/ 
 
A 
 
 V S the name indicates, this book 
 deals entirely with the broad 
 and important question of 
 
 how to have a thoroughly sanitary 
 
 school. 
 
 "School Sanitation" was 
 written and designed so as to 
 be readily understood by all who 
 read it and we feel that the infor- 
 mation contained therein is of 
 such value as to merit a careful 
 perusal by all those interested in 
 this important subject. 
 
 We will appreciate any sug- 
 gestions or information which will 
 tend to make future issues of this 
 book more valuable. 
 
 <^nt 
 
 •(TV— C 
 
 Published by 
 
 Standard cSamtat© iPfe. Co. 
 
 Pittsburgh. Pa. 
 
 v 
 
 ! 
 
\ 
 
 .^v 
 
 Copyrighted 1913. by 
 
 Standard <Satntatrs lt)&. Co. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 )CI.A347809 
 AW) / 
 
QKI®®IL S^MI!T^TI!©M 
 
 w 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR OF 
 
 History of Sanitation 
 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 
 Sewage Purification and Disposal 
 Wrought Pipe Drainage Systems 
 Plumbing Plans and Specifications 
 Plumbing Estimates and Contracts 
 Design of the Turkish Bath 
 Sanitary Refrigeration 
 and Ice Making 
 
 several of which books are widely 
 used as texts in colleges and schools 
 teaching sanitation, plumbing 
 architecture and allied subjects. 
 
 Above Books Publisked by 
 
 Standard <Samtars IDfe- Co. 
 
 Publishing Department 
 
 Pittsturgk, Pa. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 The Child is Father to the Man 
 Vocational Training in Schools 
 Vandalism of Childhood 
 Study of Child Nature 
 Water Closets and Urinals 
 Location of Toilet Rooms 
 Toilet Accommodations in the 
 
 Kindergarten 
 Number of Fixtures Required 
 Types of Water Closets 
 Urinals and Urinal Compart- 
 ments 
 Water Closet Compartments 
 Ventilation of Toilet Rooms 
 Local-Vent Closets 
 Teachers' Retiring Room 
 Janitor's Room and Slop-Sink 
 Emergency Room or Infirmary 
 What Others Are Doing 
 Public Convenience Stations in 
 
 Schools 
 Public Baths in the Schools 
 Bathing Facilities in the Schools 
 Swimming Pools 
 Drinking Water for Schools 
 Water Filters 
 Operation of Filters 
 School Kitchens for Domestic 
 
 Science 
 Lunches for the School Child- 
 ren 
 Drinking Fountains 
 Sewage Disposal 
 The Heating and Ventilation 
 
 of Schools 
 Quality of Heat 
 School Ventilation 
 The Food for School Children 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 Structure of the Skin 
 
 Oil Glands 
 
 The Hair 
 
 Sweat Glands 
 
 Functions of the Skin 
 
 Effect of Oil on the Skin 
 
 Pigment Cells 
 
 Functions of the Sweat Glands 
 
 Interchangeability of function 
 of Sweat Glands and Kid- 
 neys 
 
 Comparison of matter thrown 
 off by skin, kidneys and 
 other organs 
 
 Temperature man can with- 
 stand 
 
 Benefits of Bathing 
 
 Cold- Water Baths 
 
 Tepid Baths 
 
 Warm Baths 
 
 Hot Baths 
 
 Comparison of Hot and Cold 
 Baths 
 
 Vapor Baths 
 
 Hot-air Baths 
 
 Routine of the Turkish Bath 
 
 Routine of the Russian Bath 
 
 Effect produced by Water 
 Treatment 
 
 Effect of temperature when 
 bathing 
 
 Use of soap in bathing 
 
Ih 
 
 QQ h 
 
AN I TAT I ON in the school 
 house is of far more importance 
 than in any other type of 
 building, for while in other 
 buildings the chief ends to be 
 considered are health, and 
 economy of operation and 
 maintenance, in the school 
 there are health, EDUCATION 
 and economy of operation and maintenance. Even 
 more., — the Protection to health afforded by good 
 sanitation is of greater importance during the growing 
 and formative period of childhood than ever after, 
 for "as the twig is bent the tree's inclined;" and in 
 after years when the child is a man, he can run away 
 from foul surroundings, whereas the Truant Officer 
 permits no escape from the danger and disgust of 
 foul school sanitation. 
 
 Every consideration it would seem demands that 
 the best, and only the best, of sanitation be provided, 
 particularly in the elementary schools of the country; 
 yet, in spite of this fact, nowhere will worse plumbing 
 and poorer sanitary conditions generally be found, 
 than in the elementary schools of the Nation. 
 
 The reason for this state of affairs is to be found, 
 not in a desire of those in charge to economize, or a 
 feeling that anything is good enough for the children, 
 but from a lack of knowledge of just what provisions 
 should be made for the schools to give the children the 
 best of sanitary protection. To remedy that condition, 
 this chapter is written. 
 
 The Child is The first mistake it would seem 
 
 Father to arises from looking upon the school 
 
 the Man children as sort .of feeble minded 
 
 from their extreme youth, and treat- 
 ing them as we would if they were unable to take care 
 of themselves. No greater error could be made, 
 however, or no greater injustice done to childhood. 
 Man is only boy grown tall. In natural aptitude, 
 quickness to discern, and a desire to find out "how 
 the wheels go round" he can not be ranked in a class 
 with the children he underrates. If the boy does 
 
 not understand how a fixture is operated when he 
 
 first goes to school, he will not be there many days 
 
 before he knows more about it than men who have 
 
 been using them for years. 
 
 ^JP What ought to be done then is make no distinc- 
 
 ^ tion between child and adult, but fit up the sanitary 
 
 accommodations for children in the schools the same 
 
 as would be done for adults. In the home the child 
 
 uses — and does not abuse — the plumbing fixtures; 
 
 then why should we expect him to abuse them in 
 
 the school house? By far the great majority of 
 
 children have sanitary appliances in the home and 
 
 are entirely familiar with them. Those who have no 
 
 sanitary appliances in the home, must and should 
 
 have access to them in the schools. It is part of 
 
 their education, necessary to their success later in 
 
 life. What profit it, then, to teach a child all the 
 
 languages both living and dead, if he is not first 
 
 taught the common decencies of life? The school is 
 
 the place to learn the things that can not be learned 
 
 at home, and if the right use and care of sanitary 
 
 appliances are among the things to be learned, how 
 
 can it be taught if barn-yard accommodations only 
 
 are provided in the schools? 
 
 Vocational The tendency of the times is 
 
 Training in towards vocational instruction. It 
 Schools is a recognition by educators of 
 
 the fact that he is most highly 
 educated who can do the greatest number of useful 
 things. It is a placing of useful knowledge ahead of 
 polish and finish, and in keeping with that tendency 
 schools of the future will teach swimming, dancing, 
 sanitation, hygiene, household economy, business in 
 all its branches, before they take up the dead languages 
 and higher mathematics. Sanitation, and the use of 
 sanitary appliances, then, becomes an important 
 part of one's training or education. He must acquire 
 it somewhere before he can succeed in life, and in the 
 school is where he should receive his first lessons. 
 Here he must see the best of plumbing fixtures, the 
 same as he must see the best of pictures, to cultivate 
 in him a high, not a low, taste for art or sanitation. 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 It is erroneously believed that school children are 
 destructive and will wantonly mar, deface or destroy 
 a valuable fixture. It is even pointed out that the 
 isolated out-buildings of old were defaced by knife 
 marks, and covered with low rhyme and verse. 
 
 Where some of the little tots — school 
 children — come from. Where can they learn 
 the care and use of plumbing fixtures, and 
 the principle of Sanitation, if not in Schools? 
 They are our future citizens, the "people"; 
 and their school training should fit them for 
 their duties as such. 
 
 Vandalism of The logic is not good, however, 
 
 Childhood which draws that conclusion from 
 
 such evidence. Duplicate the con- 
 ditions inside a school building which existed in the 
 old out-house, and the actions will be repeated. It 
 is the condition, not inherent destructiveness 
 which causes the act. We all hate the ugly, the foul 
 and filthy, and children are no exceptions to the 
 rule. They show it in all their actions. It is only the 
 dirty, the ugly and filthy they destroy. They kill 
 snakes, lizards, toads and other reptiles, but seldom 
 destroy pretty flowers, delicate china or pretty 
 pictures. They will stone the windows out of an old 
 tumble-down deserted "haunted house," while the 
 attractive well-kept building can stand vacant for 
 months without one boy throwing a stone at it. 
 
 If, then, we place the children's toilet accommoda- 
 tions in a dark cellar and give them filthy fixtures in 
 dull or dirty surroundings, they will use them, just 
 as adults would, with a feeling of loathing, whenever 
 forced to avail themselves of the doubtful advantages. 
 And dreading to touch the devices, they will not be 
 over scrupulous as to the manner of using them; 
 while should they become broken or destroyed, a 
 fierce exultation will overwhelm them, "even as you 
 and I." 
 
 Study of The lesson we learn from the 
 
 Child Nature study of child nature then is to 
 provide the best and most approved 
 sanitary fixtures, in which nothing is allowed to 
 remain and fester, an eye-sore to all who must use 
 them, but from which the contents are whisked 
 out leaving the fixture sweet and clean after each use. 
 Set these fixtures in a room flooded with light, bathed 
 in pure fresh air, and surrounded with walls and floors 
 of impervious materials smooth and white, and the 
 main principles of school sanitation have been com- 
 plied with. 
 
 There may be variation in the design of fixtures 
 used, and the way they are installed; but the require- 
 ments of light, air, color and cleanliness are absolute. 
 If the toilet accommodations are clean and white, 
 located in bright cheerful rooms which are scrupulously 
 clean and well ventilated, the most pronounced vandal 
 among the children will not feel inclined to deface any 
 portion of the room or equipment. On the contrary, 
 they will take pride in it. 
 
 Water Closets As the water closets and urinals 
 
 and Urinals comprise the bulk of the plumbing 
 work in school buildings, and as 
 these fixtures take care of the most objectionable 
 parts of the sewage, it is but natural that they come 
 in for the greater part of the consideration. 
 
 It is assumed that every school, whether city or 
 country, will install the proper and necessary water 
 closets and urinals. The accident near Cincinnati 
 a few years ago in which nine school children suffered 
 most loathsome deaths when the floor of an out-house 
 gave way precipitating them into the contents of the 
 vault beneath, where they were smothered, is enough 
 to deter any community from resorting to that dis- 
 gusting and unsanitary practice. With the simple 
 methods of sewage disposal now available, even 
 schools remote from public sewers can have modern 
 sanitary appliances; and there is no community so 
 poor, nor any school so unimportant, that it can get 
 along without them. This is particularly true now 
 that a movement is sweeping over the country 
 having for its object the use of schools as civic centers 
 where meetings can be held, questions of the day de- 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 bated, dances given, and other amusements provided 
 for. In view, then, of the various uses the school 
 building of the future will be put to, even in the 
 rural districts, it cannot depend for its sanitary 
 arrangements on an exposed shed in the school yard. 
 
