Mrs. Mary, 46 Little, William, 166 Little Bad Lands, 161 ; see Bad Lands Little Blue river, 47, 58 Little Nemaha river, exploration of, 35 Live-stock industry, 233, 245, Lobbyists, 244; see Anti-Lobby- ing law Loess, 3, 5 Long, Major Stephen H., 41, 42 Long's Expedition. 41, 42 Long's Peak, 42 Lost Little Bird, 231; see Zint- kala Nuni Louisiana. 100, 101, 107 ; territory of, 39, 100, 104, 105, 109; gov- ernment of upper country, 103 Louisiana Purchase, ZZ, 101 ; government of, 103 ; map of, 102; states formed from, 107 Louisville, 117 Loup County, 128 Loup river, 11, 20, 32, 52, 98, 116 Louvain, 277, Lowe, Jesse, 146 Lumber, 180, 194 Lusitania, 280 Lutheran church, 179 L3'nxes, 15 McClaY, LlEUTENANT-COLONEl, John H., 247 McCook, 11 McCrea, Lieutenant-Colonel John D., 285 McKeighan, William A., 258 McKelvie, Governor S. R., 264 306 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA McKinley, President William, 249 McLellan, Robert, 38 McLennan, William, 189 McNeale County, 128 Mackinaw Boats, 79, 81, Mail, 71, n, 73, 74; contract, 71, 74; daily, 72; through to the Pacific, 71 Majors, 71, IZ Majors, Thomas J., 242 Mallett, Paul, 30, .32 Mallett, Pierre, 30, 32 "Man Chief," 24, 26, 27 Mandan Indians, 37 Manilla, 246 Mansfield, 96 Mapes, Major William S., 246 Margry Papers, 30 Marpiya Lutta; see Red Cloud Marquette, T. M., 166 . Marshal, United States, terri- torial, 110, 111 Marshall's trading point, 131 Mason, Oliver P., 166 Massacres, 23, 24, 97, 104, 171, Matlock, G. C, 169 Maximum freight rate law; see Freight rate law Maygares, Lieutenant, 39 Megath, S. A., 92 Memorial day, 222 Memorial to Congress, 125 Merchant's lien law, 151 Merrill, Rev, Moses, 177, 178 Methodist church, 179 Mexican War, 70, IZ Mexico, 30, 274 Mickey, Governor John H., 250 Mileage books, 256 Military expedition, 167 Military organization, first, 176; sec Militia Military posts, 36, 42, 79, 167, 169, 170, 171; ^^e Forts Military road, 83, 84, 85 Militia, 173, 231, 246, 247 Millard, J. H, 249 Miller George L., 145, 183 Minnesota territory, 84, 101 ; ad- mitted, 107 Mission House, 115, 137 Missionaries, 53, 55, 62, 167, 177 Mississippi river, ZZ, 100 Mississippi valley, 12, 18, 81, 100 Missouri, IZ, 101, 104, 107 Missouri agency, 169, 173 Missouri Compromise, 103, 107 Missouri and Western Telegraph Company, 75 Missouri Fur Company, 46 Missouri Indians; see Missouris Missouri Pacific Railroad, 96 Missouri river basin, 31 ; map of, 31 Missouri river, 9, Z7>, 51, 53, 55, 56, 67, 68, 70, 82, 83, 92, 93, 120, 167; exploration of, 33-40; first bridge across, 78; head of navigation, 11', navigation of, 11 ; traft'ic on, 11, 81 ; see Mis- souri river country Missouri river country, 33, 51, 55, 68, 70, 11, n, 95, 131 ; ex- ploration of, ZZ, 35, Zl, 39, 40, 46; trade in, 46, 52, 79, 167; settlement of, 109, 195 Missouri river valley; Indian question of, 167, 173 Missouri River Fur Company, 28 Missouris, 18, 20, 23, 36 INDEX 3o; Monarchies, 275 Monoplies, 220 ; see Anti-monop- oly Montenegro, 274 Morehead, Governor John H., 258, 259 Mormons, 68, 70, 71, 111 Mormon Trail, 68, 70 Morton, Acting Governor J. Sterling, 118, 136, 143, 148, 157, 159, 166, 183, 218, 220, 221, 238 Morton-Daily contest, 159 Morton Park, 219 Mountain sheep, 15 Mulford, Major Harry B., 246 Muskrat, 15 Nance Governor Albinus, 210, 