w d r^ w & h-i CH H CO h* o PS w PQ •£ HISTORY OF ENGLAND dFot tie M$t of ScJjoote, M. E. THALHEIMER, Author of a Manual of Ancient History; a Manual of Mediceval and Modern History, etc. 1875 J» WILSON, HINKLE & CO. 137 Walnut Street 28 Bond Street INCINNATI NEW YORK hi3- ! OF CONG«SS ft WASHlN^TO2ll| LIBRARY |8f6g|gftllf MP™ Copyright 1875 by Wilson, Hinkle & Co PQ^ o? , ELECTROTYPED AT FRANKLIN TYPE FOUNDRY CINCINNATI ECLECTIC PRESS WILSON, HINKLE & CO. CINCINNATI PREFACE The increasing study of History in our schools is, doubt- less, a hopeful sign for the future of the Republic. A free government depends for its honor, if not for its very life, upon the good sense and moral steadfastness of the people; and these may be greatly reinforced by the experience of mankind. And, surely, the history of which we can least afford to be ignorant is that of our mother-country. That branch of the great German race which was planted fourteen centuries ago on British soil, grew, under exception- ally favoring influences, to be the admiration of the world. The history of the long series of popular conquests, nobly won and firmly held, — from Magna Charta to that Bill of Rights which was the prelude to our own Declaration of Independence, — contains a fund of political wisdom which no nation, and ours the least of all, can safely neglect. Though there is a certain literal and obvious patriotism in placing the History of the United States first, or even alone in the school course where but one book can be studied, yet we do well to remember that English History is, in a very special sense, our own; and it is difficult to imagine how the spirit of American institutions can be understood, without some knowledge of the circumstances in Great Britain which led to the formation and afterward to the independence of our earliest states. In this point of view, it seems a peculiar irony of Fate that, until very recently, the only school histories of England were of strongly Tory character, holding up to dishonor the (Hi) IV PREFACE. great statesmen who laid the foundations of English and American freedom. It was a mere accident of their date; for they were compiled while Hume and his school held undisputed possession of the field, — before Macaulay or Froude, Freeman or Green had written in a more liberal and truly scholarly spirit. Though a large and honorable mass of our citizens are of other than English descent, yet it is English freedom — the slow and sturdy growth of many centuries — that they or their fathers have sought to enjoy under the shelter of the great Republic; — this new slip, severed a hundred years ago from the parent tree, only that it might extend new roots and branches in a broader field and under still freer heavens. Unless our nation is to be the prodigal child of the ages, scorning and squandering its rich inheritance, our law-makers of the next forty years must con well the wisdom which their fathers gained by long centuries of strife. And if the same law-makers are to be held to their duty and made to justify the immense confidence reposed in them, their future con- stituencies must also be learning their task. Would that the study of these glorious centuries of English History might convince some young mind that the service of the fatherland is not the degrading affair of selfish interest and greed which some would make it, but the grandest of all opportunities to serve God, win a noble name, and bene- fit our race ! Would that there might be a Hampden or a Milton among the students of this little book ! Brooklyn Aug. i, 1875 .} CONTENTS PART I. — OLD ENGLAND. CHAPTER PAGE I. Britain before the English ... 9 II. The English Conquest 16 III. The Danish Incursions .... 26 IV. Fall of the Saxons 35 V. Danish Kings and Saxon Restoration . 42 VI. Condition of the People . . . 52 Questions for Review 55 PART II. — FEUDAL ENGLAND. I. The Reign of the Conqueror II. Later Norman Kings . III. The First of Plantagenets . IV. King Richard and King John V. Reign of Henry III. VI. " Edward I. VII. Edward II. and Edward III. VIII. Reign of Richard II. IX. House of Lancaster X. " " " (Concluded) 57 63 70 75 83 88 94 102 108 114 (vl VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XL House of York Questions for Review PAGE I20 125 PART III. — THE TUDORS. I. Opening of the Modern Era II. Reign of Henry VIII. . III. " " (Concluded) IV. Edward VI. — Mary I. . V. Reign of Elizabeth Questions for Review . 127 132 i39 H3 151 161 PART IV.— THE CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. I. Accession of the House of Stuart II. Reign of Charles I. III. The Civil Wars .... IV. The Commonwealth (A. D. 1649 -1660 V. The Restoration .... VI. Reign and Abdication of James II. VII. William and Mary VIII. Reign of Anne .... Questions for Review . 162 169 i75 183 191 200 207 212 2l6 PART V. — HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK I. George I. and George II. II. Reign of George III. III. Wars of the French Revolution IV. The Regency (A. D. 1811-1820) . V. George IV. — William IV. . 218 227 235 242 246 CONTENTS. vil VI. Reign of Victoria VII. British Empire in the East VIII. The British Government Questions for Review . Page 250 256 263 266 MAPS. NUMBER I. British Isles; showing Places of Greatest Historical Interest . . . Frontispiece II. Britain in 597 .... III. England in the Tenth Century IV. France in 1360 V. Sketch Map of Hindustan VI. County Map of England and Wales 21 32 99 258 169 GENEALOGICAL TABLES. Saxon and Danish Kings 56 Norman Line 69 Descent from Henry II. 82 " " Edward III. of the Three Royal Houses of Lancaster, York, and Tudor . .119 Descendants of Henry VII. . . . . .150 House of Stuart 206 " Hanover (Brunswick) . . . .215 PART I.— OLD ENGLAND, I. BRITAIN BEFORE THE ENGLISH. HE islands which are now the seat of the British Em- pire, and a busy market of the world's industry and wealth, were for ages un- known to all civilized na- tions. In their mild, moist air, dense and solitary for- ests of oak, ash, and beech were flourishing, while Egyptian and Assyrian empires rose and fell. 2 Of their earliest inhabitants little can be known. Like other countries in Europe, Asia, and America, these islands bear beneath their surface many evidences of a busy human life, separated from our own by uncounted ages but which teemed in the broad valleys and terraced the cliffs long before man had invented letters, or even the rudest pictures, by which to make record of his actions. Skeletons of many a gigantic beast, now extinct, deeply imbedded in the peat-bogs of Ireland or the mosses of Scotland, inclosing the arrow- head or javelin of flint which ended its existence, prove the J (9) io OLD ENGLAND. destructive agency of man, even before the creation of the dog and the horse, his present brute companions. 3. Naturalists and antiquarians have labored to describe the character of these prehistoric men, from the slight indica- tions afforded by their possessions. Their beads of amber and jet, their rings, bracelets, and necklaces of gold, evince their love of ornament. Their stone mortars, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, indicate one article of their food, while bones of lambs and shells of oysters still remain as remnants of their banquets. Their cultivated terraces on heights now abandoned to the wild fox and the eagle, are evidences of a numerous as well as thrifty population. The heavy masonry of their tombs and chambered barrows prove their industry and power to transport great masses of stone ; and their cus- tom of burying with each person food, drink, and his favorite possessions, seems to imply their belief in a future life. 4. In the earliest habitations, tools and weapons of stone only are found. The people of this age were in much the same condition as were the natives of North America at the time of its discovery by white men. Later, the tin and cop- per native to these islands have been combined into bronze, affording better tools for more skillful work. The prehistoric centuries are accordingly divided into the Age of Stone and the Age of Bronze. 5. In burial-fields of a later period, iron tools are found; but these were doubtless introduced by the Celts, who at some remote and unknown time crossed from the European mainland. Of their warfare with the earlier inhabitants, we have no record. When Britain first became known to civil- ized Europe, it was an undisputed possession of the Celtic tribes. 6. The Phoenicians, those Yankees of the ancient world, in groping through the stormy regions of the northern Atlan- tic, touched the western extremity of Great Britain, and the B. C. 55.] ROMAN INVASIONS. II cluster of islets off its coast, where they were so fortunate as to find rich deposits of tin. Greek merchant-vessels followed the Phoenicians; but the history of the country begins with the arrival of the Romans. 7. Fifty-five years before the birth of Christ, Julius Caesar, availing himself of a breathing-space in his wars with the Gauls, crossed the Channel and landed with two legions upon the British coast. He found there a brave but barbarous people, scantily clothed in checkered mantles like those of the Scotch Highlanders, — their bodies painted blue and green, and hideously tattooed. They fought in scythe- armed chariots, somewhat like modern mowing-machines, which they managed with wonderful skill. Their seventeen tribes, or clans, were commonly at war with each other; but now and then some great danger from without led them to unite under one chief for the common defense. 8. Their entire force, however, was no match for the well- trained valor of the Romans. After several defeats, they professed submission, and Caesar withdrew into Gaul. The Britons, believing that the danger was over, broke all their promises. The next summer, Caesar returned in greater force, marched northward and defeated all the tribes who had mustered to resist him, and burned the stronghold of Caswallon, their leader, at St. Albans, north of the Thames. He then departed, and the Britons were left nearly a hun- dred years to their own devices, while more splendid prizes absorbed the ambition of the Roman leaders. By his conquest of Pompey, Caesar became master of the civilized world. His nephew and heir, Augustus, was the first of the Roman emperors, and matured that wonderful system of dominion which ruled Europe and the nearer parts of Asia and Africa, in fact for five, and in name for more than fourteen centuries. 9. The Britons, meanwhile, learned the arts of civilized life by their commerce with Gaul and their occasional in- 12 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 43. tercourse with Rome. At length, the Emperor Claudius re- membered their obscure and distant island, and A. D. 43. . . sent Aulus Plautius with an army to subdue it. Among the officers was Vespasian, afterward emperor, who in one campaign fought thirty battles, captured twenty fort- resses, and made himself master of the Isle of Wight. All the south-eastern tribes submitted, and were organized into a Roman province. Claudius himself came, when all the fight- ing was over, to receive the submission of the chiefs; and celebrated a great triumph at Rome for his victories in Britain. 10. The interior tribes united themselves under Caradoc, — or, as the Romans called him, Caractacus, — and held out bravely for eight years. The invaders, step by step, gained all that is covered by the modern English counties; but Caradoc and his followers maintained their fastnesses in the mountains of Wales. At last, the stronghold where Caradoc had placed his wife and children was taken, and the dis- heartened warrior sought shelter with his step-mother, the Queen of the Brigantes. She betrayed him, and the greatest of the Britons was carried in chains to Rome. The Silures still held out, and Ostorius, the Roman general, is said to have died of vexation at his ill success. 1 1 . Hitherto, the resistance of the Britons had been largely sustained by the Druids, their priests, who possessed an ex- traordinary power over the minds and conduct of their vota- ries. They taught the young, made and administered the laws, and settled all disputes between tribes and nations, as well as between private persons. Their authority was enforced by dreadful penalties, including death by fire ; but they ruled the souls of men even more absolutely, by assuming a knowl- edge and control of each man's future existence. Their tem- ples were circles of enormous stones, open to the sky, such as may still be seen at Stonehenge and Abury. The priestly Druids dwelt in sacred groves of oak; inferior to them were A. D. 61.] DESTRUCTION OF THE DRUIDS. 13 the two ranks of prophets and bards, the first of whom com- posed hymns in honor of the gods, while the second rehearsed the brave deeds of heroes. 12. The Romans, as a rule, were tolerant of all religions, and even placed the gods of conquered peoples in their own Pantheon; but where the tremendous power of the priests was used to obstruct their progress toward universal dominion, their wrath was unchecked by any thought of the sacred rights of conscience. Suetonius, becoming general of the Roman forces, A. D. 59, soon perceived that Britain could never be subdued while the Druids retained their power. Chief of their holy places was the island of Mona, or Anglesey, which is separated from the mainland of Wales by Menai Straits. At this stronghold Suetonius aimed the blow which was to shatter the ancient superstition, and here the Druids mustered all their forces, both material and spiritual. Not only was a host of armed warriors ranged upon the shore, but multitudes of priests and priestesses ran about tossing their long hair, brandishing blazing torches, and rending the air with their shrieks and curses. 13. The legions pressed forward, undismayed by this novel mode of warfare. While their horsemen forded or swam the shallow strait, the infantry crossed it in boats, and after a fierce combat of unexampled obstinacy, the Britons were put to flight. The Druids were burned in the fires which they had kindled for their Roman prisoners, the sacred oaks were cut down, and the altars were over- turned. 14. If Suetonius had hoped to crush the Britons by this bold stroke, he was disappointed. While he was engaged in the north-west, all southern Britain was up in arms, especially the eastern tribes, led by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni. This high-spirited matron had been bitterly injured and insulted by the Romans; and moved by a rage of resentment, she mustered a great army, which she herself led to attack the 14 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 81. colonies. Chief of these was London, already a flourishing commercial town. The swift march of Suetonius failed to rescue it: 70,000 Romans and other foreigners were slaugh- tered without mercy, and the city became a heap of ashes. The Roman towns now named Colchester and St. Albans shared the same fate. But the Roman general exacted a pitiless revenge. In a great battle near London, 80,000 Britons were slain, and the vanquished queen poisoned her- self, rather than fall again into the power of her foes. 15. Several other generals tried their hands at subduing the Britons. The successful one was Agricola, who estab- lished the Roman power as far north as the Firths of Forth and Clyde, and protected his conquests by a chain of fortresses stretching across the island. Britain was divided into five provinces of the empire : thirty-three great cities were guarded by Roman walls, and conformed to the Roman language, laws, and customs. United under one firm government, the several tribes ceased from their quarrelings (§7), and grew rich by peaceful industry. Mines of iron, lead, and tin were worked, and agriculture was so prosperous that Britain became one of the great grain-export- ing countries of the world. A network of magnificent roads bound together the remotest corners of the island. There was little to disturb the general peace, except the incursions of barbarians from beyond the walls of Agricola. 16. The Caledonians, coveting the rich harvests and well- fed herds of their southern neighbors, often descended upon the plains, burned farm-houses and even villages, and drove away cattle. To restrain their ravages, the Emperor Hadrian, who visited the island, A. D. 119, built a wall of earth from Solway Firth to the Tyne. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, a similar rampart was extended along the line of Agricola's fortresses; and, finally, the Emperor Severus, after marching through the Highlands to the northern extremity of the island, caused a wall of solid masonry to be added to the fortifica- A. D. 211.] ROMANS IN BRITAIN. 15 tions of Hadrian. The cold and barren wilds of Scotland seemed not worth conquering, to natives of the luxurious climates of southern Europe. No one then foresaw the splendors of genius and learning which were yet to illuminate the craggy heights of the "northern Athens." Severus died and was buried at York, the Roman capital of Britain. His son Caracalla made a truce with the Cale- donians, and hastened to be crowned at Rome. RECAPITULATION. Britain first peopled by unknown races; colonized by Celts; vis- ited by Phoenicians and Greeks ; conquered by Romans. Caesar and his heir establish the Roman Empire, of which Britain constitutes five provinces. Immense power of the Druids. Suetonius takes their Holy Island by storm, and exterminates the priests. Revolt of Boadicea ; burning of London and massacre of Roman residents ; her defeat and death. Ramparts of Agricola, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Severus de- fend Roman Britain from the Caledonians. Death and burial of Severus at York. II. THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. A Druid Bard. NEW enemy soon began to vex the eastern coast of Britain, be- ing no other than the Saxon, or English, freebooters, whose descendants were to rule the greater part of the island. These brave and active people were a part of the great Ger- man race, which under its va- rious tribal names — Goths, Franks, Burgundians, etc. — was now becoming supreme in Europe. Their home was the north-western part of Germany, but their marine camps already dotted the coasts of Holland, Belgium, and northern France. To protect the shores of Britain from their ravages, the Emperor Diocletian appointed a special officer, called the "Count of the Saxon Border." But Carausius, the first who bore this title, entered into alliance with the pirates them- selves, won over to his standard all the Roman troops stationed in Britain, assumed the imperial title of "Augustus," and made himself ruler of the island and its surrounding seas. Diocletian and Maximian were forced to acknowledge him as their colleague; but after six years of power, he was defeated by Constantius, the new Gzsar,* and murdered by his subordinate officer. A. D. 287. * The Roman Empire was now so great, and its contests with bar- barians so incessant, that each emperor had to share his power with a general, who became his adopted son and took the title of Caesar. Upon his patron's death, the Caesar became emperor, with the higher title of Augustus. (16) A. D. 306.] PICTS AND SCOTS. 17 18. The last emperor who resided in Britain was Constan- tius Chlorus. He held his court at York, and there, upon his death, his son, Constantine the Great, was hailed as em- peror by the legions. In the long and eventful reign of this remarkable man, the greatest event is the establishment of Christianity as the religion of the Empire. Already its doc- trines had been diffused in Britain by soldiers and colonists; churches had been planted in all the towns; but we can not now measure the extent of its influence over the conquered people. Although this simple faith was soon swept back by a tide of heathen invasion, Christianity still retained a firm hold in Ireland and among the Welsh in the west. (§§ 24, 2 5> 3°-) 19. Under the Roman rule, Britain became civilized but not strong. Roads and bridges were built, which even now defy the ruining touch of Time. Under the pavements of London, York, and Chester lie remains of cities more finely built and more richly ornamented than those which have risen upon their ruins. But while commerce and luxury increased, the strength of Britain was slowly sapped. Her young men were drafted into the armies of the Empire, and shed their life-blood upon the battle-fields of Italy or of Asia. The few who remained at home were corrupted by the pleasures, rather than ennobled by the arts, of civilized life. Under the perfect order and peace maintained by the presence of Roman armies and the prevalence of Roman law, the Britons were not learning either to defend or to govern themselves. 20. Early in the fourth century, a change took place in the northern part of the island, which could then first be called Scotland. The Scots, a fierce and savage tribe, crossed from Ireland, their earlier home, and settling themselves in what is now Argyleshire, soon established their supremacy over the Caledonians. The latter are henceforth to be known as Picts, a name which probably distinguished them from the unpainted Scots. The new-comers paid no respect to the Eng. — 2. 1 8 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 368. walls of Hadrian and Severus, but swarming over those feeble barriers, spread their ravages over all the fair harvest- fields of southern Britain. In A. D. 368, they advanced even to London, whence they were repulsed by the great general Theodosius. 21. But the Empire itself was now falling under the attacks of northern barbarians, and in A. D. 418, the Emperor Honorius was compelled to withdraw the legions which had been stationed for the defense of the island. The Britons, ravaged at once by the German pirates on the east and by the Picts and Scots on the north, were still further weakened by dissensions among themselves. The national party, under Vortigern, desired a return to old Celtic customs, while Am- brosius and the Roman party upheld the law and order which had been derived from their late rulers. The latter party wrote a piteous letter to Aetius, the Ro- man general in Gaul : ' ' The barbarians drive us into the sea ; the sea throws us back upon the swords of the barbarians; and we have only the hard choice of perishing by the sword or by the waves." But Aetius could afford no A. D. 451. J . ... aid; he was preparing for battle with Attila, king of the Huns, a monster so hideous, so fierce, and hitherto so irresistible, that he was called, by the affrighted people of that time, the "Scourge of God." 22. The other party had recourse to the Germans. These already possessed lands on the coasts of York and Durham, but they were none the less glad of a settlement on the fruit- ful plains of Kent. Three ship-loads of men from Jutland, under the brother-chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, came to the help of Vortigern, the British prince, and were A. lj . 449* rewarded by a gift of the isle of Thanet, then separated by a broad channel from the mainland. Sixteen more vessels laden with Germans followed, and the Britons, grateful for a victory over the Scots, gave fertile lands to all. The new-comers soon be^an to conduct themselves rather A. D. 450.] KING ARTHUR. 19 as conquerors than as guests. They turned their victorious arms against the Britons; new swarms of their countrymen arriving from beyond the sea, followed their example; and in less than one hundred years, seven or eight German king- doms, sometimes called the Heptarchy, had been formed between the English Channel and the Frith of Forth. The Britons, henceforth to be called Welsh, or foreigners, retained only a strip of land along the western coast, including Corn- wall, Devon, Wales, and Cumbria, or Strathclyde. 23. If history were permitted to borrow a page from ro- mance, we would gladly tell the story of King Arthur, the chief of the Britons, who, in this time of trouble, when weaker and baser kings "Groaned for the Roman legions here again," with his own right arm " Drave The heathen, and he slew the beast, and felled The forest, and let in the sun, and made Broad pathways for the hunter and the knight." We would tell, too, of the "glorious company" about the Round Table and in the lists at Camelot : "Knights that in twelve great battles splashed and dyed The strong White Horse in his own heathen blood." But the story of Arthur and his Knights must be read in Tennyson's beautiful Idylls. If it were possible to recover the true history of the British chief who bore the name, it would not greatly alter the main features of our sketch. 24. While Britain was yielding to the German conquest, Ireland was still the peaceful abode of piety and learning. Scholars fled from the tumults of England and the Continent, to find a quiet retreat at Armagh or Durrow, and add to the fame of their universities, then celebrated throughout western Europe. Irish missionaries, in their turn, preached the Gos- pel in the British Isles, in Italy, Switzerland, and eastern 20 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 565. France. Columba, an Irish refugee, founded the monastery of Iona; and Aidan, one of its monks, established the still more celebrated bishopric and seminary at Lindisfarne, which sent missionaries into all the heathen realms. Cuthbert, the Apostle of the Lowlands, from his mission-station at Melrose, traveled over bogs and moors and rough mountain sides, teaching Christianity to the pagan peasants of Scotland and Northumbria. 25. The Britons had been wholly or partly Christian ; the English were heathen, and continued so for a hundred years after the conquest. Roman law, language, and religion dis- appeared, and the worship of Woden, with the customs of the Teutonic tribes, and a Low Dutch language, took their place. Three of the German kingdoms (§ 22), Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria, were founded by Angles, or Engles, whose name was even then often applied to the whole country and people; three, called respectively East, West, and South Saxony (Essex, Wessex, and Sussex), were founded by Sax- ons ; Kent, as we have seen, by the Jutes. Northumbria was often divided into two kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira; part of Essex became Middlesex; and East Anglia was sep- arated into the two regions of the Northfolk and the South- folk, now called Norfolk and Suffolk. 26. Each of the German tribes had a royal family, reputed to be descended from Woden, their chief divinity, and from which the king was chosen by the votes of all the freemen. The custom of strict hereditary succession was wholly un- known. No son of a king could claim his father's crown until it had been duly conferred upon him by the votes of the nation ; and if he was young, or his valor yet unproven, his father's brother was usually preferred. The seven or eight kingdoms in England sometimes acknowledged a com- mon head, known as the Bretwalda, whose authority in this little realm bore some resemblance to that of the Emperor on the continent of Europe over the various nations owing alle- Way 2. OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 560. giance to Rome. Mercia and Northumbria for a time strug- gled for the supremacy; but Wessex gained it at last, and absorbed or subdued all the other kingdoms. (§§ 31, 33.) 27. Ethelbert, fourth king of Kent, was the third of the Bretwaldas, and the first Christian king in England. He married the Frankish princess Bertha, daughter of Caribert; and his relations with her native land brought many civilizing influences into his kingdom. His people were the first of the English to enjoy a written code of laws; and his long reign of fifty years was productive of honor to himself and blessing to his kingdom. But the greatest of its events was the reception of Christianity. 28. Several years before, a good priest visiting the slave market at Rome, saw three English youths exposed for sale. Their fair faces attracted his attention, and he asked whence they came. Being told that they were Angli, "Not Angles, but angels" was his quick reply, adding that it was a pity the Prince of Darkness should enjoy so fair a prey. Being informed, further, that they came from Deira, "That is good," he cried; "they are called from the anger (de ird) of God to his mercy." And having learned that their king was named /Ella, "Alleluia!" he exclaimed; "we must en- deavor that the praises of God be sung in that country." Pleased with his puns, the good man was net the less ex- cited by true missionary zeal, and he obtained the Pope's permission to set off immediately as a teacher of the Gospel to that distant island. His Roman flock, however, refused to let him go, and on the death of the then reigning pontiff, he was elected to be pope, — Gregory I. Not forgetting his desir$ for the conversion of the English, he sent Augustine, a Roman monk, with forty associates, to preach the true faith to those pagans. (A. D. 596.) 29. Bertha, Queen of Kent, was already a Christian; through her influence, Ethelbert received the embassadors with honor, and gave them a cordial hearing. Soon after- A. D. 792.] CHRISTIANITY IN ENGLAND. 23 ward, he and all his courtiers were baptized. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury, and was endowed by Pope Gregory with authority ' ' 59 over all the churches yet to be founded in England. The new faith was soon accepted by the East Saxons; a bishop of London was consecrated, and churches were built, re- spectively, to St. Peter and St. Paul, on the sites still occu- pied by Westminster Abbey and the great cathedral. 30. A daughter of Ethelbert and Bertha became the bride of King Edwin of Deira, and had the honor of introducing Christianity into that northern kingdom. Edwin was bap- tized at York, and over the spot thus consecrated arose a church which was the humble predecessor of the present grand and stately minster. Paulinus, who had accompanied the young Queen from Kent, became the first archbishop of York. The Christians of Wales and Cornwall (§18) refused to obey either a bishop at Rome or a primate at Canterbury : their independent spirit was punished by a massacre of two hundred of their priests. Churches and monasteries were soon scattered over the land, and the fierce superstitions of northern paganism gave way to a purer and gentler faith. 31. For a time, Mercia had the preeminence among the German kingdoms, and its king, Offa, even attracted the notice and friendship of Charlemagne (§ 32). He gained many victories over the Britons in Wales, and raised a great mound of earth, still known as OrTa's Dike, to ward off their attacks upon the Saxon colonists whom he settled between the Severn and the Wye. The glory of Offa was clouded by crime. He procured the murder of the East Anglian King, who was a . ... A. D. 792. guest at his court, and violently seized his king- dom. Like many other princes of that time, he sought to relieve his conscience by lavish gifts to the Church. One- tenth of all his goods were bestowed upon the clergy; and following the example of Ina in Wessex, he imposed a tax 24 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 792. of a penny on every homestead in his dominion, for the maintenance of an English college at Rome. Such grants are more easily made than recalled, and we shall find the Pope's claim for " Peter's pence" still enforced nearly a thousand years after the first imposition of the tax. 32. We have no room for the annals of all the German kingdoms in England. In the wars which resulted from their perpetual feuds and jealousies, all but one of the royal families became extinct. The surviving race was that of Cerdic, the founder of Wessex, and it was now represented only by Brihtric, the reigning monarch, and Egbert, his young cousin, who was held by many to have a better right to the throne. Finding that he had incurred the enmity of Brihtric, Egbert withdrew to the continent, and spent his years of exile and probation in studying the arts of war and government, with the greatest master of both then living, — the Frankish king, who was soon to be known as Charle- magne, Emperor of the West. 33. Brihtric's wife was Eadburga, daughter of Offa (§31), a woman celebrated, even in that dark age, for her crimes and misfortunes. She had resolved to poison a nobleman who was her husband's friend : the poison was accidentally taken by the King. Eadburga fled in a passion of shame and remorse, and Egbert was called to the throne by the acclamations of all the people. He now put in practice the lessons he had learned in the court and camp of Charle- magne, devoting himself to the energetic government of his own dominions, and the conquest of the Britons of Cornwall and Wales. Nearly twenty-five years had thus been spent, when an in- vasion of Wessex, by the King of Mercia, led to a series of wars which made Egbert over-lord of nearly all the island. Kent, Sussex, and East Anglia, unwilling tributaries of Mercia, gladly transferred their obedience to the wisest and best of Englishmen ; Northumbria followed their example ; Mercia A. D. 827.] EGBERT'S SUPREMACY. 2$ was conquered, and so the Heptarchy (§§22, 25) ended in a monarchy, within four centuries of the first German invasion. Egbert's immediate dominion still ended, how- ever, at the Thames, and he commonly styled himself, as before, "King of the West Saxons." His great- grandson, Edward the Elder, was the first to assume the title, " King of the English." (§ 47.) RECAPITULATION. Western Europe is ravaged by German pirates. Under Constan- tine, the Roman Empire becomes Christian. Britain is weakened, though civilized, by the Roman occupation. "Scots" from Ireland conquer the northern and ravage the southern part of the island. The legions being withdrawn, a Roman party appeal to Aetius, a national party, to the Germans, for aid against the Scots. Saxons, Angles, and Jutes conquer the island and establish seven kingdoms, the Britons being crowded into a narrow western region. Arthur and his knights resist the heathen invaders, but ultimately without success. Ethelbert, King of Kent, welcomes Christian missionaries from Rome. Churches built at Canterbury, London, and York. Kings Offa and Ina impose the payment of "Peter's pence" on Mercia and Wessex. Egbert studies war and government with Charlemagne, be- comes King of Wessex, and over-lord of all England. Eng.— 3. t III. THE DANISH INCURSIONS. Alfred and the Cakes. O sooner were the seven Ger- man kingdoms thus happily united, than they were ex- posed to a new danger. The barren peninsulas which guard the entrance to the Baltic Sea were inhabited by a fierce and hardy race, still pagan, who were far too adventurous to remain content in so poor and narrow a home. The wild and stormy sea was to them more attractive than the land, while beyond it lay fer- tile countries and cities stored with wealth. Like the Saxon pirates of four centuries before, these ''Danes," or North- men, with their narrow ships penetrated all the inlets and rivers of Holland, France, and Spain; and, like the Saxons, they found the broad estuaries of Britain especially attractive. In all the maritime regions of western Europe, the churches resounded daily with one doleful addition to the Litany : "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us!" 35. Wherever the standard of the Black Raven appeared, the people fled in dismay. The progress of the marauders was marked by the smoke of burning villages. Neither rich nor poor were spared ; but the churches were the chief objects of violence, because in their vaults were usually found gold, silver, and other treasures. At first the Danes contented themselves with sudden raids upon the coast, retiring to their ships with their booty before they could be pursued; but, at length, they began to settle themselves in permanent stations, (26) A. D. 870.] CHILDHOOD OF ALFRED. 27 whence they could carry on regular operations over a wide extent of country. 36. When the strong hand of Egbert was most needed to restrain their ravages, he died, and his son Ethelwolf, a weak and inefficient prince, was chosen to succeed him. He began by bestowing the three south-eastern provinces, Essex, Kent, and Sussex, upon his eldest son. Athelstan, and soon after- ward departed, with his youngest and favorite son, Alfred, on a pilgrimage to Rome. Regardless of the miseries of his people, he spent a year in prayers and offerings at the various holy places. Meanwhile, Athelstan died, and his brother Ethelbald joined a party among the nobles who wished to exclude his father from the throne. Civil war might have been added to all the other horrors of the time, had not Ethelwolf consented to a division of the kingdom, yielding the western and more peaceful portion to his son. 37. In his return through France, Ethelwolf married the princess Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. She is of im- portance to our history only by reason of her influence over her little step-son Alfred, whose bright young mind she stim- ulated by the reading of some old English poems, from a costly book which she numbered among her treasures. En- couraged by the offered gift of the book, the prince learned to read, — an accomplishment by no means easy, when neither primers nor teachers could be had. Alfred's perseverance procured immeasurable benefits not only to himself, but to his race. 38. On the death of Ethelwolf, his third son, Ethelbert, was promoted to a share in the kingdom ; and upon the latter prince's death, eight years later, a still younger brother, Ethelred, succeeded to his place. The Danes continued their ravages with ever-increasing assurance. In one of their raids they captured Edmund, the tribu- tary king of East Anglia, to whom they offered the alternative of death or apostasy. If he would become a pagan, he 28 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 871. might continue to hold his kingdom, subject to their suprem- acy. Scorning this insulting proposition, Edmund was bound to a tree and made a target for their arrows, until, wearying of their brutal sport, they at last beheaded him. He was honored as a saint and martyr, and the place still bears his name, — Bury St. Edmunds. 39. Ethelred met his death in battle with the Danes, and Alfred was called from his favorite studies to the toils and heavy responsibilities of a king. For seven years he warred bravely, and often successfully, against the heathen invaders, who possessed the whole country north of the Thames ; but, their numbers ever increasing, he was compelled, at length, to hide himself, and leave his kingdom to their ravages. On one occasion, we are told, he was sheltered by one of his herdsmen, whose wife was ignorant of her guest's true rank. Being called away, the good woman one day charged him with the care of some cakes which were left baking over the fire. Alfred, absorbed in heavier cares, neglected his trust, and was punished by a violent scolding. 40. The Danes grew careless as they met with no opposi- tion, and Alfred found means of collecting some of his follow- ers, with whom he fortified himself on an island of firm ground in the midst of a bog in Somersetshire. Encircled by marshes and forests, he was still hidden from the invaders, who were often surprised by a night attack from some unknown foe. Thus the spirits of the English revived, and the little island court was well maintained by forage. 41. Before calling a general muster of his people, Alfred resolved to see for himself the numbers and position of the enemy. Availing himself of a gift which he had cultivated with great delight in times of peace, the King disguised himself as a harper, and boldly entered the Danish camp near Ethan- dune. His songs and jokes proved so acceptable to the sol- diers, that he was introduced to the tent of Guthrum, their chief, and royally entertained for several days. Here he had A. D. 886.] THE DANISH INCURSIONS. 29 every opportunity to learn the character and intentions of the Danes. He found them lazy and negligent, despising the English and fearing no attack. 42. The moment was favorable. Swiftly and secretly mus- tering his forces, Alfred fell upon the Danish encampment. Surprise aided the English arms, and the rout was complete. Guthrum fled, and with his surviving warriors took refuge in a fortified camp ; but hunger soon compelled him to surrender on Alfred's own terms. These were dictated by a policy nobler than revenge. The north-eastern coasts of England were already depopulated by the ravages of the Danes. Alfred resolved to turn his late enemies into friends, by granting them large tracts of land in permanent possession, on the condition, however, of their ceasing from their ravages, and exchanging their fierce worship of Woden for the Christian faith. 43. Softened, perhaps, by terms so much more generous than he had a right to expect, Guthrum accepted the proposal and received baptism, with the Christian name of Athelstan. Danish and Saxon England were separated by the Roman military road, called Wailing Street, which ran from London to Chester. Absorbed in their new possessions, the Anglo- Danes did not often molest the kingdom of Alfred ; though the fresh swarms of their pagan countrymen, continually ar- riving from beyond the sea, threatened to crowd out the earlier possessors of the island. 44. The years of comparative peace which followed were employed by Alfred in civilizing and protecting his kingdom. London and several other cities which had been burnt by the Danes, were now rebuilt. The coast was guarded by a pow- erful fleet, while a regular militia was trained to defend the land. Nor did the good King neglect the education of his people. He found them ignorant and rude. Nearly all the monasteries, with their libraries, had been destroyed by the Danes, and the terror of their ravages had broken up all the 30 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 886. customs of peaceful and orderly life. Alfred first restored peace and security; then he founded schools, and required every owner of two hides of land to send his children thither for instruction. He invited learned men and skillful artisans from the Continent . he employed the former in translating Greek and Latin books into the English of his time, and the latter in enriching the kingdom by useful arts and manu- factures. 45. Alfred himself, by the most careful economy of time, found leisure from his great cares to write or translate several books, which he thought best fitted to be useful to his people. Among these were a History of the World, by Orosius, and the "Consolations of Philosophy," by Boethius, beside some invaluable versions of the Psalms and other portions of the Holy Scriptures. He made a new collection of the laws of Ethelbert (§ 27), Offa, and Ina, to which he added some enactments of his own. He revived the old German division into tit/rings, hundreds, and shires, for the sake of a more exact enforcement of justice. The first consisted of ten families ; the second, of a hundred. All the members were held responsible for a crime committed within their number, and were bound to produce the offender before the proper court. An innocent man could always clear himself by bringing ten of his neighbors, members of the same hundred, who would bear witness under oath to his integrity of character, or to his absence from the place where the crime was alleged to have been committed. This is probably the origin of our later and universal custom of trial by jury. 46. The last eight years of Alfred's reign were disturbed by fresh incursions of the Northmen under Hasting, one of the fiercest of their leaders. Driven from France by a famine, these barbarians landed on the Kentish coast, and spread their ravages over the country. Alfred met them with his accus- tomed energy, and by a severe contest of several years, at length restored peace to his kingdom. A. D. 925.] BRITAIN UNITED. 31 This great king died in A. D. 901, in the fifty-second year of his age. His reign of thirty years had been devoted, with the most intense diligence, to promoting the best interests of his people. He had fought fifty-six battles by land and sea, and had excelled most sovereigns in his labors as lawgiver and judge. Yet he had found time to acquire more learning, and even to write more books, than most men of uninterrupted leisure. His moral greatness was first proved in conquests over himself, in tempering justice with gentleness ; and history records no merely human character more near perfection than that of Alfred the Great. 47. His eldest son, Edmund, was already dead; his second, Ethelward, preferred a private and studious life; the choice of the "wise men' 5 fell, therefore, on Edward, the third son, who became king in his father's place. His cousin, Ethel- wolf, attempted to seize the crown. Being defeated, he joined the Danes, and invited fresh hordes from beyond the sea to attack his native land. Edward was aided in his defense by the quick wit and high spirit of his sister Ethelfleda, the Lady of Mercia ; and the fame of his success gained him the volun- tary homage of the princes of Wales, Northumbria, Strathclyde, and Scotland. These had suffered no less than England from the ravages of the Danes, and were glad to place themselves under the protection of the victorious king. Edward's own kingdom reached to the Humber, while his "over-lordship" embraced the whole of Britain and the Western Isles. (See § 33.) 48. Let us try to gain a clear idea of the constitution of this Saxon kingdom. The crown, as we have seen (§ 26), was elective, though the choice was usually restricted to one fam- ily. Before the German tribes had settled into highly organ- ized nations, every freeman was entitled to appear in arms at the council of his chief; and the affairs of the whole people were transacted at the March or May fields, under the open heaven. These martial assemblies gave way, on the Continent, Map A. D. 925.] MEETINGS OF THE WISE. 33 to diets in which the clergy had a part, and in England, to assemblies of the wiian, or "wise men." In strict law, every freeman had still a right to be present, but the difficulties of travel and communication rendered this impossible, and the assembly came to consist chiefly of bishops, abbots, and ealdormen. 49. The witcnagemote, or " Meeting of the Wise," was there- fore convened alternately at different places, — usually at Win- chester, the West Saxon capital, for the southern shires; at Gloucester, for the western ; at London, for the eastern, and at York, for the northern, after the Danelagh ceased to be distinguished from the rest of England. At the three former cities the King " wore his crown," in turn, on the three great festivals of the Christian year; and thither all people who had petitions to make, or wrongs to be righted, might bring their suit. Nothing of importance was done without the advice of the "wise men." With their concurrence, Alfred and his successors required each maritime town to provide and maintain a ship for the defense of the coast ; and it was early understood that no tax must be laid upon the people but with their consent. 50. The people of England consisted of three ranks : Earls, Churls, and Serfs. The second included the great mass of freemen ; the last were mostly descendants of the conquered Britons. An Englishman could become a serf only by crime or voluntary sale. Parents sometimes sold their children ; and a person more than thirteen years of age might sell himself. The Church was the constant foe to serfage ; and several good bishops set the example of emancipating the serfs whom they found upon the lands attached to their sees. Between earls and churls, gradually grew up the rank of Thanes, who were ennobled by services rendered to the king or the state. But, originally, all high offices were reserved for men of noble blood : the ealdormen, or chief rulers of cities and villages, were chosen from among the earls; and every churl was 34 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 925. required to choose some earl as his lord and protector. The "lordless man" was an outlaw; for, under the ravages of the Danes, he was sure to be unable to provide for the defense of himself or his family. RECAPITULATION. Scandinavian pirates vex the coasts of all the British islands ; burn and plunder churches, monasteries, and villages. Ethelwolf 's pilgrim- age to Rome; his marriage with Judith. Alfred's accession, after the death of his four brothers; his wars with the Danes; his concealment. He reconnoiters the Danish camp in disguise ; surprises and defeats the Northmen ; cedes to them the eastern shires north of the Thames, on condition of their ceasing from piracy and becoming Christians. Protects his kingdom by ships and forts ; improves it by schools, lit- erature, and good laws. Edward unites the whole island under his sway. " Meetings of the Wise " take place of armed assemblies of old German tribes. Taxes levied only with their concurrence. Population consists of earls, churls, and serfs. IV. FALL OF THE SAXONS. Danish Ship. > V^^DWARD'S son, Athelstan, (A. D. 925-940,) was one of the greatest Saxon kings, and England in his time was renowned in Europe for her wealth and splendor. Five of his sisters were married to sovereigns or great lords on the Continent: one was Queen of France ; another was wife of Hugh the Great, the "king-maker" of his age and nation ; and Editha, highest of all in rank, was consort of Otho, King of the Germans, and afterward emperor. From these alliances grew much commerce * and frequent intercourse between England and the Continent. Several foreign princes were intrusted to Athelstan's care and instruction. Nearest to him was his royal nephew, afterward King Louis IV., of France, who learned from his uncle to act with spirit and efficiency amid the troubles which attended the decline of his race. 52. Athelstan added Northumbria to his own immediate dominion, and thus became sole king of all the Germans in Britain, as well as over-lord of all the Celtic principalities. But his turbulent vassals needed strong and vigilant govern- ing. The North Welsh and the Scots aided each other in a revolt ; and when this was put down, it was soon followed by a grand conspiracy of Scots, Welsh, and Irish, with Danes * Among other laws for the encouragement of commerce, Athel- stan ordered that any merchant who had made three long voyages on his own account, should be admitted to the rank of thane ($ 50). (35) 6 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 937. from beyond the sea. The King defeated and routed them in the great battle of Brunanburgh, which was sung by Eng- lish minstrels as the most glorious of victories. 53. Edmund I. succeeded his brother Athelstan, A. D. 940. He subdued the Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde, and bestowed it upon Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition of homage and the defense of the northern coast against the Danes. Edmund met an untimely death from the dagger of a robber, and his sons being too young to succeed him, his brother Edred was chosen king by the ivitan. Edred had to keep a firm hand upon the Northumbrian Danes, A. D. 946-955. l L who were always turbulent and unruly. With the aid of his great minister, Dunstan, he reduced them after a time to good behavior. 54. Dunstan was the most remarkable man of his time. Born of noble parents, and endowed with extraordinary talents, he was early famous for his learning and accomplish- ments. He could paint and engrave ; he copied and illu- minated books with the most exquisite designs; he wrought curious patterns in gold and silver; and, above all, he won the love of King Athelstan by the songs he composed and sang to the music of his harp. 55. In those days and long afterward, it was dangerous to know too much. Dunstan's rivals at court accused him of magical arts, and procured his banishment and disgrace. His ambition was not crushed, but only turned into a new channel. He dug a cell no larger than a grave, where he shut himself up for months, and by fasting and self-torture gained a reputation for extraordinary holiness. He was said to be visited by angels, and to gain victories over the Prince of Darkness. Such spiritual gifts could not be suffered to rest in obscurity. The monk Dunstan was made Abbot of Glastonbury, and King Edred exalted him to be his most trusted counselor. A. D. 958.] DUNSTAN IN POWER, 37 56. Edwy, son of Edmund (§ 53), succeeded his uncle at the age of sixteen. His short, unhappy reign was the begin- ning in England of that fierce conflict between the Church and the royal power, which raged for centuries throughout Europe. Edwy loved an English lady of royal descent, and, contrary to the advice of his best counselors, married her even before his coronation. On the day of that ceremony, when the nobles were feasting in the great hall of the palace, the King withdrew from the scene of drunken riot to the more agreeable society of the Queen and her mother. Dunstan had been foremost in his opposition to the marriage : he rudely followed the King, and pushed him back by main force into the company he had quitted. 57. Edwy's wrath drove Dunstan out of the country; but Odo, the primate, took up the quarrel with zeal. He stirred up a revolt among the Northumbrian Danes, who proclaimed Edgar, the King's younger brother, as their sovereign. The church party gained the ascendency : Archbishop Odo, with a party of soldiers, forced the palace and branded the beau- tiful face of the Queen with a red-hot iron, then carried her away as a prisoner into Ireland. Edwy, overpowered, con- sented to a divorce. Poor Elgiva found means of returning from her banishment, but only to fall into the hands of Odo's party, who put her to a cruel death. Her unhappy husband died soon afterward, and there was now no opposition to Edgar's accession (A. D. 958) or to Dunstan's return. 58. Edgar was a grateful and obedient ally of the party which had raised him to the throne ; and as the monks were the only historians of the time, we shall not wonder to find him represented as one of the greatest, wisest, and best of monarchs. He was in truth able and efficient ; and the pow- erful fleet which he maintained checked all hostile movements of the Danes, either within his own borders or beyond the seas. By Dunstan's advice, he divided Northumbria into three great earldoms. Deira (§ 25), south of the Tees, be- 38 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 958. came the modern Yorkshire; the central portion, between the Tees and the Tweed, kept the ancient name of the whole ; and the country north of the Tweed, now called Lothian, was bestowed as an English fief upon the King of Scots. It be- came the favorite residence of the Scottish kings, who fixed their capital at Edinburgh, or Edwhis borough, so called from the first Christian king of Northumbria (§ 30). 59. The forbearance of the foreign Danes may have been due to their obtaining extensive territories in the north-west of France, which for a time afforded room for all the new- comers from the northern shores. The duchy of Normandy was to have an important part in the history of England. Edgar gained many victories over the tributary, but not always obedient, princes of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the Orkneys, and the Isle of Man. On one occasion, when he was making his yearly inspection of all the English coasts, his barge was rowed up the River Dee by eight vassal kings. 60. Among Edgar's first acts was the elevation of Dunstan to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The primate found ex- ercise for his great talents and indomitable will, in reforming the English convents after the strict rule of the Benedictines. This order had arisen in Italy nearly four hundred years be- fore, and had already done good service to the world by copying and preserving the greatest treasures of ancient lit- erature. Doubtless, too, the quiet retreat within convent walls afforded to many weak souls the only opportunity for a holy life, amid the corruptions and tumults of those dark ages. We only blame the monks when they presumed to judge the duty of others by their own, and to throw contempt and insult on relations which God had ordained. Up to this time, the parish priests in England were permitted, though certainly not encouraged, to marry. On this account the monks, or regular clergy, held them in disdain, and obtained from Edgar several laws which placed them at an unjust dis- A. D. 1000.] DANES AND NORMANS. 39 advantage. The people and country thanes stood by their pastors; but Dunstan succeeded in driving out a multitude of the married priests, and replacing them by his monks. 61. Edgar was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward the Martyr, a boy of thirteen years. But the enmity of his step-mother, Elfrida, a bold, ambitious woman, who desired to place her own son upon the throne, pursued him during his short and troubled reign of three years, and brought him at last to a violent death. Her son Ethelred was then crowned; but his reign of ' ° A. D. 978-1016. thirty-eight years brought little except trouble to himself or his people. The Danish inroads recommenced with terrible fury, and the King's surname, "the Unready," only too well expresses his weak and inefficient policy in dealing with them. By buying their retreat with 16,000 pounds of silver, he only insured their return in greater force, with a demand for 24,000, while he fixed upon his people, for the first time, an odious tax called the Dane-geld. 62. In A. D. 993, the kings of Denmark and Norway sailed up the Humber, and spread their ravages far and wide over the country. The next year, they entered the Thames with ninety-four vessels and besieged London. But the mer- chants and mechanics were braver than king or nobles, and the besiegers were at length forced to withdraw. A full third part of Great Britain and Ireland, with all the smaller islands belonging to them, were now in the grasp of the "Raven"; and Ethelred' s most trusted favorites sold the country to his enemies, almost under his eyes. 63. Ethelred was never ready for action, except at the wrong time. He wasted the force of his kingdom in rav- aging Cumberland, because King Malcolm would not help him to buy off the Danes; and he made a rash and unpre- pared invasion of Normandy, to punish its people for having harbored and encouraged the northern pirates. It was true that the plunder of England was regularly exchanged, on the 40 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 1000. wharves of Rouen, for the wines of France. But Ethelred's expedition failed; for the peasantry of the Norman coast, arming themselves "with hook and with crook, with fork and with spike, with club and with flail," made so valiant a resistance, that the English were glad to find refuge in their ships. 64. The settlement in north-western France, made under the grant of Charles the Simple to Rolf the Dane (§ 59), had grown into the rich and well-governed duchy of Nor- mandy. The sea-robbers dropped their piratical habits, to- gether with their old Norse language and the worship of Woden and Thor, and speedily surpassed their French neigh- bors in industry, intelligence, and the maintenance of public order. Golden bracelets are said to have been suspended for years, by the Duke's order, upon a tree near Rouen, no robber presuming to touch them. But in its most flourishing state of Christian civilization, Normandy always contained a strong pagan party, which kept up intimate relations with its kinsmen beyond the sea, and could call a swarm of "sea- dragons" into French harbors whenever the Duke had a quarrel with the King or with his Flemish neighbors. Peace being made, King Ethelred sought to conciliate both classes of Danes by marrying Emma, sister of Duke Richard II. But the very next year, with a cruelty no less idiotic than wicked, he ordered a massacre of all the Danes who had remained in England from the recent invasions. A sister of Sweyn, the King of Den- mark, was among the victims, after seeing the murder of her husband and children ; and in the agony of her despair she declared that her sufferings would be avenged by the ruin of the English king and people. 65. Her prophecy was fulfilled. The Danes soon ap- peared in irresistible force upon the western coasts, and for ten years Sweyn, rather than Ethelred, held sovereign power in England. Upon the death of the Dane, his son Knut A. D. 1016.] DANISH CONQUEST. 41 disputed the possession of the crown with Edmund Iron- sides, Ethelred's eldest son. The unready King died before the contest was decided, and his braver son was compelled to divide the kingdom with his Danish rival. But Edric, Duke of Mercia, one of Ethelred's most treacherous favorites, procured the murder of the Saxon prince, and Knut the Dane became king of all England. RECAPITULATION. Greatness of England under Athelstan. His foreign alliances and commerce with the Continent. Edmund bestows Srrathclyde upon King of Scotland. Edred subdues Northumbrian Danes. Talents and rising power of Dunstan. His contention with Edwy begins the rivalry of Church and State in England. Edgar's obedience to the Church ; he bestows Lothian upon Scot- tish king; his supremacy over neighboring princes. Dunstan reforms the monasteries and persecutes the secular clergy. Murder of Edward II. ; accession of Ethelred the Unready. Progress of the Danes. Ethel- red invades Normandy ; marries Emma ; orders massacre of Danes in England. Sweyn's supremacy. Death of Ethelred, murder of his son, and accession of Knut. Eng.