 Location of The location of toilet rooms in 
 
 Toilet Rooms school buildings is now considered 
 differently for kindergarten and 
 primary schools than for advanced schools and 
 colleges. In advanced schools and colleges the 
 practice in the past was to group all the fixtures 
 together in one place, usually 
 the basement of the building, 
 and less frequently in a de- 
 tached building which was 
 seldom heated and which 
 was otherwise deficient in 
 sanitary requirements. 
 More recently, however, the 
 tendency is to break away 
 from that unsatisfactory 
 practice, and treat school 
 buildings so far as toilet 
 accommodations are con- 
 cerned, as office buildings, 
 hotels or other public struc- 
 tures. That is, place 
 separate toilet rooms on 
 each floor of the building so 
 that students from the 
 several floors will have 
 separate accommodations. 
 Such practice breaks the 
 entire student body up into 
 several scattered groups, 
 avoids overcrowding with 
 consequent carelessness, 
 and seems to give better 
 satisfaction in every way. 
 
 Urinals are dispensed with in these toilet rooms, 
 the same as in the home; and indeed the toilet rooms 
 resemble to a great extent the toilet accommodations 
 in a private house with which the children are 
 supposed to be familiar. 
 
 The separate class-room toilets are conducive 
 to better morals, discipline and sanitation, and the 
 pupils can be trained in the proper use of plumbing 
 fixtures if they do not get that training at home. 
 It cuts out a source of moral contamination that 
 exists in the congregate closet system, where a score 
 or more of children can meet at any time, to learn all 
 
 Into these "homes" the gospel of Sanitation can find its way, only 
 through the medium of the Schools. 
 
 Clean bodies, clean surroundings and clean Sanitary appliances in 
 the school rooms, set a standard they will try to live up to in the home. 
 The little girl in the picture shows unmistakably the refining influence 
 of good school surroundings. 
 
 Toilet Accom- In kindergarten and primary 
 
 modations in schools for pupils under the age of 
 the Kinder- twelve to fourteen years, the toilet 
 garten accommodations for each classroom 
 
 may well be located in separate and 
 individual toilet rooms adjoining the class rooms. 
 To reach the toilet rooms it is well to arrange the 
 floor plan so the children will have to pass through 
 a clothes room first, as by this arrangement any em- 
 barrassment due to self-consciousness is relieved, and 
 at the same time owing to the two doors sound will 
 have to pass through, it will be pretty well deadened. 
 Of course noiseless operating closets should be used 
 in these toilet rooms so the original noise will be 
 reduced to the minimum. 
 
 sorts of evil as well as do damage or commit nuisance 
 with little fear of detection. 
 
 In the children's toilet rooms, children's closets 
 12 inches in height may very satisfactorily be used. 
 Likewise the lavatories should be set lower than the 
 regulation height so the children can use them with- 
 out inconvenience. 
 
 Number of In the United States there are 
 
 Fixtures no standard rules for apportioning 
 
 Required water closets and urinals in schools, 
 
 and the only guides are plumbing 
 equipments now in successful operation and found 
 sufficient. Judged by this standard about one water 
 closet is required for each fifty male students or 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 fraction thereof, and two urinals for the same num- 
 ber. For the girls, at least two water closets should 
 be provided for the same number. In cases where 
 separate water-closet compartments adjoin class 
 rooms, one water closet for twenty-five children will 
 be found the greatest possible limit, and one to twenty 
 would prove safer. In the matter of water-closet 
 accommodations it is better to be liberal than not 
 have enough, for at the worst, a less number of 
 fixtures are required in schools than in almost any 
 other class of building where a large number of 
 people congregate. This is due to the fact that schools 
 are used for only a few hours during the day, and the 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Number of Toilet Fixtures for Schools 
 
 NUMBER OF CLOSETS 
 
 WATER CLOSETS 
 
 URINALS 
 
 GIRLS 
 
 BOYS 
 
 INFANTS 
 
 BOYS 
 
 Under 30 Children 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 30 to 50 Children 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 50 to 70 Children 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 70 to 100 Children 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 100 to 150 Children 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 150 to 200 Children 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 200 to 300 Children 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 BATHING IS LARGELY A MATTER OF CONVENIENCE. 
 
 How many who delight in their morning baths would take them 
 regularly if they had to take a cart-load of goods out of the tub first, 
 and replace them when through? In many tenement "homes" space 
 is so crowded that the bath tub — when there is one — must of necessity 
 be used for something else. Perhaps for a bed. A bath filled with 
 household goods is shown in this illustration. 
 
 Reverse conditions and place the dwellers of such quarters in cul- 
 tured surroundings, and they would one and all become devoters of the 
 bath; while those who take their morning baths now, if forced to dwell 
 in such surroundings, would soon slip back into the great army of the 
 unwashed. 
 
 closet accommodations are more for emergency cases 
 than for regular use. 
 
 In Great Britain the number of closets and urinals 
 required in schools has been given considerable study, 
 and has received official action. The number of 
 closets and urinals required for schools of different 
 sizes can be found in Table I. 
 
 Types of The 
 
 Water Closets water 
 closet for 
 school work must be of 
 vitreous porcelain or 
 porcelain enameled ware, 
 enameled on the inside and 
 outside; of the siphon 
 action type containing a 
 sufficient body of water 
 to completely submerge 
 and deodorize the contents. 
 Simplicity of construction 
 and operation, together 
 with strength and dura- 
 bility are among the 
 essentials. The closets 
 may be seat operated, or 
 operated by hand. When 
 seat operated closets are 
 to be used, however, great 
 care should be exercised in 
 selecting them, for the 
 water closet is the most 
 abused fixture in the 
 plumbing installation, and 
 only the best of seat action 
 closets will stand the wear 
 and tear without soon get- 
 ting out of order and 
 proving ever after a source 
 of annoyance and expense. 
 There is no reason why 
 a seat action closet should 
 be selected instead of the ordinary type. The pupil 
 will surely know enough to operate the closet after 
 use, and if not, the school is the place for him to 
 learn this simple matter of decency. 
 
 Quick and strong siphonic action, small fouling 
 space, thorough imperviousness of the materials, 
 strength and durability are among the qualities to 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 be looked for in a school closet. Added to these 
 must be a metal-to-metal connection to the soil pipe, 
 for no water closet can be considered sanitary which 
 depends upon putty, a gasket or a slip-joint for a 
 seal. Likewise a flexible section of soil pipe should 
 be used to protect the closet from damage due to 
 settlements, shrinkages, expansions and contrac- 
 tions of the building or drainage system. 
 
 Urinals and There are two types of urinals 
 
 Urinal Com- now in use, one a urinal bowl 
 partments attached to the wall or to the back 
 
 of a urinal stall; the other a stall 
 over the back of which water flows in a thin film. 
 When urinal bowls are to be used, they should be of 
 the design which contains a body of water and can 
 be flushed after use the same 
 as a water closet. When urinal 
 stalls without urinal bowls are 
 to be installed, they should be 
 of some non-absorbent mater- 
 ial having a smooth enamel 
 or gloss, or capable of taking 
 a high polish like marble. 
 A light tone, white or cream 
 color, is advisable as it 
 reflects the light better into 
 dark recesses, looks cleaner 
 at all times, shows dirt so 
 the janitor will have to keep 
 it clean, and presents a bright 
 attractive appearance. Dark 
 gray and black slabs, while 
 they might be non-absorbent, 
 hide the dirt, absorb the light, 
 and never look clean and 
 attractive. Besides they 
 seldom take a high polish. 
 These remarks about urinal 
 slabs apply whether the 
 material is to be used simply 
 as stalls for urinal bowls, or 
 form the urinals themselves, 
 and over which the water 
 flows. 
 
 Water Closet The rooms in which water 
 
 Compart- closets and urinals are installed 
 
 ments must be bright, well lighted, cheer- 
 
 ful, free from odor and finished with 
 non-absorbent materials. The floors are best finished 
 with tile. Cement is not impervious and is not a 
 suitable material for around closets or urinals. The 
 walls may be of marble, tile, glass or similar materials 
 of a light color, while the closet stalls are best made 
 of some light colored impervious and fire-proof 
 material like marble or structural glass. Such 
 materials are easy to keep clean, require no painting 
 or varnishing, and save in upkeep what they cost 
 originally. Artificial lights should be located above 
 the closet compartments so that a flood of light will 
 
 When the stalls are to 
 be used as urinals without 
 any bowls, a suitable flush- 
 ing device is necessary to 
 
 insure a thorough distribution of water over the entire 
 area to be flushed. This is a very important con- 
 sideration for the reason that very few devices will 
 continue to operate satisfactorily spreading the water 
 over the entire surface. Some of the parts clog with 
 rust or sediment from the water, thereby leaving 
 parts of the slabs without being flushed. 
 
 This is a photographic reproduction of a boys' urinal in a school 
 building. Just fancy the sanitary condition of that school ! Has 
 a truant officer any right to force children against their will, to attend 
 a school where such accommodations only are found ? Would you be over 
 scrupulous about the way you used this "convenience?" Can you blame 
 boys for destroying it in the hope that they will get better, and with 
 full knowledge that what they do get cannot be worse? 
 
 What sort of ideals of sanitation and cleanliness will boys imbibe 
 at a school where such conditions exist! 
 
 Can the moral tone of childhood be improved by such conditions? 
 
 make known the condition of the stall and seat. 
 
 Ventilation of To keep the toilet rooms free 
 
 Toilet Rooms from odor, particularly in cold 
 weather when the windows are 
 closed, it is necessary where a number of water 
 closets and urinals are grouped together, to have 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 GIRLS' "TOILET ROOM" IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 
 Would YOU send YOUR daughter — would you permit her to attend 
 a school with such accommodations? 
 
 Where is the refining influence, the air of culture about such con- 
 veniences? Depend on it, no such toilet accommodations are found 
 in the good private schools of the country where girls are sent to be 
 "finished." The plea of economy might explain but cannot excuse such 
 a toilet room in a public school. No matter how poor the community, 
 there is enough wealth to make the improvements necessary. If not, 
 publication of the fact will bring to the fore some public spirited citizen, 
 who will donate the necessary equipment. 
 
 the room well ventilated. It might be well to say 
 a word of warning here against constructing a toilet 
 room which is entered by descending a few steps from 
 the corridor. Such design brings the doorway leading 
 to the toilet room near the ceiling of the toilet room 
 where the hottest air and foulest odors rise. The 
 result is, the moment the door is opened the nostrils 
 are assailed with an overpowering stench, while 
 much of the foul air escapes to the corridor and to 
 other rooms of the building. 
 