218 Napoleon (Bonaparte), Emperor, 100, 101, 276 Nashville, 117 National cemetery, 174 National Guard; see Militia National road, 66 Nations engaged in the World War, 273, 274 Native animals, 25 Natural conditions, 1 Navajos, 176 Navigation, 77, 79, 81, 100; see Mississippi river, Missouri river, Platte river Nebraska, 101, 163, 165, 166, see Western Nebraska in 1876 ; ad- mitted, 108; in the Spanish- American war, 246; in the World War, 272; progress in, 264; settlement of, 77; slavery abolished in, 107 Nebraska bank guarantee law 249, 256 Nebraska City, 35, 51, 71, 7Z, 82, 111, 117, 123, 131, 152, 171; slavery in, 107 Nebraska City News, 82, 142, 183 Nebraska day, 268 Nebraska Farmer, The, 183 Nebraska Indians, 18, 105 Nebraska Institute for the Feeble Minded, 221 Nebraska Medical Society, 128 "Nebraska," or Shallow river, 60, 103 ; see Platte river Nebraska Poncas, 105; see Pon- cas Nebraska Republican, The, 184 Nebraska territory, 18, 53, 79, 83, 84, 103, 104 ; admitted, 163, 165 166; established, 109; first capi- tal, 103, 113; government of, 103, 104 108, 110, 111, 120; in 1854, map of, 80; in the Civil War, 176, 177; legislative dis- tricts, 121 ; military post in, 171 ; organized, 104 ; popula- tion, 109 ; school system, 130 ; supreme court. 111; territor- ial assembly. 111; territorial officers, 110, 111; the first Thanksgiving, 122 Nebraska University; see Uni- versity of Nebraska, Negro suffrage, 165 Nemaha County, 128 Nemaha river, Big, 20; explora- tion of, 35 Nemaha river, Little, 35 Neutral nations in the World War, 274 308 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Neville, Governor Keith, 260, 261, 262 New Mexico, 55 New Orleans, 30, 100, 101 Newspaper, 113, 142, 182; list of, 185 Nicaragua, 274 Ni-co-mi, 53 Niobrara river, 7, 9, 14, 24, 98, 105 ; exploration of, 30, 32 Nixon, Colonel, 153 Nodaway river, 40 Normal board, 212 Normal training, 264 Norris, George W., 259, 264 North Dakota, 11, 101 North Loup river, falls of, 235 North Platte district, 138, 146, 147, 176, 194 North Platte river, 11, 20, 75 96; explorers on, 41 North Sea, 281 Northern Pacific railroad, 11 Norton, Daniel, 131 Norway, 274 O'Fallon Benjamin, 167, 169 Ogallala, 97 Ogallalla Sioux, 24 Ogden, 90 Oil inspector, 223 Oklahoma, 23, 105 Old Santa Fe Trail, 56 "Old Trails Route," 193 Olsen, Lt.-Col. Emil, 246 Omaha, 36, 68, 72>, 78, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92, 96, 111, 113, 115. 121, 124, 126, 146, 148, 152, 266 OmaJm Bee, The, 184, 214, 242 Omaha creek, 36 Omaha Daily Herald, The, 143, 183 Omaha Indian agency, 251 Omaha Indians; see Omahas Omaha Ncbraskan, The, 142, 185 Omaha reserve, 83 Omaha World-Herald, The, 143, 184 Omahas, 18, 20, 23, 24, 28, 53, 105, 134, 167, 171, 173, 179, 229 One hudredth meridian, 90, 93, 96 Orchards, 181, 182 Oregon, 59 Oregon route; see Oregon Trail Oregon trail, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56, 58, 60, 66, 68, 70, 71, 7Z, 74, 113, 171; map of, 57; see Stuart Trail Orlando, Premier Vittorie Eman- uele, 285 Osage river, exploration of, 39 Osage village, 39 Otoe County, 128 Otoes, 18, 20,* 23, 36, 103, 171, 178, 179 Otter, 15 "Overland Mail," 71, 106, 193 Overland route, 40 Overland Trail, 4 Pacific coast, 71, 87, 92, 125 Pacific Fur Company, 39 Palladium, TheTwi, 136, 182 Panama, 274 Panama