— 4. V. DANISH KINGS AND SAXON RESTORATION. Death of Harold at Hastings. HERE were now five English princes who might have been candidates for the crown, but not one of age or character enough to dispute it with the victorious Dane. Edmund's own brother died the following year; his half- brothers, the sons of Ethelred and Emma, were in Normandy with their uncle; and his two little children were sent by Knut to the King of Sweden, with a hint, it is said, that they were to be put forever out of the way. King Olaf, choosing the more generous construction of this request, sent the infant princes to be educated at the court of King Stephen of Hungary. 67. Knut had already summoned a council of the whole nation at London, which chose him, by a nearly unanimous vote, to be "King of the English." Like a A. D. 1016-1035. . , 6 f wise ruler, he then set himself to make his authority as agreeable as possible to his new subjects. He dismissed his Danish followers, having first paid them lib- erally by a tax imposed upon the English ; he restored the laws and customs of Athelstan and Edgar ; and he provided for security of life and property by strict administration of justice. To hush the claims of the young sons of Ethelred to the crown, he proposed to marry their widowed mother; and Emma consented to the strange alliance. 68. Knut was a very pious king, according to the ideas (42) A. D. 1041.] KNUT AND HIS SONS. 43 of the time. He bestowed much wealth upon churches and monasteries, and went to Rome in the character of a pilgrim. Thence he wrote a kind and fatherly letter to his people, telling them the events of his journey, describing the gifts and honors which had been conferred upon him by the Pope and by the Emperor Conrad, in whose coronation he bore a distinguished part; and the privileges he had been able to obtain for his people. He confesses that the early years of his reign were oppressive, and promises redress, assuring them that King Knut needs no money which must be gained by injustice. If we modernize the spelling, we find this "King's English" easy to understand: "First, above all things, are men one God ever to love and worship, and one Christendom with one consent to hold, and Knut King to love with right truthfulness." 69. As the sovereign of a great Scandinavian empire, Knut often had to quit his island-kingdom to resist the in- roads of his neighbors on the Continent. In one of these campaigns, the Saxon Earl Godwin won the King's gratitude by his magnificent energy and valor; and was rewarded by marriage with the daughter of Knut, as well as by his perfect confidence and esteem. Knut left three sons : Sweyn and Harold from a first marriage, and Hardiknut, son of Emma. The latter should, by his parents' marriage contract, have succeeded to the English throne ; but he was absent in Den- mark, and was, moreover, hated by the Anglo-Danes. Harold was therefore proclaimed king; but Earl Godwin upheld the rights of Hardiknut, and the question was at length settled by a division, the younger prince having all the shires south of the Thames. 70. Harold died in A. D. 1040, and Hardiknut became king of all England. He was a drunken wretch, and his short reign presents nothing worth mentioning. Upon his death, his half-brother, Edward, now the only surviving son of Ethelred and Emma, came to the throne by the hearty choice 44 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 1042. of the people. ''Before Harold, King, buried were, all folk chose Edward to king at London," says the old Saxon chron- icle. But their joy in the restoration of their native line of rulers was soon clouded by disap- pointment. Edward was in fact a Frenchman, half by birth and wholly by preference. He loved the land of his educa- tion and early years better than that which he was called to rule. Most of the high places in the church and about his court were given to Normans, who despised the civil freedom and sneered at the barbarous language and manners of the English. They could not understand a government where even a churl might have his place in the great council, and under which the poorest man's hut was as inviolable as the earl's castle. 71. This feeling came to a violent outbreak when Eustace, Count of Boulogne, a great lord from over the Channel, came to visit his brother-in-law, King Edward, with a long train of attendants. Returning through Dover, his followers attempted to force themselves into free quarters in the houses of the citizens. The master of one house was killed while defending his home, and the whole city rose in tumult to avenge him. Nearly forty persons were killed on both sides. The Count, hastening back to Edward's court, bitterly complained of the insult to his dignity, and demanded the punishment of the offenders. The King instantly ordered a military execution, with all the horrors of fire and sword; but Earl Godwin, who was Governor of Dover, firmly re- fused to execute the sentence. He told Count Eustace that law, not violence, was supreme in England : let him bring his complaint into a court of justice, and all who were guilty would surely be punished. 72. For this defense of his countrymen, Earl Godwin and his four sons were banished; and their governments, com- prising one-third of all England, were given to others. Their private estates were confiscated; and even the Queen, a A. D. 1052.] EARL GODWIN. 45 daughter of Godwin, was imprisoned in a convent. Nothing remained to oppose the foreign party in the court, and within a few months, William, Duke of Normandy, came with a great retinue to visit the King. He was received with great honors, and so conducted himself as to acquire Edward's confidence and good-will. It is supposed that at this time the King, who had no children, promised to recom- mend his Norman cousin to the witan, as a candidate for the English crown. 73. But Godwin was not yet forgotten by the nation whose champion he was; and he had, moreover, many powerful friends abroad. His son Harold raised a squadron in Ireland, while Godwin collected a still larger fleet in the Flemish ports. Joining their forces at the Isle of Wight, they sailed to London, followed along the shore by a constantly increas- ing multitude of men, who declared their determination to live or die with the great Earl. The King's levies stood on the north bank of the Thames; but Godwin's army, unsum- moned save by its own will, crowded the southern bank. The Earl held back his forces : he would rather die, he said, than do or permit any act of irreverence toward his lord the King. 74. The witenagemote, now summoned to decide between the native and foreign government of England, met in arms without the walls of London (§ 48). With his four brave sons, Godwin took his place in the assembly. He knelt and laid his battle-ax at the feet of the King ; then, rising, asked leave to defend himself from the unjust charges which had been brought against himself and his house. His short but eloquent speech was received with shouts of approval. The voice of his countrymen pronounced him guiltless, and de- creed the restoration of all their honors and estates to him- self, his sons, and his followers. The Queen was brought back from her convent, and resumed her true place in the court. 46 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 1052. 75. All the French were pronounced outlaws, because they had given bad counsel to the King, and brought un- righteous judgments into the land. A third decree restored the "good laws" of Edward's earlier days. At the first de- cision to refer Godwin's cause, not to the sword, but to the votes of a free people, the Norman bishops, priests, and knights, who had been eating up the land, took horse and fled : even the Primate, quitting his holy orifice, sought refuge beyond the sea. A better time dawned upon England when her own best men held sway. But Earl Godwin did not live long to enjoy his restored honors. He was succeeded in all his dignities, and in more than his popularity, by his son Harold, whose noble qualities had already won the confi- dence of king and people. 76. Under Harold's ministry, an invasion of Scotland was ordered by the witan, and executed by Siward, Earl of Northumberland, — a chief of extraordinary strength and courage, who was reputed (ages before Mr. Darwin lived) to have had for one of his ancestors a Norwegian bear. Macbeth, Thane of Moray, had murdered his king, Duncan, and possessed his throne. But Duncan's son, Malcolm, now reclaimed his rights, and was raised by Earl Siward's victory to the throne of his fathers. Macbeth was slain in battle, four years later. Malcolm had spent fifteen years of his exile at Edward's court, where he laid aside his Gaelic speech and costume, and acquired that foreign culture which ever afterward pre- vailed in the Scottish government, however odious it may have been for a time to the Scottish people. The history of Malcolm, in fact, was much like that of his patron and over- lord. Both spent their youth in exile, — Edward in Nor- mandy, and Malcolm in England; and both exchanged their native language, tastes, and habits for those of more cultivated nations. 77. King Edward, growing old and having no son, sent A. D. 1065.] HAROLD AND WILLIAM. 47 to Hungary for his nephew, the only surviving son of Ed- mund Ironsides (§ 66). But the prince died a few days after his arrival in England, leaving his son Edgar, with two sisters, as the sole representatives of Cerdic's royal line. Edgar the Atheling was a feeble child, and it was then thought essential that an English king should be born and bred in England. The "wise men " had therefore to look for another successor to the throne ; and there is little doubt that their choice fell on Earl Harold, who, though claiming no descent from Wo- den, was the greatest living Englishman in all the qualities of mind and body which befitted a king. He had been intrusted since his father's death with the chief administration of the English government. He had conquered the Welsh and es- tablished the royal authority over Scotland. Every-where his strong hand had maintained the honor and safety of England. 78. At one time, when cruising for pleasure in the English Channel, he had been shipwrecked upon the Norman coast. According to the barbarous custom of that day, he was seized and held for ransom ; but as soon as Duke William heard of it, he ordered his release, and welcomed him with splendid hospitality at the Norman court. Before he was permitted to depart, he was compelled to enter into engagements with William, the nature of which has been very differently represented by different writers. Some say that he promised to support the Duke's pretensions to the English throne, and to put him in possession, even during Edward's life, of the castle and well of Dover, and of several other fortresses which Harold held under his oath of alle- giance to his King. If Harold made any such engagement, he promised what it would have been treason to perform; and we want better witness than that of his enemies, — who, after his death, sought in every way to blacken his memory and exalt the fame of the Duke, his conqueror,— before we believe that the lifelong champion of English independence ever swore to betray his country to the Normans. 48 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 1065. 79. Returning to England, Harold, by his bravery and prudence, raised himself to yet higher influence. His brother Tostig had been appointed Earl of Northumberland; but his merciless enforcement of justice, in that distracted country, enraged the people, who rebelled with the aid of Edwin and Morcar, grandsons of the former Earl. Harold was sent to put down the revolt ; but finding that some of the complaints against his brother were well founded, he persuaded the King to confirm Morcar in the earldom. He also obtained the government of Mercia for Edwin, Morcar's brother; and he married their sister, widow of the Welsh prince Griffith, whom he had conquered. 80. King Edward died Jan. 5, 1066. From his death-bed he stretched out his hand to the Earl of the West Saxons, and said, "To thee, Harold my brother, I commit my kingdom." In spite of his weaknesses and errors, Edward was dearly loved by his people ; and later sovereigns well knew that the surest way to win their favor was to promise the enforcement of his laws. He was the first English king whose touch was believed to be a cure for scrofula. About a hundred years after his death he was canonized as a saint, and is usually called " the Confessor." He was buried in the West Minster, a magnificent church which he had dedicated to St. Peter (§ 29) a few days before, — the building of which had been the chief employment of his later years. It continues to this day to be the burial-place of England's heroes and statesmen, though her princes are buried at Windsor. Edward's tomb is among its most imposing objects, and near it is the chair of stone in which every English sovereign sits at his cor- onation. 81. On the same day and under the same roof which witnessed Edward's burial, Harold, son of Godwin, was crowned. It was a memorable year that was A. D. 1066. . J opened by these solemn rites. Before its close, England had suffered two great invasions from the north and A. D. 1066.] BATTLE OF STAMFORD BRIDGE. 49 from the south, had raised and maintained greater fleets and armies than she had ever known before, and finally submitted to the yoke of the Norman conqueror. 82. Tostig, the brother of Harold, was the only domestic traitor of whom we know. He stirred up Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, to make England again the seat of a great Scandinavian empire, like that of Knut (§ 69). With a fleet greater than had ever issued from any northern port, joined by ships from Iceland, the Orkneys, Scotland, Flanders, and the Danish settlements in Ireland, the Norwegian King sailed southward along the eastern coasts of England, burned Scar- borough and Holderness, and, landing, defeated Edwin and Morcar in a fierce battle near York. 83. That northern capital opened its gates to the invader before King Harold of England could come to its rescue. He had left the defense of the northern counties to their own earls, while he himself watched the southern coast, where the Normans were expected. But when he heard of the ill suc- cess of Edwin and Morcaf, he marched northward with all speed. The two Harolds met at Stamford Bridge, and in a hard- fought battle of a whole day, the northern hosts were ox thrown. Their King and leader was slain : Tostig, too, expiated his treason with his life. In the midst of a banquet at York in honor of this victory, Harold of England received news of the landing of the Normans in Sussex. 84. When Duke William, hunting in the park near Rouen, heard of King Edward's death and of Harold's accession to the throne, he was filled with rage, and branded the Saxon prince as a perjurer and usurper. He instantly sent off an embassy summoning Harold to resign his crown. This King Harold naturally refused to do ; and he even expelled from England all the Normans, who by King Edward's favor had been growing rich in English offices and estates. William was neither disappointed nor displeased; for this response Eng.— 5. 50 OLD ENGLAND. [A. D. 1066. opened a way for the movement which he had long ago re- solved to make. 85. An army of 60,000 men was on foot, and a fleet of nearly 1,000 sail was soon ready to convey it across the Channel. The Pope blessed and furthered the enterprise, on condition that the kingdom, when conquered, should be held as a fief of St. Peter. The great battle which was to turn the fate of England was fought at Senlac, nine miles from the seaport of Hastings. Harold fought on foot at the head of his infantry; but the best of his soldiers had fallen in the north, and the rest were wearied with forced marches, while the Normans were fresh and confident. The English were more or less disheartened by the Pope's displeasure ; and they had tried to drown their terrors, during the night before the battle, by revelry which had not made their hands more steady or their hearts stronger. Neverthe- less, both sides fought with a bravery worthy of the prize for which they were contending, and the battle raged from morn- ing until long after nightfall. At one time the cry arose that the Duke of Normandy was slain, and his followers almost every-where gave way; but William, galloping bare-headed over the field, at length succeeded in rallying them. 86. At last the Saxon King and his two brothers fell, and the English ranks were broken. The scattered hosts were pursued with great slaughter, and the field remained to the Norman Duke. The Pope's consecrated banner took the place of Harold's standard; and on the same spot the altar of a magnificent abbey was erected by the Conqueror, that perpetual prayers might be offered for the repose of the souls that had passed away in that fierce conflict. 87. The important towns of Dover, Canterbury, and Win- chester surrendered freely to William. Earls Morcar and Edwin, with Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, made an attempt to crown Edgar the Atheling (§ 77), at London. But BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 51 the northern earls had plans of their own more important to them than the defense of England. They withdrew their forces, and the young king-elect, with most of his sup- porters, repaired to William's camp and offered their sub- mission. The chief men of southern England, churchmen and statesmen, seeing no further hope of resistance, begged the Conqueror to accept the English crown. They hoped that the holy office (for such it was then considered) of anointing and coronation would work as great a change in him as it had wrought in Knut (§ 67), and convert the stern invader into a wise and beneficent sovereign. RECAPITULATION. Knut, being chosen king by the Great Council, rules England wisely and well. Visits Rome ; has frequent wars in his northern empire ; confers power on Earl Godwin ; is succeeded by his two sons, Harold and Hardiknut ; the latter survives his brother, and reigns a year alone. "Edward the Confessor," becoming king, gives many offices and favors to foreigners. Godwin withstands the insolence of Count Eustace, and is exiled with his sons. Visit of William, Duke of Nor- mandy, to England. Godwin's triumphant return ; expulsion of the French. Harold, Godwin's son, becomes chief minister at his father's death. War against Macbeth of Scotland ; restoration of Malcolm Canmore. Death of Edward the Atheling ; choice of Harold to suc- ceed King Edward. His visit to Normandy ; his just dealings with Northumberland. Death of King Edward ; coronation of Harold II. England is invaded by Harold of Norway, who conquers York, but is defeated and slain at Stamford Bridge. William of Normandy de- feats Harold of England in the great battle of Senlac, near Hastings, and southern Britain submits to the Conqueror. VI. CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. WE pause a moment to see how the English people lived before they received a foreign king, and became sub- ject to foreign customs and laws. The Danish and Saxon sea- rovers had settled, by this time, into orderly people, tilling the soil, working the mines, — though less thoroughly than the Romans had done, — and carrying on an active trade with the Continent. English women were noted for their embroidery in gold thread, which was greatly valued in the French and Flemish cities. 89. Their houses were low wooden buildings, with a hole in the roof in place of a chimney, and with wooden benches for chairs. A few very rich men had glass in their windows ; but no one had carpets, though the walls were often covered with richly embroidered tapestry. 90. Before the time of Alfred, the monasteries were the only schools. They were not as strict and gloomy as the Benedictine institutions which Dunstan afterward introduced, but were more like great families gathered under one roof, or in a cluster of adjoining buildings, for study and devotion. Baeda — or the Venerable Bede, as he is commonly called — the first great English scholar, and the father of English learning, spent his long life in teaching the monks of Jarrow, and the boys whom their parents sent thither for instruction. For the benefit of his pupils, he put into familiar Latin text-books all that Western Europe then knew of science, literature, and the rules of music. His best known work is the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, which is written in Latin. He died at the moment of completing a translation of the Gospel of St. John into his own English tongue. 91. On the high cliffs of Whitby, looking out over the (52) CJEDMON. 53 German Ocean, the Abbess Hilda, a woman of royal birth, ruled a seminary of bishops and priests, as well as a con- vent of nuns. So great was her wisdom, that kings sought her counsel in state affairs. But her monastery is no less celebrated as the home of Caedmon, the first great English poet, who was only a poor cowherd. The English people loved music and the rough verses which recounted the brave deeds of their ancestors on sea and on land. After their evening meals, it was customary to pass the harp from hand to hand, that each in turn might sing for the entertainment of the rest. Caedmon the cowherd could not sing; so he was accustomed to slip away when the harp came near him. 92. One night when he had taken refuge in the stables, he saw a heavenly vision which said, "Sing, Caedmon, some song to me." "I can not sing," he replied, trembling. ' ' However that may be, you shall sing to me," rejoined the visitant. "What shall I sing?" murmured Caedmon. "The beginning of created things," was the reply ; and immediately there flowed from Caedmon' s lips a noble song of the Creation. He woke and felt that a new power had been given him. The Abbess and brethren bade him quit his humble toil and enter their order ; and the rest of his life was employed in rehearsing in Saxon verse the whole Sacred History as recorded in the Bible. 93. The zeal of the Irish missionaries made the north of England far superior to the rest of the island in means of education. The first English library was kept in the cathedral at York; and here a famous school was presided over first by Archbishop Egbert, and afterward by Alcuin, the friend of Charlemagne. King Alfred said that at his accession he knew no person south of the Thames, and but few south of the Humber, who understood the prayers in the churches. In that age, indeed, many a king "made his mark" at the foot of charters and treaties, because he could not write his name. Alfred provided for the education of his subjects 54 OLD ENGLAND. south of the Watling Street, and he is even claimed as the founder of the University of Oxford. However this may be, he was the founder of English prose-writing. The ' ' Anglo- Saxon Chronicle," first reduced to regular form in his day, and kept for centuries by the monks of Abingdon and Peter- borough, is our chief authority for early English history. 94. The relations between nobles and common people un- derwent some important changes under the later Saxon kings. Many free land-holders, unable to maintain their independence, attached themselves to powerful lords, engaging to follow them in war, and sealed the agreement by the ceremony of homage. Kneeling before his new master, the vassal promised to be 11 his man for life and limb." The same ceremony was re- peated, with greater magnificence, when the King of Scots did homage to Edgar or Edward for his earldoms of Cumbria and Lothian, or when the great Duke of Normandy rendered his princely fealty to the King of the French. 95. This " Feudal System" of military service in exchange for lands and protection was universal in France, and it was fixed upon England by the Norman Conquest, especially after the great revolts and confiscations which resulted from the Conqueror's absence. It was then assumed that the whole land belonged to the King, who divided it in knights' fees among his followers, not only by way of rewarding their services, but for precaution against another English insurrec- tion. This standing army of 60,000 knights, whose strong castles commanded the entire country, completed the work which the Battle of Senlac had begun. RECAPITULATION. Industry and simple dwellings of the Saxons. Schools in the mon- asteries. Labors of Bede as writer and teacher. Hilda's abbey at Whitby is the home of Credmon the poet. Libraries and schools in the north of England. Alfred's labors in the south. Rise of the Feudal System; it becomes permanent after the Norman Conquest. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PART I. 1. What is known of the earliest inhabitants of Britain? §§ i, 2 2. What evidence exists of the habits of these prehistoric people ? 3-5 3. Who were the first known visitors to the British Isles? 6 4. Describe the wars of Caesar with the Britons. 7, 8 5. The campaigns of Plautius and Ostorius. 9, 10 6. The Druids, and their extermination. 1 1— 13 7. The revolt of Boadicea. 14 8. The policy and success of Agricola. 15 9. The inhabitants of Northern Britain. 16, 20, 21 10. What Roman emperors were at any time in the island? 9, 16-18 11. Who was the first Christian emperor? 18 12. What were the effects of Roman influence in Britain? 9, 15, 19 13. Describe the second conquest of Britain. 17 22, 25 14. The customs of the Germans. 26, 45, 49, 50 15. Why did the Romans abandon Britain? 21 16. What was the condition of Ireland in the fifth century? 24 17. When and how was Christianity introduced into Britain? 18, 24, 25, 27-30 18. Name the German kingdoms in England. 25 19. What kings gave tribute to the Pope? 31 20. Which kingdom ultimately absorbed all the rest ? 26, 32, ^ 21. Describe the Danish incursions. 34, 35 22. The youth and reign of Alfred. 36-46 23. On what conditions were the Danes settled in England ? 43 24. Describe the dominion of Edward the Elder. 47 25. The greatness of Athelstan. 51, 52 26. The reigns of his brothers. 53 27. The character and history of Dunstan. 54~58 28. The reign of Edgar the Pacific. 57-6° 29. Tell about monks and monasteries in England. 28, 30, 44, 60 30. Describe the two sons of Edgar. 61-65 31. The reigns of Knut and his sons. 67-70 (55) 56 OLD ENGLAND. 32. Tell the history of Edward the Confessor. gg 66, 70-77, 80 33. What relations between the kings of Scotland and of England ? 53» 58, 63, 76 34. Relate the history of Harold, Godwin's son. 75~ 86 35. Describe the Norman Conquest. 84-87 36. The houses and employments of the Saxons. 88, 89 37. The early English monasteries. 90, 91 38. Tell the story of the first English poet. 9 1 * 9 2 39. What differences between the north and south of England? 93 40. Describe the rise and progress of feudalism in England. 94, 95 Saxon and Danish Kings. Egbert. 1 Ethelwolf. 1 1 1 Athelstan. Ethelbald. 1 1 Ethelbert. Ethelred. 1 Alfred. I I Edmund. Ethelward. 1 Edward. 1 ATHELSTj \N. 1 Ethelr 1 Edmune Ironside 1 1 Edward the Exile 1 Edmund. 1 1 Edred. 1 Edward the Martyr. 861. Edmund. M 66, 77- 1 1 Edwy. Edgar. I ed II. m. 2 Emma of Normandy, who m. > 1 Edward the Confessor. t m. King Malcolm III. .nd. 1 99. m. Henry I. of \ 115. (Seep. 69.) 2 Knut, Hakdi- KNUT. 2 69. 1 Edgar the Atheling. U 77, 87. 1 Margaie of Scotia 1 Matilda England PART II.-FEUDAL ENGLAND. I. THE REIGN OF THE CONQUEROR. Norman Knights. ILLIAM of Normandy was crowned in Westminster Ab- bey, Dec. 25, 1066, one year from the day of its consecra- tion (§ 80). Both English and Norman nobles were present, and perfect good-will appeared within the building. To the question, "Will you have William, Duke of Nor- mandy, for your king?" both parties answered Yes, with loud acclamations. But the Norman soldiers without, fancying that the noise meant vio- lence against their Duke, attacked the crowd which a not unkindly curiosity had collected about the doors, and even set fire to houses in the neighborhood. The new King, after hastily receiving his crown from the Archbishop, succeeded in quieting the tumult ; but not until a bitter sense of per- sonal wrong had been added to the national despair of the English. (57) 58 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1066. 97. William loved justice, and tried to reconcile the people to his rule by enforcing the laws impartially on rich and poor, English and foreigners alike. He attempted to learn English, that he might the better understand and govern his new subjects. Though he placed his Normans in all civil and military commands, and divided among them the estates of those who had fallen at Stamford Bridge and Senlac, he at first left all other proprietors in possession of their lands. He built strong castles to overawe London, Winchester, and other cities ; but he took care to confirm all the commercial and other privileges which those cities had enjoyed. By thus covering the hand of steel with the glove of velvet, he so far smoothed away opposition that he thought it safe to revisit Normandy, taking with him many English earls to swell his royal train, and display the wealth of the conquered country, while they served as hostages for the good behavior of their countrymen. 98. His absence was a disaster to England, for his officers were neither so just nor so wise as their chief; and their vio- lence and greed aroused hatreds between the races, which required centuries to appease. Only half of England was yet conquered. The men of the Danelagh scorned submis- sion to the Norman Duke, and offered their homage to Sweyn, King of Denmark, who, in A. D. 1069, entered the Humber with a great fleet and army, and laid siege to York. It was taken, and the Norman garrison of 3,000 men was put to the sword. 99. Multitudes of the English, who had hitherto smothered their discontent, took courage to throw off the Norman rule, and the kingdom was every-where ripe for revolt. But Wil- liam now acted with extreme and effectual severity. To guard against future inroads of either Scots or Danes, he laid waste the whole fertile tract between the Humber and the Tees, and one hundred thousand persons are supposed to have perished with hunger and cold. Many of the Danes and A. D. 1074.] REVOLT OF THE NORMANS. 59 Saxons took to the woods as robbers and outlaws; others repaired to Constantinople and enlisted in the guards of the Emperor of the East. A large party of nobles was hospitably received by Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland, — among them Edgar the Atheling with his two sisters, one of whom became the wife of the Scottish King. 100. The greater part of the English lands were now di- vided among William's knights, and all the high places in church and state were bestowed upon foreigners. Among these, the worthiest was Lanfranc, a Pavian monk, whose piety and learning had already wrought a great reformation in the Norman monasteries, and who was now made Primate of England. The last Englishman who retained any power or impor- tance was Waltheof, Siward's son (§ 76), who, having been received into the Conqueror's favor, had married the Lady Judith, his niece, and had been presented with three rich earldoms. Now it so chanced that the high-spirited Norman barons, who always resented the imperious temper of their Duke, had become still more restive upon his elevation to royal rank; and at a wedding party,' when the wine was freely flowing, an actual revolt was proposed. Waltheof assented with the rest; but morning brought cooler judg- ment, and he revealed the plot to his wife. If Judith had been faithful, all might yet have gone well; but she hated her husband, and availed herself of this means to ruin him. 101. The King was then in Normandy, where he received a letter from Lady Judith informing him of the conspiracy, and aggravating Waltheof 's guilt. Waltheof himself hastened to Normandy, in order to detail the whole affair to the King. But William's mind was poisoned; and departing from his usual justice, he nursed his wrath until a" day of retribution. Before his return to England the revolt was suppressed by his officers, with the aid of the English themselves ; but the punishment of the offenders was reserved for the King, and 60 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1075. was executed with uncommon severity. Some were deprived of their eyes, some immured in dungeons ; but Waltheof, the least guilty, suffered the heaviest penalty : he was condemned and beheaded as a traitor. His wife gained nothing by her crime; for she soon fell under the King's displeasure, and passed her life in shame and remorse, the object of universal contempt. 102. Waltheof 's tomb was visited as the shrine of a martyr. The English believed that William's good fortune deserted him on the day when Waltheof died. " His bow was broken, his sword blunted," and peace departed from him. The Conqueror's last yeare were, indeed, visited by the heaviest sorrows. His eldest son, Robert, was a turbulent and mis- governed youth, who wished to enter upon his continental dominions even during his father's life-time. A party of tur- bulent young courtiers attached themselves to the Prince, and the quarrel came to open war. The King of France, always jealous of the Duke's greatness, gave Robert for his head- quarters a fortress on his father's frontier, whence he and his wild companions sallied forth to ravage Normandy. 103. William besieged the castle, and in a fight beneath its walls, father and son, both concealed by their helmets, met in deadly combat. William received a wound, and his cry for aid first revealed to his son the person of his oppo- nent. Struck with remorse and terror, Robert fell on his knees and begged his father's pardon. By the intervention of the barons, and especially of Matilda, the noble wife of the Conqueror, peace was for a time restored. Robert, vis- iting England for the first time, was intrusted with the com- mand of an expedition into Scotland. 104. The Scotch and the Welsh were pacified, but William had a nearer foe to meet in his half-brother, Odo, whom he had intrusted with the government of England in his absence. Odo, though a bishop, had desired to be a king; but this ambition was exchanged for a still higher one. The reigning A. D. 1087.] DOMESDAY- BOOK. 61 Pope, Hildebrand, had offended all princes by his overbear- ing conduct. Odo used his brother's treasures to buy votes in Rome, and bribed his brother's soldiers to enter his serv- ice, with a view to transporting an army to Italy and seizing the papal throne by force. William arrived from Normandy just in time to check this bold enterprise. He arrested Bishop Odo with his own hands, and sent him to a prison cell in the castle of Rouen. Good Queen Matilda, worn out with cares and sorrows, died soon afterward, and the Con- queror was scarcely ever seen to smile again. 105. His enemies were many. King Knut of Denmark prepared a great armada, with the secret encouragement of the men of north-eastern England, hoping to regain his grand- father's island dominions. The fleet was " glued to the coast" by head-winds, raised, as the superstitious believed, by the spells of wierd women; but the only magic in the case was wrought by English gold, artfully distributed by King Wil- liam's agents among the Danish chiefs. 106. In order to distribute evenly the charges of his enor- mous preparations for defense, William resorted to the most celebrated act of his reign. Commissioners were appointed in every town and city in England, except London and the four northern counties, to make an exact registration of all land and capital. Their reports were arranged and copied on vellum into the two great volumes of the Domesday-Book, in which Englishmen may yet see the possessions of their an- cestors accurately described. 107. Prince Robert was again in rebellion, and it was probably by his influence that the men of Mantes declared war against King William, and plundered his neighboring dominions. In revenge, the Norman soldiers set fire to Mantes; and their King, though now aged and heavy with infirmity, rode to see the ruin. His horse stumbled upon a burning brand, and the King received a mortal injury. Con- scious of his approaching end, he divided his dominions 62 FEUDAL ENGLAND. among his sons. Robert was to have Normandy, the ancient and most honorable possession of his house; William, sur- named Rufus, was to be King of England; Henry, the youngest, had no lands, but he received a great treasure in silver. 108. William and Henry only awaited the announcement of their inheritance, then hurried away to secure it, leaving their dying father in the care of hirelings. No sooner was the King's breath departed than his attendants rushed to horse, eager to secure their own interests under the new reign. The lowest servants purloined every article within reach, and fled, leaving their master unattended on the floor. The obsequies of the King and Conqueror were cared for by a poor knight named Herlouin, who as sole mourner attended the body to Caen, there to be interred in a magnificent abbey which William himself had built. As if peace were denied the unhappy Conqueror even in death, Caen was at that moment a prey to a conflagration, which destroyed a great portion of the city and dispersed the funeral train, leaving only a few monks about the corpse. 109. At the moment when " Ashes to ashes, dust to dust" was about to be chanted, a voice rang through the abbey forbidding the burial, for the reason that the ground where the grave was dug had been unjustly taken from its rightful owner, the father of the complainant. The funeral rites were suspended, while witnesses were examined and money counted to pay the debt: then, at last, the mortal body of the Con- queror was at rest. RECAPITULATION. Coronation of William the Conqueror at Westminster; he begins his reign with clemency. Revolts in his absence from England. Dev- astation of Yorkshire, and distribution of lands and revenues among his Norman followers. Primacy of Lanfranc. Fall of Waltheof; troubles of William's later years. Rebellion of his sons. Menaces of the Danish King. Domesday-Book. William's death and burial. II. LATER NORMAN KINGS. ILLIAM II. (A. D. 1087-1100), arriv- ing in England, seized the royal treas- ury and several fortresses before he made known his father's death. The Primate, Lanfranc, then made haste to crown him, before opposition could be made. The new King was a selfish tyrant, unrestrained by religion or law from using his great talents solely for the pursuit of pleasure and power. Lanfranc's death, in A. D. 1089, was an occasion of bitter sorrow to the I English. Though foreign both to Nor- \ mandy and England, he was the friend, advocate, and protector of the common people, — a noble office which became inseparable from the primacy in the Church. in. Rufus hated the Church as a robber hates the judge. It was the only power that could rebuke and in some degree restrain his evil passions. For this reason he kept the great bishoprics vacant as long as possible, or sold them to the most unworthy persons; and when they were filled, he burdened them with enormous taxes. Upon Lanfranc's death, the King kept for his own use the great revenues of the see of Canterbury ; but after some years a severe illness awakened his conscience, and he called Anselm, a man of great excellence of character, to fill the vacant place. When William got well he resumed his (63) ' a^ ft/ 7 ~^ Death of William II. 64 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1096. old crimes, but he found in Anselm a firm and able oppo- nent. Then followed a long and angry contest between the King and the Primate ; and the latter, quitting England, took refuge with the Pope. 112. Several years were spent in wars between William and his two brothers, for the possession of their father's whole dominions. Many of the barons had estates both in England and Normandy, and it was impossible for them to serve two masters so at variance as were William and Robert. At this time a strange enthusiasm had seized upon all nations and ranks of people in Europe. Palestine had been con- quered by the Turks, who ill-treated Christian pilgrims to the holy places; and at the appeal of the sufferers, all Christendom sprang to arms, eager to wrest the sepulcher of Christ from the hands of the unbelievers. Knights who had not the means to equip their followers, sold or mort- gaged their lands for ready money; and people of cooler blood, who staid at home, often grew rich by these invest- ments. 113. Robert of Normandy was among the leaders in the first Crusade. To obtain the needful funds, he pledged his entire dominions to his brother William for 10,000 marks. William was not troubled by either zeal or scruples in matters of religion. He extorted the money from all classes of his subjects, even forcing the churches to melt their gold and silver plate to furnish their quota; and then hastened to seize the mortgaged provinces, hoping that death or poverty would keep Robert from ever reclaiming them. 114. Among the worst acts of the Conqueror had been the turning of large tracts of land into hunting-grounds. "He loved the tall deer as if he were their father," says an old rhyme ; and, in fact, the killing of the King's game was more heavily punished than the murder of a man. In forming the New Forest in Hampshire, sixty villages were burnt. Under A. D. iioi.] HENRY BEAUCLERC. 65 William Rufus, one-third of all the lands in England were "King's Forests." In these tracts no law existed excepting the King's own will, — a sufficient reason for their being fa- vorite resorts of the godless King and his reckless followers. William II. was killed, by the arrow either of ■ ' 1 ; -1 1 ■ ■ , A D - IIO °- a hunter or an assassin, while hunting in the New Forest, — the third of his family who met violent deaths within the same inclosure ; and the poor people whose homes had been destroyed for this cruel sport, exclaimed that his fate was a proof of the righteous judgments of Heaven. 115. Henry (A. D. 1100-1135), the youngest son of the Conqueror, was hunting in the same forest when he heard of his brother's death. He instantly put spurs to his horse and hastened to secure the royal treasury at Winchester; then galloping on to London, was saluted as King by the bishops and nobles, and crowned in Westminster Abbey, three days from the death of Rufus. Henry, who had been born and educated in England, spoke its language well, and was a great favorite with the people. His writs and charters were issued in English, instead of Latin. He sol- emnly swore to observe the laws of Edward the Confessor, and he granted to London its first municipal charter. His learning, unusual in that age, gained him the surname of Beauclerc, or the Fine Scholar. He pleased the people most of all by marrying Matilda, the Scottish princess, who was great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironsides (§§ 65, 66, 99), so that in her descendants the ancient line of Cerdic and of Woden was held to be restored. (See Table p. 56.) 116. Duke Robert, returning from the Holy Land, took undisputed possession of Normandy, and then proceeded with his army of crusaders to enforce his claims to the English crown. The two brothers pitched their camps in sight of each other; but several days passed, while both dreaded to begin the unbrotherly strife. By the good offices of Anselm and others, an accommodation was made at length, Eng. — 6. 66 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1106. Robert receiving 3,000 marks a year in exchange for his claims; but the treaty was kept only four years. Finding that the Norman barons were dissatisfied with their Duke, Henry crossed the Channel with a great army and gained a decisive victory over his brother; then receiving the homage of all the vassals, he returned to England, carrying Robert with him as a prisoner. The deposed Duke lived twenty-eight years in close captivity, and died, at last, in Cardiff Castle. 117. His son took refuge with the King of France, whose attacks upon Normandy, in the name of the young prince, kept King Henry in continual disquiet. The King reaped, indeed, little joy and much sorrow from his ambitious and unjust schemes. In 11 20, having concluded a peace with the French sovereign, he was sailing gayly from Barfleur, in company with his only and idolized son, William, who had just received the homage of the Norman barons as heir of all his father's dominions. Some accident delayed the sailing of the prince's vessel, and its sailors spent the time in a carouse. When at last it got to sea, the drunken pilot ran the ship upon a rock, and all on board were drowned. When news of the terrible disaster reached King Henry, he fainted away and never smiled again. 118. His only child was now Matilda, wife of the Emperor Henry V. In that turbulent age, sovereignty demanded mil- itary power and activity for its support ; and neither Normans nor Saxons had ever tried the hazardous experiment of placing the crown on a woman's head. Nevertheless, Henry deter- mined that, for want of a son, his daughter should succeed him. After the Emperor's death, Matilda was married to Geoffrey, Count of Anjou;* and on the occasion of her * Count Geoffrey was wont to wear in his cap a sprig of gencsta, the common broom of Anjou ; whence he acquired the nickname of " Plantagenet," which was borne by all his royal descendants. A. D. 1 138.] MATILDA AND STEPHEN. 67 second marriage, all the great nobles, both of Normandy and England, did homage to her as their liege lady. Their oaths of fealty were repeated after the birth of her son Henry; and, two years later, King Henry died, bequeathing all his dominions to Matilda. 119. Now, there was a grandson of the Conqueror (by his daughter Adela, Countess of Blois) who felt his claims in- fringed by this novel assertion of a woman's rights. Stephen of Blois, and his brother Henry, had been invited to England by Matilda's father, and had been loaded by him with honors and estates. In return, they professed great gratitude and affection for King Henry, and desire for the accession of his daughter to the throne. But no sooner was Henry dead, than Count Stephen hastened to London, and by false state- ments induced the Primate to crown and anoint him as king. Great reverence was felt for the religious rite of kingly con- secration ; and its effect was increased by a bull which Stephen obtained from the Pope, confirming his title. Nor- mandy followed the example of England, and acknowledged Stephen (A. D. 1135-1154) as its sovereign. 120. Foreseeing troubled times, not only the barons but the clergy now fortified their dwellings; and the land began to bristle all over with castles which were strongholds of feudal violence and oppression. Bands of robbers, rushing forth by night or day from these castles, despoiled harvest- fields, villages, and even cities; tortured their captives to make them confess where treasures were concealed, and even sold them into slavery beyond seas. Tillage ceased, and a terrible famine seemed like a scourge of God upon the wicked passions of men. 121. King David of Scotland invaded the north country, to enforce his niece's right to the crown; but he was defeated by Stephen's nobility in a great battle at North Allerton. Matilda herself came to claim her kingdom, and was joined by many barons who had become restive under the iron hand 68 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1141. of Stephen. Her chief supporter was Robert, Earl of Glou- cester, her half-brother. Henry, Bishop of Winchester, the Pope's legate and brother of King Stephen (§ 119), also for a time embraced her cause, being offended in a violent quar- rel between his brother and the clergy. In a battle near Lincoln, Stephen was captured, and sent as a prisoner to Gloucester Castle. 122. Matilda was then solemnly acknowledged as queen by an assembly of the clergy, and her authority seemed on the point of being established over the whole kingdom. But her haughty temper cost her a crown. She peremptorily refused the three conditions proposed by her friends : the restoration of King Edward's laws; the confirmation of Eustace, son of Stephen, in his father's inherited estates; and the release of Stephen himself from imprisonment, on his promise to resign all claim to the crown, and to enter a monastery. The Pope's legate, offended by her rejection of his advice, took up arms against her; and Robert of Gloucester, her brother and chief defender, was soon afterward taken in battle. Matilda was compelled to exchange King Stephen for him, and the flames of civil war raged for some years more fiercely than ever. At length, the Queen retired into Normandy ; and about the same time, her brother died. 123. The condition of affairs changed as Prince Henry, Matilda's son, grew up to manhood. He spent some years in Scotland, whence he made incursions into England; and by his ability in war, revived the confidence of his party. At the age of seventeen, he was made Duke of Normandy by his mother's consent; and soon after, upon the death of his father, he became Count of Maine and Anjou. His ^ fortunes were increased by marriage with a great A. D. 1152. . j o o heiress, Eleanor of Aquitaine, the discarded wife of the French King, Louis VII. Henry thus possessed the entire western coast of France. A. D. 1 154.] DEATH OF STEPHEN. 69 His promotion in rank and wealth led the barons in Eng- land to invite him thither, and in 1153 he crossed the Chan- nel with an army. A great battle was averted by mediation. Stephen and Henry spoke with each other from opposite sides of the Thames, and agreed that the former should possess the crown during his life, while the latter was ac- knowledged as its next inheritor. The Duke of Normandy then departed from England ; and Stephen's death, which occurred the following year, made way for Henry's peace- able accession to the throne. RECAPITULATION. Death of Lanfranc. William Rufus robs the Church ; oppresses his people; quarrels with Anselm ; makes war with his brothers; ob- tains mortgage of Normandy; reserves one-third of England for his hunting-grounds ; is killed while hunting in the New Forest. Henry Beauclerc marries a Saxon wife ; writes and speaks English. Defeats and imprisons his brother; loses his only son; bequeaths his kingdom to his daughter. Stephen of Blois obtains the crown with the Pope's blessing. England is infested by robber-castles. Matilda invades the kingdom. Stephen in prison. Matilda rejects the terms of settlement ; is de- feated and exiled. Her son Henry marries the Duchess of Aquitaine ; is acknowledged as Stephen's heir. Norman Line. William I., the Conqueror. I I l I Robert, D. of William II. Henry I. m. Adela m. Normandy, Matilda of Count of Blois. d. 1134. §116. Scotland, § 118. I Stephen. I I William Matilda m. 2. d. 1120. §117. Count of Anjou. I Henry II. § 118. (Seep. 82.) III. THE FIRST OF PLANTAGENETS. Henry II. at the Tomb of Becket. ENRY II. (A. D. 1 1 54-1 1 89) began his reign with energy. He demolished the new fortresses which had been robbers' nests in Stephen's reign, dismissed the hired soldiery, and restored the coin to Henry was equally descended from the kings ; and he was the first of the (§"5-) its standard purity Norman and the Saxon Plantagenet line, which ruled England 331 years 125. The old struggle between king and clergy, which we have remarked in the days of Edwy and Dunstan, Rufus and Anselm, was now renewed with increased violence. Thomas a Becket, the son of a London merchant, was the first Eng- lishman since Waltheof who had risen to great power in the realm. He had improved his fine talents by studying law at and after his return he was loaded by King Henry (70) Bologna A. D. n 64.] THOMAS OF CANTERBURY. 71 with offices, revenues, and honors. He became Lord Chan- cellor ; he was followed by an army of knights ; great nobles and even the King often accepted his hospitality, and sought his aid in the education of their sons. Having proved the Chancellor's abilities in the most familiar intercourse, King Henry thought he was securing a useful instrument for his war upon the Church, when he appointed Becket to be Archbishop of Canterbury. 126. But with his promotion, Becket's character seemed to undergo a sudden and complete change. He withdrew from court; he exchanged his costly banquets for a scanty fare of bread and water; he tore his flesh with the scourge; and every day washed the feet of thirteen beggars, in imita- tion of his Master's humility. All this was, in effect, to de- clare war against the King. The main point of opposition was in the claim of the Church to judge all crimes committed by persons in her employ, independently of the secular courts. This was of vital importance; for during the first ten years of King Henry's reign, at least one hundred murders were committed by priests. Soon after Becket's consecration, a clerk committed a shameful crime, and attempted to conceal it by murder. The King commanded the offender to be given up to justice. Becket kept him in the bishop's prison, and insisted that he could only be punished by deprivation of his office. 127. Henry summoned a great council of bishops and nobles, with whose consent an important charter, called, from their place of assembly, the "Constitutions of Clarendon," was given to the people. It re- quired even clerical criminals to be judged by the civil laws. Becket, after violent resistance, swore to support the Con- stitutions; but when the Pope published a bull annulling the instrument, Becket expressed great sorrow and contrition for his former compliance, and tried to combine all the bishops in a league against the King. 72 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1164. 128. Open hostilities were prevented by Becket's secret flight from the kingdom. King Louis of France, having many causes of jealousy against the King of England, gladly received the Primate with all the honors due to a saint and a martyr. During his absence, the King's eldest son was crowned as associate monarch by the Archbishop of York. Becket obtained from the Pope a sentence deposing the northern metropolitan, and excommunicating all the bishops who had taken part in the service. King Henry being now in Normandy, Becket passed over into England, and was received with shouts of welcome. The common people, as well as the clergy, regarded him as their champion against kingly oppressions. 129. When King Henry heard of Becket's triumphal en- trance into Rochester and South wark, he exclaimed, "Is there none of all my servants who will rid me of this pesti- lent priest?" Four gentlemen of his household chose to understand these words as intimating a desire for Becket's death ; and, hastening to England, they murdered the Archbishop within his own cathedral at Can- terbury. The King solemnly declared himself innocent of the crime, and the Pope consented to be appeased. But the tomb of the Primate was revered as the shrine of a martyr. In one year 100,000 pilgrims flocked thither from all parts of Christendom; and miracles were reputed to be wrought by the holy relics. 130. Henry profited by the interval of peace to complete the conquest of Ireland, for which he had long ago obtained permission from the Pope. It was, indeed, already accom- plished, chiefly by Richard de Clare, more commonly called "Strongbow," afterward Earl of Pembroke, who, by taking advantage of feuds among the five Irish kings, and by mar- riage with the heiress of one of them, had obtained control of the whole island. King Henry had only to receive the homage of his new subjects. He confirmed most of the Irish A. D. 1 174.] THE KING'S PENITENCE. 73 chiefs in possession of their ancient estates, on condition of feudal homage ; and appointing Strongbow as his seneschal, or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, returned to England to receive the congratulations of his subjects, and the Pope's confirma- tion of his new sovereignty. 131. The tendency to family quarrels which disgraced the Norman line, seems to have descended, with its other inher- itances, to the Plantagenets. Henry's four sons were aided and abetted by their mother, Queen Eleanor, and by her former husband, the King of France, in rebellion against their father. War broke out in his French dominions; and, at the same time, his English kingdom was invaded by the Scots from the north and the Flemings from the east. These calamities pricked the sluggish conscience of the King, and he resolved to make peace with the murdered Becket. Crossing from Normandy on a penitential pilgrim- age, he dismounted as soon as he came within sight of Can- terbury Cathedral, and walked with bare head and feet to the holy shrine. Here he fasted and prayed all day and all night; and causing the whole brotherhood of monks to be assembled, presented each with a scourge, and begged them to apply the lashes severely to his naked shoulders, ' ' for the good of his soul." The next day he received absolution for J A. D. 1174. all his crimes and errors; and soon afterward learned that on that very day his army had gained a decisive victory over the Scots, whose king it had captured. The superstition of the time could not fail to accept the happy omen as proof of St. Thomas's forgiveness and the favor of Heaven. The King of France also made peace ; the English princes returned to their obedience; and the King of Scot- land, with all his nobles and bishops, did homage to Henry, acknowledging the suzerainty of the house of Plantagenet over himself and his descendants. 132. King Henry's domestic peace was not of long dura- tion. He had destined Ireland for his favorite and youngest Eng.— 7. 74 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1189. son, John; but that prince proved his wretched unfitness for governing, by driving the Irish chiefs into rebellion, and the King was compelled to recall him. Prince Henry died in France, in the midst of his rebellion; and Richard, now heir to the throne, was scarcely relieved of a war with his brother Geoffrey, by the latter's death, when he, too, took up arms against his father. Humiliated and enfeebled by this unnatural conflict, Henry at last consented to all the demands of his enemies. Among these was a free pardon to the barons who had taken part in Richard's rebellion. When their names were presented for his examination, the unhappy King found, with grief and amazement, that John's name was at the head of the list. This last stroke of ingratitude broke his heart; and after a few weeks' illness he died of fever, in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and the thirty-fourth of his reign. 133. Henry was the greatest hereditary monarch of his time, both for personal ability and for the extent of his do- minions. In the intervals of war, he made many improve- ments in the administration of his kingdom, among which the greatest was the appointment of traveling judges, who made circuits through the country, trying all causes which were brought before them. In this way, the subject was spared the great expense of a journey to the capital, and justice was made easily accessible to all the people. RECAPITULATION. Plantagenet Line begins with Henry II., who restores order in England. Is the friend and patron, but afterward the resolute oppo- nent of Becket. "Constitutions of Clarendon" restrict the power of the Church. Becket is protected by the King of France. Returning to England, is murdered by King Henry's servants in his own church at Canterbury. Conquest of Ireland. Rebellion of King Henry's sons. His penitence at the tomb of "St. Thomas." Capture of King of Scots, who becomes Henry's vassal. Prince John's misconduct in Ireland ; joins his brothers in rebellion. King Henry's death. IV. KING RICHARD AND KING JOHN. HE story of Richard I. (A. D. 1189- 11 99) scarcely belongs to the history of England ; for of the ten years of his reign, less than one was spent in the kingdom whose crown he wore. Rich- ard was a Frenchman, — a valiant cru- sader, a brilliant poet, and a gallant hero of romance; but he was not an honest man nor a faithful king. His most famous acts were connected with the Third Crusade, of which he was the principal hero. His hatred of un- believers—a very Christian sentiment, according to the notions of those days — produced sad consequences on the day of his coronation. 135. The London Jews, who were many and rich, offered gifts of gold to celebrate the occasion. But the King had forbidden them to approach the banqueting hall ; their messengers were chased away; and suddenly a rumor spread that the King had ordered a general massacre of all the Hebrews. The mob broke into their houses, killed the owners, and seized their hidden treas- ures. The horrid frenzy spread to other cities of England. In York, 500 Jews, hoping for neither justice nor mercy, first killed their wives and children, and then set fire to the cas*tle in which they had taken refuge, and perished in the flames. (75) Pope's Legate Spurning Crown. 76 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1190. 136. To raise money for his crusade, Richard sold lands, offices, and dignities belonging to the crown, and even re- leased the King of Scotland from his allegiance, restoring the fortresses of Berwick and Roxburgh, King Henry's proudest acquisitions. Then committing his kingdom to the care of the bishops of Durham and Ely, he departed for the holy war. The kings of France and England met at Vezelay, and found that their united armies numbered 100,000 men. They sailed from different ports in the Mediterranean, but storms compelled both to spend the winter in Sicily, where their ardent friendship was turned into rivalry and hatred. Richard was joined at Messina by the Princess Berengaria of Navarre, to whom he was already betrothed. As the marriage could not take place in Lent, she sailed in company with his sister for the Holy Land. Again overtaken by storms, the vessel was driven into a port in Cyprus, where the ladies were treated with great rudeness, and the crews of two attendant vessels were murdered before their eyes. When Richard was informed of the insult, he landed in Cyprus, defeated Isaac, its king, in two battles, took him prisoner and loaded him with chains, assuming for himself the sovereignty of the island. His marriage completed the rejoicings for the victory. 