 This condition should be carefully guarded 
 against and with a little forethought and study 
 can be entirely eliminated. On the following 
 pages the question of ventilating the toilet room 
 is described more in detail. It is a subject of 
 great importance and should receive careful con- 
 sideration. 
 
 These local vents must have 
 an area each of at least eight 
 square inches, and must be 
 connected to a vent shaft hav- 
 ing a positive draft insured 
 by mechanical means. 
 
 Instead of ventilating 
 the rooms through the local 
 vents of the several closets, 
 they may be vented through 
 registers located back of the 
 closets. Either method may 
 be employed in the boys' 
 toilet rooms, local conditions 
 determining in each case 
 which is the better. If, for 
 instance, the toilet room is 
 at a lower level than the 
 approach to the room, as 
 previously explained, the 
 better practice by far would 
 be to vent through the closets. 
 If there is any reason 
 to believe that the air of 
 the room would be heavy, the 
 local vent method would be 
 the one to adopt. Otherwise, 
 either method will give very 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 In the Girls' toilet room, 
 however, for hygienic reasons 
 the rooms should be vented 
 
 through registers back of the closets, not through 
 
 local vents in the closets. 
 
 Teachers' 
 
 Retiring 
 
 Room 
 
 Local-Vent There are special local-vent 
 
 Closets closets made for the purpose of 
 
 ventilating the rooms through the 
 closet bowls, when a number of fixtures are grouped 
 together as they generally are in public buildings. 
 
 In addition to the general toilet 
 accommodations for the students, 
 each floor of a school building should 
 be provided with a retiring room 
 and toilet accommodations for the teachers. 
 
 This is a detail too often overlooked in the 
 design of school buildings although it is as necessary 
 as toilet accommodations for the children. The 
 teachers should not be forced to mingle or associate 
 with the children on the intimate terms common to 
 the democratic surrounding of a public toilet room. 
 It is liable to breed familiarity, a condition that 
 should not exist. 
 
 Janitor's On each floor of the building 
 
 Room and provision should be made for a 
 
 Slop-Sink closet or room in which the janitor 
 
 can keep his cleaning implements; 
 and a slop-sink at which he can draw clean water 
 and dispose of the waste water from scrubbing 
 and cleaning. If a slop-sink is not provided, he must 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 of necessity use the closet bowls for disposing of the 
 waste water, and this is sure to damage the closets, 
 no doubt breaking many of them, for they are not 
 designed for that rough service. A janitor's slop- 
 sink on each floor of the building will pay for itself 
 over and over again each year in the saving of wear 
 and tear on the other fixtures. 
 
 Emergency A provision which should be made 
 
 Room or in all large buildings where a number 
 
 Infirmary of people congregate, and which is 
 
 particularly desirable in a school 
 building, is a room set aside as an infirmary and 
 
 an infirmary has been neglected to a great extent 
 in the past, but it is more than likely that the action 
 of a few of the Eastern cities, notably Boston, in 
 providing medical supervision for the schools will 
 be followed throughout the United States when the 
 benefits derived from the system become known. 
 
 What Others In the matter of supervising 
 
 Are Doing the health of school children, we 
 
 are very far behind many other 
 nations which we do not consider in our class. Argen- 
 tine, Belgium, Bulgaria, England, France, Japan, 
 Sweden and Switzerland make national provision for 
 
 RANGE OF CLOSETS IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL IN ST. LOUIS 
 There is no evidence of vandalism here. The walls and floors are fresh and 
 
 clean. The air is pure, no odors can permeate the building; the children learn the 
 
 use, the convenience and the comfort of good sanitary appliances; while last but not 
 
 least, the moral tone of the place is elevated. 
 
 Note the ventilation ducts near the ceiling. They are large enough to keep 
 
 the rooms from getting foul no matter how much the room is used. 
 
 equipped with the fixtures necessary for emergency 
 cases. For instance, there should be a lavatory, a 
 water closet, bath tub, and possibly a hospital sink, 
 while in cities where the school children have their 
 teeth examined, a practice which might well be 
 adopted in every city, the necessary fixtures for the 
 dental purposes would be required. Provision for 
 
 the medical inspection of school children, while in 
 America and Germany the practice has not become 
 general, only certain of the cities having taken up 
 the work. 
 
 In Boston, at the present time, a nurse is in 
 charge of the physical welfare of the children in each 
 school, to assist in testing the sight, hearing and other 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 THE OLD SWIMMIN' HOLE. 
 
 Do you remember what a lure to you was 
 the old swimmin' hole, where, after a re- 
 freshing dip you could lie on a grassy bank, 
 listening to the hum of insects close by? 
 
 It was the water made you play truant. 
 School was a prison and you were a captive. 
 Better freedom and a thrashing than a dull 
 afternoon in the school room. 
 
 senses of the pupils, with a view of correcting any 
 infirmity which might prevent their applying them- 
 selves to their studies as they should. In addition 
 the nurses are always on the lookout to detect symp- 
 toms of contagious diseases like measles, mumps, 
 whooping-cough and fevers. 
 
 In order that the nurse 
 will have the proper facilities 
 and a suitable place to con- 
 duct her examinations, an 
 infirmary will be found in- 
 dispensable in schools which 
 contemplate medical super- 
 vision. Even where there 
 is no medical supervision, 
 an infirmary containing the 
 fixtures enumerated, and a 
 couch to lie on should be 
 provided. Fainting fits, and 
 other weaknesses are not 
 uncommon where a number 
 of children are gathered to- 
 gether, and a suitable place 
 should be provided for the 
 treatment of the patient in 
 such cases. 
 
 nine months of the year. Out of 365 days of the 
 year, on not more than half of them are the schools 
 put to any use whatever. 
 
 This state of affairs, in line with the doctrine of 
 conservation of resources, has led to a movement 
 towards the more general use of the school buildings 
 after hours, dedicating them to as many uses as can 
 reasonably be done, without conflicting with the chief 
 and foremost purpose, education or training of the 
 young. 
 
 The necessity for public convenience stations 
 in all parts of every city has been recognized for many 
 years, but the cost has restricted them to the crowded 
 business sections only, leaving the various outlaying 
 districts without any conveniences of a public nature, 
 outside of saloons and like places. Now, however, 
 there is relief in sight. There is no reason why a 
 portion of each school building can not be set aside 
 for this very purpose, with benefit to every one in 
 the entire community. There is more or less waste 
 space in the basement of every school building which 
 could easily be put to this purpose. And the cost 
 would be trifling, amounting only to the expense of 
 installing the plumbing work. 
 
 NOON TIME AND JUNE TIME, DOWN BY THE RIVER." 
 
 Youth is the time of enjoyment, of activity, when the imagination 
 is fired with thought and stories of adventure, and nowhere can the 
 imagination be given greater license than on the water, be it lake, stream, 
 ocean or canal. It is likewise the time when imagination and action 
 must be guided in the right direction, for the truant age of boyhood is 
 one of the turning points of life. 
 
 Public There is no other public prop- 
 
 Convenience erty, perhaps, which is used so little 
 Stations in in proportion to its cost, yet which 
 Schools could be put to more extensive use 
 
 than the school houses. Hundreds 
 of millions of dollars are invested in school property 
 in each large city of the country, and the schools 
 are used only six or seven hours a day for less than 
 
 Public Baths In addition to the closet accom- 
 
 in the modations, public baths may be, 
 
 Schools and in some cities are provided in 
 
 the school buildings. Baths for 
 the school children are common to the schools in 
 many cities, while in others the benefits of the bath 
 are being extended, after school hours, to the public 
 at large. For this a small fee can be charged, if 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 necessary, making this new department self-sup- 
 porting if not actually a source of revenue. Turkish 
 baths ought to be made an important department of 
 the bathing facilities, where from fifteen to twenty- 
 five cents a person could have the benefit of this 
 remedial treatment. Popular-price Turkish baths 
 
 every public school into a public bath house and public 
 convenience station, to be used after school hours. 
 This would not only give the public greater use of the 
 public schools, but would provide conveniences for 
 the entire population which are badly needed now, 
 and help defray the cost of the public schools. 
 
 THE SUCCESSOR OF THE OLD SWIMMING HOLE 
 
 No clam shells here to cut the feet. Every convenience is here provided, tem- 
 perature, depth, pure water, games, companions, instructors, light and heat. Showers 
 in the back ground are for washing before entering the pool, to keep the water in 
 its original purity as long as possible. 
 
 There will be no truancy in the schools provided with these accommodations, 
 and the physical development of the children will be bettered, training of the mind 
 and body going hand in hand so each pupil will be well balanced. 
 
 are as necessary as ordinary baths, and in the school 
 buildings can be worked out many of the problems 
 of inexpensive conveniences for the citizens. The 
 plunge bath is fast becoming a part of every school 
 equipment, and all that remains to make a fully- 
 equipped Turkish bath are a couple of hot rooms, 
 which are easily provided. Under the new order of 
 affairs, the class rooms are to be used for public 
 meetings; but the usual sanitary equipment of the 
 building, consisting of toilet rooms and sanitary 
 drinking fountains, will be found sufficient to take 
 care of the public. In fact, outside of the public 
 toilet rooms, and the Turkish-bath hot-rooms, very 
 little extra equipment would be necessary to convert 
 
 Bathing The principle is fast becoming 
 
 Facilities in recognized that we ought to have 
 the Schools facilities for bathing in the schools 
 as well as in prisons and other 
 institutions where a large number of people are 
 thrown together. As a result, the installing of shower 
 baths in school buildings has become a settled practice 
 in some cities, where particularly in the poorer quarters 
 each new pupil is initiated by a bath before taking 
 up his studies with the rest of the children. But it 
 is not in the poor quarters only that bathing facilities 
 are provided and used. Showers and lockers to hold 
 the clothes while the children are bathing are provided 
 in all the public schools in those cities and the way the 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 children take to them shows they fill a long felt 
 want. Boys who object to the usual tubbing at home, 
 take kindly to the showers, particularly so as it is 
 the final touch after exercising in the gymnasium or 
 playing on the school ground. Indeed, the showers 
 become a necessary part of most school buildings now 
 that gymnasiums and playgrounds where athletic 
 sports are held are becoming part of every well- 
 equipped school building. After a game of basket- 
 ball, football or a half hour in the gymnasium a shower 
 bath is almost indispensable to the exercisers. 
 
 Swimming The teaching of swimming is 
 
 Pools being considered seriously by school 
 
 authorities throughout the country, 
 as it has been by educational authorities in Great 
 Britain and Europe, where swimming pools in school 
 buildings are by no means uncommon. In this 
 country, likewise, swimming pools have been pro- 
 vided in the school buildings of some cities, and no 
 doubt the benefits derived will cause their use to 
 spread to other cities. Many of the old school readers 
 tell the story of a scientist being ferried across the 
 river by a man of no education, whom he quizzed as 
 to the studies he was proficient in. Upon being told 
 
 GOOD CITIZENS IN THE MAKING. 
 
