LIPPINCOTT'S HOME MANUALS HOUSEWIFERY LFAYBAIDERSTON.A, Class. Book. T/ 1^5- ■"T^-a Gop>Tight]s'^. COEflyCHT DEPOSIT. n X 'Survey our empire and behold our home ! " — Byron. LIPPINCOTT'S HOME MANUALS EDITED BY BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OP HOCSEHOLD ECONOMICS, TE.\CHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSIXr HOUSEWIFERY A MANUAL AND TEXT BOOK OF PRACTICAL HOUSEKEEPING By LYDIA ray BALDERSTON, A.M. INSTRUCTOR IN HOUSEWIFERY AND LAUNDERING, TEACHERS COLLEGE, > COLUMBI.\ UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY J.UTINCOTT'S HOME MANUALS Edited by BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Pii.D. TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CLOTHING FOR \YO]MEi\ By LAURA I. BALDT, B.S. TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 454. page:?, 7 colored plates, 262 illustrations in text, $2.00 net. SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING By OLA POWELL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 370 pages, 4 colored pjlates, 153 illustrations in text, $2.00 net. HOME AND COMMUNITY HYGIENE By jean BROADHURST. Ph.D. TE.\CUER3 COLLEGE, COLCMBLX UNIVERSITY 428 pages, 1 colored plate, 118 illustrations in text, $2.00 net. THE BUSINESS OF THE HOUSEHOLD By C. W. TABER AUTHOR OF TABER'S DIETETIC CHARTS, nurses' medical dictionary, ETC. 438 pages. Illustrated. $2.00 net. MILLINERY By EVELYN SMITH TOBEY, B.S. TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LiPPiNCOTT's Home Manuals EDITED BY BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. Teachers College, Columbia University HOUSEWIFERY A MANUAL AND TEXT BOOK OF PRACTICAL HOUSEKEEPING BY LYDIA RAY BALDERSTON, A.M. INSTRUCTOR IN HOUSEWIFERY AND LAUNDERING, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY AUTHOR OF "laundering" 175 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY ^ COPYRIGHT, I919 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY ElectTotyped and Printed Vcl? ho/c ^3tairv>tll Fig. 4. — Indicating stairs and landings. The landing should be the width of the stairway. HOUSEWIFERY AS A BUSINESS 9 kitchen might be taken from that of a chef's table iu a hotel or a cook's kitchen on shipboard, where eyery thing must be " ship shape." The arrangement of the rack above the table, the hooks beneath or at the side, the deep shelf or the additional shelf — all these bring the tools together and represent that well-organized economy Avhich makes for scientific housekeeping. Certain things have been done for so long — almost centuries — that the new ideas, so called, of the house^dfe are often considered non-workable. The placing of a washtub is one of the best illus- trations of this, because almost since set washtubs have been in existence, they have been placed with their backs to the window. Such a position for a tub not only produces a strain on the worker's eyes, but is in no way as satisfactory as the side light secured by placing the tubs at the side of a window. The same rule holds good for placing sinks. A most important point, too, is the height of tubs and other working surfaces. Until the last few years a woman who stood erect seems not to have been credited with doing work, because all her equipment has been placed so that she not only stoops over her work, but almost crouches over it. The whole idea of high washtubs and sinks is so modern that the housewife Avill find it difficult to obtain them to-day unless she stands guard over tKe work as the architects and plumbers are making their measure- ments and installations. Tables can be made higher; stoves can be lifted; portable ironing boards and washtul>s can be made higher with so little cost that it is only the matter of the housewdfe demand- ing that the change be made. Sinks and stationarj^ washtubs, how- ever, can not be changed without some expense attached. For this reason, it is important that they be properly placed in the begin- ning if possible ; if not, it may be worth the extra expense to have them lifted to a height that will be comfortable for the worker. Standardizing. — Tools and Tasks: Fully as important, in turn, as the right selection and placement of tools and equipment is the matter of standardizing them for the work they have to do. The woman who has had training automatically tries to reduce ' the time and effort required for her work, and by means of her training becomes vitally interested in cutting down the time and eliminating unnecessary motions in her household tasks. House- work is indeed fascinating and interesting and much of its monotony 10 HOUSEWIFERY a o HOUSEWIFERY AS A BUSINESS 11 is gone when she really " plays the game " intently. From this time-and-motion-study. she will learn not only how to do her work more scientifically, but the next time she purchases tools she will make a wider selection and a wiser choice in what she buys, because she has learned how some things hinder and other things help in her work. fr VAA,. o^2[^]-'i4 ^^^^ ^g: Fig. 6. — Farmhouse. The good feature of this plan is that it is a compact bungalow plan with each unit so distinct that it may be entirely closed off. Planning the kitchen to face the road adds cheer. How many housewives have counted the motions necessary and unnecessary and kept account of the time in making a bed or cleaning a bathtub? Have they ever taken account, in making a bed, of the unnecessar}- steps in going from the bed to the chair where the clothes are airing? How many unnecessary motions 12 HOUSEWIFERY HOUSEWIFERY AS A BUSINESS 13 are used in the process of making ? Of course, the gain from such a •study is to see how the effort may be reduced and the standard of the finished product remain the same. For a comparative study where tools and materials enter in, a hathroom might be chosen. The type of brush used versus a cloth ; the question of soap powder versus soap; the rinsing by a bath ispray versus filling the tub with water; a soft spongy cloth versus none, wihen. a tub is spotted — all these play a part in the study. Such a study can in no way be called standardizing of tasks unless the worker has an ideal, and unless she is willing to check herself by many studies. But even brief efforts with such studies will prove stimukting and practically helpful. If the housewife is interested in such a study, it will not take her long to note that the results are influenced by the skill of the worker, by the height of the working surface, by the tools and sup- plies being fitted to their, tasks, and even by the time of day and the coinsequent fatigue of the worker. If she has become inter- ested in any one study, she will soon find herself going about all the different tasks of housework, testing how these time-and-motion studies may be applied to routine processes like window Avashing, setting the table, dusting, and the like. She will become so inter- ested in the study that the so-called drudgery of housework becomes an interesting game. Score Cards: Score cards are like a tally sheet in which rating of some task or tool or material is made on a percentage basis. The smn total for perfect conditions or results equals 100 per cent., and lesis perfect conditions are correspondingly reduced in score. The plan is to list in score form the various essential elements, and assign a nmnber of points to each in proportion to its impor- tance in the ideal. For example, score cards for testing bread are used in schools and in county fairs. Score cards have been widely used for tests of dairies and in agricultural experiment stations. Eecent use has been made of them in scoring restaurants, housing conditions, etc. ^Yhile little has been done by the housewife, largely because each home has been thought such an individual problem, she may with profit make a test score card for herself. Examples are given below which might be ra'^dified to be fitted to her use. 14 HOUSEWIFERY Kitchen Scouk Caiu) Location: Kxposiire 5 Place in house 5 10 Plan : Size 5 Proximity to cellar, pantry, (lining room a Division of space for work 5 \\in(lo\v arrangement 5 Closets 5 25 Interior finish : Floor-material 10 Wall-material 3 Color 2 15 tSanifafion : Ventilation 5 Cleanliness 5 10 Equipment : Choice of — for efficiency 10 Arrangements — Working centers 5 Oronped utensils 5 Ronting 5 Condition 10 Height of working snrfaces .5 40 Total 100 Score Caud for Gasmexts Xti/le : Appropriate for [Hirjiose 5 Appropriate for person 5 Material : Color 5 Kind 10 Amount 5 Trimming 5 Form : Conformation to figure 9 Uniformity) . , . ,,. ,„ . • V in shaping or cutting Ifi Accuracy J 'Workmanship: Uniformity 10 Seams 10 Stitching 10 Finish 10 Total 100 HOUSEWIFERY AS A BUSINESS 15 Organization. — In this business of housekeeping, the house- wife must learn to organize. In business one of tlie most important principles of organization is a definite plan of work. This is just as necessary for the housewife in organizing and arranging the affairs of her household as for the business man. Schedules: As the housewife becomes more and more proficient, she is better able to map out working schedules or plans for various tasks about the house. ISTo one knows how much time to plan for a task until one has done it, and it is by just such planning and then checking of the plan by doing, that the housewife becomes a better business manager both of her own time and of her household employee if she has one. Schedule Without Help. — The housewife without employed help has duties so varied that they are difficult to reduce to an exact program or schedule. The exact duties and the amount of time each will require will vary according to such conditions as: life in city or in country; house or apartment living; size of family and ages of children ; income available ; etc. The following schedule is an estimate indicating the kinds of duties and the approximate amount of time necessary for each in a household where the mother does all the work : Kind of work Food work Laundry — washing ironing Care of clothing House care, cleaning, etc Children and miscellaneous Management, accounts, planning Total Hours each day Occasional for regularly recur- additional hours ring tasks per week 4- 6 2- 4 3- 5 4- 6 1- 4 1- 2 4 2- 3 2 1- 3 7-11 17-28 hrs. per additional day and hrs. per week If the tasks in the second column are distributed through the week, an average of two to four hours a day would l)e called for, in addition to the seven to eleven hours for regular daily tasks of the household. This means a nine- to fifteen-hour work day for the 16 HOUSEWIFERY woman who does all her own work. In such a 'household it is ven' imjx)rtant for the housewife to have a daily schedule of special tasks: washing day (Tuesday is hotter than jMonday) ; ironing day; baking day; cleaning days; mending day. Some items of work, for exani})le, cleaning of silver, may well he brought iu only Houftw,f» D^.iy /3 „(,<•, 1 I I 1 C... c. Mt.htlBf S.f,r..^, Sp.C,.IIlul,„ 1 1 1 D.,1 /lenjinf Oix Mo^ttA./J im^U^t^ Da.l^ l>u1,c, i/cckl^ DitUs 1 _ ^ 1 1 1 n^nda. ft'dau1»t ^t^'TiiU ,^'"^ ffl in iU tckU^U Fig. 9. — Chart showing a larger organization as needed for two maids. on certain days every week, and special cleaning on certain days every other week. If this is done, there can be schedules so that there will be an equ'al amount of cleaning every week. It is desirable that children have small household tasks and these too should be brought into the plans. With either schedule, apportion the work so that no day is overcrowded, so that rest periods are possible for one or both help- ers. It can be done — here is where the housewife's knowledge of the time required for each task is reflected in the organization. 18 iioi si;\\ iii;i{^- Ho u T jcrz/cc/ fcf Pro ^ e ss 10 -no-l fcop /e. Tu/Q Haidt V hour service, S hoo-y Service. ^ hour Se^rvice.- %houL.r SeryiCA Ho. lAn-IIAMI.iof/1-l,\ 7 A/1-iifl SF/i-i fi/i /OA/'f - if rf. S: Jo f>/1. f.Jo n/1- 6: il>/^l^;i;i<> M- i-}> VJ. a d., J. .1 B Fig. 10.— Chart showing time of hour service. Today when many housewives "xe having hour service instead of week service, such a chart is of great help^ especiri y when of TorT ^"^ "' ''"'■^"^- ^^°^'''' ''*''"*""''' ^'^•■'^ " "^ '•'-presents on; p^rwJ iTours One way to arrange work to -achaiitag-e is as follow.s: Each week clean rooms used most. Onee in two weeks {-lean silver. HOUSEWIFERY AS A BUSINESS 19 Once in two weeks (alternate with eleanin<^^ silver) clean the rooms used least. Should weekly cleaning for each part he demanded, either an out- side helj^er would have to be employed^ or the housewife assist in doing some of the work herself. TJiis is possible by her taking as her task that part of the work that she does well or the maid does poorly, making special desserts, salads, breads and cakes, or each day doing the beds and dusting, leaving only the cooking and general cleaning for the maid. If there is much entertaining one can hardly expect the one maid to do everything. Hour Service. — Hour service, that is, bringing in of a hired worker for certain hours only, has much in its favor for Ijoth mis- tress and maid. For the mistress, the expense is much less because there is no expense of food for the help, although perhaps the rate per hour iseems high. The arrangement is more like the store or factory with regular hours, and after workhours freedom to do as one pleases. The type of worker is more of the office type, supe- rior in that she has more education, greater possibilities for intelli- gent organization of work and coiiperation with her employer. For the maid, the time demanded for work is specified and any extra time is paid for as an extra. On the accompanying charts arrangements of hours for different situations — the one-maid household and the two-maid household — are presented. Possible arrangements of hours for part time serv- ice are presented in chart form in Fig. 10. A shows an arrange- ment for a four-hour per day service — from eight to ten, and from five-thirty to seven-thirty in the evening; B shows an arrangement for five hours of service — seven-thirty to nine-thirty in the morn- ing, and from five o'clock to eight in the evening; C illustrates two eight-hour-day plans for two maids in a household, with two different arrangements of hours which give each maid eight hours of work, and also time off every day. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Draw two plans — of your own kitchen and one other yon know. Compare them from the viewpoint of ease of doing work. 2. With the plan of your own kitchen, trace by dotted lines the journeys taken in making apple sauce and preparing for serving. 3. Modify the plan of your kitchen so that it will he a workshop with few steps and lessened Jabor. 20 HOUSEWIFERY 4. Make a score card for wasliiiig dislics. 5. Discuss ways in wliicli liome niaim<,fi'in('iit and oflice management may be alike. Ways in which they must be unlike. 0. In your housekeeping, how many ways have you found tliat " your head may save your heels ? " 7. fJiven ten dollars to spend, what books would you buy for a housewife's library? REFERENCES Andrews, B. R., Education for the Home. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 3G, Barker, Helene, Wanted a Young Woman to do Hou.sewokk. ^foffat. Yard & Co. Barrows, Anna, Farm Kitchen as a Workshop. U. S. Dei)artment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 607. Broadhurst, Jean, Home and Community Hygiene. J. B. Lippincott Company. Campbell, Helen, Household Economics. G. P. Putnam & Co. Child, G. B., The Efficient Kitchen. McBride, Nast & Co. Dodd, Katharine, Healthful Farm House. Whitcomb & Barrows. ^DoNHAM, Agnes. Marketing and Housework. Little, Brown & Co. Frederick, Christine, The New Housekeeping. Doubleday, Page &. Co. GiLBRETH, Frank, Motion Stltdy. D. Van Nostrand Co. Kinne, Helen, and Cooley, Anna, Home and Family. Macmillan Co. KiTTREDGE, Mabel H., The Home AND ITS MANAGEMENT. Century Co. Richardson, Bertha J., The Woman Who Spends. Whitcomb & Barrows. Taber, C. W., The Business of the Household. J. B. Lippincott Company. Talbot, Marion, The ]\Ioderx Household. Whitcomb & Barrows. Tarbell, Ida, The Business of Being a Woman. Macmillan Co. Taylor, Frederick W., Principles of Scientific ]\Ianagement. Harper & Bros. Terrill, Bertha, Household Management. American School of Home Economics. Thompson, C. Bertrand, The Theory and Practice of Scientific Man- agement. Houghton, Mifflin Co. U. S. Bureau of Standards, Materials for the Household, Circular No. 70. Uni\'ersity of Missouri, F.uim Kitchen. Agricultural Extension Service, Circular No. 12. University of Texas, The Planning of Simple Homes. Circular No. 39. Wadhams, Caroline R., Simple Directions Series (for waitress, cham- bermaid, nurse, cook, butler, laundress). Longmans, Green Co. White, Charles, Successful Homes and How to Build Them. Mac- millan. Wilbur, ISIary, Everyday Business for Women. Houghton Mifflin Co. Young, Mrs. H. B., Planning the Home Kitchen. Cornell University, Bulletin No. 108. CHAPTER II PLUMBING WATER SUPPLY— HOUSEHOLD WASTE— PLUMBIXG FIXTURES The convenience of good plumbing is such an accepted fact to- day that the question in town or cit}^ is not whether we can have plumbing but what plunibing do we need in a given house. In the open country, because of the lack of an adequate water supply under pressure, and because of the expense of installing the various pipes and connections required for bringing water and carrying away waste, the problem is, How can a single house supply its own system ? A system of waste disposal by running water is still unusual in the country. As the study of sanitation goes on, however, various systems are worked out, so simple and inexpensive that they can be introduced into small rural homes, and opportmiities are thus given for every home to have some improved plumbing system. It is the duty of the architect and the builder to introduce the most modern system and the best materials appropriate to a given house, while the" housekeeper should give intelligent cooperation in direct- ing the spacing of tubs and sinks so that they will give the best service and get the best light. She is the one who should decide the quality of installation, whether convenience and efficiency are served equally by less expensive fixtures so that funds may be avail- able for extra basins and lavatories. If a houseworker is to be employed, her quarters should be provided with proper plumbing. In the farm home where the hired man must be cared for, separate accommodations for him, a lavatory, at least, are more and more being included in plumbing installation. The first question in astablishing a plumbing system is how to get the water ; the next, the kind of water ; and then follows the question of what to do with waste water after it is used. Sewage disposal is thus a large problem in the plumbing situation. 21 22 HOUSEWIFERY WATER .srPPl.V Water supply in the city is taken as such a matter of course that many ]>ersons never think to ask, even, from where or how it comes, hut just accept it. The country dweller is usually not so fortunate, unless lie lives close to some town or (-ity and is ahle to secure connection with its water su{)ply. Water must be pure in order to safeguard health. lu purchas- ing a residence, one should investigate the purity of the water in that neighborhood, its degree of hardness, and tiie kind of minerals present in it. In choosing a new source of water supply the greatest care nmst be taken to get pure water and to keep it free from con- tamijiatioji. The water which is chosen for drinking purjx^ses should be carefully examined by an expert before being piped to the house. It is not sufficient to send a saJiiple of water to be examined but an expert should personally inspect the source of supply and the surrounding ground so as to discover possibilities of contamination if they exist. Kinds of Water. — The chief sources of water for private sys- tems are rain or roof water, wells, and sjDrings. There are two kinds of water, " hard " water which has certain " salts " in solu- tion, and " soft " water. Soft water is free from these salts and forms a suds with soap easily and quickly. Eain water, which is not necessarily pure water, is the best illustration ofi soft water, and is much used in rural districts for all sorts of housework. Hard water is either permanently hard or temporarily hard. When it is tempuraiihj liard it may be softened by boiling such as one does in heating wash water or in boiling water for vegetables. The reason boiling softens this water is that the mineral matter is held in the water in the form of carbonates, and the boiling drives off cajthon dioxide, and in so doing the hardness of the water is " broken " and the lime is deposited asi often seen in the teakettle. There are j^rocesses for precipitating the mineral water. The carbonates are carbonates of chalk or magnesia, and a little lime wafter, in the proportion of one gallon to every gallon of the " hard " water, will soften the water for drinking purposes. The chemical action precijntates the magnesia or lime in an insoluble form. To make lime water for softening " temporarily hard " water use a lump of good stone lime about the size of an egg to two quarts of water. Let the lime settle and throw off the first water. Add PLUMBING 23 a second water, being careful to mix thorouijhly, let stand and settle again, and use the clear top liquid. The residue O'f slaked lime may be used again, by adding water. FennanentliJ lianl ii-ater contains lime in the I'onn of chlorides and sulphides, and washing soda or soap will soften the water. This method of softening is of course of service only in case the water is used for washing. Either soap or washing soda may be used in hard water for washing dishes. It is not possible to give a defi- nite proportion because the degree of hardness varies greatly in different waters. Scraps of soap dissolved in a jar of water will make a soap solution which if poured into the water will soften it for washing pur^wses. The soda should be kept in solution so as to be ready for dish washing, scrubbing, or washing clothes. Make the washing soda solution by filling a quart or two-quart glass jar with hot water and putting into it all the soda that will dis- solve. Use al)out two or three tablespoonfuls of this dissolved 60'da to the amount of water in a dish pan or one-half cup to one cup in a washtub of water. Hot water put on soda crystals will dissolve them quickly and easily so there is no excuse for using it undissolved ; soda must be dissolved for washing clothes. A wash- ing soda is purchasable to-day in powder form for dish washing and laundering, which is instantly dissolved in hot water, and is not as caustic as ordinary soda and is consequently less harmful to the gilt of dishes and to the fabric of clothes. For laundry purposes a combined method of softening may be used. Heat one pound of soap in' four gallons of water over a low fire, then add one pound of soda. This will make a good soap solu- tion for soaking clothes and washing where the water is too hard for good work. The scum from hard water and soap is called lime soap and if allowed to settle on the clothes produces streaks which require a great deal of soap to soften them, and sometimes in extreme cases kerosene is needed. " Hard w^ater soaps " are available, the formula of which is adjusted to meet different types of waters in different localities. Eain water or roof water is the softest and most suitable water available for toilet and laundry purposes, but unless the collecting of rain water is done under close supenision the v/ater may be most impure.' Rain water for household use is best stored in con- tainers called cisterns dug into the earth or built in the cellar. 24 HOUSEWIFERY The first fall of rain not only washes the air of its impurities but also the buildings of their dirt. To keep rain water in good con- dition, iirst, have a cut-off iu the pipe so that the first fall of rain (for half an hour) may be prevented, from going into the cistern; second, as an extra precaution, the water on its journey from the roof to the cistern may be led through a filter which may be a hogshead filled with gravel or small stones sometimes mixed with pieces of chartcoal. In this way the water is filtered as it passes through the barrel to go into the cistern. Fig. 11. — This pump could easily have been placed near the sink in the kitchen. It would have saved much work. Water Storage. — Cisterns should be bricked or cemented on all sides so that the water in storage will be kept free from dirt and contamination. A cistern, like any other water container, needs to be cleaned occasionally. The best time to do this is just before a usual rainy season when there is a possibility of its being filled immediately, because if one is dependent on cistern water it is a great handicap to have the cistern emptied for cleaning. The aeration from chain or bucket pumps keeps cistern water in much better condition than witli a less active pump, like the piston pump. Wells like cisterns are home necessities which must be most PLUMBING 25 carefully built aud supervised. The health of the family depends upon where they are located, how they are built, and from what source they arc filled. Cisterns are filled from roof water. Wells are filled from springs or underground streams of water. There are two kinds of wells : the driven or drilled well, such as an arte- sian well, and dug wells. Driven or drilled wells are made by a closed iron pipe being driven down for varying distances, usually fifty feet or more, and sometimes as in deep artesian wells several hundred feet, through many layers of rock, to find water which has filtered its way down. This filtering tends to purify the water so that a deep driven well if entirely free from any surface con- tamination gives good water. Dug wells are cemented or stone bowls which gather and hold water that runs in from underground streams or springs. The same general conditions shoidd be planned for with the dug well as with a driven well. All wells are influenced by the surround- ings, SQ for that reason be sure that no cesspool, privy or drainage of any kind can reach the spring that feeds the well, or can seep in at the top of the well. Do not be satisfied in thinking it is pure; have it analyzed — a state department will do it free in some states; and have an expert check up possible contamination by drainage into the water sujDply. Pumps. — Water being present, the next question is, How may it be made accessible to the worker ? Some form of pump is neces- sary to raise water from a lower level to the point where it is needed. There are several types of pumps — the piston pump, chain and bucket, force pump, and power pumps oj^erated by Avindmill, hydraulic ram, gas engine, or electric motor. The piston pump has almost everywhere replaced " the old oaken bucket" which was operated on a long sweep, or with a rope and windlass; the iron piston pump (Figs. 11, 12) is easier to operate and delivers water more rapidly. AYhen the water is low in the well or reservoir it is necessary to start or prime the pump by pouring down enough water to fill the cylinder. So long as the water is deep enough to have it rise in the pipe, the pipe, of course, has water in it and is ready to deliver water. The piston is at the top of the cylinder, and the beginning stroke raising the handle results in forcing the piston down (1) . The valve in the piston opens and lets the water pass into the space above it. When the piston 26 HOUSEWIFERY is at the bottom of the cylinder the water will be above it {2, 3) . The iip-journey of the piston forces tlie water into the sj)out (4). Bring-ing the piston puinp indoors and connecting it with a sink is one great improvement. It need not Ik' j)lacc(l directly over the well, as the pmnp will draw the water along a horizontal line as well as about thirty feet vertically. Chdln and bucket pumps operate l)y means of a crank liandle. The water is elevated through a pipe by small buckets which are Fig. 12. — Piston pump. fastened on an endless chain. These buckets are filled on their upward road to deliver water; if the pumping stops, the water left drops back through a very small opening in each of the buckets, thus working its way back to the cistern by dropping from bucket to bucket, and being thoroughly aerated in the process. (This is the same principle as aerating boiled water for drinking by pouring the water several times from one pitcher to another.) Force pumps are piston pumps (Fig. 13, 1 and 2), wliich deliver water under pressure so that it can be forced through a pipe to some elevation or delivered through a hose for garden purposes. By means of a force pump elevated tanks in the attic or elsewhere may be filled, and so make possible a gravity home water system. PLUMBING 27 Gravity Water System. — For a. sj^stem supplied by gravity from a spring- a storage tank large enough to hold a supply for two or three days is sufficient. With a large elevated spring the tank may be dispensed with. In order to provide a gravity system, with- out pumping, the spring must be at such a height as to insure proper pressure to make the water flow through the pipe to the I i-eration of pumps, wash- ing machines, milk separators, etc. In thus operating a pumj), fuel is of course required and also more attention than for a •wind- mill, but the volume of water pumped is greater ; and when a storage tank ihas a good capacity the pumping can be done at intervals according to the amount of water used. A li/4-H.P. gasoline engine will pump about S^^^ gallons a minute 250 feet high ; it can be ])urchased for $35 to $45. Electric Pumps. — ^^Vhere electric power is available an electric motor may be installed directly connected with a water pump. Throwing an electric switch starts the pump and little attention is required. PLUMBING 29 Tanks. — The cheapest form of tank is one built in the attic or on top of the house. Placing the tank in the attic overcomes the possibility of freezing but introduces the danger of possible damage from leakage. It must be provided with a " clean out " and an "overflow^' pipe to prevent leakage into the house. This t3'pe of tank is often built on a separate tower outside of the house and is sometimes built large enough to supply several houses. Elevated tanks are constructed of cedar or oak, bound with metal bands, and are often copper or zinc-lined; the tank should be painted to prevent its rotting. The cost of complete installation of tanks and, pipes is small in amount compared with the conven- iences resulting from tlie establislmient of such a system. From elevated tanks the water is piped to the various fixtures in the usual ^y&'y, and flows by gravity. Air Pressure Tank System. — Another tank system is the air pressure tank system. This system includes a pumping outfit and a steel tank located in the cellar and so constructed that two-thirds of its capacity may be filled with water pumped in against the pressure of the air which fills the other one-third of the tank ; the air is com- pressed as the water is pumped in until the air is under about 45 pounds pressure. The air pressure then forces the ^vater through the pipes of the house. Installation and Care of Water System. — In case the water Bupply system is to be used for the summer season only,' all of the piping should be laid on such grades that the entire system can be drained in the fall, thereby preventing freezing and destruction of the piping system. All the sewage traps in a summer system should be drained and filled with oil. In case the system is to be used all the year around, every part that is exposed, the piping, tanks, etc., should be made frost-proof. Piping is made frost-proof by laying it at sufficient distance below the surface of the ground and by not laying it in the outer walls of a house. Pipes outside the house which are not buried in the earth below tlie level at which freezing takes place (some two or three feet in the northern states), will freeze and often burst. Stor- age tanks must be enclosed and the water kept sufficiently warm to prevent freezing. The housewife's responsibility in this matter is to watch the original installation of pipes. Inside pipes are protected from freezing by not allowing rooms to get too cold. 30 HOUSEWIFERY However, freeziiifj of ])ipes in kitchen, laundry, or in any room not .sufUciently heated, is usually so slig-ht as to be easily thawed out by the housewife. To Thaw Pipes. — Do not jmt a eandlc under the pipe, a^ that ■would cause too rapid expansion, and probably burst the pipe. Cloths wrung out of hot water, wrapjjed like a bandage, are the safest and most successful means of opening a frozen pipe. Lead pipes that are frozen will luilge slightly. Iron pipes will not show this bulging. A pipe once thawed out may be kept warm by stand- ing a lighted candle nearby. CE.L.UAR. CUT OFF rdp WATER Fig. lo. — Cut-off for main water supply of the house. Water Stop Cock and Shut-off. — The main water shut-off (Fig. 15) in houses is commonly inside the fomidation or cellar wall. Be careful that a coal bin or other obstruction is not put around or in front of it. This is the direct connection with the istreet inflow pij^e, and from this radiates all the water piping through the houses. The main thing is to know where it is, and that one should turn it off in case of a leak in the house ; to turn it off is really nothing more than to turn a faucet. In some cases, the turn-off has a regular faucet handle, in other cases one must use a \^Tench to turn it. There is usually a turn-off in the cellar of the private house, which the housewife should ask to be showTi, if she does not already know its location. After shutting off, the house pipes should be drained. In apartments the shut-off is often in a closet, and under sinks and washbasins the more modern plumb- ing has individual shut-offs for each such item of equipment. To close the house, see chapter on Storage, page 232. PLUMBING 31 HOUSEHOLD WASTE Household waste is of two kinds, organic and inorganic. Ashes, tin cans, and bottles are typical inorganic refuse, while garbage and sewage are the chief kinds of organic waste. Inorganic waste accumulates very rapidly and niu.st be removed. It is not only unsightly, but bottles and cans almost always contain some organic nratter whicli soon ferments. It is such waste that promotes the breeding of flies and vermin. Sometimes this refuse is thrown into empty low lots to act as a fillery but such ground is thus made undesirable for housebuilding until sufficient time has elapsed for the waste organic matter in this refuse entirely to decompose. Organic waste includes garbage or waste food materials and human waste, or excreta, but there may well be considered with them the problem of water waste, since hmuan waste and household water form the sewage problem where there is a system of pipes for running water and pipes for waste disposal (Fig. 16) and where ,such a piped system is lacking, the sanitary and convenient disposal of human waste and of waste water is a very important problem. Garbage on the farm should be used as feed as far as possible or turned into fertilizer. In the city it is usually hauled away to disposal plants because of increasing success in rescuing fats for industrial purposes, bones for glue and fertilizer, waste food for nitrogen in stock feeding, and finally materials that can be used as fuel. Household Water Waste. — This concerns water used for bath- ing, for dishwashing, for laundering, and for housecleaning. If there is a piped system it goes into the sewage. In the absence of a plumbing system, all household' waste water, including dishwater freed from food particles, can be led by means of a pipe from the sink to a garden some distance away from the house., This water will he of ser\dce fertilizing the garden. Such a sink and waste pipe for disposal of kitchen water should 'be installed in every house, on the farm or elsewhere as a minimum convenience, even if it is not possible to have more of plumbing and a running water supply. Be sure that this waste water flows away from the wells or cisterns. 