Canal, 281 Panic of 1857, 139; of 1873, 202; of 1893, 238 Panthers, 15 Paper money, 139 Papillion creek, 40 INDEX 309 Parker, Joel, 64 Parker, Samuel, 62 Parkman Francis, 59 Parrish, Randall, 97 Passenger rates, 222, 223, 236, 244, 245, 249, 255 Passes, railroad, 22, 244, 245, 249, 255 Pathfinder dam, 253 Pattison, James W., 154 Pawnee Confederacy, 23 Pawnee County, 128 Pawnee trail, 41 Pawnee village, 13, 39, 211 Pawnees, 18, 20, 24, 26, 36, 39, 156, 173, 179, 182, 209 Pendleton, 117 Penitentiary; see State Peniten- tiary Pensions, of old soldiers, 240; for Spanish American War veterans, 249 People's independent convention, 224 Peoples' Independent party, 238, 240 ; see Independent party ; see Populists Peoples' Independent Party con- vention, 224, 240 People's territorial ticket, 155 Pershing, General John J., 285 Persia, 274 Peter Karageorgevitch, King of the Serbians, 279 Pharmacy, Nebraska state board of, 223 Phillipine Islands, 246 Phonograph, 210 Physical valuation of railroads, law, 256 Pierce, President Franklin, 111, 122 Pierce County, 120, 128 Pierre, 77 Pierre formation, 161 Pike, Lieutenant Zebulon M., 39 Pike's Peak, 39, 180 Pike's Peak Express, 71, 74 Pilcher, Major, 169 Pine Ridge, 5, 161; agency of, 209, 226, 227 Pioneers, 3, 9, 51, 85, 176; see Early settlers Pit-a-le-shar-u, see Man Chief Piute Indians, 227 Placerville, California, 72, 73, 74 Plains, see Great Plains Plains tribes, 18, 20, 22 Plant life, 12, 14, 18 Plaster, 7 Platte river, 2, 9, 12, 53, 58, 70, 79, 81, 82, 83, 90, 96, 98, 103, 115, 121, 128; explorers on, 32, 35, 40, 41, 47, 49, 50; Indians of, 23 , 171, 175; irrigation along, 253; Islands of, 13; named, 32; see Nebraska river Platte valley, 81, 85, 92, 96, 98, 153, 156, 171, 231 Platte Valley route, 92 Plattsmouth, 81, 126, 150, 154, 206 Plumbe, John, 85 Pocket gopher, 17 Poland, 281 PoHtical: awakening, 252; cam- paigns, 189, 200, 218, 219, 225, 242, 244, 256, 257, 259; con- ditions, see Political situation ; conventions, 253; first, 148; 310 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA state, 166, 203, 224; see Demo- cratic, Peoples' Independent Party, Republican conventions ; delegates, 150 ; organization, 142, 148; parties, 148, 214, 220; platforms, 155, 217, 220, 223, 224, 225, 236, 238, 240, 244, 254, 260; situation, 223, 258, 259, 261 ; in 1879, 217 ; reforms, see Reforms; struggle, 254; trend of 1886, 223; unrest, 218 Politics of 1910, 257 Ponca creek, 23 Poncas, 18, 20, 23, 105, 171, 209; see Nebraska Poncas Pony Express, 7Z, 74, 75, 106 Poppleton, A. J., 92 Popular sovereignty, 144, 155 Population, 120, 137, 196, 207 ; of Louisiana Purchase, 101 ; of Nebraska territory, 109; per- centage enlisted during Civil War, 162 Population of the Allied nations, 274 Populist party, 214, 224, 225 ; see Peoples' Independent party Port Nehf river, 56 Portugal, 274 Post office, 76 Postal telegraph, 236 Potash, 5 Potash lakes, 5 Potatoes, 5 Powers, J. H., 224, 226 Poynter, Governor William A., 248, 249 Prairie, The, 2, 15 Prairie: dog, 17; fires, 7, 180, 202 Prairies, 3, 5, 67, 93, 109, 110, 116, 180, 194, 215 "Prairie Schooner," 127 Pre-emption law, 162, 215 Pre-emptions, 194 Presbyterian church, 179 Presbyterian Mission, 111 "Press," see Newspapers Primaries, 259 Primary election law, 150; amended, 249; see Direct Pri- mary law Principal meridian, 134, 135 Proclamations, 123, 165. 