137. Arriving in Palestine, the two kings found all the Christian forces engaged in a siege of the important seaport of Acre, which had withstood them two years. The fresh courage inspired by their powerful reinforcements, secured the surrender of the city. But Philip, now disgusted with Richard's superior fame, soon returned home, having first taken a solemn oath not to meddle with the English or Nor- man dominions. Richard, fighting every step of the way, advanced one hundred miles from Acre to Ascalon, which he captured. His proposed attack upon Jerusalem was pre- vented by dissensions among his allies. He therefore made a truce with Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, securing several Medi- A. D. ngg.] CAPTIVITY OF RICHARD. 77 terranean ports, with perfect freedom of pilgrimage to the Christians; and upon receiving important news from Eng- land, set out for home. 138. His brother John had seized the regency, and, in concert with King Philip, was attempting to deprive Richard of all his dominions. The King, after various adventures and perils, landed at a port in the Adriatic, whence he tried to make his journey through Europe in the disguise of a merchant. He was recognized at Vienna by his bitterest enemy, the Duke of Austria, and was thrown into a dungeon. His foes all hastened to profit by his misfortunes : Philip invaded Normandy, and John de- manded the crown of England. Both sent messengers to the Emperor, offering him a great sum of money to keep Richard in perpetual captivity. I 39- Queen Eleanor, meanwhile, besought the Pope to interfere for her son's release; setting forth the shame to all Christendom of allowing its champion, whose strong right arm had struck down so many enemies of the cross, to lan- guish in fetters. Richard was summoned before the Diet of the Western Empire to plead his own cause. His eloquence and the unexampled fame of his great exploits, moved the hearts of the princes and prelates; and it was agreed to accept a ransom of 150,000 marks, — equal, probably, to ^2,500,000 of English money now, or twelve and a half millions of dollars. All classes of the English were pinched to raise this sum ; and many might have questioned whether their King was worth so much. But they remembered the pitiless extortions of John, and received Richard with joy. 140. The remainder of Richard's reign affords little worth telling. He forgave his treacherous brother, and expelled Philip from the dominions he had overrun in western France. He was killed in a petty quarrel with one of his own French vassals, April, it 99. 78 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1199. 141. John was crowned at Westminster, the following month. Arthur of Brittany, son of his elder brother Geof- frey, claimed the French provinces, and King A. D. 1199-1216. *' . . . » , , , Philip espoused his cause. Arthur at last be- came the prisoner of his wicked and cruel uncle, by whose own hands, there is great reason to believe, the young prince was murdered. If John expected to make his dominion se- cure by this foul deed, he was as short-sighted as criminals usually are. Philip, as his feudal superior, summoned him to answer for his crime; and, as John did not appear, pro- ceeded, with the concurrence of the " Peers of France," to deprive him of all his fiefs and lordships in that country. The universal horror of his crime wrought powerfully against him; castle after castle — Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, ultimately Normandy and even Aquitaine, except its southern part, known as the Duchy of Guienne — fell into Philip's hands. 142. A contest with the Pope, concerning the primacy of England, completed John's disasters. Innocent III. was, perhaps, the most able and ambitious of all the popes. John had elevated one of his favorites to the vacant see of Canter- bury ; but the Pope annulled the appointment, and compelled the monks to choose Stephen Langton. Langton was a good man, but the Pope's act was, nevertheless, a violation of Eng- lish rights in church and state, John expelled the monks, and took possession of their lands and money. Innocent replied by laying the kingdom under an inter- dict. * The next year, he excommunicated the King; and, three years later, absolved all his subjects from their oaths of allegiance. A crusade was declared * An interdict suspended religious services in the country against which it was declared. No public prayers were permitted ; no mar- riages; no funerals; no sacraments, — by which alone, according to the belief of those times, the life of the soul could be sustained. Excommunication was personal, depriving its victim of all Christian rights, and even of common services from others. A. D. 1215.] THE GREAT CHARTER. 79 against England; and Philip Augustus willingly undertook to enforce the Pope's decree. But if the English hated John, they did not love Philip. Mustering a great fleet, the Earl of Salisbury crossed the Channel and attacked the French at the mouth of the Seine. His victorious armies then ravaged the Norman coast, and the danger of a French invasion was for the time at an end. 143. Finding no encouragement in his resistance, John yielded to all the Pope's commands. He restored the monks and nuns to their possessions; he recognized Langton as primate ; he even laid his crown at the feet of Pandolf, the legate, and promised to hold England and Ireland only as a vassal of Pope Innocent and his successors, confirming his obedience by a yearly payment of a thousand marks. This degradation of the kingdom enraged the barons, who were already indignant at John's disregard of their rights. Langton was a true Englishman, and faithful to his high office as advocate of the people. He called a council of barons and bishops, to whom he showed a lately found copy of the Charter of Henry I. (§ 115), and urged them to insist upon its renewal and enforcement. The barons mustered their forces, and proceeded to make war upon the King. John, deserted by all his retainers, excepting seven knights, was compelled to grant all that his great vassals demanded. 144. At Runnimede, on the Thames, the two parties met in conference; and the result of the meeting was the King's signing of Magna Charta, the foundation of o o 7 June, 1215. English constitutional liberty. Clergy, barons, and people were alike secured in their rights of person and property. Taxes were not to be levied without the consent of the Great Council. No person should be seized or im- prisoned, or outlawed or exiled, or in any way brought to ruin . . . save by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. "We will sell to no man, we will not deny or delay to any man, justice or right." The poor man, even if 8o FEUDAL ENGLAND. 1 s I IS Jt y ■si-i $ ... 2 ^3 . Extracts from Magna Charta. convicted of crime, could not be deprived of his tenement, the merchant of his goods, or the peasant of his wagon. Twenty-four barons were charged with enforcing upon the A. D. 1 216.] DEATH OF JOHN. 81 King the fulfillment of his solemn oath. "They have given me four and twenty over-kings ! " cried John, in a rage, as he threw himself on the floor, and gnawed like a wild beast at whatever came within his reach. 145. But he had promised the more readily because he did not intend to perform. His agents were already enlisting troops on the Continent ; and a special envoy now laid before the Pope a copy of the Great Charter, which, John main- tained, had been wrested from him by violence. Innocent III., regarding himself as the real sovereign of England, de- clared that his rights were invaded. He annulled the Charter, and suspended the primacy of Langton for his faithful exer- cise of its duties. 146. Strengthened by the Pope's bull, and still more by his army of Brabanters, King John broke all his promises; and, marching from south to north, laid waste his kingdom with fire and sword. The barons, who seem to have been inactive at the most critical moment, now took a desperate and unwarrantable step. They offered the crown to Prince Louis, son of the French King, who came over in A. D, 1 2 16, with a large army, took Rochester Castle, and made a triumphal entry into London. The battle for which John was preparing never took place. Overcome by sickness, shame, and vexation, he died at Newark in the eighteenth year of his reign. 147. It is singular that the wickedness of John should have been the source of two great benefits to his people. Magna Charta has already been mentioned. The loss of the French provinces was also a piece of good fortune to England; for her kings, having no foreign dominions, found their motives to ambition at home. RECAPITULATION. Richard I. neglects his kingdom ; permits a persecution of the Jews; sells lands, offices, and his over-lordship of Scotland, to raise means 82 FEUDAL ENGLAND. for his Crusade ; spends winter in Sicily ; quarrels with King of France; conquers Cyprus; gains great advantages for Christians in the Holy Land ; becomes prisoner in Austria on his return ; is ran- somed by order of the Emperor and the Diet ; dies in France. » John obtains the English crown ; murders his nephew ; loses his French dominions ; quarrels with the Pope about the archbishopric of Canterbury; is excommunicated, and his kingdom placed under an interdict. Surrenders England to the Pope. Is forced by the barons to sign the Great Charter of English liberties. Attempts to evade it; hires foreign soldiers and makes war against his own kingdom. Louis of France invades the kingdom by invitation of the barons. John dies at Newark. Translation of Extracts from Magna Charta. "John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, Count of Anjou, — to the Arch- bishops, Bishops, Abbots, Counts, Barons, Justiciaries, Foresters, Praepostors, Ministers, and to all Bailiffs and his faithful [subjects] greeting : "No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or disseized or out- lawed or exiled or any otherwise destroyed ; nor will we pass upon him, nor send upon him, unless by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. "Given by our hand in the meadow which is called Runingmede, between Windsor and Stanes, the fifteenth day of June, in the seven- teenth year of our reign. Descent from Henry II. (See p. 69.) Henry II. m. Eleanor of Poitou and Aquitaine. g 12 3- J I II I Henry d. 1183. Richard I. Geoffrey, § 141. John. I _l Arthur. | I Henry III. Richard, Earl of I Cornwall, g 151. Edward I. I Edward II. §174. I Edward III. (See p. 119.) V. REIGN OF HENRY III. ENRY III. (A. D. 1216-1272), John's . son and heir, was only nine years I old. The real power, therefore, rested in the hands of the Earl of Pembroke, a brave, able, and up- right man, who was chosen Pro- tector of the Realm. His first act was the renewal of Magna Charta, which John had violated. He then, with a few hundred knights, defeated the French forces at Lincoln; and Prince Louis, finding the hearts of the English now turning to their rightful king, left the country never to return. 149. Upon Pembroke's death, the chief power passed to Hubert de Burgh, a brave and faithful officer, whose defense of Dover Straits and Castle had mainly contributed to defeat the French invasion. He was succeeded in the government of king and kingdom by the Bishop of Winchester, a native of Poitou, whose extor- tions had occasioned many of the miseries of the reign of John. By his advice, the young King invited into England a multitude of Poitevins, whom he intrusted with all impor- tant positions in the court, and loaded with honors and wealth. 150. Henry married Eleanor of Provence, — a country now included in southern France, then noted for wealth, luxury, (83) Henry III. at Evesham. 84 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1236. and the gay and brilliant genius of its people. The young Queen was accompanied by a crowd of Provencal courtiers ; and the marked indulgence shown them by the King, in- creased the displeasure of the English. A greater grievance was found in the exactions of the Italian clergy, who drew a greater revenue from England than the King himself. The Pope claimed the entire income of all vacant livings; one- twentieth from those which were occupied; one-third from all that exceeded one hundred marks a year; and one-half from those which were held by non-residents. 151. He practiced upon the weakness of King Henry by bestowing the crown of Sicily upon his second son, — a gift which only involved the King in an enormous debt, as well as in ridicule and disgrace. The Sicilian kingdom was an- other of the "fiefs of St. Peter" (§§ 85, 143), which the Pope assumed the right to give away at his pleasure. The King's brother Richard, Earl of Cornwall, also wished to play a part in Continental affairs. His great wealth, drawn from the tin mines of his earldom, led the German princes to choose him for their sovereign; but as he was never crowned at Rome, he gained nothing but the empty title of Emperor-elect, or King of the Romans, in exchange for all his treasures. 152. King Henry's extortions, and his slavery to foreign favorites, disgusted his brave barons. Several times he was made to renew the Great Charter, and to pronounce the most direful curses upon whomsoever should dare to infringe it: but scarcely had the awful words died away among the arches of Westminster Hall, when every promise was broken. Chief of the French courtiers was Simon de Montfort, whom the King had made Earl of Leicester, and honored with the hand of his own sister. But, unlike his countrymen, Earl Simon faithfully served the people among whom he dwelt, and was rewarded by their enthusiastic love. He was the powerful ally of the best English bishop at that time, — A. D. 1272.] RISE OF THE PARLIAMENT. 85 Grosseteste of Lincoln, — in his opposition to the unjust de- mands of Rome. 153. In 1257, a terrible famine visited England. King Richard (§ 151) sent over a supply of corn from Germany for the relief of the people ; but King Henry seized and sold it for his own advantage. This enraged the barons, who met in arms at Oxford, and insisted upon a Council of Regency, to be chosen half by the King and half by themselves. Parliament was ordered to meet three times every year, whether summoned by the King or not; and "twelve honest men" were to represent the commonalty. But the barons were soon divided; many, seeking honors and lands, joined the royal party. The more patriotic, with all the representatives of the people, stood by Earl Simon, who, with a reinforcement of 15,000 Londoners, gained a great victory at Lewes, in Sussex. The King and his son were prisoners. 154. The Earl of Leicester, now really at the head of the realm, summoned a parliament in the King's name, to be composed of two citizens from each borough, and two knights from each shire, in addition to the bishops and nobles. This was a great event; for it was the first meeting of the English Commons according to their present constitution. But the people's triumph was soon over-clouded by the death of their great leader. Prince Edward escaped, and raised an army which defeated the patriot forces at Evesham. Earl Simon and his eldest son were slain. 155. No sooner was the civil war at an end than Prince Edward, with a gallant array of barons, set sail for the Holy Land, to take part in the Eighth Crusade. The name of Plantagenet, and traditions of the brave deeds of King Richard, drew about him all the Christian forces in the East, and several victories were won. On his return, he heard in Sicily of his father's death. 86 FEUDAL ENGLAND. 156. Across the dark and turbulent age of Henry III., a steady light begins to shine from the University of Oxford. Schools had existed there even before the time of Alfred the Great ; but the spirit of inquiry excited by the Crusades, with the new knowledge brought home from the East, had occa- sioned a great revival of zeal for the study of law, philosophy, and ancient literature. In our day, when knowledge and the means of instruction are so widely diffused, we have nothing like the great universities of the Middle Ages, where 30,000 scholars, traveling far over land and sea, were often assembled at one time about some famous teacher. 157. Such a teacher was Roger Bacon, whose wonderful mind was stored with all the learning of his age concerning the material world, as well as the mind and works of man. His lectures at Oxford were thronged by eager listeners, many of whom begged their daily bread, while others, like their teacher, had spent ample fortunes upon books and costly experiments, abandoning all ambition of honor or wealth, in search of the dearer prize of wisdom. Bacon was the father of English science. His physical researches antic- ipated many modern discoveries; among others, the use of gunpowder in war. 158. But Bacon, like Dunstan (§ 55), proved the peril of great learning in an ignorant age. Whatever might be the admiring reverence of his pupils, his ecclesiastical superiors saw in his geometrical lines and circles only charms to compel the attendance of evil spirits ; and heard the language of those spirits in the Greek, Hebrew, or Arabic sentences which he repeated in his studious hours. He was condemned by the council of his own Franciscan Order, and spent A. D. 1278-1289. _ r ....... . the last ten or fifteen years of his life in a gloomy dungeon, robbed of his beloved books, and deprived even of pens and parchment. 159. And yet we may find something to admire in the rise of the Franciscans and their brethren the Dominicans, — the FRANCISCANS AT OXFORD. 87 " Mendicant Orders," as they were called. The monks in their stately abbeys, surrounded by broad lands, had grown rich and lazy, neglecting the poor people, for the care of whose souls these great endowments had been made. To remedy the evil, the "Begging Friars" bound themselves to absolute poverty and the service of the poor. They owned nothing; they lived by daily alms, and dwelt in the most squalid quarters of the cities, where they warred bravely against the diseases which sprang from poverty and unclean- liness, acting as physicians and nurses not less than as priests. During the civil war of Henry the Third's reign, they were the steady friends, of the people. Though at first they abjured learning, they soon had control of the University of Oxford, which became the firm opponent of papal exactions and the stronghold of English freedom. RECAPITULATION. Influence of foreigners during reign of Henry III. His marriage with Eleanor of Provence. Immense revenues paid to Rome. Waste of English treasure in wars for Sicily and the Empire. "Curse of the Charter Breakers." Simon of Leicester becomes champion of the peo- ple. By Provisions of Oxford, a Council of Regency assumes control of the kingdom. Victory of Leicester at Lewes. First English Par- liament assembles. Defeat and death of Earl Simon at Evesham. Crusade of Prince Edward. Roger Bacon at Oxford. Rise of the Mendicant Orders. VI. REIGN OF EDWARD I. HAVING no dominions on the Con- tinent except Guienne, his great- grandmother's inheritance (§ 123), the chief ambition of King Ed- ward (A. D. 1 272-1307) was to rule the whole island of Great Britain. By successive victories over their native princes, he ended the long struggle with the Welsh, whom for eight hundred years Saxons and Normans had vainly tried to subdue. In a conference with their chiefs at Rhuddlan, he promised to give them a ruler born in their own land, and who could not speak a word of either French or Eng- lish. But when this redoubtable Prince was introduced, he was found to be the King's own son, who had been born in Rhuddlan Castle only the day before ! By the death of his elder brother, little Edward became heir to the English crown; and ever since, the eldest son of the sovereign has been called the Prince of Wales. 161. King Edward's strong hand soon put an end to the robberies which had become disgracefully frequent during his father's weak reign. But his chief severity fell upon the Jews. A common crime, in that disorderly and corrupt time, was "clipping the coin"; and it was convenient to assume that the Jews had a principal share in this transaction. In London (83) Monk and Soldier. A. D. 1292.] EDWARD I. IN SCOTLAND. 89 alone, 280 of these unfortunate people were hanged. Eight years later, all the Jews in England were ordered to be thrown into prison, and kept there until they had paid a heavy ran- som. At length, for no apparent cause, the whole Hebrew population, numbering more than 16,000, were forced to leave the kingdom. They were permitted, indeed, to take their money and jewels ; but these treasures increased their perils ; for very many were murdered by sailors and others in their passage over the seas. In those days of bigotry, a crime against a Jew was regarded by many as no crime at all. The King, however, was more just, and ordered the offenders to be hung whenever they could be convicted. 162. The affairs of Scotland absorbed a large share of Ed- ward's attention. His sister had been the wife of the Scotch King, Alexander III., who, dying in A. D. 1286, left only one descendant, his little granddaughter, Margaret of Norway, now three years old. This young lady was acknowledged as Queen of Scotland, and was soon afterward betrothed to Edward, Prince of Wales. This marriage might have pre- vented three centuries of bitter strife between the two king- doms ; but the Maid of Norway died on one of the Orkneys, from the fatigue of her rough voyage ; and the Scottish Par- liament, unable to choose among all the competitors to the crown, referred the decision to the King of England. 163. Attended by a great army, Edward met the Parlia- ment and all the rival claimants, at Norham on the Tweed; and having them in his power, declared that he should ap- point a king of Scotland, not as an umpire freely chosen, but as lord-paramount of the kingdom. This sovereignty, which belonged to earlier English kings, had been freely surrendered by Richard I., for himself and his successors (§§ 131, 136). The Scots had no choice but to submit ; and upon his promise of feudal homage to Edward, John Baliol received the crown. His kingship proved to be little more than a name. Six times, on trifling pretexts, Baliol was summoned to London, Eng.— 8. 90 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. i 2 g2. to appear before the English Parliament. The apparent de- sign was to vex him into a rebellion, and then confiscate his kingdom as a punishment. 164. At last, even Baliol's spiritless nature was roused to resistance; 40,000 Scots made a sudden raid into Cumber- land. Edward was ready; and, having repulsed them at Carlisle, drove them into Berwick, which he besieged by sea and land. The town was taken, and Edward entered its walls at the head of the assaulting column. For two days a fright- ful slaughter went on : when it ceased, it was only because every inhabitant had been slain. Dunbar was likewise taken. Roxburgh, Dumbarton, and Jedburgh received English gar- risons ; and the puppet king of the Scots, appearing in peni- tential garments before the Bishop of Durham, confessed his sins against his sovereign lord, King Edward, and resigned his crown absolutely into his hands. Believing that Scotland was now his permanent possession, Edward carried off to London the sacred "stone of Scone," on which Scottish kings had for centuries been crowned. 165. A quarrel between some English and French sailors grew into a naval war between the two countries, which greatly encouraged the Scots, and led to that close alliance which for centuries united France and Scotland in common enmity to England. As Duke of Guienne (§ 160), Edward was vassal of the French King, who delighted to treat him in much the same manner in which Edward treated Baliol. He was summoned to appear at Paris, and answer for the misconduct of his subjects; and upon some slight and dis- honorable pretext, Guienne was declared to be forfeited and annexed to the French crown. Edward now made close alliance with the Count of Flanders, another powerful vassal of King Philip, whose country was to France very much what Scotland then was to England, — a thorn in the side, which an enemy could at any time make use of to irritate and injure. A. D. I297-] WALLACE LN SCOTLAND. 91 166. Edward's wars on the Continent were disastrous. The only bright side of their history is the opportunity which the English people found, in their King's necessities, to secure their rights. War is the costliest game that kings can play at ; and it was now well understood that by holding the purse- strings, the people had a check upon their rulers. Edward's demand for money was answered by a demand for the re- newal of the Charters, with an additional clause, "that no tallage or aid should be levied without the assent of the peers spiritual and temporal, and the knights, burgesses, and other freemen in Parliament assembled:' The King's signature to this document, though most unwillingly granted, made it forever illegal for an English sovereign to levy any tax upon his people without their own consent, through their lawfully chosen representatives. 167. The Parliament willingly voted a large subsidy as the price of this concession, and Edward was able to make peace with the King of France. To render the friendship more cordial, Edward, now a widower, married a sister of King Philip; and his son, the Prince of Wales, a daughter of the same sovereign. This last marriage involved England in centuries of war. 168. Scotland, meanwhile, found a brave defender in William Wallace, probably a native of Strathclyde, a gentle- man of no high rank, but distinguished by extraordinary patience and determination, not less than by his wonderful strength. The great nobles mostly held themselves aloof, or gave him very feeble support; but the common people re- garded him as their hero and deliverer. Indeed, we must remember that the nobles of Scotland, as well as those of England, were usually of Norman birth, and cared little for the country or the people where their estates lay. Baliol did homage to King Edward for lands in France and England, as well as in Scotland; and the true Scots of the Highlands preferred the English King to either Baliol or Bruce. 92 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1297. Secretly gathering about him a desperate band of outlaws, Wallace attacked the English with a success which raised the courage of the Scots, while it struck terror into the enemy. Earl Warrenne, whom Edward had left as Guar- dian of Scotland, was defeated with great slaughter at Cambuskenneth, near Stirling, and Wallace ravaged all the northern counties of England. Enraged at this new outbreak of spirit in the Scots, Edward crossed the sea with a great train of knights and archers, to which he added the forces of England, Ireland, and Wales. In a battle near Falkirk, the Scottish army was defeated, scattered, and almost annihilated. But want of food forced Edward to retire; and, in 1303, the Scots were again in the field, led by Earl Comyn, son-in-law of Baliol. 169. This time the English King was invincible. A great fleet laden with provisions sailed along the coast, nearly abreast of his land army. Edward marched victoriously from the south to the north of Scotland, reducing all the castles, and forcing all the chiefs to do him homage. Wal- lace was betrayed into his hands; and with a cruelty which disgraces the memory of Edward, was carried in chains to London, tried, condemned, and executed for treason against a king whom he had never acknowledged as his sovereign. 170. Robert Bruce, a claimant of the Scottish throne, lived at Edward's court, petted and favored, but closely watched. A friend sent him a purse and a pair of spurs. He under- stood the warning, and lost no time in reaching the Scottish frontier. Here he invited Comyn to a meeting : a quarrel ensued; and Bruce, drawing his dagger, stabbed Comyn where he stood, before the high altar of the church at Dum- fries. Then hastening to Scone, he was crowned in the Abbey which had witnessed the consecration of so many Scottish kings; and published a defiance to King Edward, no longer as Bruce of Annandale, but as King Robert I. of Scotland. A. D. 1307.] DEATH OF EDWARD I. 93 171. The people rose bravely at his call, and drove the English from all but a few of the strongest castles. Edward saw that he must begin again his great work of conquering Scotland. His advfmce army did, indeed, defeat Bruce at Methven, and force him to take refuge in the Western Isles. But King Edward, who was following with a great army, was overcome by illness near Carlisle, and died at Burgh-on- the-sands, with his latest breath enjoining his son never to rest until he had conquered Scotland. Kings had not yet been designated by numbers added to their names. Edward's father was known to his own times as Henry of Winchester; he himself received from his ene- mies in Berwick the name of " Longshanks," which clings to him still. But he was a man of majestic appearance, not less than of distinguished mental power and of truly kingly generosity. He was a wise lawgiver ; and under his care the administration of justice in England became far more regular and secure. RECAPITULATION. Edward I. concentrates his energies within the British Isles. Con- quers the Welsh, and makes his infant son their prince ; puts down robbers ; persecutes and expels the Jews. Death of the infant Queen of Scots. Edward, as over-lord, confers the crown on John Baliol. Upon his refusal of homage, Berwick is taken and its people massa- cred. Alliance of Scotland with France ; Flanders with England. Increased power of the Commons. Peace and alliance between Eng- land and France confirmed by two marriages. Wallace becomes champion of the Scots; gains victory at Cambuskenneth, but is de- feated at Falkirk ; is captured and put to death. Robert Bruce es- capes from Edward's court ; murders Comyn ; is crowned King of Scots. King Edward dies on his march into Scotland. VII. EDWARD II. AND EDWARD III. 'DWARD II. (A. D. 1307-1327) was a weak prince, the slave of worth- less favorites, and wholly the oppo- site of his great father. He had marched but a little way into Scot- land, when he suddenly ordered a retreat and disbanded his forces. His first favorite was Piers Gaves- ton, a French nobleman, whom he loaded with honors, riches, and lands. Piers married the King's niece, and was even intrusted with the regency during Edward's ab- sence in France. It mattered little, indeed, whether the King was pres- ent or absent : Gaveston ruled the land. The English nobles were en- raged by the insolence of this alien, their inferior in rank, and they de- manded his banishment. The King turned this punishment into a pro- motion, by appointing him Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, and soon Edward's conduct was now more foolish and Gaveston's more insolent than ever; so that, in 1 3 13, he was banished to Flanders, and a crowd of foreigners were deprived of their salaries and honors. Returning by the King's invitation, Gaveston was captured and beheaded by the barons. 173. The Scots had taken advantage of England's humilia- tion to establish their own king, Robert Bruce. An English (9\) Castle on the Border. afterward recalled him. A. D. 1330.] SCOTTISH INDEPENDENCE. 95 army of 100,000 men was defeated, at Bannockburn, in 13 14, by only 30,000 Scots, — a great event, for it secured the inde- pendence of Scotland. Edward's next favorite was Hugh Despenser, a young man whose father was deservedly honored for his wisdom, valor, and fidelity in many high orifices. The barons, however, would not have another rival : they made war against the two Despensers, and extorted from Parliament a sentence of perpetual exile against both. The King, with unusual spirit, raised an army and defeated the Earl of Lancaster, his cousin, who was leader of the barons. The Earl was captured and beheaded for his rebellion. 174. Queen Isabella, who had gone to Paris to arrange some difficulties between her brother (§ 167) and her hus- band, now drew around her the English malcontents and made open war against the latter. Landing with an army in Suffolk, she was joined by several powerful barons, and the King fled into Wales. The two Despensers were put to death : the King was taken and imprisoned in Kenilworth Castle. A parliament summoned by the Queen declared him unfit to rule ; and the captive King was made to resign the crown in favor of his son. He afterward suffered a horrible death by the order of his unnatural wife. 175. Prince Edward III. (A. D. 1327-1377), now fourteen years of age, was declared king ; but the real power rested with his mother and her favorite, young Roger Mortimer, who soon assumed the title of Earl of March. They made a treaty with the Scots, acknowledging the independence of the Scottish king and parliament, and betrothing a sister of King Edward to David Bruce, son and heir of King Robert But Mortimer's power was of short duration: he and the queen-mother were arrested in Nottingham Castle by the young King himself, and the favorite was hanged at Tyburn. 176. England was now in grievous disorder; for robbery and all forms of violence had increased without check, under c>6 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1333. the weakness of Edward II. and the crimes of Isabella. Edward III. set himself with great energy to restore justice and order, and put down many gangs of robbers by his own personal presence. He then turned his attention to Scotland. Robert Bruce was dead, and his son David was only six years old. Edward and the English nobles favored the pretensions of a son of John Baliol, who was actually crowned at Scone, while David took refuge in France. Baliol ceded A. D. 1333. & the fortresses of Berwick, Dunbar, Edinburgh, and all the south-eastern counties of Scotland, to become part of the English kingdom; and he, with many Scottish nobles, swore fealty to Edward III. 177. The party of Bruce were encouraged by the breaking out of a war between England and France. Upon the death of Charles IV., Edward claimed the French crown in right of his mother, Isabella, who was a daughter of Philip IV., and a sister of the late king. Even upon his own rendering of French law, there was a nearer heir than himself; but Edward's claim being supported by a powerful army, brought much misery to both nations. Philip VI. of Valois assumed the crown, being the nearest heir in the direct male line. Edward had powerful adherents in Germany and in Flan- ders. The Emperor appointed him Imperial Vicar in the Low Countries; and Jacques van Artevelde, the brewer of Ghent, who was now leader of the Flemings, acknowledged him as King of France. 178. A great naval battle off the coast of Flanders resulted in victory to the English. But his unjust wars with two kingdoms had used up Edward's treasures. The clergy and people refused more taxes, except upon the concession of greater privileges; and he was compelled to make peace with the King of France. A disputed succession to the duchy of Brittany drew him again into French affairs; and, accompanied by his eldest son, now sixteen years of age, he marched with his A. D. 1347.] BATTLE OF CRECY. 97 army almost to the gates of Paris. Pursued by King Philip, he retreated to the Somme j and here was fought the great battle of Crecy, in which the French, though three times as numerous as the English, were thoroughly defeated. The new invention of gunpowder * was employed by the English, for the first time in any great European bat- tle. The front ranks of the French were thrown into confu- sion; and Prince Edward, with extraordinary spirit, led a charge right into the disordered mass. His father, watching the field from the top of a windmill, refused to send him help, though sorely pressed. "Let the child win his spurs," he cried; "and let the day be his." 179. The French King fought with great valor, but with- out success. His whole army took to flight, and were pur- sued and slaughtered without mercy. Among the slain was the blind old King of Bohemia, a singular soldier of fortune, who had fought on most of the battle-fields of Europe. He had ordered his horse to be tied to those of two gentlemen of his train, who rode on either side. All three knights lay dead together, while the three horses stood unhurt beside them. The Prince of Wales is said to have adopted the crest and motto of the dead King : his successors to this day bear the three plumes surmounting the proudly humble motto, I serve. The hero of Crecy was ever after known by the French as the Black Prince, from the armor which he wore on that fatal day. 180. King Edward marched with his victorious army to besiege the seaport of Calais. It held out nearly a year, through the resolution of its citizens ; but, at length, hunger drove them to surrender. Edward, impa- tient of the delay, had ordered a general massacre, but was prevailed upon to accept the lives of six chief citizens as * It was derived from Asia, and had been used by the Moors of southern Spain, in assaults upon walled towns some years before. Eng.— 9. 98 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1347. ransom for the rest. Freely offering their lives for the rescue of their city, the six brave men repaired to the English camp, and were ordered to instant execution. But Queen Philippa, who had just arrived from England, bringing the good news of the capture and submission of the King of Scotland,* now threw herself at the feet of her husband, and demanded the pardon of the burgesses as the reward of her victory. It was granted : the good Queen entertained them joyfully in her tent, and sent them home laden with gifts. 181. Calais was ordered to be vacated by its French in- habitants, and repeopled by English. Its prosperity was se- cured by a monopoly of the trade in wool, leather, tin, and lead, which were then almost the only exports from England to the Continent. The port of Calais was for two centuries an open door by which the English might enter France. A great plague, called the " Black Death," beginning in the plains of western Asia, swept over Europe during the years 1348-135 1, destroying probably one-third of the whole pop- ulation. This fearful scourge silenced for a time the conten- tions of the kings; but scarcely was it removed, when war broke out again. 182. King Edward, in 1355, crossed into northern France, while his son repaired to Guienne, and both armies covered the unhappy country with desolation. The next year, the Prince penetrated into central France, and at Poitiers gained over Kinsj John, who had now succeeded his Sept., 1356. ... father Philip, a still more remarkable victory than that of Crecy. The French King and his youngest son were taken prisoners, and were treated by the Black Prince with a gentle courtesy which went far to soothe their wounded pride. * In her campaign against the Scots, Queen Philippa became aware of the rich deposits of coal about Newcastle ; and perceiving their immense importance, she obtained permission from Parliament to open the mines. The coal of England is, directly and indirectly, a chief source of her wealth. A. D. 1360.] PEACE OF BRETIGNY. 99 M"ap 4. ST-* -^ n, L A N D <^hea-er /^Bruges Lintfl Guernsey EA THANCE IN 1360. King John remained three years in England ; but, at length, a peace was signed at Bretigny, restoring him to freedom upon the payment of three millions of gold crowns. Edward, on his part, renounced all claim to the crown of France, and to the provinces of Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou, receiving in return almost the entire region south of the Loire, which, with Guienne, became an independent sover- eignty for the heir to the English crown. Edward promised to cease meddling with the Flemings, and John with the ioo FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1363. Scots. Among the forty hostages for the execution of this treaty were two of the French princes. They violated their parole; and their father, indignant at this breach of faith, returned to London, where he died. 183. His son Charles V., called the Wise, from the prudence which he had already learned in the hard school of adversity, succeeded to the French throne. He slowly but steadily re- trieved his father's losses, crowding the English out of all their conquests, except Calais, and even from nearly all their ancient possessions. While the Black Prince was holding his court at Bordeaux, he was called to interfere in the affairs of Castile, one of the five kingdoms which then occupied the Spanish peninsula. Pedro the Cruel had so disgusted his people, that a strong party, aided by the French, succeeded in deposing him, and placing his half-brother, Henry, upon the throne. Pedro appealed to Prince Edward, who marched into Spain and defeated King Henry at Najera. All Castile submitted and took back its atrocious king; but he proved a worse tyrant than before. Henry, with fresh forces from France, again dethroned him, and murdered the tyrant with his own hand. John, Duke of Lancaster, * brother of the Black Prince, married a daughter of Pedro, and asserted a claim to the Castilian crown in her name; but his ambitious schemes oc- casioned more trouble in England than in Castile. (§ 189.) 184. The Prince of Wales never recovered from his Cas- tilian campaign. Some said that he had been poisoned by his wicked ally; others, that the fever which had carried off multitudes of his troops, had undermined his constitution. He died in 1376; and his father, overcome with sorrow and disasters, followed him one year later. This en- ergetic reign was a bright period in English an- nals. Though Edward's foreign wars were unjust, they served * He is more commonly called "John of Gaunt," or Ghent, fro the place of his birth in Flanders. PROGRESS UNDER EDWARD III. IOI to occupy the turbulent spirits of the great nobles with adven- tures suited to their tastes, and left England at peace. The laws were well administered, and the common people enjoyed greater prosperity than for several centuries before or after. Flemish weavers were invited to settle in England, which soon became celebrated, as the Netherlands had been, for its fine manufactures of wool. 185. The King's urgent need of money for his wars made him dependent upon the Parliament, and thus the representa- tives of the people acquired greater dignity and power. The loss of the French territories (§ 183) was the people's gain, for the feeling of nationality now grew stronger at home. The use of the French language in courts of law was abol- ished in this reign. RECAPITULATION. Edward II. offends English nobles by his fondness for Piers Gav- eston ; is defeated by Scots at Bannockburn ; makes war with the barons in behalf of his new favorite, Despenser. Earl of Lancaster is beheaded. Queen Isabella and the barons kill the Despensers; imprison the King ; take from him his crown and his life. Edward III. becoming king, arrests his mother; hangs Mortimer, her favorite ; suppresses disorders in his kingdom ; claims crown of France ; is victorious off Flanders and at Crecy ; captures Calais, and makes it a seat of English commerce. War interrupted by the "Black Death " ; recommences, and Prince of Wales captures King John of France, at Poitiers ; takes part in wars of Spain ; dies before his father. Flemish weavers introduce wool manufacture into England, which is prosperous under Edward III. VIII. REIGN OF RICHARD II. Two Merchants. I""") ICHARD of Bordeaux (A. D. 1377- 1399), son of the Black Prince, succeeded to his grandfather's crown ; but as he was only eleven years old, a Council of Regency was chosen by the Parliament. The people idolized their hand- some young King as they had his great father, and his early years encouraged their hopes. A formidable sedition, known as Wat Tyler's Rebellion, ex- cited by the insolence of the tax gatherers, spread through many counties, and threatened to destroy the aristocracy, if not to overturn the government it- self. The insurgents burned the Duke of Lancaster's palace ; and, breaking into the Tower of London, murdered the Arch- bishop of Canterbury and the Treasurer. The King, then sixteen years of age, rode out to meet them. Wat Tyler, their leader, came boldly forward, and in his talk with Richard behaved so rudely that one of the King's attendants struck him to the ground, and the rest dispatched him with their swords. 187. Seeing their leader fall, the mob put themselves in motion to avenge him; but the young King, quitting his companions, rode fearlessly among them, crying out, "What means this disorder, my good people? Are ye angry that ye have lost your leader? I am your king; I will be your leader." Overawed by his presence, the rioters turned at (102) A. D. 1397.] WAT TYLER'S REBELLION. 103 once and followed him to the fields, where he was soon joined by a body of veteran troops. He forbade, however, any slaughter of the insurgents ; and after distributing among them copies of a charter promising pardon and deliverance from their worst grievances, he dismissed them peaceably to their homes. 188. Unhappily, King Richard had promised more than he could perform. He did, indeed, urge Parliament to emancipate the serfs; but Parliament answered that his char- ter of liberties was null and void: serfs were the property of their employers, who could not be deprived of their goods but by their own consent. "And this consent," added the proud landlords, ' ' we have never given, and never will give, were we all to die in one day." 189. The French war still went on, with many disasters to the English. Their immense trade with Flanders was cut off by the submission of Ghent and the whole country to a brother of Charles V. (§ 183). A French army landed in Scotland and threatened to invade England ; and the men and means which Parliament provided for the common de- fense, were squandered in Spain by John of Gaunt, who was attempting, in his wife's name, to gain the Castilian crown. The Duke of Gloucester, another uncle of the young King, managed to vest the whole sovereign power in a Council of Regency, with himself at its head. Richard's resistance was put down by force of arms; his favorite minister, the Duke of Suffolk, and all the opponents of the Council, were doomed to exile and death. 190. Soon after coming of age, the King took the sov- ereignty into his own hands, and made peace with France. The Duke of Gloucester was imprisoned, and when sum- moned to trial, was found dead in his cell. Pleased with the new taste of power, and hating opposition, Richard tried to reign without a parliament, meeting the expenses of his gov- ernment by forced loans. The good and bad impulses which 104 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1398. governed him were alike fatal to the continuance of his power. The war-loving barons were offended by the peace ; the land- owners, by his protection of the serfs ; the merchants, by his demands for money ; and the clergy, by the favor he showed to Wicliffe and the new freedom of religious opinion. Still more disastrous was his jealousy of his cousin Henry of Lan- caster, an able prince, who had distinguished himself as a good soldier and zealous Christian by fighting against the heathen tribes near the Baltic. 191. On pretext of stopping a quarrel in which Henry was engaged, the King banished him ; and upon the death of John of Gaunt, seized all the family estates. Thereupon, the new Duke of Lancaster, sailing from France, landed with a few companions at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, and was joined by several powerful nobles who were disaffected toward Richard. His army in a few days numbered 60,000 men. It was in- creased by the royal forces, which the King, who was now in Ireland, had left under the command of the Duke of York. Richard, on his return, was deserted by his followers, sur- rounded by the rebel troops, and immured in Flint Castle. 192. Henry had constantly declared that he came only to take possession of his father's estates, which were his by right ; but he now saw the crown within his reach. Bishops, nobles, and people, offended by the violation of their several privileges or rights, were on his side. Parliament, with great unanimity, voted the deposition of Richard and A. D. 1399. the coronation of Henry. The deposed King died soon afterward in his dungeon ; and his death was so profita- ble to his successor, that he was universally believed to have been murdered. 193. Before relating the history of the three Lancastrian kings, we will glance at the changes in religion, language, literature, and social habits which had taken place under the early Plantagenets. At first, the cultivators of the soil were simply slaves; and it was a merciful law which entitled them A. D. 1381.] SOCIAL CONDITION. to remain all their lives upon the land where they born. Custom gradually secured to each serf his little and garden-plot, and limited the amount of service he had render. This done, his remaining hours were free ; and if by additional labor he became the owner of cattle, he was permitted to pasture them upon the waste lands of his lord's estate. When the peasantry became too numerous to find employment in tillage, they were allowed to pay rents in money instead of service ; and the needs of the great nobles, during the wars of Edward III., led them even to sell free- dom to many of those families which had served themselves or their ancestors for centuries. 194. The Black Death (§ 181), by diminishing the number of people, doubled the price of labor; and when the great landlords, through their enormous influence in Parliament, tried to lower wages or reduce the peasantry to serfage again, the latter rose in revolt (§186). A Kentish priest, named John Ball, boldly set forth the popular grievances, while he mistook their true cause and remedy as # completely as any "Chartist" or "Communist" of our time. "Good people," cried he, "things will never go well in England so long as goods be not in common, and so long as there be villains and gentlemen. By what right are they whom we call lords greater folk than we ? Why do they hold us in serfage ? They are clothed in velvet, and warm in their furs, while we are cov- ered with rags. They have wine and spices and fair bread, and we oat-cake and straw, and water to drink. They have leisure and fine houses ; we have pain and labor, the rain and the wind in the fields. And yet it is of us and our toil that these men hold their state. — When Adam delved and Eve span, where was then the gentleman?" 195. Deeper than this worldly discontent was the new re- ligious spirit which began to protest against abuses in the Church. The Mendicant Friars (§ 159) had lost the gener- ous impulses with which they at first set out, and had become T io6 FEUDAL ENGLAND. a burden and a nuisance to the people. John Wicliffe, the greatest Oxford professor of his time, fearlessly assailed the greed of the clergy, their sale of indulgences for sin, and the gift of church benefices to foreign priests, \ ' who neither see nor care to see their parishioners, convey away the treasure of the realm, and are worse than Jews or Saracens." 196. Wicliffe, like Bacon (§ 157), was surrounded by a throng of eager disciples, — earnest young men, who, scatter- ing to their humble parishes, diffused throughout England the Gospel which Wicliffe taught. Their enemies, in scorn, called them " Lollards," or babblers; but the common people heard them gladly. Their teacher, himself laying aside the learned Latin speech of the University, wrote many tracts in the rough, strong language of the plowmen and mechanics of his day, — writings which are the earliest specimens of English prose. King Richard's first wife, Anne of Bohemia, favored the new doctrines ; and many of her countrymen, who came to study at Oxford, carried Wicliffe' s writings thence to the University of Prague, where they enkindled a wonderful re- ligious movement. For Bohemia, as well as for England, Wicliffe was the "Morning Star of the Reformation." 197. His greatest work was a complete translation of the Bible into the language of the common people. In 1381, he quitted Oxford for the humble duties of a parish priest at Lut- terworth ; and there, after three years of study and charity, he died. Thirty years later, the rage of his enemies invaded his tomb, burned his bones, and scattered the ashes upon a little brook which flowed through the village. "Thus," says Fuller, "the brook conveyed his ashes into Avon ; Avon into Severn ; Severn into the narrow seas ; they into the main ocean : and thus the ashes of Wicliffe are the em- blem of his doctrine, which is dispersed over all the world." 198. If Wicliffe was the father of English prose, Chaucer, who outlived him fifteen years, was the first modern English poet. Many causes, operating through five hundred years, WICLIFFE AND CHAUCER. 107 had changed the language of England, so that the prose of Alfred and the verse of Caedmon could no more be read in Chaucer's day than in ours, without especial study. Chaucer's best known work is the Canterbury Tales, in which he has presented lively pictures of the men and women of his time, in all ranks from sailor to baron, and from doctor to plow- man. His sympathy with Wicliffe is expressed in his praise of the poor parson — who followed "Christ's lore and his Apostles' " before he taught it to his flock — and in his ridi- cule of the indulgence-seller, with his wallet ' ' full of pardons come from Rome all hot." 199. Chaucer was a favorite of king and nobles, and his verse breathes the perfumed elegance and luxury of the court. The people's poet of the time was Robert Langland, who called himself Piers the Plowman. He sang in ruder and sadder lines the hunger, toil, and misery of the poor man's life, darkened by his own ignorance and the pitiless op- pressions of his superiors in rank. RECAPITULATION. Revolt of the English peasantry quelled by fearlessness of Richard II. His promises of emancipation are annulled by Parliament. As- cendency of the Duke of Gloucester; his imprisonment and death. Richard fails to content any class of his people; exiles Henry of Lan- caster, and confiscates his inheritance ; is deposed by Parliament ; and Henry, who has been joined on his return by a powerful party, is placed upon the throne. Richard dies in his prison. Progress of agricultural class from slaves to peasants. War between landlords and laborers. Abuses in the Church exposed by Wicliffe's teachings. His influence in England and Bohemia. He translates the whole Bible into English. Is called the Morning Star of the Reformation. Chaucer is the father of English poetry. Depicts the whole life of his time in the Canterbury Tales. Piers Plowman is the poor man's poet. IX. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. DMUND Mortimer, Earl of March, \ was nearest heir to the throne, according to strict principles of hereditary monarchy. But the English crown had always been elective, and in some degree there is no doubt that Henry IV. (A. D. 1399-1413) had all the claim that could be derived from the national will. The con- flict between these two principles was not settled until some cen- turies had passed. The Earl of March was a child of seven years at the time of Richard's death (§ 192), and he was kept in a sort of mild captivity throughout Henry's reign. 201. The King tried to please the clergy by persecuting the Lollards; and for the first time since the extermination of the Druids, English air was tainted with the smoke of human sacrifices. Henry was less successful in his dealings with the great nobles. One of the first and most powerful adherents to whom he owed his crown was Henry Percy, the Earl of Northumberland. But when the Earl had won a great vic- tory over rebellious "Welsh and invading Scots, the King sent him strict orders not to ransom his prisoners : he wished to make better terms with Scotland by the possession of one of (108) Lollard at Stake. A. D. 1406.] REBELLION OF rERCY. 109 its great nobles. But by the laws of war in that age, the ransom of a prisoner belonged to his captor ; and the proud Percy felt himself both insulted and robbed. He now re- solved to overturn the throne which he had chiefly aided to set up. 202. He joined the Welsh rebel, Glendower; he allied himself with his prisoner, the Earl of Douglas; and their combined forces met those of the King, at Shrewsbury. King Henry and his brave son were in the thickest of the fight. Northumberland was absent through illness : his son, the fiery-tempered Harry Hotspur, commanded the rebel forces; but his death decided the fiercely fought battle. Northumberland was pardoned, in view of his former serv- ices and his great loss. Two years later, he was again in rebellion; this time with Scrope, Archbishop of York, as his ally. The rising was quickly put down, and the Archbishop was beheaded as a traitor. The King was soon afterward seized with a loathsome disease, which he and many others believed to be a judgment of Heaven upon this sacrilegious deed. 203. Accident threw into Henry's hands the heir to the Scottish throne, whom he ungenerously kept a prisoner for eighteen years. King Robert III. of Scotland stood in mortal fear of his violent and unscrupulous brother, the Duke of Albany, who had already caused the heir-apparent to be starved in a dungeon, and seemed bent on destroying all lives between himself and the throne. To save his only re- maining son from destruction, the King sent him to France ; but the vessel, though in time of peace, was taken by English cruisers ; and the Prince, now nine years old, was detained by King Henry. He received some amends for this injustice in the liberal education which he acquired during his captivity, and which enabled him greatly to improve his kingdom on his return. Grief at his capture broke his father's heart: Robert III. died, and the Scottish no FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1406. government remained many years in the hands of the Duke of Albany. 204. Henry IV. was less beloved as king than as duke. Resentment at Richard's misgovernment was lost in pity at his untimely fate ; and Henry's consciousness of the irregular manner of his own accession, made him suspicious even of his eldest son, and stern and cruel toward all whom he, however unjustly, suspected of plotting against him. Never- theless, the power of the Commons was greatly increased during this reign. It could hardly be otherwise, when the King's best title to his crown was rested upon their consent. Henry died, A. D. 1413, in Westminster Abbey, where he had been kneeling before the shrine of Edward the Confessor. 205. His son, Henry of Monmouth, now King Henry V., was the idol of the people, not more for his extraordinary gifts both in war and government, than for his gay and genial disposition, which contrasted strongly with the gloomy temper of his father. He had been addicted to low company in his youth ; but on coming to the throne, he dismissed his wild companions, confirmed his father's wise old ministers in their offices, and entered upon a better life. All party differences were forgotten, except that which separated Catholics and Lollards. 206. An old friend of Henry's, Sir John Oldcastle, after- ward Lord Cobham, a good soldier and able counselor, was found guilty of disbelieving the Real Presence in the sacra- ment, and some other Catholic dogmas. He was, in truth, the chief leader of the Lollards, now a powerful party in the state; and when imprisoned in the Tower, under sentence of death, he was enabled to make his escape, and set on foot a formidable insurrection against the King. This act added treason to heresy. Many of his followers were taken and put to death ; and when, after four years, Cobham himself was captured, he was first hanged and then burnt, to combine the punishments due to both his crimes. A. D. 1415.] BATTLE OF AGINCOURT. in 207. Having purified his kingdom, as he fondly hoped, from die stain of heresy, Henry determined to prosecute a claim to the crown of France. This might seem the most ludicrous of pretensions, if its enforcement had not cost the lives of 100,000 men. Even if the wife of Edward II. (§§ 167, 177) had had any right to her father's crown, it was of no avail to the House of Lancaster, so long as Ed- mund Mortimer lived. But Henry's title to his English kingdom needed to be strengthened by military fame; his barons' appetite for stirring adventures might have made mischief at home, if it had not been gratified abroad; and the miseries of France, which might have moved a more generous heart to pity, afforded every prospect of an easy conquest. 208. The French King was insane ; his heir was lazy and luxurious ; his wife hated her son and betrayed her husband ; his brothers took advantage of the wretched confusion to en- rich themselves out of the treasures of the state; and all France was rent by a quarrel between the Orleanists, led by the King's nephew, and the Burgundians, who followed his cousin. Into this distracted scene Henry entered, Aug. 13, 141 5, with his well equipped and powerful army of 30,000 men. His first movement was against Harfleur, which he took after a five weeks' siege, though with the loss of half his men. The sick and wounded were sent away by sea, while their King marched toward Calais. 