32 HOUSEWIFERY rUmr -vein Fig. 16. — Sanitary plumbing staple. Wash water, after laundering, i.-^ often used iu tlie farm house, where water facilities are poor, for scrubbing. This is good use provided the water is clean or that the floors are rinsed afterwai'd. The soapy soiled water one often sees in the washtub is not clean and will no longer clean other things . The floors washed with such water soon turn yellow or gray and often are slipper}' from the soap. Fixed washtul)s can be in- stalled just as a sink, to be emptied through a trough or pipe which conducts the water down into the garden far enough away from the house. Clean soapy water is a good disin- fectant and if poured on plants or around the roots often keeps a plant free from insects. Human Waste. — The best method of sew- age disposal is through a public sewer whicli is conducted to a com- munity sewage disposal plant. Wliere there is no community system, PLUMBING 33 the best methods for a single house are the cesspool and septic tank, and of these the latter is safer; both of these require running water to carry off the waste ; where there is no piped water supply, human waste is cared for by the privy. Types of Privies. — The simplest method of disposal of human waste is by the earth closet (Fig. 17). These closets or privies V£A/T/L/irO/i LATT/CE our HOUSE <^^ F/LL/NW/TH ^^ /L/ ME OR CLAY ^ V ^^0/i T/M£ro T/ME VAULT -^'-o- FCT NO <.>.v.-^..X Fig. 17. — Outdoor privy vault. When necessary, the superstructure is removed and put over a new vault. should be dug in sandy soil in, such a position in relation to the house and water supply that therie can be no chance whatever of contamination. Dry loam or fine sand mixed with particles of charcoal or lime should be kept in a box, and, each person using the closet should he taught to use sand or loam as a cover, and not to throw extra water into the closet. The bacteria in the excreta decompose the wastes, and the loam absorbs the odor. Besides the danger from drainage, one meets another danger quite as immi- nent and serious, that is the contamination from flies. All waste vaults such as privies and manure piles, should be screened so that the access of flies is impossible. 3 34 HOUSEWIFERY REMOVABLE RECEPTACLE LOAM COMPARTMENT Figs. 18 and 19. — Two forms of earth closets. When the closet has to be emptied the best care of the waste is by burying. This involves another big question, Where and how to bury? ^Tiere — how far away from the house, and how — at PLUMBING 35 so low a level that there can be uo question of wastes getting into surface water or into the water supply? This becomes an indi- vidual question answered by the contour of the land, its drainage, and its relationship through drainage to the water supply. For convenience and protection, the closet is often brought too near the house, but that is l)etter decided by the natural drainage from the privy and how it affects conditions of a surrounding and, lower level. Some water closets are built of the type of drawer containers (Figs. 18 and 19). The drawer should be a galvanized iron box Fig. 20.— Flush clcset. and must also be kept in good condition by means of sand and lime and charcoal. Another method is to build a water-tight concrete vault and remove the superstructure to a duplicate vault when the first is filled, being careful to cover the abandoned vault; the first vault may be re-uscd after fermentation has destroyed its contents. Flush Closets. — Flush closets are of course the modern way of caring for human waste where there is a piped water supply. Flush closets are connected with the water system of the house and should be planned to have a free flow of water to flush waste down and out. There are two types of closets, one called the " open flush " (Fig. 20), and the other called the " siphon." Both of these closets are to have connected with them in the plumbing an efficient water trap, and both are also partial traps themselves, because they always contain water. The care of the flush closet requires not only that it be flushed each time it is used, but that it be so flushed as to 36 HOUSEWIFERY insure clean water jiot only in the bowl of tlie closet but in the trap below. Flush closets in country houses are emptied into septic tanks or cessjwols, and those in city dwellings into the sewage system. For cleaning flush closets, see chapter on Cleaning and Care, page 258. Water Traps. — Water traps are bends or enlargements in waste pipes which, as the water goes down the pipe, hold the last lot of water so that water constantly stands in the pipe, sealing it against the inflow of sewer gas through the pipe into the house. As more irz RUNNING TRAP S TRAP HALF S TRAP 'r=' w^ ,S' TRAP WITH VENT AND CLEAN OUT HOLE S TRAP WITH CLEAN OUT HOLE AND COVER FiQ. 21. — Types of traps. water from above flows into the pipe, the water in the trap over- flows off down the pipe, alwaj's leaving the trap level full. The common forms of traps (Fig. 21) are the U-tube, the S, and the Half-S traps. It will he seen at once that the water that is allowed to remain in the trap after the use of the sink, tul), or flush closet ought to he clean water, other«'ise there can he not only disagreeable odors but more or less unhealthy conditions from this w^ater which con- tains waste. Tvet it be the housewife's 'concern to teach the flooding of all traps after use. - Kitchen sinks are often gradually stopped PLUMBING 37 up because of the grease in dishwater cooling and hardening on the sides of the pipes and trap. Continued repetition of this naturally closes the trap with the stoppage of grease. This causes an expense which could easily have been warded off had the sink after every dishwashing had a thorough flooding, before this grease had hard- ened, with hot water which would have melted and carried off the grease. See chapter on Cleaning and Care, page 266. Orease traps are often put in with the plumbing connection in kitchen sinks, especially in large hotel or institution kitchens. This grease trap (Fig. 22) allows a storage of grease which may be taken out later and sold to the soap factory or used for home-made soap. Sewage Disposal Without Community Sewers. — "Where run- ning water is available, but with no community sewers, a single house may dispose of the human waste and waste water by running its own sewer pipe into a private cesspool or septic tank. This requires proper provision of water traps, and, if desired, a grease trap, on the waste water piping. Cesspools. — ^Cesspools may be built some thirty feet away from the house, choosing, if possible, a sandy soil for the outlet. Cesspools were originally built by making a well- like cistern (Fig. 23) lined with wood or stone which was to receive the waste from the house ; the liquid material then leached through the sandy bottom, and the solid waste remained behind to purify itself by its own bacterial action. The cesspool is likely to become a constant source of contamina- tion to the water supply, as the liquid containing organic waste leaches out and contaminates the surrounding soil, and is very likely to reach the well or cistern. The cesspool may also become a nuisance by overflowing, if the soil is not porous enough to absorb the liquid. Tt may be necessary to empty out the cesspool in order to remove the sediment which has collected in too srreat amounts. Fig. 22. — Grease trap. Composed of an inner chamber into which the waste water and grease pass, and an outer chamber through which the cold water supply for the house flows. The circulation of cold water around the outside chills or congeals the grease entering into the inner chamber; the grease, being lighter than water, gathers at the top and is thus pre- vented from passing through the outlet. 38 HOUSEWIFERY J'iie l're(|ueijey witli wiik-h this juust he done depends on the ])orosity of tile soil ; soiuct iiiics it is never necessary. The Septic Tank (Fig. 24) is a more satisfactory method of sewage disposal. 'J'liis tank is made entirely of concrete, is box- FiG. 23. — Leaching cess-pool. J L ,psr-,. 5CU/1 BO/Jff/? u ^ \-~-r:^ CO/VC/?£r£ Fig. 24.— Septic tank. shaped, and three times as long as wide ; and the size varies with the number of persons living in the house with which the tank is connected, and also depends upon whetlier the total outflow from PLUMBING 39 the house passes through the tauk, or ouly the outllovv from the closets. Assuming that iio water is used during the eight sleeping hours, the tank is made of such a size as to hold the How during eight hours, the entire flow pas^;ing through in sixteen hours; that is, the tank is made large enough to hold one-half of the entire quan- tity of water used per day. For example: take a family of five. The total water supply should he 100 gallons per person per day or 500 gallons per day. If the entire flow passes through the septic tank, the tank should be large enough to hold half this quantity, or 350 gallons. This necessitates a tank of SSiXj cu. ft. capacity. If the outflow only from the closets passes through the tank, then the tank need be only large enough to hold 10 gallons per person per day, or for a family of five large enough to hold 50 gallons, or about 7 cu. ft. The outflow from the house passes through a pipe G" or 8" in diameter to the tank. A trap should be placed between the house and the tank to prevent any gas passing back into the house. The liquid passes into the first compartment of the tank, where much of the sediment sinks to the bottom, then up over the partition which is built just higher than the mouth of the inlet pipe. In the second compartment a scum-board is placed to keep back any scum which rises to the top of the liquid. The outlet pipe should have an elbow extending down about 8" or 10" below the surface. The liquid finally passing through the outlet is practically clear but is not purified. A man-hole opening is constructed partly over each of the two compartments so that in case of necessity the tank may be opened and cleaned out and the sediment removed and buried. It may be necessary to remove the sediment every six months, or so little sediment may accumulate that it may never be necessary to remove it, depending upon the length of time the house is used during the year. The disposal of the outflow of the tank is very important. With the proper care this outflow, together with the outflow from the bathtubs, sinks, and washtubs, which may not pass through the septic tank, may be used to advantage in irrigation of the garden or some nearby field. The liquid may be used in irrigation either by surface irrigation, which is accomplished by means of ditches through the cultivated area; or by subsoil irrigation, in which case 40 HOUSEWIFERY the outflow is led through the cultivated area hy mcana of drain pipes, having open joints underneath the furrows. In both meth- ods the results are best accomplished in porous soils. If the soil is not ])orous more active cidtivation luust ])e carried on to have the liquid absorbed. The question of whether all the water waste of the house should ])ass through the septic tank or not is a matter of opinion among sajiitary experts. If all the water passes through, the tank must be made larger and there is a greater amount of liquid contaminated by organic matter. Another disadvantage of having all the waste pass through the septic tank is that the grease from tlio kik'hen sink is likely to become a nuisance by fomiing a film of grease on the tank and pipes and in the irrigation ditches. To prevent this a grease trap should he installed in the pipe leading from the kitchen sink, and all water run through it into the septic tank. When ,one realizes the seriousness of the problem of the care of waste, it will be seen that the cost of the septic tank is very slight in comparison with the cost of the risk involved in the drain- age from either poorly built or carelessly operated cesspools and privies. The privy must l)e kept dry so that the bacterial action will destroy the material without the risk of seepage into the water supply. PLI^IBING FIXTURES All metal fixtures should be of good quality, the poorer quality while cheaper at first will require much care and soon will require refinishing. While the best quality for bathroom fixtures is silver- plated, the material usually chosen is first quality nickel, but to keep this in good condition it should be cleaned by carefully wash- ing and wiping dry, and as far as possible cleaned without the use of strong metal polishes. Xickel is a coating on another metal, and naturally the friction as well as the chemical action of strong cleansers will remove this surface finish. Faucets. — For the kitchen and laundry brass fixtures are usu- ally chosen. They will oxidize, forming a green deposit of copper oxide, so that brass fixtures will need a good deal of care. Of the metal faucets, then, nickel kept free from chemicals and scratchy cleaners will give the hest results at a medium first cost. Enamel for handles is extensively used in the more modern PLUMBING 41 plumbing fixtures, first gaining use in connection with the sanitary outfit required in hospitals. The great advantage is the elimina- tion of the extra work of polishing metals, the great disadvantage is its cost. This may he more than halanced by the saving in money and work on a metal handle. They are more expensive tlian nickel and less so than silver- plated handles. The choice of faucet is an important item. Usually a screw (Fig. 25) or level faucet that stays open, until closed, is preferred, but where water rates are higli, spring faucets that stay open only so long as held open may sometimes be chosen. , Foot-pressure faucets are used in cases fig. 25.— a typical spigot, where the hand must be free for other work or where it is a disadvantage to touch a common handle such as in operating rooms in hospitals. This device would be of great con- venience in a kitchen where spring faucets are to be installed to save water, because it is a great hindrance to work at the sink and have to hold the faucets open. Goose-neck faucets (Fig. 26), those with a high curved dis- charge pipe, are most useful in the pantry to assist in filling water l)ottles or pitchers. As dishwashing devices (Fig. 27) and machines and washing machines are being more and more used, extra faucets which are connected with hot and cold water supply can be installed at various Avorking points with little expense and great advantage. Such a faucet should have a screw end and then by means of a rubber hose either or both kinds of water -can be easily drawn from a combina- tion faucet such as is used in a bathtub. On the outside of the house one should plan either plug or faucet attachments to he used for cleaning porches, watering flower beds, and for fire emergency. Leaky Faucets. — Before repairing a faucet, close the house shut-ofi^, otherwise when you begin to take the faucet apart, tlie water will spurt out and flood the room. In modern plumbing the pipes often have individual stopcocks under each fixture so it is not necessary to shut off all the house water supply to fix a faucet. In the absence of such a shut-off, all the water will have to be turned 42 HOUSEWIFERY (ill'. The faucet leaks because the leather or rubl)er washer on the end ul' the screw has worn with constant use and does not fit the oipening through which the water tlows. This washer is held in place with a screw or nut and the worn washer must be replaced by a new one. To do this loosen the big nut around the stem and take out tlie stem. IJemove the old washer from the end of the block and pnt on a new one. Eeplace the stem in the faucet and Fig. 26. Fi. Fic. 2(). — Porcelain sink, showing sink strainer and goose-neck faucet. Such an outfit is especially good for the laboratory; also for pantry. Fig. 27. — Dish-washing device. reset the big nut, using a monkey-wrench to turn it and make it so tight that it does not loosen when the faucet is used. Filters. — Filters, when in the kitchen, are connected with the sink plumbing. They should be so placed as to be convenient for use in the kitchen, and to make the cleaning of the filter easy. It is a common belief that filters once installed are good for all time. Instead, they need very close supervision in order that they them- selves may not become a breeding-place for bacteria. The filter PLUMBING 48 should supply clean water, and the better types with proper care do supply i:)ure water, that is, free from bacteria. Filtration means passing water through some medium with such close crevices and pores as to prohibit the passage of particles of dirt. If the pores of the filtering medium are of microscopic size, they keep back the germs as well as the dirt and such a filter is called germ proof. All sorts of cheaper filters have found their way into homes, with fillings of cotton batting, picked cotton or asbestos, sand, gravel, or broken charcoal. Many of these filters are built to be screwed to the cold water faucet. These filters will clean water as long as they are clean themselves, although they will never remove all bacteria, and be proof against germs and disease. In most cases they hold about a teacup of filler and so small an amount soon becomes oversaturated with dirt. Tliose with pads are to have the pad changed frequently, even daily. Directions given for many of these filters say to reverse the filter and flood with water to clean it. If this is done at least once a day, and the filter contents and all are boiled, there is a possibility that clean water might be attained, but no one would 'call it germ proof. The many approved filters on the market are of the Pasteur type, which consist of a hollow cylinder of fine unglazed porcelain, called the candle^ which is enclosed by one of metal, or glass. This outer cylinder is connected with the supply pipe and by means of the force of the M'ater system the water to be filtered is forced through the pores of the porcelain to the inside of the candle ; then dropping into the reservoir, it leaves the suspended matter as a coating on the exterior of the porcelain candle. Such water is germ proof if the filtration is not continued too many days. The length of time during which a sterile filtration may be obtained depends upon the temperature of the filter and its contents; at a temperature of 72° Fahr. the filter is said to be sterile for nine flays, while at 95° Fahr. the time is only five days. In some localities these filters may be rented per month with care assumed by the firm which rents. In such cases the filters should be inspected regularly and at not too long intervals; At this time, new caudles are put in to replace the old ones which go to the factory to be baked in large ovens and rendered sterile. Sinks. — The first thing to consirler is the standard requirement of a sink. It should be smooth, easily cleaned, non-absorbent, and 44 HOUSEWIFERY uou-rusting. The materials used are wood, iron, slate, soapstone (ojie grade of which is called albcrene), copper, enamel-lined iron, and ])()rcelain : the ])rices increase in the order named. Sink Materials. — Wood: Many of the early sinks were made of wood, and a lew wooden ones are used to-day. The only advan- tage of wood is that, iu institutions where dishes may be washed in the sink, there is less danger of the dishes being chipped. The disadvantages so outnumber the advantages that in modern homes a wooden sink is not considered. It soaks water, becomes slimy, slowly softens, rots and splinters. It is almost impossible to keep it sweet-smelling, and free from grease. Galvanized Iron. — Galvanized iron sinks are cheap and durable and can easily be kept clean and free from grease. The greatest disadvantage is that if the galvanized coating is worn off, it will become rusted. A few drops of oil "\nped over the surface will help to prevent laist. Slate. — Both slate sinks and soapstone sinks are smooth, inex- pensive, and easily kept clean. However, there will be a gi'adual absorption of grease, which penetrates the material and which is impossible to remove. Copper. — Copper sinks are seldom used except in pantries. They require much care to keep them clean and bright. Enamel-lined and Porcelain. — Either of these materials would be the first choice of every housekeeper. Enamel is^^ as the word implies, an enamel covering on a metal surface, made like an enamel or agate saucepan, while the porcelain is like an earthen- ware bowl, molded and baked. The quality of the enamel is deter- mined by its thickness, and its freedom from blisters, which cause chipping. If a stain once gets under the surface of enamel, it is beyond the reach of any cleaning agent. Care is necessaiT ^vith both enamel and porcelain, because a sharp blow of any kind may result in cracking or chipping the surface finish. Size of Sinks. — This is an important consideration, l)ecause a small sink means that it is impossible to wash and rinse dishes easily and without breakage. A shallow sink will be more easily kept in good condition than one which is so deep that it becomes a shallow tub. One chooses a tub-shaped sinlc only as a slop sink, or in institutions, for washing vegetables. A good general size PLUMBING 45 is one large enough so that washing and rinsing pans may both stand in the sint. Drain Outlet. — ^The drain ontlet should be flat with small ojjenings so that, to a certain extent, it acts as a sieve, keeping back larger particles. Were it fine enough for the smallest bits of food, it would be too fine for rapid drainage. Some sinks are built with Fig. 28. — Well-planned sink. The working center is made complete by the excellent arrangement of windows, drawers, cupboards and the proximity of cabinet. the outlet slightly sunken below the level of the sink; this is a great disadvantage, Tjecause it requires special care to keep it clean. Sink-strainers should be kept at one end of the sink and should lie used to prevent small particles getting into the trap. Drain Boards. — Two drain boards, if space permits, are more satisfactory than one, because they make possible the separating and classifying of the dishes. These drain -boards are usually of hard Avood, most often oak, and should be grooved, with the grooves just deep enough to carry off the water; if they are too deep they 46 HOUSEWIFERY AvilL he hard to clean, hi limited spaces, it is often found an advantage to mount the drain hoard on an extension fixture, which alloAvs tile hoard when not in use to he pushed up against the wail, all of wliich is a great help in cleaning under the sink. If drawers or cupl)oards (Fig. 28) are built under these drain hoards, either Iniild them so that they fit tightly and solidly to the wall, base- l)oard and floor, and prevent collection of dust and water; or build them on rollers so that they may be easily rolled out for frequent cleaning. In either case the cupboards must leave the plumbing quite open and must be proof against leaks and dirt. Fig. 20.— Sink with twu drainboards. Open Plumbing. — Building drawers and closets under the drain hoard or sink should, in no way close in a trap, because it must allow for thorough cleaning, and because it is a principle of sanitation to-day that all plumbing should be open so that traps are easily accessible (Fig. 29). A kitchen of good size need not have anything under the sink except perhaps the worker's stool. Towel racks and shelves are more out of the way above the drain level than below it. Space-saving Sinks. — The idea of space-saving illustrated by built-in closets and drawers, may be further carried out in small kitchens hy using appliances which combine sinks and washtubs, the former setting into the top of the latter, each having its own faucets, so that either is complete without depending upon the other. The drain of the sink meets an extension drain in the side of the tul), so that the washtub is in no way soiled by the waste PLUMBING 47 water from the sink. A sink mounted in this way is higher than most sinks, and is an excellent illustration of the saving of strain upon the back of the v^-orker resulting from sinks set at the proper height. Slop Sinks. — Slop sinks are low, sinks used for waste water only. They are an especial advantage in institutions where there is much waste water like that from scrubbing, and many house- keepers like one on each floor. They are so much lower and deeper than a sink or washbasin, that they reduce the work of lifting pails of water, and also reduce the chance of splashing water. Washtubs. — The discussion of materials for sinks may apply, in a measure, to washtubs. Wooden washtubs which are not used every day are likel}'' to shrink, causing the cracks to open, with consequent leakage. A wooden washtub, like a wooden washing machine, should be stored in a cellar, where moisture is more or less prevalent, or it may be necessary to keep a wet sponge in the tub to prevent drying. Of course any constant moisture is apt to attract roaches. Galvanized iron tubs give veiy good service, if care is taken to prevent the scraping or wearing off of the galvanized coating. Any rust spots will, of course, stain clothing. Slate and soapstone make cheap and durable washtubs. Enamel and porcelain are, as in the case of the sinks, the most desirable materials for washtubs, because smooth and easily kept perfectly clean; although yellow porcelain is sometimes used, white is the best color, as the clearness of the water is more easily tested. as well as the depth of color in the bluewater. Height of Sinks and Tubs. — The placing of tubs and sinks is a matter over which the housekeeper must have very close super- vision, because until the plulnbing laws require a plumber to raise the height of kitchen sinks and washtubs, they will be too low for almost every woman old enough to work at them (Fig. 30). " Standards " or supports for sinks that are molded out of porce- lain or cast out of iron are obtainable ; but in order to get the right height, gas piping, which may be cut any length, may be used for legs. If this is to be done, be sure the plumber under- stands that the molded supports will not be needed. With some tyipes of molded supports, the standard inay be lengthened by attaching a small enamel extension by means of a metal bracelet 48 HOUSEWIFERY (Fig. 31). It Avill be wise to look into the question of cost because gas piping can be painted with aluminum paint, or white enamel paint, for that matter, and can easily be cleaned and is u chea}) and satisfactory support. The l)est height is that one which keeps the worker's arms bent at a right angle at the elhow. This position insures a straight Fic ^u. — .'iiuk only jU 111 I (I nt t 111, II lit, Ix'caiiso it Is srt tuo li.w fur tli btiindaid of sink materials and drainboards good. The back, good poise of the body, and less fatigue. The depth of the sink must be considered in determining the height that is desired, for a shallow sink can be placed higher than a deep one. So long as the majority of sinks are too low it would be much wiser to plan for the usual worker's height, 5' 5"— 5' fi"— 5' 7", and set the sinks accordingly about 34" — 40" from top of sink to floor; washtubs should be 36" to 40" from top to floor; then for the unusually short PLUMBING 49 worker a platform would make her work more comfortable, with no fatigue from a bad position. The objection to a platform, that it causes much stepping up and down, may be overcome by the use of large drain boards at each side, and by having the platform Fig. 31. — This shows the bracelet extension which may be used to raise all low sinks. This sink is divided to f urnisli a place for washing and rinsing dishes. large enough to allow the worker to step about without having to step off. Such a platform, even if not needed by the housekeeper, makes it possible for older children to take their share of dish- washing without the fatigue of overreaching, and without tlie accom- panying splashing caused by the height of Avork and worker not 4 r)() IIOUS]<:\VIl'KRY bt'iiig adjiLsted to vavh other. The device of a luovahle phitrorm lor chihlren wiJl he fouud very useful in all lavatories; it greatly re- I luces (he mothers' task in washiii"- hands and faces. A ■well-arranged bathroom. Bathtubs. — The cheapest hathtub is one of tin, either painted or brig-ht finished. It requires a ji;reat amount of care, and needs to be renovated at least once a year, making it in the end an expen- sive tub. PLUMBING 51 The enamel or porcelain tub is by far the most satisfactory. A porcehiin bathtub is very exjjensive, and really gives no better ser\'ice than the heavy enamel (Fig. 32). The newest porcelain tubs are made without legs, set directly into the corner, and flat upon the floor, so that there is no chance for dust to gather under them. For material:^, see Sinks, page 43. Washbasins. — Washbasins are of either marble, enamel, or por- celain. Marble is more or less absorbent, and is affected by acids, which destroy the glaze. Enamel or porcelain is more satisfactory in all ways. Enamel-lined or porcelain would be the first choice of every housekeeper. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What is tlH> ])iirpose of a pluniliiiifi- systeir. ? Draw a diatiTaiii of a general plumbing system. -. Where sliould "clean-outs" be placed? Why? Describe method of jjrocedure in case of stoppage. ;;. \Vliy should you not have a perfectly straight pipe as an outlet to a sink or washbasin ? 4. What do you consider the best substitute for a flush closet? Why? 5. What is the purpose of a shut-off? Where should it be placed? What is a " stop and waste '" ? What is a street box ? (i. Considering the cost of building a brick or cement cistci-n, is the use of rain water economical? Why? 7. Why should water from hot-water boilers never l;e used for drink- ing water ? 8. How can hard water be converted into good water for laundering? 