 School athletics, in which all take part as competitors for the good 
 of health, not a few for the glory of records, build up the body, and 
 knit together the children in a common bond of interest. Athletic 
 games make the boys manly; develop quick judgment and self reliance, 
 besides keeping them off the streets and from places of questionable 
 morality. If gymnasium, showers, lockers, pool and other equipment 
 did no more, they would justify the cost. Good men and women are 
 the greatest works of nature, and it is the province of education to aid 
 nature in the work. 
 
 the boatman knew nothing about algebra, the 
 scientist told him that one quarter of his life had 
 been lost. Two or three other studies the boatman 
 
 WHY DO BOYS PLAY TRUANT? 
 
 When in quest of occupation and adven- 
 ture. They want to swim; they want to learn 
 to dive; they want to splash around in the 
 cool waters of their usual aquatic haunts. 
 The one way to keep them from playing 
 truant, is to provide for them in the school the 
 attraction they seek for outside. Fit up a 
 swimming pool in the school, interest the boys 
 in water games, and no lure offered by the 
 great out doors will tempt them from their 
 companions and their sports. 
 
 knew nothing about, proved to the scientist's mind 
 that most of the poor boatman's life had been lost 
 or wasted. Just then he noticed that the boatman 
 was taking off his coat. Upon 
 asking what was the matter, 
 the boatman inquired, could 
 he swim. Upon replying 
 "No," "then" replied the 
 boatman "the whole of your 
 life is lost, for the boat has 
 sprung a leak and will soon 
 go to the bottom." 
 
 The moral of that lesson 
 taught widespread through- 
 out the United States is now 
 being applied and in inland 
 cities where natural bodies of 
 water are lacking in which 
 children can learn to swim, 
 the providing of swimming 
 pools becomes as necessary 
 as equipment for any other 
 branch of education. When 
 all the children of the land 
 are taught to take care of 
 themselves in the water, and 
 how to handle others who 
 cannot swim, there will be a 
 smaller annual toll of deaths 
 from drowning, and fewer 
 people who "rock the boat" 
 when on the water. To preserve life would seem 
 to be as important as to support oneself; and it 
 would seem better to teach a boy to swim, than to 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 teach him a smattering of some dead language which 
 he will forget as soon as he is out of school. 
 
 Where natural water courses are at hand, the 
 providing of swimming pools is not so necessary, 
 although it would seem that the art of swimming 
 should be taught in schools; besides the pool would fur- 
 nish amusement for boys during winter months as well 
 as summer, keeping them off the streets, from playing 
 truant and benefitting them in other ways. They will 
 be necessary at all events in schools which have pub- 
 lic baths and convenience stations fitted up in them, 
 and it will never be a mistake to make a swimming 
 pool a standard part of every school equipment. 
 
 School The 
 
 Kitchens for teaching of 
 Domestic domestic 
 
 Science science 
 
 — cooking — 
 is now an established branch 
 of education, and in schools 
 where cooking is taught, a 
 room must be fitted up as a 
 kitchen, with sinks for draw- 
 ing water and cleaning dishes, 
 ranges for cooking the food 
 and heating the water, tables 
 for the pupils to work at, and 
 all the usual utensils, fixtures 
 and fittings common to equip- 
 ments of that sort. These 
 kitchens can be put to 
 different uses in the future, 
 when the public school 
 buildings are put to the many 
 uses they finally will. For 
 instance, what would be 
 better for the country as a 
 whole, and the cause of edu- 
 cation in particular, than to 
 have each girl make her own 
 graduating dress, and the class 
 in general prepare the refresh- 
 ments served at the graduation exercises and dance? 
 
 revolutionary and socialistic? In cities where cook- 
 ing is taught in the schools, the school authorities 
 do not hesitate to provide foodstuffs for the students 
 to cook, and eat if they see fit ; then why should they 
 refuse to provide a like or even greater amount for 
 the underfed school children? 
 
 The same good end would be attained in either 
 case, and the necessity would justify the expenditure. 
 If any further justification be needed, however, let it 
 be had in the good that will follow the teaching of 
 food values and posting the growing generation on 
 pure foods, and how to detect doped food stuffs. 
 
 No more important subject could be taught 
 
 SHOWER BATHS IN A NEW YORK CITY PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 Any school building in the country can be fitted up likewise at com- 
 paratively small cost, and with lasting benefit to future generations. 
 
 Lunches for Then there is another reason 
 
 the School why kitchens will be required in 
 
 Children schools of the future. At the present 
 
 time it is safe to say that two per 
 cent, of the children attending school are hungry. 
 This not only causes mental inefficiency, for nobody 
 can work or study to the best advantage while tor- 
 tured by the gnawing of hunger, but it is furthermore 
 one of the causes of crime. Why, then should not the 
 public schools serve a wholesome noonday lunch to 
 the pupils, even though the practice would seem 
 
 in the public schools than the proper feeding of the 
 human race, how to market, how to buy, and how to 
 prepare foods in a wholesome and nutritious way. 
 The cost of this department would come back a 
 thousand fold to every individual, and come back 
 direct in saving of bills, greater energy derived from 
 pure and wholesome foods, so nobody could or would 
 object to the outlay. The meals prepared would then 
 be a by-product of this department which has already 
 paid for and justified itself, so nobody can object to 
 feeding the children with them, when doing so makes 
 better individuals and better citizens of them. For 
 fear it might be thought socialistic to act on this sug- 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 DEMOCRACY OF THE COMMON DRINKING CUP. 
 
 The way untold thousands of children 
 found early graves before the danger was 
 understood and guarded against. If you have 
 a little child in the home, protect her from 
 illness and possible death by insisting on a 
 water of unquestioned purity and wholesome- 
 ness, and drinking fountains which will not 
 undo all the other good work of Sanitation 
 by spreading contagion from cup to lip. 
 
 gestion, it might be well to record here that in the 
 City of London, England, the practice is in force at 
 present. 
 
 Drinking It goes without saying that no 
 
 Water for drinking water should be supplied 
 
 Schools to schools which is not perfectly 
 
 sterile and wholesome in every re- 
 spect. Because a water is sterile is no indication that 
 it is wholesome, for distilled water is perfectly sterile, 
 yet it is not wholesome or beneficial when used daily. 
 It lacks the natural salt necessary to a potable water and 
 shows very well what is meant by the statement that 
 wholesomeness as well as purity is desired. Unfor- 
 tunately, there are no means for pre-determining 
 what is a wholesome water. The purity of the water 
 can always be determined by analyses, but whether 
 or not the water is wholesome can be determined only 
 by the experience of others who have used the water. 
 In cities, where the water is supplied through the 
 city mains, there is no alternative but to use the water 
 
 so provided, whether wholesome or not. Cities have 
 not arrived at that advanced stage, yet, where they 
 make a distinction between the quality and quantity 
 of water supplied. To them, water is water, whereas, 
 as a matter of fact, there is as much difference between 
 waters as between the different supplies of any other 
 merchantable commodity. Look, then, to the quality 
 of the water to be supplied to the schools, and if there 
 be a choice of supplies, choose that which is best from 
 a wholesome standpoint. A water which is wholesome 
 can be made sterile — but of course no water no matter 
 how wholesome would be accepted unless the source 
 was above suspicion; for at its best, there is more ill- 
 ness enters a building by the water route, than ever 
 entered by way of the sewer. 
 
 Water Of course the water must be 
 
 Filters sterile. If the supply delivered 
 
 through the mains is not filtered, 
 then in each school a filter should be provided. It 
 will not be necessary to filter all of the water entering 
 the school, however, but that only which is used for 
 drinking, cooking and like purposes. 
 
 Right here, though, is where it is necessary to 
 sound a warning against many of the so-called "filters" 
 on the market. Among the little household filters 
 which depend upon a porous stone or porcelain cylin- 
 der to purify the water passing through, not one of 
 them can be considered of any value in ordinary 
 practice. True, the Pasteur-Chamberlain filter will 
 give a perfectly sterile filtrate for a short time, but 
 even this filter, the peer of its kind, must be taken 
 apart and the parts sterilized in a hot oven every few 
 days or it will be no better than the rest ; and it would 
 never get such care and treatment in any school 
 building. Most other filters of this type are at 
 their best, worse than useless, as bacteria multiply 
 in passing through them, so that the filtered water 
 contains several times the number of bacteria con- 
 tained in the raw unfiltered water. 
 
 The little strainers screwed on a faucet, and 
 called by courtesy "filters" are of no value whatever. 
 They are not good strainers even, holding back only 
 the coarsest of materials. 
 
 Operation There are filters, however, sand 
 
 of Filters filters, which when properly looked 
 
 after will give a pure drinking water. 
 These may be either "pressure filters" through which 
 the water to be filtered is forced by its own pressure, 
 or "gravity filters" located at a higher elevation than 
 the fixtures supplied, and through which the water 
 percolates by gravity. 
 
 But even these filters will not give a sterile water 
 unless a coagulant is used with them. That is, a 
 chemical, usually sulphate of alumina or sulphate of 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 iron, automatically fed to the raw water before it 
 enters the filter. This coagulant forms a jelly-like 
 layer on top of the sand which entangles and holds 
 back any suspended matter, including bacteria, 
 brought in contact with it. Without the coagulating 
 apparatus and the jelly-layer, the process is simply 
 a straining one, and the water will not be sterile, 
 although it will be clear and suitable for the swimming 
 pool and like uses. 
 
 In school work, therefore, particular care should 
 be exercised, not only to provide coagulated apparatus 
 for the filters, but to see that the apparatus is kept 
 supplied with coagulant and in good operating con- 
 dition; and that the filters are cleaned at suitable 
 intervals — a simple matter affected by reversing the 
 flow of water — otherwise the water will be no better 
 than if no filter were used. 
 
 district. As water is a well-known channel of infec- 
 tion, and common drinking cups a mode of infecting 
 the water or communicating a disease by direct con- 
 tact, the use of common drinking cups, or fountains 
 which require the use of them, should give way to 
 the sanitary drinking fountain. Even then watchful 
 care is necessary to keep the fountain from being con- 
 taminated. Children like to play in water, and it 
 is not an uncommon sight to see them rubbing their 
 hands — sometimes very dirty hands — over the cup 
 of the sanitary drinking fountain over which the water 
 flows to the drinker's mouth. 
 
 Sewage The city schools have the prob- 
 
 Disposal lem of sewage disposal worked out 
 
 for them in advance, in a system of 
 
 public sewers into which the sewage can be discharged. 
 
 Children in a large city public school drinking out of common drinking cups before bubble fountains were put in. 
 Note the color democracy in this group, in which weak and strong, healthy and diseased drink together. 
 Would you want your children to drink from such a cup? 
 