209. The French army, numbering four times his own, awaited him under the castled heights of Agincourt; and here was fought a third great battle (§§ 178, 182), in which the English, against surprising odds, won the day against the brave and brilliant chivalry of France. Heavy rains had made the ground difficult for cavalry, while Henry's light-armed archers were able to move with ease. They opened the battle with one well-aimed volley of arrows; then seizing the hatchets which hung from their 112 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1415. necks, rushed forward with a deafening shout, which in- creased the confusion of the wounded men and horses before them. The gallant knights and gentlemen, weighted with their steel armor, sank to their saddle-girths in mud and marsh. 210. One by one the French lines gave way: 10,000 "gen- tlemen of France" lay dead upon the field; and among the 14,000 prisoners were the Duke of Bourbon, and the Duke of Orleans, nephew of the King. The battle of Agincourt destroyed the old nobility of France, and left the throne for a time unsupported. But the expense of maintaining a mod- ern army made the victory almost useless to the English; and Henry retired to his own country, " covered with glory and buried in debt." 2ii. In 1417, he landed again in Normandy with 25,000 men. The miserable jealousies of the French princes had been working for him, and he quickly subdued Lower Nor- mandy and captured Rouen. The base and brutal murder of the Duke of Burgundy by a servant of the Dauphin, * immediately after a solemn treaty of peace between the two princes, still more favored the English. The new Duke allied himself with them against his father's murderer, promising even to do all in his power to make Henry king of France. By the Treaty of Troyes it was agreed that Henry should marry a daughter of the imbecile King, Charles VI., while his brother, the Duke of Bedford, was to marry a sister of the Duke of Burgundy. King Charles was to keep his royal title, but the King of England was to administer the kingdom in his name, and to receive its crown at Charles's death, in exclusion of the Dauphin. 212. Henry, with his captive father-in-law, made a tri- umphal entry into Paris; and a year later, the birth of his son was celebrated with equal rejoicings in the French and * The eldest son of the King of France bore this title. A. D. 1422.] DEATH OF HENRY V. 113 the English capitals. But Henry's prosperity was of short duration : he died of a sudden and painful dis- order, — committing the government of France to the Duke of Bedford; that of England, to another brother, the Duke of Gloucester ; and the guardianship of his son, to the Earl of Warwick. His widow soon contracted a second marriage with Owen Tudor, a descendant of the Welsh princes, and became ancestress of another proud line of English sovereigns. (See Table p. 119.) RECAPITULATION. Henry IV. imprisons a nearer heir of Edward III. than himself; burns Lollards to please the clergy ; offends Earl of Northumberland, who rebels with aid of the Scots and Welsh. Defeat and death of Harry Hotspur at Shrewsbury. Execution of Archbishop Scrope. Captivity of James I. of Scotland. Henry's gloomy and unpopular temper. His title being derived from the will of the people, the Commons gain power during his reign. Henry V. reforms his conduct on his accession to the throne. The Lollards become a political party ; their leader is executed for heresy and treason. Henry invades France; captures Harfleur; gains a great victory at Agincourt ; marries a daughter of the French King, and is acknowledged as his successor; dies before his father-in-law. Regency of his two brothers, in minority of his son. Eng. — 10. X. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Joan of Arc. HE poor, crazy King of France died two months later than his English son-in-law, and the Duke of Bedford caused the in- fant Henry VI. to be crowned at Paris as his successor. The Dauphin was wittily called " King of Bourges," that city being nearly the extent of his actual dominion, though the sover- eignty of France was his by right. For six years the war steadily favored the English ; but in 1428 came a singular turn of fortune, The English were besieging Orleans, an important city which, by commanding the river Loire, held the key to southern France. If it fell, the fortunes of Charles VII. were irretrievably ruined. ("4) A. D. 1436.] JOAN OF ARC. 115 214. At this point, a simple peasant girl, Joan of Arc, believed herself inspired by Heaven to deliver France. Pre- senting herself before the Dauphin, she so far convinced him of her mission, that he intrusted her with a command. Dis- playing her consecrated banner at the head of her troops, she excited at once the hopes of the French and the fears of the English, and triumphantly convoyed a train of provision wagons into the beleaguered town. By successive sorties she drove the English from their fortifications; and, at length, the Earl of Suffolk, finding it impossible to make his soldiers fight against the supposed messenger of Heaven, broke up his camp and withdrew from the town. 215. Having thus delivered Orleans, Joan prepared for the second part of her mission, — the conducting of the King to Rheims for his coronation. This also was triumphantly ac- complished. Charles was anointed with the holy oil which had served for the consecration of all the sovereigns of France since Clovis. This done, the heroic maid demanded leave to return to her sheepfolds. But Charles, hoping further advantage from her presence, refused to let her go; and she was soon afterward captured bv the ■ May., 1431. English. To their lasting disgrace, she was treated not as a prisoner of war, but as a sorceress, and condemned by a court of bishops to be burnt to death. 216. The spell of English ascendency was broken. France willingly submitted to her hereditary king. The Duke of Burgundy made peace with his feudal chief, and the Duke of Bedford died soon afterward, — some said from vexation at the event. Paris opened her gates to Charles VII. ; and though the war continued, with intervals of truce, for nearly twenty years, the English power rapidly declined. 217. Let us now return to England, where the Duke of Bedford's death produced effects scarcely less disastrous than in France. The kingdom was divided between two parties, Il6 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1445. led respectively by the Duke of Gloucester, a proud but generous prince, the young King's uncle, and by his great uncle, Cardinal Beaufort, a son of John of Gaunt. One great subject of rivalry between them was the choice of a wife for the young King. Henry was of a gentle and harm- less disposition, but in the powers of his mind he resembled rather his imbecile French grandfather, than either of the three great English sovereigns from whom he was more im- mediately descended. A spirited wife would, it was hoped, supply his defects; and the choice of the Beaufort party fell upon Margaret of Anjou, reputed to be the most beautiful, clever, and accomplished princess of her age, though at this time she was but fifteen years old. Their plan prevailed; and a secret article of the marriage treaty ceded the English province of Maine, in France, to Margaret's uncle, Charles of Anjou. 218. The new Queen became a warm adherent of the party which had secured her marriage, and plotted with them the ruin of the Duke of Gloucester. He was impris- oned on a charge of treason, and died before his trial, prob- ably by the contrivance of his enemies. His uncle, Cardinal Beaufort, died a few weeks later, in agonies of remorse. Margaret was no favorite with the English people. When her kinsman, the King of France, reconquered Normandy and Guienne, they suspected treachery of the same kind which had deprived them of Maine; and though seldom willing to vote money for the wars in France, which were, in fact, opposed to their true interests, they felt the loss of any territory as a national disgrace. 219. The poor King of England was at a low ebb in his fortunes. The crown-lands and revenues had been wasted during his minority, and his household could only be sup- ported by a system of robbery politely called the "royal right of purveyance." The popular wrath at this state of things fell upon the Duke of Suffolk, Margaret's chief ally. A. D. I454-] CADE'S REBELLION. 117 With the hope of saving him from summary vengeance, the King banished him ; but he was overtaken and murdered by his enemies before he could leave the kingdom. The discon- tent of the people broke out in seditions and riots, of which the most formidable was Jack Cade's Rebellion. Twenty thousand insurgents followed this man, who took the popu- lar name of Mortimer (§ 200). They defeated the King's forces and marched upon London, which opened its gates to receive them. With some difficulty the rebellion was put down, and Cade and many of his followers paid the penalty with their lives. 220. If Henry VI. had been as able a man as his father, it might have been forgotten, by this time, that his grand- father was a usurper. But his incapacity reminded people of the imperfection of his title, and the better claims of the Mortimers. This family was extinct in the male line (see Table, p. 119), but its rights were transferred by marriage to the House of York. Richard, Duke of York, was a brave, able, and generous prince, closely allied by marriage to the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, the most powerful noblemen in the kingdom. The latter was soon known as the " King- maker," from his commanding influence. He was the last of the great barons who held their broad lands on condition of service in war; and wherever Warwick moved, he was attended, if he so pleased, by an army of retainers. No fewer than 30,000 persons fed daily at his expense, in the various castles and manors which belonged to him; and soldiers and people idolized him as the greatest representa- tive of their national aristocracy. 221. The birth of a Prince of Wales, instead of strength- ening the King's cause, removed all hope of the peaceable succession of the Duke of York, and thus hastened the ap- proaching conflict. The King, about the same time, became utterly imbecile. The Queen and her council had to yield to the popular will, and the Duke of York became lieutenant- n8 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1461. general and protector of the kingdom. A gleam of returning reason enabled the King to dismiss York, and commit the government to Somerset, the nearest relative of the House of Lancaster. York levied an army and gained A. D. 1455. J & a battle at St. Albans, in which Somerset was slain and the King wounded. This was the first blood shed in the "Wars of the Roses," — so called from the Yorkists wearing a white rose and the Lancastrians a red one as their symbols. 222. Still the conflict slumbered five years. In 1460, the King was taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick. Parlia- ment attempted to settle the rival claims, by making the Duke of York Protector during Henry's life, and successor to the crown at his death. But Queen Margaret bitterly re- sented this exclusion of her son. Raising an army in Scot- land and the northern English counties, she defeated Duke Richard at Wakefield, with the loss of his life. His head, encircled with a paper crown, was fixed upon a gate of York. Of the three sons who survived him, two, Edward and Rich- ard, became kings of England, while his granddaughter Eliz- abeth was queen of Henry VII. His eldest daughter became the wife of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, one of the most renowned princes of the age. Queen Margaret gained another victory at St. Albans, and recovered her husband from his captivity; but she was soon compelled to retreat northward, and the young Duke of York, entering London, was proclaimed king as Edward IV., March 3, 1461. RECAPITULATION. Coronation of Henry VI. at Paris. Siege of Orleans by English ; its rescue by Joan of Arc, who secures the crowning of Charles VII. at Rheims; she is captured and burnt to death. Decline of English power in France. Unpopular marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou. Death of rival English princes; the Duke of Gloucester GENEALOGICAL TABLE. 119 and Cardinal Beaufort. Jack Cade's Rebellion. Greatness of the Earl of Warwick, the king-maker, who favors the royal claims of the Duke of York. During insanity of the King, dukes of Somerset and York are rivals in the protectorship. Wars of the Roses begin with battle of St. Albans, in which the King is defeated and Somerset slain. Death of the Duke of York at Wakefield. Coronation of his son as King Edward IV. Descent from Edward III. of the Three Royal Houses of Lancaster, York, and Tudor. Edward III. I Edward, Pr. of Wales, d. 1376, I 184. I Richard II. deposed, 1399, I 192- Lionel, Duke of Clarence. Philippa, mar. Edm. Mortimer, Earl of March. I Rog. Mortimer, Earl of March. I 1 Edm. Mortimer, Earl of March, d. 1424, £§ 200, 207. I Anne Mortimer m. Richard, E. of Cambridge. J. of Gaunt, m. Duke of Lan- caster. I Henry IV. 3 Cath. Swynford. Edmund, D. of I York. John Beaufort, E. of Somerset I John Beaufort, headed D. of Somerset. I Richard, Earl of Cambridge, be- 1415- Henry V. m. Catherine of France, who m. I Henry VI. I Edward, Pr. of Wales, d. 1471, § 226. 2 Owen Tudor. I Edmund Tu- dor, Earl of Richmond, m. I Richard, D. of York, died at Wakefield, 1460, g 222. Margaret Beaufort. I Henry VII. Edward IV. George, D. of 1 Clarence. Richard III. 1 1 1 1 Elizabeth m. Henry VII. (See p. 150.) Edward V. Richard, D. of I d. 1483. York. Edward, E. of Warwick, be- headed, 1499. 1 Margaret, Count- ess of Salisbury, beheaded, 1541. XL HOUSE OF YORK. DWARD IV. (A. D. T461-1483) was a brave and able, but cruel king ; willing to wade through seas of blood to the assured possession of his throne. A terrible battle at Towton ended and slaughter or ^f the Lancastrians, noblest heads in upon the scaffold, William Caxton, Printer. in the defeat dispersion of Some of the England fell and their con- fiscated wealth went to build up the despotic power on which the King had set his heart; for it enabled him to support the ex- pense of government without hav- ing recourse to Parliament. Queen Margaret did not abate her efforts, but with the French King's aid invaded England in 1464. She was twice defeated, and taking refuge with her son in the woods, was robbed of all her jewels, but managed to escape while the ruffians were quarreling over their prize. Meeting another robber, she appealed not in vain to his gen- erosity, and was safely conveyed over the border. Her hus- band was imprisoned in the Tower. 224. King Edward married an English lady, Elizabeth Woodville, and thereby offended the Earl of Warwick, who was planning a brilliant foreign match for his master. The new Queen claimed all the gifts and honors of the court for her own kinsmen, and lost no opportunity to thwart and injure Warwick. The old nobility, incensed by the rise of (120) A. D. 1476.] INTRODUCTION OF PRINTING* 121 all these "new people," mustered around the King-maker. Chief of them all in rank was the King's own brother, the Duke of Clarence, who married a daughter of the great Earl. 225. Warwick now repaired to the French court, where he met Queen Margaret, and engaged to support the royal rights of her husband and son. Landing with a few followers on the Kentish coast, the Earl was soon joined by a great army. Edward fled beyond seas; and in eleven days . , A. D. 1470. from his arrival, Warwick was master of England. He took Henry VI. from his prison and showed him to the people as their king. But Edward IV., aided by his Bur- gundian brother-in-law (§ 222), soon mustered a small fleet and army, and effected a landing in Yorkshire. Gaining the two great cities of York and London, he threw poor King Henry into his dungeon again ; then rallying all his forces, he met Warwick at Barnet, and won a victory which was completed by the great Earl's death. 226. Margaret, landing the same day at Weymouth, heard of the disaster; but she increased her army and fought with Edward at Tewkesbury, where she and her son became pris- oners. The Prince was murdered in the very presence of his conqueror, the signal for the crime having been given by a blow from the King's own hand. His father died a few days later in the Tower ; his unhappy mother, after years of fierce and restless plotting for revenge, died in 1482, at her father's court in Provence. 227. The remainder of Edward's reign was inglorious. He invaded France; but being disappointed of the aid he expected from the Duke of Burgundy, he consented to be bought off by the wily King Louis XL The greatest event of his reign — though little marked, perhaps, by the King — was the introduction of printing. William Caxton, a worthy London merchant, had retired from trade and become a copyist in the service of King Edward's sister the Duchess Eng. 11. FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1476. A. D. 1476 land, of Burgundy. Hearing of the new art — the invention of one Hollandish and two German mechanics — which was multiply- ing books with miraculous speed, Caxton set himself, in his sixtieth year, to become a printer ; and, three years later, carried his press and types to Eng- Here the old man toiled until his eightieth year; and sixty-five books, of many of which he was author or translator, as well as printer, bear witness to his industry and zeal. 228. Edward IV. died in 1483, and his eldest son, Edward, was acknowledged as king, under the regency of his uncle Richard. But the Duke of Gloucester's long concealed ambition now came to its fulfillment. He seized and beheaded the young King's uncle and half- brother on the mother's side, and, under the title of Pro- tector of the Realm, took the whole power into his own hands. The Queen and her five daughters fled into sanctuary at Westminster. 229. One morning the Protector entered the Royal Coun- cil, with an angry face. "What punishment," he cried, "should be visited upon those who plot against my life?" " Death!" cried Lord Hastings, the President of the Council, with excess of zeal. "These traitors," said Richard, "are my brother's wife and her accomplices. See to what a state they have reduced me by their witchcraft ! " So saying, he raised his sleeve and showed an arm all withered and Costumes at the time of Edward IV. A. D. 1485.] RICHARD III. 123 shrunken. Knowing well that this had been its condition from infancy, Hastings said, "If they have done this deed, my lord," — "If!" shouted the Protector; "dost thou talk to me of ifs ? I tell thee, thou art a traitor ; and by St. Paul, I will not dine until I see thy head cut off!" Without appeal to law or justice, Hastings was hurried into the outer court of the Tower, and laid across a beam which happened to be lying there. " His head was cut off with an ax, and the Lord Protector dined." 230. Only one more crime lay between Richard and the throne. The two young princes, Edward and his brother Richard, Duke of York, had been lodged in the Tower. They never more appeared in open day; and there is no reason to doubt the horrid story that they were smothered in their bed by ruffians, hired by their uncle for the purpose. The Duke of Gloucester became King Richard III. ; and, to do him justice, consoled the peo- ple by wise and beneficent government for the violence with which he had seized the crown. He convoked a parliament, annulled most of the exactions and tyrannies of his brother's reign, protected the growing commerce of the realm, and favored especially the diffusion of learning. 231. But the English people now remembered with pride the warlike glory of Henry V., and the meek virtues of his son, while it forgot their faults in the violent crimes and ex- cesses of their Yorkist successors. Their hopes and wishes turned toward Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, a descend- ant through a female line from John of Gaunt, and therefore a representative of the House of Lancaster. (See Table, p. 119.) He had been many years on the Continent, protected alternately by the Duke of Brittany and the King of France, Louis XL, whose crooked and artful policy he thoroughly imbibed. By his betrothal to Elizabeth, eldest daughter of King Edward IV. , he won the support even of the Yorkists, who were horrified by the murder of their young King. 124 FEUDAL ENGLAND. [A. D. 1485. 232. Landing with a small French army at Milford Haven, Tudor advanced to Bosworth Field, in Leicestershire, where Richard was drawn up to receive him. In the night before the battle, half the chiefs of the royal army marched over with all their followers to the Tudor side. Nevertheless, Richard fought as if all the valor of the royal line which ended in him were nerving his arm and firing his brain. Plunging into the thickest of the crowd, he hewed his way to the presence of Henry, — resolved that the question between them should be settled by the death of one, — and fell, overborne by numbers, but fighting to his last breath. His crown was found on a thorn-bush and placed upon the head of his conqueror, who was hailed from all parts of the field with shouts of "God save King Henry the Seventh ! " Thus ended the Plantagenet Line; and in its fall, Feudal England also passed away. RECAPITULATION. Arbitrary and cruel temper of Edward IV. Misfortunes of Queen Margaret. The new Queen offends the King-maker, who reinstates Henry VI., while Edward flees the kingdom. He returns, and War- wick is defeated and slain at Barnet. Margaret and her son are pris- oners at Tewkesbury. Death of Henry VI. and his son. Introduction of printing. Richard of Gloucester usurps power upon his brother's death ; murders Lords Rivers, Grey, and Hastings, and his two nephews; is crowned as king. Henry Tudor invades England; espouses Elizabeth of York ; gains battle of Bosworth, in which Richard is slain; is crowned as King Henry VII. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PART II. 1. Describe the reign of William the Conqueror. {$96-109, 114 2. The character and i-eign of his successor. 110-114 3. What princes had part in the Crusades? 113, 136, 137, 155 4. Tell the history of Henry Beauclerc. 115-117 5. Who had the best right to succeed him? 1 18, 119 6. Describe Stephen's reign. 120-123 7. The first of the English Plantagenets. 123, 124, 133 8. Name the chief events of his reign. 124-132 9. Tell the story of Thomas & Becket. 125-129 10. What other primates had great influence? 100, no, in, 143 11. What kings in this period persecuted the Jews? 135, 161 12. Describe the character and adventures of Richard I. 134-140 13. The character and reign of John. 132, 138, 141-146 14. The minority of Henry III. 148, 149 15. His foreign connections. 150, 151 16. Simon de Montfort and the rise of the English Parliament. 152-154 17. Roger Bacon at Oxford. 1 56-1 58 18. The rise of the Mendicant Orders. 159 19. On what terms was Wales united with England? 160 20. Describe the policy of Edward I., and the progress of Parliament. 161-171 21. Tell the whole story of Scotland, and its relations with English kings. 20, 47, 53, 58, 76, 99, 115, 123, 131, 136, 162- 165, 168-171, 173, 175, 176, 180, 203 22. Describe the character and reign of Edward II. 172-174 23. The acts of Edward III., at home and abroad. 175-185 24. The condition and conduct of the peasantry in his and the following reign. 186-188, 193, 194 25. The character of Richard II., and his govern- ment. 189, 190 26. Tell the story of Henry of Lancaster. 190-192, 200-204 (125) 126 FEUDAL ENGLAND. 27. Tell the story of Wicliffe. \\ 195-197 28. Describe the chief poets of the time. 198, 199 29. The reign of Henry V. 205-212 30. What three great victories of the English in France? 178, 182, 209 31. Describe the English regency in France. 213-216 32. The reign of Henry VI. in England. 217-219 33. What occasioned the Wars of the Roses ? 220-222 34. Describe the character and reign of Edward IV. 223-227 35. Tell the story of the " King-maker." 220, 224, 225 36. Describe the reign of Richard III. 228-232 37. What claims had Henry Tudor to the English crown ? 38. How many kings of the Elder Norman Line ? 39. How many Plantagenets ? 40. What was the average length of their reigns ? 41. How many captive kings at the court of Edward III.? 42. Had the House of York or that of Lancaster the better hereditary claim to the crown ? 43. What was the strongest claim of Henry IV.? PART III.-THE TUDORS. I. OPENING OF THE MODERN ERA. E turn over a new leaf in the His- tory of England, and enter upon the study of a grand new era. The Wars of the Roses, now ended, had broken down that mighty baronage which wrested Magna Charta from King John, and availed itself of his son's weakness to perfect the founda- tions of English freedom. Their fall was doubtless a benefit, for their iron hand had rested heavily upon the people. But the imme- diate effect was to give, not greater freedom to the people, but greater power to the king. The confis- cated wealth of the great houses had enabled Edward IV. to reign almost without parliaments; and the Tudors ruled with higher hand than even the Plantagenets had done. Nevertheless, the diffusion of intelligence through printed books, and the mental excitement caused by the stirring events which ushered in the modern era, led to great progress in art, science, literature, and the refinements of home-life. (127) A Miracle Play. 128 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1487. 234. In Europe at large, men were greeting the dawn of a new day. Scholars, fleeing westward after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, had brought copies of many great works of ancient literature ; and the enthusiasm they inspired was not confined -to the learned circles of the Uni- versities. Knowledge was no longer the rare privilege of those who could buy costly manuscripts, but had become the birthright of all. 235. In France and Spain, no less than in England, the great fiefs had become absorbed into powerful monarchies; and permanently paid troops had taken the place of the old feudal armies, which had always been ready to crumble to pieces just when most needed. The possession of standing armies enabled kings to engage in distant wars, and the^e wars first made the several nations acquainted with each others' languages and ideas. 236. The minds of men awoke to new enterprises which greatly increased the sum of human knowledge. The Por- tuguese were first to put forth into the stormy Atlantic; and one of their captains, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, opened a sea route to India and the great, rich continent of Asia. Other nations followed ; and, seven years after the battle of Bosworth, an Italian in Spanish service set his foot upon the threshold of a New World. The explorations, fol- lowing this magnificent discovery, afforded a welcome outlet to the daring and restless spirits of Europe ; and the voyages of Columbus were among the great events that distinguished the opening of the modern era. England had her full share in the adventures of those glorious days. Though prevented from aiding Columbus, Henry VII. sent a fleet under Cabot, a Venetian, which was the first to approach the American Continent ; and the brave and hardy English, inclined to the sea, not less from their Norse or Saxon blood than from their island home, were soon to be found in the remotest quarters of the globe. A. D. 1493.] TWO IMPOSTORS. ™9 237 The early years of Henry VII. were disturbed by two Yorkist insurrections. An Oxford priest, named Simon, taught Simnel, a baker's boy, to enact the part A D ^^ of the young Earl of Warwick, Clarence's son (S 224 ), whom King Henry had confined in the Tower Ireland was warmly attached to the House of York and especially to the Duke of Clarence, who had been .ts lord- lieutenant; and when Simon's pupil landed at Dublin as Edward Plantagenet, the whole island greeted h.m with loyal acclamations as King Edward the Sixth. In En-land, the rebellion was quickly put down by the exhibition *of the true Edward in the streets of London. But the dowager Duchess of Burgundy (§§ 222, 227), easily convinced or willingly deceived by the imposture, sent over a German army to invade England, in concert with S.mnels Irish forces. By the battle of Stoke the rebellion was com- pletely crushed. Simon, being a priest, was only imprisoned ; and the pretended Plantagenet became a scullion in the King's kitchen. 238 The second insurrection was led by a supposed Richard, Duke of York (§ 230). His real name was Perkin Warbeck, son of a merchant of Tournay; but his courtly manners and speech, with his intellectual gifts and accom- plishments, made him more presentable as a prince than poor Simnel, the baker's boy, had been. Charles VIII. of France, who was preparing for a war with England, entertained h.m at Paris with all the magnificence suitable to a royal prince, and the Duchess of Burgundy, after scrutinizing and ques- tioning him severely, embraced him, with joyful tears, as her long-lost nephew. 230 The brisk trade then kept up between England and the Netherlands, afforded means of spreading m the former country the news of the wonderful escape of the « Rose " But King Henry's spies were so many and v gilant, that few dared breathe a word in favor of the Pretender. 130 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1496. The King of Scotland, however, received him with royal honors, gave him a noble lady for his wife, and even invaded England, in hope that at least the Yorkshire people would rise in favor of their native prince. This hope was disap- pointed, and Perkin had to take refuge in the Irish bogs. The poor miners of Cornwall had meanwhile been driven to rebellion by heavy taxes, and the pretended prince appear- ing among them, was soon at the head of 7,000 men. But at the approach of the royal forces, "King Richard IV." deserted his followers and fled, surren- dering himself soon afterward upon a false promise of pardon. This unkingly cowardice satisfied the people that* he was no Plantagenet, and there was little grief when he was hanged at Tyburn. The young Earl of Warwick was beheaded a few days later; and this revengeful act destroyed whatever love the people may still have felt for Henry VII. 240. Henry's notorious avarice was so far a benefit to England, that it restrained him from costly wars. But he availed himself of a quarrel with France to extort a forced loan — curiously called a benevolence — from his people, while he was already secretly negotiating the terms of a peace. This was obtained by a large payment from the King of France to the King of England, who thus, like a shrewd merchant, made a double profit out of friends and enemies. 241. The only important events of Henry's remaining years were the marriages of his children. Arthur, his eldest son, espoused Catherine, a daughter of the Spanish sov- ereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, whose kingdom was now the most powerful in Europe (§ 249). The young Prince died a few months after the marriage; and King Henry, unwilling to surrender the 200,000 ducats of the Princess's dowry, obtained the Pope's permission to marry her to his next son, Henry, who now became heir to the crown. His eldest daughter, Margaret, was married the same year to James IV., King of Scotland. Both of these marriages had A. D. 1509.] DEATH OF HENRY VII. 131 important effects, not only in the affairs of England, but in those of Europe. 242. In 1506, the Princess Catherine had a forced visit from her eldest sister, who was wife of the Archduke Philip of Austria. A storm drove the Archduke's vessel into an English harbor; and King Henry refused to let his guests depart until he had wrung from them a new treaty of com- merce with the Netherlands, and some other concessions of equal advantage to himself. The King's avarice grew with his declining years. His worst instruments were Dudley and Empson, two lawyers whose professional skill only enabled them to oppress the innocent, and fill the King's chests with ill-gotten treasures. 243. As he felt his end approach, Henry's disposition to drive a hard bargain did not desert him: he engaged 2,000 masses, at six-pence a piece, to be said for the repose of his soul! He also ordered restitution to be made to all whom he had injured; but this, unhappily, was no longer possible. He was buried in the grand chapel which he had built for himself, as an addition to Westminster Abbey, and which still bears his name. RECAPITULATION. Opening of the Modern Era. Fall of feudalism, rise of standing armies, and increase of kingly power. Revival of learning ; growth of intelligence among the common people. Maritime enterprise ; opening of a sea route to India; discovery of America by Columbus and Cabot. Two impostors claim the crown of Henry VII., without success. Henry avoids war for economical reasons ; allies his children with the royal houses of Spain and Scotland ; extorts a commercial treaty from Philip of Austria ; hoards money wrung from his people by unrighteous exactions. II. REIGN OF HENRY VIII. Headsman. 'EVER king came to his throne amid greater joy of his people, or with brighter promise of a happy and glorious reign, than Henry VIII. (A. D. 1509- 1547). The rival families of York and Lancaster were hap- pily united in him. He was heir of an enormous treasure, which he dispensed with gay liberality, while he brought to the block the guilty agents by whom it had been collected (§ 242). Henry was eighteen years old, handsome, energetic, and fond of chivalrous amusements, while endowed with great powers of mind, a hearty friend of the New Learning, and inspired with a sincere desire to rule justly. 245. A few weeks after his accession, he celebrated his marriage with the Princess Catherine (§ 241), and the two were crowned together, June 24, 1509. Henry's thirst for "glory" led him to join the Spanish and Italian powers in a league against France, reviving the almost forgotten claim of his ancestors to the western provinces of that kingdom. His first enterprise brought no good to England; for his crafty father-in-law, the King of Spain, used the English forces to conquer Navarre for himself, instead of Guienne, for which they had been sent. Henry's own invasion of France, though he captured Terouenne and Tournay, was hardly more suc- cessful ; for the League was suddenly dissolved by Ferdi- nand's desertion, and Henry was left to make peace as best he might. (132) A. D. 15 15-] GREATNESS OF WOLSEY. 133 246. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of the King's sister Mary with Louis XII., the aged King of France. Louis died soon afterward, and his young cousin Francis, the life-long rival of Henry, received the French crown. The widowed young queen was soon married to Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, a great favorite of her brother, and the most accomplished nobleman of his time. Her sister, the Queen of Scotland (§ 241), had been widowed the year before, by the disastrous battle of Flodden Field. James IV., thinking to make a diversion in behalf of his ally, the King of France, entered England with a great army and ravaged Northumberland. He was met by the Earl of Surrey at Flodden, near the Cheviot Hills, where, in a long and obstinate combat, the flower of Scotch nobility perished, and the King was slain. Queen Margaret, as regent for her infant son, sued for peace, which her brother readily granted. 247. Henry's chief minister at this time was Thomas Wol- sey, a churchman of humble birth but great genius, who, by the King's favor, rose rapidly into power. He became Arch- bishop of York, and was allowed to hold the sees of Tournay, Lincoln, and Winchester "in plurality." The Pope not only sent him a cardinal's hat, which made him a prince of the Church, but added the dignity of papal legate, which gave him a power in England equal to that of the Pope himself. By the King he was intrusted with the Great Seal; and no abler chancellor ever administered justice in England. So prompt and so just were his decisions, that the Court of Chancery — contrary to its later character — became the sure refuge of the oppressed. 248. While really the mainspring of all that was done in England, Wolsey contrived to make every act of government appear to proceed directly from the King, and flattered his royal master by affecting the most humble submission to his will. Like the King himself, he was a friend of the New Learning ; a munificent patron of learned men. He founded 134 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1519. the first professorship of Greek in England ; he established a school at Ipswich and a college at Oxford, which, under its later name of Christ Church, still attests his taste and liberality in building. His household almost equaled the King's in number and magnificence ; knights and barons served at his table; and his two mansions, at Hampton Court and White- hall, were splendid enough to be adopted as royal palaces, after his fall from power. 249. On the death of the Emperor Maximilian, the kings of France, Spain, and England all became candidates for the imperial crown. The German electors conferred it upon Charles V. , King of Spain, and grandson of the former Emperor, who thus became the greatest mon- arch of his time. From his father he inherited the seventeen duchies, counties, and baronies which were known collectively as the Netherlands, or Low Countries; from his mother, all the kingdoms of Spain, the great duchy of Milan in northern, and the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. The world itself seemed to have been enlarged for him ; for all the lands and treasures of the newly discovered hemisphere (§ 236) had been conferred upon the Spanish sovereigns by a pope who was himself a Spaniard. 250. King Francis, bitterly disappointed by his failure in the imperial election, sought Henry's friendship as a counter- poise to the enormous power of Charles. A royal interview was arranged to take place near Calais; but before the ap- pointed time, the new Emperor made a friendly visit to England. He flattered Wolsey with a promise of becoming pope at the next vacancy, and won the favor of Henry and Catherine by his frank and genial courtesies. On the day of his departure, Henry and all his court set sail for Calais. 251. The meeting which followed is known as the Field of Cloth of Gold, so gorgeous were the tents and trappings of the two courts. The two Kings displayed their knightly A. D. 1526.] FOREIGN RELA TIONS. 135 Tilting Helmet. skill in tilts and tourneys, while their ministers talked busi- ness; — then parted, with profuse assurances of friendship and esteem, when Henry pro- ceeded to visit the Emperor at Gravelines, and to be won over more completely to the imperial side. Wolsey received the reve- nues of two Spanish bishoprics, in earnest of his greater expecta- tions. In spite of the Emperor's promises, his tutor Adrian was made pope upon the death of Leo X. ; and when Adrian died, after a short reign, Clement VII., an Italian prince, received the tiara by favor of His Imperial Majesty. 252. Nevertheless, Henry made a new league with Charles and the Constable de Bourbon, a great feudatory of Francis, to divide the French kingdom among them. The misfortunes of Francis seemed complete when, in 1525, he was taken prisoner before Pavia and conveyed into Spain. His two enemies were at first inclined to use their advantage most ungenerously. Henry proposed to be crowned at Paris, like the fifth and sixth English kings of his name ; and afterward to accompany the Emperor to Rome, where Charles, like his great namesake seven hundred years before, might receive the diadem of the Caesars. But the Emperor was too cau- tious to engage in so wild and insolent a scheme. He pre- ferred to gain what he wanted from Francis through the rigor of a hard captivity. Henry then assumed the better part of a mediator, and through his good offices a peace was con- cluded which secured the liberty of Francis. 253. About this time a doubt arose in the King's mind, which led to a greater revolution than ever sprang from a royal whim before. According to Romish canons, his 136 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1525. marriage with his brother's widow (§ 241) was unlawful. All the sons born of this marriage had died in infancy; and only a sickly daughter, the Princess Mary, survived. Now, there was no precedent* for the succession of a woman to the English throne; and it was doubtful, even if Mary's life were spared, whether the nation would accept her as its sov- ereign. The King's superstition saw in the loss of his chil- dren a sure mark of the wrath of Heaven. Wolsey's artful counsels deepened his fears, if they had not first excited them; for the Cardinal hated the Spanish party, of which Queen Catherine was the head, and coveted the glory of ar- ranging a new marriage for his master with some French princess. But Henry made his own choice, without the aid of his minister or even the permission of the Pope. Anne Boleyn, a young lady of the Queen's household, had won his admiration, and decided him in favor of the divorce. 254. Pope Clement was in a painful dilemma. If he per- mitted Henry to break his marriage with Catherine, he would offend the Emperor Charles, her nephew ; and Germany and the Low Countries were almost sure to become Protestant. If, on the other hand, he forbade the divorce, both England and France might separate themselves from the Roman Church ; for all these countries were full of secret or open adherents of the reformed doctrines of Luther. At length, cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio were appointed to try the cause in England. But, under the influence of the Emperor, the Pope changed his mind, and cited the King and Queen of England to appear at Rome and plead their respective causes at his bar. 255. The fall of Wolsey soon followed. The Great Seal was taken from him and intrusted to Sir Thomas More. His palaces, with their gorgeous plate and furniture, were seized * Matilda ($> 118, 122) had been rejected by a majority of the nation. A. D. 1529.] ROYAL SUPREMACY. 137 for the King's own use. He was impeached on forty-four charges, and sentenced to forfeiture of lands and goods, with imprisonment of his person. But the King pardoned all his offenses and ordered him to retire to his archbishopric, the only dignity he retained. The next year, his enemies caused him to be arrested on a charge of high treason, for setting up a foreign court in the King's dominions ; but on his way to London, he died at Leicester Abbey. Before his death he uttered these memorable words : ' ' Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the King, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs." 256. King Henry in his early years had won the proud title of Defender of the Faith, by writing a book against Luther ; and he was now ashamed to further the Reformation by breaking his connection with the Pope. Thomas Cran- mer, a Cambridge scholar, had the good fortune to suggest a way out of the difficulty. He proposed to lay before all the universities of Europe the question, " May a man marry his brother's widow?" If they answered Yes, the King's conscience would be relieved ; if they counseled divorce, the Pope would be unable to resist their judgment. The opinion of the learned men was found to be against the King's wishes ; but, meanwhile, the course of events in England, together with the bold advice of Thomas Cromwell, his new secretary of state, led him to more decisive action. 257. The Parliament which met in 1529 declared the whole Church guilty of the crime for which Wolsey had been con- demned, namely, of yielding supreme obedience to a foreign power. The clergy only obtained pardon by paying an enor- mous fine, and acknowledging the King's supremacy over the Church. The Pope's claim to tribute and obedience was an- nulled; monasteries were subjected to inspection and control by the King's officers ; bishops were to be appointed by the clergy attached to their cathedrals, upon receiving letters of permission from the King. Eng.— 12. 138 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1533. 258. All who refused to take the oath of the King's supremacy, or to admit the lawfulness of his divorce and re- marriage, were declared traitors. Under this act Bishop Fisher, of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More* — two of the King's most noble and faithful servants — were beheaded for high treason. The monks of the Charter-house, in London, — a brotherhood celebrated, in that corrupt age, for the purity and beneficence of their lives, — either were executed upon the gallows or died of fever and starvation in a loathsome imprisonment. By the same parliament, King Henry's mar- riage with Catherine of Aragon was annulled, and that with Anne Boleyn acknowledged and confirmed. Cranmer, now Primate of England by the King's appointment, had already pronounced the same decision in ecclesiastical court. In 1533, the birth of the Princess Elizabeth was celebrated with great splendor and rejoicings. RECAPITULATION. Popularity of Henry VIII. Is outwitted by the King of Spain in his war with France. Death of James IV., at Flodden Field, is fol- lowed by peace with Scotland. Power and wealth of Wolsey; his patronage of the New Learning. Immense dominion of Charles V. Field of Cloth of Gold followed by visit of the English King to the Emperor. Henry seeks a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, which Pope Clement dares neither grant nor refuse. Fall and death of Wolsey. Cranmer furthers the divorce ; is rewarded with archbishop- ric of Canterbury. Parliament declares the King to be head of the Church. * More was one of the most admirable men of his time, whether we regard his bright genius, his wonderful learning, his ardent piety, or the sweetness of his domestic life. In his romance of Utopia or Ncnvhere, he depicts a perfect society, and satirizes the faults and op- pressions of his own age and country. III. REIGN OF HENRY VIII. y, W "^HE commissioners charged by the King with a visitation of the mon- asteries, reported a frightful amount of wickedness carried on under cover of religious professions. The story was doubtless exaggerated, in order to reconcile the people to the stern measure which Cromwell, now vicar-general, had resolved upon ; but as the " Black Book " was read in Parliament, cries of ' ' Down with them ! down with them [the monasteries] ! " rose from all sides. Within two years, all the ' ' religious houses " in England were closed by act of Parliament. All their rentals, gold, silver, and other property were confiscated. The abbots were pen- sioned, and part of the revenues were expended in founding schools, colleges, and six new bishoprics; but a large part went to enrich the King's courtiers and favorites. 260. Much discontent and some disorder followed the sup- pression of the monasteries. Their bounty had fed armies of paupers, who no more knew how to earn an honest living than did the monks themselves. In the northern counties, 40,000 persons undertook what they called a Pilgrimage of Grace. All the towns and castles north of the H umber fell into their hands. A "Parliament of the North" met at Pomfret, demanded reunion with Rome, the restoration of (139) The Chained Bible. 140 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1536. the Princess Mary to her rights as heiress to the crown, and the fall of Cromwell. The rebellion was put down with ter- rible cruelty. Four great abbots were hanged, and the last of the old feudal chiefs fell by the headsman's ax. The ten years of Thomas Cromwell's administration have been well called the English Reign of Terror. Opinion itself was made treason; and a man's re- fusal to reveal his inmost thoughts was regarded as evidence of crime. 261. Even royal blood was not spared. The venerable Countess of Salisbury, niece of Edward IV. (Table, p. 119), and granddaughter of the "King-maker," was forced to lay her gray head upon the block, no less than her son, and their cousin the Marquis of Exeter. Poor Queen Anne, three years from her coronation, was imprisoned in the Tower on charges of treason and unfaithfulness; and the same archbishop who had confirmed her marriage, now pronounced it null. She was beheaded ; and, three days afterward, the King married Jane Seymour, lately an attendant of Anne. In October of the next year, the whole nation rejoiced in the birth of a prince, who received the favorite name of Edward ; but their joy was clouded by the Queen's death, some weeks later. 262. As the Protestant influence just now prevailed at court, a new royal marriage with Anne, sister of the Duke of Cleves, Berg, and Jiiliers, on the Lower Rhine, was soon negotiated. But in marrying to please his courtiers, the King failed to please himself; and his displeasure extended to Cromwell, the chief promoter of the alliance. The old nobles hated Cromwell as a low-born upstart, and the Catholics, as the destroyer of the monasteries. He was accused of heresy and treason ; and though neither charge could be proven, he was beheaded without a hearing, — "judged," said the Council, "by the bloody laws he has himself made." 263. The Protestant marriage was annulled; Anne meekly accepted a home and revenues in England, and outlived the A. D. 1542.] MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. 141 King by ten years. The fifth alliance of this much married monarch was still less fortunate. Catherine Howard, a niece of the Duke of Norfolk, won his devoted affection; but it was discovered that not only before but even after her mar- riage her conduct had been shamefully bad. The A D ^ King was compelled to sign a warrant for her ex- ecution on Tower Hill, together with an accomplice who had been the chief accuser of Anne Boleyn. 264. During this year, King James V. of Scotland, a nephew of King Henry (§§ 241, 246), died, leaving only an infant daughter to inherit his crown. War was then raging between the two kingdoms, and the King's death was occasioned in no small degree by his vex- ation at his army's defeat on Solway Moss. But Henry, see- ing the favorable chance for uniting the whole island under one crown, now made peace and proposed to marry his son Edward to the baby Queen. One party among the Scottish nobles warmly favored this match ; but the Catholic party succeeded in thwarting it and forming a close alliance with the King of France. Suit of Armor. 265. Enraged at his failure, Henry now allied himself with the Emperor, and, crossing the Channel in great force, besieged and captured Boulogne. But Charles, as soon as he had gained his own purposes, made a treaty with Francis, without so much as mentioning 142 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1547. his English ally. Two years later, a peace with France and Scotland closed this expensive and inglorious war. 266. Henry's persecutions were distributed with great im- partiality between the Catholics, who denied his supremacy, and the Protestants, who disbelieved his creed. Anne Ascue, a lady of the court, was burnt to death for denying the Real Presence in the sacrament. Even Catherine Parr, the King's sixth and last wife, nearly lost her head by a theological dis- cussion; but her ready submission saved her life. As the King's health declined, his temper became more despotic than ever. He ordered the Duke of Norfolk and his accom- plished son, the Earl of Surrey, to prison on a charge of as- piring to the crown. Surrey was beheaded, and his father's death-warrant was already signed, when the King himself died, in the fifty-sixth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of his reign. 267. The capricious and tyrannical acts which have dark- ened Henry's name, were performed during the last twenty years of his life. If he had died at thirty-six, he would doubtless have ranked in history among the wisest and best of kings. But the possession of undisputed power gradually turned his strong will into blind obstinacy, his wisdom into dogmatism, and even his religious sense of responsibility for the right belief of his subjects, into a motive for atrocious persecutions. His life-long rival, Francis I., died the same year, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Henry II. RECAPITULATION. Parliament dissolves the monasteries. Insurrection in the north. Cromwell's Reign of Terror ; his disgrace and execution. The King marries Anne Roleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard; the first and last are beheaded; Catherine Parr survives him. Death of James V. of Scotland. Proposed marriage of his in- fant daughter with Prince Edward of England. Henry VIII. and his rival, Francis I. of France, die the same year. IV. EDWARD VI.— MARY I. Costume in Edward's Reign. ING Edward VI. (A. D. 1547- 1553) at his accession was only nine years old. His father had, therefore, appointed a Council of Regency under the Earl of Hertford, after- ward Duke of Somerset, who, being the young King's uncle by the mother's side, might be supposed to have the strong- est interest in his safety. Hertford immediately assumed royal power, with the title of Protector of the Kingdom, and formed a new Council, from which the adherents of the Roman Church were wholly excluded. Favoring the re- formed doctrines, Somerset took care that the young King's teachers should be of the same opinions ; and it was bis wish that, without violent changes or persecutions, England should become Protestant. His chief opponent, Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, was thrown into prison. A commission of clergy, with Archbishop Cranmer at its head, compiled a Book of Common Prayer, the same, but for a few slight alterations, as that now used in England. 269. The Reformation was going on with great vigor in Scotland, where the Protestants favored the English alli- ance, while the Catholics closely allied themselves with the French. Somerset now invaded Scotland with a great fleet and army, to put down the French party and insist upon (i43) 144 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1547. the marriage of little Queen Mary with the young King of England. The Scots in general ' ' were not averse to the match, but they liked not the manner of the wooing." Somerset gained a victory at Pinkie, but was recalled into England before he could push his advantage; and Mary was immediately sent over to France and betrothed to the heir of that kingdom. 270. The Protector's talents were not equal to his ambi- tion, and he was soon alarmed by the aggrandizement of his brother, Lord Seymour. This brilliant courtier had prevailed upon Queen Catherine (§ 266) to marry him in the early days of her widowhood; and after her death, he had the presumption to pay his addresses to the Princess Elizabeth. He openly opposed his brother's authority, and gathered about himself a powerful party of noblemen. The Earl of Warwick — son of that Dudley who served Henry VII. so dishonorably (§ 242) — made all the mischief he could be- tween the brothers, hoping to ruin both and raise himself. At length, Seymour was attainted of high treason, and exe- cuted on Tower Hill, March, 1549. 271. Somerset himself did not long keep his high place. His proceedings against the Romish worship offended a great mass of the people. The new proprietors of the abbey lands were harder landlords than the monks had been ; and as most of them spent their incomes in London, many a country region missed its ever-flowing fountain of charity. No doubt many paupers were reclaimed to honest industry ; but sudden and sweeping changes always involve suffering. Riots broke out in several counties. They were sternly suppressed by the Earl of Warwick, who thereby increased his fame and power. Somerset was deprived of all his offices, imprisoned, and heavily fined. Three years afterward he was again ar- rested, tried for treason, and beheaded on Tower Hill. 272. Warwick was now at the head of affairs. His ambi- tion knew no bounds. Not content with obtaining from the A. D. 1553.J LADY JANE GREY. I45 King the vast earldom of Northumberland and the title of duke, he desired to raise his descendants to the throne. The young King's health was declining. Northumberland, who had gained his entire confidence, persuaded him to de- prive his two sisters (§§ 253, 258) of their succession to the crown, and declare his cousin, Lady Jane Grey,* the lawful heir. It was true that the two royal princesses had, at differ- ent times, been expressly excluded from the hope of suc- cession; but it was also true that Parliament had annulled this exclusion, and granted King Henry VIIL the power of naming his heirs. 273. Another essential part of Northumberland's scheme was the marriage of his own son, Guilford Dudley, with the Lady Jane. This being completed, Edward's health declined more rapidly than ever. Northumberland removed all his physicians, and committed him to the care of an ignorant woman who promised a wonderful and speedy cure. Under her treatment he died, in the sixteenth year of his age and the seventh of his reign. England sincerely mourned this amiable boy, whose childish virtues had excited hopes of a happy reign. 274. Before his death was suffered to be known, North- umberland sent a message to the Princess Mary, desiring her presence during her brother's last hours. His plan was to have her within his own control. But Mary was oppor- tunely warned; and, retiring into Suffolk, sent orders to the Council to proclaim her queen. Northumberland could no longer delay his desperate attempt. With great difficulty he prevailed upon his daughter-in-law to be crowned. She plead the better claim of her cousins Marv and Elizabeth, or even * Jane Grey was a granddaughter of Mary, Duchess of Suffolk ($ 246), sister of King Henry VIII. Queen Mary of Scotland was granddaughter of Henry's elder sister, Margaret ; hut he had by his will excluded her heirs, and placed the children of his youngest and favorite sister next after his own. (See Table, p. 15°-) Eng.— 13. 146 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1553. the Queen of Scots; but the combined persuasions of her father, her father-in-law, and her husband overcame her scru- ples. She was proclaimed in London, and for ten days a small circle of immediate dependents regarded her as their queen. But the people dreaded the bold ambition of Northumberland, though they loved the gentle lady forced into treason against her will; and when Mary Tudor arrived in the capital, she was received with joyful demonstrations of loyalty. Her sister came to meet her with a thousand horsemen, whom she had mustered in support of their common cause. 275. Northumberland and two of his accomplices in the treason were tried, condemned, and executed. The youth and innocence of Lady Jane and her husband saved their lives for a time. Associating all the wrongs and sorrows of her childhood with the Protestant movement, it is not strange that Queen Mary had derived from her unhappy mother a fervent zeal for the Roman Church, and a fierce prejudice against the Reformers. Her first Parliament was opened with a Latin mass, though this was contrary to laws still in force; and the same assembly repealed all the statutes of King Edward concerning religion. 276. The Queen by her own authority restored Gardiner, Bonner, Tonstall, and others who had been deprived of their bishoprics by her brother's council, and threw the Archbishop of York and five other prelates into prison. All clergymen were ordered to abstain from preaching, until each should receive a special license from her government ; and a large number were deprived of their livings. She sent ambassadors to the Pope, assuring him of her desire to restore her kingdom to its old allegiance to Rome. 277. As soon as the Emperor Charles heard that his cousin was now Queen of England, he sent to propose to her a marriage with his son Philip ; and though nearly all her counselors opposed the match, Mary willingly consented. A. D. 1554.] MARY AND PHILIP. 147 Few of all the foreign marriages of her sovereigns had been to the advantage of England; and the wisest Englishmen especially dreaded the enormous power of Spain, whose king already governed Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, and was believed to be aiming at universal empire. Sir Thomas Wyatt and others even organized a rebellion, with the design to place Lady Jane Grey upon the throne. It failed; and that guiltless lady, with her husband and her father, now suffered the extreme penalty of treason. 278. King* Philip arrived and was married at Winchester in July, 1554. His cold and reserved demeanor did not lessen the dislike which had been felt toward the marriage; though a long train of wagon-loads of Spanish gold and silver, which preceded him into London, may have wrought a change among the favored few. Upon one point alone the Queen and her husband were perfectly agreed, — the restoration of the Roman Church, with all its claims and usages. The Queen's cousin, Cardinal Pole, arrived in England as papal legate, and was welcomed with great solemnity by Parliament. To his invitation to reconcile themselves and the kingdom with the ancient Church, both Houses replied with compliant addresses; and Nov., 1554. then Lords and Commons, all on their knees, received absolution and forgiveness, in the Pope's name, for the sin of the nation in asserting its independence, and were tenderly received back into the bosom of the Church. 279. Cardinal Pole was a man of gentle and Christian disposition ; and while helping to restore ancient usages, he constantly besought mercy toward the unreconciled. But the temper of Philip and Mary inclined them rather toward the harsh counsels of Gardiner, who committed to the flames England's most holy and venerable men. Within three * He had recently been made King of Naples, that his rank might equal that of his bride. 