9. How could\he housewife test the soil for absorption and hence rapid drainage? REFERENCES Bailey, E. II. S., Sanitary and Applied Chemistry. Macmillan Co. Broadhurst, Jean, Home and Community Hygiene. J. B. Lippincott Co. Clark, T. M., T'he Care of the House. Macmillan Co. Co.sGKOVE, J. J., Principles and Practice oi'^ Plumbing. Standard Plumb- ing and INIanufacturing Co. Harrington, Charles, Practical Hygiene. Ginn & Co. Hering-Shaw, a., Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. 1). Van Nos- trand Co. HoGDON, D. R., Elementary General Science. Hinds, Hayden & Eldridge. Keene, E. S., ^Mechanics of the Household. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Lawler, J. J., INIodern Plumbing, Steam and Hot- Water Heating. Popu- lar Publishing Co. Lynde, C. J., Physics of the Household. Macmillan Co. Ogden, Henry N., Rural Hygiene. Macmillan Co. ^YILsoN, E. T., Modern CoN\Ti:NiENCES for Farm Home. U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 270. WiNSLOW, C. E. A., Sewage Disposal. John Wylie & Sons. Wood, H. B., Sanitation Practically Applied. John Wylie & Sons. CHAPTETJ TIT HEATING AND LIGHTING Heating and lighting are as essential in their way as is plumb- ing. As modern plumbing, which is dependent upon water and sewer systems, makes jK)ssible greater conveniences in a house, so community lighting, and, in apartments, a common heating plant oft'er added comforts. Rural districts suffer a handicap, because, although the use of electric lighting is increasing, there is often no conmiunity lighting systetm, and the individual rural home must have its separate lighting arrangements as well as its separate stoves or furnace. The advance of time has made available for the comitry fuels which may take the place of city gas and electricity. Where the rural home has not adopted them, it is not 'because they are necessarily exjDensive ; (but because they are new in idea or the housewife has not taken time to consider the new device or mechan- ism which in the end would mean so much saving to her. Some of these other fuels (other than gas and electricity) which are most adaptable for heat and for cooking, are gasoline, kerosene, and acetylene. Kerosene, acetylene, and Presto (compressed acetylene) are used for both heat and light. Humidity and the Heating Problem, — Recent investigation has sho^^ii that comfortable artificial heating is as much a problem of keeping the air moist as it is of burning fuel in the stove or furnace. This can be easily accomplished hy putting water on the stove or radiator and letting it evaporate in the room. A consid- erate quantity of water is needed,, so that it is a matter of con- stantly renewing the water as it evaporates. Ventilation is brought about by circulation of air. Nature's law of gases will automatically control ventilation, because it pro- vides that heated air rise and leave room for cold air to enter and fill the lower level. This air, in turn, heats and rises, and the air cycle which promotes ventilation is produced. In the cook stove flues or openings increase the ventilation ; and 52 HEATING AND LIGHTING 53 ill rooms spaces must be allowed for heated air to pass up and out. A room with fresh air heats more rapidly than one with stale. used air. With these two facts as a working basis, various sugges- tions may be given for ventilation. Suggestions for Ventilation. — Lower window from the top. Lower window from the top and raise from the bottom. Have a window open and door opposite also open. Use a window board, so that the air may sift in l>etween the sashes. Use a ventilator which is on the principle of a window board; manufactured ventilators usually have some form of shutter or pipe that can be regulated. Doors opening into hallways and the hall act as a flue. A grate with a fire or a candle burning in it will ventilate with- out windows being open. In sick rooms cool, moist air may be supplied by hanging up a sheet which has been wrung out of cold water. As fast as it dries, remoisten. FUELS Fuel is food for the fire. It is rated in value in proportion as it produces heat for its cost and volume. Its price is controlled partly by the proximity of the supply to the local market; its effi- ciency in the home is rated by its freedom from dirt and odor, and the ease with which it is used ; its economy by the amount needed to produce the required heat quickly and by its freedom from waste. Wood burns rapidly and makes an intensely hot fire, but a fire of short duration, and unless one has an abundance of wood fuel at hand at little cost, it is a very expensive fuel. A wood fire is not so easy to keep as coal; but if it is possible to have two types of wood, the light softer wood being used for quick burning and the heavier hard wood for slow burning, the wood fire can be operated at much less cost, and at greater convenience. Coal. — Of the two types of coal, hard and soft, hard coal is especially serviceable because of its freedom from the excess gases which are still in the soft coal. As hard coal is likely to corrode flues, careful attention will have to be given to the care of the flues. 54 HOUSEWIFERY {great lieat biinis slowly little care [^ liigli Imriiing jjoint JJisad vantages -j cost liigli [ corrodes Hue Soft coal-Advantages. ( Y ''"™'"^' ^'°'"^ ^ \ cheap ( less heat DisadvantagesJ dirty [ smoke low burning point Wood — Advantages -j little ash clean less heat I.. , , I rapid burning iJisadvantaties< ' . '=' expensive requires watching Coke is a charcoal made from soft coal when heated iu orreat ovens witli a small supply of air. it is secured, in most part, as a residue from coal in the manufacture of illuminating gas, and it is a cheaper fuel than coal. It has a low burning point and so is espe'cially good for cjuick kitchen work. Charcoal, which is made by i)artially burning wood, is more porous than either coke or soft coal, Imrsting into flame at low temperature, and is often used for broiling, since broiling over charcoal gives a special flavor. Coal dust, which is so often wasted, is made into molded l)ricks, known as "briquettes,'' and is available in some markets. These l)ricks are used as lumps of coal. The greatest disadvantage of this type of substitute coal is,a very hea^^ smoke which is given otf in the first few minutes of its burning. Other fuels, in some localities, play an important part: kero- sene, gasoline, alcohol, acetylene, Presto-lite, gas, and electricity. These fuels each require a different type of burner, and vary in price under different conditions. Kerosene is an oil which has a strong odor, burns with an odor, and is a fuel wliich necessitates much cleaning and care. Usually a wick IS used in the lamp or stove to feed the flame with fuel. In the modern heaters, the oil is vaporized and so may burn with- out a wick. HEATING AND LIGHTING 55 Alcohol is an expensive fuel, but with a vaporizing burner has good heating power. One would hardly consider it, however, as a regular cooking or heating fuel. Wood alcohol and denatured alcohol are much less expensive than grain alcohol, which can not practically be considered a fuel because of its expense. Alcohol is easily used in little individual burners in traveling, with solf- heating irons, and with various devices for heating water, chafing dishes, curling irons,, etc. An alcohol stove is shown in Fig. 33. Fig. 33. — Alcohol stove. Tank in the back. Canned Heat and Light. — Solid alcohol, or canned heat, as it is sometimes called, is another emergency fuel which is available in small tin cans and is burned in its container without a special stove. Presto-lite might be spoken of as canned gas, in that tanks of Presto-lite or compressed acetylene gas, like tanks of oxygen, may be purchased and used. (See Acetylene below.) Gasoline is a fuel that gives satisfactory service as a cooking fuel. Its disadvantages are its expense, and, more important, its danger. It vaporizes easily, mixes with air readily, and is most inflammable. It introduces a danger which, so long as there are so many other fuels equally as good, if not better, it is not necessary to incur. Acetylene is a gas produced by allowing water to come in con- tact with calcium carbide. Acetylene is a poisonous gas, but will not explode unless it is under pressure, or until mixed with air. 56 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 31. — lutcriur uf ii gas iiictcr, sliowing the l)clle purchased sepa- rately for use in home-made cookers. The cookers are manufactured to meet all needs, so one will find cookers with one, two, three, or four compartments, with kettles 78 HOUSEWIFERY of various sizes, and even in nests of small ones so that several dif- ferent foods may be cooked simultaneously. The essential thing for the housewife to know is the standard requirements for a good tireless cooker: The box to have good insulation. The kettles to have good, tightly-clamped covers, to be non- rustiiig. The lining of compartments to be non-absorl)ing and easily cleaned — preferably aluminum. Soap stones or iron plates Q provided for roasting, baking, and long boiling. The efficiency of the tireless cooker is greatly increased by raising it from the floor to save bending and stooping on the part of the worker. The tireless cooker gives only fifty per cent. of its efficiency if operated in conjunction w'ith a coal stove. The amount of fuel and the time necessary for a coal stove to get a kettle of water to boil- ing temperature or a stone disc lidt enough to roast or bake, means enough fire to cook food for a long time, perhaps long enough to finish the process. For this reason a small gas burner or a blue flame stove will make the fireless cooker more of a fuel- and labor-saver than it is with a coal range. In the fireless cooTcer gas stove, the fireless cooker principle is combined with the gas stove by making the oven with insulated walls to retain heat; this type of stove, properly used, is very eco- nomical. One or two of the burners on the top of some stoves have a non-conducting hood that may be low^ered over the kettle, and at once, without lifting or changing, the food is in the fireless cooker. The ovens are so insulated that when the baking temperature is ^— ^ -•>r —C Fig. 58. — Honie-made fireless cooker. A, outside container-box or trunk; B, insu- lating material — paper, sawdust, cinders; C', metal lining of nest — tin, zinc, aluminum; D, cooking kettle — aluminum, agate; E, soap- stone plate, or some heat-containing material; F, pad of excelsior for covering; C, hinged cover for the top of the outside. HEATING AND LIGHTING 79 reached, the fire may be turned out and the temperature is practically sustained until the baking or roasting is completed in tlie fireless cooker oven. Vacuum bottles or containers are constructed on the same prin- ciple as the fireless cooker; while primarily a convenience, they do indirectly save fuel. They are double-walled glass containers with a metal jacket. The air is exhausted from lietween these two glass Fig. 59. — Caloric fireless cooker. walls, thus forming a vacuum, and several linings of non-conducting material assist in retaining either heat or cold. The inside is sil- vered like a mirror, because the bright surface prevents radiation of heat. The vacuum bottle has a tight cork and screw top so as to prevent leakage of either heat or cold. In the new models the metal outer jacket can be unscrewed so that a new inner container may replace a broken one, thus saving in renewal cost. LIGHTING In building, one should study the location of lighting fixtures carefully, both ceiling lights and wall lights ; with electricity, one should also locate " plugs " in the baseboard for attaching vacuum cleaners, cooking appliances, etc. Placing lights in rooms and halls 80 HOUSEWIFERY is really a matter for much thought, hecaiise bad positions are not only inconvenient, but too often mean unnecessary expense through having more burners lighted than is necessary. A good droplight for reading and sewing requires only one Inimer, and will give more and better light directly on the user at less cost than several ceiling lights. Types of shades influence the clearness of the light, and, like wall-paper, increase or decrease the amount of light used. The following table showing degrees of light absorption by different types of glass shades is interesting for a study of comparisons : Per cent. Clear glass . 5-12 Slightly gTound 25 Ground all over 25-40 Opal 35-60 Colored or painted 64 White or light linings to dark shades will give a clear light most pleasant to the eyes. Some modern lighting uses the principle of indirect lighting or reflection (Fig. GO) . The light burns in a bowl fixture hanging from the ceiling; the light is reflected to the ceiling, and this, in turn, reflects it to the room. The angle of light is broadened and so spreads over the room surface. Such a light gives a brilliantly lighted room, without the softening effects of any shadows. It is most suitable for show rooms, stores, and large home rooms requiring clear, strong light. One would hardly depend entirely upon indirect lighting in bedrooms and libraries, as the light is tiresome because so general. To soften it, one would find relief in a dull opalescent or ground bowl, which absorbs some of the light. Paraffin candles are most attractive, for occasional use, at least, in dining rooms, and for convenience in going about the house where there are no lights, provided one burns the better non- smokeless, non-drip candles. Such a candle mil soon prove its value, because there will be no unpleasant smoke odor and no dripping of paraflfine which, whether white or colored, is hard to remove. Kerosene lamps give an excellent light when kept in good condition — properly filled, clean wick, and clean chimney. The light is a soft yellow, and is most pleasant. Kerosene lamps, how- ever, do involve much care, give off a great deal of heat in the HEATING AND LIGHTING 81 room, consume much oxygeu, and the smoke and odor from either a dirty lamp or one turned low is disagreeable. The chief reasons for their use are that the first cost is low, the fuel is easily ol)tained, and no expensive system is necessary. Kerosene lighting varies in its efficiency according to the type of 1)unier used. Of ordinary wick burners, those "natli round, hollow wick and a center draft to furnish air within the flame are especially good. The kerosene mantle lamp, the newest typo of kerosene lamp, has a mantle which increases the brilliancy of the light four-fold, with no extra cost for fuel. The CE/UN6 Fig. 60. — Inverted lighting. Specially suited for lighting large rooms. mantle must be handled as carefully as a gas mantle and the wick must be kept carefully trimmed. To clean kerosene lamps, see chapter on Cleaning, page 350. Acetylene and " Presto " (condensed acetylene) may be used with mantles like gas. Such a means of lighting is most adaptable to rural homes and to camps. i\jiy gas fixture can be used, but the tip must be double so that the flames coming from two opposite holes in the burner strike each other and spread the flame. In an acetylene house-lighting system, a tank is provided where the gas is stored as fast as it is formed, and from this tank the supply pipes branch. Gas Lights. — Unless gas is supplied with a special burner, it burns with a yellow light, and it requires a globe or lamp shade to give sennce which is at all satisfactory. The old-fashioned gas- tip spreads the flame into a so-called "bat's wing" (see Fig. 37), or " fish tail," light. The newer burners, called " Welsbach," 6 82 HOUSEWIFERY are Bunsen gas burners, which mix air with the gas before it is burned, and burn the flame into a white mantle (Fig. Gl). This mantle becomes incandescent or glowing white, but does not itself burn. The mantle is often mounted on a calcium rod which, when beated, reflects a white glow, so that the entire Welsbach light is a white light, very clear, burning without soot. These mantles are very frail, and will last much longer in places where there is no jarring and no draft. Should they blacken in burning, it means that there is not enough air going in from below to oxidize the flame. To clear the mantle, open the ventilator wide and let the gas burn until all the soot is Ijurned ofi'. For a few minutes the light will not be so good, but after r\ ■■■::^:^'-'' r\' ^^^ mantle is cleared, tlie regulator U ;;;-^^L^-'!^T Ui Diay be readjusted to give a good clear light. An old mantle may be saved, and may be used as a silver powder for cleaning silver. Electric lamps have heen im- proved since the first carbon lights, so that they give a whiter light, and at the same time use less electricity. The electric bulbs are vacuum glass globes in which a filament has been put before sealing the bulb ; the air is exhausted so that when the lamp is heated there is no air present to oxidize the filament. The first lamp filament used was of carbon, and is relatively inefficient because it uses so much electricity. The most modern filament is the tungsten, which gives a clear light with a small consumption of electricity. The different degrees of brightness depend iipon the size of the filament and upon its com- position. The modern tungsten filament is, for example, a finer filament than the carbon, and yet gives a greater light. A sixteen candle-power light, while using fifty-five watts with a carbon filament, consumes in the same time only twenty-five watts with a tungsten filament, making the consumption cost in the latter case about one- half of the former. GMSCHECK Fig. Gl. — Bunsen burner. Produces a white light by heating a mantle to incandescence. HEATING AND LIGHTING 83 It pays to use electric lamps of two or three sizes in an ordinary' household. A fifteen-watt lamp will do for closets and other places requiring little light; a forty-watt lamp is generally useful ; a sixty- watt lamp will illuminate where a single larger light is desired. Lighting Ilinis. — It requires more light in a room with dark walls than with white ones. A flickering or dazzling light produces eye strain and headache. The light should come from ahove and over the shoulder. Be economical by turning lights out, when not in use. A modern lighting system should not be selected on the basis of economy alone. Money spent in proper lighting may be saved ill the oculist's bill, SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What are the main factors in successfully lighting a room? 2. Why is it i.ecessaiy to heat a'wve normal temperature a very damp room before the occupant will feel comfortable? 'i. Why Avill a fireplace or stove smoke when the fire is first started? 4. Why do tall chimneys have a better draft than short chimneys? 5. If one were camjjing, how could a fireless cooker ba made? 6. ^^'hat causes the water to rise in a coflfee percolator? 7. In what ways might a housewife's electric liglit bills be reduced? 8. What is the advantage and disadvantage of a highly polished stove? 9. Why is not a fireplace as economical as a stove? 10. How may you prevent too much heat from going to the attic radiators at the expense of those on the other floors? 11. Give methods of heating water. How does this aflfect the coal bill? Describe coils in a furnace. What precaution must be taken with them? REFERENCES Bemext, a.. Economic Burxixg of Coal. Pealx)dy. Cole Co. Dressler, Fletcher B., Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 12. HOGDON, D. R., Elementary General Science. Hinds, Heyden & Eldridge. King, F. H., Ventilation for Dwellings and Rural Schools, Etc. F. H. King. Lancaster, Maud, Electric Cooking, Heating, Cleaning. D. Van Nostrand Co. McKeon, Peter J.. Fire Pke\-ention. Chief Publishing Co. McPiierson and Henderson, General Chemistry. Ginn & Co. Rosenau, Milton J.. Preventive ^Medicine and Hygiene. Appleton Co. U. S. Bureau of Mines, SA^^NG Fuel in Heating a House. Technical Paper No. 97. U. S. Bureau of Standards, Safety' for the Household. Circular No. In. Vult6, Herman, Household Chemistry*. Chemical Publishing Co. White, Marion, Fuels for the Household. Whitcomb & Barrows. Wbiqht, S. S., The Kitchen Fibe and How to Run It. S. S. Wright. CHAPTER TV EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES— I CENEKAL EQUIPMENT; KITCHEN Given a house with instalhition ol' plumbing", heating, and lighting, the next problem is adequate working equipment for the tasks of. the household. Working equipment involves the tools, machinery, and other conveniences of various kinds — some of them often called labor savers — which are used in house work. The subject is presented in two chapters : In this chapter the general principles regarding selection and placing of working equipment are stated, and the equipment of the kitchen is de- scribed; in the next cha23ter (V) the equipment for the laundry is presented, together with equipment for cleaning and miscellaneous tasks. In the succeeding chapter (VI), household supplies which are used with equipment in household work are described. Besides this working equipment, the household has its furnish- ings for comfort and immediate satisfaction in use, rather than for work, such as furniture, hangings, etc. ; these are discussed in a later chapter (VII) on household furnishings. Seleciing Equipment. — In buying equipment, the housewife is buying her working tools. This involves a certain amount of ex- pense, and should mean that many of the things that are bought are not to be renewed for a considerable len.gtli of time. This, then, requires study on the part of the homekeeper so as to be able to answer the question, " "\^liat is a good tool ? " In answer to that question, the following outline may help: Construction — Utility — Size Wearing capacity Shape Renewal Material Economy — Efficiency — Purchasing cost Fitted to its task Eenewal cost Results obtained Care cost Time saved Related costs, as supplies Labor saved 84 EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 85 Cow6'/rw.c7io/ic'onsidered indetail means — Is the tool of the j^roper shape to be litted to its task ? With the shape, the size is naturally considered. It is the old question of avoiding the round peg in a square hole. The proper material is also essential in the construc- tion of a tool. Some types of fibre, for example, are better for scrubbing, or certain soft hair is better for brushing; some woods wear longer than others; solid backs to brushes will outwear a glued or tacked back. Utility and Efficiency are in fact related matters, but one may consider utility as involving wearing power and the possibility of freshening or renewing the tool so that it is as good as new, without the expense being as great as that of first cost. Efficiency has to do with its j)ower to do its work, depending upon the shape of the tool, its size, etc. It means this also — Does it take more time to use the tool and to care for it after use, than it does to do the work without the tool? If it is efficient, good or better results should be obtained, and time and labor should be saved by it. Economy involves a careful comparison between the cost of one tool and the cost of another, the decision to come after answering for both tools the other requirements — Is it well constructed, has it wearing capacity, and is it efficient? If, in two tools — brushes or dusters or brooms — the conditions are equal, then the eco- nomical housewife should always buy the cheaper. She should be sure, however, that whether the cost he little or much, the tool can, by proper care (cleaning or oiling, etc.), be used for a reasonable period of service, thus eliminating excessive cost of purchasing new tools. Sometimes a tool takes nmch time and labor in caring for it, and is therefore not an economy but rather a hindrance. The matter of additional costs involved in the use of the tool, as for supplies, fuel, etc., should also be considered. Labor-saving Appliances. — There are a number of larger labor-saving appliances such as the vacuum cleaner and the washing machine, which must be given serious consideration. One must not, however, judge them solely in terms of the purchasing cost. Granted that it is a large sum of money for the first expenditure, it is not fair to look at it except in a business-like way, and to compare this purchasing cost with the manpower cost of the same labor. This cost study should be made in the same way that an investment is considered. When one makes an investment, it is not expected to yield an income within a week, but only after a reasonable length 86 HOUSEWIFERY of time — a year or more. In just tlie same way, it is not fair to expect a motor waslier to pay for itself in one washing. On the other hand, an appliance that breaks down after one or two trials is a poor investment, no matter how little it costs. One must figure the gain or loss on the basis of one year, or five years. One must figure on the renewal cost in the way of repairs, and of keeping in working order ; the income from the investment by the amount and quality of work done under the new method as compared with the old; the income through saving the housewife from fatigue, and allowing time for other productive work such as mending, making and renovating of furnishings and garments, which otherwise must be hired out at considerable cost ; and the income through allowing more time and energy for the necessary mental and spiritual life for the housewife and her family. The only time when labor savers are not an investment is wheii they are hastily bought without study to find the best for the money ; without definite knowledge of how to operate them. Under these conditions they may come into a home either to be so poorly operated that their efficiency is greatly reduced ; or not to be used at all, as is often the case when the housewife does not learn how to operate them and cannot teach the maid to use them. Labor savers, however, do not necessarily mean mechanical equipment with motors and pulleys, or vacuums and cylinders, or pressure and weight. Every tool, no matter liow simple, and every convenience in work, is a labor saver. Here is where the housewife's study may open a door towards saving, by putting herself in a receptive frame of mind, and becoming willing to shift from old habits and methods. The simplest labor saver of all is to raise the height of working surfaces, to create a close working relationship between tools, and to group tools about the working center in which they are to be used. Placing Equipment. — Much has been said in recent years on the efficiency produced by grouping together the tools that belong to a process. This is most helpful and is one of the best ways to reduce effort and fatigue in housework. It is this principle that suggests two cleaning closets for two floor levels, each closet equipped with its own working outfit so as to avoid the waste of time and effort in going over the stairs, and leaving one's work to go after the tools. Racks and shelves placed near the stove, near the sink, near the EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 87 kitchen table, make possible this grouping of tools, which is espe- cially of service at these working centers. The working centers themselves should be so related that every possible extra step and movement is saved. This is especially true in the kitchen and in the laundry, where there are more permanent pieces of equipment and more detailed processes of operation. These facts of relationship of stationary equipment, height of working surfaces, and grouping of tools in best positions are all points to study and thoroughly work out when the house is planned, as it is often impossible to do it afterward without great inconvenience and expense. Even so, the saving in years of work which is to be done in the house that is bought finished may warrant the cost of extensive alterations. A good way to make this study is to take the architect's plan of the kitchen, pantry, or laundry, and imagine it is a real room and do the work in it. For example, let the housekeeper pretend she is preparing creamed potatoes, remembering to begin by going after the potatoes. Where are they — down cellar, back porch, or the wood- shed? Now carry them through all the processes — ^washing them, paring, boiling, draining after cooking, getting butter, cream, salt, pepper, dish ; and, lastly, how far is it to the dining room ? Creamed potatoes are not the real question ; the question is, have we arranged all working centers so that they lead one to the other, or are we walking miles because we have not planned the kitchen properly ? Believing each room should, for efficiency, be a well-equipped workshop, it is wise for one to plan separate sets of equipment for each working center. If it is necessary to economize with money, of course some tools must be used in two places, but the disadvantage is that the tool is rarely ready for use, when and where it is wanted. Height of Working Surfaces. — The equipment being chosen, much may be added to the satisfactory workshop by having the sta- tionary tools, such as sinks, tables, washtubs, and stoves, placed at good working height. A low working surface means a crouched, un- comfortable position; it means unnecessary muscular fatigue in bending and stooping many times ; it means backache and compressed lungs, all of which increase fatigue. The housekeeper who goes into a new house, over which she is giving her share of intelligent super- vision, will insist upon raising the working levels of most of the permanent tools. Sinks have usually been set too low, most wash- tubs have given the feeling of going head first into them, and 88 HOUSEWIFERY tables arc ordinarily far too low. Keep in mind that the bottom of the sink rather than the top is the working level, and that the side of the washtub rather than the bottom, and that the top of the table, are the places for work. It is easy for the liousekeeper to raise the working surfaces of tables and stoves; tliis is possible by means of blocks placed under Fig. 62. -One working surface and three workers. The height of the regular kitchen table is suited only to the one worker who is abnormally short. them. Sinks and tubs, unfortunately, when once set, can only be readjusted at a cost of some ten to fifteen dollars each time, because the pluml)ing law requires that there be tight connections in the drains of the sink or tub. Xaturally these drains are not elastic or telescoped, so that up to the present time sinks and tul)s cannot l)e readily raised or lowered. (See chapter on Plumbing, page -48.) To help the housewife plan the height of working surfaces like sinks, tables, etc., it is well for her to stop to consider wdiat her body EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 89 position would Ije if she did the work comfortably, and to notice how she has been forced to stand because in all these years the stationary equipment has been set too low (Fig. 62). Dishwash- ing, ]>reparing vegetables, beating cakes, and mixing bread are done with the arms bout at right angles at the elbow. If the surface is too low, the body is bent down, giving fatigue at the Avaist line (Fig. 63). If the sur- face is too high, a raised arm and shoulder position brings the ache of fatigue up higher between the shoulders in- stead of at the back waist line. Tlie table top can be Jiigher than the sink bottom, the placing of the sink de- pending on its depth ; the l)ottom of a deep sink cannot l)e mounted as high as the bottom of a shallow one, be- cause the worker can not reach over the high wall of a deep sink if it is elevated too much ; the worker's arm is used with the least strain when not constantly bent at the wrist. Levels may be lower for washing clothes on a wash- board, ironing, kneading l)read, and in any process where there is need of pressure, because the angle at the elbow becomes wider and the arm line more nearly straight so as to produce leverage. Let the housewife practice doing most of her work with her back straight ; if bending is necessary with her work, bend forward at the hips, not at the waist; better, raise the working surfaces so that the body need not bend at waist or shoulders to reach to the Avork. Just how many inches high should a working surface be? That depends, of course, upon the worker's height, and there is no Fig. 03. — The top of this tub is 36 inches from the f)oor. Note good position of worker's back. 90 HOUSEWIFERY better rule tlian to observe oneself and experiment. For persons of medium liei<]^bt — 5 feet, (i incbes, or tbereabouts — tables for standing Avork sbould be about 3;3-;)8 incbes high; kitchen sinks sliould be about 34— ±0 indies to tlie to]); and waslitubs about 'M-\0 inches to the roll of the tub. Surfaces for standing work are of course higher tlian those for sitting work (28-31 inches). Tables and other surfaces should be usually put at a standing height. There should always be a high stool available so that as much work as possible may be done sitting. The height of shelves where equipment is to be put away is also important; avoid as much as possible stooping down and stretching up high. Put heavy equipment on lower shelves. KITCHEN EQUIPMENT SUGGESTIOXS FOE KiTCHEN EQUIPMENT Agate Ware: Double boiler Colander Funnel Ladle Pie plate, deep Pie plates, sballow (^)uart measure Sauce pans 1 (piart 2 quart 4 quart G quart 8 quart ykimmer Spoon, large (basting) A lumintim : Coffee percolator — (5 cupa Coffee pot Kettle covers 1 for 1 quart pan 1 for 2 quart pan 1 for 4 quart pan I for 6 quart pan 1 for 8 quart pan Tea kettle — 3 quarts Brushes: Bottle brush Dust brush Pastry brush Refrigerator lirush Scrubl)ing l)rush Silver brush Sink brusli N'egetable brush Earthenicare : Putter crock Casserole Custard cups ]\Ii.