176 Products, 179, 180, 182; see Na- ture's products. Territorial products Progress in Nebraska, 264 Progressive measures, 259 Prohibition, 129, 201, 217, 257, 260; amendment, 225, 260, 261, 262 ; convention, 203 ; party, 202 Promontory, 93 Property exemption and interest rates, 130 Protection against the Indians, 176 Prussia, 282 Prussian autocracy, 277, Pryor, Ensign Nathaniel, Z7 PiAlic institutions, 125, 187, 191, 192; see University of Ne- braska Public lands, 126, 133, 150, 152, 189, 191, 215; sales, 132, 150, 151, 152, 197 Public roads ; see Roads Puget Sound, 84 Pure food law, 255 Putty, 7 INDEX 311 QUIVERA 30 Railroads; 68, 11, 82, 85, 86, 90, 92, 93, 95-97, 128, 195, 215; acts regulating, 212, 234, 239, 253; charges, 222, 236; emp- ployees liability law, 255 ; fares, 223', 236, 244, 254, 256; freight rates, 236, 256; lands, 87, 88, 95, 189, 190; mileage books, 256; passes, 222, 223, 224, 245, 249, 255 ; physical valuation law, 256; subsidies to, IZ, 88, 189; taxation, 254, 256 Railway commission, 90, 220, 223, 236, 253, 254, Railway strike of 1882, 213 Rainfall, 9 Ranches, 9, 215 ; development of, 98 Ranges, 97; see Cattle ranges Range line, 135 Rawhide, 79 Rebates, 212, 221 Red Buttes, 75 "Red Cloud," 24, 25; agency of, 209 Red Cross, 272, 284 Reed, A. L., 248 Reeves, Mills S., 154 ' Reforms, political, 252, 256, 257 Regulators, 133 Representative government, 183, 284 Republican convention, 148, 155, 166, 189, 192, 217, 219, 223, 236, 242, 252, 254; party, 150, 153, 159, 165, 200, 203, 204 Republican Pawnee, 23 Republican primaries, 259 Republican river, 7, 9, 12, 39, 49, 90, 98; irrigation along, 253 Republican valley, 215; irrigation in, 253 Reveoue law, 151 Rhine river, 283 Richardson, Origen D., 124 Richardson, Governor W. A., 118, 144, 147, 151, 152 Richardson County, 120, 124 Riots, 213 River navigation, see Navigation River traffic, 79, 81 ; see Naviga- tion, Transportation. River transportation, 11 Rivers, 6; map of, 9; protection of, 258 Road building, federal aid of, 260 Road commissioners, 131 Roads, ^6, 83, 84, 128, 130, 134; see Oregon Trail, Railroads, Routes of travel, Territorial roads, Transportation. Robertson, Lieutenant, 157 Robertson, William L. 217 Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 168 Rocky Mountains, Zl , 42, 59, 71, 84, 88, 93; gold discovered in, 180; region, 12, 14, 49 Rocky Ridge, 75 Rodents, 15 Roosevelt, President Theodore, 259, 266 Rosebud reservation, 227 Rosewater, Edward, 184, 248, 250, 254 Rosewater, Victor, 184 Roumania, 274, 282 Round-up, 98 312 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Routes of travel, 1, 33, 39, 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 55-6, 58, 59, 70, 71. 75, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 90. 