 Drinking Drinking fountains of a sanitary 
 
 Fountains type which require no cups, or else 
 
 individual drinking cups, should be 
 provided for the school children. The ordinary 
 drinking fountain with one cup for the use of all the 
 children is unsanitary in the extreme and goes a great 
 way towards making epidemic cases of diphtheria, 
 mumps, and whooping-cough, not to mention the 
 possibility of communicating the bacilli of tuberculosis 
 from lip to lip. In a school building children come 
 from all parts of the school district, mingle together 
 for a few hours, then separate; and if one child is 
 affected with a communicable disease, great danger 
 exists of it spreading to others, thence to the whole 
 
 Country and suburban schools are not so fortunately 
 situated, and sometimes city schools are built in the 
 outlying districts before sewers and water mains have 
 been extended to them. When such is the case, a safe, 
 sane and sanitary method of disposal must be adopted, 
 and whatever method this might be, see to it that it 
 is not a cesspool. At no greater expense than the 
 cost of a cesspool, a small sewage purification works 
 can be installed, consisting of septic tank, aeriator, 
 and sand filter, all under ground concealed from view, 
 inodorous, effective, and taking up no space on the 
 surface of the grounds. Further, in place of being a 
 menace to the entire community and the inmates of 
 the school, as a cesspool would be, and possessing 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 the additional danger of caving in when some of the 
 children are walking over it, the sewage purification 
 plant will prove absolutely harmless and not the least 
 bit objectionable. 
 
 Under no consideration should the old-fashioned 
 out-buildings be resorted to, modern progress having 
 
 sun beat down, and you experienced a delightful 
 sense of warmth, a genial glow, while the lungs drew 
 in copious drafts of cool, vitalized air. It is in those 
 sunny nooks that the first flowers put forth their 
 blossoms, and the first games of marbles are played, 
 unconscious of the fact that the air is cold. 
 
 The reason for this com- 
 fort is found in the fact that 
 you were warmed by radiant 
 heat a peculiarity of which is 
 that it will pass freely through 
 space without raising the tem- 
 perature of the air through 
 which it passes. It warms 
 the body, but not the air, so 
 that while comfortably warm 
 one can breath the cool in- 
 vigorating air. 
 
 In mid-summer we have 
 the other condition or method 
 of heat. The sun beats down 
 fiercely on wall and pavement, 
 warming them to an uncom- 
 fortable degree. The air 
 passing over these surfaces is 
 
 BUBBLE FOUNTAINS WHICH REPLACED THE COMMON CUP IN A LARGE SCHOOL 
 A cup which had been used in a high school, for several months without having been 
 washed — a disgusting fact in itself — was found upon examination to be lined inside with a thick brown 
 deposit. Under the microscope this deposit proved to be composed of particles of mud, thousands of 
 bits of decaying skin, dead epithelial cells, and millions of bacteria. To determine the virility or harm- 
 lessness of this sediment, some of it was injected under the skin of a healthy guinea pig. Forty hours 
 later the pig died and an examination showed pneumonia germs had caused the death. Another pig 
 inoculated with some of the sediment from the same cup, developed tuberculosis. 
 
 made these no longer 
 necessary, if indeed they ever 
 were; and for sanitary 
 reasons, as well as for the 
 reasons before mentioned, 
 they should no longer be 
 tolerated. 
 
 The Heating In con- 
 
 and sidering the 
 
 Ventilation methods of 
 of Schools heating and 
 
 ventilation 
 to adopt for schools, the first 
 two principles to keep in mind 
 are that there are different 
 kinds of heat; and that it is 
 well to consider the heating and ventilation separately, 
 not as one combined system, as is too often done. 
 On an early spring morning with the temperature 
 somewhere around 50 degrees Farenheit, you have no 
 doubt stood in a sheltered nook out doors where the 
 
 heated to a high temperature and we walk about in a 
 sea of hot air. Seeking the shade brings but little relief, 
 for the air we breathe is devitalized, the heating evi- 
 dently depriving it of some of its invigorating qualities; 
 and while we gasp for air, we are shriveled up by the 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 moisture wrung from us to supply the lack of normal 
 humidity of the atmosphere. 
 
 Quality of In the first case we have the 
 
 Heat condition known as radiant heat, 
 
 such as that supplied by stoves, 
 direct steam radiation, or hot water heating. In the 
 second case we have the condition brought about by 
 the system of hot-air heating; indirect steam heating; 
 and fan or blower systems of steam heating. As a 
 simple principle of heating, then, direct radiation is 
 unquestionably the best; but in hot-air heating and 
 indirect systems of steam heating, the functions of 
 heating and ventilation are supposed to be combined. 
 Let us see how true that is. 
 
 It must be admitted that with hot-air systems 
 and indirect steam heating, air is introduced to the 
 buildings in a continuous stream, and after use passes 
 out again through specially provided vent ducts. But 
 ventilation — real ventilation — is more than passing 
 a stream of air through the various rooms of a building. 
 The quality of the air must be considered, and unless 
 the quality is good, the ventilation is poor, no matter 
 how large a supply is provided. 
 
 School The ideal ventilation, of course, 
 
 Ventilation would make the interior of buildings 
 like the world outside. That is a 
 standard, however, we can hardly expect to attain, 
 although we can strive for it. In none of the com- 
 bined systems of heating and ventilation can this 
 condition be even approximated, for as the walls, 
 floors, ceilings and contents must be heated, and the 
 heat loss supplied from the heated air, the air must of 
 necessity be heated way above the temperature at 
 which the rooms are to be maintained. Heating the 
 air above, say 70 degrees Farenheit, robs it of some of 
 its vitality, and when the air is heated by passing over 
 the hot iron plates of a furnace — sometimes red hot — 
 or through steam coils having temperatures of from 
 212 degrees to 300 degrees Farenheit, it seems to be 
 "burned" if the expression may be used. At all 
 events, some of the more volatile and health-giving 
 elements are burned out or driven off, leaving a poor 
 air of low quality. 
 
 The thing to do then is to separate the heating 
 system from the ventilation system, making them 
 entirely independent of each other, yet working in 
 harmony. For instance, heat all the rooms of the 
 building by direct radiation locating the stoves or 
 radiators in the rooms to be heated. There will be 
 no question, then, about the inmates being warm at 
 all times, even when the windows are open and a flood 
 of pure fresh air of lower temperature is sweeping 
 through the rooms. 
 
 For ventilation, fit up the supply and exhaust 
 ducts and shafts as is now done for the heating and 
 ventilation system, but instead of supplying air of 
 sufficient quantity and temperature to heat the build- 
 ing, send it to the rooms in a gentle stream and at a 
 temperature of not over 70 degrees Farenheit, and 
 containing the normal amount of humidity. Instead 
 of small coils at high temperature to heat the air, provide 
 large coils of low temperature, so the air cannot be 
 burned or de-vitalized; you then have at no greater 
 cost than for the combined system, separate heating 
 and ventilation systems operating harmoniously and 
 approximating as nearly as possible the radiant heat 
 of Nature, and the fresh air of out-doors. 
 
 THE BUBBLE FOUNTAIN IN A CHILDRENS' 
 PLAYGROUND. 
 
 Democracy here without the common 
 drinking cup. A happy group of children just 
 out of the plunge bath. Where there is such 
 an attraction for them, no danger of them 
 forming bad habits, keeping bad company, or 
 getting into evil ways. 
 
 In the interest of better sanitation, better heat- 
 ing and ventilation, it is well to know that all our 
 present methods of ventilation are, at the best, mere 
 experiments; a groping towards the ideal. Until such 
 time, therefore, as experience and experiment have 
 determined accurately the best method of ventilation, 
 it is safest to deliver to the children the air in all its 
 original purity, without heating it or otherwise treat- 
 ing it more than the exigencies of the case absolutely 
 demand. In severe climates like the northern part of 
 the United States and Canada, during exceptionally 
 cold weather the air used for ventilation must, of 
 course, be heated some before discharging it into the 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 rooms. The less it is heated even then, the better; 
 while in all cases it would seem the best policy to 
 supply more radiant heat when the weather is cold 
 and let the air introduced for ventilation be as cold 
 as the children can stand. 
 
 The Food To make strong, vigorous ener- 
 
 For School getic men and women of future citi- 
 Children zens, start by teaching the school 
 
 children what to eat and drink, and 
 what to let alone. Once they have these principles 
 impressed on their minds while young, they will stick 
 to them throughout their lives. 
 
 More health is wrecked during the period of early 
 adolescence by the "foods" eaten and drug habits 
 formed, than by all other causes combined. Adoles- 
 cence is a critical period of childhood, when of all 
 times only the best and most suitable foods should be 
 taken. Unfortunately it is at this time that children 
 err the most against the laws of hygienic eating. The 
 girls take too large quantities of candy — seldom 
 pure — soda water, "soft" drinks often containing 
 habit forming drugs, greasy "shop" pastry, and coffee. 
 The boys feeling the call to do something "manly" 
 take to cigarettes and alcohol. 
 
 It is a mistake to try and overcome this tendency 
 of boyhood by pointing out the dangers of alcohol and 
 nicotine. It is the very fact that they risk health 
 which gives to the acts the element of daring, and 
 makes them in their own eyes heros for taking the 
 
 risk. If you want to get boys to do a certain thing, 
 tell them it is dangerous. The love of adventure or of 
 risk and daring, will lure every boy with good red 
 blood in his veins to do the very things pointed out 
 for him to avoid as dangerous. 
 
 The way to control them is to lead them, not try 
 to frighten them with a mental picture of the conse- 
 quence of their acts. In the flush of youth, health and 
 strength, every boy has a certain contempt for the 
 agencies of sickness and accident, and feels immune 
 from illness of any kind. They are too remote in his 
 consciousness to affect him. They might overtake 
 others, but he is different. 
 
 But every boy has his blind side — his easy avenue 
 of approach, and that is his admiration for and desire 
 to be an athlete. That is the cord to play upon. 
 Girls, too, have their pardonable weakness — the desire 
 to be pretty and attractive. 
 
 Teach them, then, that perfect health is the first 
 requisite for the fulfilment of these ambitions, and 
 that perfect health can be had only when the blood 
 coursing through their systems is absolutely pure. 
 Even then there will be a difference in their relative 
 strength and beauty, but no one can be strong and 
 attractive without pure blood in their bodies. 
 
 Pure blood cannot be had if unfit food is eaten 
 and cheap candy, highly-colored soda water, doped 
 "soft" drinks, greasy pastry, excessive meat, coffee, 
 tea, tobacco and alcohol, are among the articles which 
 must be classed as unfit foods. 
 