\ing bowls 2 large 2 small Tea pot Enamel, White: Bowls, small Dipper l^ish pai\, oval Pitcher Platter Refrig-erator dishes Soap dish Glass : Baking dish Butter dish with cover Containers for dry groceries Fruit jars, 1 quart 1 pint Lemon squeezer Measuring cup Spice jars Iron : Dripping pan Frying pan large Garbage can (galvanized) Griddle Kettle for deep fat frying EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 91 Roasting pan, Russia iron Soup pot Japanned irare: Hread box C'ako box Dust pan Flour bin Sugar box Tray Linens and Cloths: Chamois skin Cheesecloth Dish towels Dusters Floor clotlis (Jlass towels Hand towels Holders, soft Oven clotiis Silre7' ( nickel ) : 2 forks 3 tablespoons 4 teaspoons 1 half teasj)oon Steel: Bread knife Can opener Cork screw Hammer Ice pick Knife sharpener Meat skewers Metal mesh pot cleaner Nut cracker Paring knife Scissors Spatula Tin : Angel cake tin Apple corer Biscuit, cookie and doughnut cutters Bread pans Cake pans, deep shallow .Flour sifter Grater ^Measuring cups, standard y^ pt. 2 muffin tins, 6 cups each Pastry sheet Steamer, fits any kettle Wire : Basket for deep fat frying Broiler Dish drainei- Potato masher Puree sieve Sink strainer Soap shaker Toaster Tea or cofTee strainer Wire egg beater Wooden : Broad l)oar(l Chopping bowl Dough l)oard Ice cream freezer Knife board Rack for towels Rolling pin Salt box Spoon Step-chair Table, 3 feet long Miscellaneous : Asbestos sheet Broom Calendar Carpet sweeper Clock Coffee mill Cork Labels Large needles IMatch box Pad and pencils Pail Paper Greasing Shelves and drawers Waxed Scales Scrap basket Screw hooks String Thread Thumb tacks Lahor Savers: Aluminum cleaning pan Bread mixers Cake mixers Fireless cooker Half-teaspoon measure Meat grinder Wheel egg-beater. 92 HOUSEWIFERY Kitchen Tables. — Firmness, height, and material are points to ]jo coiisitlered in l)uying- a tahlr. Choose a strong, well-built table with suljstantial logs, as an unsteady taljle is especially troublesome. The lesser evil is shoi't legs, because that may l)e overcome by ])utting blocks underneaili to raise the tal)le to the proper height. Settles, which may be purchased with square tops make not only excellent kitchen tables, but good laundry tables. A table is necessary in each of these rooms. The material for the table top should ])c smooth, of such close texture as to l)e non-al)sorl)iiig and to resist stains, of such material as to be easily cleaned, and to resist wear and tear. Wooden top iahlcs require constant scrubbing unless they are stained with oil stain or are varnished, and even then, unless most carefully protected by working boards, trays or papers, great care will be needed to keep them in good condition. Waterproof varnish may be proof against water, but hardly against the marring of wear and tear. Wooden top tables may l)e covered with oilcloth, so that the only care needed is to wipe with a damp cloth. To tack this cover on, gives a table top which is quite serviceable and one that lasts long, unless hot pans are set on it, or knives are allowed to cut its surface. Sheets of zinc may be used as a cover, or zinc-top tables may be bought, but while they are serviceable so far as wear and tear are concerned, they are not easily kept in good condition. Both acids and alkalies affect zinc, so it is not suitable material to come directly in contact with food. Glass-top tables are easily cleaned, not affected by chemicals, but are not proof against heat — that is, any hot dish, for example, a saucepan, set upon them, is likely to cause such rapid expansion as to produce breakage. Enamel iahles, before being accepted, should be ^aranteed proof against chipping with such things as screwing on meat grinders and bread mixers, or by the knocking of heavy bowls or knife handles, Avhich it is almost impossible to prevent. Very great heat, too, will chip an inferior quality of enamel. Enamel is being perfected to such a point that the housekeeper in buying stoves and tal)les should give careful consideration to the subject before refusing either. Enamelled gas stoves, as a matter of fact, are giving good service, and tables are being perfected which will meet all requirements. Kitchen cabinets are combined tables and closets which have been constructed as the outcome of the study of efficiency methods. EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 93 P0T5 AND PAN5 Fig. 64. — Kitchen cabinet. Courtesy of Charles E. White, Ladies Home Journal. They represent grouping al)Out the working center the supplies and tools that belong to the work of that center (see page 8C). The kitchen cabinet is really a kitchen table with a closet of shelves or boxes above, with containers for flours and meals either below or at the side, and with storage capacity for mixing bowls, knives, measur- ing utensils. Such cabinets may be purchased to-day in wood or in metal which has been enamel painted or enamelled (Figs. 64 and Go ) . The wooden cabinets were first in the market, and repre- sent the same points in capac- ity and convenience that the metal ones do, but the question of cleanliness rather turns the attention to the metal ones. The metal cabinets are more noisy than the wooden, ones, but are more likely to be proof against vermin, rats, and mice, and may be easily cleaned by water without becoming water-soaked. Metal cabinets are also non- al^sorbent to odors and to any spilled food. The housewife can make a home-made cabinet by using a kitchen table and grouping about it shelves, which may or may not have doors, while from the shelves and the side of the table saucepans, sifters, etc., may be hung. A man or woman handy with tools can make an excellent cabinet, one that may be divided to suit the special needs even better than a ready-made one. • An old book- case and a kitchen table make a good beginning. Kitchen Utensils. — Kitchen utensils must be selected in part on the liasis of the temperatures to which they will be subjected in the cooking processes (Figs. 66-68). Frying and roasting represent methods in which dry heat of high temperature is essential. Such material as Eussia iron, sheet steel, cast-iron, crockery, Pyrex glass, are especially suited for this type of cooking. Bread pans and roasting pans are best of Eussia iron or sheet steel, while cast-iron, liecause of its thickness, is an even cooker and retains a high tem- perature for some time, and hence is used for griddle and waffle irons, frying kettles, and skillets. For boiling, stewing, or where moisture is part of the cooking 94 HOUSEWIFERY process, and where the tfiiii'iTiiturc therefore is not over 212° Falirenlieit, agate, enamel, or tin may be purehasi'd. Ahiniliiinii is a. metal that may l)e used for either method, as it may he heated to dif- ferent deijrees of heat with or without moist- ure. It is capable of being made into any shaped pan, but is more expensive than some metals, xilumi- num is slightly affected l)y both acids and alka- lies : vegetables, for ex- ample, will discolor it, whereas fruits and acid foods brighten and clean it. It should never be put to soak with soda water, and is most easily cleaned with dilute acids, such as rhubarb, lemon, or tomato. In fact, after cooking any of these foods in an aluminum pan, the pan is as bright as when new. Crockeri/ and glass are chosen for slow baking, as for casse- roles and custards, and for baking acid foods like apples, tomatoes, or other fruits. There is a new glass cooking ware which is used for baking utensils of all kinds, and which has been shown to cook in less time than that required for metal baking dishes, and therefore with a smaller consumption of fuel. mttM ii- .^fM' ' I'iG. Co. — White enamel kitchen cabinet. EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 95 VARIOUS TYPES OF COOKING TOOLS Flc. 66. — Utensils for dough work. Courtesy of Miss MiUlrcd .Maddocks, G'oorf llouxekeepitm. Fig. 67. — Different shapes and kinds of saucepans. Courtesy- of Miss Mildred Maddocks, Oood Housekeeping. Fig. 68. — Baking dishes. Courtesy of Miss Mildred Maddocks, (,'.mi./ llmisik, , piny. 96 HOUSEWIFERY Enamel or agate is a glass like coating on sheet steel. With high temperatures like frying, the sheet steel heats and expands more than with boiling, and the expansion is so great that the enamel covering, which has almost no expansive power, is likely to chip off. One usually considers agate ware as that which is gray or mottled, and the enamel as plain color, either blue, white, or l)rown. There is little difference in the wearing power, but there is a difference in the cost, in favor of the agate. Sudden change of temperature, as is given in professional testing, is a very severe test for enamel ware, and usually jjroves its worth. Enamel utensils will Fig. 69. — Small kitchen necessities. Courtesy of Miss Mildred Maddocks, Good Housekeeping. usually wear better if, before they are put into service, they are placed in a larger pan of cold water and boiled in that water ; after boiling, let the pan cool in the water, as this seems to toughen the enamel. Steel should be used for all cutler}', and the higher tempered steel should be chosen when sharp edges are required. It does not pay to buy a cheap gTade of steel, as it neither takes a sharp edge nor holds one. The housekeeper should plan to have a carving knife of high-tempered steel, a good bread knife, and one small vegetable knife with a thin l^lade of high-grade steel so that it cuts thin parings. These better knives should be saved from the rougher work of the kitchen such as the work of turning food on a EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 97 griddle or in a frying pan, and as most of them are sharp-pointed they are not suitable for bowl scraping or for measuring. A spatula is best for dough work, for turning food, and for scraping ; a round- ended case knife is best for measuring. Buy a cork-screw and a can opener, so that there is no need of taking a good knife to open bottles or tin cans. Get the butcher to crack or saw bones, so the knife need not be used for that work. Timvare is made of a thin coating of tin on a sheet steel foundation. Tin melts at a comparatively low tem- perature, and is affected by acids. For this reason, a tin utensil should never be put over a fire without some- thing in it for moisture, and it is not suital)le for baking or stewing acid foods. The melting of tin is often seen in the globules of tin found on the outside of sauce-pans, and the dark rings on the bottom of baked apples show the effect of the acid of the apple on the tin of the dish. Wireware is bought for dish drainers, strainers, bread and cake racks, frying baskets, and egg whips. Woodemcare is most suitable for spoons that are to be used for stirring and mixing, and for dough boards, bread, and meat boards. General Standard. — In selecting all utensils, the following standards should be kept in mind : Avoid utensils with sharp edges, or with cracks or lines from which food may be cleaned only with difficulty. (To clean kitchen utensils, see chapter on Cleaning, pages 261, 262. Below are discussed some items of special importance in kitclien equipment in the nature of labor savers. Aluminum Cleaning Pan or Disc for Silver. — Cost, $l-$3. The method of using is discussed in the chapter on Cleaning and 7 Fig. 70. — Folding wheel table. Especi- ally suitable in small kitchen and where stor- age space must be considered. 98 HOISKWIFKH^ Cai'c, page '2(u'). It saves time ami the worker, and does not liarm the silver — leaves it with a whiter finish and less of the satin gloss. (See also chapter on Supplies, page 13-4.) Bread and Cake Mixers. — Cost of bread mixers, $3.0()-$4.50 ; of cake mixers, $•.'.()(). Tliese lal)or savers arc time savers, l)eeause they can do a given amount of work in much less time, and like all machines the mechanism, if true, produces stan.dard results. The bread mixer is an even greater necessity than the cake mixer. Making bread by the use of this machine is reduced to careful meas- uring and baking, with no time and energy expended in long kneading. Dish Mops. — A string mop may be used for washing dishes, if one does not want to put the hands in water, but such mops must be ke])t very clean. Fireless Cockers. — Cost. $l-$40. See chapter on Heating and Lighting, page 7(5.) Half-teaspoon Measure. — C*ost, GO cents. A'ery handy and accurate in making small measurements. Meat Grinders. — ^Cost, $1.25-$3.00. These helps to-day repre- sent an investment towards economy and efficiency. The grinders, through the possibility offered by the different knives, have an almost unlimited use, not only with meat, but bread, vegetables and other food materials. In this way when various meals and grains are to be converted into flours, the grinder may he used as a mill. Metal-Mesh Pot Cleaner, — Cost, 10 cents. This device cleans pots and iron pans much more efficiently than a knife, which is soon duUect by such use ; and it eliminates the use of an abrasive cleaner on the dish cloth, with its conse(juent wear on the cloth and with grit in the dish water. Paper Dish Cloths. — Cost, 3 cents-5 cents. These are efficient, sanitary, and may be used several times before throwing away. Palette Knives, called Spafvlas. — Cost, from 25 cents up. Two strokes with the thin, flexible blade cleans a mixing bowl, instead of a dozen strokes with a ease knife — less waste of material and greater efficiency. Also invaluable for turning food in frying pan or on griddle. Sink Strainer. — Cost, K) cents-40 cents. Such a labor saver ke})t in the sink reduces the sink cleaning to such a minimum that EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 99 110 shovel and scraper are necessary to clean food scraps out of the sink, no force pumps needed to clean out the waste pipe, and the sink may be washed as easily as a china plate. This strainer may be a three-sided one of wire to keep in the corner of the sink, or it may be just a puree strainer with tin sides. The strainer is best of wire woven mediumly close ; a puree strainer is too close. Wheel Egg-beater. — Cost, 5 cents-] 5 cents. It is easily oper- ated, and very cllicient in making eggs light. It can be used as a cream wbiii. Fig. 71. — Wheel table. A wheel table is a real labor saver, provided it can be easily moved and cleaned. The extra shelves and top space make thia one eflScient. Window Food-Storage Box. — Cost, $10-$15. Any box put on the window sill or outside the window may be a " window box." To increase its efficiency and to add to its sanitation, it should be put on two cleats to raise it above any moisture on the window sill ; it should have a slanting rain-proof roof which projects to insure the dryness of contents ; it should be well ventilated to keep it sweet smelling; it should be large and shelved to facilitate organ- ization ; and to make it easily cleaned, it should be painted with 100 HOUSEWIFERY; white enamel paint. It should be located at a window near the food-work center. In l)uikling a new house a ventilated food storage closet can h(; built on the outside of the liouse, on the kitchen wall, and made to open directly into the kitchen l)y a special door through the wall. Wire Dish Drainer. — Cost, 10 cents-$1.50. This is a most helpful hil)()r saver in draining hot, well-rinsed dishes. By using very hot water for rinsing, it eliminates the necessity of wiping dishes, thus saving labor and towels, and insuring clean dishes. Wooden Spoons. — Cost, 5 cents-20 cents. There is no rasping noise, no black metal marks on bowl or worker's liand, better grip possible, hence less hand and arm ache, no burns from hot metal handles. A'fter use, soaking them in cold water makes them easily cleaned. Dish-washing Machine. — Cost, $75-$110. This should be a labor saver, and will be with a family of about six or eight, or more. If one stops to think that a considerable part of the dishwashing work is finished when the dishes are scraped, sorted, and stacked, and that this must l^e done whether the machine is used or not, it will 1)6 seen that the machine will prove an economy only in the large family. A labor-saving dishwashing method is perhaps the most economical in small families; try, as the dishes are brought from the dining-room, tO' rinse and stack, and have a pitcher or pan of water to receive the silver; this method is efficient, reducing considerably the time required for washing when there has been a disorderly piling of dishes. In dish-washing machines, the dishes are arranged on a rack inside the tank of the machine, and the water, in Avhich soap or soda has been dissolved, is forcibly sjirayed over them. This requires that the dishes should be well scraped, and then so stacked that the soiled part is free to be AA^ashed. The racks hold the dishes apart from each other, and usually there is a holder especially designed for silver. Soda or soap powders must be dissolved and put into the water. As the hot water comes into the washer the suds is formed; then either by a hand or a power device, force is created which throws the water over the dishes and removes the soil. The soda solution is most often used because it saponifies the grease, and as the hot rinse leaves the dishes to drain dry — there is no wiping — a film is not left as is the case when glass or china has been EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 101 washed with soap and not properly rinsed. However, care must he used in washing gold-decorated dishes with soda as this will in time remove the gold. The machine does better work with plates and saucers than with silver and cups. Silver is not likely to be very clean, especially in small crevices as between fork tines, and cups too often lose their handles. The efficiency of a dish-washer may be rated by the number of pieces washed at one time, the possibility of doing cups and silver, the amount of breakage, the ease of cleaning the machine, and the kind of power — hand or mechani- cal. To make a dish-washer really useful, hot and cold water should be piped to it, and a waste pipe provided; an adequate supply of very hot water is also essential. A wire frying basket may be used as an inexpensive substitute for a dish-washing machine. Fill the basket with dishes, then plunge it into a pan or tub of hot soapy water, and keep it moving until the dishes are clean. Dumb-waiter. — Of course the ideal " dumb-waiter," or small lift for parcels between floors, is one with an electric motor, the whole being an electric lift. Its cost — about $1200 — is too high to be considered except in the largest households, so the pulley dumb- waiter is commonly used. It can be as simple as to be only a pulley fastened in a strong beam, and a large basket or box suspended from it by ropes, all operating through a shaft; and in its simple standard form, in which there is a counter-weight to the box, it is not relatively expensive. For the housekeeper who must use her cellar or basement several times a day, it will greatly reduce the work of carr}dng up and down. Be sure to locate the dumb-waiter where it has the closest relationship to the kitchen, and can give the greatest service to the part of the house it is to serve. It is possible to have the dumb-waiter go down into the cellar ; and instead of the housekeeper emptying it each time, it may stay in a walled-in or sunken place in the cellar floor, where it will be especially cool. This makes a cool storage receiving room which will save ice for many months in the year. The principle is the same as that of lowering food into a well to keep cool. Wheel Table.— Cost, $1.75-$15.00. The $1.75 table may be a home-made one from a cheap kitchen table plus the cost of four rollers. One desirable type has a top and bottom table surface, a drawer and a towel hanger ; it is light, steady, and of such size as to 102 HOUSEWIFERY go easily through the door (Figs. 71 and 72). It saves the cost of many journeys from a room. A tray is its poor substitute, hut even though poor, is better than carrying each thing singly. SlKiCiKSTIVK QUESTIONS 1. Given $25.00 to spend, wliat lal>or-saving devices would you Imy? 2. Wliat points must a housewife Icnow in purchasing an ch-ctrical device, whetiier a sweeper, a washer, or an ironer? .3. In what ways can you economi/.e in operating an electrical niacliinc? 4. What economies are represented in a wheel tahle? ii. Make a comparison between the different materials used for cooking utensils. Do this by listing advantages versus disadvantages. REFERENCES Child, Oeokgia B., Efficient Kitciiex. McBride, Nast & Co. Fkederick, Christine, The New Housekeeping. Doubleday, Page & Co. Good Hoi^sekeeping Institute, Household Engineeking. Good House- keeping Institute. Parloa, Maria, Home Economics. Century Co. U. S. Bureau of Standards, ]\Ieast-rements for the Household. Circu- lar No. 55. VultEj Herman, Household Chemistry. Chemical Publishing Co. CHAPTER V EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES— II LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT The laundry process requires facilities for a water supply and disposal of waste water, which are discussed in the chapter on Plumbing, page 21. Laundry processes are given in the chapter on Laundering and Eenovation, page 273. Herewith are listed the desirable items of laundry equipment and supplies, with a descrip- tion of the more important items of laundry equipment (Fig. T2). SUGGESTIONS FOR LAUNDRY EQUIP:MENT Asbestos mats Boiler, copper bottom Bottles, ^2 doz. 2 oz. Bowls enamel 2 qts. enamel 6 qts. large for starching Brushes fringe scrubbing spotting Case knife Cheesecloth Clothes-basket Clothes-hamper Clothes-horse Clothes-line Clothes-pins Clotliespin bag Clothes-props Clothes-stick Cloth, heavy, for washing tubs and boiler Duster for line Droppers Funnel Flannel Irons 1 hea^y 3 sad 1 gas or electric or gasoline 1 fluting iron 1 pointed small 1 polishing Iron holders Iron stand Ironing boards bosom skirt sleeves Ironing table Jars I doz. Mason, 1 qt. "^/y doz. ]Ma>;on, 2 qt. Labels Measures — 1 teaspoon 1 tablespoon 1 cup 1 quart I graduate Yard stick Tape Mop for floor INIuslin, unbleached Paper blotting unglazed Pail, galvanized iron Pins, i/o pound Scales Scissors Soap dish Sprinkler Strainer Tape, cotton Vacuum washer Wash bench 10.3 104 HOUSEWIFERY EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 105 Washboard, glass or zinc Wliisk broom Washtubs, 2-3 Wringer Washing machine Wooden spoon Wax SUGGESTIONS FOR I^UNBRY SUPPLIES For detailed discussion see chapter on Supplies, pages 136-142. Alum Hyposulphite of soda Alcohol Javelle Ammonia Kerosene Benzine Oxalic acid Blanket wash Paraflin Blue Potassium permanganate Borax Soap Bran Soap bark Chloride of lime Soap solution Chloroform Soap chips Detergent Soda (powdered form, or crystals Ether in solution) French chalk Starch Fuller's eartli corn Gasoline rice Hydrochloric acid wheat Hydrogen peroxide Turpentine For Washing Process. — Washtubs. — Any material that is smooth, non-absorbing, and easily cleaned is good for washtubs, so that the type of tub is somewhat of a personal matter as to price. (See chapter on Plumbing, page 41.) Wash benches should have long enough legs so as to lift the portable tub to tha comfortable height which will save fatigue. Folding benches are great helps where space is limited. Stationary tubs may be mounted on gas-pipe legs, cut to the proper length, rather than on the molded legs which are sold with the tul)S. These molded legs are always too short, but may be made longer by means of a metal extension bracelet. (See chapter on Plumbing, page 47.) For ease and rapidity of work three tubs will l^e most efficient. With a washing machine one tub will do, though two are more convenient. Have the tubs so connected by the wringer board that it is possible to use the wringer on all tubs, and in either direction. Wasli-boards come in either glass, zinc, or galvanized iron. The metal ones will not crack with a knock or *a fall as easily as will the glass. The glass ones, however, are just as efficient, are usually less sharp in their corrugations, and are more easily kept clean. The fact 106 HOUSEWIFERY (){' tlio corrugation being less pronounced is an advantage when the wcai- oil \\\o clot lies is considered. Most washhoards liave very long feet, so that the ])oard projects up beyond the tub; the feet may be shortened with a saw, and it is mucli easier to work with a lower board, and a lower board makes it possible to work with less Fig. 73. — Types of washing machines. A, the Dolly type, n, dolly; B, a vacuum boiler washer; C, pressure and suction type, a, funnel; D, washer with corrugated lining; E, a revolving cylinder type; a, inner cylinder perforated; 6, outer cylinder — wooden or copper. Courtesy Country Gentlemiin. chance of spilling water. High washtnbs will require shorter washboards. Wri7igers are of greater service when reversible. The stronger ones have two side springs and ball-bearing action. The side springs add much to the strength and endurance of a wringer, and the ball- bearing action is smoother and easier. The wringers have usually three- and five-year guarantees, but even the cheaper wringer will go EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 107 far beyond that time if kept oiled and clean, and if the pressure is taken off when not in action. A three-year or five-year wringer is not expensive, and is a better purchase than the cheaper ones. Washing Machines. — Cost, $12-$150. There are some two hmi- dred washing machines on the market; but for study they may all be divided into five groups (Fig. 73). Of these five groups, two are usually found with wooden tul)S, the other three are likely to have Fig. 74. — Pressure and suction washer. Fig. 75. — Rotary washer. The clothes are put in this inner cage which revolves in the soap and water. The action of the cage re- verses, and the load should not be so full that the clothes do not drop on each revolution. The "drop" causes a displacement of the dirt. metal tubs. A wooden tub machine is cheaper in first cost; it gives its best service when stored and used in cellars, sheds, barns, unheated rooms, or on porches. The continual heat of the house causes the wooden machine to dry and shrink, and soon leakage results. A wet sponge kept in the machine when not in use may furnish enough moisture to prevent this drying. One type of the cheaper machines is called a " Dolly." This " dolly " is like a four-legged milking stool which by reverse rota- tions draws the clothes through the soapsuds. The clothes are cleaned by the displacement of dirt brought about by means of fric- tion and agitation as they are drawn through the soapsuds. 108 HOUSEWIFERY The second type of machine has the wash-hoard principle. Two corrugated boards, shaped like discs or half cylinders, rub the clothes top and bottom, and the mechanical principle is friction, and this, with the solvent power of the water, cleans the clothes. The remaining three types of macliines are the pressure and suction, rotary and osciUating tyjies. The action of the pressure Fig. 76. — Oscillating washing machine. and suction machines (Fig. T4) depends upon cones which rise and fall in the tub, pressing the clothes on the down stroke, and creating suction when the cones lift on the up stroke. The clothes are cleaned entirely by forcing soap and water through them. There is no friction. Eotary machines (Fig. 75) are like cages which revolve the clothes in soap and water, on the same principle that the coffee EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 109 roaster turns the coffee beaus in heated air. This cage has open- ings of either slits or holes so that soap and water enter freely in and around the clothes. The clothes are washed by agitation and by the throwing of the clothes, which action comes at each revolu- tion of the cage. The oscillating machine (Fig. 76) swings like a bab3''s cradle. This swinging throws the clothes back and forth and forces soap and water through them. There are several types of oscillating machines, but the principle of all is the same. The washing machines range in cost from $12 to $150, the wide range being due to the fact that machines may be bought to be operated by hand, and by motor; and the wooden and the metal tubs vary greatly in price. Most motor-driven machines have power Avringers, which are included in the cost. The housekeeper should take this into account when she is awed at first by the price of the machine, because she has not only a mechanical washer but a mechanical wringer as well, both of which are great labor and time savers. Hand-driven machines are not so much labor savers, because the hand work is hard, owing to the weight of the material when wet in the machine. A hand-driven machine keeps the operator busy during the process, while with a motor the woman is free to do other things. This must all be considered when cost is studied. In localities where one does not have electrical power, the house- keeper should look into the question of water motors and gasoline engines. A water motor is possible in many localities where the water tax is low, and where there is a good force of water in the pipes. On farms where there are gasoline engines, it is very easy to attach the belt from the engine to the wheel of the power washer, and in this case the engine will do the washing and the wringing. A small engine may be purchased for the washei: for $40. With all this labor saving by the machine itself, best results are lacking if, in arranging for the machine, one has not planned to have hot and cold water piped directly either by hose or by special plumbing to the machine, and the waste water piped directly away from the washer by a drain. Do not make this a closed drain, for should a small piece of lace or a button, for example, get into the drain it probably will be lost or clog the pipe. To set the washer into a sunken part of a cement floor which has its own outlet, is a very efficient way; if not of cement, this sunken portion may be 110 HOUSEWIFERY lined with a iioavy metal })aii, liaviiifi; an outlet for waste water connecting with a sewer or other house drain. All wiisliiiii^- machines are measured hy "sheet capacity" — i.e., the iiuiiilicr of sheets that can l)e Avasjied in one load, or an equiva- leiit Imlk. .Most niacliines wash well six douhle sheets; four towels equal in bulk one sheet; three pillow cases equal one sheet. Those who expect to operate a washing machine should consider Ijuying soap chi])s in l)arrel or half-harrel quantities, and also washing soda in ])ow(lcred form. (See chapter on Supplies, page 138.) \'arioiis ivashinr/ devices are possible for the housewife who feels it unwise to sjiend a larger amount of money for a machine. A most complete aid ma}' be made in the home by fastening a tin funnel to a sliortened Ijroom handle, cut down at one end to fit into the neck of the funnel. The funnel costs about 5 cents to 10 cents, and really makes a good vacuum hand-washer. Vacuum wash- ing devices may l)e purchased from 75 cents to $1.50. They have specially designed funnels, which often have smajler funnels inside. All this increases the suction. To increase their efficiency, there is a perforated soap cup, which produces STids as the washer works the funnel up and down in the water. There are two percolating washing devices on the principle of the ])ercolating coffee pot, which are to be put into the wash-boiler — $1.50 to $3.00. As the water heats and expands, it is forced out at the spray top of the funnel. A constant circulation is produced which forces soap and water through the clothes. The water is to percolate over the clothes, just as the liquid coffee does over the ground coffee, and after five minutes the clothes are cleaned. These percolating devices are suital)le only for white cottons and linens, as boiling must be done to have the device Work. T!ie vacuum funnel device may be used on all types of materials, but requires constant work on the part of the woman. It is a most valuable aid for Avashing wools and silks, so valual)le that it would pay to own one for that use alone. For all these hand devices as for the power machines, the house- wife should plan to buy and use soap chips instead of cake soap. For Drying Process, Jlaskcis and Hampers. — The container for soiled clothes should be free from ornamentation, which collects dirt and dust, so that a washalde muslin bag, a papier-mache basket- shaped container, or a metal can (Fig. 77) are far better than the EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 111 much used willow hamper. The baskets to be used in the laundry process should be light in weight, and preferably have an adjustable muslin lining. These linings are easily cleaned, which is important, as the basket is so likely to be soiled. Clothespin hags are most useful when shaped and worn like an apron with a wade pocket. It is best to have them not too deep, the whole apron being shallow and wide. Ticking is the most ser- viceable material and can be washed easily. For another very convenient bag, take a hook like a clothes-line hook, such as is screwed to the side of the house or the fence to hold the clothes- line, cut a square of heavy wash- able material, and sew the cor- ners of the square to the screw. Such a bag will hook on the clothes-line and slide ahead ol' the worker, holding the pins always at hand. Dryers. — The clothes-line, either hemp rope or copper wire, gives good service at little cost. The copper wire is more efficient as it is put up permanently, need- ing only to be wiped off Just before use. The hemp line will stretch, and also will shrink when wet, and the soil enters its fibres so deeply when left out perma- nently that it is hard to clean, so that it is wiser to take it down after each use. Patented hangers have been so perfected as to give excellent service, especially in small yards and on back porches where the clothes may dry in the air even if in a limited space. Some of the dryers are of special service for kitchen drying, because they pull up to the ceiling, when not in use or when full of clothes. Ee- volving umbrella hangers (Fig. 78), having good capacity, take up small yard or porch space, at the same time making it possible for the clothes to drv in the air. Fig. 77 — Clothes container (papier mach6). 