92, 131 ; see Astoria Expedition, Lewis and Clark Expedition, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail Riilo, 96 Running water river, 83 Russell, W. H. 71, 73, 74 Russia, 274, 279, 280 Rilsso- Turkish war, 278 St. Joseph, 72, 73, 74, 117 St. Joseph Trail, 59 St. Louis, 37, 46, 56, 59, 71, 79, 81, 104, 117 St. Mary, 113, 115 Sacramento, 71, 73, 74 Salaries, of legislators, 258 Saline County, 128 Saloon, 212 Salt, 128, 180 Salt creek valley, 187 Salt Lake City, 71, 73, 74, 76 San Francisco, 71, 73, 74 San Marino, 274 Sand dunes, 7 Sand Hills, 1,3,5,7,9, 11,20,215 Santa Fe, 30, 32, 39, 56 Santa Fe Railroad; see Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad Santa Fe Trail, 42, 55, 58, 90 Santee Agency Government In- dian school, 257 Santee Sioux ; see Sante^s Santees, 24, 105 Sarpy County, 53 Sarpy, Peter A., 51, 52, 81, 115, 137 Sauk (Sac) Indians, 105 Saunders Governoi^ Alvin, 92, 118, 160, 163, 165, 196 Saunders County, 23, 27 Saunsoci, Louis, 28 Savage, Governor, 250 Savings banks, 236; see State banking law Saw-mills, 180 Scandals in the state govern- ment, 191 Scharmann, Major Conrad F., 247 Schlegel Rapids and Falls, 243 School: funds, 242; growth, 207; lands, 239; tax, 260; report, 142 ; semi-centennial celebra- tion, 267; system, 130, 141; agricultural education, 264 ; compulsory educational law, 223; free high school tuition law, 264; laws regarding, 260; normal training, 264; voca- tional training; 261 Scientific American, 82 Scientific expedition, 41, 42 Scotland, 283 Scott, John Prindle, 268 Scottsbluff, 11, 58, 62, 65, 231 Scottsbluff County, 64, 79; ex- plorers in. 41 ; irrigation in, 253 Scout's Rest Ranch, 75 Second Nebraska Infantry; see Second Nebraska regiment Second Nebraska regiment, 246 Secretary, territorial, 110, 111 Section lines, 131 Sections of land, 134 Seed, law governing sale of, 258 Self-governing states, 284 INDEX 313 Self-government, 157 Semi-Centennial celebration, 266, 267, 268 Seminole War, 48 Senate; see State senate Senatorial districts, 204 Senators; see United States senators Sentegaleska ; see Spotted Tail Serbia, 278, 279, 281, 282 Sermon, first preached in Ne- braska, 178 Settlements, 45, 84, 109, 111, 115, 120, 128, 132, 190, 195, 208, 209; western, 215 ; see Early settlers Settlers, see Early settlers Seward, Secretary, 93 Shahaka, Z7 Shallenberger, Governor Ashton C, 254, 256, 257 Sharp, Joseph L., 124 Sheldon, Governor George L., 254, 255, 256 Sheridan County, 5 Sherman, General William T., 176 Short Bull, 227 Shoshones, 24 Siam, 274 Sibley, General, 175- Sierra Nevada mountains, 88 Silver; see Free coinage of Siouan, 18 Sioux, 18, 24, 28 Sioux City, 36, 81 Sioux Indians, 169, 171, 173*; see Santee Sioux ; nation, 25 ; out- break, 226; uprising, 175; the great war, 172 Si-ri-lai-shar-roon-u, 216 Sites, George L., 83 Sitting Bull, 227, 228 Slavery, 105, 107, 137, 153, 157; in Nebraska, 107, 120 Slocumb law, 212, 256 Smuggling, 79 Snake Indians, 41 Snake river, 40, 56; falls of, 10 Snow, 9, 216 Social unrest, 259 Sod house, 7, 205, 215 "Soddy"; see Sod house Soil, 3, 5, Soldiers' and Sailors' home, 249 Solomon river, 20 South Africa, 284 South Carolina, 117 South Dakota, 101 South Pass, 41, 49, 84 South Platte: district, 128, 146, 147, 176, 194; people, 121, 129; country, 12, 96, 121, 129, 146, 147, 153, 159; river, 58 Southern states, 162 Spain, 100, 274 Spanish-American war, 246 Spanish expedition, 39 Spanish explorers, 30 39, Specie, payments of, 217 "Spotted Tail," 24, 25, 26; agency, 209 Squatters, 132 Stage-coach, 71, 72, 74, 111, 117; daily, 72 Stage Routes, 82 State banking law, 143, 236, 249, 256 State board of agriculture, 197, 222; territorial board of agri- culture, 152 314 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA State board of control, 258, 265 