J& 
 
 MYOMERE ©*™ IRATIHI 
 
 Authors Note: — As bathing has a beneficial or injurious effect on the system 
 according to whether it is rightly administered or improperly taken, it is necessary 
 that teachers and school authorities know the various effects of different baths, 
 so that children, — particularly weak children — can be guided to a proper use of 
 water which will build up, not tear down. So that this information will be readily 
 available, it is here made part of School Sanitation. Every teacher should read it. 
 
 iTRUCTURE of the skin.— If the 
 
 section of a piece of healthy skin be 
 viewed through a microscope it will 
 be found, as shown in the illustration, 
 to be a many-functioned organ instead 
 of a mere covering to protect the external surface of 
 the body and support the internal organs. The 
 outer, or scarf skin, will be seen to be made up of 
 numerous scalelike cells of a horny consistency, 
 which are being shed constantly and replaced by 
 younger cells from below. Immediately beneath 
 the outer, or scarf skin, is a layer of pigment cells. 
 It is the difference in quantity and color of pigment 
 deposited in these cells which gives to different 
 races their characteristic colors. 
 
 Indenting this pigment layer at frequent inter- 
 vals, so frequent, in fact, that fifty-seven thousand 
 may be grouped together in one square inch of 
 space, are little elevations, or centers, where blood 
 vessels and nerve fibers terminate. Underneath the 
 terminal of nerves and blood vessels is the true 
 skin, which is sensitive. Beneath the true skin 
 are fat cells embedded in fleshy tissue. Bedded 
 
 deep in the true skin 
 glands with their little 
 the various layers to 
 The roots of hairs are 
 
 are a myriad of sweat 
 ducts leading through 
 the surface of the body, 
 likewise embedded in 
 
 Microsopic View of Healthy Skin. 
 
 the true skin, and the stems extend out through 
 
 oil ducts, which serve to conduct forth the oil secreted 
 by the glands. 
 
 Oil A sectional view through an 
 
 Glands oil gland, oil duct and hair is shown, 
 
 greatly enlarged, in the next illus- 
 tration. The root of the hair has its origin below the 
 gland, where it communicates with a nerve cell to 
 give it the sensation of touch, and with a blood 
 vessel to supply it with nourishment. 
 
 The Up through the center of the 
 
 Hair oil gland grows the hair and passes 
 
 out to the surface of the skin, through 
 the little oil duct, through which the gland pours 
 forth its lubricating and softening 
 fluid to the surface of the body. 
 Oil glands, which are quite numer- 
 ous, are scattered over the entire 
 surface of the body, a gland and 
 duct being found wherever there 
 is a hair, as well as in many 
 places where there are no hairs. 
 The total number of hairs on the 
 human body may be judged from 
 the fact that there are estimated 
 to be one hundred and twenty 
 thousand hairs on a normal scalp. 
 
 Sweat More important, perhaps, than 
 
 Glands the oil glands and ducts are the 
 
 numerous sweat glands embedded 
 in the skin and the minute ducts which conduct their 
 fluids out of the body. On the cheeks there are only 
 about five hundred and fifty sweat glands per square 
 inch; on the forehead there are twelve hundred glands 
 per inch, and on the soles of the feet and palms of 
 the hands, where they are the most numerous of any 
 part of the body, they number as high as twenty- 
 seven hundred per square inch. The little sweat 
 tubes where they pierce the outer skin of the palms of 
 the hands can be seen by a microscope dotting the 
 curves, circles and whorls which make up the intri- 
 cate patterns of the skin. These tubes can be seen, 
 greatly enlarged, in the succeeding illustration. 
 According to careful computation there are about 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 m 
 
 one million five hundred thousand sweat glands in 
 
 the entire body, the total length of which has been 
 
 variously estimated at from 23^ to 28 lineal miles. 
 
 When the number is conservatively 
 
 estimated, however, the total 
 
 length of perspiratory tubes will be 
 
 found in the individual of average 
 
 size to be less than 3 lineal miles. 
 
 If the coils of the little sweat 
 
 glands shown in the illustration 
 
 ' '. _ ' were unraveled and stretched out 
 
 Sweat Pores m Palm 
 
 of Hand m a straight line it would be 
 
 found that the combined 
 length of sweat duct and coils 
 of the gland measured about 
 one-fifteenth inch. If the total 
 number, one million five hundred 
 thousand, were then placed end 
 to end, they would be found to 
 measure about 166,666 lineal 
 inches, or 2.63 miles in length. 
 
 It will be noticed that near 
 the mouth of the tube the little 
 sweat ducts are not straight, but 
 take a tortuous or spiral course, 
 like the coils of a spring or the Sweat Glands and Ducts 
 spirals of a corkscrew. 
 
 Functions When speaking of the skin, 
 
 of the not only the scarf-skin and 
 
 Skin cutus, or true skin are meant, 
 
 but likewise are included the 
 various organs, glands, ducts, nerves and blood 
 vessels embedded in the skin. The outer, or 
 scarf-skin, being intended principally as a 
 protective covering for the body, is admirably 
 suited to that purpose. Made up as it is 
 of numerous layers of scalelike cells, composed of a 
 horny substance, like the hoofs and horns of cattle, 
 it is tough and will withstand an incredible amount 
 of wear, while at the same time it is soft and pliable. 
 This layer of the skin contains no blood vessels, so 
 that it will not bleed when cut or scratched, and as 
 it possesses no nerve centers is utterly devoid of feeling. 
 The outer scales of this layer are constantly peeling 
 off, exposing younger and more tender ones below, 
 which are better suited to normal conditions. 
 When, however, certain parts of the body are exposed 
 to great wear — as, for example, the palms of the 
 hands — a thick layer of horny scales or callus forms 
 to protect those parts. The dead scales, which have 
 become detached from the skin, or which hang like 
 ragged particles to the surface, require periodical 
 removing or they will putrefy on the body and 
 perhaps clog some of the oil ducts or sweat pores. 
 
 Effect of To keep the outer skin, or 
 
 Oil on the scarf-skin, in a soft, smooth and 
 
 Skin - pliable condition the various oil 
 
 glands pour out their secretions of 
 fatty matter, or oil, to lubricate the surface of the 
 body. 
 
 When for any reason the action of the oil glands 
 is interfered with or the ducts become obstructed 
 no oil can be poured out onto the skin, which then 
 becomes harsh and rough to the touch and, probably, 
 chapped. The chapped hands most boys have in 
 winter weather will readily present themselves to 
 most people as an example of such lack of activity 
 of the oil glands, while the remedy, application of 
 oil or grease to the rough parts, is simply doing 
 artificially what nature does automatically, and 
 without our being conscious of the fact. A turkish 
 bath will likewise remedy the chapped condition by 
 cleansing the surface of the skin and allowing the 
 oil and sweat glands to perform their normal func- 
 tions. Internal cleansing of the elementary canal 
 will likewise remove the stored up impurities, and 
 bring the skin back again to a normal condition. 
 
 Pigment The pigment cells under the 
 
 cells scarf-skin play a more important 
 
 part in maintaining perfect health 
 in the individual than would seem possible to the 
 casual observer. The function of the pigment de- 
 posited in these cells is to prevent the penetration 
 of harmful rays of light into the deeper tissues of 
 the body. The action of the nervous organism in 
 filling these pigment cells when necessary for the 
 protection of an individual will be recalled in the 
 "tanning" of dark-complexioned people when exposed 
 to strong sunlight, and the sunburn, with subsequent 
 tanning, of light-colored people when exposed to the 
 direct rays of the sun. From all indications, the 
 pigment of skin plays some part in nutrition. 
 
 So far as the bath is concerned the pigment 
 cells are of no further interest, for the bath has no 
 effect on the cells and the cells in no way interfere 
 with the bath. In institutions where light baths 
 are given, on the contrary, pigment, or the lack of 
 pigment, in the cells would have to be considered 
 for not only has the pigment, or lack of pigment, a 
 direct effect on the person subjected to the light 
 but, conversely, the intensity and color of light 
 ought to be tempered to the color and amount of 
 pigment in the cells. 
 
 The nerve centers which terminate in little 
 elevations just beneath the layer of pigment cells 
 impart to the skin the sense of touch, so that it 
 will be sensitive and respond to influences of heat, 
 cold, electricity or friction. The blood vessels, 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 working in harmony with the nerve centers, drive 
 the blood from the surface of the body at times, 
 then, responding to some reaction, like heat or 
 massage, draw it again to the surface and the skin 
 takes on a healthy glow. 
 
 Functions of Of the numerous functions per- 
 
 the Sweat formed by a healthy skin there is, 
 
 Glands perhaps, no one gland, duct or ves- 
 
 sel which plays a more important 
 part than the little sweat glands. Through their 
 pores these little glands, when in a healthy condition, 
 throw off from the blood about two pints, or two 
 pounds, of waste matter daily. In doing so the action 
 of the glands is continuous, not intermittent, and the 
 waste matter thrown off is generally in the form 
 of invisible vapor, though when the body becomes 
 warm from exercise or through excessive tempera- 
 ture of the atmosphere the vapor becomes visible 
 in the form of perspiration. In this respect the 
 sweat glands perform the glandular functions of 
 the kidneys, and when the sweat glands refuse to 
 perform their functions an extra burden is imposed 
 upon the kidneys. This in itself would not be so 
 serious a matter if the sweat glands and kidneys 
 performed the same functions and were interchange- 
 able in that respect, as they seem to be. As a matter 
 of fact, however, they are not, for the function of 
 the kidneys is to void fluids of an acid reaction, that 
 being the normal reaction of urine, while the sweat 
 glands excrete an alkaline solution, that being the 
 normal reaction of perspiration. By exciting either 
 of the organs they can be made apparently to per- 
 form the function of the other, but it is extremely 
 doubtful if they actually do so. By exciting the 
 sweat glands the fluid which would normally be 
 voided by the kidneys can be carried off from the 
 system in the form of perspiration; but what be- 
 comes of the poisonous or deleterious acid constitu- 
 ents of that urine — are they carried 
 Interchange- off likewise by the sweat glands, 
 ability of func- which were not designed for the 
 tion of Sweat purpose? It would seem not; and, 
 Glands and if not, such impurities will remain 
 Kidneys in the blood, accumulating with 
 
 time, until the health of the indi- 
 vidual becomes undermined. On the other hand, 
 by exciting the kidneys much of the fluid required 
 for perspiration may be carried off as urine. But, 
 as the kidneys are intended only to filter out the 
 acid wastes, what becomes of the alkaline matter 
 which should be carried off through the sweat ducts? 
 It would seem that each of the organs — the kidneys 
 and the sweat glands — have separate and distinct 
 functions to perform, and that one cannot success- 
 fully perform the functions of the other; even if it 
 
 could it would seem an unwise policy by neglect of 
 the person to require the kidneys to carry off daily 
 the two pounds of matter ordinarily excreted by the 
 sweat glands, or the sweat glands to carry off the 
 waste ordinarily voided by the kidneys. That the 
 kidneys or other organs cannot carry off the poisonous 
 matters excreted by the sweat glands is proved by 
 the fact that if the skin be varnished death will 
 quickly result, due, no doubt, to the retention of 
 some poisonous substance the nature and production 
 of which are not understood ; while the kidneys can 
 be put out of service for a much longer time without 
 fatal results. 
 