112 HOUSEWIFERY The dryer that is most ellicieiit for all kinds of weather is the indoor-heated drver, heeause it is not de})endent upon sunshine for drying. Such a dryer may be bought with a stove (Fig. 79) and be set up as the house is being built. It may be built into the comer of the laundry (Fig. 80), and the two walls so used will reduce the cost of installing the dryer, if bought complete and sot up as a unit. These dryers are constructed like a kitchen stove, and use either coal, gas, or electricity. They must ho connected witli a flue so that the moist air from the drying clothes may ])ass out, and not con- FiG. 78.— R( ■lothes dryer. Closes like an umbrella wli dense on the clothes. In such a dryer, the drying compartment takes the place of the oven in a stove. These dryers may be bought wdth one, two, or even three sections, and do better work if the}' have a metal track for the pulling out of the racks, for wooden wheels — pulley fashion — shrink and crack. For Ironing Process. — Sp7'inl'Iers pay to buy, because they do the work more rapidly, evenly, and thoroughly, than sprinkling with the hand. One of the best kinds costs ten cents and with its cork will fit any bottle. Other sprinklers are like flour or sugar shakers, or like a bath spray. If one buys this kind, be quite sure the holes are very small. Ironing hoards may be found to fit the various requirements of different housekeepers. ■Many need a kind that occupies little space when not in use. The housekeeper used to have to stretch such a board between two chairs or a table and a chair; whereas to-day it EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 113 is possible to purchase a folding board which fastens shelf-fashion in a metal bracket. This bracket may be put at any height, and the board quickly hooked into it. It is much more efficient and costs no more than some of the less sul)stantial folding boards. Boards that are permanently set up can have a small drawer at the right- •< hand end for the storage of wax, iron holder, wiping cloth, and even the iron when cold could be stored in this way. This is a good way to store equipment in a laundry or laboratory that is limited in space. Most boards are 56 inches long, which is the standard size. To help in doing up shirtwaists and shirts, a square-ended board like those used in a commercial laundry is most useful (Fig. 81). By spending more money, a gas stove may be piped directly to the iron- ing board, making the outfit a complete working unit, entirely saving the worker from wasting time and energy by walk- ing back and forth to change irons. Elaborate ironing equipment of this kind may be purchased at some cost, but with a little planning on the part of the housewife, that is, getting gas and board together, she will have good equipment with little cost. yx^x xVVxv^xxx^^xxxx^x With an electric iron one is more y////y/ //y//Y^^^^ likely to take the board to the iron. ^J^- '^9— Diagram of clothes . . , dryer. Sometimes it would be more satisfac- tory to work the other way round. Choose a good light place for the ironing board, and have an electric plug attachment placed right near to connect the iron (Fig. 82), This is a safer way to use the iron, because one is not running the risk of affecting the light. (See chapter on Heating and Lighting, page 57.) Sleeve hoards are labor savers; not that the sleeve may not be ironed as well without the special board, but the time and work are 114 HOUSEWIFERY niueli reduced. Tliere is no need to pay tlie extra nidiiey for a so- called i)added lioai'd, becanse llie j)addiii,<,^ is nsually onl}- sheet waddiiii;-, with no lasting (jualilies. Two or three thicknesses of doniet or outin<;- llaniiel will make a much better pad. Every house- wife may \\v\\ ])lan to have that on hand, for it will pay to buy some remnants to use for house cloths, iron wijx's, polishinii- clolhs, aiMJ the many tinus when a heavy soft material is wanted. Ironituj -hoard J'dds. — As old blankets do not give loug service on tlie ironing board, tliey niiglit preferably be kept for some other Fig. so. — Metal cluthes-drying cabinut. Stove is part of the dryer. use. Heav}' silence cloth, such as is sold to ]n'oteet the dining-room table, makes a most serviceable padding. Two layers of the new, or three of the old, will make a good pad. The board is better not too much padded. Cut these felts large enough to allow about two inches for shrinkage ; thumb tacks or tapes will hold them firm, unless one chooses to l)uy clamps that come for the purpose at 50 cents for three ; six would be needed. Emhr-oidery pads are always needed for ironing heavy embroid- ery. These should be made, and kept ready to use as any other equip- ment, and then there will be less likelihood of using a good towel. EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 115 A piece of felt like that on the ironing board may be cut any size ; there is no need to have it large and bulky, 1:^3" x 18" is a good size. Cover the felt with muslin; sew the two together so tlie pad may be easily cleaned and kept always ready. Ironing-board Covers. — Old sheets give no more lasting service than old blankets, and can be put to much better service than that of ironing-board covers. A heavy unbleached muslin 60" wide may be bought, and is most serviceable. The width of this muslin is Fig. 81. — Good equipment for ironing. long enough to equal the length of the ironing-l)oard cover. Cut wide enough to turn under the board about two inches on each side, j)ut on a half-inch hem, and sew four tapes on each side if tapes are to be used. Clamps or even pins are better ' than tacking, as it is better to choose a fastening that is so easy to remove that a fresh cover is possible each ironing day if needed. Stationary ])oards should have dust covers kept on them when not in use. An easy way to make them is to cut them pillow-slip fashion, large enough to slip on easily. Portable boards will need covers unless one has a closet for laundry equipment, where the board may stand away from the dust. Irons. — Flat-irons, or sad-irons, are of great service, but to be most efficient they should be purchased of different shapes and 116 HOUSEWIFERY weights — from five to eiglit pounds, allowing one or two small ones for such work as ehildreirs clothing. The usual number allowed to an ironer is three; this insures frequent changes for hot irons. Be sure the iron has a smooth base, as irregularities may cause them to catch in the goods and mar sucli materials as wools and silks by leaving a mark. The asbestos irons, irons with removable asbestos jacket and han- dle, or irons with portable handles, are preferred by some, but are likely not to be as lasting as flat-irons ])ecause of the possibility of the handle becoming loose. Puffing irons are not needed for the ironing of puffs to-day, but if one already owns one, it will be of great service in finishing small gathers as baby-dress sleeves and bonnets. Iron li.olders may. be purchased in any department or house- furnishing store. These usually have one side of asbestos. The housekeeper nu^y make one of folded old stockings, covered w4th a soft, smooth outer cover of ticking, gingham, or muslin. The stockings are especially good as a foundation, because their weave makes them more or less non-conductors of heat, and because they are soft and easily fold about the handle of the iron. Two iron holders for each worker saves the hand, as a cold holder is very restful and helps to prevent the hand from getting parched and swollen from continual heat. Iron rcsis are great savers to the ironing sheet; an asbestos sheet, such as is used under a sheet cake tin, will also save the end of the board where the iron is set. Put a paper, wiping cloth, iron rest, etc., on top of the asbestos sheet. Gas, alcohol, I'erosene, gasoline , and electric irons (cost, $3-$6) are labor savers because they carry their heat with them, and this saves walking to and from the stove to get a hot iron. The avail- able fuel will determine which is best to use. These self-heating irons reduce the heat of the ironing room, and the heat on the worker's hand ; and while gas and electricity are the most used and seem the safest, it is only a matter of care and of becoming familiar with the other fviels. The main thought must be to beware of unexpected draughts that may fan the flame. The gas-iron is operated at the end of a rubber gas-pipe ; this pipe Mall be safer and give greater service if it is wound with spiral wire to prevent cracking the rubber. The electric iron is sensitive to a fall, and to being wet; EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 117 for increasing its length of service it should have its cord suspended by a coiled spring such as is used for a bird cage. To overheat the iron, either by using it too continually without turning off the power during the ironing of small pieces, or by letting it overheat through forgetting that it is turned on, will soon burn out the iron. A small one-candle incandescent liglit put in on the electric con- nection will indicate when the iron is on, and will be a protection against waste and danger. Tlie cost of installing such a safety device is small. Fig. 82. — Electric ironing table. Fig. 83. — Flat-work ironer. Flat-worl' ironers, commonly called mangles. Cost, $95-$335. These are especially helpful where one has a great many flat house- hold pieces to iron. They are' not suited to the ironing of body clothes, because no gathers, tucks, or buttons should be put through the machine. Such an ironer is not to be used for starched clothes because the starch left on the cloth rolls will later hinder the ironing of flat work. The principle of a mangle involves two or more rolls, which press tightly on each other as the fal)ric passes between (Fig. 83). It is the same principle as that of a clothes wringer. The simplest ironer is called a cold mangle — costing al)out $10 — which has only two hard wooden rolls that smooth the garment without any heat. It does not gloss or sterilize. Other mangles have a steel roll which 118 HOUSEWIFERY is heated by gas, gasoline, electricity, or steam. This steel roll is like an iron, and tlie second roll is cloth covered like an ironing board. The iron and hoard revolve on cadi otlier. The efficiency ol' a nianglc is increased by being power driven, so that the hands oi' the worker arc free to attend to the ironing. Better results are also oljtaincd Ky having the machine wide enough to take towels, napkins in single thicknesses, and slieets wdien folded in half lengthwise. The economy of the machine, especially if electrically heated, is increased by being able to heat only one- half of it at a time, as in ironing handkerchiefs and other small pieces. The secret of good ironing is that the cylinders press evenly on each other, and also that linen be slightly and evenly dampened, and allowed to stand some time before ironing. Good sprinkling and fohling is perhaps more of a help in machine ironing than in hand ironing. A heated j:)ower mangle of household size greatly reduces the labor of ironing flat-work; one family, for example, reported that these pieces take about oiie-tifth the time required for hand- work. CLEANING Materials and Tools for Cleaning i< up plies. ■ Alcohol ( wood alcohol may be used) Animoiiia Bath brick Borax Dutch cleanser I'uller's earth or P'rench chalk Kerosene Lemon oil or linseed oil Lime Oxalic acid Porcella Pumice stone Putz metal polish Rottenstone Sal- soda Salt Silver soap or cream Soap Soap ])o\vder Steel wool — size oo Turpentine Vinegar Wax Whiting Equipment : Bowls Box or tray for cleaning materials Brooms Large Small Whisk Brushes Floor, soft hair Radiator Scrubbing, 2 sizes Spotting Wall Carpet sweeper Cloths and substitutes — • Broom bag Cheese cloth dusters small cloths Cork EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 119 Cover cloths, special cloths Knife or old ticking, etc. Measuring spoon Dish cloth, tuh cloth Mop Dust cloth Oil can Floor cloth, loosely woven Pails Xewspapers Sanitary tongs Polishing cloth Scissors Tissue paper Screw driver Waste (cotton) Skewer, wooden Dust pan Step ladder Flush closet cleaner Vaciuim cleaner Hammer Wrench There are here presented the important items of cleaning equip- ment (Fig. 84), as brushes, mops, cleaning cloths, sweeping mix- tures, including labor-saving appliances used in this Avork. The processes of cleaning and the supplies necessary are treated respec- tively in the chapters on Cleaning and Care (page 240) , and Supplies (page 129). Brooms and Brushes. — It does not pay to buy cheap brooms and brushes. The first cost is less but in the end the cost will be greater. The best brushes have solid backs that are made of hard wood which does not easily warp; and a good brush should be shaped for its special task. Solid backs are especially necessary for scrubbing brushes. Upholstery brushes should be made of soft hair like a paint brush. Some of them are tapered at the end for the crevices and folds around buttons of tufted furniture. For the dusting of portieres, satins, and brocades, the regular soft-haired paint brush is most satisfactory. Whisk brooms are better for cleaning heavy fabrics; they do not mark them as they would a velvet or velour. Long-handled brushes with hair bristles for hard- wood floors will do the work with less dust, more thoroughly, and more easily. Silver brushes should be soft to prevent scratching, but firm enough to get in cracks and crevices. They give greater service if bought in two sizes, one very thin and narrow to clean around handles and in small grooves. Old tooth brushes will save the purchasing of a more ex23eusive brush; old nail brushes are not so good because they are broad and stubby. Brooms should be chosen with such good corn that there are no seeds. They may be bought with two types of handles, the light bamboo handle and the heavy wooden stick. The lighter broom is a great saving to the worker. Hanging the broom will do much to lengthen its wear; and if the new broom is plunged into a pail 120 HOUSEWIFERY of hot water, and allowed to remain in the water until it is cold, it seems to have a ,<,n-eater power of endurance. With a hot wire or skewer, liorc a hole into the hroom handle and insert a heavy string with which to liaiiiT the l)r()oni. Various patented han.^'ers are on the market, most of them in the nature of clamps, which hokl the hroom or hi'ush so closely as to prevent s\vin<2;in(^, which is noisy and marks the door or wall. Dust covers, to he used for covering up the contents of a room while sweeping, are good cleaning aids, be- cause they save walking, carrying, and much extra work that used to be con- sidered part of a thorough cleaning. Unbleached mus- lin may be used, but checked gingham, or some other ma- terial Avith a distinct pattern and color Avhicli marks it from other sheets for the house, is even better. Make the covers of such generous size that they may be used for pieces of furniture of various sizes and shapes. Xo special size can be given except to suggest that two or three covers should be large enough to cover a bed, a couch, or the two or three large pieces in each room. Smaller ones are desirable for the chairs and book shelves ; and several one- and two-yard squares of the same material should be planned as covers for pictures, especially for those pictures with heavy carved or ornamented frames. Bags of this material can he made for covers, so that the portieres may Fig. S-1. — Tools for cleanintr. EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 121 be dropped down into the ba<^', aud tlicu, by means of drawstrings and by pins, this pillowcase covering is brought up close to the curtain poles, entirely covering the portiere. Long-handled Dustpans. — Cost, 50 cents - 75 cents. The housekeeper will find that the long-handled dustpan (Fig. 85), even though it does cost about double the price of the short-handled one, will l)e a great saving. It does as good work, as far as dust Fig. 85. — One worker saves her back; the other saves money. Fig. 86. — Three tools for sweeping. is concerned, as the short-handled one, and if used in conjunc- tion with a small broom, often called a child's broom, will be a great back saver. Dustless sweeper materials aid very much in the cleaning process, because they reduce the amount of dusting. These mate- rials may be bought in packages at twenty-five cents, or in barrel quantities at al)out ten dollars. They are usually finely ground sawdust or fine sand into which oil has been worked. The oil takes up the dirt as the material is swept along. Bare floors such as tile, or wood floors, are most easily swept with these different sweeping 122 HOUSEWII-ERY materials. The sand in most of the materials makes them inefficient in carpet or rug sweeping, heeause it settles in the carjDat and is hard to remove. The housewife may make dustless sweeper material by using left-over tea leaves, or by tearing bits of newspaper which have been sprinkled with water. Sprinkle either the tea leaves or the paper on the carpet or floor, and as they are tossed ahead of the broom they gather the dirt. A moistened Ijroom is a dustless sweeper, but hard on the colors of the carpet or on the polish of the floors. Carpet Sweeper. — Cost, .$;!-.$6. This is a small box on Avlieels, containing revolving brushes which turn as the box is |)us1kmI over the floor. It makes no dust, is easily o})er- ated, takes up threads, and is excellent for removino- surface Fi(i. S7. — Vacuum sweeper dirt. '; Vacuum Sweeper, — Cost, $6-$r2. These sweepers (Fig. 87) are combined carpet sweepers and vacuum cleaners; they have the revolving brush of the carpet sweeper, and the- bellows suction of the vacuum sweeper. Their cost is not excessive, and they are most satisfactory, with no more fatigiie than with the carpet sweeper. Vacuum Cleaners. — Cost, $35-$l"25. The so-called vacuum cleaners (Figs. 88 and 89) are divided into piston, bellows, and fan types. As washing machines may be divided into hand and power ma- chines, so may vacuum cleaners ; and the question comes again as to whether a hand tool which involves so much work on the part of the operator is a labor saver. The piston and bellows types may be bought in the hand machines ; these are not truly labor savers, but are dust savers. The piston is like a water shotgun, in that the drawing up of the plunger leaves a vacuum into which air goes, carrying with it the dirt. This receiving chamber is lined with a soft woolly material to which the dirt adheres. These are small, inexpensive, and easily carried, but re([uire a great deal of work on the part of the operator. The big power machines are divided into fan type and bellows type, and may or may not have some form of brush. Sometimes these brushes are bristles ; sometimes they are flat revolving bits of rubber. As the brush passes over the rug in the same way that the EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 123 carpet sweeper does, it stirs up the dust and tlirows it back ready for the suction. to receive it. These machines are easily operated,, efficient in their work, if they have sufficient suction, are not Fig. 88. — Vacuum cleaner. Courtesy Franz-Premier. necessarily very expensive. The l)ags into which the dust is sucked up are usually about equal in efficiency ; they are dust proof and under ordinary conditions need not be washed. The larger and more powerful machines, while more efficient 124 HOUSEWIFERY from the point of view of producing a better suction, since their weight keeps them close to the floor, are so heavy that they are difficult for the housewife to operate. The most powerful and most expensive macliines cost several hundred dollars and are built to be established in the basement of the house with pipes extending throughout the house. If this type of machine is to be used, it should be planned for Mdicn the house is built, so that the various pipe connections may be made in tlie baseboards of each room, and lead back to the cellar. A flexible hose then connects the cleaner in any desired room with the permanent pipe opening in the baseboard. The housewife should consider the weight of the madhine; the ease with which it can be cared for; the convenience in oiling; the size of slot in the suction end, and facilities for keeping the slot on the floor, so that it is. always close to the rug or carpet ; and the final test, how much dust, if any, is left in the rug after cleaning. There is no better way to settle this latter question than to beat the rug and see how much dust can be raised. The cheaper machines are usually lighter in weiglit and have a smaller motor ; the better machines should have good weight, good suction, and the longer slot, which is an advantage in any machine. The question as to whether the machine should have a brush or not is still not decided. Some of the so-called brushes are hardly worthy of the name. What seems more important is whether the nozzle is wide and so swivelled as to adjust itself to irregularities of move- ment of the worker, and whether the motor is substantial and of good size. Kemem])er that the suction is broken when the slot is not close to the fabric to be cleaned. Yacumn cleaners are not wood polishers, but fabric cleaners ; are not washers, but collectors of loose dirt. They themselves must be kept clean. . Mops. — Cost, 40 cents to $1.50. The use of a mop, whether for dusting or for scrubbing, affords a great saving of strength, because it eliminates bending and stooping. There are two types of mops used in cleaning. A plain deck mop, one with strings fastened in a circle around a wooden handle, makes a good dry dust mop. A second type is the l)road flat mop; in this the strings or pieces of cloth are held in a flat metal clasp attached to a wooden handle. This type of mop is best for scrubbing because it wrings better than a round one, either in patented mop wringers or by hand ; besides. EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 125 it slips under places better than does the thicker round deck mop. The housekeeper can make a mop like the round ones by using an old broom handle and tying about the end of the stick pieces of old undershirts or stockings, and then turning them back over the tied part and tying a second time. With the mop which has the flat clasp fastened to a handle, similar old cloths may be used instead of the woven cloth that comes especially for this purpose. Dustless mops are string mops with shorter strings which are treated with an oil. This oil should be in small amounts, just enough to make the cloth hold loose dirt. If too much oil is used on a dustless mop or duster, it will leave a greasy surface which will soon attract dust. Continual dusting of this kind will make the wood dark and cloudy. Mop Wringer.— Cost, $2. This is a real labor saver because it saves arm and wrist strain in wringing, and protects the hands from chapping through being con- stantly wet; besides doing the work more thoroughly. The wringer should be bought with regard to the mop, because size, shape and thickness of the mop decide to some extent the kind of mop wringer to buy. It fits on the mopping pail (Figs. OoVnd 91). Cleaning cloths are legion to-day, but after all, the housekeeper with experience will learn that she can buy material by the r^a. 89.— Vacuum cleaner, yard of regular standard type, and feel quite assured that she has good cleaning material without too much additional expense. With- out buying anything, good cloths may often be made from old worn garments, if they are clean, non-scratching, and non-linting. Many different materials may be used. For cleaning materials that are purchased plain cheesecloth, either unbleached, which is the cheap- est, or white cheesecloth for a few cents more, and domet flannel (the household name for It is outing flannel) , represent two standard types. Cheesecloth makes very good dusters, and, when wrung very dry out of water, is good for cleaning and may be used with 126 HOUSEWIFERY the outing flannel for polishiii-;- furniture. Outing flannel makes good floor cloths, hroom bags (Fig. 92, A and B), wall wipes, and may he used for polishing cloths. The first requirement is that the cloth be clean, free from scratchy material, absorbent, and non- lint in":. Fig. 90. — The long-handled scrub brusli, Fig. 01. — The mop and wringer means with its ball-and-socket adjustment, is a most that a woman need never scrub on her complete scrub brush. knees. In response to the demand to-day for more rapitl work, special polishing cloths are made, which are treated with chemicals and j^owders that make unnecessary other cleaning powders or mix- tures; these are used for cleaning silver and other metals. Their D.;aal cost is at least twent"y-five cents. (See chapter on Supplies, page 134.) These cloths, when not in use, should be kept in a box or a paper wrapping, so as to prevent their getting any extra soil. ]\nSCELLANEOUS EQUIPINIENT Sewing machines may be had in various types, and should be found in every home. The disappearing head machine in which EQUIPMENT AND LABOR-SAVING APPLIANCES 127 the sewing mechanism folds down into the case, leaving a compact flat top cabinet, is one desirable type. Electric motors are now avail- able to run any sewing machine ($15), and a special niacliine with the electric motor attached may be had for about $-10. With the small motor suggested below, the regular sewing machine may be operated by attaching a belt from the wheel of the motor to the wlieel of the machine, although speed adjustment may be difficult. Fig. 92. — .4, various typea of floor cloths; B, broom bags fouud ready made in stores. Domet flannel makes good broom bags. Small Electric Motor. — Cost, $15-$40. Efficiency students who are working with small electric motors for household use, pronounce them almost human in their serviceableness. Such a motor should be placed where it will be of most use, and when one is purchased separate motors for individual appliances are not needed. Such a motor could work the cofi'ee mill, the sewing machine, the ice-cream freezer, the bread mixer, and the washing machine. Each machine must have a wheel for the belt which in 128 IIOlISEWIFIi^EY liii'ii nuist be kept tight, and the motor must liavc power to do the work. A'oltage and current must l)e considered. (See chapter on Heating and l^ighting, page (><).) Electric Fan. — Cost, $5 up. xVn electric fan gives great service ]iot only tor use in the kitchen and hiundry during hot weather, but also for use in t\w. rest portion o(! the house. Modern science shows that we keep cool by rapidly changing the layer of air that surrounds us. On a cold day a fan directed against the steam- or hot-water radiator Avill more quickly wann a room, A fan is used in the latest method of drying fruits and vegctaihles. Canning Outfit. — The outfit may consist of a pressure cooker ($8-$10), a soldering outfit, and a t^upply of tin cans, or of glass cans with new rubbers if preferred. Fruits and vegetables are now also preserved by drying in an oven, by the sun, or by air currents from an electric fan. The small utensils needed can of course be taken from the regular, kitchen outfit. Milk Separator. — In the farm home, a milk separator is indis- pensable. It is operated either by hand or by power ; a power sejjara- tor should be had if much milk is to he handled. The separator is a centrifuge in which, by the rapid revolution of a l30wl or cylinder containiug whole milk, the heavier part or the skim milk is throA\ai out toward the circumference, and the light part or cream is held toward the center, each passing out of the '^^separator" by an appropriate outlet. While separators vary in construction, the principle that the revolution throws the heavier liquid to the outer circumference is the same in all. The housekeeper must, of course, be very careful that the separator be kept clean and sweet-smelling. SUGOESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. In what ways would you increase the efficiency of a washing machine? 2. Wliat care should be given to a vacuum cleaner? .■?. Were an electric motor or a gasoline engine to be attached to a sewing machine or a washing machine, what special care must be used in making the connections so as to get the most economical service? 4. What care should be given to an electric motor on a machine? 5. List five labor savers that are not operated by a motor. REFERENCES Baij)erston, L. Ray, Laundering. L. Rav Balderston, 1224 C'herrv St. Phila. CooLEY, INI. S., Vacuum Cleaning Systems. Heating and Ventilatang Magazine Co. TVIacLeod, Sarah, Handbook op Cleaning. Harper &• Bros. Parloa, Maria, Home Economics. Century Co. CHAPTEE VI HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES Supplies go hand in hand with tools, so that the two together may rightly he called the working equipment. In buying supplies, as in selecting tools, the housewife should consider : quality, price, and quantity ; and there is always the question of the kind of sup- plies best fitted to a task. In manj^ cases there may be two or three equally good for a given use so that the housekeeper must make a personal selection. There may be no reason for one choice over another except likes and dislikes, that large ^jersonal equation which keeps housekeeping more or less an individual j^roblem, and which will always prevent any complete standardizing of its tasks. This chapter presents general rules in buying, applicable to all household supplies, and then presents standards for selecting cleaners and polishes, soaps, starch, blues, sewing supjolies and paper and desk supplies for the home. Rules for Buying All Supplies. — Choose a reliable store, where standards are good — this means fast colors ; weight as stated ; fresh goods ; percentage of moisture, coarseness, etc., standard ; size, meas- ure, or count accurate. Learn by experience which are your best stores and keep to them ; if you are new in the neighborhood, go to the store where the stand- ard seems too high to sell falsely. Select the goods personally; until you know the store and the goods, and the store knows you, do not buy over the 'phone or through a catalogue. Check up the amount, the quality, and the price on returning home ; this will be the best study towards becoming an expert buyer. Buy regular standard necessities when special sales are offered, but be sure to know the regular price and regular quality. Buy only what is needed and can be used. It is not a bargain if it lies on the shelf until it deteriorates. Be considerate of clerks. Do not demand impossibilities. Know what is wanted, hence reduce deliver}' service and elim- inate return service. 