148 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1555. years, two hundred and seventy-seven persons were burnt to death, beside multitudes who suffered fines, imprisonments, and lesser penalties. No regular form of trial was observed : victims were arrested on suspicion; and if they refused to sign certain articles, were at once condemned to death. Five bishops, twenty-one clergymen, private gentlemen, tradesmen, farmers, servants, and day-laborers, with fifty-five women and four children, made up the dismal list. Two good bishops, Ridley and Latimer, suffered together in Oxford. Tied to the stake and surrounded. by the blazing fagots, Latimer ex- claimed, "Be of good cheer, Brother Ridley ; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." 280. Highest in rank, though not in character, of all the victims, was Archbishop Cranmer. The Queen hated him for having dissolved the marriage of her parents, and he was already justly imprisoned for the part he had taken in pro- claiming Lady Jane Grey ; but the court, wishing to dishonor him before the people, chose to try him for heresy rather than for treason. He was sentenced to death; but in his prison messengers came to him, offering the continuance of all his honors and dignities, on condition of his recanting his heretical doctrines. In a moment of weakness the old man yielded, and put his name to a paper affirming the Pope's supremacy in England, and acknowledging the Real Presence in the wafer of the communion. This humiliation was in vain : he was required to repeat his recantation in public, and then be carried to execution. In the prospect of death his strength returned. He bewailed the greatest error of his life, that of admitting through cow- ardice what he knew to be false; and declared that as his right hand had been the instrument of offense, it should first be consumed in the flames. He was burned at Oxford, and Cardinal Pole became Archbishop of Canterbury in his place. 281 Philip, disgusted by the enmity and suspicion he in- A. D. 1558.] DEATH OF MARY. 149 spired, and wearied of his wife's jealous fondness, departed to Flanders. By his father's abdication, he was now made Lord of the Netherlands, King of Spain, and master of all the treasures of the newly discovered American Continent. He was soon involved in a war with France, in which he demanded his wife's aid. Mary warmly favored his plans, but Parliament and people, as well as her wisest counselors, as strenuously opposed them. The Queen succeeded in send- ing to Flanders an army of 10,000 men; and England had all the loss with none of the gain or glory of the campaign. Calais, " the brightest jewel in her crown," — the last remain- ing trophy of Edward III. (§§ 180, 181), — was surprised and taken by the Duke of Guise. The people were enraged at the loss of their last foothold on the Continent; and the poor Queen, now pining away with illness and her husband's neglect, declared that after her death "Calais" would be found written on her heart. 282. Vexation of mind, added to feebleness of body, threw her into a fever of which she died, Nov., 1558, after a reign of five years. It is impossible not to pity this unhappy queen, even while we record her fatal errors. She was a kind mis- tress to her immediate household; and her savage persecu- tions sprang from a mistaken sense of duty. Her Spanish grandmother, Isabella, whom Americans revere as the mu- nificent patroness of Columbus, caused or consented to the murder of a far greater number of her subjects for conscience' sake. It is the contrast of the bigotry of that age with the freedom which England has ever since enjoyed, that lends the blackest shades to the short and disastrous reign of Mary. RECAPITULATION. Edward VI. being a minor, his uncle is Protector of the Kingdom. Somerset establishes the Reformed Church of England; invades Scot- land ; Queen Mary is sent to France. Seymour, becoming too ambi- tious, is beheaded. Discontent of the people with sudden religious iSo HOUSE OF TUDOR. changes. Fall and execution of Somerset. Earl of Warwick gains power; becomes Duke of Northumberland; plots to place his daughter- in-law upon the throne. Upon death of Edward, Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed, and reigns ten days over a small court. Mary Tudor is crowned ; Northumberland is beheaded for treason. Mary restores Romish bishops and clergy ; marries her cousin Philip of Spain. Popular hatred of the match occasions Wyatt's rebellion and Jane Grey's death. Cardinal Pole brings the Pope's pardon and reconciliation ; counsels mercy, but the Queen persecutes relentlessly. Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer are burnt at Oxford. Philip drags England into war with France, in which Calais is lost. Mary dies after five years' reign. Descendants of Henry Seventh. Henry VII. I I I Margaret, mar. i, mar. 2, Earl of Angus. Henry VIII. James IV. of Scotland. I I Margaret m. James V. of Scotland. Earl of Lennox. Mary, Queen of Scots, m. 2, Henry Stuart, beheaded, 1587. Lord Darnley. I I I James VI. of Scotland and James I. of England. (Seep. 206.) Mary, mar. 2, Charles, Duke of Suffolk. I Frances, mar. Henry Grey, D. of Suffolk. Jane Grey. Catherine of Aragon. I Mary m. Philip of Spain. m. 2, Anne Boleyn. I Elizabeth. m. 3, Jane Seymour. I Edward VI. V. REIGN OF ELIZABETH. LIZABETH (A. D. 1558-1603) came to the throne amid an outburst of popular delight, which was undis- guised even by decent respect for Queen Mary's unhappy memory. The new Queen was twenty-five years of age, and to her mother's beauty and gaiety of disposition added her father's frank and hearty address, no less than his energetic intellect, dauntless courage, and imperious will. She was an ac- complished scholar and a fine musician, while she loved the healthful sports of archery and horsemanship. 284. England was reduced to the deepest humiliation, through defeat abroad and misgovernment Sir Walter Raleigh. at home . but Europe SOOll felt that a strong hand was again at her helm. Elizabeth called the wisest men to her councils, of whom Cecil, Walsingham, and Burleigh enjoyed the greatest measure of her confidence. Her first Parliament re-enacted all the laws of Edward VI. concerning religion (§268), and made the Church of England nearly what it is to-day. The Act of Supremacy required all bishops, clergy, and officers of the crown to take an oath acknowledging the Queen as head of the Church; and the Act of Uniformity forbade all religious services except those established by law. All the bishops but one refused the oath, (150 152 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1559. and were removed from their sees; but the parish priests, with few exceptions, accepted the new order. The Scriptures were ordered to be read and prayers offered in the English tongue. Six great Bibles were placed in different parts of St. Paul's Cathedral ; and these were always surrounded by an eager crowd, whenever a reader could be found. 285. Philip of Spain no sooner heard of his wife's death than he proposed to marry her sister. But Elizabeth too well knew the aversion of her people to the Spanish match; and, besides, she was now in the same relation to Philip that her father had been to Catherine of Aragon upon the death of his brother Arthur (§§ 241, 253). The very ground of her mother's claim as wife, and her own as queen, was the Crown Piece. decision that such a marriage was unlawful. Not willing, however, to offend the greatest monarch in Christendom, she returned a polite but evasive answer, and soon afterward announced to Parliament her determination to live and die unmarried. And though many royal and princely suitors sought her hand at various times, Elizabeth never wavered long from this decision. 286. Important changes were taking place in Scotland : the Reformation was rapidly advancing, and the reformers A. D. 1 56 1.] REFORMATION IN SCOTLAND. 153 had leagued themselves under the name of the "Congrega- tion." Their Queen was now wife of the Dauphin, who, by his father's death in 1559, became King Francis II. of France. The young sovereigns bore upon their arms and equipage the title of "King and Queen of England," as well as "of France and Scotland " ; and it was evident that they would seize the first occasion to dispute Elizabeth's title to the crown she wore. In 1559, the "Lords of the Congregation," encour- aged by Elizabeth, ordered all French troops to quit Scotland ; and required Mary of Guise, the Queen's mother, to resign the regency. Elizabeth's fleet and army besieged and capt- ured Leith; and in the treaty which followed, the French king and queen were compelled to renounce all pretension to the English crown. The reformers were now supreme in Scotland. Mass was abolished, and the kingdom threw off its allegiance to the Pope. 287. Queen Mary's widowhood soon followed her eleva- tion to the French throne, and she then resolved to return to her native land. But she came as a French- woman, — gay, brilliant, accomplished, and loving the elegant dissipations of Paris, — quite indisposed to favor the severe manners now prevalent in Scotland. For the Scotch reformers, absorbed in their stern combat with Rom- ish doctrines, had no tolerance for even the most innocent practices associated with those doctrines. Queen Mary sin- cerely desired to unite all parties in Scotland against both French and English influence. She gave her confidence to the reformers, and commanded her people to attend Prot- estant worship; but, loving the rites in which she had been educated, she insisted upon having mass said in her private chapel. This was abomination in the eyes of the reformers, especially of John Knox, who had returned from Geneva full of zeal for the doctrines of Calvin, and who now denounced the Queen as Jezebel, and her priests as ministers of Satan. 288. To unite all the Catholic forces in the two kingdoms, 154 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1565. Mary suddenly married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darn- ley, who was next heir, after herself, to the crowns of both Scotland and England. (See Table, p. 150.) He was a weak- minded and dissolute youth; and as soon as the Queen per- ceived his worthlessness, she attempted to limit the power and revenues which she had most lavishly bestowed upon him. Darnley looked for revenge; and, breaking into the Queen's presence with a crowd of young nobles, he mur- dered her Italian secretary, Rizzio, before her eyes. From that moment Mary hated her husband more than she had before despised him. Her chief confidant was the Earl of Bothwell, a bold, bad man, by whose contrivance the house in which Darnley was sleeping was blown up by gunpowder, and he was slain. The dark suspicion which fell upon the Queen was deepened into certainty when she allowed herself to be carried away by Bothwell, and became his wife scarcely three months from her husband's death. She had now wholly lost the respect of her people. The chief nobles met for the defense of the kingdom ; sent the Queen under guard to Lochleven Castle, and compelled her to resign the crown in favor of her infant son, James, — her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, being regent. 289. James the Sixth was crowned at Stirling, July 29, 1567, being then thirteen months old. His mother soon escaped from her prison, and raised an army with which she met the forces of the Regent near Glasgow. She was de- feated and fled into England, asking either a passage to France or aid in regaining her throne. To Elizabeth's de- mand that the grave charges against her character should first be cleared away, Mary replied that she would gladly submit her cause to the arbitration of so good a friend. But when the Regent Murray laid before the English commission- ers Mary's own letters to Bothwell, containing her consent to her husband's death and to the Earl's seizure of herself, the Scottish Queen, instead of attempting to disprove this A. D. 1 58 1.] MARY A PRISONER. 155 evidence, threw herself upon her sovereign rights and refused to make answer before any secular tribunal. 290. She was accordingly held as a prisoner, and made good her word that her captors "should have enough to do with her." She became the center of innumerable plots against the government and the life of Elizabeth. The Pope declared the English Queen destitute of all title to the crown, and released her subjects from their obedience. Now, as Mary would be Queen of England if Elizabeth was not, this was a bold step in Mary's cause. Forced to it by her enemies, Elizabeth became the ally of the Huguenots in France and the burghers of the Netherlands, whose freedom and prosper- ity King Philip's generals were exterminating with fire and sword. When Antwerp, the chief market and banking center of Europe, was taken and destroyed, one-third of its manu- facturers and merchants removed to London, which rose at once to the foremost rank among commercial cities. 291. To strike a deadly blow at the power of Philip, Francis Drake, a bold English seaman, was permitted to cruise along the coasts of the Spanish colonies in America, and waylay the treasure-laden galleons which sailed yearly from Lima to Cadiz. This was piracy, for Philip and Eliza- beth were nominally at peace; but it was amply offset by Philip's secret plots. Students in the English colleges of Douay and Rheims were taught that the murder of heretical sovereigns, especially of Elizabeth, was a meritorious action ; and that whoever should lose his life in such an attempt, would be certain of eternal bliss. The Prince of Orange, the great deliverer of the northern Netherlands, was assassinated by Philip's agent; and Eliza- beth well knew that many a dagger was sharpened for her destruction. Campian, a Jesuit, was detected in a plot against her life, and executed in 1581. All Jesuits and "seminary priests " were banished on pain of death ; and no fewer than two hundred are said to have been executed on the charge 156 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1587. of "pretending to the power of absolving subjects from their allegiance." 292. Five years later, a much more widely spread conspir- acy came to light, and commissioners were appointed to ascertain Queen Mary's share in it. As before, her letters were the chief witnesses; nor was it possible to resist the evidence of her guilt. She was condemned and executed at Fotheringay Castle, in the forty-fifth year of her age and the nineteenth of her captivity. Elizabeth violently blamed her councillors for unseemly haste in exe- cuting the death-warrant ; but if her grief and rage had been even more sincere, the Council would have been firm. There was no peace or safety for England so long as the Queen of Scots existed within its bounds. 293. The judgment of this great cause has been much af- fected by the personal differences between the two queens. Mary added to her extraordinary beauty a grace of manner which fascinated not only all who saw her, but almost all who have read her romantic history. Elizabeth was a great sovereign, but a coarse, vain, and disagreeable woman. Nev- ertheless, Providence had made her the champion of progress, freedom, and enlightenment, while her lovely cousin, however little she may have perceived the fact, was the representative of an iron despotism. If English freedom, rather than the soul-crushing tyranny of Spain, was to become the leading principle in Europe, the death of Mary Stuart was a state necessity. 294. Meanwhile England, under Elizabeth's thrifty rule, was enjoying unexampled prosperity. The debts of the crown were honestly paid, and the expenses of the govern- ment were met by the regular revenues, without taxation. Commerce flourished : both the navy and the merchant marine were immensely increased; and fisheries, not only in European but American waters, afforded employment to multitudes of active and turbulent spirits which had been the A. D. 1588.] THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 157 terror of former governments. English vessels penetrated the frozen seas to the northward, discovered the port of Archangel, and opened trade with Russia. Southampton merchants grew rich by their traffic in African ivory and gold; and John Hawkins conceived the bold idea of trans- porting laborers from the populous coasts of Guinea to the unplowed soil of the New World. The slave-trade has been justly condemned by the enlightened humanity of our age; but in those days even philanthropists encouraged it, as a means of relieving the feeble natives of America, who were perishing by thousands from their unwonted toils under Spanish overseers. 295. Philip of Spain was preparing to avenge the death of Mary and assert the claim, which she had bequeathed him, to the English crown. Drake was sent to watch the Spanish coasts, where he burned more than a hundred ships, and destroyed great magazines of stores intended for the in- vasion. Meanwhile, every English town was raising men and ships for the defense : nobles and common people, Pro- testant and Catholic, — with whom love of country was more than love of Church, — worked together with zeal and energy; and the indomitable spirit of their Queen inspired them all. 296. On the 19th of July, 1588, the Invincible Armada of the Spaniards made its appearance in the English seas. It extended seven miles from wing to wing, and its great galleons exceeded in size any vessels that had yet been seen in Europe. Lord Howard of Effingham sailed forth to follow it, with fewer and smaller ships; but his men knew the coast, and their bravery was not to be surpassed. The Armada sailed slowly up the Channel, — harassed at every point by the light and well-managed craft of the English, who "plucked its feathers one by one," — and waited near Calais for the Span- ish army which was to have joined it from the Netherlands. Lord Howard now resolved upon closer fighting. Eight fire-ships were floated by night into the midst of the Armada, 158 HOUSE OF TUDOR. [A. D. 1588. which separated in a fright, and drifted with the wind in a wavering line along the coast. With earliest dawn the battle began, and lasted until sunset. The advantage was with the English, whose speed was double that of their clumsy foes, and who could fire four shots to the Spaniards' one. 297. Humiliated and helpless, the Spanish commanders could only resolve upon retreat; but, under a strong south wind, this must be effected by passing around the British Islands. Among the Orkneys a furious tempest burst upon them, and multitudes of vessels were dashed to pieces upon the rocky coasts. Only a tattered and miserable remnant of the Invincible Armada re-entered the Spanish ports. The war was carried on for some years by a host of privateers under the Queen's commission. At one time the English forces plundered and burned Cadiz; and the Span- ish treasure-fleets often fell into English hands. A second Armada, in 1597, was shattered by storms. Philip had to content himself with stirring up rebellions in Ireland. 298. That restless country, though nominally a possession of the English crown since Henry II., was but partly sub- dued. The " English Pale," as it was called, included only Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and Cork, with a small extent of territory around each. Henry VIII. had, indeed, made his strong hand felt throughout the island, humbling both the Norman and the Celtic chiefs who had assumed almost royal power, and demolishing their castles ; but his attempt to "make Ireland English," by forbidding the use of the national dress, language, laws, and social cus- toms, ended in failure; while his proceedings in Church affairs went far to unite the whole country in defense of the monasteries and the shrines of the saints. 299. The disorders which had existed throughout Eliza- beth's reign came to their most violent outbreak in "Tyrone's Rebellion." That chief had been educated at the English court, and had been placed by its power at the head of the A. D. 1603.] DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 159 great clan of O'Neill, in a contest with a rival chieftain. But once master of the north of Ireland, he defied the power that had raised him, and maintained his resistance for several years. By defeating an English army at Blackwater, in 1598, he gained an ample supply of arms and ammunition. 300. The Earl of Essex, now Elizabeth's chief favorite, was sent to put down the rebellion. He failed ; and his in- solence in returning home contrary to her command, dis- pleased the Queen even more than his ill success. The quarrel rose to such a height, that Essex entered into trea- sonable correspondence with the King of Scots, and tried to stir up a riot in London. He was thrown into ^ ^ ^ prison; and, after long and painful vacillation on the Queen's part, he was beheaded on Tower Hill. Elizabeth had given him a ring in happier days, assuring him that, whatever changes might occur, it would always be a passport to her favor. She waited in vain for the return of this ring ; and, at length, her offended pride, both as sov- ereign and as friend, led her to sign the death-warrant. A year or two later, a lady of the court confessed, when dying, that she had received the ring from Essex to present to the Queen, but that, under her husband's commands, she had withheld it. Elizabeth shook the dying Countess in her bed, and cried out in a rage, " God may forgive you, but I never can!" Then burying herself in her palace, she fell into a deep melancholy from which she never recovered. Though the Irish rebellion was subdued by Lord Mountjoy, and the Spaniards were many times defeated, she took no heed, and died in the seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her reign. 301. "The spacious times of great Elizabeth" will ever be remembered as a most brilliant literary era. Men's minds were stimulated to fresh thought by the opening of "new heavens and a new earth." For while Kepler and Galileo were familiarizing the grand discoveries of Copernicus con- 160 HOUSE OF TUDOR. cerning the solar and stellar systems, bold explorers were bringing home equally new and marvelous descriptions of the unknown regions of our own globe: — the frosty splen- dors of the arctic zone; the barbaric wealth of Mexico and Peru; the jeweled magnificence of imperial courts in India or China; the tropical verdure of islands in hitherto unex- plored oceans. The bonds which had fettered human thought and enterprise were broken. 302. The English language reached its perfection in the strong prose of Hooker, the musical verse of Spenser, and, above all, in the multiform pictures of human character wrought by Shakespeare into his wonderful plays. Every man was inspired to do his best. The voyages of Frobisher, Drake, Cavendish, and Raleigh ; the philosophy of Bacon ; the wise statesmanship of Bacon, Cecil, Walsingham, and Burleigh, all shed their luster upon the reign of the maiden Queen. RECAPITULATION. Unbounded popularity of Elizabeth. Her great statesmen. Prot- estant Church re-established. Pier refusal to marry. Mary of Scot- land calls herself Queen of England ; returning to Scotland, offends reformers, whose influence is supreme; marries Henry Darnley; con- nives at his murder; is imprisoned and made to abdicate. Her son is crowned. Mary, defeated, flees to England ; is held prisoner. Catholic party in Europe, with Philip of Spain at their head, plot her release and enthronement. Elizabeth thus becomes head of Eu- ropean Protestants. Drake preys upon Spanish commerce. Philip hires assassins to kill Elizabeth. Queen Mary is beheaded at Fother- ingay. Enterprise and prosperity of England. Invincible Armada defeated by English bravery and destroyed by tempests. Discontents in Ireland. Tyrone's rebellion. Essex fails to put it down ; becomes a rebel in his turn; is imprisoned and executed. Elizabeth's grief and death. The sfrandeur of her times. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PART III. 1. What events marked the beginning of the Modern Era? #2 233-236 2. Describe the two rebellions against Henry VII. 237-239 3. What proofs of Henry's love of money? 240-243 4. Describe the character of Henry VIII. at his accession. 244, 245 5. How did it change before his death ? 266, 267 6. What two widowed queens were his sisters? 246 7. Tell the story of Wolsey. 247, 248, 250, 251, 253-255 8. Describe the greatness and policy of Charles V. 249-252 9. State the question concerning Henry's first marriage. 241, 245, 253, 254, 256 10. What changes were made by Parliament of 1529? 257, 25S 11. Describe Henry's dealings with the monasteries. 259, 260 12. Tell the story of Anne Boleyn. 253, 258, 261 13. Tell of Henry's third, fourth, and fifth marriages. 261-263 14. Describe the administration of Thomas Cromwell. 260, 262 15. Describe Henry's dealings with Scotland. 246, 264 16. His wars with France. 245, 252, 265 17. What was done during the minority of Edward VI.? 268-273 18. Describe Northumberland's scheme and his death. 272-275 19. The accession and character of Mary Tudor. 274, 275 20. Her policy toward the Church. 276, 278-280 21. Tell the story of Cranmer. 256, 278, 280. 22. Of Mary's marriage and its effects upon England. 277, 278, 281 23. Describe the character and policy of Elizabeth. 283-286, 290, 293, 294 24. Tell the history of the Church of England. 268, 276, 278-280, 284 25. Of the Reformation in Scotland. 269, 286, 287 26. Of Mary Stuart. 264, 269, 286-293 27. Of Philip's Armada. 295-297 28. Of the disorders in Ireland. 298-300 29. Who were the great men of Elizabeth's time? 301, 302 Eng.— 14. ( 161) PART IV.-THE CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. I. ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF STUART. ING James VI. of Scotland, and now I. of England (A. D. 1603- 1625), had been educated by the Reformers ; and though the English Catholics expected him to favor them for his mother's sake, he de- clared his purpose to execute all the laws of Elizabeth with regard to religion. His accession was shortly followed by three rebellious con- spiracies, — one aiming to place Arabella Stuart, the King's cousin, upon the throne; another, to im- prison the King and remodel the government; and a third, to blow up the Parliament Houses, by means of powder in their vaults, at a mo- ment when lords and commons, with the whole royal family, would be assembled to hear the King's speech. 304. In the first, Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of having part. He was imprisoned twelve years upon the unproved (162) Gunpowder Plot. A. D. 1604.] JAMES AND THE PURITANS. 163 charge, and beguiled the gloom of his captivity by writing his " History of the World." He was released, but not par- doned, in 1 61 6, only that he might command a difficult and dangerous expedition against Guiana, where, it was hoped, gold enough might be found to enrich the whole court. But James treacherously informed the King of Spain of the sailing of the squadron. Raleigh was defeated, with the loss of his son and his entire fortune ; and returned only to lay his head upon the block, and suffer the long delayed sentence which the King had ungenerously kept hanging over him. Thus perished the last of Elizabeth's great captains, unhappy to have lived into a reign where genius like his had no place. 305. The "gunpowder plot" of the disappointed Catholic party was discovered on the eve of its execution, and Guy Fawkes, its chief agent, was put to death. The King's acute- ness in discerning the danger from a few mysterious hints, gave him the name of a second Solomon. He prided him- self upon his learning ; and though his slovenly person, shambling gait, undignified manner, drunkenness, and buf- foonery made him the most unkingly of all kings, he exacted worship, as the "Lord's Anointed," from all who entered his presence. He held an idea, wholly new to England, of the "divine right" and absolute power of the sovereign, — frankly declaring in the Star Chamber, "As it is atheism and blasphemy to dispute what God can do, so it is high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do, or to say that the king can not do this or that." 306. In religious matters he was especially arbitrary. The mass of the English nation was now "Puritan," — that is, while belonging to the established Church, it disapproved of many ceremonies which had been retained in the service, and desired a return to the simple usages described in the New Testament, together with a stricter observance of the Sabbath and a more serious tone of manners. But James rejected the petition of eight hundred clergymen to these ends, and in- t64 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1604. suited the Puritan divines whom he had admitted to a con- ference at Hampton Court, by a frivolous display of his learning, and by brutal expressions of contempt for their grave remonstrances. Parliament and people stood manfully for their rights. "Your Majesty would be misinformed," said the Commons, "if any man should deliver that the kings of England have absolute power in themselves to alter religion, or to make any laws concerning the same, otherwise than, as in temporal causes, by consent of Parliament." 307. The Separatists, or Independents, differed from the Puritans in withdrawing wholly from the established worship. One of their congregations, expecting no indulgence at home, passed over to Holland, — that brave little republic which had just wrested its freedom from the iron hand of Spain, and now offered a friendly asylum to all who were oppressed. But the Pilgrims were English at heart, and desired to live under the laws and educate their children in the language of their fathers. They resolved, therefore, to found a state in the American forests; and after infinite sufferings and toils, their high purpose was accomplished. 308. The reign of James is most honorably marked as the era of colonization. The north of Ireland, desolated by Ty- rone's rebellion, became the home of thousands of industrious settlers from Scotland. The East India Company's charter was renewed, and its first factory planted at Surat, in 161 2. Two associations, known respectively as the Plymouth and the London Company, were chartered in 1606, "for planting and ruling New England in America." The King's name was given to Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English town within the present limit of the United States. May, 1607. An idle and dissolute crowd of adventurers has- tened thither, hoping to repair their ruined fortunes by un- bounded discoveries of gold. They were disappointed; and the colony, during its first years, was only saved from de- struction by the good sense and energy of Captain John A. D. 1621.] PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH. 165 Smith, who insisted that "nothing was to be expected but by labor." " Men fell to building houses and planting corn," and the settlement began to flourish. 309. After a few years' residence in Holland (§ 307), the Separatists, or Pilgrims, obtained a grant of lands from the Plymouth Company, and settled, in 1620, on the rock-bound coast of Massachusetts. Though half their company of pio- neers fell victims to the hardships of the first terrible winter and the hostility of the savages, the Pilgrims steadily sur- mounted all obstacles, and their moral strength entered largely into the character of New England. 310. All Europe had long been agitated by the great religious conflict which, in 16 18, resulted in the "Thirty Years' War." Bohemia chose Frederic, the Elector-palatine, who had married a daughter of James I., to be her king, in opposition to the Austrian Ferdinand II., who was also em- peror. His wife's ambition led Frederic to accept the dan- gerous honor, contrary to his best friends' counsels ; for she declared that, as a king's daughter, she would rather starve at a royal table than feast at that of an elector. But Frederic could neither fight his own battles nor obtain aid from his connections. The English Parliament would willingly have voted funds to maintain the Protestant interests; but James cared more for the "divine right" of the Austrian despot than for the outraged consciences of his people. He con- sented to help maintain his son-in-law's inherited dominions, but not to further his possession of Bohemia. The new King was totally defeated near Prague, and lost not only his new kingdom but his old electorate. His family were compelled to beg their bread at foreign courts. 311. The English Commons were justly indignant at this disgrace, and the King made use of their excitement to de- mand a large sum of money for the more vigorous prosecution of the war. It was granted without demur ; and the House then proceeded to examine various wrongs and grievances. t66 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1621. The great Chancellor, Lord Bacon, — the first philosopher of his age, and among the first of all ages, — was found to have accepted gifts from suitors in his Court of Chancery — an intolerable stain on the honor of his high office and of the nation. He was condemned to a fine of $200,000, to im- prisonment in the Tower, and to perpetual exclusion from office. The King soon remitted his fine and imprisonment, but the disgrace could never be removed from a name which would otherwise have shone among the brightest in English records. 312. The freedom of the Commons offended the King, who sharply told them that their powers were derived from the gracious permission of his ancestors, and that he would maintain their lawful liberties only so long as they kept within the limits of their duty. Undismayed, the representatives of the people replied that " the liberties, franchises, privileges, and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England." The King sent for the Journals of the House, and Dec, 1621. . , , . ,"" , , • ■ with his own hand tore out the pages containing this manly protest ; he then dissolved the Parliament in great wrath ; but within two years, want of money forced him to call for a new election. It was fortunate for the people that James's wasteful government spent more money even in peace than Elizabeth had ever spent in war; for his necessities threw him into ever-increasing dependence upon the Parlia- ment. 313. The King's weakness was shown in his choice of favorites. The first was Robert Carr, a handsome but ig- norant youth, for whose benefit the doting sovereign became a schoolmaster, giving him daily lessons in Latin and in 1 ' king-craft. " But when remorse for a dark and revolting crime spoiled Carr's graceful gayety, James transferred his affections to George Villiers, whom he raised, by successive promotions, to the high rank of Duke of Buckingham. This A. D. 1625.] ACCESSION OF CHARLES I. 167 haughty favorite displayed himself in Parliament, his velvet dress blazing with diamonds, making no secret of the wealth which he most unrighteously attained. The only way to the King's favor or to public office was by bribing "Steenie," who accepted no small offerings. 314. The death of Prince Henry, the King's eldest son, in 161 2, was a grief and a loss to the nation. The dignity and orderly virtue of his little court was a silent rebuke to the royal household. The heir to the throne was now "Baby Charles." Contrary to the deep feeling and long- cherished policy of England, James resolved to marry his son to a Spanish Infanta, in spite of the remonstrances not only of Parliament, but of all his nobles and counselors except the Duke of Buckingham. To please Spain, he held aloof from the Protestants of Germany, and allowed the contest for Bohemia to spread into an almost universal and most malignant war, while he suspended all the laws against popery at home. Prince Charles and Buckingham made a romantic visit to the court of Madrid to urge the suit. But the favorite's free and insolent manners disgusted the ceremonious circle; and he foresaw that he would find no favor from a Spanish queen, when his young master should come to the throne. He there- fore turned his great influence against the match, and Charles was affianced to Henrietta Maria, sister of the French king. The breaking of the Spanish marriage was celebrated in Eng- land with bonfires and unlimited rejoicing. The next year, March, 1625, King James died, and Charles came to the throne. RECAPITULATION. King James of Scotland, being nearest heir of Henry VIII., suc- ceeds Elizabeth. Favors Spain and imprisons Raleigh, who is put to death on an unproved charge of treason. The King unravels the "Gunpowder Plot"; insists upon divine right and sacred majesty of 1 68 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. kings ; browbeats the Puritans. Colonization in Ireland and America. Virginia and Massachusetts founded. Thirty Years' War in Germany. Misfortunes of the King's son-in-law. Contentions between King and Parliament. Impeachment of Lord Chancellor Bacon. Insolence of Buckingham. Proposed "Spanish Match" for Prince Charles. His marriage with the French princess, Henrietta Maria. The King's death. II. REIGN OF CHARLES I. HARLES I. (A. D. 1625-1649) began his reign with an empty treasury, on the eve of a war with Spain. He therefore called upon Parliament for a supply of money. But that body was now composed of able men who loved their country, and keenly felt the dan- ger which threatened her. ' ' England is the last monarchy," said one of them, "who yet retains her liberties. Let them not perish now ! " They granted the customs called "tonnage and poundage" for only one year, instead of for the life of the King ; and Charles, angrily dissolving them, attempted to raise a loan by his own authority. This afforded only momentary relief, and it offended the people more than it helped the King. 316. A new Parliament, in 1626, impeached the Duke of Buckingham for incompetency and corruption. The King was even more controlled by the great favorite than his father had been. He imprisoned Sir John Eliot, whose fiery eloquence had advocated the impeachment; and again dissolved the Parlia- ment. The forced loan now called for roused the whole country to resistance. The King's commissioners were driven from the towns, with cries of " A Parliament! a Parliament! else no subsidies !" Poor men were punished for their refusal by being drafted into the army or navy. Two hundred gen- Eng.— 15. (169) Charles the First. 170 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1627. tlemen of fortune were imprisoned and finally brought before the Council. Among them was John Hampden, who declared that he " could be content to lend," but feared to bring upon himself the curse in Magna Charta (§ 152) against all who broke that solemn compact between sovereign and people. He was punished by a still more severe imprisonment. 317. Though half Europe was now the enemy of Charles, and though his war against Spain had resulted in a miserable failure, he was rash enough, penniless and at variance with his people, to plunge into a new war with France. Bucking- ham was intrusted with an expedition in aid of the Huguenots of Rochelle ; but he managed so ill that he lost two-thirds of his army and accomplished nothing. Burdened with debt and humiliation, the King had to sum- mon another Parliament, which proved even more resolute than the last. Its great work was the Petition A. D. 1628. . . b of Rights, which is justly called "The Second Great Charter of English Liberties." After reciting the laws of Edward I. and Edward III., which guaranteed the rights of the subject, and complaining that, in addition to arbitrary taxes, imprisonments, and executions, great companies of soldiers and sailors had lately been quartered in private houses, to the great grievance and vexation of the people, they closed by "humbly praying his most excellent Majesty" for relief from all these grievances, "according to the laws and statutes of this realm." 318. Upon the receipt of five subsidies, the King reluc- tantly affixed his royal signature to the bill; and then, to escape further remonstrances, dissolved the Parliament. Buckingham was assassinated while preparing a new expedi- tion to relieve Rochelle. The fleet, under another com- mander, arrived too late to be of use ; and the Huguenots were compelled to surrender the city under the very eyes of their English allies. Poverty soon forced King Charles to make peace, and he even chose some ministers from among A. D. 1629.] STRAFFORD AND LAUD. 171 the popular leaders ; but the people distrusted him so deeply, that these leaders immediately lost their favor. 319. Especially was this true of Sir Thomas Wentworth, whom the King raised, by successive promotions, to be Earl of Strafford, and adopted as his chief counselor. Went- worth had spoken in favor of popular rights only through hatred and jealousy of the Duke of Buckingham ; but as soon as the favorite's death made way for him to rise into power, he threw off the cloak of patriotism and lent his great talents to building up the power of the crown. He was made Lieu- tenant of Ireland, and not only subdued that restless country to absolute submission, but raised from it a fleet and army to enforce the King's will in England and Scotland. 320. Both countries were driven almost to revolt by re- ligious tyranny. The King's chief agent in this matter was Laud, Bishop of London, who afterward became Archbishop of Canterbury. He lost no opportunity to preach submission to the "Lord's Anointed" in the payment of taxes; and he demanded from Scotch Presbyterians and English Puritans a strict conformity to his own rules for public worship. Charles had inherited his father's dislike of the Scotch reformers, and he determined, by a most unwarranted stretch of his author- ity, to impose upon the northern kingdom the liturgy and usages of the Church of England. He, moreover, renewed his father's law encouraging public sports and recreations on Sunday afternoons; and he ordered all clergymen to read his proclamation to this effect after morning service in the churches. The Puritan clergy refused obedience, and multi- tudes were punished by ejection from their livings. 321. The King had now resolved to rule without a Parlia- ment ; and he added to his lawless exactions of ' ' tonnage and poundage," a revival of the old tax known as ship-money. But Alfred and Ethelred had only presumed to call for this with the advice and consent of the witan (§ 49), while Charles 172 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1637. demanded it by his own arbitrary will. John Hampden refused to pay ship-money, in order to bring the A. D. 1637. ., . matter to a test before the laws. All the nation looked on with intense anxiety while the question was argued before the Court of Exchequer. Even Clarendon, the courtly historian, says that Hampden "grew the argument of all tongues, every man inquiring who and what he was, that durst at his own charge support the liberty and prosperity of the kingdom." 322. After long delay, the Court gave its decision. Four of the twelve judges, though holding their places only during the King's pleasure, had the manliness to give sentence in Hampden's favor; seven decided against him, and one gave an evasive answer. The moral victory remained with Hamp- den; for though the sentence of the Court placed all the property in England at the King's disposal, the people were now roused to a sense of their danger. Thousands emigrated to America; and Hampden, with his kinsman, Oliver Crom- well, had actually embarked among the rest, when a royal order in Council prevented the sailing of the ship. Even Charles the First never committed a greater blunder. 323. In Scotland, meanwhile, nobles, gentry, clergymen, and citizens had organized themselves into four "Tables," and assumed the whole government of the kingdom. In the famous paper called the Covenant they solemnly swore that they would "continue in the profession of the reformed faith, and resist all contrary errors and corruptions." The Earl of Argyle became leader of the "Covenanters," and General Leslie, a veteran trained on the Continent in the Thirty Years' War, was placed at the head of the volunteer forces. War was indeed imminent. The King came northward with a great fleet and army; but his followers were divided in their sympathies, and he had to make peace, with a promise to abrogate the Canons, the Liturgy, and the Court of High Commission. A. D. 1641.] THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 1 73 324. The expense of this bootless expedition compelled the King to summon the English Parliament, which had not met in eleven years. But it insisted upon redress of grievances before voting supplies, and was dissolved in three weeks. The Scottish army now invaded England and threatened York, where the King was residing. The ''Long Parlia- ment" — so called in contrast to the short session of the spring, and from its own duration of thirteen years — met in the autumn, and began its work by impeaching Strafford and Laud. Strafford was easily con- victed of plotting to overthrow the constitutional liberties of England; but the letter of the law provided no penalty for this worst of treasons, restricting its punishments to offenses against the person of the King. The Houses of Parliament, therefore, passed a Bill of Attainder; and the King, after much hesitation, signed his death-warrant. The popular joy and relief broke forth in shouts of triumph, and bonfires blazed in every city. 325. On the day of Strafford's sentence the King also signed a bill of immense importance, providing that Parlia- ment should not be dissolved, prorogued, or adjourned with- out its own consent, and that a Parliament should be held at least once in three years. The Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. The King's tools for op- pression were brought to trial, from the judges who had de- cided against Hampden to the sheriffs and custom-house officers who had collected the unlawful taxes. The Scots, whose military movements had made these acts possible, were declared to have been "ever good subjects"; and a gift of ;£6o,ooo, beside their pay, was voted them for their brotherly assistance. 326. While the King was in the north, trying to conciliate the Scots, a fierce rebellion broke out in Ireland. The English and Scotch in Ulster (§ 308) were exterminated by a general slaughter; in the other three counties, they were 174 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1642. driven from their homes to perish by wintry frosts and storms. Dublin alone remained to the English. Parliament, distrusting the King, took the task of dealing with the Irish rebellion upon its own hands. 327. One rash act of the King now hurried on the civil war. The Commons had refused to surrender five of their members at his command, and Charles, with three hundred armed followers, came in person to the House to arrest them. The five were absent, and the King had to depart as he went, having offered a flagrant insult to the House and violated a fundamental law of the land. London was in a tumult. The accused members were sheltered by the citi- zens; and when they returned to their seats, the river and the streets by which they passed were guarded by cannon and men-at-arms. RECAPITULATION. Need of money makes Charles I. dependent upon Parliament, which knows its duty too well to grant supplies without redress of grievances. He demands a forced loan ; makes war in France with- out success; obtains five subsidies by signing Petition of Rights. Death of Buckingham. Rise of Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. Laud preaches the duty of absolute obedience to royal authority. Charles oppresses Scotch Presbyterians and English Puritans ; attempts to levy customs and ship-money without parliamentary grant. Hampden's re- sistance. Scotch Covenanters in arms. The King is forced to comply with their demands. Long Parliament impeaches Strafford and Laud ; votes itself permanent ; abolishes Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission; votes aid to the Scots. Massacre of the English in Ire- land. Charles attempts to arrest five members of Parliament ; they are protected by citizens of London. III. THE CIVIL WARS. A Cavalier. HE two parties of King and Par- liament were now openly arrayed against each other, and English turf was again to be reddened by English blood shed in civil strife. London and the other great cities, with the Puritan party in religion, were on the par- liamentary side. Oxford alone remained devoted to the King. The adherents of the ancient Church naturally sided with Charles; and so did all the young Cavaliers, who delighted in a gay and easy life, and in those light amusements which the Puritans so bitterly con- demned. Foremost among them were the King's nephews, Rupert and Maurice, sons of that unfortunate Elector-palatine who had tried to be King of Bohemia (§ 310). 329. Parliament appointed lieutenants for all the counties, and levied forces in the King's name for the defense of the kingdom against the King himself. The armies which had been raised for service in Ireland were retained in England, and put under command of the Earl of Essex. Citizens brought their plate and women their ornaments, even to their thimbles and their wedding-rings, to be melted up in the service of the good cause against the malignants, as the Cavaliers began to be called. The Queen, on the other hand, sailed for Holland to pawn the crown jewels for gun- powder and muskets. (175) 176 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1642. 330. Charles set up his royal standard at Nottingham, Aug. 22, 1642, while the Earl of Essex mustered the Parlia- mentary forces at Northampton. The battles of that autumn were indecisive and need not be recorded. The spring opened with the capture of Reading by Essex ; but Cornwall and the four northern counties were at the same time conquered by the royal generals. A skirmish at Chalgrove Field would have been unimportant but that it cost the inestimable life of Hampden. At Lansdown Hill, near Bath, and at Devizes the King's forces were victorious; and soon afterward Prince Rupert captured Bristol, an important city which gave him the command of the west. In the hard-fought and really drawn battle of Newbury, the good Lord Falkland lost his life. He was a true lover of freedom and of his country, but he also loved the estab- lished Church, and hoped that the King would at last consent to the just demands of the people. Fie fought, therefore, against the Parliament. On the morning of the battle he was heard to say, "I am weary of the times, and foresee much misery to my country, but believe that I shall be out of it ere night." 331. The Parliament now allied itself with the Scots by means of the Solemn League and Covenant. Both parties bound themselves to work for the extirpation of "popery and prelacy, superstition, heresy, schism, and profaneness," and to maintain the rights of parliaments in just regard to the royal authority. A Scottish army marched into England, while the King called over his troops from Ireland. A large body of these were defeated and captured at Nantwich by Sir Thomas Fairfax, who afterward joined the Scots in be- sieging York. Prince Rupert advanced to its relief, and in the furiously fought battle of Marston Moor the July, 1644. J & royal forces were overthrown, with the loss of their artillery. In the south and west, however, the Parlia- mentary troops under Essex were put to flight. A. D. 1645.] CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES. 177 332. The Parliament itself was now divided into widely differing parties. The Presbyterians desired a limited mon- archy and an established Church without bishops. The In- dependents were more radical : they admitted no intervention of the civil power, either to help or hinder, in matters of re- ligion ; and desired a commonwealth without king or nobles, in which all men should be equal before the laws. Oliver Cromwell was a principal leader of the Independents, and became the foremost figure in that eventful time. 333. Several noblemen had hitherto held commands in the Parliamentary armies; but the movements of the earls of Essex and Manchester were constantly hampered by their fear of hurting the King ; they wished only to teach him, by a few reverses, to keep within the just limits of his authority. A plan was devised for changing officers without giving offense. A "Self-denying Ordinance" was introduced into Parliament, excluding the members of either House from holding any civil or military office. All noblemen were by right of birth members of the upper House, and the passage of the bill therefore removed from the army the earls of Essex, Manchester, Waller, and several others. Cromwell, though a member of the lower House, was permitted to retain his command for a time. 334. With the consent of Fairfax, the Commander-in-chief, he now introduced a "New Model" of discipline into the army. The first aim was to collect a body of honest, self- respecting and God-fearing men; and never, probably, was such another army seen. Their leisure time was spent in study of the Bible and mutual exhortations to a godly life. Wherever they moved, every man's house and field was re- spected, and provisions were honestly paid for. The King's army, though superior at first in military training, was worse than a plague of grasshoppers to the country over which it moved. The wild young marauders who followed Prince Rupert had learned their trade among the direful scenes of 178 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1645. the Thirty Years' War, where the burning of villages and the ravaging of harvest-fields were but every-day affairs. The citizen-soldiers of the Parliament, called from their looms and desks, soon acquired the drill which they lacked, while the bravery of the Cavaliers scantily compensated the King's cause for the disgrace of their misconduct. 335. The success of the " New Model" was proved in the battle of Naseby, where, in spite of Prince Rupert's fiery and victorious onset upon Ireton's command, Crom- well and Fairfax won the day. The King quitted the field with a loss of 5,000 prisoners and all his artillery and baggage. In the latter were found papers revealing the King's plot with the Irish rebels, conceding all their wild demands on condition of their aid against the English Par- liament. Prince Rupert soon afterward surrendered Bristol, then the second city in England, and was recommended by his uncle to seek his fortune beyond seas. 336. The King's cause fast fell to ruin, and he shut him- self up in Oxford, whence he in vain sent messengers to London to treat for peace. Finding that no man trusted him, he secretly left Oxford with only two attendants, and fled to the Scotch army at Newark. He believed that he had removed all offense on the part of the Scots by conced- ing all their demands; and, moreover, he might count more on the affection of the subjects among whom he had been born, than of the new people among whom his father had come as a foreigner. But he still refused to sign the Cov- enant, or to accept the terms offered him by the English Parliament. The Scots, the royalist officers, and even the Queen urged him with tears to provide thus for his safety. Large arrears were now due from the Parliament to the Scottish army; and upon the receipt of ^£400,000, its officers agreed to surrender the King into the hands of the English commissioners. 337. The triumph of the Parliament was of short duration. A. D. 1648.] CHARLES A PRISONER. 179 The army, in which the Independent party was the stronger, made the King its prisoner, and, moving upon London, assumed control of the government and city. The King was reinstated at Hampton Court, and though under guard, lived with dignity and every appearance of personal freedom. The generals Cromwell and Ireton desired to save him; but they found, as the Parliament had done, that his word was given only to be violated. Secretly eluding his attendants, Charles fled to the Isle of Wight, whose governor, Col. Hammond, conducted him to Caris- brook Castle. Here he was still a prisoner, though treated, as before, with every mark of respect ; but on his attempting to leave Carisbrook, he was deprived of communication with his friends, and even of the attendance of his servants. 338. Parliament was meanwhile trying to come to agree- ment with the King and to rid itself of the army. But the army distrusted the Parliament, and refused to be disbanded until its work was done and English freedom secured. At this moment the Parliament was more dangerous than the King, for in its sectarian zeal it enacted a law more ferocious than even the persecuting statutes of Henry VIII. or ''Bloody Mary." The death penalty was fixed upon all who should deny the doctrine of the Trinity or the divinity of Christ or the divine inspiration of the Scriptures or the resurrection of the body ; while persons believing ' ' that man by nature hath free will to turn to God," or denying the lawfulness of "Church government by Presbytery," were to be punished with imprisonment. Of course this terrible statute was never enforced, but its enactment proved the danger and justified extraordinary means of resistance. 339. The King was still stirring up war between his two kingdoms by secret agents, while royalist risings agitated every part of England. Cromwell gained a decisive victory at Preston over an invading army of Scots, and pushing on over the Border, reinstated the Marquis of Argyle in power 180 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1648. at Edinburgh (§ 323). He then hastened to London, where the Parliament had accepted the King's concessions as a "sufficient foundation for a treaty of peace," and where Col. Pride had thereupon taken possession of the House, and arrested or excluded all the royalist members. The remnant of a Parliament, now exclusively composed of Independents, made a new law declaring it to be high treason for a king to levy war against the lawfully chosen representatives of his people. They furthermore declared that the people are, under God, the origin of all just power, and that the Commons of England in Parliament assembled — being chosen by and representing the people — are the supreme authority of the nation ; and it was voted without a dissenting voice to bring Charles Stuart to trial for the "treason, blood, and mischief he was guilty of." 340. Never was a more august assemblage in Westminster Hall than the court which was to settle the great dispute between King and people. One hundred and fifty com- missioners had been appointed by the Commons, with Brad- shaw, an eminent lawyer, at their head. The Jan., 1649. advocate of the Commons opened the case by a statement that "Charles Stuart, being admitted King of England and intrusted with a limited power, yet, from a wicked design to erect an unlimited and tyrannical govern- ment, had traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament and the people whom they repre- sented, and was therefore impeached as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and a public and implacable enemy to the Com- monwealth." 341. Charles appeared more majestic in this hour of peril than ever in his days of power and prosperity. He replied with dignity, but with mildness, that his kingly rights were derived from the Supreme Majesty of Heaven, and that no earthly tribunal could be competent to try him. And, con- trary as this theory was to the whole spirit of the English A. D. 1649.] EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. 181 government, as well as destructive to the safety and just rights of the people, there is no doubt that Charles believed it, and thought that he was only guarding a sacred trust which God had bestowed upon him. Thirty-two witnesses were examined, and, after five days, the prisoner was pro- nounced guilty. 342. The Scots protested against this trial of their hered- itary king; the Dutch interceded, and the Prince of Wales sent a blank sheet of paper, with his name and seal affixed, upon which the Parliament might write any terms it pleased for sparing his father's life. All was in vain : the King was condemned to die. A scaffold was erected from the window of the great banqueting room in his own palace of White- hall ; and there, surrounded by a sea of upturned faces, his "gray, discrowned head" fell beneath the executioner's ax. Until the present reign, the 30th of January was commemorated as the "Day of King Charles the Martyr," by a special service in the English Church, and by solemn mourning on the part of the court. The good sense of the Queen or her ministers — whose govern- ment fully accepts and embodies the principles that con- demned Charles — then abrogated the meaningless and af- fected ceremony. 343. In domestic virtue Charles was unsurpassed by any sovereign who has ruled England. His manners were gentle and refined ; his taste in art and literature was unblemished. His fatal defect as a king was that falsity of character which canceled the most solemn agreements and robbed him of all claims to confidence. Perhaps it was his misfortune, rather than his crime, that he was unable to believe in the wisdom or even the honesty of any theory of government but his own, or to perceive that his throne could never be firm until it was "broad-based upon the people's will." A few days after his death, the Commons voted to abolish the House of Lords and the monarchy, and to prepare a new 1 82 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. Great Seal bearing the date : ' ' The first year of freedom, by God's blessing restored, 1648." RECAPITULATION. King and Parliament appeal to arms. Death of Hampden at Chal- grove Field. Victory of the King at Devizes. Bristol taken by Prince Rupert. "Solemn League and Covenant" unites Parliament with the Scots. Rupert besieges York; is routed at Marston Moor. Dissensions between Presbyterians and Independents. "Self-denying Ordinance" removes noblemen from command of Parliamentary armies. Good conduct of Cromwell's soldiers contrasted with disorders of the Cav- aliers. Victory of Fairfax at Naseby. The King takes refuge with the Scots, who surrender him to the English. Persecuting Act of Parliament. Col. Pride expels the royalist members ; the remnant vote the trial of the King for treason. He denies the competence of the court. Intercessions of Scots, Dutch, and the Prince of Wales fail to save him. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall. Abolition of monarchy in England. The Commonwealth proclaimed. IV. THE COMMONWEALTH (i 649-1 660) HE execution at Whitehall in- volved the Parliament in a new and greater difficulty. It de- stroyed a captive king, and, in the view of all royalists, thereby gave England an active young sovereign, safe beyond the reach of his enemies, and who, though a much worse man than his father, had not yet shown any of the faults which had been the destruction of the elder Charles. The Scots, whose a Puritan. "Covenant" bound them to the support of monarchy, immediately proclaimed Charles II. as their king ; and several important towns in Ireland, casting off the authority of the Parliament, also acknowledged him. The strength of the Independents was in their army of 50,000 men, and in the iron will of Cromwell, who was now ap- pointed Lord Lieutenant and Governor of Ireland. 345. He took Drogheda and Wexford by storm, and put the garrison to the sword, in stern retaliation for the massa- cres of the English (§326). Terrified by this severity, town after town opened its gates at Cromwell's approach. The next year, the Marquis of Ormond, Charles's lieutenant, left the island, and more than 40,000 royalists enlisted in the wars of France, Spain, or Austria. The most troublesome elements being thus drawn off, Ireland enjoyed such quiet- ness as she had not known in centuries. (183) 1 84 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1650. 346. The brave and loyal Marquis of Montrose had, meanwhile, been defeated in Scotland and betrayed into the hands of the Covenanters, who put him to death in the most cruel and insulting manner. The young King disowned his enterprise after he heard of its failure, though it had been undertaken with his approval and promise of support. Charles was not permitted to land in Scotland until he had signed the Covenant; and the daily and hourly sermons and exhorta- tions to which he was afterward subjected, seemed to the gay young Prince a dear price to pay for his comfortless crown. He was made to publish a proclamation declaring himself humbled in spirit and afflicted for his father's tyranny and his mother's idolatry. Still no man trusted him, and he was king only in name, the real power remaining- where it had been before, — with the Scottish Parliament. 347. Cromwell, returning from Ireland, was made Captain- gen'eral of all the forces in England. He invaded Scotland, gained a remarkable victory over the Scotch at Dunbar, and followed up his advantage by seizing Edinburgh and Leith. Charles was not sorry for this defeat of his jailers, for it forced them to treat him with greater respect. He was crowned at Scone, and, the next summer, took the bold resolution of marching into England. He hoped to be joined by many royalists; — in any case, he would force Cromwell to leave Scotland, in order to fight him. The first hope was disappointed; the second was ful- filled far beyond his wishes. 348. Cromwell, by a sudden march, surprised Worcester, where the King had arrived; and, in a fiercely fought con- test, either killed or captured the entire Scottish army. Charles himself became a fugitive, and wandered six weeks in various disguises. At one time, concealed in the thick branches of an oak, he saw and heard his pursuers pass be- neath him. A great reward was offered for his betrayal, while those who concealed him were threatened with death; A. D. 1652.] THE COMMONWEALTH. 185 but forty men and women, mostly poor laborers, were at different times safely intrusted with his secret. At length he embarked at Shoreham, and arrived safely in France, where he became a pensioner of his young cousin, King Louis XIV. 349. Scotland was subdued by Gen. Monk, in a campaign as terribly severe as was that of Cromwell in Ireland. The inhabitants of Dundee were put to the sword ; and Aberdeen and many other towns and forts hastened to make their sub- mission to the English Commonwealth. Ireton, who had completed the conquest of Ireland, died at Limerick, and was succeeded by Gen. Ludlow. The Puritan colonies in New England rejoiced in the triumph of their party at home. The other American settlements were compelled to acknowl- edge the Commonwealth. 350. England, after years of humiliation, had a government which could command order at home and respect abroad, as in the days of Elizabeth. The war-making power was, for the first time, in the same hands with the purse-strings, while the abolition of rank and titles opened a free career to all talents and energies; so that men rose to high commands who, in earlier or later times, might have lived and died in obscurity. Among these was Admiral Blake, who made the English navy more famous than it ever had been before. Prince Rupert was now cruising in the Atlantic. Blake with his fleet drove him into the Tagus; and when the King of Portugal refused to admit the pursuers, they revenged them- selves by seizing twenty richly laden vessels belonging to His Majesty, who was only permitted to renew his alliance with England by a humble apology and submission. 351. The neighboring republic of Holland was the next to feel the increase of English power. An arbitrary Navigation Act forbade foreign captains to bring into English ports any merchandise which was not the growth or manufacture of their own country. This was aimed at the Hollanders, whose country was small, but whose merchant fleet was the largest Eng. — 16. 1 86 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1652. in the world, and who subsisted in great measure by the carrying trade between foreign ports. 352. Without waiting for a formal declaration of war, the fiery spirits of Blake and Van Tromp, the Dutch admiral, sprang to arms. Many battles were fought in the Channel during the summer and autumn of 1652. After one victory, Van Tromp affixed a broom to his main-mast and sailed up and down the Channel, expressing his determination to sweep the English from the seas. The most obstinate of all these sea-fights lasted three days, off Portland, and ended in an English victory. The war was ended in 1654, by a defensive league between the two republics, — England retaining the honor of being saluted by the lowering of the Dutch flag, whenever ships of the two nations met at sea. 353. The Long Parliament had now continued thirteen years; and though it had ceased to represent the wishes of the people, there was no power legally entitled to dismiss it (§325). Cromwell resolved upon a bold stroke. Repairing to the House with a guard of soldiers, he heard the debates for a time in silence; then starting to his feet, reproached the Parliament, in bitter words, with its tyranny, ambition, and robbery of the people. Then stamping with his foot, as a signal for his soldiers to enter, he cried out, ' ' For shame ! get you gone! Give place to honester men! You are no longer a parliament ! I tell you, you are no longer a parlia- ment ! The Lord has done with you : He has chosen other instruments for carrying on His work." He commanded his soldiers to clear the hall and lock the doors. 354. The Parliament had become so unpopular, that few seem to have complained of Cromwell's extraordinary pro- ceeding. Addresses of congratulation poured in from the fleet, the army, and many of the counties. Cromwell, by his own act, then summoned a new parliament of one hundred and twenty-eight members, the first in which representatives of England, Scotland, and Ire- A. D. 1655.] CR OMWELL. PRO TEC TOR. 187 land sat together as they do to-day. But this assemblage was in its turn dissolved within six months, having first, by a new Instrument of Government, conferred sovereign powers upon Cromwell, with the title of "Lord Protector" for life. He bound himself to summon a parliament once in three years, and to allow them to sit at least five months without pro- rogation. tzij Cromwell dissolving Parliament. An insurrection of the royalists led to the "decimation," as it was called, of their party, — that is, a tax of the tenth penny on all their revenues. To collect this tax, England was divided into ten military districts, under as many major- generals, who were authorized to imprison all whom they suspected. 355. Cromwell made his power felt and feared by the iSS CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1657. pirates of the Barbary coast, and by the Spaniards both in Europe and America. From the latter he wrested the island of Jamaica ; anu olake gained his greatest victory over a Spanish fleet in the harbor of Santa Cruz, under the guns of their castle and seven forts. But this was the last battle of the great Admiral. Already consumed by disease, he has- tened homeward, but died within sight of his native shores. The intervention of Cromwell in behalf of the protestant Vaudois, against the persecutions of their Duke, pleased the English, while it commanded the respect of the whole Con- tinent. In alliance with France, Cromwell then engaged in the war against Spain, in which the important harbor and fortress of Dunkirk became the prize of the English. 356. In 1657. Parliament offered to Cromwell its " Humble Petition and Advice " that he would assume the crown. This was meant not so much for additional honor to him as for security to the nation. An existing law provided that no subject should be accused of treason on account of his alle- giance to the king for the time being, whatever disposition might afterward be made of the crown. Xo such security se o\ the restoration of Charles II.. for those who had adhered to the Protector. But such a step, while contenting the moderate and timid party, would have offended the army and all stanch Republicans, and Cromwell refused to take the crown. He was reinvested with his Protector- ship, however, with almost royal ceremony. — with the purple robe, the scepter, and the sword. — and was permitted to name his successor. 357. But the Protector was already worn out by cares state. His gc . ernment. even in the judgment of his enemies, had been energetic and successful almost beyond precedent. The religious dissensions which had troubled England more than a hundred years, were quieted by Cromwell's firm, wise, and tolerant policy. Even the Jews, who had been banished ever since Edward I. . were quietly permitted to return. Yet, A. D. 1660.] DEATH OF CROMWELL. 189 in managing the prejudices of the nation, Cromwell had taken greater liberties with the Parliament than even Charles I. had done. He had levied taxes without the consent of Parliament; and when a sufferer appealed to the courts for redress, as Hampden had done, his lawyers were arrested and thrown into the Tower. The Protectorate, though ably promoting most of the private interests of the people, was a tyranny in form, and Cromwell painfully felt it to be so. 358. Agents from the court of Charles II., at Brussels or Cologne, were constantly raising insurrections among the English royalists, or lying in wait to murder the Protector. Cromwell was seized with a slow fever, and died on the anniversary of his great battles of Dunbar and Worcester. His eldest son, Richard, succeeded peace- ably to the Protectorship; but he proved wholly unable to hold in check the fierce contentions of the army and the Parliament. Gen. Lambert, an ambitious man who coveted the chief power, plotted against him ; and Richard, rather than meet the storm, resigned his place. 359. The council of military officers proceeded first to set up and then violently put down the still surviving remnant of the Long Parliament, and appointed in its place a Com- mittee of Safety. All things seemed tottering upon the edge of a fearful abyss, — anarchy, massacre, and universal terror. But Gen. Monk, who had been Governor of Scotland, now advanced with his army to London. He required the Par- liament, which had reassembled, to fix a day for its own dis- solution, and to issue writs for a new election. 360. The nation now desired a return to its ancient form of government, and the new Parliament, or Convention, was largely composed of royalists. Gen. Monk, however, had not waited for Parliament to name the conditions : he was already in correspondence with the King. It only remained for the two Houses — for the nobles again took their seats (§ 343) — to vote the restoration of the monarchy, and to accept 190 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1660. Charles's Declaration, published at Breda in Holland, as a guarantee of the safety of England under his reign. The King was proclaimed with great solemnity in London, May, 1660; and a committee of lords and commons crossed the sea, inviting him to come and take possession of his throne. RECAPITULATION. Charles II. is proclaimed king in Scotland and acknowledged in Ireland. Cromwell's severe settlement of Irish affairs. Montrose in Scotland is defeated and slain by the Covenanters. Charles II. is compelled to sign the Covenant and disavow acts of his parents. Cromwell's victory at Dunbar ; he takes Edinburgh. Charles invades England ; is defeated by Cromwell at Worcester ; takes refuge in France. American colonies acknowledge the Commonwealth. En- ergetic policy of the government. Blake's naval victories. War with Holland ends in advantage to the English. Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament; summons "Little" or " Barebones's Parliament"; becomes Protector of the Commonwealth; levies tax on royalists; wrests Jamaica from Spain ; protects Vaudois from persecution ; gains Dunkirk ; refuses the crown, but is reinstated with the Protectorship ; permits return of the Jews ; dies ; is succeeded by his son Richard, who soon resigns. Threatened anarchy prevented by restoration of Charles II. V. THE RESTORATION. HARLES II. (A. D. 1660-1685) entered London on his thirtieth birthday, May 29th, while bells rang, bonfires blazed, and songs and shouts testified the frenzied joy of the people. They were relieved, in fact, from a great anxiety; for it had been doubt- ful who could take up the govern- ment which Cromwell's strong hand had dropped; and men v%^ v - v^ "v - hoped that exile and adversity ague m on on. would have trained the prince to a wise and useful king. His first act promised well : a general pardon was proclaimed, except to the few who were immediately concerned in the death of Charles I. A silly and base revenge was, indeed, taken upon the life- less remains of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, which were dragged from their tombs and hung upon the gallows at Ty- burn, a mark for the drunken insults of those who had feared them in life. Milton, * one of the best and greatest men of the age, was deprived of his employments, and barely escaped with his life, for having written a noble "Defense of the English People " in their controversy with Charles I. ; while Monk was rewarded for his treason to his late associates by becoming Duke of Albemarle and General-in-chief. * Milton's greatest poem, " Paradise Lost," — one of the greatest of all ages, — was published seven years after Charles's accession. Dryden, who belongs to a lower rank of poets, degraded a fine genius by subserviency to the Court. (190 1 9 2 CENTUR Y OF RE VOL UTIONS. [A . D . 1 66 1 . 362. In Scotland, the "Drunken Parliament," far surpass- ing the English in its wild loyalty to Charles, annulled all the acts of its predecessors for twenty-eight years, and ordered to execution the noble leader of the Presbyterians, the Marquis of Argyle (§ 339). Church affairs in both kingdoms were restored as nearly as possible to their condition under James I. Every civil officer was required to receive the Communion according to the rites of the Church of England, to renounce the "Covenant," and take an oath declaring that no circumstance could ever make it lawful to resist the King. An Act of Uniformity compelled all clergymen to declare their full assent to every thing contained in the Book of Common Prayer. Rather than take this burden upon their consciences, 2,000 ministers, the most learned and distin- guished in the country, resigned their livings. The Con- venticle Act forbade the meeting of more than five persons at one place and time for worship, except by the use of the Liturgy ; and the Five Mile Act subsequently made it a crime for any dispossessed clergyman even to approach within the distance named of his former parish. The penalties for dis- obedience were fines, imprisonment, and transportation. The Quakers, whose consciences forbade them to bear arms or to take oaths, were imprisoned to the number of 12,000. 363. These were the acts of the royalist Council and Par- liament ; for the careless good-nature of the King unfitted him for a persecutor. So far as he sincerely held any religion at all, Charles was a Roman Catholic ; and he sometimes insisted upon indulgence for dissenters, in order to shield the Romish "recusants." But the shameless licentiousness of his court alarmed and disgusted even his best friends and warmest adherents. Though Parliament had conferred upon him a greater revenue than his father had ever enjoyed, his con- stant want of money led him to sell Dunkirk, the one result of Cromwell's victories (§ 355), to the French, — a A. D. 1667.] WAR, PESTILENCE, AND EIRE, 193 national disgrace which the English people considered the greatest that had befallen them since the loss of Calais (§ 281). 364. England was at the same time drained by a costly war with the Dutch, who had the French and the Danes for allies. The King's brother, the Duke of York, distinguished himself in naval command, and was rewarded by the lands on the Hudson River in America, which had been wrested from the Dutch. The chief city of the province 3 l A. D. 1664. changed its name from New Amsterdam to New York ; and the fort and trading station 150 miles to the north- ward was named Albany, from the Duke's Scottish title. The fighting in the British waters was obstinate and fierce. One battle lasted four days, and was at last undecided. Another, three weeks later, resulted in victory to the English. 365. While negotiations for a peace were in progress at Breda, King Charles, thinking to save the Parliament's last subsidy for his own pleasures, neglected to maintain the fleet. The Dutch, seizing the opportunity, sailed boldly up the Thames, captured Sheerness, burned many ships, and threat- ened London itself. But Louis XIV., who only wanted the two great maritime powers to wear each other out, now with- drew his aid from the Hollanders, and peace was signed at Breda, July, 1667. Two great calamities at home had been added, the pre- ceding year, to humiliation abroad. The Plague, which in that century was always lurking in the narrow and undrained alleys of London, spread over the city and destroyed in six months 100,000 lives. It was followed by the Great Fire, which destroyed 13,000 dwellings and 90 churches, with merchandise beyond account. This, indeed, was not an un- mixed calamity; for, perhaps, nothing but the flames could have removed the deadly infection of the Plague. The re- built streets were wider, and the city became healthier than ever before. Eng.— 17. 194 CEXTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1667. 366. The Chancellor, Lord Clarendon, was blamed by the people as the cause of the disgraces in the Dutch war. Though he had been the King's faithful friend throughout his exile, he wearied Charles by his virtues as much as the people by his toryism ; and court and Parliament now agreed that he should be the victim of the popular displeasure. He was not only deprived of the Great Seal, but impeached and sentenced to banishment. The control of affairs now rested with five noblemen, * who are commonly known as the Cabal. Their initials formed this word, which, however, was the usual name for a king's cabinet, or secret committee of administration. Its first action was honorable to England. Through the media- tion of Sir William Temple with De Witt, chief minister of the Dutch Republic, a league was made of Hol- land, Sweden, and England against the growing power of France. Louis XIV. desired to push his northern frontier to the Rhine, by robbing Spain of her dependent provinces; but the "Triple Alliance" forced him to make peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and abandon for a time his conquest of the Netherlands. 367. Charles very soon descended from the high position in which this treaty had placed him. In a secret bargain negotiated at Dover with the King of France, he agreed to declare himself a Romanist and join Louis in a war against the Dutch, for a yearly pension of 3,000,000 francs. In case of his change of religion exciting disturbance in England, Louis promised an army of 6,000 men to put it down. England was now at the lowest point of her humiliation. Lender Elizabeth, she had been second only to Spain, if to any of the great powers of Europe. With the accession of James I., she descended to a second rank. The eight years of Cromwell's vigorous rule raised her again to a command- * Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. A. D. 1678.] THE POPISH PLOT. 195 ing position ; and an English embassador who resided at the French court, both before and after the Restoration, bore witness that he was treated with far greater respect as the minister of Cromwell than as the representative of Charles II., though the latter was the French King's cousin. 368. When the disgraceful "Treaty of Dover" became known, the people, who remembered the persecutions of Mary and the plots against Elizabeth, felt themselves basely betrayed; and their terror was increased by the open pro- fession of Romanism by the Duke of York, who was heir- apparent to the crown. In obedience to the "Test Act," the Duke laid down his commission as Lord High Admiral; and his resignation was followed by hundreds of others in the military and civil service. An infamous adventurer, Titus Oates, availed himself of the excitement to spread rumors of a "Popish Plot" to kill the King, burn London, massacre all the Protestants, and crown the Duke of York, on condi- tion of his holding the kingdom as the gift of the Pope. The whole story was made up of the boldest falsehoods ; but the fears of the people had destroyed their power of judg- ment. Godfrey, the magistrate before whom Oates had made his first deposition, was found dead in a field; and it was assumed that the Jesuits had committed the murder, in order to silence the disclosures. Oates had the insolence to accuse even the Queen * of being accessory to the plot. The re- wards offered for further information brought forward a crowd of equally infamous spies and informers, who vied with each other in setting afloat each day some new story more exciting and atrocious than the last. 369. Oates became the most distinguished man in England. * Charles, soon after his accession, had married a Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza, who brought, as part of her dowry, the important fortresses of Tangiers in Africa and Bombay in Hin- dustan. 196 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1679. He strutted about in lawn sleeves like those of a bishop, had a guard to protect him, and enjoyed an ample pension. Five Catholic noblemen were thrown into the Tower and im- peached ; and one of them, the venerable Lord Stafford, was beheaded. The Earl of Shaftesbury took advantage of the excitement to obtain a law excluding Romanists from sitting in either House of Parliament; and this law continued in force a hundred and fifty years. A still stronger effort was made to pass the Exclusion Bill, as it was called, preventing the accession of the Duke of York to the throne. It passed the Commons in May, 1679; but to prevent its going to the Lords, the King dissolved the Parliament. * 370. The election which followed proved so unfavorable to his wishes, that he prorogued the new Parliament on the very day when it should have met; and by repeating this action, kept it from meeting for a whole year. Oct., 1680. „„ '. v , . ° , , • , When it was at last permitted to assemble, it took up the Exclusion Bill and was again dissolved. A third Par- liament was convened at Oxford, but it showed precisely the same spirit as its predecessors, and was dissolved after only seven days' session. During these excitements, the nation was rent into two parties of Petitioners and Abhorrers, — the first calling loudly for the meeting of Parliament, the second expressing their abhorrence of any who would presume to dictate to the King. The names of "Whig" and "Tory" which arose at * This Parliament is worthy of grateful mention for the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act, which effectually prevents arbitrary or pro- longed imprisonments. By its provisions every prisoner is entitled to a hearing during the first term of court after his arrest ; and every jailer, upon a writ of habeas corpus granted by the judge, is bound to produce his prisoner in court and show the cause of his imprisonment. This Act only reaffirmed a principle recognized in English law ever since Magna Charta ; and it is enforced in every country which has derived its ideas of law and justice from England. A. D. 1683.] RYE HOUSE PLOT. 197 the same time, with nearly the same application, have lasted almost to our own day. 371. The death of the innocent Lord Stafford turned the popular rage against ''Papists" into pity and remorse, and no more blood was shed for the " Popish Plot." The whole tribe of informers, finding their vile trade destroyed, passed over to the opposite party, and, as states' evidence, con- tributed to the ruin of those who had employed them. Another plot, more real but not less iniquitously prosecuted, was brought to light in 1683. Several ruffians had formed a plan to waylay and shoot the King and his brother as they passed a certain farm called the Rye House, on their way to the races at Newmarket. The scheme was detected and its authors were put to death. 372. But there were six conspirators of high rank who de- sired a change in the principles of government, though prob- ably none of them meant any personal harm to the King. These were the Duke of Monmouth, the King's own son by a low-born mother, Lord Russell, the Earl of Essex, Lord Howard, Algernon Sidney, and John Hampden, grandson of the great Parliamentary leader. Russell desired only the exclusion of the Duke of York from the succession, and a return to just government under the present king and consti- tution. Sidney was a Republican by principle, and had op- posed Cromwell's protectorship as well as Charles's restora- tion; but he was not a murderer. The plans of the Whig leaders had probably no connection with the ' ' Rye House Plot " ; yet they were arrested on the accusation of one of the conspirators, and their views were betrayed by one of their own number, Lord Howard. Essex died in prison; Russell and Sidney were beheaded ; the Duke of ea J A. D. 1683. Monmouth, who had run away when the conspir- acy first came to light, received the King's pardon and was permitted to come to court ; but he soon disgusted all parties by his double dealing, and was again banished. 198 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1679. 373. The severities of Lauderdale, as Governor of Scot- land, had already driven the Covenanters to desperation. A company of them attacked Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrews, dragged him from his coach, and murdered him upon the road in the presence of his daughter. This crime, of course, injured their cause far more than it could be in- jured by persecution. Soldiers were now ordered to break up all their religious assemblies; and the Covenanters met for worship only in the wildest recesses of the hills, all the men being armed, and sentinels posted to prevent surprise. John Graham of Claverhouse distinguished himself beyond the King's other officers by his brutality in breaking up these assemblages. Mothers and children were put to the sword, after seeing their protectors murdered with needless and wanton atrocity. At one time, however, Claverhouse was routed by the armed Covenanters whom he had disturbed at their worship, and lost thirty of his troopers. At another, 8,000 Covenanters seized upon Glasgow; but Monmouth, who then enjoyed his father's confidence, defeated them in the battle of Bothwell Bridge. 374. The King, who had formerly pleased the more ex- treme Protestants by marrying his eldest niece to William, Prince of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, now took another step in the same direction by the espousal of her sister Anne to a brother of the King of Denmark. The princesses were the only children of the Duke of York, and were next after their father in the succession to the throne. Their mother was Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. After her death, James married an Italian princess, Mary Beatrice, of Modena. 375. Early in 1685, the King had an attack resembling apoplexy ; and after lingering a few days, he died in the fifty-fifth year of his age and the twenty-fifth of. his reign. Charles well deserved his nickname of the "Merry Mon- arch," by his sportive manners and the freedom and gayety A. D. 1685.] THE MERRY MONARCH. 199 of his court. A daring epitaph, written by one of his courtiers, thus described him : " Here lies our sovereign lord the King, Whose word no man relies on ; Who never said a foolish thing, Nor ever did a wise one." To which Charles pleasantly retorted ' ' that it might be very true; for his words were his own, but his acts were his ministers'." RECAPITULATION. Joy of the English people at restoration of monarchy. Charles II. declares amnesty with few exceptions ; but deprives Milton of his em- ployments ; rewards Monk with command-in-chief. Execution of the Marquis of Argyle. Persecution of non-conforming clergy and Quak- ers. Charles sells Dunkirk to Louis XIV. In war with the Dutch, their American province on the Hudson becomes New York. London is visited by the Plague and the Great Fire. Exile of Lord Clarendon. Rise of the Cabal. Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden against France. Charles accepts a pension from Louis XIV. Rumor of a Popish Plot occasions great excitement ; Romanists are excluded from Parliament. Detection of Rye House Plot leads to unjust exe- cution of Russell and Sidney. Persecution of Covenanters in Scotland. Daughters of the Duke of York marry Protestant princes. Charles II. dies in twenty-fifth year of his reign. VI. REIGN AND ABDICATION OF JAMES II. Capture of Monmouth. AMES II. (A. D. 1685-1688), lately Duke of York, succeeded without immediate opposition to his brother's crown. The country had been proud of him as its sailor prince; and, in spite of the recent agitations, his pledge to observe the laws and protect the Church was received with joyful confidence. Oates (§§ 368, 369) was now brought to trial for his perjuries. He was sentenced to be whipped through the city during two days, to stand in the pillory five times every year, and to be imprisoned during life. 377. The Duke of Monmouth was now persuaded to make a rash invasion of England, asserting his own title to the crown. He accused his uncle as a "traitor, a tyrant, an assassin, and a popish usurper," charging him with being the author of the fire in London (§ 365), the murder of Godfrey and Essex (§§ 368, 372), and even of having poi- soned the late King. Monmouth was so beloved by the people, that though he (200) A. D. 1685.] MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. 201 landed in England with only one hundred followers, he was soon at the head of six thousand, and had to dismiss many for want of arms. But his chief confederate, the Earl of Argyle, * was taken in Scotland and beheaded. Monmouth met the King's forces at Sedgemoor and was thoroughly de- feated. Separated from all his followers, he was found lying in a ditch, spent with hunger and fatigue. He was admitted, after many entreaties, to his uncle's presence; and, throwing himself on his knees, begged with bitter tears that his life might be spared. He refused to buy it, however, with the betrayal of his friends; and summoning his courage, met death upon the scaffold with firmness and submission. 378. James exacted a bitter vengeance for this misguided attempt. A brutal officer, Col. Kirke by name, who had learned humanity from the Moors about Tangiers, was ap- pointed to deal with "Monmouth's rebels." Wherever he and his "lambs" appeared, men were hurried off to the gallows without even an inquiry whether they were innocent or guilty; and he insulted their death-agonies by rude jests. He was succeeded by the Chief Justice, George Jeffreys, — the vilest wretch that ever bore that exalted title, and whose judicial murders were no less savage than the military execu- tions. Mrs. Gaunt and Lady Alice Lisle — generous and noble women, whose only crime was their humanity in shel- tering fugitives — were sentenced to death: the one was burnt and the other beheaded. Those who were spared bought their lives with their entire possessions, which went to enrich the Chief Justice. 379. The King, who was a zealous Romanist, now used his supremacy to restore his three kingdoms to the ancient Church. The Test Act was suspended, and all high offices were given either to Catholics or Dissenters, with whom the King was compelled to make common cause for a time, While * Son of the great Marquis, \\ 323, 339, 362. 202 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1688. opposing the established Church. His Declaration of Indul- gence was ordered to be read in all the churches April, 1688. ° . . . during divine service. The Primate and six other bishops, venturing to remonstrate against this illegal act, were seized and thrown into the Tower. Throngs of sympathizing people lined the banks of the Thames as they passed to their prison ; and even the soldiers who guarded the venerable captives fell on their knees and begged their forgiveness and blessing. The bishops were tried in Westminster Hall and acquitted, to the rapturous joy of the people. 380. The birth of an infant prince, though it occasioned great joy to the King, in reality hastened his fall. The people had been patiently awaiting the accession of Mary, Princess of Orange; but the appearance of her little brother on the scene suddenly destroyed their hopes. The best minds now perceived that the nation must throw itself upon its right of free choice, from which all English kings derive their power ; and urgent appeals were sent by all parties in England, ex- cept the Romanists, begging the Prince of Orange to come and free them from misgovernment. "& v 381. William was already, by circumstances and descent, the champion of Protestantism in Europe. The brave de- fender of his native land against the greedy ambition of Louis XIV., he the more readily undertook to defend the reformed Church of England against the kinsman and co- religionist of Louis. He was, moreover, after his wife and her sister Anne (§ 374), the next heir to the English throne having, like them, Charles I. for his grandfather. Nov., 1688. °' ' & (See Table, p. 206). The Prince set sail from Holland with 650 ships and 13,000 men, and landed at Tor Bay on the fifth of November. 382. James, in his terror at the first news of the invasion, tried to undo the mischief he had done. He courted the bishops, reinstated all the county officers, and gave back the A. D. 1689.] FLIGHT OF JAMES II 203 charters of London and other cities, which he had most ille- gally annulled. But it was too late. Nobles and gentry, army officers, and even Prince George of Denmark, with his wife, the Princess Anne, deserted the cause of James, and sent in their submission to the Prince of Orange. The Queen and her baby son fled to France; and the King himself left his palace in the night, threw the Great Seal into the Thames, and was silently rowed down the river to a ship which he had engaged to take him across the Channel. 383. Government was thus dissolved by the King's own act. The mob was master. Even the army, which James had so carefully raised to maintain his unlawful supremacy, was disbanded and let loose upon the city. In this dreadful crisis, the bishops and nobles who were in London took upon themselves the responsibility of government, issued orders to the commanders of forts, the fleet, and the army, and opened communication with the Prince of Orange. The runaway King was arrested near the coast; but this was unwelcome news to the authorities in London. No one wanted to harm him : the nation had grown wiser since his father's execution, and it was only desired that he should be safely out of the way. It was therefore made easy for him to escape ; and after waiting awhile for an invitation to resume his throne, he secretly took ship and joined his family in France. Louis XIV. received him with the utmost generos- ity, and maintained a little court for him, with his impover- ished followers, at St. Germains. 384. William of Orange was requested to assume the gov- ernment as regent, but he refused until the will of the whole nation could be known. Mary also refused to accept the crown, unless her husband was joined with her in equal au- thority. A convention which met in January, 1689, declared the throne vacant by the abdication of James, and settled the crown upon William and Mary, Prince and Princess of Orange; adding to the Act of Settlement a Declaration of Rights, which 204 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. put at rest all the points of dispute between sovereigns and people. It was afterward extended and confirmed in the Bill of Rights, which has been called the Third Great Charter of English Freedom (§ 317). 385. In spite of the disorders in the government, England had steadily increased in industry and wealth ever since the Restoration. The year of James's accession was marked in France by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which Henry IV. had granted for the protection of the Huguenots, or Protestants. By withdrawing this protection, Louis XIV. drove half a million of his most industrious and thrifty sub- jects into exile, and enriched other countries as much as he impoverished his own. Thousands found homes in England and her American colonies, and planted there those fine man- ufactures for which the Huguenots were celebrated. To this day, the large proportion of French names among the silk- weavers of Spitalfields, near London, marks their descent from the colony of exiles for conscience' sake, who first in- troduced that industry into England. 386. The reign of Charles II. was a great era in science. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the wondrous law that holds suns and planets in their orbits; Halley commenced his learned investigations of tides, comets, and the earth's mag- netism ; Boyle improved the air-pump, and studied by its aid the properties of the atmosphere; Hobbes and Locke dis- coursed of the human mind, its laws and relations to matter. The Royal Society of Science was founded in the year of the Restoration, and its members were the first Englishmen who engaged in the really scientific study of minerals, plants, birds, fishes, and quadrupeds. Many foreign painters flourished dur- ing this period at the English court, and have left us portraits of all its famous men and women. Architecture received a new impulse from the Great Fire (§ 365), which opened a field for the genius of Sir Christopher Wren. He designed St. Paul's Cathedral as it now stands, and many other churches. PISE OF NEWSPAPERS. 205 387. Newspapers, now so immense a power in the civilized world, made their first humble appearance in the reign of Charles I., and became somewhat more important in his son's time. James II. subjected them to a censorship. Far more powerful at that time were the coffee-houses, first estab- lished in London under Charles II. ; for coffee itself, like tea and chocolate, came in with the Restoration. At these places of entertainment wits freely discussed the actions of the gov- ernment ; and their opinions were eagerly heard and repeated by a crowd of listeners. Nobles and gentry living in the country often employed correspondents in town, to inform them of current matters of interest in government and soci- ety; and by means of "news-letters," written or printed, the talk of the capital was repeated in every portion of the land, — not always to the satisfaction of the King's ministers, who made some ineffectual attempts to stop these currents of public opinion at their source. 388. It has been said that Charles I. would never have rushed so blindly upon his fate, if railways, telegraphs, and newspapers had existed then as now. The King was ignorant of the temper of his people. The means of communication were worse than in Turkey to-day. Roads, even at the end of the century, were scarcely to be distinguished from the meadows and marshes which they traversed. Six horses were needed to draw a coach through the deep mud; and all the highways were infested by robbers. 389. Many religious sects had their rise in these times of trouble and excitement. Among the most remarkable, though not the most numerous, were the Quakers, whose founder was George Fox, a Lancashire shepherd. William Penn, one of their members, received a grant of lands on the Delaware River, as a reward for his father's services to Charles II., and founded the colony of Pennsylvania. The justice and brotherly kindness with which he treated the savage owners of the soil preserved his settlement from the dangers to which 206 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. others were subject; and Pennsylvania long enjoyed the blessings which naturally flow from thrift, honesty, and benevolence. RECAPITULATION. James II. begins his reign with a pledge to maintain the laws. Monmouth's Rebellion is punished by death of its leaders and mili- tary executions in the western counties. The King attempts to restore Romanism ; imprisons seven bishops. England appeals to the Prince of Orange. Upon his landing in Tor Bay, James takes flight and dis- solves the government. William and Mary are declared King and Queen of England. English prosperity increased by persecutions in France. Progress of science. Rebuilding of London after the Great Fire. Rise of newspapers. Political influence of coffee-houses. Imperfect commu- nication through the country. Rise of the Quakers and other re- ligious sects. William Penn founds Pennsylvania. House of Stuart. (See p. 150. Taws I. m. Anne of Denmark. 1 I I Charles T. m. Henrietta Elizabeth m. Frederic, Elector Palatine. Maria of France. I Sophia m. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover. (See p. 215.) I I I Chari.es II. James II. m. 2, Mary of Modena. Mary m. [, Anne Hyde. I William, Prince of Orange. I I Mary m. Anne m. James Francis William, William III. George of Edward Stuart, Prince of Orange Denmark. the Old Pretender. (William III.), m. I Mary of England. Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender. VII. WILLIAM AND MARY. Y a bloodless revolution, England had now attained to a free and settled govern- ment. The will of the na- tion had been recognized in the choice of William and Mary (A. D. 1689-1694) for its sovereigns, and the Whig party naturally came into power. King William was less popular than the cause which he represented. He spoke English badly, if at all ; was naturally cold and reserved in his manners ; and though an able general and statesman, lacked the easy grace and the cultivated tastes which distinguished the Stuart kings. 391. The Scottish Parliament followed the example of the English by declaring the throne vacant and proclaiming Wil- liam and Mary, though a strong party in the Highlands still held out for James. Graham of Claverhouse, whose brutali- ties toward the Covenanters had been rewarded with the title of Viscount Dundee, defeated William's forces at the pass of Killiecrankie, but himself received a mortal wound. His Highland followers, discouraged by their loss, were soon either scattered or subdued. The MacDonalds were the last clan to avail themselves of (207) Massacre of Glencoe. 208 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1692. the offered pardon. Their oath of allegiance, though late, was accepted; but a month later, a company of their deadly foes, the Campbells, who were in William's service, appeared at Glencoe, the seat of the MacDonalds. Though received and entertained for twelve days with friendly hos- Feb., 1692. . J . J pitahty, they suddenly attacked their hosts and murdered the chief with thirty of his clan. The rest, — chiefly women and children, — under cover of a storm, took refuge in the mountains, where many perished of cold and hunger. Sir John Dalrymple is mainly responsible for the " Massacre of Glencoe" ; yet King William's consent to it — though excused on the plea of neglect to read the order which he signed — must remain a blot on his name. 392. Ireland was the last battle-field between the old mon- arch and the new. Only two towns, Londonderry and En- niskillen, declared for the Protestant King. The former place was besieged by James II., who with his cousin's aid had landed at Kinsale, and had been joined by a disorderly crowd of 50,000 men, armed chiefly with clubs. The siege lasted one hundred and five days, and multitudes died in the streets of fever or starvation ; but, at last, the besiegers had to with- draw, failing to wear out the patient resolution of the people. On the same day the Protestants of Enniskillen gained a vic- tory over James's forces at Newtown Butler; and a few days later, Marshal Schomberg, a Huguenot general in William's service, landed with 10,000 men and besieged Carrickfergus, which was quickly taken. 393. The next summer William himself came over, and in the great battle of the Boyne completely destroyed his rival's hopes in Ireland. A naval battle off Beachy Head, the day before, had resulted in victory to the French ; but the fear of an invasion felt in England united the people against the "Jacobites," as the adherents of James were called, and so really strengthened the Orange party. Town after town in Ireland surrendered or was taken by A. D. 1694.] DEATH OF MARY II. 209 storm ; and by the Pacification of Limerick, the whole island accepted William as its king. 394. A great naval battle off La Hogue, between the Dutch and English fleets on one side, and the French on the other, defeated the project of an invasion of England by King James. But William's expensive and often disastrous wars on the Con- tinent gave rise to much dissatisfaction ; and his most trusted ministers were ever ready to open a correspondence with James, whenever their own interests seemed likely to be furthered by it. Even the Princess Anne (§§381, 382) was persuaded by her intimate friend, Lady Marlborough (see § 400), to write a penitent letter to her father, whom she had deserted at the Revolution, desiring peace and recon- ciliation. Crown Piece. 395. On one of the last days of 1694, Queen Mary died. She had been sincerely loved by her husband, and he never recovered from the sadness occasioned by her loss. Accord- ing to the Act of Settlement, William was now & A. D. 1694-1702. sole monarch of the three kingdoms. The first year of his sole reign was marked by the abolition of the cen- sorship of the press, and the consequent establishment of sev- eral newspapers. "This act," says Lord Macaulay, "has done more for liberty and civilization than the Great Charter or the Bill of Rights." Eng.— 18. 2io CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1697. 396. By the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, Louis XIV. recog- nized William as the only lawful King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and solemnly engaged to give no aid to any other claimant. The two life-long foes soon afterward en- tered into a treaty for the partition of the Spanish dominions. The Austrian line which had filled the throne of Spain for nearly two hundred years, was about to end in the childless King Charles II. ; and the succession was claimed by three heirs of Spanish princesses who had married into the French and Austrian families. Louis XIV., who was both cousin and brother-in-law of the Spanish sovereign, had attempted to seize the Netherlands in right of his wife. William did not look for increase of dominion to himself, but desired to prevent Louis from grasping the lion's share, and thereby exalting his power above all the states of Europe. 397. The First Partition Treaty was annulled by the death of the nearest heir in 1699, and another was made in the following year. To prevent any such enormous dominion as that of Charles V. (§ 249) from falling again into the hands of one man, the Emperor, Leopold I., was required to cede his Spanish claims to his second son, the Archduke Charles; while Louis, in turn, conferred his rights in Spain upon his grandson, the Duke of Anjou, who renounced his hereditary claims to the throne of France. But the Second Treaty was also disregarded by Louis as soon as he saw his way clear to gain more than it had allotted to him. The Duke of Anjou, by the will of the Spanish King, and by force of arms, became at last King Philip V. of Spain, and sovereign of all her rich possessions in Asia and America. 398. On the death of James II. at St. Germains, Louis, in spite of all his agreements, caused James Francis Stuart (§ 380) to be proclaimed as James III. of England, Scotland, and Ireland. This defiant act was fortunate for William, for it reunited all parties in England, and gave them immense zeal for the ''War of the Spanish Succession," which was on A. D. 1702.] DEATH OF WILLIAM III. 211 the eve of breaking out. England had for allies the Emperor and the Dutch Republic, who asserted the claim of the Arch- duke Charles of Austria to the Spanish throne. The House of Commons granted supplies with unusual readiness, and begged the King never to make peace until Louis had atoned for his insult to the whole English nation in the acknowledg- ment of the Pretender. (See Table, p. 206.) King William's health, however, was now failing. A fall from his horse, breaking his collar-bone, aggravated his dis- ease; and, amidst all the preparations for war, he died at Hampton Court, March 8, 1702. RECAPITULATION. Whigs gain power by accession of the House of Orange. Opposi- tion in Scottish Highlands ended by death of Dundee and massacre of MacDonalds at Glencoe. Siege of Londonderry by James II. fails; he is defeated at Newtown Butler and in battle of the Boyne. Ireland submits to William. French fleet is victorious off Beachy Head, but defeated near La Hogue. Death of Queen Mary. William gives free- dom to the press. Peace of Ryswick followed by treaties with France for partition of the Spanish dominions. Louis XIV. proclaims "James III." as King of England, and Parliament prepares for War of the Spanish Succession. Death of King William. VIII. REIGN OF ANNE. UT few of the Princess Anne's many children had survived ^1 their infancy ; and the last of Igj all, George, Duke of Glouces- ter, died in 1700, at the age of eleven years. A new Act of Settlement soon afterward confirmed Anne's claim to succeed her brother-in-law, King William, but provided for the accession, after her death, of the Electress Sophia of Hanover, or her heirs. * After the son of James II., the nearest of blood was the Duchess of Savoy, who was a granddaughter of Charles I. ; but she was excluded under the law forbidding members of the Roman Church to sit upon the English throne. If this * For the descent of the House of Hanover from the Stuarts, see Table, p. 215. (212) A. D. 1707.] MARLBOROUGH'S CAMPAIGNS. 213 law appears intolerant, we must remember that it was the civil supremacy of the Pope, not his spiritual claims, that the English people dreaded; and must try to imagine how near to them were the horrors of the Inquisition, which Philip and Mary had so nearly fastened upon England. 400. Queen Anne (A. D. 1702-17 14) was crowned at Westminster, April 23. She dismissed William's Whig min- istry, but announced that she should vigorously pursue his policy, and immediately declared war against France and Spain. The Earl — soon afterward Duke — of Marlborough was appointed to command her armies on the Continent, and he became the soul of the "Grand Alliance." Seldom has the world seen a character so strangely made up of great and contemptible qualities as that of Marlborough. "He never besieged a fortress that he did not take, nor fought a battle which he did not win;" and he was as great a states- man as general. Nevertheless, he was a traitor alike to James and to William, revealing the military plans of the latter to the French, in the hope of expelling the King and putting Anne in his place ; and he accumulated an enormous fortune by peculation in army contracts. 401. In concert with Eugene of Savoy, the imperial gen- eral, Marlborough executed, in 1704, his most brilliant cam- paign, ending with the battle of Blenheim, by which the Elector of Bavaria lost all his conquests and even his hered- itary dominions. Prussia soon afterward joined the Grand Alliance. The same year, Admiral Rooke captured the fortress of Gibraltar, the strongest in the world, which has ever since continued to be a British possession. . . May 23, 1706. By a great victory over the French at Ramilhes, Marlborough conquered Brabant and almost the whole of Spanish Flanders. 402. The year 1707 was distinguished by the Union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain. 214 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1707. This event, so long desired by the English kings (§§ 162, 241, 264, 269), had been attained for a few years under Cromwell, but reversed by the Restoration. The United Kingdoms were now represented by one Parliament, to which sixteen peers and forty-five commoners were elected from Scotland. Scotland, like England, accepted the Elect- ress Sophia or her next heir as its future sovereign. (See Table, p. 215.) 403. Louis XIV., now old and infirm, saw fortune turn against him, and was forced to beg for peace. He proposed that his grandson should give up the Spanish crown, and content himself with Naples and Sicily ; but the allies refused him even these, and the war went on. Marlborough's influ- ence at home was now, however, undermined by the Tories, who accused him of prolonging the war in order to increase his profits from army contracts. His wife's violent temper had offended the Queen, who found a new confidant in Mrs. Masham, one of her bed-chamber women. 404. Events abroad, meanwhile, altered the views of the English ministers concerning the Spanish succession. The Emperor Joseph I. died, and his brother, the Archduke Charles, was elected to succeed him. If now he made good his claim to the crown of Spain, the world would see another Austro-Spanish dominion overshadowing all Europe, as in the days of Charles V. (§397). Conferences were accordingly begun at Utrecht in Holland; and on the last day of March, 1 7 13, peace was signed between England and the Dutch states on the one side, and France on the other. England kept Gibraltar and Minorca, the two keys to the Mediterra- nean, and received from France Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay in North America, with St. Christopher's in the West Indies. Louis agreed also to demolish the fortifications of Dunkirk, which had been a nest of privateers preying on English commerce. In return, England recognized the French King of Spain. A. D. 1714.] LAST OF THE STUARTS. 215 405. In August, 1 7 14, Queen Anne died. The aged Electress Sophia had preceded her by two months, — order- ing a crown to be placed on her coffin, since she had missed the eagerly desired privilege of wearing it in life. As a lit- erary era, Queen Anne's age was marked rather by neatness and polish of style than by great thoughts or deep emotions. Pope was the most artificial of English poets. Addison, one of the most charming prose-writers in our language, joined his friend Steele in producing the Tatler and afterward the Spectator, forerunners of the literary magazines of our day. RECAPITULATION. By new Act of Settlement, Parliament confers the succession to the English crown upon the German House of Brunswick. Anne's great general, the Duke of Marlborough, gains victories for the Grand Alli- ance, in War of the Spanish Succession. Gibraltar taken by the English. Union of England and Scotland. Mrs. Masham succeeds Duchess of Marlborough in ascendancy over the Queen. Archduke Charles be- coming emperor, Great Britain withdraws from the Alliance ; makes peace with France by Treaty of Utrecht ; recognizes Philip V. as King of Spain, Death of Electress Sophia and of Queen Anne. House of Hanover (Brunswick). Sophia. (See page 206.) I George I. m. Sophia Dorothea of Zell. George II. m. Caroline of Brandenburg-Anspach. I Frederic, Prince of Wales, m. Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. I George III. m, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. I I II I George IV. m. William IV. Ernest, Duke of Edward, Duke of Kent, m. Caroline of Cumberland. Victoria of Saxe-Coburg. Brunswick. King of Hanover. I I Victoria m. Albert of Charlotte d. 1817. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PART IV. 1. Describe James I. of England and his theory of govern- ment. \\ 303, 305, 306, 313 2. The last years of Walter Raleigh. 304 3. What religious parties in England ? 306, 307, 389 4. What colonies were planted in James's time? 308, 309 5. Tell the story of Parliamentary opposition to James I. and his son. 310-312, 3H-3I8, 3 2 4-3 2 7 6. Of the Duke of Buckingham and the French wars. 313, 317, 318 7. Of John Hampden. 316, 321, 322, 330 8. Of Thomas Wentworth. 319, 324 9. Of Archbishop Laud. 320, 324 10. Of the Long Parliament. 324, 325, 329, 331-333, 338, 339, 353, 359 11. Describe its war policy. 35°-35 2 12. What occurred during this period in Ireland? 326, 344, 345, 349 13. Describe the army of Charles I. 328, 334 14. The beginning of the Civil Wars. 328-331 15. What differences among the King's opponents? 332, 333, 337-339 16. Describe Cromwell's army. 334 17. The captivity, trial, and death of Charles I. 336-343 18. Tell the history of Charles II. 344, 346-348, 358, 361, 363, 365, 367, 37o, 375 19. Of Oliver Cromwell. 322, 332-335, 339, 344"348, 353-358 20. Of the wars of the Commonwealth. 35°-35 2 » 355 21. What events followed the death of Cromwell ? 358-360 22. What persecuting acts under Charles II. ? 362, 373 23. What calamities visited London in 1666? 365 24. What American province conquered from the Dutch ? 364 25. What changes in England's rank among European powers within a hundred years? 367 (216) QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW, 217 26. Describe the excitement concerning the Popish Plot. §§ 368-371 27. The Rye House Plot and its victims. 371, 372 28. What foreign princes married daughters of the Duke of York ? 374 29. Describe Monmouth's Rebellion and its results. 377, 378 30. The character and policy of James II. 376-380, 382, 383 31. What led to the Revolution of 1688? 380-384 32. Describe the condition of England at that time. 385, 388 Tfl. What intellectual progress was made? 386, 387 34. What principles of government were represented by Wil- liam and Mary ? 390 35. How was their power established in Scotland and Ireland ? 391-393 36. What part was taken by William in the Spanish Question ? 396-398 37. By what right did the House of Brunswick come to the British throne? 399 38. Describe the War of the Spanish Succession. 400-404 Eng.— 19. PART V. HOUSE OF WICK. BRUNS- I. GEORGE I. AND II. EORGE LEWIS, Elector of Hanover, was proclaimed king (A. D. 1714- 1727) in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, and was acknowledged by- Louis XIV. and the other Euro- pean sovereigns. The Chevalier St. George — as the son of James II. called himself — published a proc- lamation from his residence at Plom- bieres, asserting his royal rights; and it is strange to learn that Marl- borough, though now again General- in-chief of the British armies, secretly sent him funds for an invasion of England. 407. In December, 17 15, the in- vasion actually took place, supported by an insurrection in Scotland under the Earl of Mar. But the "Pre- tender" had none of the qualities of a successful leader; he bewailed his troubles, instead of bravely meeting and conquering them; and after a repulse from Perth, he stole away to the sea and returned to France, leaving his deluded followers to their fate. (218) Rising of the Clans. A.D. 1716.] QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. 