State board of health, 234 State commission, 210 State constitution, 157, 163, 165, 198, 204, 205, 206; amendment of, 258; sec Constitutional amendments, , Constitutional convention State elections ; see Elections State fair, 249 State finances, 195, 242 State flower, 244 State funds, 242 State government, 186; scandals in, 191 State hail insurance, 260 State Historical Society, 266, 292 State house of representatives, 206 State Insane Asylum, see Insane Asylum State institutions, 187, 196, 198, 221; board of control of, 258; commissioners of, 206, 207 ; see University of Nebraska State legislature; see Legislature State name, 244; see Tree Plant- ers State State Normal Board; see Nor- mal board State officers, election of, 166 State oil inspector ; see Oil in- spector State penitentiary, 187, 196, 212; board of control of, 258 State senate, 206 State song, 268 State University; see University of Nebraska Statehood, 163 States admitted, formed from Louisiana Purchase, 107; ad- mitted before Nebraska, 107 Steamboat, first on Missouri river, 42, 77, 81, 82; early type, 43; "Independence," 44; traf- fic, 77 Steamboat captains, 81 Steam wagon, 82 Steppes of Siberia, 56 Stock-yards, 245 Stotsenburg, Major John M, 246 Stout, W. H. B., 212 Streams, 9 Strickland, Silas A., 136, 154 Stuart, Robert. 40, 41, 47, 58 Stuart trail, 47 ; see Oregon Trail Sturges, Charles W., 166 Sublette, Milton, 47 Submarine, 280 Subsidies to railroads, 73, 88, 189 Suffrage, 165, 264; limited, 260 Sugar beets, 180; see Beet sugar industry Sunflowers, 70 Sully, General, 175 Superintendent, County, 130, 260; State, 130, 260; of public instruction, 130, 207 Superior, 7 Supreme court, 210; territorial, 111, 136 Surveyor-general, 134 Surveys, 131, 132, 133, 134, 141, 150; map of, 135 Sutton, A. L., 260, 262 Sweden, 274 Sweetwater river, 75 Switzerland, 274 Sydenham, Moses, 76, 185 INDEX 315 Taft President William H., 258 Tapage Pawnee, 23 Taxes, 140, 157, 158, 223, 258 Taylor, Edward B., 189 Taylor, Major Wallace C, 246 Telegraph, 74, 75, 128 Telephone, 210, 217 Temperance movement, 209 Temperature, 11 Ten years' struggle, 254 Tepees; see Indian homes Terminal railway taxation law, 256 Territorial : board of agri- culture, 152; capital, 113, 123, 124; council, 123, 124; elec- tions, see Elections ; fair, 182 ; finances, 140, 141 ; government, 103, 104, 108, 110, 111, 120, 126; house of representatives, 123, 124; law of U. S, 110, 118; laws, 126; legislature, 81, 111, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 138, 141 142, 143, 144, 151, 156, 157; officers, 111, 116, 117; organi- zation, 122, 123, see Nebraska Territory; period, 167; press, see Newspapers ; products, 179; roads, 83, 128, 130, 132, see Roads; Secretary, 110, 111 Texas, 71, 97, 100, 103 Thanksgiving, first in Nebraska territory, 122 Thayer, General John M., 157, 173, 176, 177, 196, 223, 234 Third Nebraska regiment, 246 Thomas, Edward W., 166 Thomas Jefferson, The, 44 Thompson, David E., 250 Thompson, W. H., 250 Three Crossings, 75 Thurston, John M., 222, 242 Thurston County, 105 Timber, 109, 180, 194; see Trees Tipton, Thomas W., 189, 218 Toadstool Park, 237 Topography, 3 Towns; see Early towns Townships, 134, 135 Tracy, Major Ernest H., 246 Trader's Point, 52, 115 Trading posts, ZT , 42, 49, 52, 145 Traffic, 42, 56, (£, 71, 