9 129 130 HOUSEWIFERY Either pay cash or settle the bills promptly; stores demanding cash can sell more cheaply; you pay more for the privilege of charg- ing — it may be worth the extra cost, but do your share by paying bills promptly. Patronize stores for special supplies; e.g., the paint store, the laundry supply house. Laundry supply houses are established in all large cities and the quality they handle is quite assured. Parcel post makes it possible to send an order ; for after using any supply, it can easily be ol)tained again through its number or size. CLEANERS AND POLISHES The housekeeper who plans to do a great deal of the renewing or renovating of woodwork will need a small amount of many sup- plies. As the amount needed will often be less than she can buy, she will have to plan for storage either by buying suitable containers or by purchasing supplies in containers at perhaps extra cost. The matter of containers must be considered because much of this kind of material is either poisonous or inflammable. Label everything plainly (a little shellac will assure the labels sticking) and store away from the fire. Eemember even the cloths and brushes used in this work, if not washed, must be stored in closed tin pails or stone crocks. Beeswax is purchasable at the paint store or in the laundry supply house. Beeswax is the foundation of floor wax (see chapter on Kenovation, page 295), and the same wax is used for waxing irons. It is sold as yellow or white wax, but usually is yellow, Avhich is not only best but less expensive. Paraffin wax is made from petroleum, and is often sold as white wax. It is the best Avax for white goods because the yellow wax is likely to darken the wood. It is also used in laundering. Paraffin oil is distilled as an after-product in distilling kero- sene. It is a non-fatty oil, and therefore is most excellent for pol- ishing woods. It mixes well with alcohol or tur}3entine and on account of color is good for light woods. Linseed oil is the oil pressed from linseed, and may be pur- chased at the same place as the wax. It is sold as raw or boiled. The raw oil is the crude oil pressed from the seeds without warm- ing them ; the boiled oil has been treated in such a way as to increase HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 131 its drying power. For almost all household uses such as floors, wood- work, and furniture, the boiled linseed oil is used. Kerosene is useful as a cleaning oil, because it dissolves rosin and wax ; it is used for cleaning machinery, rusty iron, etc. It is in no way a lul)ricating oil like a machine oil. Lemon oil is a volatile oil obtained from pressing the rinds of lemons, oranges, tangarines, or limes. The finer qualities al-e used for perfumes or flavorings, while the cruder oils which are added to light petroleum products may be purchased in paint shops or house- furnishing stores, to be used for the oiling of lighter colored woods, and are often used as floor oils. This oil is volatile enough to dry almost immediately, affording less opportunity for it to gather dust. Turpentine is a distilled rosin-like liquid made from the pitch- pine tree. The volatile oil or spirit of turpentine passes over first, in the distillation, and the residue is rosin. When fresh, turpentine is almost colorless and odorless, growing darker, so dark as to make a stain of its o^^^l if used as it so often is to remove paint from clothing. Combined with wax (see chapter on Cleaning and Eeno- vation, page 295), it makes an excellent floor wax. Turpentine should be kept away from fires and should be stored ill tightly closed containers. Brushes and cloths used with turpen- tine should be washed or burned, or kept in tightly closed cans or crocks after their use. Naphtha and benzine are sold as one and the same. Like kerosene and gasoline they are derived from mineral oil ; they are volatile (second only to gasoline) and give off inflammable vapors. They should always be used with great care, with windows open and no fires or open light about, and should be kept tightly closed when not in use. Naphtha dissolves rubber and is used like kerosene for cleaning the rolls of clothes wringers (see rubber goods, chapter on Storage, page 235) ; it dissolves fat and is used for cleaning fabrics; it dissolves varnish and a drop on the rubbing cloth will often restore wood marred by heat ; it kills vermin and is one of the insecticides most used for bedbugs, ants, and fleas (see chapter on Household Pests, pages 312, 314). Gasoline is nearly as volatile and inflammable as naphtha and benzine, and should be used with the utmost care to prevent fire. "With any one of the three materials, have all windows open, and no flames present from matches, lamps, or stoves; and after its 132 HOUSEWIFERY use allow plenty of time for tliorougli airing before bringing the article into service. This is especially true for mattresses or up- holstered furniture that may have been gasolined for moths or other pests. Such thick material would be slow to allow evaporation of gasoline. Clothing that Jias been gasolined and thorouglihj aired for several hours may be placed in a warm place, as heat will drive off the last unpleasant odors. Pressing with a warm iron produces the same result. But apply no heat until after thorough airing. Machine oil should be of the best, free from rosin or any gum, and its (piality will soon be proved because no gum residue will form to hinder the action rather than lul)ricate. Good sewing machine oil can be used for oiling Avashing machines, sewing or sweeping machines, or other household machinery. Furniture Polishes. — Prepared furniture polishes may be ex- pensive, and too often contain quite a little varnish which if used too frequently will result in a sticky gum deposit on the furniture. Cheap varnishes contain rosin which will in time give a stick\f finish. It is a little more work to make a preparation, but if one has the ingredients in the house to use separately at various times, why not take time to combine them. Miss Parloa ^ gives standard directions for the two following preparations : Furniture Cleaner and Polisher. — Put into a quart bottle, in the order named : % cup powdered rottenstone i/o cup cold-drawn linseed oil 1/2 cup turpentine 3/2 cup najjhtha 1/2 cup strong solution oxalic acid 14 cup wood alcohol % cup cold water to which has been added 1 tablespoon of sulphuric acid. WoJ- for Polishing Furnilure. — 1 lb. beeswax 1 ])t. turpentine 14 pt. alcohol. ^Parloa, Maria, Home Economics, pages 332, 333. HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 133 Melt wax in an earthen bowl over water. When melted, withdraw from the fire and with a wooden spoon stir the other two ingredients into the wax. Stir continnouslj so the wax as it cools may hold the liquids. The mixture when finished is a grayish cream paste ready to be used any time. Apply with a soft woolen cloth, using only the least possible amount, but with much rubbing. Rottenstone is a fine gray powder not unlike powdered pumice in appearance and action. It may be bought as 23umice stone or pow- dered tripoli at the paint shop. Like any gritty substance, it works best with a lubricator like oil. In this way it cleans and polishes. Either powder may be purchased by the pound and stored any length of time. Steel wool is a polishing material, sold in packages at the jsaint shop. It is steel shavings and may be bought in graded sizes like sandpaper. The heavier, coarser wool is more like shavings and is especially good to be used like heavy sandpaper on coarse uneven wood. Like the heavy sandpaper it will clean rapidly but leaves a deeply scratched surface which will need to be snioothed down by using either very fine sandjiaper or the steel wool that is so fine it is like hair. This finer is graded as " 00.-" Any of it may be bought in ten- and fifteen-cent packages. Metal polishes are usually sold as pastes, powders, or liquids and are many in number. One distinction may be made, that silver and gold polishes should be free from grit and contain no acids; while brass, copper, and nickel polishes usually contain some acid. Aluminum polish should have no alkali like soda or potash. These cleaners, like many supplies, should be bought in small rather than large jars, as part of the material is very volatile and the whole content is likely to dry and be wasted. Keep the covers on ; take the paste out on the cloth rather than put the cloth in the jar. Moisten with alcohol when moisture is necessary. Keep the covers tightly screwed when not in use. If a liquid, ahvays shake before using. Silver Cleaners. — A good silver cleaner may be standardized from two ^^ewpoints somewhat as follows : For the preservation of the silver, the best cleaner should be free from strong chemicals, and from coarse abrasive material ; it should leave a good color tone — not a steel-like brightness. For the comfort of the worker, the 134 HOUSE W IF' Em' (■leaner should be free from dust, and sliindd not iinolve too inucli lubur and time in its use. Silver cleaners are divided into five tained by using the water in which rice is cooked. Prepared Starches. — A specially prepared starch may be bought at the laundry supply hoiiscs in household quantities. This pre- pared starch has paraffin and borax mixed in standard proportions, so that with a standard recipe, using twelve ounces of starch to a gallon of water, one has a standard quality of paste. There are laundry and hospital supply houses in all large cities, from which these materials may be secured by parcel post. It is of especial advantage if one is attempting to do any of this work as a business. Mourning starch is purchasable in pound packages, and is of service in laundering blacks and browns, but it is not necessary, as tea used with ordinary starch serves the same purpose. Color tints may l)e obtained in powdered form or in pastes such as are used for coloring candies and icings. Some dyes may be purchased in soap form. Various shades of crepe paper will bleed enough color in a quantity of water, and this water may be added to the rinse water or to starch water. Starch substitutes are of great value in taking the place of starch in case of an emergency, or for doing fine lingerie work where the penetrability of the stiffening agent is the chief requirement. Borax is usually bought in powder form. Voiles or dimities HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 141 and any sheer material like fine collars and jabots appear more like new material if rinsed in borax water instead of starch water. Borax is a bleach and if only a part of a garment is starched with borax, that part on standing will whiten. Gum arable may be purchased as a powder or in lump form. Either will dissolve quickly in warm water, requiring about half as much time for the powder as for the gum. Gum arable is espe- cially useful in stiffening silks and crepes. It gives a new-fabric appearance. It is used in such small quantities and so seldom, that from trv^o to four ounces from the drug store will be ample. It is used in the proportion of one teaspoonful to one quart of water and must be strained before using. Dextrine is a gum. It is starch partially digested into a sugar and so is neither a starch nor a sugar. If one has gum arable in the house, there is no need to use dextrine. Some especially prepared starches that are sold for fine lingerie are dextrinized starch. This starch makes a more penetrating stiffening. Bran is used in the place of soap for Avashing cretonnes and colors and, like grated potato put in the water, will carry some starch with it. No bran is absolutely free from starch, and if the garment after washing is rinsed in bran water instead of clear water, it will take up some starch, enough to give the appearance of a new fabric. BLUING After rinsing the clothes entirely free from soap, the use of blue water will counteract the yellow of the fibre and the clothes will become whiter than without its use. A good blue should entirely dissolve in water and should contain no iron. An insoluble blue is an inconvenience because it settles on the sides and the bottom of the tub, and may even settle in the folds of the garment, causing -streaks and spots which must be washed or boiled out. It is also an unnecessary expense because all the bluing bought is not usable. If an insoluble blue is used, the water should be stirred each time a garment is put in so as to keep the particles in suspension, otherwise they will settle. Liquid blues are easy to use and are soluble, but care must be taken that thev and other blues do not contain iron. Clothes that are not properly rinsed so as to be entirely free from soap before 142 HOUSEWIFERY bluing will often show, upon ironing, streaks or spots of iron rust. The sotla or potash of the soap has combined with the iron of the blue, and iron rust develops on ironing. It is a chemical formation and may be overcome either by a better choice of blue, or by tlior- ougldy rinsing out all soap before bluing. To test a bluing for iron, put a teaspoonful of liquid blue, or shave off some of the ball or block blue, into a tablespoonful of water and to this add a strong solution of soap or soda. Heat this mix- ture, and if iron is present the bluing will change to a reddish brown. To test solubility, put a few grains of powdered blue in water, shake and let stand to dissolve. Filter through filter paper or fine cloth and if soluble no residue will remain. Bluing is usually bought at grocery stores, but the laundry supply houses have the greatest variety of blues, and will sell in small quantities like one ounce. Aniline blue is the standard blue and is soluble and without iron. It is very strong, not being diluted, and may be purchased as a pow- der, ready to be dissolved. Put one ounce of powder into one gallon of warm water and all will dissolve ; filter, bottle and store for use. Of this solution, use one teaspoon for an ordinary washtub of water. Aniline blues are sold by number, which indicates color, blue or violet, and whether an acid is needed to develop the color or not. For household purposes, buy the blue tint and the kind not needing an acid, called anti-sour. SEWIXG SUPPLIES So little time is used in being forehanded and so much lost when the needed article is not at hand. This is true with regard to all supplies, but is true to even a greater extent with sewing supplies. These supplies are usually of standard sizes and quantities and of permanent quality; so, as far as cost is concerned, it is as cheap to buy at one time as another, and certainly a needle and thread, or a hook and eye, when needed is most urgently needed at the moment. The experienced housekeeper requires little help in this econ- omy, but those younger in experience may be grateful for a suggestive list. A\Tiy not buy such requisites as the following the very first day one goes to a store, and then certain necessities will have become comforts, by being on hand when needed? HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 143 Thread : Spool cotton, white and black, sizes 40-90. Spool silk, white, 0-A-B (2 size spools, large and small). Spool silk, black, 0-A-B (2 size spools). Spool silk, light blue, A. Spool silk, light pink, A. Basting cotton, size 60. Heavy linen thread, spool or skein. Darning cotton, black and white mercerized. Needles : Darning needles, sizes 3-9, 5-10. (Separate papers of one size may be lX)Ugllt. ) Sewing needles, sizes 0, 7, 8, 9, 10. Large sack needle or heavy darning needle. Bodkin — tape needle. Pins : Paper or box of pins (cheaper by the box; y^ lb.). TVo sizes are convenient, but if one size is bought choose one not too large. Safety pins, three sizes. Steel or nickel plated. The steel is more expensive but has a good needle point. Hooks, Eyes, and Peets: Black and white, non-rusting, sizes 1, 2, 3. Snappers : Black and white, sizes 4/0, 3/0, 2/0, 1/0, 00. Measure: Tape measure. Yard stick. Neither expensive; the tape especially good for sewing, and yard stick for accurate measurements about the house. Tapes : Cotton — two or three rolls of cheap cotton tape for broom bags, hang- ing loops, or places where tapes are firmer than string. English twilled — best quality for bindings. Linen — special bindings fori shoe bags, for sturdy bindings and facings. Bias Bindings — for finishing; for mending or replacing in tears. (Several sizes — 2-8.) Ribbon Binding — black and white. Used for rough edges of seams. Most useful for mending. Lingerie Tape — for drawstrings in underwear; serviceable and wash- ah\e; good to replace the broken drawstring. Feather Stitoh Binding — for finishing where a plain bias binding could be used. Belting— to replace shrunken belts. (All belting shrinks about 2 inches to the yard.) Shoe Lacers — black, botli short and long. Color to match usual color worn. Corset Lacers — a pair of short ones. One long lace. 144 HOUSEWIFERY Edging : Narrow embroidery to set into tiers, 2 widths. Narrow^ lace to set into tiers, 2 widths. Coarse net for foundation for darning large tears. Muslins : Batiste or lawn, foi*' mending. Muslin, light weight, for mending, heavy, for mending. Emery Ball: For clenning needles. Wax: For waxing heavy threads. (^ollar: Bones or wires — 3 sizes. Crochet Needle: For an emergency mend. Stiletto: For an emergency mend. HOUSEHOLD PAPER SUPPLIES Toilet paper should have a smooth surface and soft texture. It can be' purchased in either of two forms : the roll, or the package of sheets. The latter is more economical because one is less likely to use the sheets carelessly. It is decidedly economical to put the package into a patented holder, and this is recommended for places where the use of such paper is likely to be extravagant, or where it is a rather large item of expense. Tissue paper is especially useful for wrapping dainty or fragile materials. It comes about fifteen by twenty-two inches in size, and is sold by the quire or one hundred sheets. The odd pieces that come into the house as wrappings should be saved, for they make excellent window wipers. Tissue paper, too, is always valuable for packing, because it crushes and is so soft and light that it makes a good padding for fragile material. Paraffin paper is a light-weight tissue coated with paratfin, which is useful for wrapping foodstuffs. It may l)e purchased in packages, or by the roll of about twelve yards. If it is used very freely in the home, it will be found more economical to buy in pound or quire lots from a wholesale paper house. Paper towels are sometimes used in the kitchen, where a clean towel is needed many times a day. This paper should be rough, really a blotting paper, so that it will a1)sorh water readily. The towels are ])urchased in rolls of 7 yards each. Wrapping paper is a great convenience to have on hand. It can HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 145 be purchased either in sheets by the quire, or on rolls as one sees it used in stores. For economy's sake, save clean wrapping papers tliat come into the house. WRITING DESK SUPPLIES Paper — business size. 500 sheets to 1 ream. Correspondence size, 24 sheets to 1 quire, 60-75 sheets to 1 package ( Formerly sold as pound ) . Envelopes — business size, 400 envelopes to 1 ream of paper. Letter size 1 pack to 1 quire paper 2 packs to 1 package of paper. \Oo Post cards. Correspondence cards. Newspaper wrappers. . Letter size pad — cheap paper. W Small memo pad — for notes. A decided color like yellow is desirable as it „ catches the eye. 9 ^ Postage stamps — of various denominations including special delivery. I. Blotters — large and small. Printed stickers — pad for Parcel Post. Laundry list pad — for those who send clothes out to a laundry. Carbon paper — to copy lists. Box of labels — not too small ; two sizes. Pad of printed household labels. Elastic bands. Glue. Paste. Key tags; trunk tags. Mending tape — for music or books. Sealing-wax. Ball of string. Ball of twine. Paper clips. Thumb-tacks. Shears. TABLE OF HOUSEHOLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Linear Measure: 12 inches ^1 foot 320 rods =1 mile 3 feet =1 yard 17G0 yards =1 mile 5V2 yards = 1 rod 5280 feet =1 mile Square Measure: 144 square inches = 1 square foot IGO square rods = 1 acre 9 square feet = 1 square yard 1 square mile = 1 section 3014 sq. yards = 1 square rod 36 square miles = 1 township 10 146 HOUSEWIFERY Avoirdupois Weight: 27..'5 {i;rai!is =1 dram IG drams = 1 ounce ]() ouiu'ca = 1 |H)iiii(l /.i(/iii:l Mcd.siirc: 4 ^ills =:: 1 l.illt 2 jiiiits = 1 (jnart Dri/ Measure • 2 2)ints = 1 quart X (juartn = 1 peck 100 pounds = i cwt. 20110 pounds -- I ton 4 quarts = 1 f^alloii 311/, gals.= 1 1.1)1. 4 pecks =: 1 Inishel 10") dry quarts = 1 bid. (fruit, vege- tables, etc.) 'M"^. "^ ) ;. — l.\(r_\-cla\' kitelicii iiiiaMiiis. ('ourli-sN' of P.urcau ui ."^tundiin Washington, D. C :\[ISCELLAXEOrS HOUSEHOLD MEASURES: 4 saltspoonfuls 3 teaspoonfuls IG tablespoon fuls 2 oills 2 cupfuls 1 CU])ful 32 taldespoonfuls 2 cups l)utter 1 lb. butter 4 cups flour 2 cups sugar ^ cups coffee 1 lb. coffee = 1 tea spoonful =:= 1 tablespoonful = 1 cupful = 1 cupful =: 1 pint =: 8 fluid ounces = 1 lb. butter = 1 lb. ^ 40 butter balls =rl lb. = 1 lb. = 1 11). = 40 cu])s of liquid coffee HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES 147 1 7/8 cups rice = 1 lb. 2 2/3 cups oatmeal = 1 lb. 2 2/3 cups cornmeal= 1 lb. 1 cup of liiiuid to 3 cups flour = a dough 1 cup of liquid to 2 cups flour = a thick batter 1 cup of liquid to 1 cup flour ^ a thin batter 2 teaspoonfuls soda to 1 pint sour milk 1 teaspoonful soda to 1 cup molasses % teaspoonful cream of tartar +11 „ . r i i , • j teaspoonful soda j = " teaspoonfuls baking powder SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What practical suggestions for economizing soap can: be taught? 2. What supplies should be bought in quantities? List. 3. List) such supplies as may produce waste if bought in quantity. 4. Compare prices paid by one housekeeper and by yourself and find reason for differences. 5. Make a list that may be used as a purchasing list for cleaning supplies in the home. G. How may the quality of soap and blue be tested in the home? REFERENCES DoNHAjr, Agnes, Marketing anu Housework. Little, Brown & Co. Parloa, Maria, Home Economics. Century Co. SouDER, M. Attie, Notions. Ronald Press Co. U. S. Bureau of Standards, ^Materials for the Household. Circular No. 70. U. S. Bureau of Standards, Safety for the Household. Circular No. 75. Vanderbilt, Sadie B., Physical and Chemical Tests for the Housewife Teachers College Bureau of Publications, Bulletin No. 19. CHAPTER VII HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS In considering furnishings, it is lielplul to begin with the appearance of the empty room, for the room when furnished is like a picture, to which the walls, ceiling, and floor serve as a l)ackground. To obtain best results for the background, utility, beauty, and economy may be considered together. In planning their new home, the young couple usually have, as their ideal, the perfectly furnished house, complete in all its details. Their enthusiasm and desire to have it complete often act as a hindrance to the best results by causing them to buy hastily. With a limited sum to spend, their tendency will be to buy cheap furnishings which may represent bad lines, poor construction, and limited wearing power, for their one thought is to furnish the house. Instead, why not plan to buy absolute necessities first, made of the best material, constructed so that they are easily cleaned, built according to approved standards, and harmonizing with things that may be bought later ? As one lives in the house, sees wliat is wanted, and what money is available for purchasing, the many things needed and desired may be added. It seems a more reasonable standard, moreover, to use less ex- pensive equipment which may be had in adequate quantity, which is not too expensive to replace, and so is not a source of anxiety to the housewife. It is a poor rule for living to have material things for daily use that are so precious that the}^ are a matter of concern. The housewife who every evening rolls up her solid silver and takes it upstairs to put under her pillow is not the American standard for the twentieth century. Two hundred and fifty to three hundred dollars, if spent most carefully, may buy the bare necessities for a small plainly furnished home, of kitchen, dining-room, one bedroom, and bath. Even then, however, only necessities are possible. In this chapter there are presented in turn standards for various 148 HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 149 items of household furnishings, beginning -with parts of the house itself which require care and renewal, such as walls and floors; then treating of floor coverings, draperies, furniture, linens, beds and bedding, silverware, china and glassware. WALLS Walls should be decorated in accordance with a few general rules : in the first i^lace, the smaller the room, the plainer the paper or covering material. jSText, for economy of light, the color should not be too dark (Fig. 94), because a dark color absorbs light, and one Imrns more light in order to have a brighter room. Yellows, reds, or pinks are best on dark or " cold " rooms, and gra3's, blues, greens, or lavenders on warm sunny rooms. The light shades and dainty patterns are good for rooms which are for individual use, such as bedrooms and dressing-rooms. The apjDarent form and size of rooms may be somewhat controlled by the choice of tints and colors of paper. A mirror may be himg to reflect the room, and so make it appear larger. It is often poor wall treatment that makes rooms seem like boxes divided from each other. Wallpaper. — Wallpaper should be like mats used in framing; it should serve as background rather than itself be the picture. Two-tone papers are lighter, and often reflect more light and life than a one-tone paper ; the two-tone effect may be brought about by a fine line of a lighter or contrasting color. Figures and stripes have much to do with the effect of a room. Stripes heighten ceil- ings, while figures, if large and geometrical, often make the walls appear close and hence lessen the size of the room. Special attention should be given to avoid " busy '' papers — those that keep the occu- pant busy working out squares and diamonds, or constantly counting some unit of design. Wallpapers are sold in double and single rolls, 48 and 24 feet long respectively. For a nine-foot wall, the double roll cuts to better advantage. A single roll cuts to better advantage on an eight-foot wall. If the wall height is a few inches over eight feet, the double roll is better economy. Papers with small figures, like any other material, cut with much greater economy because less is lost in matching the pattern. 150 HOUSEWIFERY Papers may be classified (Figs. !•"> and IKi) with a])))ri).\iinate prices, as follows : Cartriclf^o $ .15 per roll Oaliiu'al 30 per roll Tile 30 per roll Engraved 60 per roll Crepe $ .00 per roll Stipple 1.20 per roll Pressed 3.00 per roll Japanese 4.50 per roll Fig. 94. — A study showing the absorption of light by wallpaper. The same sized room, the same sized burner. To I'ut Wallpaper On. — liecipe for paste: 2 lbs. flour. Cold water to make thick paste. y_^ lb. glue. Boilinor water to make like eream. Save some pieces of wa]lpa})er for future use iu patching. Hard Plaster or Cement Walls. — In rooms like the cellar, laundry, and kitchen, the walls are hest finished with a hard finish which can he produced by hard plaster or cement. In either case the wall may he tinted. If desired, it may he first marked off to imitate tile or bricks, and then finished in enamel ])aint. Cartridge HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS Oatmeal 151 Fig. 95. — Samples of wallpaper. Crepe Stipple Pressed Fig. 96. — Samples of wallpaper. 152 HOUSEWIFERY Paint and Calcimine Walls. — Ordinary plaster, such as is most often used, ean !)e finished w itli a liard surface hy first covering with one or two coatings of flat liousc paint, and then ai)plying one or two coats of enamel paint. Naturally the more coats the wall has, the more impervious to moisture it is and the more easily cleaned. Calcimine and whitewash finish are cheaper at first cost, Imt will need frequent renewal, as hoth ruh off easily, and are spotted with water. Good painted walls may he renewed hy washing with soap and Avater. Oilcloth or enamel cloth may he used for wall covering, and if well pasted it malves a water-proof finish and is an especially good way to freshen bathroom and kitchen walls. The tile effect possible in this enamel cloth makes an attractive wall covering. Tile and Tile-like Walls. — As explained above, a hard plaster can be marked off to imitate tile, and this, with enamel joaint, makes a good finish, which wears well. A metal, marked like tile, may be purchased in sheet form, and put over old plaster that is still firm, and then be enamel painted to give a good finish. This gives a most satisfactory wall finish, and is cheaper than porcelain tile. Tile wainscoting for five feet from the floor, with hard plaster enamelled for walls above for ceiling, while relatively expensive, makes an impervious wall finish most suitable for any room where moisture, odor, or grease may be present. This finish is most easily cleaned and is very durable. For greater ease in cleaning and for more sanitary walls, a curved baseboard of tiling is usually set in before the wainscot is set. Ornamented tile in the w^all finish rather fails in the purpose of the use of the tile, for it is hard to clean, and naturally less sanitary. FLOORS Kinds of Woods. — The following woods are given with their advantages and disadvantages for use as floors. Sometimes one prefers to choose a wood for its special qualities, but more often it is an economical advantage to use a wood that is relatively cheap in the local market, provided it meets the requirements for serviceableness. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS Advantages Disadvan tages 153 Soft woods: White pine, Moderate price 2nd quality Excellent floor for carpets Soft for tacks Shrinks little Lies permanently Hat Contains many knots Unattractive in appearance Unsviited for staining Too soft Knots sliow tlirough Spruce Hard woods: North Caro- lina pine Cheap Nearly free from knots White and agreeable in ap- pearance when fresh Soft for tacks Takes stain well Cheap as spruce Can be kept fairly polished witli w^ax Possible to select boards which do not show sapwood Boards tend to curl at edges, forming ridges Hastens wearing out of carpet Splinters Stain soon wears off Shows sapwood, which injures appearance Does not take carj^et tacks Georgia Next above North Carolina Grain monotonous if '"rift pine pine in liardness and cost boards" Takes good polish with wax If of slashed boards, apt to ]Must use rift boards splinter IMaple Tough Whiteness desirable in par- quetry or oiled floors to make the pattern Boards acquire bluish tinge at ends Not often used for entire floor in home Boards must be cut narrow— 214" or 2" Ash May be used for stairs that Unsuited for severe wear are to be covered, and for Annual rings do not adhere, doors and door frames and floor slivers in places May make a good floor that where wear comes is to be covered Birch Very hard Contains white sapwood en- closing pink heart VerY beautiful Limited market Oak Best for floors Varied and agreeable grain Does not sliA^er Liable to have knots which shrink and work loose Much waste in laying a floor 154 IIOTTSEWIFERY Fancy woods like cherry, mahogany, l)eccli, walnut, and redwood are ns(>(] only where one may ]iay large prices. Cherry often is used with (II' as mahogany, and usually takes the curved or bent lines of cliaii' l)acks and ai'ms. Mahogany is nut pliahle enough to form cui'ves. The mode of sawing and ihe part of the log used have much to do with the wearing qualities of wood, especially that used for lloors. The young, immature, or sapwood is usually separated from •rood lumber, as it is soft and tilled with much oru'anic matter Fig. 97. — Mode of sawing wood produces different type boards. A, cutting a log; B, showing layers. From Parloa's Home Economics, Century Co. that easily decays. The mature or heart wood is a darker, harder wood, with a very close grain ; its organic material is in such small amounts that the chance for decay is eliminated. This heart wood is sawed, and according to the method or the place from which the boards are sawed, we have first, rift or comb, second, slash or bastard wood. The log is cut according to the drawing (Fig. 97). In this way one or two broad boards are cut — A-fl .