219 Lords Kenmure and Derwentwater were beheaded at Lon- don while the Earl of Nithisdale was rescued from the same punishment only by the wit and determination of his wife, who contrived his escape from prison the night before the execution The Regent of France soon afterward made a treaty of friendship with England, and the exiled Stuarts, with their impoverished court, took up an abode at Rome. 408 Louis XIV. was now dead, after a reign of seventy- two years. His great-grandson was but five years old at his accession, and the Duke of Orleans, nephew of the late King, was intrusted with the regency. The renunciation of all claim to the French crown by Philip V. of Spain (§ 397), left only the fragile life of Louis XV. between the Regent and the throne. The King of England and the Regent had, there- fore, a common interest in maintaining that the line of suc- cession could be altered by treaties or legislative act; while the King of Spain and the Stuarts upheld the principle of hereditary descent by absolute divine right, insisting that Philip V. could not, even by the most solemn oath, bar his own claim to the throne of France, while James III. must be rightfully King of England, in spite of Exclusion Bil s, Acts of Settlement, and the almost unanimous consent of the people France and England accordingly joined with the Empire and the Dutch States in a Quadruple Alliance to maintain the peace of Europe. 400. This was threatened at once by the mad ambition of Charles XII. of Sweden and by Philip of Spain, who had seized Sardinia and some towns in Sicily— this island having been given, by the Treaty of Utrecht, to the Duke of Savoy. Both parties tried to use the Stuart prince as a weapon against Great Britain. Charles XII. , having a quarrel with George I as Elector of Hanover, concerning some provinces on the Baltic Sea, was ready to invade Scotland with 12,000 men, when his sudden death put an end to the danger, lhe British people saw with displeasure that they were to be 220 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 17 19. drawn into continental disputes in which they had no in- terest. The King, moreover, spoke no English, but felt and acted merely as a German prince, and never seemed contented except during his yearly visits to Hanover. 410. The bursting of the South Sea Bubble, as it was called, was among the marked events of the first George's reign. The South Sea Company, which had an exclusive right to trade with the Spanish colonies in America, A. D. 1719. r . ' bought up the government annuities with the privilege of paying the holders in its own stock. A rage for speculation seized the English people, who fancied that the scrip of the Company was a sure passport to enormous wealth. Lords, ladies, and bishops, not less than a throng of poor scholars and artisans, hastened to invest their savings. Days were not long enough nor counting-rooms large enough to accommodate the eager crowd ; but desks were ranged along the streets, and lined with a host of clerks to receive sub- scriptions. Other adventurers, encouraged by the universal madness, founded new companies which obtained their share of the popular favor. At length the bubble burst : the Company was found una- ble to fulfill more than a very small fraction of its promises to pay; and multitudes who had dreamed themselves rich, awoke to beggary. Robert Walpole, who, almost alone in the nation, had retained his good sense, and had warned his countrymen against the ruin that must come, now became First Lord of the Treasury, and continued at the head of affairs twenty-one years. 411. Just as a new war was threatening Europe, George I. died in Hanover, whither he had gone for his annual visit. His son, George II., was now forty-four years of age, — a dull, conceited little despot; but he spoke English, and was, therefore, more popular than his father. He was, moreover, controlled — though uncon- sciously — by his wife, the beautiful and sensible Caroline, A. D. 1740.] AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 221 who persuaded him, contrary to his first intentions, to recall his father's old ministers, with Walpole at their head. 412. Peace and a defensive alliance were concluded, in 1729, with Spain and France, who were subsequently joined by Holland. But the old rivalries still raged between the English and Spanish traders. Not only was there a colonial quarrel concerning the boundary of Georgia and Florida, but the Spaniards insisted upon searching English vessels upon the seas for contraband goods. In one of these visita- tions, the Spanish captain, though he found nothing to seize, wantonly tore off the ear of the English ship-master, Jenkins by name, and told him to carry it to King George, with the message that, had the Spaniards caught His Majesty, they would have served him in the same way. The story of this outrage raised a storm of indignation in England; and Wal- pole, against his will, was forced into a war, which was de- clared in 1739. Porto Bello, a Spanish trading post on the Isthmus of Darien, was taken by the English; but their assault on the still more important post of Cartagena was repulsed with great loss. 413. This colonial contest was soon merged in the general War of the Austrian Succession (A. D. 1 740-1 748). The Emperor Charles VI., having no son, wished to secure all his hereditary dominions to his daughter, Maria Theresa, and had persuaded most of the governments of Europe to guarantee his Pragmatic Sanction to this end. Upon his death, the Archduchess was proclaimed and accepted as sovereign of Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, etc. ; but the Bourbons, both in France and Spain, sustained the preten- sions of her cousin, the Elector of Bavaria, who was elected emperor as Charles VII. Frederic the Great, King of Prussia, began hostilities by seizing the province of Silesia, part of which had been in dispute between his ancestors and the Austrian rulers. Eng- land alone stood by her agreement with the Emperor, and 222 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1743. steadily supported his daughter. Parliament voted liberal supplies; and the King himself, with his son, the Duke of Cumberland, took an active part in the war. Both were present in the battle of Dettingen, June 27, 1743, where their hard-won victory drove the French out of Germany. 414. The King's partiality for his German subjects of- fended the English, who saw their country reduced to a mere province of Hanover. The French took advantage of their discontent, and of the absence of George II. from his kingdom, to plan an invasion of Great Britain by Charles Edward Stuart, grandson of James II. His father (§ 406) had lost what little spirit he ever possessed, and contented himself with issuing a proclamation from Rome, in which he appointed his son Regent of England during his absence ! The first attempt was defeated by a tempest which wrecked the French fleet, and destroyed a great part of the army de- signed for the invasion. In 1745, however, the young ad- venturer again embarked, and landed in Scotland with only seven attendants. His weapons of war had been lost in the passage. The French had grown cold in his cause, but the romantic loyalty of the Scots led several chiefs and their clans to join him to the number of 1,500 men. They took the town of Edinburgh by surprise, proclaimed "King James the Eighth," and held a grand ball at Holyrood Palace in honor of his accession. 415. At Prestonpans a victory was gained over the Eng- lish, with the capture of a train of artillery, which the "Young Pretender" greatly needed. He was soon master of all Scotland, except the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling, and a few forts in the Highlands. The French, now believ- ing in his success, sent him arms and money, and he was ready for the invasion of England. He advanced as far as Derby, and nothing apparently prevented his march on Lon- don. Shops were closed; business suspended; and a great panic of terror seized the people of the capital, while their A. D. 1756.] BATTLE OF CULLODEN. 223 King, who had now returned, began to embark his treasures for a flight to the Continent. But the Pretender was disappointed of any great accessions in England, while a royal fleet cruising in the Channel pre- vented an invasion from France. Forces double or treble his own in numbers began to gather around him, and reluc- tantly he fell back on Glasgow. The dashing bravery of his Highlanders won him a victory near Falkirk; but all his hopes were crushed by the sudden and complete rout of his forces at Culloden Moor, near Inverness. After wandering five months in hardship and peril, the Young Pretender made his escape over seas. The victorious Duke of Cumberland exacted a terrible vengeance from the Scots, and his brutalities fixed upon him the unenviable name of "the Butcher." 416. Meanwhile, affairs on the Continent had changed by the death of the Emperor Charles VII., and the election of Maria Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, to wear the crown of Charlemagne. The war went on with vigor, not only in Europe but on the sea and in North America, where Louisbourg, on Cape Breton Island, was taken by a force from Massachusetts. But England grew tired of a war in which the greatest expense and the least profit fell to her share, while sheer exhaustion drove the other powers to make peace. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle all conquests were restored. To provide for British soldiers and sailors, now discharged from service, a colony was formed in Nova Scotia, with the new town of Halifax for its capital. Free passage, fifty acres of land to each settler, and exemption from taxes for ten years, were the inducements to emigrate. 417. A new war broke out in 1755, known in Europe as the "Seven Years' War," but in America as the "French and Indian War." England was now allied with Prussia, while Maria Theresa had France, Spain, Saxony, and Russia 224 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1757. upon her side. The French made haste to seize Minorca (§ 404) before the British could reinforce it. The govern- ment as then constituted was indeed so weak, or so blind to the indications of danger, that, on the eve of a universal war, Great Britain had barely three regiments fit for the field, while the navy was almost equally inefficient. So great was the popular indignation in England at the loss of the "key to the Mediterranean," that Admiral Byng, the unfortunate commander of a small and ill-equipped relief fleet, was brought to trial and shot — though acquitted of either treachery or cowardice — for not having defeated the French. When passion had cooled, it was felt that the brave Admiral had suffered for the fault of the ministry, and the Duke of Newcastle was forced to resign. William Pitt, the ' ' Great Commoner," now came into power; and his energetic spirit was soon felt, infusing vigor into British movements in every quarter of the globe. 418. The hero of this war was Frederic the Great, who had all continental Europe leagued against him; but his wonderful military genius could not have gained the day without the firm friendship and generous subsidies of Pitt. The Duke of Cumberland had been driven from Hanover by the French, and, in the Convention of Kloster Seven, agreed to disband his army. Deserted thus by his only ally, Frederic was almost driven to despair ; but his brilliant vic- tories of Rossbach and Leuthen retrieved his fortunes ; while Mr. Pitt, then just come to the head of the British govern- ment, refused to confirm the "Convention," and sent a fresh army into Germany. 419. In America, the French, who had settlements on the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, desired to unite these dis- tant posts by a chain of forts in the rear of the English col- onies, while they stirred up the native savages, who were usually their allies, to fall upon the defenseless villages of New England. Pitt's strong hand was felt in American A. D. 1760.] BRITISH INDIA. 225 forests no less than on German battle-fields. Fort Duquesne, at the junction of the two branches which form the Ohio, was taken by a colonial force, and received the name of Pittsburgh, in honor of the great min- ister. Forts Niagara and Ticonderoga were taken the next year, while the still greater conquest of Quebec was made by Gen. Wolfe. 420. In India, yet more brilliant and important victories led to the foundation of a great British Empire. ( See Sketch Map of Hindustan, p. 258.) The East India Company pos- sessed, at the beginning of the war, only the three trading stations of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, each guarded by a small fort. The remarkable genius of Robert Clive, a poor clerk of the Company, had been shown in the capture and defense of Arcot against the French and their Hindu allies; and still more signally in his vengeance upon the Surajah Dowlah, Viceroy of Bengal. This brutal wretch, in June, 1756, seized Calcutta, and thrust one hundred and fifty English captives into a dungeon so small that nearly all perished in agonies of thirst and suffo- cation during a single night. Clive, with only 1,000 English and 2,000 native troops, recaptured Calcutta, and inflicted on Surajah Dowlah and his 64,000 Asiatics a complete and ruin- ous defeat. The successors of Dowlah ceded to the English all the land between Calcutta and the sea, and the petty trad- ing post grew into the magnificent capital of British India. 421. The great Mogul, or Mongol, Empire in Hindustan was now crumbling, and its twenty-one provinces were nearly independent. By taking part in the ceaseless rivalries and contentions between these several states, the British acquired controlling influence and then absolute power, until, in the course of a century, the whole vast peninsula from the Himalayas to the southernmost point of Ceylon, was either tributary or immediately subject to their sway. The French — who had first conceived the idea of building up a European 226 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1760. empire on the ruins of the Mogul, and who had first taken the necessary step of training native soldiers to serve under European officers — were driven from all their conquests. In 1760, King George II. suddenly died; and as his eldest son, Frederic, had preceded him, he was followed on the throne by his grandson, George the Third. RECAPITULATION. Elector of Hanover becomes King of Great Britain. James Stuart invades Scotland without success. Alliance of English King and French Regent to oppose strict hereditary succession. Great Britain under George I. and George II. a "province of Hanover." Multi- tudes made poor by the South Sea Scheme. Accession of George II. Affair of Jenkins's ear leads to war with Spain. In War of the Aus- trian Succession, England takes part with Maria Theresa ; gains battle of Dettingen. Invasion of Great Britain by the Young Pretender, aided by the French. His success in Scotland; failure in England; rout at Culloden. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends War of Austrian Succession. In Seven Years' War, Great Britain and Prussia are allied against all Europe. Loss of Minorca; execution of Admiral Byng. Pitt becomes Prime Minister. Brilliant victories of Frederic the Great. Capture of principal French forts in North America. Foundation of British Empire in India. Accession of George III. II. REIGN OF GEORGE III. A Hessian and Officer. HREE kings, Henry, Edward, and George, each the third of his name, have had the longest reigns in English his- tory ; and of these reigns, the longest and most eventful is the one upon which we are now to enter (A. D. 1760- 1820). Unlike his two pred- ecessors, George III. was born and educated in England ; and in his opening address to Par- liament he declared that he "gloried in the name of Briton." The bitter feeling between Hanoverians and Jac- obites had now died out, and some of the chief adherents of the Stuarts accepted places in the young King's house- hold. 423. The war would soon have ended but for a new "Family Compact" of the three Bourbon sovereigns in France, Spain, and Naples. Mr. Pitt, who had the earliest intelligence of this treaty, wished to strike the first blow against Spain by seizing her supplies of gold and silver on their way from her American colonies. But the King, who hated Pitt, rejected his advice, and the Minister resigned. His place was filled by the Earl of Bute, a favorite and obe- dient tool of the King. Pitt's foresight was justified; for war was declared against Spain, in January, 1762; and British (227) 228 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1762. squadrons, sailing to opposite sides of the globe, captured Havana in Cuba with all the Caribbee Islands, and the Philippines, as well as many richly laden vessels. British arms being every-where triumphant, propositions were again made for a peace ; and the Seven Years' War was closed by a treaty signed at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. France ceded to Great Britain all her settlements on the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, and gave back Minorca in exchange for Belleisle, a little island on her own coast which had been captured by the English. England restored Havana and the Philippine Islands to Spain, in exchange for Florida. 424. The peace, though confirmed by Parliament, was odious to the British people ; and the startling fact now came to light that the House of Commons had ceased to represent the nation. Boroughs were constantly bought and sold by great landholders; so that at one time the Duke of New- castle appointed one-third of all the country members of the House. Since the last apportionment of representatives, some boroughs, like Old Sarum, had lost their last inhab- itant — the seat in Parliament continuing to be filled, as a matter of course, by some neighboring squire ; while great towns, like Manchester and Birmingham, had risen with the growth of trade and manufactures, but had no representatives at all. In 8,000,000 of English people, only 160,000 had the right to vote. 425. The public opinion, thus shut out of Parliament, found its true representation in the press, and newspapers now began to constitute a "Fourth Estate" which is some- times more powerful than all the rest. John Wilkes, in his journal, the North Briton, denounced the peace A. D. 1763. J ' ' i and attacked the minister; and Lord Bute, though supported by King, Lords, and Commons, had to yield to the storm of popular fury and resign his place. Wilkes was a bad man, but the unjust prosecution and imprisonment to which he was subjected by the Court, made him the repre- A. D. 1764.] THE AMERICAN COLONIES. 229 sentative, though unworthy, of three great principles of English freedom. Since his time, no man has been arrested on a "general warrant"; the need of parliamentary reform has been admitted, and the suffrage extended; while news- papers have enjoyed the fullest liberty to criticise the acts of the government. 426. Under the ministry of Grenville, who succeeded Bute, events occurred of immense importance both to England and America. The English colonies on the Atlantic coast had now grown into thirteen states, containing about two millions of white people and half a million of negroes, mostly slaves. All except Connecticut had governors appointed by the King ; but each had also a "House of Assembly" elected by the people. The mother-country had first despised and neglected these obscure states in the wilderness, then had grown proud of their prosperity, and then jealous of their power. They were permitted no trade except with English ports ; and their manufactures were forbidden to grow beyond a certain meas- 'ure, lest they should compete with those of the parent-land. 427. The war which so greatly increased the foreign pos- sessions of England, had borne heavily upon her colonies in America. The savage natives, always treacherous and cruel, had been stirred up to fierce hostility by the French, and had fallen on many exposed settlements, burning, plundering, or murdering whatever came within their reach. The colo- nists felt, therefore, that they had sustained their full share of the expenses and exposures of the war. Grenville deter- mined, however, to extend to the American provinces a stamp tax, which had already been imposed upon the three king- doms. The Americans replied that no burden could be laid upon them by a Parliament in which they were not repre- sented; but that if the King would intimate what sum they were expected to contribute to his service, the House of Assembly in each colony would deliberate upon the matter, precisely as was done by the Commons at home. 230 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1765. 428. The passage of the "Stamp Act" caused a deep and painful excitement in the colonies. Virginia took the lead in remonstrance ; and a Congress of representatives from all the colonies met at New York to protest against " tax- Oct., 1765. . r . ° ation without representation." Yielding partly to the popular feeling, a new ministry in 1766 repealed the Stamp Act, but, at the same time, reasserted the supremacy of Par- liament "in all cases whatsoever." To enforce this principle, a slight tax was imposed in America, the following year, on tea, glass, paper, and painters' colors. Pitt — soon created Earl of Chatham and placed at the head of the ministry — was a firm friend of the colonies and opponent of taxation; but illness withdrew him from public life, and after some other changes, Lord North became prime minister. All the duties were repealed, except a petty tax of three pence per pound on tea; but this contained the whole principle for which the colonists were contending. American ladies leagued themselves to abstain from the use of the article, and a number of Bostonians even went on board the tea-ships by night and threw the whole cargo into the water, destroying property worth, perhaps, $90,000. Similar cargoes arriving at Charleston, Philadelphia, and New York, were either detained in store-houses or sent back to England. 429. Boston was punished by an embargo, and all her port privileges were transferred to Salem, while the charter of Massachusetts was annulled. The best men in the colo- nies were now alarmed. A general Congress at Philadelphia claimed for the colonists all the liberties of Englishmen, and suspended commerce with the mother-country until redress of grievances was guaranteed. Addresses were voted to their fellow-colonists of Canada, to the people of Great Britain, and to the King; and another Congress was called to meet in May, 1775. 430. A British force of 10,000 men was soon concentrated A. D. 1776.] WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 231 at Boston, and the first battle, or skirmish, in the War of American Independence was fought at Lexington, Massa- chusetts, April 19, 1775. A party of the British, who had destroyed some stores at Concord, were pursued and routed by the colonial militia with great loss. Gen. Gage was block- aded in Boston by 20,000 colonial troops. The forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were seized, and the key to Canada was thus secured. The battle of Bunker Hill re- sulted in the dislodgment of the Americans from that strong position ; but their brave resistance, and the severe loss they inflicted on the British, made it a moral victory. The Congress now in session at Philadelphia appointed Gen. George Washington to command the colonial forces, and took measures for raising both men and money for the war. Their petition to the King, desiring peace and recon- ciliation, was contemptuously rejected, and he expressed publicly to Parliament his determination to put down the rebellion by force. 431. Detachments of the British fleet burned Norfolk in Virginia and Portland in Maine. An invasion of Canada during the winter of 1775, '76, proved the spirit and endur- ance of the colonists, but failed to draw the Canadians into the War of Independence. It might have been thought that the French colonists on the north and the Spaniards on the south (§ 423), who had been only eight years subject to Great Britain, would have been among the first to throw off her yoke; but they were less thoroughly educated in the principles of civil freedom than were the descendants of those who won Magna Charta and the Bill of Rights, or who conducted the great revolutions of the seventeenth century in England. 432. The colonial leaders, who had begun as loyal sub- jects, with only a request for just government, were compelled by the King's violence to become the founders of an independent republic. Their Declaration 232 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1776. detailed the wrongs inflicted on the colonists; and having reaffirmed the principle (§ 339) that "governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed," as- serted that ' ' these colonies are, and of right ought to be, independent states." The paper was signed by all the members of Congress, and approved by the several state governments. 433. A few days later, Lord Howe arrived in New York Bay with fresh forces, — many of them German mercenaries, — but also with full powers to treat for peace. To this end he addressed a letter to " G. Washington, Esq." The General returned it unopened, with the remark that, as a private person, he held no communication with the enemies of his country. A committee appointed by Congress to treat with Howe declared that peace was now impossible, except upon the basis of American independence. 434. The defeat of the American army on Long Island threw New York open to the British, and they held that im- portant city until the end of the war. The Americans were driven west of the Delaware, while the British and Hessian troops dispersed themselves in winter quarters in the Jerseys ; but Washington, by a sudden and brilliant movement, sur- prised them at Princeton and drove them almost wholly from the state. The aim of the British was to gain the Hudson River, and separate the Eastern from the Middle and South- ern States. This was nearly accomplished by the treason of Benedict Arnold, who agreed to deliver up West Point. The messenger of Lord Howe was fortunately captured before the surrender could take place. 435. Gen. Burgoyne was charged with a more difficult and honorable part in the undertaking. He advanced from Canada; but he was surrounded by superior numbers near Saratoga, and was forced to surrender his entire command. This was the turning point in the American Revolution. The French government soon after- A. D. 1781.] SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 233 ward acknowledged the independence of the United States, and entered with them into a treaty of commerce and alliance. Spain and Holland followed the example of France; while the northern nations proclaimed an "Armed Neutrality," which enabled them to supply the colonists with warlike stores. Spain besieged Gibraltar; the French fleets captured some of the British West India Islands; and the Spaniards made prizes of English vessels laden with treasure from both sides of the globe. 436. The war, which had at first been popular in England, was now becoming odious. The King's arbitrary temper alarmed his subjects at home, who began to feel that the colonists had only maintained the common rights of English- men against the tyranny of the crown. Lord North was now ready, though too late, to yield all the original demands. He disavowed the right of Parliament to tax the colonies. A bill was introduced into Parliament recommending peace at any price, even to the acknowledgment of American independence. Lord Chatham, though prostrated by illness, made one last effort to oppose this measure, which he re- garded as a dismemberment of the British Empire at the bidding of France. He spoke with his old eloquence; but his dying powers were too severely taxed, and he fell into convulsions from which he never recovered. 437. The last decisive action of the war in America was the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, with his whole . . . . Oct., 1781. army, at Yorktown in Virginia, though peace was not concluded until more than a year later. The British navy, meanwhile, gained victories over Dutch and French fleets in several quarters of the globe ; but Minorca was lost, and an attempt upon the Dutch settlements in South Africa failed. The most brilliant victory was that of Admiral Rod- ney over the French fleet of the Count de Grasse, which was threatening Jamaica. Gibraltar withstood a three years' siege by French and Spanish forces, until the hungry garrison were Eng. — 20. 234 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1782. compelled to feed on roots and mosses, when it was relieved by Lord Howe. 438. Lord North's administration of twelve years was now ended, and a Whig ministry accepted power only on condition of peace with America. In November, 1782, a treaty was signed at Versailles by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of her late colonies between the St. Croix and the St. John. In the January following, peace was concluded with France and Spain, and, a few months later, with Holland. All conquests were restored, except that France kept Tobago and the forts on the Senegal in Africa, while Spain gained Florida and Minorca. The war with her colonies added ^£100,000,000 to the debt of Great Britain. The separation was a mutual benefit. Commerce with the free United States has added far more to British wealth than all possible taxation of the colonies could have done; and community of language, literature, religion, and domestic habits is a better bond of friendship than forced allegiance. RECAPITULATION. Reunion of Whigs and Tories under George III. Bute succeeds Pitt as prime minister. End of Seven Years' War. England gains all British America from France, and Florida from Spain. House of Commons failing to represent public opinion in England, newspapers become powerful. Prosecution of Wilkes for attacks upon the govern- ment. Defeat of the ministry. Growth of American colonies ; restriction of their trade and manu- factures ; their sufferings from French and Indian War. Resistance to "taxation without representation." Boston punished for her "tea- party " ; is occupied by a British army. Remonstrances of Congress. Blockade of British in Boston. Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. Declaration of American Independence. New York occupied by Brit- ish, who fail to seize the Hudson through Andre's capture and Bur- goyne's defeat. France, Spain, and Holland become allies of the United States. Surrender of Cornwallis and end of the war. III. WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. George III. in his Old Age. OON after the American war, William Pitt, second son of Lord Chatham, came to the head of the ministry. The impeachment of Warren Hast- ings for misrule and extortion in s India, recalls our attention to that rich and populous country. The English rulers were doubtless far less cruel and extortionate than the native princes; but the Company's servants amassed enormous for- tunes; and even Clive, notwith- standing his great services, was subjected at home to an inquiry which drove him to despair and suicide. Warren Hastings was the first Governor-general of India, — the two presidencies of Madras and Bombay being now made subject to that of Bengal, of which Calcutta was the capital (§ 420). 440. His prudent and energetic conduct during the war with France had increased the power and wealth of the Company; but his treatment of the natives — for example, his loan of British regiments to one of the worst of Hindu tyrants, for the conquest of the free Rohillas, and his rob- bery of the princesses of Oude — was often cruel and unjust. He, too, was brought to trial before the bar of the House of Lords, and impeached by the great orator, Edmund Burke, of "high crimes and misdemeanors." The trial lasted seven years. Hastings was at last acquitted. It was proved that the directors at home were chiefly respon- sible for his extortions, through their ceaseless demand for (235) Feb., 1786. 236 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1789. large remittances, even when the treasury was drained by costly wars. By the motion of Mr. Pitt, a Board of Control was appointed for Indian affairs, which greatly limited the power of the Company. 441. The great Revolution which broke out in France in 1789, became the occasion of wars in which all Europe was involved. The British people, proud of their own freedom, rejoiced at first in the prospect of their neighbors' emancipa- tion; and the most hopeful spirits prophesied a universal reign of peace and brotherly love to spring from the over- throw of oppression. The French people regarded the trial and execution of Charles I. (§ 342) as models for their own proceedings against Louis XVI. But the resemblance was only external. The English revolutions of 1648 and 1688 were conducted with strict respect to law and public order; the French revolution was disgraced by horrid scenes of bloodshed and sacrilege. The French declared themselves brothers and allies of all who desired the overthrow of monarchy; and the European sovereigns soon combined their forces to suppress so danger- ous an example to their own subjects. Great Britain, as usual, furnished men and money to the continental cam- paigns, while her fleets attacked the French possessions in the East and West Indies. 442. In 1794, the French armies overran the Austrian Netherlands, which then constituted themselves the Belgian Republic. Holland, too, was conquered, and its stadtholder, with many nobles, took refuge in England. Before many years, the French Directory had raised up a group of sister republics, — the Batavian, Belgian, Ligurian, Venetian, and Parthenopeian, — and desired also to place a "Hibernian Republic" in the rear of England. A formidable body of armed insurgents, known as the "United Irishmen," awaited the arrival of a French army to cast off the British yoke and proclaim the Republic. But the combined French and Bata- A. D. 1801.] NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 237 vian fleets were defeated off Camperdown, — the French and Spanish, off Cape St. Vincent; so that, foreign help failing, the Irish insurrection was easily put down. The massacres on both sides which attended this unhappy rebellion, rekindled religious enmities which have not even yet subsided. The leaders were hanged; a wretched crowd of the populace were shot down at Vinegar Hill, near Ennis- corthy. A French force arrived too late, and surrendered with all its arms. A fleet laden with ammunition and fresh troops was captured shortly afterward. 443. To prevent future French intrigues and domestic re- bellions, it was now resolved to unite Ireland more closely with England, as Scotland had been united nearly a century before (§ 4^02). Thirty-two Irish lords and one hundred commoners were added to the British Parlia- Jan., 1801. ment. George III. at the same time abandoned his empty title of "King of France," and dropped the lilies from his shield. 444. It is impossible here to relate the marvelous career of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, from a penniless student at Brienne, raised himself to be not only the ablest general, but the almost absolute autocrat, of Europe. Great Britain was the only power that constantly resisted him. From Naples to the frontiers of Denmark, the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts were all subject to his power in 1808. Antwerp and Flushing were his great naval depots; Rome was the second city of his empire, which rivaled the glories of Augustus and Charlemagne. 445. Napoleon's first great victories were over Italy and Austria ; his second enterprise was the conquest of Egypt, as a means of attacking the British Empire in the East. But his fleet was destroyed by Admiral Nelson in the battle of the Nile; and his invasion of Syria was defeated by the gallant resistance of Sir Sidney Smith and a small English and Turkish force in Acre. Returning almost alone to France, 238 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1802. Bonaparte dissolved the Directory as summarily as Cromwell had dismissed the Long Parliament (§ 353), and was ap- pointed First Consul, with two colleagues. The French army was dislodged from Egypt by a British force under Gen. Abercrombie; and the invaluable collection of mss. and antiquities, made with great zeal and labor by the French savans, were appropriated to the British Museum. The previous autumn, the small but important island of Malta was surrendered to the English fleet, which thus gained complete control of the Mediterranean Sea. 446. A short peace followed the Treaty of Amiens between France and England ; still both parties distrusted each other, and continued their preparations. War was suddenly re- newed in 1802. Two hundred French or Dutch vessels were seized in British ports; and, by way of retaliation, 10,000 British travelers or commercial residents were de- tained in France. A French army seized Hanover; but the Dutch and French colonies in the West Indies fell into English hands. Grand preparations were made by Napoleon for an inva- sion of England. An army of 100,000 men was encamped at Boulogne, and an immense fleet of war and transport vessels was ready to convey them across the narrow sea. "Let us be masters of the Channel for six hours," said the First Consul, "and we are masters of the world." His deeply laid scheme was foiled, however, by the energy and skill of Mr. Pitt, who again became prime minister in 1804. He succeeded in leaguing Russia, Austria, and Sweden with Great Britain against Bonaparte ; and, for the two remaining years of his life, his strong hand was felt in every department of the service. 447. In 1804, Napoleon became "Emperor of the French"; and, the next year, won some of his most surprising victories over the Austrians and Russians at Ulm and Austerlitz. Aus- tria had to make peace, with the surrender of her most ancient A. D. 1807.] IV A R WITH NAPOLEON. 239 possessions and her last foot-hold in Italy, while by losing her only port, Trieste, she became an inland and second-rate power. England was consoled for the defeat of her allies by a naval victory won by Nelson off Trafalgar, — the last act of the great Admiral's life. He had re- tired from the service by reason of ill health, when a crisis with Spain led him to volunteer his services, which were gladly accepted. His last signal to the fleet was, "England expects every man to do his duty." As soon as it was read at his mast-head, a deafening shout all along the line declared every man's acceptance of the appeal. Struck by a ball, the Admiral drew his cloak about him that he might not be recognized, and the battle went on three hours while he lay in his death-agony. Learning, at last, that a complete vic- tory had been gained, and exclaiming, ' ' Thank God, I have done my duty!" the hero's soul departed. 448. England's greatest minister did not long survive him. Mr. Pitt died Jan., 1806; and a new ministry was formed by a union of all parties, Mr. Fox, Pitt's chief rival, being Foreign Secretary. He had been a friend to the French Revolution, and an opponent of the war. His efforts at conciliation were, nevertheless, in vain. He, too, died in September, 1806. Napoleon, meanwhile, had defeated Russia and Prussia in his celebrated northern campaign : all Germany lay prostrate at his feet, and he established himself in triumph at Berlin. Thence he issued a decree which was meant to annihilate British commerce, and thus destroy that "power of the purse" by which England had been able to maintain her ascendency in Europe. He forbade the entry of British goods into any continental port. The English ministry had provoked this act by declaring all the ports from Dantzic to Trieste closed to all vessels but their own; and their retalia- tory orders in Council now renewed this "paper blockade." 240 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.. [A. D. 1807. Napoleon retorted by his Milan Decree, subjecting to seizure all vessels that should submit to these orders. 449. The Czar now made peace and friendship with Napo- eon ; and by a secret article in the Treaty of Tilsit, placed his own fleet, with those of Sweden and Denmark, which he could well control, at the service of his ally. Without waiting for a declaration of war by Denmark, the British ministry ordered a bombardment of Copenhagen, which lasted three days and resulted in a surrender of the city with its enormous fleet and two or three thousand pieces of artillery. All these movables were carried off to England. The island of Heligoland was retained as a depot for British goods, which were secretly introduced into the Continent. After this, the Danes naturally enough declared a war against England, which cost them their West Indian possessions of Santa Croce, St. Thomas, and St. Johns. 450. The seizure of Spain and Portugal by Napoleon drew England into the Peninsular War, of which the principal hero is Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward made Marquis and Duke of Wellington. The fortunes of the Spanish Bourbons were now in the hands of the imbecile Charles IV., his worthless Queen, and their favorite minister Godoy, a man more able, but also, if possible, more basely wicked than either. Napo- leon had persuaded Charles to sell his kingdom for a palace and a pension, and proceeded to bestow the splendid prize upon his own brother Joseph. The high-spirited Spaniards did not choose to be thus "bartered away like a flock of sheep"; they formed at Seville a "Supreme Junta of Spain and the Indies," pro- claimed Ferdinand VII., the eldest son of Charles, to be their king, and applied for aid to the British officers at Gib- raltar. The events of the war can not be detailed here. Wonderful genius was displayed on both sides; but the steady determination of the English general, though little helped and often hindered by his Spanish allies, was at A. D. x8n.] LAST YEARS OF GEORGE 111, 1\\ length triumphant; and Ferdinand VII., as dull a despot as most of his predecessors, was firmly established at Madrid. 45I. In 1 8 10, the mind of George III.) never strong or clear, gave way under the strain of public duties, and he fell into that sad condition — blind, deaf, and insane — in which he spent the last ten years of his long and eventful life. His eldest son, as Prince Regent, was placed at the head of the government. RECAPITULATION. Ministry of the younger Pitt. Impeachment of Warren Hastings for extortion in India. Wars of the French Revolution. French Republic declares itself the "friend of all peoples, but the enemy of all governments." By its conquests, Holland, Belgium, and the terri- tories surrounding Genoa, Venice, and Naples become republics. Similar attempts in Ireland defeated. Union of Ireland with Great Britain. Napoleon becomes First Consul, afterward Emperor, of the French, and dictator of Europe. Peace of Amiens abruptly ended by embargo on French vessels in Britain, and detention of British subjects in France. Victory and death of Nelson at Trafalgar. Death of Pitt and Fox. Napoleon's "Continental System" attempts to destroy British commerce. Bombardment and capture of Copenhagen. In Peninsular War, British forces under Wellington are ultimately victo- rious. Insanity of George III. ; regency of his son. Eng. — 21. IV. THE REGENCY (A. D. 1811— 1820). Napoleon at St. Helena. OT content with having all Europe for her enemies, England, by insist- ing upon her right to board their vessels of war in search of her run- away sailors, had stirred up the hos- tility of the United States. "Once a Briton, always a Briton," was her maxim; and the multitudes of emi- grants who had adopted America as their home were still claimed as subjects of King George. The war of 1 81 2 sprang immediately from the commercial warfare of decrees and embargoes with the French (§448). Napoleon, in 181 1, made exceptions in his Berlin and Milan decrees in favor of the Americans; but the British Orders in Council were enforced upon American ships until after the declaration of war. 453. The United States began without a navy; but so rapidly was this arm of the service developed, that during the first year of the war more than fifty armed vessels, and five times as many merchantmen, with 3,000 prisoners and an immense amount of plunder, were taken from the British. The ocean swarmed with American privateers; and from the vast forests of the interior, fleets were constructed which gained the victories of Lakes Erie and Champlain. Three invasions of Canada, however, were repulsed with heavy loss; and the American Gen. Hull, pursued in his retreat, even surrendered Detroit, and the surrounding country as far as Chicago, to the British Gen. Brock. (242) A. D. 1815.] BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 243 454. A force of 4,000 English, landing in the Potomac, captured Washington and burned the public buildings with their libraries and archives. A subsequent attempt upon New Orleans failed through the energetic management of Gen. Andrew Jackson. This was the last action of the war. Already, though unknown to the combatants, for steamers and ocean telegraphs did not yet exist, articles of peace had been signed at Ghent; and the "Last War with Great Britain" — may it forever be the last! — was ended. 455. The turning point in Napoleon's career was his in- vasion of Russia in 181 2. In that terrible march and still more dreadful retreat, his iron will was vanquished by more than human forces. Although he reached the heart of the great Empire, the flames which enwrapped his head-quarters at Moscow proved the undaunted spirit of the people. More than nine-tenths of his grand army were victims of frost or fire, food for cannon, or swallowed by the icy rivers. In the campaigns of the next three years, Napoleon's genius shone brighter than ever, but the spell of his ascendancy was broken. The tide of war rolled inward upon Paris; he was conquered, and compelled to accept the little island of Elba in exchange for a great empire. 456. He returned in a few months almost alone to France, but on his march from the Mediterranean to Paris was joined by thousands of his old soldiers, and reigned for a Hundred Days with his usual energy. But Wellington, now the con- queror of Spain, met him at Waterloo; and on Belgian battle-fields the fates of Napoleon and of Europe were decided. British and Prussian steadiness carried the day against the magnificent rush and valor of the French. Napoleon was a fugitive. He threw himself upon the generosity of the English Prince Regent, which proved a broken reed; and the victor of a hundred battles was doomed to die, like a lion in a cage, upon the barren rock of St. Helena. 244 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1814. 457. Louis XVIII, brother of the guillotined king (§44 I )> received the French crown. A congress of the Great Powers at Paris resettled the boundaries of Europe, and a "Holy Alliance" bound the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia to aid each other in putting down all liberal move- ments in their respective countries. Although professing to promote religion and paternal government, the Alliance was but a scheme of absolutism, and the Prince Regent, by the advice of his best councilors, refused to join it. 458. By the twenty years' war, thus victoriously ended, Great Britain had incurred a debt of four thousand millions of dollars. The burden of the yearly interest bore heavily upon every rank in society, but chiefly upon the industrious working classes, and the merchants whose business was sud- denly curtailed by the close of the war. The enormous in- crease of manufactures had more than supplied the demand; many thousands of laborers were thrown out of employment. The application of steam to manufactures, though ultimately, no doubt, a benefit to the workingmen, had crushed a multi- tude of small industries, and made paupers of a most worthy class of people. The Corn Laws, moreover, prohibiting the importation of foreign grains, raised the price of food, and dangerous riots occurred near Manchester and other large towns. Lord Castlereagh's ministry both despised and feared the common people, and their stern and cruel measures of re- pression embittered the discontents. Assemblies of the peo- ple, unless especially authorized by the government, were declared to be high treason, and private citizens were for- bidden to possess fire-arms or to be drilled in their use. 459. The Prince Regent had forfeited the respect of the nation by his dissolute life, and by his cruelty to his consort, the unhappy Caroline of Brunswick, whom he at length banished from his home. Their only child, the Princess Charlotte, was the idol of the nation; but she died soon A. D. 1820.] DEATH OF GEORGE III. 245 after her marriage with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, and the inheritance of the British crown passed to the younger sons of George III. The poor old king died Jan. 29, 1820, still under the cloud which for ten years had darkened his mind (§451). His obstinate temper, his narrowness and bigotry, had all been forgotten in pity for his great calamity; while his love for pure and simple pleasures, his faithfulness to wife and children, were admired by a home-loving people, all the more for their contrast with the heartless and selfish prodigality of his son, who spent $600,000 a year of his starving people's money on his own pleasures, and then demanded three and a quarter millions more to pay his debts. RECAPITULATION. War between England and the United States grows out of "Right of Search." Successes of Americans on the sea. Their failures in Can- ada and surrender of Detroit. City of Washington burnt. Defeat of British at New Orleans. Peace is signed at Ghent. Napoleon's dis- aster and exile at Elba. His return and final defeat at Waterloo ; is held prisoner by British at St. Helena. England declines to join the Holy Alliance. Her people are burdened with debt. Severity of Lord Castlereagh's government. Death of the Princess Charlotte, and of her grandfather the king. V. GEORGE IV.— WILLIAM IV. f3^jHE early years of George IV.'s reign (A. D. 1820 — 1830) were signalized by the accession of two very able ministers, Robert Peel and George Canning, to the sovereign's councils. Canning's liberal policy was shown in the relief of Roman Catholics from many of the disadvantages un- der which the laws had placed them. All danger of papal tyranny over English sailors. England had long passed away; and generous people felt it a disgrace that any of their fellow-sub- jects should suffer for religious beliefs. The Emancipation was not accomplished, however, until after Mr. Canning's death in 1827. The oath of the King's supremacy over the Church was replaced by an oath which Romanists were able to take; and all offices, excepting the sovereignty or regency of the United Kingdom, and the Chancellorship, were thrown open on equal terms. Daniel O'Connell, the Irish " Agi- tator," now took his seat in the House of Commons. 461. The principal foreign operations of Great Britain during this reign were the protection of Portugal, a close commercial ally, from the aggressions of Spain; the acknowl- edgment of the independence of all the Spanish colonies in North and South America, and aid rendered to the Greeks in their war against Turkey. The combined squadrons of Russia, France, and England defeated the Turco-Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino; and after four centuries of servitude, Greece became an independent kingdom, under the protection of the Great Powers. (246) A. D. 1832.] PARLIAMENTARY REFORM. 247 462. George IV. died in 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of Clarence. William IV. was sixty-five years of asre at his accession. He rejoiced in 3 , & , r _ . . . .. A. D. 1830— 1837. the character and manners of a British sailor; walked about the streets unattended, with an umbrella under his arm, and talked in the uncourtly language of the fore- castle. But he was a better man than his brother; and Queen Adelaide's influence restored order and purity to the palace. 463. The year of William's accession was marked by sev- eral peaceful revolutions in Europe. Charles X. of France, having violated the freedom of the press and the rights of his people, had to abandon his throne and become the guest of the British sovereign at Holyrood Palace. His kinsman, Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, became "King of the French." Belgium separated itself from Holland, and chose Prince Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, to be its king (§ 459). A still more peaceful and constitutional change was going on in England under the name of Parliamentary reform (§ 424). A new and able ministry, with Earl Grey at its head, and Lords Brougham, Derby, Palmerston, and John Russell among its members, entered upon office fully pledged to this most just and necessary measure. 464. There was a strong Tory opposition, and stormy de- bates went on for a year and a half. The excitement was greatest in the manufacturing towns, — centers of wealth and tax-paying industry, but of only recent importance, and therefore unjustly excluded from any share in the gov- ernment. Two hundred thousand artisans were ready to march from Birmingham to London and make their power felt by the Parliament. The King at last signed the Bill. Fifty-six "pocket boroughs" were abolished; and 143 seats, thus vacated, were redistributed among the large towns. The right to vote was also extended to all persons owning prop- erty or paying rent to a certain limited amount. 248 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1833. 465. The first reformed House of Commons had an over- whelming liberal majority; and timid people began to fear that the rising tide of reform would sweep away the aristoc- racy, the Church, and all that they held sacred. But Sir Robert Peel, at the head of the Tory — now more properly called the Conservative — party, did much to convert the higher classes from blind and bigoted opponents of all prog- ress, into steadfast adherents of justice under old forms and new. Among the noblest acts of the new Parliament was the abolition of slavery in all the British possessions. Clark- son and Wilberforce, whose humane efforts in 1807 had put an end to the African slave-trade, lived just long enough to know the complete triumph of their cause. Though Great Britain was still heavily burdened with taxes, the Commons voted ^20,000,000 to compensate West Indian owners for the liberation of nearly 800,000 slaves; and though their sugar-trade has been greatly reduced by the change, the nation at large has never grudged the sacrifice. The first day of August, 1834, was the birth-day of freedom in all the colonies. 466. A great improvement in the Poor Laws afforded some relief to the frightful evils of pauperism, while it gave freedom to honest labor. The Law of Settlement had hith- erto kept the working classes in a state of serfdom fixed to the soil. Parishes resisted the arrival of an honest workman, as if he had been an armed invader, for fear he might be overtaken by sickness, poverty, or old age, and so come upon them for support. This law was modified so as to allow a poor man to seek employment beyond the limits of his native parish. 467. William IV died in 1837, and the crown of the three kingdoms passed to the Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent (see Table, p. 215), who had just completed her eighteenth year. The connection between Hanover and Great Britain was now broken, the German kingdom A. D. 1837.] ERNEST, KING OF HANOVER. 249 passing to Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the eldest surviving son of George III. RECAPITULATION. Ministry of Peel and Canning, Repeal of laws unfavorable to Romanists. England recognizes independence of Spanish-American colonies, and aids to establish that of Greece. Accession of William IV. Revolutions in France and Belgium. Parliamentary reform in England ; Tory reaction. Emancipation of slaves in British colonies. New Poor Law, Death of William ; accession of Victoria in Great Britain, of Ernest in Hanover. VI. REIGN OF VICTORIA. Crimean Allies. HE young Queen's reign (A. D. 1837 — ) opened in a troublous time. Canada was in revolt, Jamaica on the eve of it; and the people at home were discontented by reason of scanty harvests, and the desire of further reforms. A large party of thinking men among the laboring classes insisted upon a thorough revolution in the government: to admit (1) Universal Suffrage; (2) Vote by Ballot; (3) Annual Parliaments; (4) Equal Elec- toral Districts; (5) Payment of members of Parliament and abolition of Property Qualifi- cations. Meetings of these "Chartists," numbering in one instance as many as 200,000 persons, occurred in the neigh- borhood of the large cities. A "monster-petition," bearing a million of names, was rolled into Parliament in a huge tub. These disorderly movements only defeated themselves; but wiser men were already seeking remedies for the real evils which had occasioned the agitation. 469. The "Anti-corn Law League," of which Mr. Cob- den was the leader, sought a repeal of all the duties on breadstuffs, and in general to promote free-trade. The hard teaching of events came to the aid of the Corn Law agi- tators. The wet, cold summer of 1845 occasioned scanty harvests all over Europe, and in Ireland the potato was blighted. Even the Conservatives could not fail to see the (250) A. D. 1848.] REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. 251 need of a change. In 1846 all duties on articles of food were abolished. During this and the following year thou- sands of wretched people died of famine in Ireland. O'Con- nell was dead, but Smith O'Brien, who, without a tithe of his talents, attempted to enact his part, excited some show of rebellion. He was arrested by a few policemen, and transported; his deluded followers were permitted to seek a safe asylum in America, and the excitement passed away. 470. The London Chartists mustered to the number of 20,000 on Kennington Common, to march upon Westminster and demand the five points (§ 468) of the Charter. But 150,000 respectable citizens enrolled themselves as a special-police, and the rabble, betrayed by pn ' their leader, who had embezzled their subscriptions, melted away. Among the amateur policemen who helped to main- tain order at this crisis, was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, then an exile, though destined before the end of the year to enforce a different sort of order in France. 471. The Citizen King, Louis Philippe, had by this time worn out the patience of his people and of Europe. He in turn (§ 463) took refuge in England, and the exiled Bona- parte became President of the Second French Republic. The commotions above mentioned were England's whole share in the Revolutions of 1848. Scarcely a nation on the Continent remained unaltered; and though the republics then formed were short-lived, their principles entered into the restored monarchies, and produced a slow but sure growth of constitutional freedom. 472. In 1 84 1, Queen Victoria had married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a noble Prince, whose wise, unselfish character contributed greatly to the success and happiness of her reign. Avoiding public honors and power for himself, his study was to strengthen her hands by the wisest counsel; while his influence as a private gentle- man was liberally used to forward scientific and industrial 252 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1851. enterprises, promotive of the happiness and enlightenment of the people. Among these was a display of the industries of all the world in the Crystal Palace, erected for the pur- pose in Hyde Park, — the first of a series of in- a. d. 1851. t ef rational expositions at London, New York, Paris, and Vienna. It was regarded as a pledge of a new reign of peace and good-will among the nations. 473. Less then three years had elapsed when sounds of peace were drowned in the roar of cannon. Louis Napoleon, by a sudden and secret stroke in the night of December 1-2, 1 85 1, had made himself arbitrary ruler of France. To feed the passion of his people for military glory, he seized upon the " Eastern Question" — an ever-open avenue to war when the western Powers felt inclined to it. The Russian Czar Nicholas had invited Great Britain to share with him the spoils of the "sick man of Europe," as the declining Turkish power began to be called. The dishonest proposal had been promptly rejected. The Czar, nevertheless, urged upon the Sultan a haughty demand of new privileges for the Greek Christians in Constantinople, and seized upon Mol- davia and Wallachia, two rich Turkish provinces, as guaran- tee for the execution of his wishes. 474. The French government, under all its varying forms, had held itself for 300 years, if not longer, the champion and protector of Latin Christians in the East. It now chose to consider the Czar's demands as a declaration of hostility against France, and sought the alliance of Eng- land in resisting them. The diplomacy of Europe held all the Five Great Powers — England, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia — responsible, severally or together, for the main- tenance of peace, justice, and the balance of power. Great Britain, as we have seen, never stinted her expenditure of blood or treasure in fulfilling her share in this mutual obliga- tion; but under the persuasions of the new French Emperor, she now did even more than strict duty demanded. A. D. 1854.] WAR IN THE CRIMEA. 253 475. Without waiting for the cooperation of Austria and Prussia, Lord Aberdeen's ministry entered into close alliance with France and with Turkey to repel the Russian aggres- sions; and the English embassador at Constantinople was authorized to call up the fleet from Malta at any hostile movement on the part of the Czar. The Turks surprised all Europe by their display of spirit and military genius. Their general, Omar Pasha, promptly crossing the Danube, gained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Oltenitza; and their fortress of Silistria was defended with such spirit and efficiency that Prince Paskievitch had to raise the siege in less than a month. 