11, 79, 81 111 Train, George Francis, 92 Trans-continental railroads ; see Railroads Trans-Mississippi Congress, 248; country, 30; exposition, 247, 248 Traders : see Fur Traders Transportation, 71, IZ, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 129; board of, 223 ; see Stage-coach, Central Overland and Pike's Peak Express, Railroads, Pa- -cific Mail, Pony Express, steamboat, railroads Trappers, 15, 42, 62, 79 Travel, 1, 33, 39, 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 59, 64, 67, 72, 111, 125, 209, 269; cost of, 72, 72,, 82 Travelers, 59, 64, 66, 83, 85, 96, 104, 207, 209 Treaties, between France and Spain, 100; see Indian treaties Treaty agreements, 285 ; obliga- tions, 274, 283 316 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA Tree claim law, 215 Tree Planter's State, 244; sec State name Trees, 5, 12, 14, 250 Triple Entente, 280 Truxbury, Albert, 203 Turkey, 273, 281 Turtle Hill river, 84 Union Pacific Railroad, 77, 78 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 125, 162, 166, 191, 194, 209, 222; first bridge across the Missouri river, 7^; sale of, 245 Union Pacific Raihcay, The, 95 Union Pacific Railroad, "Over- land Limited," 95 United States: bonds, 88, 90, 101; in the World War, 274, 280, 281, 282; marshal, 110, 111, 125; Senators, 212, 248, 249, 252, 254; election of, 189, 196, 240, 256; supreme court, 221, 235; topographical survey, 41 ; surveys, 134, maps of, 133 ; volunteers, 247 Utah, 70 University cadets, 223 University of Nebraska, 12S, 187, 191, 223, 258, 265 University extension, 258 Unrest ; see Political unrest, So- cial unrest Van Wyck, 238 Vifquain, Lieutenant-Colonel Victor, 246 Vincennes, 103 Virgin Islands, 281 Virginia City, 84, Vocational training, 261 WaddEll, 71, 73 Wade, Senator, 165 Wagon train, 48, 55, 58, 64 Walker, Provisional Governor William, 164 Walla Walla, 84 Warbonnet Canyon, 161 "War lords," 281 Washington, D. C, 126 Washington County, 120, 121 Washoe silver mines, 74 Water power, 9, 11 Wattles, G. W., 248 Webster, John Lee, 204, 266, 267, 292 West Point Military Academy, 47 Western Nebraska in 1876, 205 Western settlements, 215 Westport, Kansas, 56 White Chief, 53 White Nation, 67 White river, 227 White woman, first to reside in Nebraska, 46 White traders, 37, 38, 40, 42, 46, 52 ; see Fur traders Whitney, Asa, 85, 88 "Wild Cat Banks," 138, 139, 142 Wild Hay, 215 Wild horses, 15 Wilkinson, General James, 39 Williams, Major Fred A., 246 Wilson, President Woodrow, 259, 260, 266, 284 Wind river mountains, 47 Winnebago, 36 INDEX 17 Winnebago agency, 190 Winnebago grave yard, 190 Winnebago Indians, 23, 105 Winter Quarters, 70, 111, 115, 116 Wolf Pawnees, 23, 179 Wolves, 15; see Bounty Wolverine, 15 Woman suffrage, 264; see Suff- rage Wood river, 23 Wood River Center, 20 Woodston, Samuel H., 71 Wooley, Colonel, 168 Woman suffrage, 217 World War, 272, 275 ; causes of, 280; see Europe, war in. Na- tions engaged in Workmen's compensation act ; see Employees' compensation act World's Columbian exposition, 240 Wounded Knee, battle of, 172, 228 Wyoming, 101 Yankton Indians, 208 Yellow Bird, 230 Yellowstone, 77 Yellowstone Expedition, 42 ; river, 42, 56, 77, 169 Y. M. C. A., 284 Ypres, battle of, 285 Y. W. C. A., 284 Young, Brigham, 93 York County, 128 Yutan, 23 ZiNTKALA Nuni; See Lost Little Bird