 Comparison To say that the sweat glands 
 
 of matter throw off two pounds of matter 
 
 thrown off by daily in the form of invisible per- 
 skin, kidneys spiration is to state a fact without 
 and other interpreting it. The bald state- 
 
 organs ment lacks perspective to show its 
 
 true size and proportion. A better 
 understanding of this important function of the sweat 
 glands can be had when it is known that the average 
 amount of matter voided by the kidneys in twenty- 
 four hours is approximately two and one-quarter 
 pounds, or but slightly more than that thrown off 
 by the sweat glands; while the solid fecal matter 
 discharged by the average person in twenty-four 
 hours is less than one-quarter pound and the vapor 
 carried off by the lungs during the same period of 
 time is approximately one pound. 
 
 There is another function of the skin in which 
 the sweat glands play the most important part, 
 and that is in maintaining a uniform and normal 
 temperature of the body under all the variations of 
 temperature to which individuals are exposed so 
 that, whether in the tropics, near the equator, or 
 in the frozen north searching for the pole, the tem- 
 perature of any individual would remain constant. 
 The reason why temperature remains constant is 
 because when exposed to a temperature greater 
 than 98° Fahrenheit, or when the body temperature 
 is raised by exercise, the little sweat ducts open wide 
 their mouths and pour forth a stream of moisture 
 proportioned to the temperature or the exertion. The 
 cooling effect of this moisture evaporating from the 
 surface of the body keeps down the temperature, 
 which otherwise would rise to a dangerous or fatal 
 degree. Owing to this wise provision of nature man 
 can live without the least discomfort when exposed 
 to incredible extremes of dry heat. 
 Temperature For instance, a man can sit with 
 man can complete immunity in a hot-air 
 
 withstand bath raised to a temperature suf- 
 
 ficiently high to bake bread or 
 cook meat, and men have habitually sat without 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 the slightest inconvenience in the hot room of a 
 Turkish bath where the temperature was 240° Fahr- 
 enheit, or 28° above the boiling point of water. 
 Many instances could be cited of persons whose 
 occupations exposed them to temperatures of from 
 250° to 280° Fahrenheit for long periods of time, 
 and others who have endured temperatures of 360° 
 Fahrenheit for shorter periods of time, but these 
 may be dispensed with and the case of Chabert alone 
 mentioned. Chabert, who was known to the public 
 as the "Fire King," was in the habit of entering an 
 oven, the temperature of which was from 400° to 
 600° Fahrenheit, and remaining there a considerable 
 length of time. 
 
 When exposed to a temperature of less than 
 normal body heat, on the other hand, the sweat 
 glands cease pouring forth their fluid, there is con- 
 sequently no evaporation from the skin to reduce 
 the temperature of the body, and the internal com- 
 bustion is required to furnish only enough heat to 
 replace that lost by radiation and convection. It 
 will be observed that when a person suffers from a 
 fever, the sweat glands are closed, and the skin rough 
 and dry. 
 
 In addition to the functions of the skin already 
 enumerated the skin possesses also a respiratory 
 function, giving off a small amount of carbon diox- 
 ide and taking in a small quantity of oxygen. In 
 this respect the skin performs to a slight extent 
 the function of the lungs. The skin can also absorb 
 slight amounts of water and other fluids, but these 
 last named functions are of no great importance 
 from the bathing standpoint. 
 
 Benefits of Bathing is beneficial to a person 
 
 Bathing in a number of ways and affects, 
 
 more or less, all of the glands, 
 vessels, fibers and cells of which the skin is composed. 
 These, in turn, react upon the large and more im- 
 portant organs of the body, thereby toning up the 
 entire system. As has already been mentioned, dead 
 scales, or cells, are constantly being shed from the 
 outer surface of the scarf-skin. Some of these scales, 
 however, are not cast off at once, but cling to the 
 younger cells beneath or hang in ragged fragments 
 to the body until removed by friction or other mechan- 
 ical means. These scales are dead organic matter 
 and unless removed will putrefy on the person, 
 besides, in many cases, interfering with or obstructing 
 the oil ducts and sweat pores. The putrefactive 
 bacteria engaged in breaking down the skin scales 
 might contain, among their number, some harmful 
 kinds which would cause illness or death if intro- 
 duced to the body through a puncture of the skin. 
 It will be readily seen, therefore, that a bath of any 
 kind, taken regularly, will remove this skin as fast 
 
 as it is shed, thereby preventing the mouths of oil 
 ducts and sweat glands becoming clogged by cast-off 
 materials; will soften and remove the dead or dying 
 skin which clings to the younger cells beneath, and 
 will keep the skin physically, if not surgically, clean, 
 thereby minimizing the danger from infection through 
 a cut or bruise. 
 
 The beneficial influence of water not only upon 
 the skin but likewise upon the nervous and circu- 
 lating systems, as well as the internal organs of the 
 bather, is due principally, to the temperatures of the 
 water in which the bath is taken. Baths must, there- 
 fore, be considered according to their temperatures 
 and modes of application, and the effect of hot and 
 cold baths as well as vapor and hot-air baths will 
 next be explained. 
 
 Cold-water Generally speaking, it may be 
 
 Baths said that the effect of a cold bath 
 
 is to close the pores of the skin, 
 contract the capillaries, driving the blood from the 
 surface of the body to the interior, leaving the skin 
 white and bloodless. The functions of the skin being 
 thereby temporarily arrested, the temperature of the 
 blood rises from 2° to 4° Fahrenheit, which is equiva- 
 lent to fever heat. Immediately after the bath, 
 provided it has not been prolonged to an unreason- 
 able extent, a reaction sets in, the sweat pores of the 
 skin open, the capillaries expand and the overheated 
 blood rushes back to the surface, bringing with it a 
 healthy glow and a grateful feeling of warmth. So 
 long as the healthy reaction can be induced, cold 
 baths are beneficial to an individual, but if the skin 
 remains white or turns blue the shock is too great 
 and a warmer bath should be resorted to. 
 
 Baths in water from 65° to 55° Fahrenheit are 
 considered cold, and anything below 55° Fahrenheit 
 is considered very cold. Very cold baths cannot 
 be borne long without ill effect, and baths which 
 lower the temperature of the skin to 9° Fahrenheit 
 may be endured for a very short time, but any 
 further reduction of the temperature is liable to 
 prove fatal. Baths in water from 80° to 65° Fahr- 
 enheit are considered cool baths. 
 
 When immersed in a bath of cold water the 
 temperature of which is above 50° Fahrenheit there 
 is a diminution of the temperature of the skin and 
 tissues near the surface of the body and the tem- 
 perature of the blood rises about 4° Fahrenheit. 
 At the same time there is a slight shock experienced 
 from the water, and if the cold is intense it induces 
 a feeling of numbness in the skin, which becomes 
 pale, due to contraction of the capillaries, which 
 sends the blood to the internal organs. 
 
 As would be expected the cold bath likewise 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 affects the central nervous system and the heart 
 and lungs, as may be seen by the tremor of the limbs, 
 the gasping for air, and the general depression which 
 follows, due to the pulse beat becoming weaker. 
 After the bath reaction sets in bringing blood and 
 warmth to the surface of the body. The colder the 
 water and more powerful the depressing effect the 
 quicker and more active will be the reaction, pro- 
 vided the individual is strong enough to withstand 
 the shock. 
 
 Tepid Any bath taken at a tempera- 
 
 Baths ture between 80° and 92° Fahren- 
 
 heit is a tepid bath. The effects 
 of the tepid bath arc not so numerous nor so far 
 reaching as those of other temperatures, so that 
 tepid baths can lie borne for hours without ill results. 
 
 Spray treatment by overhead shower heads, 
 any force, and various combinations can be rapidly 
 
 The effects of the tepid bath are confined to the sur- 
 face and do not reach the internal organs or nervous 
 and circulating systems. There is no reaction what- 
 ever following the tepid bath, and the body and blood 
 temperatures remain unchanged. On account of the 
 absence of shock or stimulus of the internal organs 
 tepid baths are best for people of weak constitutions 
 or weak hearts. They are the least beneficial of all 
 the baths, however, for those of strong, robust con- 
 stitutions, as their beneficial influence is confined 
 simply to cleansing the skin. 
 
 Warm Temperatures from 92° to 98° 
 
 Baths Fahrenheit include those of the 
 
 warm bath. There is no difference 
 in effect between a warm bath and a hot bath; the 
 only difference is in the degree of action and reaction 
 
 excited. In the warm bath the effect is not confined 
 to the surface, but is propagated to the internal 
 organs, which causes an increased flow of blood to 
 the surface and an increased frequency of the pulse 
 beat. It seems likewise to stimulate slightly the build- 
 ing up or renewal of new tissue. 
 
 Hot A bath at any temperature bc- 
 
 Baths tween 98° and 104° Fahrenheit is a 
 
 hot bath. When a person is im- 
 mersed in a hot bath a transfer of heat takes place 
 from the warmer to the cooler medium — that is, 
 from the hot water to the bather — while at the same 
 time the evaporation becomes checked, and the com- 
 bined effort of the transfer of heat and checking of 
 evaporation increases the body temperature of the 
 
 bather. . ,, a . 
 
 In the effort to keep 
 
 down the body temperature 
 the capillaries expand and 
 blood rushes to the surface 
 of the body, the skin be- 
 comes congested and the ac- 
 cumulated body heat finally 
 bursts forth, causing a profuse 
 perspiration, while at the 
 same time the pulse beat 
 increases and respiration 
 becomes quickened. It will 
 thus be seen that in a hot 
 bath the nervous and circu- 
 lating systems become 
 affected, which in turn react 
 upon the internal organs. 
 After the bath reaction sets 
 in, the capillaries contract, 
 all excess blood leaves the 
 surface and the air at 
 ordinary temperature feels 
 cold to the skin. 
 
 Any temperature, 
 alternated. 
 
 Comparison In comparing the effects of hot 
 
 of Hot and and cold baths upon normal indi- 
 
 Cold Baths viduals it might be stated as a 
 general rule that the effects are 
 opposite to each other; cold baths, on the one hand, 
 tend to check perspiration, while hot baths favor 
 it. It is believed, but not conclusively proven, that 
 cold baths, by stimulating the internal organs, 
 increase the reaction of the gastric and other fluids 
 of the stomach and alimentary canal, while hot 
 baths, on the other hand, tend rather to retard such 
 activity. All baths, whether hot or cold, but 
 particularly the latter, favor the secretion of urine. 
 Hot baths cause dilation of the capillaries and 
 a rush of blood to the skin. When the stimulus 
 of heat is withdrawn the capillaries contract 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 and all excess blood flows away from the skin. 
 
 The cold bath, on the contrary, first contracts 
 the capillaries and forces the blood to the interior, 
 then when the reaction sets in the overheated blood 
 flows back to the skin through the dilated capillaries. 
 