476. Another victory of the Turks at Giurgevo, forced the Czar to abandon the Lower Danube, and even to give up the provinces (§ 473) which were the original cause of war. The allied powers believed, however, that he would be ready at any time to break the peace of Europe by new efforts to grasp Constantinople, unless they destroyed his power for mischief. Or perhaps the French and the English commanders desired to make some use of their splendid armaments, rather than allow the Turks to reap all the laurels of the war. 477. In any case, it was resolved to invade the Tartar province of Crimea and destroy the immense stores of war- material that were guarded by the forts of Sevastopol. Not in two hundred years had French and English soldiers stood side by side on the same battle-fields, and they marched and fought with a noble emulation. The heights of the Alma were stormed and taken Sept. 20, 1854, and the two armies, supported by their fleets which followed near the shore, oc- cupied the port of Balaklava and besieged Sevastopol. Its strong defenses resisted all their assaults for nearly a year. 478. The battle of Balaklava, Oct. 25, is chiefly remark- able for the "Charge of the Light Brigade." In obedience to a mistaken command a charge was made down a long, 254 CENTURY OF REVOLUTIONS. [A. D. 1854. narrow valley, swept from either side and from the end by the enemy's guns. More than six hundred men attempted the hopeless task; half their number survived the iron storm and gained possession of the battery at the end of the gorge, spiked the guns and sabered the gunners, then rode back by the same perilous way they had come. The Russians claimed the victory of the day, but the heroic spirit of the "Six Hundred" was not without its rewards. 479. Ten days later, at Inkermann, a victory was gained over immensely superior numbers of Russians. Meanwhile, Lord Raglan, the British commander, was feebly supported by the ministry at home ; and the scanty supplies they sent were often rendered useless by the want of transportation between the Crimean coast and the camp. Thousands sick- ened and died for want of food, medicines, and blankets, which were only a few miles away. The storms of that terrible winter made sad havoc in the British ranks. Their sufferings were somewhat alleviated by the skillful and de- voted attentions of Florence Nightingale, an English lady, who, with her band of trained nurses, had left all the com- forts of home for this toilsome pilgrimage of mercy. 480. The Czar Nicholas died in March, 1855, and the brave Lord Raglan in the following June. Lord Palmerston, a disciple of Pitt and Canning, had now succeeded Lord Aberdeen in the British ministry, and the war went on with renewed energy. A fleet cruising in the Sea of Azov, cap- tured several towns and destroyed immense stores of grain which were to have fed the garrison of Sevastopol. Another British fleet penetrated the Baltic and Polar seas, burning timber and other ship-materials, and shutting up the Russians in their harbor of Cronstadt, but fighting no battles. 481. The most decisive action of the war took place Sept. 8, 1855, when the French stormed the MalakorT, and the English the Redan, two great forts which guarded the south side of Sevastopol. The Russian garrison retired to the north A. D. 1856.] PEACE OF PARIS. 255 forts; and soon afterward, through the mediation of Austria, proposals of peace were entertained. A treaty was signed at Paris, in which all the great powers, and some smaller ones, had part. The Danube and the Black Sea were thrown open to the commerce of all nations, but no war-vessels, either Turkish or Russian, were permitted to enter the latter. Christians in Turkey were declared to be under the joint protection of all the Christian powers of Europe who were signers of the treaty. RECAPITULATION. Chartists' seditions at beginning of Victoria's reign. Irish famine gives force to Corn Law agitations; and all duties on grains are abol- ished. Revolutions of 1848 leave England unharmed. Marriage of the Queen with the Saxon Prince, Albert. Industrial Exhibition at London. Second French Empire. Alliance of France, England, and Turkey in war against Russia. Victories of the Turks. Invasion of the Crimea. Charge of the Six Hundred at Balaklava. Victories of the Alma and Inkermann. Sufferings of British soldiers; self-deny- ing services of Florence Nightingale. Fall of Sevastopol. Peace of Paris. VII. BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. HEN the treaty of Paris was signed, it was hoped that many years of peace had been secured. But a still more terrible war soon demanded the attention of the British people. Their empire in India had grown in wealth and territory until, by the annexation of Scinde and the conquest of the Sikhs of the Punjab, it reached from the Indus to the Hoogly, and from the Himalayas to Pt. de Galle. This immense territory was held in subjection by nearly a quarter of a million of native soldiers, called Sepoys; for the climate is so noxious to Europeans that an English army could not long be maintained. The Sepoys usually regarded their officers with a child-like confidence and affection; but they were of a timid and superstitious race, and any fancied affront to their religion would excite a rage of rebellion. When, in 1856, their new Enfield rifles came out from England, it was whispered that the cartridges contained beef-tallow. This was abomination in the eyes of the Hindus; and though the government, as soon as it heard (256) A. D. 1858.] THE SEPOY REBELLION. 257 of their scruples, suppressed the cartridges, their suspicions were not allayed. Mutinies broke out in Bengal, Oude, and the province of Delhi, and the soldiers were joined in their revolt by the middle and lower classes of the people. 483. Delhi, the splendid capital of the Mogul emperors, with immense stores of arms, was taken by the insurgents, and all the European residents, men, women, and children, were slaughtered with fiendish cruelty. Frightful massacres took place at Meerut and at Cavvnpore. A Scotch regiment was besieged five months in Lucknow, by a large native army. The English residents were outnumbered, twenty to one, by the mutinous Sepoys. At this moment of horror, a war-vessel arrived from home, bearing Sir Colin Campbell with fresh reinforcements of troops. In a few weeks Luck- now was relieved, Delhi captured, and its King, the last of the Moguls, tried and sentenced as a mutineer. Gen. Have- lock, who with a few hundreds of British soldiers had held out against eight or ten times his number of infuriated rebels, and had saved Lucknow until relief could come, died a few days after Campbell's arrival. The Queen had recognized his devoted services by the grant of a baronetcy, but the patent was signed the day after his death. 484. The rebellion was soon at an end. The government of Hindustan was now taken from the East India Company and vested in the Queen and her Council. A Viceroy, appointed by the sovereign, represents her in Calcutta. A Secretary of State for India, and a Council of fifteen mem- bers in London have superseded the old Board of Control. Railways, telegraphs, newspapers, and common schools have already made wonderful changes in the old heathen land. Hindu lawyers study in the temple at London, while the secluded apartments of high-caste Indian women are open to English governesses; and though the government care- fully abstains from shocking the religious notions of the peo- ple, the old superstitions are fast fading away. Eng.— 22. 2 5 8 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. Map 5. 485. Within a hundred years the British Empire has been increased by the addition of the great continent of Australia. Captain Cook visited its southern coast in 1772; and good men who were occupied with the problems of crime and poverty at home, conceived the idea of opening new abodes in this fertile wilderness for the many who were failing in the struggle for life in the over-crowded cities of England. In 1788, eleven ships, laden with convicts and paupers, arrived in Sydney Cove, and with such unpromising mate- BRITISH INDIA. 259 rials the colony of New South Wales was founded. In the course of years, thousands of criminals proved the benefit of honest toil, and became inspired by the wish and hope of a better life. 486. Australian wool became celebrated in European mar- kets. The transportation of convicts ceased; but an immense throng of free settlers followed, and schools, churches, and all the comforts of civilized life were multiplied. A new era began with the discovery of gold in the south-eastern prov- inces. For a time there was danger of famine; farms, cities, and ships were abandoned, while all the people flocked to the mines. Necessity, however, brought them to their senses; and the prosperity of the country was increased by a large immigration from all parts of the world. Sydney, the capital of the first colony, is the seat of a bishopric and a university. Melbourne, founded in 1837, has grown still more rapidly, and has now about 200,000 inhabitants. A submarine telegraph unites it in instant communication with London. 487. The rich and beautiful islands of New Zealand were visited and partly Christianized by English missionaries be- fore 1840, at which time their chiefs acknowledged Queen Victoria as their sovereign. The native Maoris are a noble race ; many of them are well educated, and newspapers are published in their language. Their intelligence and skillful use of fire-arms make them dangerous enemies, as the British settlers have proved in recent wars. 488. Within a very few years the Fiji islands have also sought the protection and submitted to the control of the British government. The great war-club, which • ...... j. A. D. 1874. for centuries has served their chiefs for a scepter, has been sent to England, and is in the Queen's possession. 489. In the civil war which threatened to destroy the American Union (A. D. 1861 — 1865), Great Britain at one time seemed likely to be involved. The cutting off 260 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. [A. D. 1861. of the cotton-supply occasioned great distress among the Lancashire weavers. The envoys of the Confederate States to France and England were seized by a United States naval officer on board the British mail-steamer Trent, and were conducted, as prisoners, to the harbor of New York. But the "right of search" (§452) was no longer in vogue. A peremptory demand for the rendition of the passengers was prepared by the British ministry to be telegraphed to the government at Washington. The Prince Consort was then on his death-bed; the note of the ministers was carried to him by the Queen. His just and clear mind perceived the greater wisdom of moderation, and taking the pen, he wrote his last words in an amendment designed to promote peace and friendship between the two nations. It was a worthy close to the life of the "blameless Prince," and his media- tion was successful. The United States government prompt- ly disavowed the act of its officer, and surrendered the prisoners. 490. A new danger arose from the fitting out of ships in British ports to prey upon the commerce of the United States. This was the act of private persons, but the govern- ment was accused of negligence in suffering the pirate-vessels to escape from the ports. After the war was ended in America, a peaceable arbitration was agreed upon by the Treaty of Washington, and a board, composed of able jurists from five friendly nations, met at Geneva in the summer of 1872, to decide upon the compensation due to the United States. Their award of fifteen millions of dollars was prompt- ly paid by Great Britain, and the danger passed away. Some of the early dealings of England with the Chinese Empire were contrary, we may believe, to the present spirit of her government. A lucrative trade in opium had long been carried on between the Hindu provinces and China; and this was greatly increased when, in 1833, the East India Company's monopoly expired, and opportunities for traffic A. D. 1875.] PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION. 261 were thrown open freely to all. Chinese markets were over- filled with opium; and its effect was fatally evident in the habits of the people, already too much addicted to its use. The Chinese government, justly alarmed, forbade the im- portation of the drug, but its orders were evaded, and an immense smuggling trade still went on. The government then ordered the British merchants of Canton to be im- prisoned in their warehouses until they surrendered all the .opium in their possession. England retaliated by seizing Canton, and bombarding several other cities. A war of two years followed, ending with the cession of Hong Kong (1842) to the British, and the opening of the principal Chinese ports to foreign trade. 491. The reign of Victoria will be chiefly celebrated for movements connected with the advance of civilization and the diffusion of knowledge. Even to name the public works which facilitate traffic and intercourse; still more to describe the explorations of Livingstone, Speke, and Baker in Africa, and of other British heroes in various parts of the world, would be to write a book rather than to add a page to one nearly completed. The first ocean-steamer, the Savannah, crossed the Atlantic in the year of the Queen's A. D. 1819. birth; but the immense growth of steam com- munication, with all parts of the globe, has been since her accession to the throne. The ocean-cables which in 1858, and afterward more successfully in 1865, united Great Britain and America, have been followed by similar communication with the remotest regions, and Victoria is better informed of the hourly progress of affairs in Calcutta and Melbourne than was her grandfather of movements within a hundred miles of his capital. 492. The power of the newspapers, only faintly felt a hundred years ago, is now greater than fleets, armies, the royal will, or Parliament itself; for they express the will of the people, which is recognized as the source of sovereignty. 262 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. For centuries the education of the higher classes has been munificently provided for by the great Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, St. Andrews and Dublin. It is only lately that sufficient instruction for the common people has been provided in National Schools; for, as a great statesman re- marked, "We must educate our masters." RECAPITULATION. British Empire in India is maintained by native troops under British officers. Sepoy Rebellion. Massacre of English residents at Delhi, Meerut, and Cawnpore. Success ^of Generals Havelock, Campbell, and others. Diffusion of English ideas in India by schools, railways, etc. Australia, first colonized by criminals and paupers, increases wonderfully in wealth and civilization. New Zealand and the Fiji islands added to British Empire in the East. Civil war in America threatens to involve England. Hostilities averted by arbitration. Chinese war ends with the cession of Hong Kong. Progress during the reign of Victoria. VIII. THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT. S we have now traced the prog- ress of events by which "Wes- sex grew into England, England into Great Britain, Great Britain into the United Kingdom, and the United Kingdom into the British Empire," it only remains to note the present government of that great ' ' Empire on which the sun never sets," and " whose morning drum-beat encircles the globe." Britannia. 494. The supreme law-mak- ing power resides in Parliament, consisting of two branches, the Lords and the Commons. The House of Lords has four hundred and eighty-eight members, viz. : five royal dukes, two archbishops, twenty- one dukes, eighteen marquises, one hundred and ten earls, twenty-four viscounts, twenty-four bishops, two hundred and forty barons, sixteen Scotch and twenty-eight Irish repre- sentative peers. The last two classes are elected by their own order. The bishops hold their places by the Queen's appointment; all the rest by hereditary right. A Supreme Court has recently been created for the trial of such ap- pealed cases as were formerly decided by the House of Lords. 495. The House of Commons has six hundred and fifty- eight members, elected to represent counties, cities, or boroughs, and the universities. Three-fourths of all the (263) 264 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. members are from England and Wales. The Commons hold the power of the purse and the sword. Their first duty after assembling is to provide for the expenses of the government ; and this they are careful to do for only one year at a time. The Mutiny Act, by which alone in time of peace army officers can compel the obedience of their men, is also renewed each year; so that it is impossible for the govern- ment to oppress the people either by forced loans or by a military despotism. 496. The executive power is nominally vested in the sov- ereign; but, as a king or queen can not legally be called to account, the responsibility is committed to a cabinet of min- isters. They hold office only so long as they have a majority in the House of Commons. At their head is the First Lord of the Treasury, who often holds the additional office of Chancellor of the Exchequer. He chooses his colleagues, who then become, severally, Lord Chancellor, Lord Privy Seal, President of the Council, or one of the five Secretaries of State. To these are usually added the Chief Commissioner of Public Works, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Presi- dent of the Board of Trade, the Postmaster General, and the President of the Poor Law Board. 497. Strange to say, the Cabinet, though forming for a hundred years so essential a part of the government, is not recognized by the laws, nor is any record made of its pro- ceedings. As its acts are subject to question and criticism in Parliament, all its members must belong to one or other of the two Houses of Lords and Commons. But so real is their power that they are commonly called "the Govern- ment." 498. If any important measure proposed by the govern- ment is lost in Parliament, the ministry usually resign, with- out waiting for the "vote of want of confidence," which would effectually end their power. The Queen then sends for the leader of the opposing party, whom she requests to GLADSTONE AND DISRAELI, S65 form a Cabinet, and the late ministry, in their turn, "go into opposition." It has been wittily and truly said that the gov- ernment of Great Britain is a duarchy, consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chief of the Opposition. The latter, though holding no office except his place in Parlia- ment, is the principal critic of government measures, and is ready to assume chief power upon any change of sentiment in the country at large. 499. Thus Mr. Gladstone, though personally the most popular man in the Empire, was not sustained by the Com- mons in his liberal measures for the reform of the Irish uni- versities. Believing that the sentiment of the people might have changed since the election of their representatives, he "threw himself on the country" by dissolving Parliament and calling for a new election. This gave the voters an opportunity to express their opinion upon the point now at issue, — not merely, as before, upon the general merits of liberal or conservative policy. The new Parliament had a majority against him of seventy members. He therefore retired from office, and Mr. DTsraeli, the leader of the Conservatives, was intrusted by the Queen with the formation of a new government. Eng.— 23. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW, PART V. 1. What attempts by the Stuarts to regain the British throne ? $406, 407, 4H, 415 2. Reasons for alliance between England and France. 408 3. What cause of complaint against the first two Hanoverian kings? 409,414 4. Describe the South Sea Scheme and its results. 410 5. What causes of dispute between Spain and England? 412 6. What led to War of Austrian Succession ? 413 7. How did it affect the American colonies? 416 8. What part had England in the Seven Years' War? 417, 418, 423 9. What was the French policy in America? 419, 427 10. What changes in India? 420, 421, 439, 440, 482-484 11. Describe the reign and character of George III. 422, 436, 451, 459 12. The ministry of the elder Pitt. 417, 418, 423, 428, 436 13. The grievances of the American colonies. 426-429 14. The War of Independence, and its effect upon England. 430-438 15. How was England affected by the French Revolution? 441-443 16. What part had she in wars with Napoleon? 444-450 17. Describe the war with the United States. 452-454 18. The last years of Napoleon. 455, 456 19. Results of the Twenty Years' War. 457, 458 20. Character of George IV. 459 21. Policy of Canning's administration. 460 22. The rise and progress of newspapers. 387, 395, 425, 492 23. Tell the history of Parliamentary Reform. 424, 425, 463-465 24. What part was taken by England in the Greek Revolution ? 461 25. Describe William IV. 462 26. What revolutions in 1830? 463 27. Describe Peel's administration. 465, 468, 469 28. What were the demands of the Chartists? 468, 470 (266) GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS. 267 29. What were the events of 1848? g§ 470, 471 30. What led to the Russo-Turkish War? 473, 474 31. Describe the campaigns of Omar Pasha. 475, 476 32. The Invasion of the Crimea. 477-481 ^2- The Sepoy Rebellion. 482, 483 34. What recent additions to the British Empire in the East? 485-487 35. How was England affected by the American Civil War ? 489, 490 36. What evidences of progress during Victoria's reign ? 472, 487, 488 27- What is the supreme law-making power in the British Empire? 494, 495 ^8. Describe the executive power. 496-499 GENERAL REVIEW. How many races have ruled England ? How many different seats of government? What was Egbert's capital ? What foreign princes have been educated in England ? What English kings have spent their youth in exile? What kings of England died in France? How many died by violence? How many queens have ruled England in their own right ? Name the four chief rivers of England. What are the boundaries between England and Scotland ? Name the counties on the southern coast. " " " " eastern " " " two most northern counties. What counties border on Wales? Name all the inland counties. What are the principal English seaports? What neighboring islands belong to Great Britain? Name the two largest cities in Scotland. " the chief towns in Ireland. BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR MORE EXTENSIVE READING OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Knight's Popular History of England. 8 vols. Green's Short History of the English People. A single, compact volume, admirably prepared. Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons. Freeman's Norman Conquest. 3 vols. " Old English History. Cobbe's History of the Norman Kings of England. Miss Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England. " Lives of the Queens of Scotland, and of English Princesses connected with the Succession. Froude's History of England from the Death of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth. Froude's History of the English in Ireland. Gardiner's History of England under the Duke of Bucking- ham and Charles I. Hume's History of England to A. D. 1688. Macaulay's History of England from the Accession of James II. Macaulay's Essays on Milton, Hampden, Give, Hastings, the two Pitts, et aL Carlyle's Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell. Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time. Clarendon's History of the Civil Wars. Hallam and May's Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. Campbell's Lives of the Lord Chancellors. " Lives of the Chief Justices of England. Lord Mahon's History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles. (268) BOOKS RECOMMENDED, 269 Molesworth's History of England from A. D. 1830. Mrs. Oliphant's Sketches of Noted Characters in the Reign of George II. Jesse's Life and Reign of George III. Adolphus, Massey, and H. Walpole have written voluminously on the same reign, from different points of view. Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea. Prof. Stubbs' Documents Illustrative of English History. Contains the original text of early laws and treaties, — e. g., that between Alfred and Guthrum, see p. 29, — Magna Charta, etc., to the 'Concessions of Edward I. ; also, in an Appendix, the Petition of Rights, p. 170, and the Bill of Rights, p. 204. Valuable for Geographical Illustration of English History are: Knight's "The Land we Live in." ' ' " London : a Historical and Topographical Account of the British Metropolis," and " " Cyclopaedia of London," abridged from the above. Among innumerable works in Lighter Literature, the following are recommended : Kingsley's Hereward, the Last of the English. " Sir Amyas Leigh: or, Westward Ho! " Two Years Ago. Bulwer's Harold. " The Last of the Barons. Scott's Historical Novels. Thackeray's Henry Esmond. " The Virginians. " Lectures on the Four Georges. " " " English Humorists. George MacDonald's St. Michael and St. George. Mrs. Charles' The Draytons and Davenants. Tennyson's Idylls of the King. " Queen Mary. INDEX Note.— Italic letters following the name designate the maps on which it may be found. See Contents for location of the Maps. Figures refer to pages. At/ercrombie, Gen., 238. Aberdeen', i, 185. " Lord, 253. Abingdon, m, 54. A / bury, ii, 12. Acre (a'ker), 76, 237. Addison, Joseph, 215. Adelaide, Queen, 247. Adrian, Pope, 135. yElla, 22. Ae'tius, 18. Agincourt (ii-zhaN-koorOj vv t v h battle of, in, 112. Agric'ola, 14. Aidan, 20. Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-shiipeF) , iv, 194; Treaty of, 223. Albany, City, 193. " Duke of, 109, .110. Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk. Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, 251, 260. Alcuin, 53. Alfred. See England, Sovereigns of. Ambro'sius, 18. America, discov. of, 128; Drake's voyage to, 155; slavery in, 157; colonies in, 164; migra- tion to, 172; Commonwealth recognized, 185; Dutch set- tlements seized, 193; 214; French and Indian War, 223- 225 ; Revolution in, 229-234; 246; Civil War in, 259. Am'iens, iv, 238. Angles, 20, 22. Anglesey, i, Hi, vi, 13. Anglia, ii, Hi, 20. Anjou (JiN-zhoo 7 ), "'» Geoffrey, Count of, 66; 68; 78; re- stored to France, 99 ; Philip, Duke of, 210. Anne Ascue burnt, 142. " of Bohemia, 106. " Boleyn (booFen), 136; mar- riage confirmed, 138; be- headed, 140. " of Cleves, 140. " Stuart. See Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Anselm, Archbishop of Canter- bury, 63 ; contest with king, 64; 65. Antwerp, iv, destroyed, 155; un- der Napoleon, 237. Aquitaine', 68, 78. Archangel, 157. Arcot', v, capture and defense of, 225. Argyle, Earl and Marquis of, leader of Covenanters, 172; 179 ; executed, 192. Argyle, Earl of, beheaded, 201. Argyleshire, 17. Arlington, Earl of, 194. Armagh, i, university at, 19. Artevelde, Jacques van (zhiik), 96. I Arthur, King, 19. (271) 272 INDEX. Art. Arthur, Prince of Brittany, 78. Ascalon, 76. Ashley, 194. Asia, 9S; 12S ; 210; 225. Ath'elstan, Prince, 27. " King. See England, Sovereigns of. At'tila, 18. Augustine, missionary to Eng- land, 22. Australia, 258 ; 259. Austria, Duke of, 77 ; War of the Succession, 221-223; defeated by Napoleon, 238 ; joins Holy Alliance, 244; in Crimean War, 252-255. Azov, English fleet in, 254. Bacon, Roger, 86. " Francis, 160; 166. Baker, Sir Samuel, in Africa, 261. Balaklava, battle of, 253. Baliol, John, crowned, 89; sub- mits to Edward I., 90; 96. Ball, John, 105. Baltic Sea, 26; 104; 254. Bannockburn, defeat at, 95. Bar'bary, 1S8. Barfleur', iv, vi, 66. Barnet, i, battle at, 121. Beachy Head, vi, 208. Beaufort, Cardinal, 116. Becket, Thomas a, life of, 70-73. Bede, Venerable, 52. Belgium, 236 ; 247. Belleisle (bel-lle'), w, 228. Benedictines, 38; 52. Bengal', v, 225 ; 235. Berengaria of Navarre, 76. Berlin', Napoleon at, 239. Berni'cia, ii, 20. Bertha, Queen of Kent, 22 ; 23. Berwick, i, m, vi, 76; 90; 96. Birmingham, vi, 228; 247. Black Sea, 255. Black'water R., i, battle at, 159. Blake, Adm., in Portugal, 185; defeats Van Tromp, 186; de- feats the Spaniards, dies, 188. Blenheim, battle of, 213. Boadicea, 13; 14. Boethius, 30. Bohe'mia, 97 ; Reformation in, 106; 165; 167. Boleyn. See Anne of. Bombay', v, 195 ; 225 ; 235. Bonaparte. See Napoleon I. " Joseph, 240. Bonner, Bishop of London, 146. Bordeaux (-do'), iv, 100. Boston, during Revolution, 230; 231. Bosworth Field, z, vi, bat. of, 124. Bothwell Bridge, vi, bat. of, 198. " Earl of, marries Mary, Queen of Scots, 154. Boulogne (boo-IOn'), iv, vi, 141, 238. Bourges (boorzh), iv, 114. Boyle, Robert, invents air-pump, 204. Boyne, battle of the, /, 208. Bradshaw, John, judge of Charles I., 180; 191. Braganza, Catherine of, 195. Brandon, Charles, Duke of Suf- folk, 133. Breda (bra'dii), 190; 193. Bretigny (breteen'ye), iv, 99. Bretwal'da, 20; 22. Brihtric (bre'trik), King of Wes- sex, 24. Bristol, i, Hi, vi, captured by Ru- pert, 176; surrendered, 178. Britain, ii, early history of, 9-19. Britons, and Romans, 11-14; in the west, 19; Christianity among, 20, 23; 24. Cha. INDEX. 273 Brittany, iv, 78; 96; 123. Brock, Gen., captures Detroit, 242. Brougham (broom), Lord, 247. Bruce, Robert, life of, 92-94. " David, 95 ; 96. Bru'nanburgh, Hi, battle at, 36. Brussels, 189. Buckingham, Duke of, his career, 166-171. Burgoyne, Gen., surrenders, 232. Burke, Edmund, 235. Burleigh, Lord, (William Cecil,) 151, 160. Bury St. Edmunds, in, vi, 28. Bute, Earl of, 227 ; 228. Byng, Admiral, executed, 224. Cabal, names of, 194. Cabot, his discoveries, 128. Cade, Jack, 117. Ca'diz, 156; burnt, 158. Csedmon, poet, 53 ; 107. Caen (koN), iv, 62. Cresar, Julius, II. Calais (kii-la'), i, ii, iv, vi, captured by Edward III., 97, 98; 100; Field of Cloth of Gold at, 134; captured by French, 149. Calcutta, v, 225 ; 235. Caledonians, 14; 17. Cam / bridge, i, in, vi, 261. Cambusken'neth, 92. Campbell, Sir Colin, 257. Campeg'gio, papal legate, 136. Camperdown, battle off, 237. Campian, executed, 155. Canada, 230, 231; invaded, 242; revolt in, 250. Canning, George, in Cabinet, 246. Canterbury, i-iii,vi, archbishopric founded, 23 ; Dunstan, apb. of, 38 ; Stigand, apb. of, 50 ; Anselm, apb. of, 63 ; Becket, apb. of, 73 ; Henry II. at, 73. Canton, 261. Caracalla, Emp. of Romans, 15. Carac'tacus (Caradoc), 12. Carau'sius, Ct. of Saxon Bord., 16. Car / diff, i, ii, vi, 66. Car'ibbee Islands, captured, 228. Car'isbrook, Charles I. at, 179. Carlisle, i-iii, vi, battle at, 90; 93. Caroline of Anspach, wife of George II., 220. Caroline of Brunswick, wife of George IV., 244. Carr, Robert, favorite of James I., 166. Carrickfer'gus, i, besieged, 208. Cartage'na, S. A., English re- pulsed at, 221. Castile (kas-teeF), Black Prince in, 100; 103. Castlereagh, Lord, minist. of, 244. Catherine of Aragon, marries Ar- thur, 130; marries Henry VIII., 132; divorced, 136-138. Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles IF, 195. Cavendish, Sir Thomas, 160. Cawnpore', v, massacre at, 257. Caxton, William, introduces print- ing, 121, 122. Cecil, Robert, 151 ; 160. " William. See BiirlcigJi. Celts, 10; 35. Cerdic, founder of Wessex, 24; 47 5 65; Ceylon 7 , v, 225. Chalgrove Field, vi, 176. Champlain Lake, 242. Charlemagne, 23, 24; 237. Charles I. of Spain (Emp. Charles V.), 134-136; 146. Charles II. of Spain, 210. " IV. " 240. " VI., Emp., son of Leopold I., 210. 274 INDEX. Cha. Charles V. of France, ioo; 103. VII. " 112-116. VIII. " 129. " X. " 247. " XII. of Sweden, 219. " I. and II. of England. See Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Charles of Anjou, 116. Charlotte, Princess, 244. Chartists, 250, 251. Chaucer, Geoffrey, poet, 106, 107. Chester, i, Hi, vi, 17; 29. Chevalier St. George. See Stuart, James Francis. Cheviot Hills, i, vi, 133. China, 160; war in, 260, 261. Clare, Richard de, subdues Ire- land, 72. Clarendon, Constitutions of, 71. " Earl of, 172; 194. Clarkson, Thomas, 248. Clement VII., Pope, 135, 136. Clive, Robert, 225 ; 235. Clyde, Firth of, ii, Hi, vi, 14. Cobden, Richard, 250. CoFchester, i, ii, vi, burnt, 14. Cologne, iv, 189. ColunFba, at Iona, 20. Columbus, Christopher, 128; 149. Commonwealth, The, 183-190. Corny n, Earl, 92. Constantine the Great, Emp., 17. Constantinople, 59; 128; 252,253. Constan'tius Chlo / rus, Emp., 17. Cook, Captain, 258. Copenhagen, bombarded, 240. Cork, i, 158. Cornwall, i, ii, vi, Britons in, 19 ; 23; rebellion in, 130; 176. Cornwallis, Lord, surrend. of, 233. Cranmer, Thomas, advises king, 137; archbp., 138; compiles Prayer Book, 143; burnt, 148. Crecy, iv, vi, battle of, 97. Crimea, war in, 253-255. Cromwell, Oliver, 172; in com- mand, 177-179; in Ireland, 183, 184; dissolves Parlia- ment, 186; Lord Protector, 187; dies, 189; 191 ; 195. Cromwell, Richard, 189. Cromwell, Thomas, Secretary of State, 137; Vicar-gen., 139; severity of, beheaded, 140. Cronstadt, 254. Crusades, first, 64; 75, 76; eighth, 85 ; results of, 86. Cullo'den Moor, battle of, 223. Cumberland, vi, 39 ; 90. " Duke William of, 222-224. " Duke Ernest of. See Er- nest Augustus. Cumbria. See Strathclyde, 19; 54. Cuthbert, missionary, 20. Cyprus, Richard I. at, 76. DaFrymple, Sir John, 208. Danelagh, ^ \ desolated, 58. Danes, 26-30; 35-43. Danube, 253 ; 255. Darnley, Lord, marries Queen of Scots, 150; killed, 154. David I. of Scotland, 67. Dee, R., Hi, vi, 38. Deira, ii, Hi, 20-23 ; becomes Yorkshire, 37. Delaware, R., 205 ; 232. Delhi (deFlee), v, captured, 257. Denmark, 39; 43; 61 ; 237; war with, 240. Derby, i, Hi, vi, 222. '.* Earl of, 247. Derwentwater, E. of, behead., 219. Despenser, Hugh, favorite of Ed- ward II., 95. Detroit, captured, 243. Det / tingen, battle of, 222. DevFzes, vi, battle at, 176. Eng. INDEX. 275 Dev'on, vi, 19. De Witt, Dutch minister, 194. DTsra'eli, Prime Minister, 265. Dominicans, rise of, 86, 87. Douay', 155. Dover, i-iv, vi, tumult in, 44; 47 ; surrendered to William, 50; defended, 83 ; Treaty of, 194, 195. Dowlah, Surajah, 225. Drake, Adm., voyage of, 155; off Spain, 157. Drogheda, i, 158; captured, 183. Druids, account of, 12, 13. Dryden, John, poet, 191. Dublin, i, 129; 158; 174; 262. Dudley, serves Henry VII., 131. Dumbarton, /, 90. Dumfries 7 , /, vi, 92. Dunbar, i, ii, vi, 90; 96; 184. Dundee', i, massacre at, 185. " Viscount, brutality of, 198 ; killed, 207. Dunkirk, vi, acquired, 188; sold, 192; 214. Dun'stan, career of, 36-39 ; 52. Duquesne (-kane), fort, 225. Dutch, navy, 186; in America, 193; 194. Eadburga, 24. East Anglia, ii, Hi, 20, 24. East India Company, charter re- newed, 164; its forts, 225; its power, 235; limited, 236; 256; gov't of India transferred to the crown, 257; 260. Edgar, Edred, Edwin, Egbert, etc. See England, Sovereigns of. Edinburgh, became capital, 38; 96; 180; seized by Cromwell, 184; surprised, 222. Edric, Duke of Mercia, 41. Egypt, Napoleon in, 237, 238. Eleanor of Aquitaine, mar. Henry II., 68 ; aids revolt, 73 ; 77. Eleanor of Provence, mar. Henry III., 83, 84. Elgiva (el-ge'va), qu. of Edwy, 37. Eliot, Sir John, imprisoned, 169. Emma of Normandy, 40 ; 42. Empson, serves Henry VII., 131. England, Sovereigns of: Saxon Line. With date of Accession. Egbert, A. D. 827, 24-27. Ethelwolf, 837, 27. Ethelbald, 858, 27. Ethelbert, 860, 27. Ethelred, 866, 27. Alfred, 871, 27-31; 53. Edward I., 901, 31. Athelstan, 925, 35, 36. Edmund, 940, 36. Edred, 946, 36. Edwy, 955, 37. Edgar, 958, 37-39. Edward II., 975, 39. Ethelred II., 978, 39-41. Edmund II., 1016, 41, 42. Danish Kings. Knut, A. D. 1016, 40-43. Harold I., 1035, 43. Hardiknut, 1040, 43. Saxons Restored. Edward III., the Confessor, A. D. 1042, 43-48. Harold II., 1066, 46-50. Norman Line. William I., A. D. 1066, 45, 49-51, 54, 57-62. William II., 1087, 62-65. Henry I., 1100, 62, 65-67. Stephen, 1135, 67-69. 276 INDEX. Eng. England, Sovereigns of, (contin.) : Plantagenets. Henry II., A. D. 1154, 68-74. Richard I., 1 189, 74-77- John, 1 199, 74, 77-Si. Henry III., 1216, 83-86. Edward I., 1272, 85, 88-93. Edward II., 1307, 94; 95. Edward III., 1327, 95-101. Richard II., 1377, 102-106. House of Lancaster. Henry IV., A. D. 1399, 104, 108-110. Henry V., 1413, 110-113. Henry VI., 1422, 114-121. House of York. Edward IV., A. D. 1461, 118-122. Edward V., 1483, 123. Richard III., 1483, 122-124. Tudors. Henry VII., A. D. 1485, 123; 124; 127-131. Henry VIII., 1509, 132-142. Edw.VI.,1547, 1405143-145. Mary, 1553, 136; H5-H9- Elizabeth, 1 558-1603, 138; 151-160; 194. — See Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Engles. See Angles. English Pale, 158. Enniscor'thy, /, 237. Enniskil'len, /, 208. Erie, L., defeat on, 242. Ernest Augustus, D. of Cumber- land, 215 ; King of Hanover, 248. Essex, ii, Hi, vi, 20 ; 27. " 2d Earl of, Elizabeth's favor- ite, 159. Essex, 3d Earl of, in command, i75- J 77- " 4th Earl of, in Rye House Plot, 197. Ethandune, i, Hi, 28, 29. Eugene of Savoy, at Blenheim, 213. Eustace of Boulogne, visits Eng- land, 44. Evesham, i, battle at, 85. Fairfax, Sir Thomas, in command, 176-178. Falkirk, i, battles near, 92, 223. Falkland, Lord, killed, 176. Fawkes, Guy, plot of, 163. Ferdinand L, King of Spain, 130; conquers Navarre, 132. Ferdinand VII., King of Spain, proclaimed, 240. Ferdinand II. of Austria, 165. Fiji Islands, acquired, 259. Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, be- headed, 138. ders, iv, 49; 90; trade with, 103 ; 149 ; Marlborough in, 213. Flemings, invade Eng., 73; 99; weavers settle in Eng., 101. Flint Castle, i, vi, 104. Flodden Field, i, vi, battle of, 133. Florida, 221 ; acquired, 228. Forth, Firth of, i-iii, 14. Foth'eringay, i, Qu. Mary at, 156. Fox, Geo., founds Quakers, 205. " Chas. James, minister, 239. France, iv, 26; war with, 90, 91 ; Edward III. in, 96; 101, 103; Henry V. andVI.in, IH-116; 132 ; under Francis L, 133- 135; acquires Calais, 149; under Francis II., 153; 1945 James II. in, 203; under Louis XIV., 210, 214; Rev- olution in, 236 ; under Napo- Gut. INDEX. 277 leon, 237-243; 246; under Louis Philippe, 247; in Cri- mea, 252-255. Francis I., K. of France, 133—135. " II., " 153. Franciscans, rise of, 86 ; 87. Frederic, Elect. Palatine, 165 ; 175. " the Great, England aids, 221 ; 224. Fro'bisher, Sir Martin, 160. Gardiner, Bishop, Mary favors, 146, 147. Gaunt, John of, in Spain, 100, 103 ; dies, 104. Gaunt, Mrs. Elizabeth, burnt, 201. Gaveston, Piers, favorite, 94. Geneva, iv, 153 ; arbitration at, 260. George I., II., III., IV. See Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Germany, 96; Charles V., Emp. of, 134, 136, T47 ; Napoleon in, 239. Ghent, iv, John of, 100; submis- sion of, 103 ; Treaty of, 243. Gibraltar, capture of, 213, 214; besieged, 233 ; 240. Giurge'vo, battle at, 253. Gladstone, Wm. E., premier, 265. Glasgow, i, vi, 154; 198; 223. Glastonbury, Hi, vi, 36. Glencoe / , i, massacre of, 208. Gloucester (glos'ter), i, ii, vi, 33. " Earl of, 68. " Dukes of, 103, 116. Godfrey, 195; 200. Godoy, Prince of the Peace, 240. Godwin, Earl, history of, 43-46. Good Hope, Cape of, 128. Graham. See Dundee, Viscount. Grasse, Count de, defeated, 233. Gravelines (grii-va-leen'), iv, 135. Great Britain, /, Phoenicians in, 10; Danes in, 39; 88; union of, 213 ; government of, 263. See England, Sovereigns of. Great Britain, Sovereigns of: House of Stuart. With date of Accession. James I., A. D. 1603, 154; 162-167. Charles I., 1625, 167-181. Commonwealth, 1 649-1 660, 183-190. Charles II., 1660, 181-185; 189-199. James II., 1685-1688, 193; 195-198; 200-205; 208-210. Interregnum of two months. William III. and Mary II., 1689, 198; 202; 203; 207- 209. William III. alone, 1694, 209-211. Anne, 1702, 198; 209; 212- 215. House of Hanover (Brunswick). George I., A. D. 1714, 218- 220. George II., 1727, 220-226. George HI., 1760, 226-245. George IV., 1820, 241 ; 243- 247. William IV., 1830, 247-249. Victoria, 1837, 248-265. Greeks, 1 1 ; 246. Gregory I., Pope, 22; 23. Grenville, Lord, minister, 229. Grey, Lady J., history of, 145-147. " Earl, premier, 247. Grosseteste (-tate), Bishop, 85. Guienne (ge-ei/), iv, 78; 88; 90; 98; lost, 116; 132. Guthrum, Danish chief, 28; 29. 278 INDEX. Had. Hadrian, Emperor, 14. Halifax, settled, 223. Halley, astronomer, 204. Hammond, Col., 179. Hampden John, refusal of forced loan, 170; of ship money, 172; death of, 176. Hampden John, grandson, 197. Hampshire (Hants), vi, 64. Hampton Court, i, Wolsey at, 134; conference at, 164. Hanover, House of, 215; 224; 238 ; connection with Eng- land broken, 248. See Great Britain. Harfleur, i, iv, vi, III. Harold Hardrada, 49. Harold I. and II. See England, Sovereigns of. Harry Hotspur, killed, 109. Hastings, port, i, Hi, iv, vi, 50. " Warren, trial of, 235. Havana, captured, 228. Havelock, Gen., defends Luck- now, 257. Hawkins, John, 157. Heligoland, captured, 240. Hengist, 18. Henrietta Maria, 167; 175. Henry of Lancaster. See Eng- land, Sovereigns of. Henry I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., and VIII. See Eng- land, Sovereigns of Henry II., of France, 142; 153. Heptarchy, 19; 20; 25. Hilda, Abbess, 53. Hindus, 225 ; 257. Hindustan, v, 225 ; war in, 256- 258. Hobbs, philosopher, 204. Holderness, Hi, burnt, 49. Holland, Danes in, 26 ; 175; com- merce of, 185; 190; 193; Triple Alliance of, 194; 202; recognizes United States, 233 ; French in, 236; Belgium sep- arates from, 247. Hong Kong, acquired, 261. Honorius, Emperor, 18. Hooker, Richard, author, 160. Horsa, 18. Howard, Catherine, wife of Hen- ry VIII., 141. Howard, Lord, of Effingham, de- feats Armada, 157. Howe, Lord, at New York, 232; relieves Gibraltar, 234. Hubert de Burgh, 83. Hudson Bay, 214. " River, 193; 232. Huguenots, 170. Humber River, i, ii, Hi, vi, 31; Northmen in, 39; 58. Hyde, Anne, wife of James II., 198. Iceni, ii, 13. India, v, sea-route to, 128; 160; 164; British Empire in, 225, 256-258. Indus, R., v, 256. Inkermann, battle at, 254. Innocent III., Pope, 78-81. Inverness, i, 223. Io'na, ii, 20. Ipswich, i, vi, 134. Ireland, i, Christianity in, 17, 19; Elgiva in, 37; Edgar in, 38; Danes in, 39, 49; 53; con- quest of, 72-74; 92; 94; 104; Simnel in, 129; Tyrone's Re- bellion, 158, 159; Scotch in, 164; Wentworth in, 171; re- bellion in, 173; Cromwell in, 183 ; William of Orange in, 208; French in, 236; united with Great Britain, 237. Lon. INDEX. 279 Ireton, Gen., at Naseby, 178; 179; dies, 185; 191. Isabella, Queen of Edward II., 91; her conduct, 95; 96. Isabella of Spain, 130; bigotry of, 149. Italy, 134; 147; 237. Jackson, Gen., at New Orleans, 243- Jamaica, captured, 188; 233; 250. James I. and II. See Great Brit- ain, Sovereigns of. James I. of Scotland captured, 109. James IV. of Scotland, favors Perkin Warbeck, 130; killed at Flodden Field, 133. James V. of Scotland, 141. Jamestown, settled, 164. Jarrow, Bede at, ii, Hi, 52. Jedburgh, Hi, 90. Jeffreys, Geo., Chief Justice, 201. Jews, persecuted, 75; expelled, S8, 89 ; allowed to return, 188. Joan of Arc, her career, 115. John, King. See England, Sov- ereigns of. John, Duke of Lancaster. See Gaunt, yohn of. Judith educates Alfred, 27. Judith, Lady, wife of Waltheof, 59; 60. Jutes, in Kent, 18; 20. Kenilworth Castle, i, vi, 95. Kenmure, Vise, of, beheaded, 219. Kent, ii, Hi, vi, Germans land in, 18; 22; 24; 27; Northmen land in, 30. Killiecrankie, battle at, 207. Kinsale, i, 208. Kirke, Col., brutality of, 201. Kloster Seven, Convention of, 224. Knox, John, reformer, 153. Knut. See England, Sovereigns of . La Hogue, iv, vi, battle of, 209. Lambert, Gen., 189. Lancaster, E. of, beheaded, 95. " Dukes of. See John of Gaunt and Henry IV. Lanfranc, primate, 59; dies, 63. Langland, poet, 107. Langton, Steph., primate, 78-81. Lansdown Hill, battle at, 176. Latimer, Bishop, burnt, 148. Laud, Abp. of Canterbury, 171 ; beheaded, 173. Lauderdale, Duke of, in Cabinet, 194 ; Gov. of Scotland, 198. Leicester, Earl of. See Montfort. Leicestershire (les / ter-), i, vi, 124. Leith, vi, battles at, 153, 184. Leopold I. of Belgium, 244; 247. Leslie, Gen., in command, 172; at Dunbar, 184. Leuthen (loi'ten), battle at, 224. Limerick, i, 185; Pacification of, 209. Lincoln, i, ii, Hi, vi, battles at, 68, 83. Lindisfarne I., ii, 20. Lisle, Lady Alice, beheaded, 201. Livingstone, explorer, 261. Lochlev'en, i, 154. Locke, John, 204. Loire R., iv, 99, 114. London, i-iii, vi, destroyed by Britons, 14; 17; 23; 29; Wi- tan at, 33; besieged, 39; Knut at, 42; Godwin at, 45; 58; French in, 81 ; Jews hanged at, 88 ; Wat Tyler in, 102; Jack Cade in, 117; pro- gress of, 155; favors parlia- ment, 175; occupied by the army, 179-181 ; Monk in, 189- 28o INDEX. Lon. 191 ; fire and plague in, 193 ; 203; Chartists in, 251; Ex- position at, 252. Londonderry, i, besieged, 208. Lo'thian, 38; 54. Louis IV. of France, 35. " VIII. of France, Prince, in England, 81 ; 8^. Louis XII. of France, 133. Louis XIV. of France, receives Chas. II., 185 ; signed Treaty of Buda, 193 ; Treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, 194; aids James II., 202, 203; revokes Edict of Nantes, 204; recognizes Wm. III., 210; in his old age, 214; recognizes Geo. I., 218; dies, 219. Louis XV. of France, 219. Louis XVI. of France, exec, 236. Louis XVIII. of France, 244. Louis Philippe, 247; 251. Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. Louisbourg, captured, 223. Lucknow, v, siege of, 257. Luther, reformer, 136, 137. Macbeth, Thane of Moray, 46. Madras 7 , v, 225; 235. Madrid, Chas. I. at, 167; 240. Magna Charta, 79-82. Maine, iv, 68; 99; 116. Malakoff, fort, 254. Malcolm L, K. of Scots, 36. 11.; " 38. in., " 46; 59. Malta, acquired, 238; 253. Man, Isle of, i-iii, vi, 38. Manchester, i, Hi, vi, 228; 244. " Earl of, 177. Mantes, iv, burnt, 61. Mar, Earl of, revolt of, 218. Margaret of Anjou, marries Hen- ry VI., 116; in the War of the Roses, 117-121. Margaret of Norway, 89. Maria Theresa (te-ree'sii), of Aus- tria, 221-223. Marlborough, Duke of, in com- mand, 213; in disfavor, 214; assists Pretender, 218. Marlborough, Duchess of, favor- ite, 209; dismissed, 214. Marston Moor, i, battle of, 176. Mary, Queen of Scots, born, 141 ; sent to France, 144; widow of Francis II., 153; marries Darnley, 154; imprisoned, 155; executed, 156; 157; 162. Mary I. and II. See England and Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Mary of Modena, marries James II., 198; 203. Masham, Mrs. favorite, 214. Massachusetts, settled, 165 ; 223 ; charter annulled, 230; Revo- lution begins, 231. Matilda of England, marries C. of Anjou, 66; invades Eng- land, 67; dies, 68; 136. Matilda of Flanders, Queen of William I., 60, 61. Matilda of Scotland, Queen of Henry L, 65. Maximilian, Emp. death of, 134. Mediterranean, 214; 224; 237. Mee / rut, v, massacre at, 257. Melbourne, founded, 259. Melrose, i, vi, 20. Menai, Strait, ii, 13. Mercia, Hi, 20; 23, 24. Methven, i, battle at, 93. Middlesex, ii, Hi, vi, 20. MiKan, 134; Decree, 240. Milford Haven, i, vi, 124. Milton, John, poet, 1 91. Nor. INDEX. 281 Minorca, acquired, 214; seized by the French, 224; restored to Eng., 228; lost, 233, 234. Mississippi River, 224. Moldavia, seized by Russia, 252 ; lost, 253. Mona, Island of, ii, 13. Monk, Gen., subdues Scotland, 185 ; aids Restoration, 189 ; Duke of Albemarle, 191. Monmouth, D. of, in Rye House plot, 197; at Bothwell Br., 198 ; assumes royal title, 200 ; executed, 201. Montfort, Simon de, made Earl of Leicester, 84; summoned a parliament, 85. Montrose, Marquis of, 184. Morcar, Earl of Northumberland, 48 ; defeated at York, 49 ; 50. More, Sir Thomas, beheaded, 138. Mortimer, Roger, Earl of March, 95 5 "9- Mortimer, Edmund, E. of March, 108; in. Moscow, burnt, 243. Mountjoy, Lord, 159. Murray, Earl of, Regent, 154. Najera (na-ha'ra), 100. Nantwich, vi, battle at, 176. Naples, 134, 147- Napoleon I., early career, 237; threatens to invade Eng., 238; emperor, 238-240 ; invades Russia, 243; at St. Helena, 243- Napoleon III., in Eng., 251 ; em- peror, 252; joins England in Crimean War, 252. Naseby, i, vi, battle at, 178. Navarino(-e / no), nav. bat. at, 246. Navarre, w, 132. Nelson, Lord, adm., at battle of Eng.— 24. Nile, 237 ; at West Indies, 238 ; killed off Trafalgar, 239. Netherlands, trade with Eng., 129; 131; Chas. V. inherits, 134; Revolt of, 155 ; in Triple Al- liance, 194; 210; becomes Batavian Republic, 236 ; 247. New Amsterdam, becomes New York, 193. New England, settled, 164, 165; 185. New Forest, vi, 64, 65. New Model, 177, 178. New Orleans, battle at, 243. New South Wales, convicts sent to, 258. New York, formerly New Amster- dam, 193; 252; 260. New Zealand, 259. Newark, i, 81, 178. Newbury, i, battle at, 176. Newcastle, i, vi, coal at, 98. " Duke of, 224; 228. Newfoundland, 214. Newton, Sir Isaac, 204. Newtown Butler, vi, bat. at, 208. Niagara, Fort, taken, 225. Nicholas I., Czar, in Crimean War, 252-254. Nightingale, Florence, 254. Nithisdale, Earl of, 219. Norfolk, Hi, vi, 20. " 2d Duke of. See Surrey , Earl of. " 3d Duke of, 142. " 4th Duke of. See Sutrey, Earl of. Norham Castle, 89. Normandy, iv, Northmen in, 38; invaded by Ethelred, 39, 40 ; under Duke Rolf, 40 ; Harold II. in, 47; under William I., 58-62 ; under Robert, 62, 65 ; under Henry I., 66; lost by 282 INDEX. Nor. John, 78; Henry V. in, 112. Normans, expelled from Eng., 49; conquer Eng., 50; 59. North Allerton, vi, battle at, 67. North, Lord, Fred., E. of Guilford, prime minist., 230; his Amer- ican policy, 233 ; resigns, 234. Northmen. See Danes. Northumberland, w, 37, 38 ; 133. " E. of, in rebel., 108, 109. " Duke of, treason of, 145 ; executed, 146. Northumbria, Hi, 20; 22; 31; under Athelstan, 35 ; revolt in, 37; divided, 37. Norway, 26 ; 39 ; 49. Nottingham, i, Hi, vi, 95 ; Chas. I. at, 176. Nova Scotia, settled, 223. Oates, Titus, Popish Plot of, 195, 196; tried, 200. O'Brien, Smith, 251. O'Connell, in Parliament, 246 ; 251. Odo, Abp. of Canterbury, 37. " Bp. of Bayeux, plot of, 60, 61. Offa, King of Mercia, constructs dyke, 23 ; murders Ethelbert, 23 ; 30- Olaf, King of Sweden, 42. Oldcastle, Sir John, executed, no. Oltenit'za, battle at, 253. Omar Pasha, 253. Opium trade in China, 261. Orange, William, Prince of. See Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Orkneys, i, 38 ; 49 ; 89 ; Spanish Armada at, 158. Or'leans, iv, besieg. by Eng., 114; relieved by Joan of Arc, 115. Orleans, Dukes of, prisoner, 112; Regent of France, 219 ; Louis Philippe, 247. Ormond, Marquis of, quits Ireland, 183. Oro'sius, 30. Oude, v, 235 ; 257. Oxford, i-iii, vi, meeting at, 85 ; martyrs at, 148; loyal to Chas. I., 175; 178; parliam'tat, 196. Oxford, Univ. of, founded, 54; under Henry III., 86, 87; John Wicliffe at, 106; Christ Church founded, 134; 262. Palestine, 64; Richard I. in, 76. Palmerston, Lord, minister, 247; premier, 254. Pandolf, papal legate, 79. Paris, iv, 90; 95; Edw. III. near, 97; Henry V. in, 112; Henry VI. crowned at, 114; French recover, 115; Treaty of, 228; 243 ; Exposition at, 252 ; Peace of, 255. Parliament, rise of English, 79, 85, 91, 166, 171, 189; Long, 173-186; of Gt. Britain, 214; of United Kingdom, 237; 263-265. Parr, Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., 142. Paskievitch, Prince, 253. Pauli'nus, Abp. of York, 23. Pavia, Francis captured at, 135. Pedro the Cruel, K. of Castile, 100. Peel, Sir Robert, in cabinet, 246 ; premier, 248. Pembroke, Earls of, Strongbow, 72; Protector of Henry III., 83- Penn, William, 205. Pennsylvania, founded, 205, 206. Percy, Henry. See Northumber- land, Duke of. Perth, i, 218. Peterborough, i, Hi, 54- Rus. INDEX. 283 Philip II. of France, 76-79. " IV. " 90, 91 ; 96. » VI. » 96-98. " II. of Spain, marries Mary, 146, 147 ; leaves Eng., 148, 149; succeeds Chas. V., 149; 152; severity in Holland, 155; sends Armada, 157; intrigues in Ireland, 158. Philip, Duke of Anjou, 210. Philippa of Hainault, Queen of Edward III., 98. Philippine Islands, 228. Phoenicians, visit England, 10, II. Piers the Plowman. See Langland. Pinkie, battle at, 144. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 224-227; 230; 233. (son), 235-239; 254. Pittsburgh, 225. Plantagenets, origin of, 66. See England, Sovereigns of. Plautius, Aulus, in England, 12. Plombieres, 218. Poitiers, iv, battle at, 98. Poitou (pwii-tooO? i v > 78. Pole, Cardinal, papal legate, 147; Abp. of Canterbury, 148. Pomfret, 139. Pope, Alexander, poet, 215. Portland, vi, naval battle off, 186. Porto Bello, captured, 221. Portugal, French in, 240; pro- tected by England, 246. Prague, 106 ; 165. Preston, *, vi, battle at, 179. Prestonpans, vi, battle of, 222. Pride, Col., purges House, 180. Prussia, in Seven Years War, 223 ; in Holy Alliance, 244; 252. Punjab, v, 256. Quebec, captured by Gen. Wolfe, 225. Raglan, Lord, in Crimea, 254. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 160-163. Ram'illies, battle at, 213. Ravenspur, i, 104. Reading, i, Hi, vi, captured, 176. Redan, fort, 254. Regency, The, 241-245. Restoration, The, 189-191. Rheims, iv, 115 ; 155. Rhine, vi, 194. Rhuddlan Castle, ii, 88. Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 84, 85. I., II., III. See Eng- land, Sovereigns of. Ridley, Bishop, burnt, 148. Rizzio, murdered, 154. Robert of Normandy, in rebellion, 60-66. Rochelle', iv, 170. Rochester, ii, vi, 72; taken, 81. Rodney, Adm., defeats French, 233- Rohillas, conquest of, 235. Rolf, the Dane, Duke of Nor- mandy, 40. Romans, II ; 18. Rome, 12; English slaves in, 22; Athelstan and Alfred in, 27 ; Knut in, 43 ; 136; Stuarts at, 219; French in, 237. Rooke, Adm., takes Gibraltar, 213. Rossbach, battle at, 224. Rouen (roo-oN / ), i, iv, vi, 40; 49; captured, 112. Roxburgh, i, 76 ; 90. Runnimede, i, 79. Rupert, Prince, in Civil War, 175-178; 185. Russell, Lord Wm., 197. " Lord John, in Cabinet, 247. Russia, trade with England, 157; opposes Napoleon L, 238, 239; makes peace, 240; in- 284 INDEX. Rus. vasion of, 243 ; joins Holy Alliance, 244; 246; in Cri- mean War, 252-255. Ryswick, Peace of, 210. Saladin, Sultan, 76. Salem, Mass., 230. Santa Cruz, victory at, 188. Savannah, first ocean steamer, 261. Savoy, Duchess of, 212. " Duke of, 219. Saxons, invade England, 16; 20; 23; government of, 31 ; con- quered, 59. Scarborough, i-iii, vi, burnt, 49. Schomberg, Marshal, in Ireland, 208. Scinde, v, annexed to British In- dia, 256. Scone, /, 90 ; Bruce crowned at, 92; 96; Charles II. crowned at, 184. Scotland, i, ii, tii, name of, 17; Irish monks in, 20; Edward I. over-lord of, 31; acquires Strathclyde, 36 ; gains Lo- thian, 38 ; Siward invades, 46; Saxons in, 59; 60; sub- mits to Henry II., 73 ; Ed- ward I. in, 89, 90, 92 ; under Wm. Wallace, 91, 92; gains independence, 94, 95 ; Edw. III., 95, 96; under Robert III., 109; Mary, infant Queen of, 141 ; Somerset in, 143, 144; Reformation in, 152, 153; Mary returns to, 153, resigns, 154 ; James VI., 154, 162 ; Monk in, 185; Drunken Parliament, 192 ; persecution in, 198; proclaims Wm. and Mary, 207 ; united to Eng- land, 213; Pretender in, 218; Young Pretender in, 222; rep- resentation, 263. Scots, crossed from Ireland, 17 ; defeated by Britons, 18; at Brunanburgh, 35, 36; 54; defeated by Henry II., 73; submit to Edward I., 89; at Bannockburn, 95; 108; Cov- enanters, 172, 173; allied with Parliament, 176; sur- render Chas. I., 178; defeated by Cromwell, 179; protest against trial of Chas. L, 181 ; proclaim Chas. II., 183; hold out for James II., 207; at Glencoe, 208. Scrope, Abp., rebels, 109. Sedgemoor, i, battle of, 201. Sen lac, Hi, battle at, 50. Sepoys, 226 ; rebel, 256. Sevastopol, siege of, 253, 254. Severn River, i-iii, vi, 23. Severus, Emperor, 14. Seymour, Jane, Queen of Henry VIII., 140. Seymour, Lord Thos., exec, 144. Shaftesbury, Earl of, 196. Shakespeare, Wm., poet, 160. Sharp, Abp., murdered, 198. Sheerness, vi, captured, 193. Shoreham, vi, 185. Shrewsbury, i, Hi, vi, battle at, 109. , Sicily, 76; 84. Sidney, Algernon, beheaded, 197. Sikhs, conquest of, 256. Sile / sia, Fred. Great in, 221. Silistria, siege of, 253. Silures, 12. Simnel, imposter, 129. Simon, priest, 129. Siward, invades Scotland, 46. Smith John, at Jamestown, 164. " Sir Sidney, at Acre, 237. Tud. INDEX. **5 Solway Firth, i-iii, vi, 14. " Moss, i, vi, battle at, 141. Somerset, iv, Alfred in, 28. Somerset, Duke of, killed at St. Abans, 118. Somerset, Duke of, Edward Sey- mour, Protector, 143 ; at Pin- kie, beheaded, 144. Somme River, vi, 97. Sophia, Electress, 206; 212-215. Southampton, iv, vi, 157. Spain, 26; Black Prince in, 100; John of Gaunt in, 103 ; under Chas. V., 134-136; 194; suc- cession in, 210, 214; war with, 227, 228; Wellington in, 240; 246. Speke, Capt. John, explorer, 261. Spenser, Edmund, poet, 160. St. Albans, i, Hi, vi, 1 1 ; burnt, 14; battle at, 118. St. Christopher, acquired, 214. St. Lawrence, R., 224; 228. St. Vincent C, battle off, 237. Stafford, Lord, Win. Howard, ex- ecuted, 196, 197. Stamford Bridge, i, battle at, 49. Steele, Richard, 215. Stephen, King of Hungary, 42. Stigand Abp. 50. Stirling, bat. near, 92; 154; 222. Stoke upon Trent, vi, bat. at, 129. Stonehenge, ii, 12. Strafford, Earl of, Thomas Went- worth, serves Charles I., 171; impeached, 173. Strathclyde, ii, Hi, 19; 31; 36. Strongbow. See Clare, Richard ' de. Stuart, Arabella, 162. Stuart, James Francis Edward, the Pretender, born, 202 ; pro- claimed James III. by Louis XIV., 210; invades Scotland, 218, 219. Stuart, Chas. Edward, the Young Pretender, invades Scotland, 222 ; defeated at Culloden Moor, 223. Suetonius, in Britain, 13, 14. Suffolk, Hi, vi, 20; 95; 145. Surat, v, 164. Surrey, Earl of, defeats Scots, 133. " " (grandson), 142. Sussex, ii, Hi, vi, 20; 24; 27. Sweden, in Triple Alliance, 194; 219; 238. Sweyn L, King of Denmark, in England, 40. Sweyn II., K. of Denmark, 43 ; 58. Sydney Cove, 258. Syria, Napoleon in, 237. Tagus, R., 185. Tangiers', 195. Tees, R., i-iii, vi, 37; 38; 58. Temple, Sir William, negotiates Triple Alliance, 194. Terouenne / , iv, 132. Tewkesbury, i, Hi, battle at, 121. Thames, R., i-iii, vi, 1 1 ; North- men in, 39; 43; 45; Dutch in, 193; 203. Thanet, isle of, ii, 18. Theodo / sius, in Britain, 18. Ticondero'ga, captured, 225. Tobago, 234. Tonstall, Bishop, 146. Tor Bay, vi, Wm. lands at, 202. Tostig, brother of Harold, 48, 49. Touraine, iv, 78, 99. Tournay', iv, 129; 132; 133. Towton, vi, battle at, 1 20. Trafalgar', battle at, 239. Trent, affair of, 260. Trieste 7 , 239. Troyes, iv, Treaty of, 112. Tudor, Owen, 113; 119. See England, Sovereigns of. 286 INDEX. Tur. Turkey, Turks, conquer Palestine, 64; 237; war with Greeks, 246; in Crimean War, 252-255. Tweed, i—iii, vi, 38 ; 89. Tyburn, 95 ; 130; 191. Tyler, Wat, Rebellion of, 102. Tyne, R., i, iii, vi, 14. Tyrone's Rebellion, 158, 159; 164. Ulster, rebellion in, 173. United Kingdom, 237. United States, independent, 233 ; 234; in the War of 1812, 242, 243 ; Civil War in, 259, 260. Utrecht, Treaty of, 214. Van Tromp, Dutch admiral, 186. Vaudois, persecution of, 188. Versailles, Treaty of, 234. Vespasian, in England, 12. Vezelay, iv, crusaders meet at, 76. Victoria. See Great Britain, Sov- en'igns of. Vienna, Richard I. at, 77 ; Expo- sition at, 252. Villiers, George. See Buckingham, Duke of. Virginia, 164; 233. Vortigern, British prince, 18. Wakefield, i, vi, battle at, 118. Wales and Welsh, i-iii, vi, Britons retreat to, 12; 19; Christians in, 23 ; defeated by Offa, 23 ; 31; conspiracy of, 35; Edgar's victories over, 38 ; conquered by E. Harold, 47; 60; first Prince of, 88 ; 108 ; rebellion in, 108, 109. Wales, Prince of (Black Prince), at Crecy, 96, 97; in Castile, dies, 100. Wallace, Wm., 91 ; executed, 92. Wallachia, seized by Russia, 252 ; lost, 253. Walpole, Sir Robert, in Cabinet, 220, 221. Walsingham, Sir Francis, in Cab- inet, 151, 160. Waltheof, 59, 60. Warbeck, Perkin, impostor, 129, 130. Warrenne / , Earl, defeated, 92. Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of, Kingmaker, 117-121. Warwick, E. of (grandson), 129, 130. Washington, Gen. Geo., in com- mand, 231, 232. Washington City, burnt, 243 ; Treaty of, 260. Waterford, i, 158. Waterloo, battle at, 243. Watling Street, ii, 29; 54. Wellington, Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, in Spain, 240; at Waterloo, 243. Wentworth, Thos. See Strafford, Earl of. Wessex, ii, 20; 24; 33. West Indies, 237 ; liberation of slaves in, 248. Western Isles, i, 31 ; 93. Westminister, 23 ; founded, 48 ; Wm. I. crowned in, 57 ; Hen- ry I. crowned in, 65 ; Henry IV. dies in, no; 122; Hen- VII. buried in, 131; Anne crowned in, 213. Wexford, i, 158; stormed, 183. Weymouth, i, vi, 1 21. Whitby, ii, iii, vi, abbey at, 52, 53. Whitehall, 134; 181. Wicliffe, John, influence of, 105- 107. Wight, Isle of, i-iv, vi, 12 ; 45 ; 179. Wilberforce, William, 248. Yor. INDEX. 287 William I., II., III., IV. See England and Great Britain, Sovereigns of. Wilkes, John, trial of, 228, 229. Windsor, i, vi, 48. Winchester, ii, Hi, vi, capital of Wessex, 33; 50; 58; treasury at, 65; Bp. of, 83; Wolsey Bp. of, 133 ; Philip and Mary married at, 147. Winchester, Henry of. See Eng- land, Sovereigns of, Hen. IV. Wit'an, 31; 33; 42; 45; 46. Woden, 20; 29; 40; 65. Wolfe, Gen., captures Quebec, 225. Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal, in power, 133; his splendor, 134; fall of, 136, 137. Worcester (woos / ter), i-iii, vi, battle at, 184. Wren, Sir Christopher, 204. Wyatt, Sir Thomas, rebels, 147. Wye, River, ii, Hi, vi, 23. York, i-iii, vi, Roman capital of Britain, 15; archbishopric, 23 ; Witan at, S3 '■> battle near, 49 ; first English library at, 53; besieged, 58; Jews at, 75; 118; Charles I. in, 173; besieged, 176. York, James, Duke of. See Great Britain, Sov. of , James II. York, Richard, Duke of, 117; killed, 118. Yorkshire, vi, 38 ; 102. Yorktown, surrendered, 233. E 1059 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 020 684 481 4 sXHsi MSB im ■mm am EffiHu ■ mm hi ililw ■HIV Hi BB A. il? (I