 A warm bath raises the temperature of the body 
 by transferring heat to it and at the same time pre- 
 venting evaporation and radiation of heat from the 
 body. The cold bath reduces the temperature of 
 the surface of the body by withdrawing heat from it 
 but raises the temperature of the blood. 
 
 The hot bath draws the blood to the surface 
 while the cold bath drives it to the interior. In 
 either case there is increased oxidation, or waste 
 of tissue, but with the warm bath there is less demand 
 made upon the system, because oxidation depends 
 chiefly upon increased heat, which in this case is 
 supplied by the water. The reason that a hot bath 
 seems refreshing to an exhausted person when he 
 could not take a cold one may be that the heat 
 supplied by the water helps 
 the process of oxidation with- 
 out any tax on the system. 
 
 The hot bath can be 
 borne longer than a cold 
 bath and a tepid bath can 
 be borne longer than either. 
 
 Vapor S o f a r 
 
 Baths the effects of 
 
 water baths 
 only have been considered, 
 no mention having been 
 made of vapor or hot-air 
 baths. It should be borne 
 in mind, however, that 
 the body bears changes of 
 temperature of air, or even 
 of vapor, much better than it 
 does of water, because water 
 being a better conductor of 
 heat than either air or vapor 
 brings more heat to the body 
 or carries off a greater 
 
 amount, as the case may be, than would air or 
 vapor of equal temperature. 
 
 The vapor bath, on account of the less specific 
 heat, does not act as quickly as water on the body, 
 but once the action does begin it causes a profuse 
 perspiration and acts powerfully in cleansing the 
 skin. Vapor baths can be borne hotter than water 
 baths, but not for so long, for the vapor being of 
 higher temperature than the bather, and being 
 charged with moisture, not only prevents evapora- 
 tion from the skin but likewise radiation from the 
 
 body. In consequence of this the temperature of 
 the vapor bath, while far less than that of the hot- 
 air bath, heats the blood considerably more, besides 
 impeding the respiration by depositing moisture 
 in the bronchial tubes. A vapor bath can be borne 
 for a much longer time when the vapor is not inhaled. 
 Ordinarily, however, when the vapor is inhaled a 
 temperature of more than 125° Fahrenheit cannot 
 be borne with comfort. 
 
 The effect of the vapor bath is much the same 
 as that of the hot bath, with the one exception, 
 perhaps, that it causes a more profuse perspiration, 
 and in that one difference lies the greater value of 
 the vapor bath. The vapor bath is the chief feature 
 of the Russian bath, while hot-air or radiant heat is 
 the distinguishing feature of the Turkish bath. 
 
 Hot-air Hot-air baths possess all the 
 
 Baths advantages of the hot- water bath, 
 
 and some other advantages that 
 
 hot-water baths, as well as other forms of bathing, 
 
 Soothing patientsjby means of flowing water in the bath tub. The 
 most violent cases are generally soothed to sleep in a short time by this 
 simple means. 
 
 do not possess. It is those latter qualities which give 
 the hot-air or Turkish bath its hygienic value. 
 
 One feature of the hot-air bath lies in the air 
 which is inhaled. Unlike the air of a vapor bath 
 it is not charged with vapor, so that moisture cannot 
 be deposited in the bronchial tubes. Indeed, on 
 account of the dryness of the air it increases instead 
 of retards the evaporation from the lungs, while, 
 being of a higher temperature than the body, there is 
 no tax on the system heating the inspired air. 
 
 The greater benefit of the hot-air bath, no 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 doubt, is due to the profuse perspiration it induces 
 without raising the temperature of the body over 
 several degrees Fahrenheit. This profuse perspir- 
 ation is beneficial in several ways. By exciting the 
 glands it keeps them in a healthy and active con- 
 dition; the fluids they pour forth flush the millions 
 of little sweat ducts so that they will be perfectly 
 clean, and last but not least, the fluid poured forth 
 in the form of perspiration carries in solution waste 
 products of the cell activity so that the blood is 
 purified by the process. 
 
 It is in its function as a blood purifier, then, 
 that the hot-air or Turkish bath differs most from 
 ordinary baths, and it is in this function, that the 
 chief value lies, for any other from of bath will clean 
 the person, stimulate the organs and excite the circu- 
 lating systems. 
 
 Routine The Turkish bath, as now 
 
 of the practiced, consists first of exposure 
 
 Turkish Bath of the naked body to dry, hot-air 
 or radiant heat until a profuse per- 
 spiration has been induced; next massage followed 
 by a thorough scrubbing, with brush, soap and hot 
 water; then a cooling shower to close the pores, 
 which may or may not be followed by a cold plunge. 
 The last stage consists of drying the body and 
 resting. 
 
 Of the various operations undergone by a 
 bather the exposure in the hot room is the most 
 important and the massage is of the least benefit. 
 When properly performed, massage is of real benefit 
 to a person, but slapping of the body with open 
 palms to make a loud noise as commonly practised 
 in Turkish bath houses, is of little or no value. 
 
 In its simplicity, then, the Turkish bath con- 
 sists of exposure in the hot room, followed by knead- 
 ing, rubbing, massage and a thorough washing, and 
 this simple operation can be performed in the house 
 as fully and with every bit as much benefit as in a 
 public Turkish bath house, provided in addition to 
 the ordinary bath room, there is a hot room or cab- 
 inet in which to induce perspiration. In the public 
 bath room, however, numerous rooms and accessories 
 are necessary in order to accommodate a number of 
 patrons at one time and make the operation of 
 bathing a luxury as well as a benefit. 
 
 Routine The Russian bath, as now prac- 
 
 of the tised, differs but slightly from that 
 
 Russian Bath of the Turkish bath, the chief dif- 
 ference being in the use of a vapor 
 room instead of the hot-air room used in the Turkish 
 bath. After exposure in the vapor room until a 
 perspiration has been induced the bather is put 
 
 through the operations of kneading, rubbing, mas- 
 sage, scrubbing, shower, plunge, drying and rest as in 
 the former case. 
 
 In most Turkish bath establishments a vapor 
 room is provided in addition to the hot-air rooms, 
 so that patrons may take either a Turkish or a 
 Russian bath, or combine the two. 
 
 Vapor and hot-air baths are so beneficial to a 
 person that it is to be regretted that provision is 
 not more frequently made for them in the public 
 schools, where they would be available for the public, 
 either free or for a very small fee. The matter would 
 be simple to effect, for a small room could easily be 
 provided and fitted with means for heating and 
 ventilating, so that the citizens as well as the children, 
 could have both the benefit and the luxury of a 
 Turkish Bath. 
 
 Effect In the treatment of the ailing 
 
 Produced by with water, different effects are pro- 
 Water duced according to the temperature 
 Treatment of the water used and the method 
 of application. Insane people, when 
 violent, and highly nervous people, when irritated or 
 unstrung, are soothed and soon put to sleep by placing 
 them in specially fitted bath tubs through which water 
 is allowed to flow continuously. 
 
 Other effects are produced by spraying the 
 patient from Sprinkle Heads arranged over the 
 operating tub, while elaborate hydrotheropatic cab- 
 inets are made for applying the water to a patient 
 gently or with force, at any desired temperature or 
 alternating suddenly from one extreme to another, 
 such, for instance, as from hot and mild to cold and 
 with force. 
 
 Effect of Children are often confused by 
 
 temperature the caution not to go bathing when 
 when bathing feeling warm, and the apparently 
 conflicting practice of following a 
 hot bath immediately with a shower or play of cold 
 water. The difference, however, is in the condition 
 of the blood. When the body and blood are over- 
 heated, as for instance, walking a long distance in the 
 sun, on a hot day, to the old swimming hole, the 
 child should cool down to about normal tempera- 
 ture before venturing in the water. Nature is trying 
 to drive the heat out of the body as fast as generated, 
 while a cold plunge checks the effort of nature and 
 turns it back on itself by closing the pores and driving 
 the blood from the skin to the already overheated 
 internal organs. After a hot shower on the other 
 hand, the heat of the body is only surface heat. The 
 hot shower has not heated the blood so that the effect 
 on the internal organs is due to the reaction taking 
 place in the skin. 
 

 ;yi3 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE BATH 
 
 Use of A distinction must be made 
 
 soap in between bathing and washing. The 
 
 bathing devotee of the morning dip or the 
 
 daily bath takes it, not because he 
 is so dirty that he needs a scrubbing, but for the 
 tonic effect, and to remove the scarf skin and impuri- 
 ties by friction and washing. The daily use of soap, 
 
 THE DOUCHE BATH 
 
 From this control cabinet the operator can apply the water to a 
 bather in any desired way. As a spray or in a solid stream; hot, cold or 
 intermediate, or any combination of these extremes. 
 
 however, is not necessary, indeed is objectionable, 
 particularly if it contains free alkali, as it is liable to 
 cut the natural oil on the surface of the body intended 
 to lubricate the skin, and have in general, the same 
 effect as frequent washings with strong soap would 
 have on the hair of the head. 
 
 Frequent bathing, then, should be sparing of 
 soap. 
 
 Indeed, the Japanese — and no race has a better 
 skin, take them as a whole — owe it perhaps as much 
 
 to not using soap as to their practice of bathing daily. 
 Instead of soap they use a bag of rice bran, or at least 
 most of them do now, and all of them did formerly; 
 but the Japanese who are in touch with foreigners are 
 now beginning to adopt the soap habit to a greater 
 or less extent, a practice which might prove ruinous 
 to their velvety skins if they use it daily. 
 
 Soap, of course, has its 
 use. When the bath is for 
 purposes of cleanliness, 
 soap may be freely used. 
 The morning dip, or cold 
 bath, however, is for tonic 
 effect, not for cleanliness 
 only to a slight extent; and 
 for a tonic bath no soap is 
 needed. Instead, a stiff 
 bristle brush or a bag of rice 
 bran will prove not only 
 more comfortable, but of 
 lasting benefit. Friction of 
 the brush or rice bag will 
 modify the shock of the cold 
 water, and at the same time 
 remove from the body the 
 dead skin — scales hanging 
 thereto. 
 
 The Romans, when 
 bathing was at its height in 
 Rome, used to complete the 
 bath by annointing their 
 bodies with oil, sometimes 
 scented oils or oils and 
 perfumes. Olive oil and al- 
 mond oil, also it is believed 
 cocoanut oil, were used 
 for this purpose; and the 
 practice when properly followed is no doubt a bene- 
 ficial one. However, before the practice becomes 
 general and is followed in our vigorous and excessive 
 American way, it would be advisable to find out first 
 which of the vegetable oils are the best, and how fre- 
 quently and in what amounts their use is beneficial. 
 Injury, and even death, might follow the use of unsuit- 
 able or impure oils or ointments, as oils are absorbed 
 through the skin, and in this way find their entrance 
 to the blood. For the present, therefore, it is just as 
 well not to encourage the use of oils after bathing. 
 
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