• then the log is cut and cut again, giving such boards as c and e, which will have the long annual layers or rings called rift ; d will give short annual, rings called slash. The wood is all cut across the grain as B shows. Slash wood slivers and so is bad for floors HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 155 as it would soon splinter; if used, it should be covered. The quartered or conil.) grain wood gives a board that is smooth and wears well. Boards shrink in width and depth, but rarely in length. They should be thoroughly dried so as to be permanent in size and shape, and so prevent the chance of warping and forming cracks. - Floor boards are usually tongnie and grooved, or " matched "' lumber, so that they make tight joints, and if well seasoned, will be lasting. Maple is most used for floors that are to be washed much and have hard wear like school rooms. Yellow pine or resinous woods resist decay, because the rosin prevents moisture soaking into the wood. Such a wood makes a good kitchen or laundry floor, if wood is to be chosen. Wood is resilient, but unless oiled or covered will soak moisture and grease. For the work quarters of the house the standard should be to have the floor easily cleaned, easy of tread, and non-absorbent to moisture and grease. For the recreation and rest part of the house, wood flooring is most commonly used, and this plain laid wooden floor or the pine, maple, or oak may be stained or made into a jiattern, or a so-called parquetry floor. Any of the woods may be oiled, waxed, or varnished, with or without a stain. Waxed, Oiled, or Varnished Wood. — A wooden floor is the least expensive, hence most often found, in a house. A wooden floor may be oiled with warmed paraffine or linseed oil. The warmed oil will penetrate the wood and oil it so thoroughly that future grease spots are less likely to be made. Oil and color together may be applied by a color dye. Whether plain oil or oil stain is used the object is to get the oil into the wood. The first coat will probably all go in so that in a few hours there will be almost nothing to wipe off. Several coats of oil on the stained floor will give a good finish, each coat making the floor darker than the first. Oiled hard-wood floors give good service with the exception of the care needed to keep them clean. Use light oils, like lemon or paraffin, very thin, and rub off every bit that has not been absorbed before it has had time to gather dust. A varnished or shellaced floor is very glossy and unless the var- nish is of excellent quality (free from rosin) and put on in thin layers, the service life is very short. Waxed floors are most satisfactory for living rooms and general rest and recreation quarters so far as apjwarance is concerned, but 156 HOUSEWIFERY waxed lloors must have care. Water leaves a dark spot on a waxed floor, and oil causes it to grow sticky. The best care is to keep it free from dust and water, and to rub it with a heavy polisliing ])rush, usually weighted. Such a l)rush may be l^ought for the pur- pose; or sometimes carpet is fastened to the feet and. the feet scuffled over the floor. The weight of tlie body increases the ease of pro- ducing the polisli. (See chapter on Cleaning and Renovation, page 292.) Whatever tlic flnor. 1)(^ sure to liinc it verv smooth so tliat it Fig. 98. — Types of flooring. 1, Interlocking rubber; 2, parquetry floor; 3, tile; 4, asbes- tolith; 5, colored tiles for borders; H, niarbleloid with sanitary base; 7, linoleums; S, terrazio; 9, dreadnaught. will be easily cleaned. Curved basel)oards in the tile, or special mouldings set in as a joining between walls and floors (Fig. 98), make a room not only easily cleaned, but more likely to prohibit vermin. Types of floorings are shown in Fig. 98. Tile or Composition Floors. — Tile makes the most sanitary floor, but unfortunately not the easiest of tread, for it lacks resil- iency. A floor which is easy of tread is said to have resiliency, i.e., it gives the walker an impetus forward — as linoleum, cork carpet, interlocking rul)ber, or some of the composition floors which are spread witli a trowel or laid in sections. These floors often repre- sent tile, and may be bought in different colors and patterns. Curved baseboards are possible with all these floors. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 157 Actual tile, if used, is most suitable for laundry, kitchen, and bathroom floors. Small many-sided tile usually gives the best ser- vice as there are more edges for contact with the adjoining tile and hence greater adliesion. Eound and square tile are more likely to loosen, and the tile with a large surface is less likely to withstand heavy wear, as, for example, in delivery entries where trucking and delivery of lieavy barrels and boxes are factors. Hea^•y rough tiles like vitrified bricks are often well chosen for porch floors and vestibules. They present a sturdy " outdoor ". atmosphere and their rough finish adds to their attractiveness. Linoleum. — Linoleum is a material of cork composition which may be jiurchased at a great range of prices and in a correspondingly great variety of quality. A thin linoleum called oilcloth is the cheapest quality. The pattern is put on like a stencil, stamped on the surface, and naturally the wear soon causes the pattern to rub off, leaving only the cloth foundation. Varnish will help keep this cloth in good condition, but only in a small degree. Such linoleum would need at least three coats of varnish in a year. The linoleum that has the pattern and color all through its depth is built up in blocks and pressed together. ISTaturally the color lasts as long as the linoleum lasts. These come in medium standard grades, and also in heavier grades known as " cork carpet " which is cork color, and " battleship linoleum " which is usually a plain dark brown. These two heavier grades cost more than stand- ard weight linoleum, and this cost may be unnecessary for the lighter service of the small house; they are used in institutions where the wear is hea^'3^ The laying of a linoleum is almost more important than the difference in quality of the middle grades (Fig. 99). It should be most carefully measured and cut to fit the floor. Two weekg lying on the floor without tacking will give it time to stretch, and then it may be refitted and fastened down. The strips of linoleum are sealed together with a sealing cement, and the edges are sealed to the baseboard. Usually this is all that is done ; but the housewife would find that the small extra cost, 15 to 25 cents per square foot, of having the whole piece of linoleum entirely sealed to the floor, would mean securing an almost permanent floor. The object of sealing is that no water can possibly get to the underside of the linoleum to water-soak it, causing it to swell and buckle. Linoleum, after it is laid, may be waxed like a wooden floor, and then the 158 HOUSEWIFERY pores will bo closed, making- it resist water, ^redium-pricod lino- leum, waxed and sealed to tlie (loor, will ,<>rive excellent service and has resiliency to give comfort to the worker. It makes the most satisfactory kitchen lloor. Rugs and Carpets. — These (lillVr I'l'din each olhcr only in size, ht'caiise the niaici'ial is the same. The study of sanitation and elliciciicy has made a car])ct unusual in the average home, since rugs are much more easily cleaned and handled. Carpets have been vu\ np into small s(piares called druggets, or have been stripped y/ooz? Fig. 99. — Proper wall attachment for linoleum floor covering. into rugs in about the reverse proportion that housekeepers used to buy strips of carpeting and sew them together into carpets. Some ingrain and l)russels carpets have ln'cn stripped, fringed, and re- woven like a rag rug, except that the nap in weaving has. been forced up. All this has been by way of getting rugs into the house to replace carpets. The essential economic requii-ements of a floor covering are that it be duraljle, easily cleaned, and substantial enough to lie flat on the floor. The artistic requirements are good color and pattern and that the rug harmonize with the room. The rug should be the foundation of the room, and the color and pattern may be said to contribute to a hannonious whole when neither are so pro- nounced as to be the all-controlling factor in the design of the room. Types of rugs are shown on. pages 159-165. As to the size of a single rug for a room, a good general rule HOUSEHOLD FURNISHIxNGS 159 160 HOUSEWIFERY to use for measuring is that the rug come up well to the fireplace, if there is one, and that the margin on opposite sides of the room be ('(|ual. A rug 9 x 12 feet looks best with a floor margin 12 to IT) inclu's, and a larger rug better with an 18-inch margin. If several small rugs arc to be used, in various sizes, and arranged about the room to cover the main unit spaces, iho lines of the rugs will usually best follow the lines of the room. / aor// WEAVE OF /mm// c/i/?P£r BEfU53ELS CAffPET ^£/ll/£ W/LTOA/ /S /i COT BffUSSELS AXfi/NSTEEt CmPET W£/i/£ Pio. 101. — Diagram showing weaves of the different types of carpeting. 1, Cloth weave of Ingrain carpet; 2, Brussels carpet (Wilton is a cut Brussels); 3, Axminster carpet weave. Eugs are classified according to the weave, as ingrain, j^ile, and tufted. Ingrain (Fig. 101 (1)) is woven clotli fashion, Avith a warp and woof, and, like cloth, is reversible lioth as to finish and colors: that is, it may be used either side up. Pile carpeting includes Brussels and Wiltons. Brussels (Fig. 101 (2) ) has only one usalde side. It has a pile like velvet, but the pile is uncut. Its weave is like AYilton; that is, it consists of a locked stitch in which one thread is woven over the next, thereby locking and holding better. The woolen thread which constitutes the pile is looped in the warp, and held in loops during the weaving by stretched wires. When the fabric is al)out to 'be finished, the wires are drawn out, and the loops thus left constitute the pile. Brussels is only a middle grade carpet, both as to looks and to wear. But "^ body brussels ^' is better than " tapestry brussels," as the latter has much sizing and would have to be drv-cleaned rather than steam-cleaned. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 161 Wilton is a heavy, more velvety, and more durable carpet or rug than Brussels. It is made with a pile like Brussels, but the pile is cut when it is finished and steamed, whereupon it appears like velvet. Wilton is especially good for living rooms; lay it with the pile against the light as with Oriental rugs. French Wiltons have cotton, backs, and are usually woven in Oriental colors and patterns. Royal Wilton is a trade name for a cheaper quality. Wilton Velvet is a cheaper-grade rug, which is better in figures than in plain colors. Hartford Saxony is a Wilton with a longer nap, but not so serviceable, because the nap may be pulled out. Saxony is best in Chinese patterns; there is only one grade. Because Wiltons are so closely woven, they hold dust on their surface. For limited incomes the French Wilton is the best, as it gives the longest and mo?t satisfactory service. Tufted. — The third kind of carpeting is the tufted kind. It is of the nature of the old-fashioned hooked rugs, where the filling is woven in in tufts. This group includes Axminster, Chenille, Oriental rugs, and carjoets. Axminster (Fig. 101 (3)) is cheaper than a Wilton and less serviceable, as the tufts easily loosen. Much lint comes from the rug. Cotton Axminster is not reversible. Chenille is of the tufted type, and is like Axminster in appear- ance and like Wilton in weave. It is the most expensive of domestic or European carpeting. It is more like an Oriental rug but not so adapted to hard wear, although it is often used to save costly Orientals. The cost of Chenille is determined by the depth of the pile and richness of color. Cotton Chenilles are reversible and wash- able, and are used for bathrooms. Oriental rugs are hand-tufted, made by stretching the warp thread in a frame, and then looping in short or long lengths of wool filling (Fig. 102). Before finishing, the rugs are sheared to make the filling even. For tufted rugs, the most economical from the cleaning point of view are those that are sheared so the threads are not too long (Figs. 103, 104). Hemp and Grass Rugs. — Various kinds of hemp and grass rugs, woven or braided, arc much used for living rooms, sun parlors, and on porches. Because they are light, cool looking, and easily lifted to be cleaned, they are much used for summer homes, and where the income demands something inexpensive. 11 162 HOUSEWIFERY Rag Rugs. — Two other types of rugs are made by braiding strips of cloth and sewing the braided strips together, or by weaving strips of cloth as a woof in the warp tliroad Denims and cretonnes are most effoctive for tliis woi'k. lather of these materials, or strips of iicking or silk, may 1)0 Jiooked into hiirhip or crocheted into rugs. A B . c Fig. -knots- 102. — Diagram of Oriental rug weave. A, Persian — knots — right twist; B, Persian -left twist; C, Turkish — knots — center twist. Courtesy of Comttry Life in America. Other rug materials (Fig. 105), sueli as flax, jute, and wieking, are also used to produce variety and various degrees of cheaper rugs. Comparative values of rugs and carpets are shown l:)y the following tahh', thougli of course prices may vary greatly. Kind Flax, grass Rag, woven Rag, braided, oval . Ingrain, plain figured Body Brussels Wilton Hartford Saxony . . . Axminster Chenille, linen back wool back Carpet Price Rug Width yd. yd. 1 yd. 1 yd. 1 yd. 1 yd. 1 yd. 1 yd. SI. 4.') 1.60 3.00 4.00 3-5.00 6-8.00 2-4.00 8.95 9.25 3x6 ft. 3x6 ft. 4x7 ft. 3x5i 3% to 6 1/2 L 2, 4, f) yard squares for cutting round. Hemmed or scalloped tahlecloths: 36 in.x36 in. (tea cloth) 54 in. X 54 in. 72 in. X 72 in. 80 in. x80 in. 90 in. x90 in. Sizes of napkins unhemmed: Breakfast 19 in. to 22 in. Tea 16 in. to 18 in. Dinner 24 in. to 32 in. Size of doilies: 12 in., 14 in., 16 in., 20 in., 24 in. The prices of table linen are so variable that it is not possibh? to quote prices with any degree of accuracy. Tablecloths by the yard are the cheapest ; a cloth by the yard woven with a border on all sides will cost 50-75 cents more than the same sized cloth without the border. Sound cloths come in 1, 2, 4, and 5 yd. squares for cutting, $3 extra charge is made to hem these cloths. Napkins. — Allow one dozen to each clpth. If the housekeeper is to have only one handsome set it is wise to allow two dozen napkins to each cloth; the napkins receive harder wear than the cloth. Towels. — The greatest essential of a towel is that it should be soft, and should absorb moisture rapidly. An all-linen towel best meets these requirements. Huckaback towels (Fig. 113) are most 180 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 113. — Different weaves of huckaback. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 181 Fig. 114. — Showing different weaves of towelling. Crash towelling used mostly in the kitchen. used, because their roughness and looseness of weave makes a good surface for absorption. Damask towels are very beautiful, but are not so efficient, as they do not absorb moisture readily. Cotton or union towels (linen and cotton) are much cheaper, 182 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 115. — Samples of checked towelling, often called glass towelling. bat have two disadvantages: they are less absorbing, and because of the cotton they gray and darken with w^ar, making them look constantly dirty. Wash cloths and bath towels often illnstrate this. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 183 Towel Sizes. — The usual sizes for towels are 14 x 20 and 24 x 45 inches; prices per dozen vary according- to the material about as follows: Cotton, $1.75 to $2.75; huck, $5.00 to $15.00; union, $3.00 to $4.50 ; damask, $1G.00 up. Fig. 116. — .< i m n -:-i i o, dish towels. Kitchen toirels are of three types: glass towelling (Fig, 115), for glass and china; crash towelling (Fig. 114), to be used for heavy cooking utensils; and crash towelling, for hand towels. For glass towelling one may best choose a linen fabric, because linen has the 184 HOUSEWIFERY iK'st power of abi^orptioii, and because it has no lint. I'suall}- it is checked (Fig. 1 1-")) ; ii' so, the towelling with red lines or checks will keep the color better than that with Mue. Crash towelling is a cheaper, sturdier quality of linen, and is hcttcr suited to the rough work such as drying cooking utensils and knives. The towel with the word " dish towel " or " glass towel " woven into it is one oi" the most expensive, and no better than the plain towels. Hand towels should be of softer weave, and may be bought with a pattern that makes them distinct from other towels in the kitchen. Kitchen towelling varies in width from sevent-een to twenty-one inches. The prices range from twelve to eighteen cents for cotton to eighteen to thirty cents for linen, A cheaper linen towel is preferable to a finer cotton one. Dish cloths and wash cloths should be chosen with a soft, spongy Aveave, rather rough, but always so spongy as either to hold water or to be easily wrung dry (Fig. 116). Suggestions to Guide in Buying Linen. — An understanding of the qualities to look for in linen is the first essential of a suc- cessful buyer. Always buy linen of a reliable firm and of a salesman who knows quality. For economy, buy when some reliable house has a '' sale " of good linen. These sales are business propositions to arouse trade, and are often planned to clear the shelves of patterns that are not in style at the time. Style stimulates trade. At these times the housekeeper may restock her shelves and have reserve linen on hand. Too much ahead is as poor planning as none, because linen will turn yellow and crack on the folds if kept too long. To prevent cracking, it would be wise occasionally to change the folding. Suggested Quantities of Household Linen to Buy. — 4 sheets per bed or if beds are all of same size, 3 sheets per bed. 3 pillow cases per pillow. 2 blankets per bed. 2 spreads per bed. 6 face towels per person. 3 bath towels per person. 2 bath mats for bathroom. 1 large dinner table cloth. 3 changes of napkins (at least) per week. 3 everyday table cloths, if luncheon sets are used. 6 everyday table cloths if nothing else is used. glass towels per week. 6 crash towels per week. 2 oven cloths per week. 7 hand towels per week. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 185 Marking Linen. — Methods of marking are of two general kinds: Ink marking, such as pen and ink, stencil, and machine marking (like a typewriter) ; and thread marking, such as bonnay embroidery (chain stitch done by a machine), woven tapes, and hand embroidery (Fig. 117). Eapidity and cheapness characterize the ink method. Serviceableness, ease of application, and good style describe the thread method. For linen that is to be ironed by machinery, the bonnay and embroidered letter will be the least MCH Fig. 117. — Different ways of marking personal and household linen. lasting. Xo matter how it is done, choose a regular place for the name to be put on each individual kind of linen article, as it does much to help in sorting laundered clothes. The accepted color for embroideries is usually white and separate initials are not only more legible, but considered better style than monograms. The place for the mark varies with style, but the standard place is here given: Tahledoths should show the marking when the cloth is on the table. A cloth hangs from the table Yi or % yard. The monogram 186 HOUSEWIFERY or initial should be on the top of the table about six inches from the edge, at the right of the liost or hostess, unless there is a special medallion woven for a mark. Napkins are marked in the corner, in the middle of the square ])roduced by the final fold. They may be mark(>d in the' center, in which case the napkin must be luldcd in iliinls when ironed. tSliceis, pillow-cases and tourls are marked in the middle of the hemmed end, six inches from the end, so as to he read from the hem. IfandkercJiicfs. — Tf marked with embroidered letter, in the cor- ner ; if with ])en and ink, in the cent(>r. BEDS AND BEDDING Bedding is a problem to which one should give consideral)le thought, because the materials are purchased for lasting service, and hecause of the large first cost the possiljility of renovation should be we'll considej'cil. The Bedstead. — Bedsteads, unless of special dimensions, are usually six feet three inches in length and four feet six inches in width for full size ; four feet wide, for three-quarter heds ; three feet and three i'cet six inches, for single beds ; and three feet and tvro feet six inches wide for couch beds; while cribs are about two feet six inches wide by four feet six inches in length. The least expensive bed is a couch or cot which serves two pur- poses, a day couch and a night bed. Special care must be given to the selection of strong springs on such a bed, as the day couch has often the strain of sitting on the springs. Larger beds are bought to be used as night beds and are less likely to have the strain of being sat upon. Strain is the only word to use as the hardest use that a spring has is that of being stretched on the sides by a person sitting on the bed. Metal beds are the easiest to keep clean and are to be recom- mended rather than wooden bedsteads or such special types as rattan. The best quality iron bed finished in white enamel makes a serviceal)le, attractive bed at less cost than a brass bed, and one that is the easiest to care for. Iron may also be enamelled to repre- sent wood, making a bed less like a cottage or institution bed and one that harmonizes with mahogany and walnut furniture. Brass HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 187 beds are exjDensive, as the better quality requires a good metal foun- dation and a. heavy brass finish; and they require care to keep attractive in appearance. A good metal bed should have welded cor- ners, no sign of a tube being seamed, and firm joints. Springs. — Xo matter what the size, the springs may be classed under four types — woven wire, most common in cots and cheaper beds (Fig. 118, a and h) ; national springs (Fig. 119) ; and spiral, Fig. 118. — .4, woven wire spring which cannot be renewed when stretched; B, woven wire spring with coil springs at each end. 1 hese end springs may be renewed. which may or may not be boxed springs. A statement of the ad- vantages and disadvantages of each kind may help the housekeeper to choose. The weight of the body causes all springs to stretch and finally to sag. The cheapest woven-ivire spring has little possibility of being tightened. To overcome this, the better makes are reinforced by weaving groups of wire at regular intervals to strengthen the struct- ure so that it will resist stretching. The edges, too, are made of a 188 HOUSEWIFERY roll of woven wire, or even a steel rod may be run lengthwise of the edge to prevent stretching. The nalional springs, being built up of sections of wire with strong springs at the end of each line of wire to give tension, may be renewed by replacing sections. For a medium priced spring, the national will give excellent service. The spiral spring is a set of vertical wire sjDirals, similar to those used in upholstered furniture, the individual springs being Fig. 119. — A national spring which may be repaired by replacing the sprinjis at earh enil or by putting in new links. set upon a metal or wood base. If individual spii-als are broken, they can be replaced. It is a eomfortal)le s])ring, l»ut more difficult to clean than the woven and national tyi)ps. The ho.r spring is the most expensive, and is made up of spiral springs with a padding like a thin mattress laid on the spirals and the whole enclosed in a ticking cover. This spring makes a warmer bed, and is the most comfortable spring; but because of being enclosed in ticking, it is the most difficult to keep clean. The relative cost is tabulated. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 189 BEDS Kinds Crib Couch bed Iron or Brass Wood Iron or Brass Iron or Brass Iron, Brass, or Wood Size Length Width 4' 6" 2' 6" 6'0" 2' 6", 3' 6' 3" 3' 0" 6' 3" 3' 3" 6' 3" 3' 6" 6' 3" 4'0" 6' 3" 4' 6" SPRINGS Kinds Crib Couch bed Iron or Brass Wood Iron or Brass Iron or Brass Iron, Brass, or Wood. National $5.75 6.75 7.50 8.75 10.75 Price Woven Wire $5.75 6.75 7.50 8.75 10.75 $16.00— $22.50 16.25— 22.75 16.25— 22.75 16.50— 22.00 16.75— 23.25 MATTRESSES Crib Couch bed Iron or Brass Wood Iron or Brass Iron or Brass Iron, Brass, or Wood Price $7.50— $17.25 10.00— 23.00 12.00— 28.75 12.00— 30.00 15.00— 34.50 17.50— 40.25 20.00— 48.00 Weight S O O! S 05 I — ■ Cotton Felt Price $6.45— $9.60 8.00— 20.00 11.30— 22.00 12.30— 22.75 13.00— 24.00 13.60— 25.50 14.00— 26.50 Weight 15 lbs. 22 lbs. 30 lbs. 30 lbs. 35 lbs. 40 lbs. 45 lbs. Mattresses and pillows are usually sold by the same store or department that sells springs. The composition of a mattress, with regard to cleanliness of material, is sometimes controlled by state or 190 HOUSEWIFERY local le hingle bed 60 in. X 90 m. / *= 72 in. X 82 in. \ TlireeMj u a r t e r 72 in. X 90 in. ) lied la •"•'' on "M Double bed 80 in. X 90 in. j Comfortahles. one size: 72 in. X 78 in. SILVERWARE Silverware is classed under the two headings — " solid " and plated." Solid or sterling silver, which means about 925 parts of HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 197 silver to 75 parts of copper, is the best, the most expensive, and will outwear the best j^late silver. The solid silver is an alloy of silver and copper. The plated ware has a coating of silver deposited by electrolysis upon a suitable base, e.g., on steel for knives and forks, on German silver for spoons, and on Britannia metal for hol- low ware. In sterling silver, the heavier weight is the most desir- able, as the lighter weights, if given any hard use, bend, dent, or even break. For constant use j^lated ware recommends itself to the average household. The better plated silver on the market compares very favorabl}" with sterling silver in appearance and durability, and is much less expensive. Triple plate is the best plate, but often the most-used silver is double or even single plate. The idea expressed in these terms leads one to think that silver is dipped or coated so many times; instead, it means that a certain weight of silver is allowed as a coating to every dozen pieces. For example, it is better to have knives or forks stamped " 15 dwt.,^' moaning that fifteen pennj'weight has been "used in coating a dozen. Tablespoons marked 20 dwt. will equal teaspoons marked "10 dwt.," Ijccanse the area of a tablespoon is about twice that of a teaspoon. Bottoms of bowls and backs of handles should have an extra coating, because they receive the greatest amount of wear. The number of pieces in the making of each finished piece of silver also controls the cost. A bowl made of two pieces costs about half what the same size and weight bowl will' cost if made up of several pieces, i.e., handles, spouts, and mounts. Sometimes the ''mounts,'' which are bands or finishing sections, are ornamented, thus increasing the cost considerably. The bright finish costs slightly more than the frosted or satin finishes in silver. Silver-plating solutions advertised for use in the home are very likely to be composed of solutions of mercury salts. In this case, mercury is deposited on the spoon, giving a bright silvery appear- ance, but the housewife must . remember that mercury salts are poisonous. Patterns and shapes in flat and hollow silverware vary from time to time to suit changing fashions, but plain, simple patterns are always in good taste and are permanently on the market. The very plain patterns will be more easily cleaned, but will show scratches more readily. In selecting the pattern it is therefore well 198 HOUSEWIFERY to consider the time and lal)<)i' it will take to keep it as clean and attractive as when new, and to select in terms of economy in care as well as of appearance. For Clean iiiL;- Silver, see pa^es 2G0-?(;'^. HOUSEHOLD POTTERY AND GLASS Household Pottery. — AH household pottery, whether for kitchen or table use, is of two general types: earthenware and porce- lain ov ehina. All pottery is made of earth products molded and then baked at high temperature; and for household pottery the entire surface is covered with a glass-like glaze which is fired upon the pottery. The two types mentioned differ in the constituent materials and in the degree of hardness of the inner l)ody. In earthenware the inner body is soft, and in porcelain or china it is hard. Kitchen or cooking ware is ordinarily earthenware and is produced in various colors ; jwrcelain cooking utensils are also now available. Ordinary cooking ware is given a hard glaze to prevent food getting below the surface ; if in time the surface glaze " crazes '' or cracks, the dish becomes discolored and may possibly impart a flavor to food cooked in it. Someone has said that the much-used old-fashioned porcelain pie jdate needs only to be placed in the oven to produce a juicy, well-flavored pie. This cooking ware can- not be suljjected to sudden changes of temperature like metal articles. To cool it suddenly in cold water may cause '^ crazing '"' or even peel- ing of the glaze, and cracking of the dish. Table ware is available in the two general types of glazed ware, the earthenware wdiich has the soft inner body, and tlie porce- lain or china (Fig. 123) (so-called because first made in China) with the hard inner body. The earthen table ware is the familiar heavy white table ware often called " stoneware," which is less expensive than the porcelain and accordingly finds a wide use in homes and in restaurants and institutions. China or porcelain, which is more expensive, differs from earthen- or white-ware in two ways. First, it is hard glazed and nou-aljsorb- ing; even if chipped and the glaze broken no stain remains because of absorption. Ink may be used as a test. Secondly, it is trans- lucent, showing light through. Porcelain is less likely to chi]i than earthenware, and so is more serviceable, but it is more l)rittle. HOUSEHOLD PURNISHINGS 199 Fig. 123. — Good selection of china and silver. Three sections at the right holding flat silver are built as a sliding tray, thereby increasing the storage capacity of the drawer. 200 HOUSEWIFERY The best quality table china should be hard, compact, non-absorbent, highly glaiied, and of fine grain. The finest ware is made of fl.int or feldspar. Tiio higher the glaze and tlio more compact the body, the more brittle is the china. To produce fine china, the materials must be properly propor- tioned, mixed, and prepared, and the baking must be exactly right as to intensity and duration of heat. To get this perfection of glaze, great patience and skill are required, and as a result china or porcelain is expensive. If the glaze and the body are not suited to each other, the glaze shrinks and causes " crazing."' There are two grades of table ware : " firsts,"' perfect in shape, design, and glaze, bring the highest price; " seconds" are imperfect in one, two, or all three requirements. One may select table ware imperfect in either shape or design, but should never accept a piece imperfect in glaze, as the glaze is the protection. In selecting there are old standard patterns availal)le as in table linen, such as " willow," " madras,'' etc., and there are new designs. Two types that are popular are the band of colors, either solid or broken, and the band of gold. The colored bands are always in good taste, because the design is simple and pleasing when con- sidered in combination with flowers, linen, and food. The single gold bands are most attractive, but more expensive and less durable because gold cannot be fired to such a high temperature. Avoid ridges in patterns ; choose handles that are easily grasped ; and china in general that is not overdecorated, especially if one must use the same set of dishes continually. It is greater economy to buy what is known as "open stock" pattern, so that any replacing of broken dishes may be done at any time and at little cost. This is possible in expensive as well as in cheaper dishes. Suggestions for Buying China. — European and Oriental porcelains are " biscuited " at a low temperature which makes this kind of china superior as to glaze. European china is bluish white, while American china is cream white. There is no special value, however, in the color as far as wear is concerned. English and Oriental china are the more fragile, while the American has the stronger body, resisting shocks. American china is giving excellent service, and many good types have been developed which are equal to the imported porcelains. American china is most worthy of the housewife's consideration. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 201 A rolled edge on china prevents chipping, and so is of special service for hotel and institution china; it does not necessarily mean a thick chma. Decorations on china are put on by hand, or by the decalcomania process. Decalcomania is a process of transferring designs directly upon the china, and is the process commonly used. To decorate by hand is, of course, very slow, detailed work, all of which means very exj^ensive china. Table Service for Six (Limited). — Ch in a : 12 dinner plates 12' breakfast plates 12 soup dishes (plates or cups) 12 breakfast cups and saucera 12 tea cups and saucers 24 bread and butter plates 1 10 in. dish 1 12 in. dish 1 16 in. dish 1 18 in. dish 1 covered vegetable dish (oval) 1 covered vegetable dish ( round ) 2 platters, medium and large 1 soup tureen 1 sauce boat or bowl 1 salad bowl — can be used for vegetables 12 tea cups and saucers 6 after-dinner cups and saucers 1 chop platter 12 oatmeal dishes 12 sauce dishes Glass: 12 glasses G finger bowlg 1 pudding dish 1 creamer 1 sugar might be in china, silver, if not in glass 12 sherbet glasses 2 salts 2 peppers 1 vase Silver: 12 forks 12 knives 6 bread and butter knives 4 tablespoons 24 teaspoons G dessert spoons — round bowl good for soup 1 sugar spoon 1 butter knife or fork With regard to table equipment, the number of individual dishes is controlled by the size of the family, and the kind of service desired. Most housewives would choose dainty service and good style, and would prefer to have convenient dishes in adequate num- ber and appropriate silver, even if less expensive china and silver and glass is chosen. For such a standard, which is strongly recom- mended, buy twice as many of all individual dishes, glasses, and silver, as the number in the family. This makes possible enter- taining with much less worry and work, and relieves one of the feeling of not having enough. It is certainly a reasonable standard 202 HOUSEWIFERY to choose china, ^lass, and silver which is not expensive to re- place and is, therefore, not a source ol' anxiety to the housewife. Glassware. — Most people appreciate beautiful glass, for in tal)h' s('r\ ice ])ai'ticularly notliing can surj)ass it. It gives a finish- ing touch of beauty and simple elegance. Glassware is known as pure lead glass and lime glass. A preponderance of lime produces a very brittle glass, while lead gives a glass that is tough and wears' well. Of the different grades, rock crystal or pure leaf glass is the clearest and finest produced. The determining cpialities of glass are its smoothness, brilliancy, freedom from bubl)les and cloudiness, whiteness, and transparency. Decoration of glass is done by etching with acids or by cutting with emery wheels. Cut glass needs very great care. Sudden changes of temperature or a slight knock are likely to break the glass along the line of cut. It is therefore not desirable for constant family use. Pressed glass is much less expensive and some of the products are almost as beautiful as the more expensive cut glass, and for everyday service they are much more desirable. The poorest qualities are heavy and show the seam where the halves are joined. Many makers of glass, like makers of china, stamp their name in the bottom of the piece. It is a great advantage to the purchaser to know some of these trade-marks and the quality which they represent. Good plain lead table glasses cost from $1.25 to $1.75 per dozen. Cut glass varies widely in price according to the elaborateness of the design as well as the quality of the glass. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Given a living room on the nortk side of the house, what colors would you choose for wallpaper, rugs and draperies? 2. How do home-made rugs compare, economically, with those purchased? Show to what extent the housewife may or may not l)e justified in making her own rugs. 3. List inexpensive materials which might he used in place of regular curtain materials. 4. What are the advantages of two-tone color materials for furnishings? 5. Wliy may not willow furniture always be an economical purchase? REFERENCES Cox, George J.. Pottery. IMacmillan Co. Kellogc. Alice, Home Furnishing — Practical and Artistic. Fred A. Stokes Co. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 203 KiNNE, Helen, and Cooley, Anna, Clothing and Health. Macmillan Co. McGowAN, Ellen, and Waite, Charlotte, Textiles and Clothing. Mac- millan Co. . Parsons, Frank, Interior Decoration. Doubleday, Page & Co. Priestman, Mabel, Art and Econojiy in Household Decoration. John Lane Co. QuiNN, Mary J., Planning and Furnishing the Home. Harper & Bros. RoLPH, Amy, Hojie Decoration. ]\Iacmillan Co. SotT)ER, M. Attie, Notions. Ronald Press Co. Thompson, Eliza B., Textiles: Cottons and Linens. Ronald Press Co. Thompson, Eliza B., Textiles: Silks. Ronald Press Co. Von Holst, H. V., Modern American Homes. American Technical Society. CHAPTER VITI STORAGE Storage is siicli an important matter that the eon sir! oration of it should begin when the house is first planned with the architect. The architect sliould be eager to cooperate, so that in his slvilled way he may express on paper the practical ideas of the housewife, whose suggestions may be most definite and valuable based on her experi- ence in housekeeping. Closets, bins, and boxes are a real necessity. Storage does not mean unnecessary hoarding; it means definite planning as to bin, box, or closet, and the systematic arrangement of the contents of each — a place for everything. One of the signs of the times is the definite stand housewives are taking regarding inadequate storage space both in city and in country houses, and the demand they are making that shelves, cujiboards, and closets l)e tliought out Avith the utmost care, and not " tucked in " as a last consideration. Each available space, every corner, under the stairs, and even panels, may with profit be utilized for storage. Rural Home and Storage. — The rural home usually will have more commodious storage than the smaller town house, because the attic is a feature of such a home ; and except in the southern section of the country, a cellar will usually be provided. Commercial Storage. — In city homes where space is limited, storage facilities rented from commercial storage companies are an important factor. This includes the fur and woollen storage which can be had for furs at a cost of two per cent, of the valuation. For this price, the storage company sends for the goods, cares for them during the season, or an entire year if desired, and returns them on order. General storage is sometimes charged for by the cubic foot of space occupied. Furniture storage may be hired at so much a month per storage room, or so much per van load ; the prices vary, too, according to the security of the warehouse, higher prices being charged ■ for storage in absolutely fireproof buildings. The cost of placing fire insurance upon one's goods while they are in storage should also be learned in advance by inquiry of an iusur- 204 STORAGE 205 ance liroker ; the saving in low storage rent is sometimes more than offset hy a high rate of fire insurance upon the goods. Carpet and rug storage in many cities is a specialty, and the storage companies also clean and repair the floor coverings if so ordered, before putting them into storage. The storage of silver in special vaults is provided by certain banks and other storage companies, while valuable papers as stocks =5? STORMC IWOC S~ 4- NORTH Fig. 124.— a planforan ideal cellar. Courtesy olCh&vlesE.'Whitea.adLadies Home Journal. and bonds, and jewelry, are cared for in the small safe deposit boxes provided by banks, at from $3 to $10 a year. CELLAR OR BASEMENT STORAGE The cellar or basement is the place most often chosen for the storage of food, because it is cool and away from the light. One problem of the cellar is to keep it dry; its drainage will depend upon the location of the house where there is natural drainage, and upon the question of whether there is a good concrete floor. The provision of several small windows to provide cross ventilation 206 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 123. — Vegetable and fruit stor- age. Courtesy of Charles E. White and Ladies Home Journal. is importaut. If a part of the cellar used as a food room has hut one window, ventilation can be secured hy dividing the window mto two parts and by building an air flue or box from one part of the window to within a few iiu'lies of the cellar floor, thus pro- viding for a current of air. If the cellar is divided into rooms or compartments (Fig. 124), the heating apparatus, together with the bins for fuel may be partitioned off by tliemselves, to keep the rest of the cellar clean, and also to keep the heat away from the food. Coal and wood bins should 1)6 placed in close relationship to the furnace for the furnace coal, and to the cellar stairs for kitchen coal or wood. The latter, if pos- sible, should be stored upstairs adjoining the kitchen. The cellar stairs should lead directly by a well-lighted passage to the kitchen. For the convenience of the housekeeper and the coal man, the coal bins should be connected by good-sized windows, easily opened, to the driveway. Consider the convenience of this before deciding that any extra cost involved is too great. Vegetable bins in the form of trays with wire bottoms are best, because the vegetables may then have a circulation of air. This will prevent their "' sweating "' and molding as much as they other- wise would. These bins may be mounted one above the other on uprights (Fig. 135), and may be raised from the floor enough to aid ventilation, and to permit cleaning beneath them. The fronts of these bins may be hinged to let down, and in that way it is easy to empty and clean them. ( See also Vegetable Pits, page 216.) Preserve closets should be in a cool, dark, dry part of the cellar, and should have plenty of shelf room. The shelves should be planned by reckoning the surface area required for so many jars and glasses, and the space between shelves should be enough to allow for height of jar or glass. It is told by a large canning company that they are able to t^ke account of stock in less than an hour, because it was planned that the ■shelves should hold so many rows of gallon, quart, or pint cans, and STORAGE 207 each row should be so many cans deep. It was only a matter of counting and multiplying. In this method rows may be labelled rather than individual cans. Always put old jars in front to be used first. Swinging shelves are the old-fashioned way of i)utting food high and dry for safety. They are especially serviceable where mice are troublesome. Trunk Storage. — Housekeepers differ as to the best place for trunk storage, cellar or attic. It matters not, so long as the place is diy and clean, as well as con- venient to reach. If possible, choose a place away from all pipes, so no sudden leak will endanger the trunks. A rack or platform of wood (Fig. 126) under the trunk in a basement ensures dryness, and a duot cover of paper, bed tick- ing, or unbleached muslin is worth jiroviding. The garret or attic is a storage place of practical importance. As to the holding-over of discarded clothing, furniture, and various other moval)le property, there is argument for and against. Furni- ture and clothing may later be utilized, in some emergency, but it is not wise to store so much that it amounts to hoarding. The general principle that should control the accumulation of discarded things would seem to be to save nothing unless it seems at the time to have possibilities of later use, and to keep things of a kind together in attic storage. The attic will also in many houses be the place of seasonal storage of things in current use; where sum- mer things are put away over the winter, and vice versa; such storage is discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Fig. 126. — Trunk and bag storage. Courtesy of Charles E. Wlute and Ladies Home Journal LAUNDRY STORAGE A clothes chute of metal may lead down from all floors to the basement and terminate there in a bin, closet, or wire cage. This should be planned to empty in or near the laundry, and have sufficient capacity to hold the week's soiled clothes. Hampers 208 HOUSEWIFERY and baskets throughout the house arc not necessary with these conditions. This clothes bin or closet may be of metal or of papier mache. The clothes container at the l>ottom of the chute may be enamelled or painted at such inter\'als of time as to insure its l)eing clean and not rusting or mildewing. Laundry Closet. — The closet in the laundry is best divided into two large com- ])artments, so that one-half may be arranged with shelves and the other half divided to have a place for all large equipment, which, if allowed to remain out in the room, becomes dusty. Available space will help de- cide whether this storage should 1)9 built as a single closet yvith a division into two parts, or w h e t h e r ironing equipment shall l)e kept in one closet in one part of the room, and washing equipment in another. This latter idea will appeal to the housewife whose efficiency study has proved to her that each tool is best stored near its working center. A laundry closet (Fig-s. 127 and 128), whether divided or not, should be high enough to take the skirt board and the curtain frame, deep and broad enough to take the boiler placed on end, besides the clothes basket, and a WTinger if a hand-operated one is used. Xeither the basket nor "wringer are tools ready for service if they have stood in an open room all week. It is better to slielve the other section to hold the stain-removing outfit, such as bottles, droppers, a small bowl, and the jars of salt, paraffin, starch, and Fig. 127." -One section laundry equipment closet. STORAGE 209 borax. Other shelves make possible a grouping of soaps, soda, and kerosene on one shelf, and starch kettle, strainer and stirring spoons on another. On a lower shelf may be kept the irons and iron racks. A drawer may be planned to hold ironing-board cover.-, felts and cheesecloth. The shelved compartment need not be so deep as the other, in fact, is better just deep enough to hold the largest starch cooker or bowl. 3LEEI/£ BOA/?D ClOT/f£S P/A/ B/16 /RON/NG BOARD tV/lS/y BO/iRO BO/lfR W/?//V6£R £ia£. CN£Af/CMS 6T/IRCR, W/JX, >S/fir nanNG/RON^ /Rom Fig. 128. — A laundry closet for the small home laundry. For Laimdry Closet Equipment, see Laundry Equipment, page 104. KITCHEN STORAGE Kitchen and Pantry Closets. — They are alike in general de- sign. Usually they are divided into an upper and lower section, so as to divide the heavier utensils such as heavy kettles and boilers from the lighter pans and bowls (Fig. 129) . Shelves half as wide as the closet is deep are best in these lower compartments. Special 14 210 HOUSEWIFERY cupboards should be built large enough to hold harrels of sugar and of flour. The top of these cupboards opens on a hinge, as well as the side, so as to make the top of the barrel easily reached without drawing out the barrel; barrel swivels on which to swing the barrels Fig. 129. — Good type of kitchen closet. may be put into these closets. Such cupboards are usually made of wood, of course, but one may now secure an all-metal closet (Fig. 129), which may be purchased in sections of wdiitc enamelled metal. Glass doors to the upper part of cupboards ensure a light, clean cupboard which is as open as open shelving, without having the dust. In narrow quarters it is better to have the closet doors slide. STORAGE 211 The shelving should be planned to be within reach. This is possible if the housekeeper is careful to plan less waste of space on the so-called counter of the cupboard and less unused space be- tween the shelves. A slanting roof to the closet is much more easily cleaned than the usual flat top. About the sink by means of small shelves are best stored the dish- washing and sink-cleaning necessities. One or two nar- row shelves directly over the sink provide a place near at hand for the scouring pow- der, the knife-cleaning ma- terial, a small jar of dis- solved washing soda, a jar with s6ap scraps soaking in water to be used in dish washing, a cork for rubbing knives, and a silver cleaner. From the shelf may hang the soap shaker, the dish drainer, and perhaps the dishmop and bottle washer. On a hook under the drain-l)oard may hang the dishpan and the draining rack. If space is limited, a case of drawers may be built under the draining board, on either or both sides. This in no way closes in the plumbing, for these drawers may be on rollers, so as to be pulled out easily. If these drawers are shallow, they give classified storage space for towels, aprons, and cloths. FOOD STORAGE Food storage involves refrigeration, preservation from the air by canning, preserving by cellar or dug-outs, and also food containers for storage of current food supplies. Refrigeration represents means of storage for food at a low temperature of about 45°-55° F. in an ice-box or refrigerator. In order that the refrigerator may be kept at a more or less even / ENAMEL 1/A//A/6/ A/R SP/ICE^/ WOOO FELT 3HEATH/N6 WOOD £XT£R/OR WATEft PffOOF PAPE/? Fig. 130. — A sectional view of one wall of a refrigerator. 212 HOUSEWIFERY tcni])eratiire, it must be so constructed as to prevent the entrance through the walls of any heat from the outside. This is accom- plished by the use of non-conducting materials (Fig. 130) placed in layers with air spaces between. The efficiency of the refrigerator depends almost entirely upon the perfection of this insulation. Various conditions influence the possibility of not maintaining the temperature noted a])Ove, such as storing in a damp cellar, Fia. 131. — Diagram showing the circulation of air in two usual types of refrigerators. Air entering the ice chamber is cooled, and sinks through the bottom openings, drawing in the warmer air at the top. Butter, milk, and meats should occupy the cooler space, while food having a strong odor should be placed where the air is just about to enter the ice chamber. exposure on an outside porch, putting in hot foods, and too frequent opening of the refrigerator, it being found that each time the door is opened, the temperature increases 1° to 3°. Someone has aptly said, " Do not open tlie door and camp out before the refrigerator Avhile planning the next meal. It might l)e more costly than to lose the left-overs.'' In a refrigerator large enough for a family of four or five, the ice capacity should be 60 to 75 pounds. The refrigerator temperature is higher than cold storage, which is at 34° F. and a refrigerator, therefore, is not capable of keeping food for as long a time as cold storage. STORAGE 213 Three conditions control economic preservation by refrigeration : low temperature, ventilation, and dryness. Low temperature can readily be secured by the melting of tlie ice in the refrigerator; Fig. 132. — Refrigerator sliowing good interior arrangement. ventilation is accomplished by the construction of the refrigerator, so that it will allow circulating spaces for warm and cool air (Fig. 131) ; the dryness depends upon rapid change of air in the ice-box, good drainage to carry away the ice when melted into water, and no covering of the ice by wet cloths or papers. 214 HOL'SEWIFERY The proper construction of the refrigerator helps in its care. The best types keep the ice separate from the food, and subdivide the food compartment so that foods such as eggs, milk and butter, more sensitive to odors, may be kept by themselves (Fig. 132). The interior construction of the box may bo of wood, galvanized iron, enamel, or porcelain, but whatever it is, it should be smooth, free from cracks, made of material impervious to moisture and odors, and easily cleaned. For general efFicienc}^ the racks shoiild he made of tubes or wire, so smooth as to be easily cleaned, so close together that there is little chance for tipping and spilling of dishes. The hardware of the refrigerator, especially the door latches, should he of the best quality, hut more important is the tightness with which the doors fit. They should be so tight that not even a thin calling card could be slipped inside a door when the door is fastened. The wooden refrigerators are cheaper and serviceable, but the metal lined ones are more easily cared for, as the metal naturally resists moisture and odors. The enamel refrigerator is a luxury, not a necessity, and without care Avill be no cleaner than the cheaper kind. The drains should be open and easily cleaned. Be sure that the " elbow " and bends in the drain pipes are so arranged that they can be cleaned with a Ijrusii, or removed and scrubbed in cleaning. The refrigerator may be connected to the house drain by putting in a water trap. This is necessary to. avoid any inflow of sewer gas. The refrigerator, even then, is not connected by a continuous pipe into the sewer, hut drips into a metal lined open cup or box which is in turn connected with the sewer pipe. If such a connec- tion cannot be arranged, a drip pan under the refrigerator is safer to use. For ease and cleanliness a door is often built in the back of the ice compartment, so that the ice may be put in through a window or small door from the outside wall of the house or porch. To clean refrigerator, see chapter on Cleaning and Care, page 269. On the farm, where there is an icehouse, the reserve supply of perishable foods can sometimes he stored in the ice house. The " iceless refrigerator " (Fig. 133), convenient for the farm- house or other detached houses, depends for its cool temperature upon the evaporation of water in moistened curtains hung a.bout a food closet made of wire netting. The curtains, made of canton flannel, button tight about the food cage ; they are kept moist by STORAGE 215 keeping prolongations of their lower ends in a pail of water. Such an iceless box will keep milk and butter cool. Refrigerator Dishes. — Much room is wasted in refrigerators bv not having small compact food containers for the left-overs. Wide-topped flaring bowls, for example, represent great waste of space because, while they may have a small base, they project at the top far enough to prevent anything else standing beside them. Fig. 133. — Iceless refrigerator. Half-pint and pint fruit jars, and small straight-sided bowls, make good containers without costing much money. These containers also protect finer dishes, which should not be in the refrigerator, because of the likelihood of their being chipped. Wide-mouthed fruit jars are especially suitable for storing washed lettuce, because the top can be screwed on tight and the jar laid directly on the ice. A few covered containers should be purchased to take such things as left- over fish, cabbage, onions, and other strong smelling fish. Glass- covered butter containers insure the butter being kept in a sweet condition, because the glass is non-aljsorbing and easily cleaned. 216 HOUSEWIFERY Window food boxes serve as a substitute for a refrigerator, and can he used satisfactorily al)Out eight montlis in the year in a large part of the United States. In buihling a house, it is well to provide a cool box built on the outside wall of the house, with a refrigerator door opening directly into the kitchen through the kitclicn wall. (Sco clui])tcr on Equipment, page 99.) Food pits, dug-outs or caves A\here food, mostly vegetable, is buried lor storage, furnish often in rural c(iiniiiunities tlie most Fig. 134.— ^'arious types of containers for the house. 1, soiled clothes box, papier mach^; 2, soiled clothes bag, paper; 3, bread box; 4 and .5, garbage; 6, waste basket, papier mache; 7, wooden flour bin; 8, ground glass-stoppered bottle; 0, porcelain flour jar; 10, glass flour jar. feasible way to stow away large supplies. A straw or corn husk covering put over the top of the cave will prevent freezing. To open, one must remove the top covering and dig down to the food. It is operated in the best fashion Avhen the food contents are not exposed too often, therefore the housekeeper should take out enough celery, turnips, etc., for perhaps a week's supply. Food Containers. — As the study of housekeeping advances, merchants are meeting the varied demands for various food con- tainers (Fig. 134). The housekeeper's demand to-day is that food containers be non-absorbent of both odors and grease ; that they be easily handled ; often that they be attractive in order to help make STORAGE 217 the kitchen one of the most attractive rooms of the house. The housekeeper may even plan her kitchen with a color scheme, in which the containers may match in color the tiling, paint, and linoleum. If glass containers are used, the labels which are pasted on often introduce the color. Tin. — Tin containers, painted or Japanned, are the cheapest quality, but there is a range of prices even in these. Tin is light in weight but has two disadvantages, in that moisture is likely to rust the tin, and that it is not possible to see the amount of the contents. It can easily be seen that this may amount to consider- able loss in time and in energy. Earthen or CrocJiery. — Earthen or crockery food containers are the best looking on the market to-day, some of them having the same attractive decoration as dishes. They are easily cleaned and the uniformity of sets makes them attractive. They are expensive, breakable, and also hide the contents. Glass. — Glass is perhaps the most sanitary material for food containers. It is obtainable in various sizes, prices, and shapes, is non-absorbent, and is particularly useful because it shows the con- tents. Some of the jars and bottles, especially those for the medicine case, will be found with the names etched into the glass. Black paint lettering, or lahels which are shellaced on, are very helpful. Canning and Preserving Containers. — Earthenware jars and crocks, and glass preserving jars, bottles, and glasses, are used for the storage of canned, preserved, salted, pickled, or dried foods. Paper and tin can containers are used increasingly in the private household. Large wooden containers may be used for pickling. Fruit jars should be examined for clearness and freedom from any dimming, since cheap glass products of this kind are not always insoluble. Fruit juices may leach out from inferior glass enough alkali to interfere with the presentation of the canned material; this may account for some otherwise mysterious spoiling of canned fruit. In canning or preserving, the principle is to store away the food where it will be free from bacterial action. To accomplish tliis, the food is heated to the boiling point, and held at that temperature until all the bacteria and their spores {egg, cells) are killed, and then it is put into hot sterile jars or bottles. The jar or container is then made air-tight. With glass jars this is done by having tight-fitting 218 HOUSEWIFERY covers which fasten down with a screw or lever fastener, and are made tighter by using new rubber rings for seals, A jar from which the liquid leaks out will leak air ajid let bacteria in. With tin containers, the cap is soldered or sealed tight. The sealing wax used for catsup bottles may be used for cans. Containers for jellies and preserves are not made air tight, but are sealed with paraffin to keep mold from forming. This use of paraffiji is satisfactory, and is all that is necessary, as the large amount of sugar used in the preserving makes tlie growth of bacteria impossible. Salting and pickling preserves the food without any seal- ing other than to keep the mold away. Bacteria do not grow in a salt medium. Wash and wipe dry all empty glass jars and covers before putting away; fit covers to the jars, and put them away together, so as to save time in the canning season. Old rubbers often become soft and stretchy, and are one of the cliief causes of fruit spoiling. Always use new ones or tested old ones. To test, press the ring of rubber into a fold, then reverse fold in exactly the same place. A good ring will not crack. To reduce the expense of purchasing containers, dry as much food as possible. Stone jars or crocks are xised for storing eggs in water glass or liquid sodium silicate. The eggs must be clean, but unwashed. Water glass is purchased in pound bottles as a syrupy liquid, and used in the proportion of one pound of liquid glass to ten quarts of cooled boiled Avatcr, which is poured over the eggs. GARBAGE STORAGE Garbage Containers. — Garbage containers should be water- tight, vermin-proof, and have such tight-fitting covers that it is impossible for dogs and cats to push them off. In the winter it is desirable to keep the contents from freezing ; for this reason, wooden pails are sometimes used, but they will never be ^Droof against leaking or freezing, and have many disadvantages. Heavy galvanized pails are the most common, and, fitted with tight covers, are serviceable. Enamelled pails make the best indoor garbage cans, as they are easily cleaned, and are more sightly if kept in the kitchen ; but as they chip easily they are not suited to hard outdoor service. Some of the more modern enamelled waste containers are made with a foot STORAGE 219 lever which will raise the cover, leaving the hands free to empty the garbage. These containers were first made for hospital waste receivers, but they are especially good in the small kitchen, where the housewife does her own work. It is a good plan to liave a pail for the house, because it will eliminate much wasted time and effort in walking to the back porch or to the back gate Avith every little bit of waste. It is unsanitary to keep waste in an uncovered pan, waiting to be emptied, as such storage of garbage is apt to draw house- hold pests, such as flies, ants, and roaches. By way of disin- fecting the garbage, or attempt- ing to make it distasteful to vermin, several of the cans are made with sifters in their lids. The disinfectant or insecticide is put into the cover, and the jar of putting on the cover shakes out a little powder on to the contents of the can. It is a better principle to keep the can clean, and empty the con- tents often. One type of garbage con- tainer which is non-freezing in ordinary weather and proof against animals is set into the ground (Fig. 135). A cement well is built to receive the garbage container. A foot lever raises the cover of the well and a bail handle attached to the vessel is always on the outside of the pail, making it possible to lift the container to empty without any contact with the garbage. Garbage bags are made for garbage containers. For the house- wife who is doing light housekeeping and has only a little waste this will be satisfactory. The bags are of somewhat the same material as those for paper bag cooker}'' and for laundry bags in hotels. They Fig. 135. — Underground garbage container. 220 HOUSEWIFERY may be bought by the hundred or gross. Racks may be purchased to bold tbe bag in ])hico in the sink, aud as the bag is mad*' witli lioles tlie water drains off into the sink, Tlie bag and contents are disposed of together, ('ut circles of paper put into the garljage cans ar(! of great advantage; or a news])aper opened out and ])ut in with- out cutting often serves the ]nirpose. They keep the can so that its cleaning amounts to very little. Incinerators represent a modern way of dis2:)0sing of household garl)age. A small incinerator was first made wliich fitted into a stove pi]u\ The plan was that the hot air as it passed up through' the flue would slowly evaporate the moisture from the waste, the housekeeper l)eing careful to have the least possible amount of moisture because of its great hindrance in carbonizing the garbage. After the garbage slowly dried, it charred, and then could be used as fuel. Incinerators are built in large institutions, or may be l)ought ready to set up like a stove in the kitchen of small houses or apartments (Fig. 136). The most effi- cient types burn, without odor and without smoke, a quantity of garbage at one time. Gas is considered the best fuel because of creating very intense heat. A common size of incinerator has a bushel capacity, and as they burn Fig. 136. — ( )ne type ^psom or llochelle Smellin*^ salts Turpentine Vaseline Witch hazel Zinc ointment Bathroom, Closet and Equipment. — The bathroom should be complete in its furnishings, and to make it so, there should bo plenty of racks for towels; hooks for clothing; holders for glasses, sponge, tooth brushes and soap ; a glass shelf ; and a mirror. Be- sides these, a tub seat for a foot bath ; a stool low enough to be used as a slipper chair; and a rug which is easily cleaned, not injured by water, and comfortaljle for the bare feet, add comfort and con- venience. A crash bath mat or a cork mat to be used just when stepping from the bath will keep the rug in better condition. Bathroom Closet. — If the medicine closet is placed in some other part of the house, the l)athroom closet may then be shelved and divided more as a toilet closet ready to hold such toilet articles as soaps, tooth pastes, extra toilet paper, towels and wash cloths. There could be a small compartment for nasal and eye douches, and perhaps a shelf for various washes such as listerine, peroxide, and the usual home remedies which all the family use. Tooth brushes are better in the air, so put the holders outside of the closed closet. Equipment : Bath brush Bath mat Bathtub brush Clothes brush 1.0 Dental floss. Drinking glasses Flush-closet cleaner Hand brush Matches Nail brush Scissors Scrubbing brush Shaving outfit razor strop i-.> s- /Ui Shoe dressing Shoe polisli pad Soap rack Sponge Sponge rack Surgeon's plaster Toilet paper Tooth brushes Towels bath hand Wash cloths STORAGE 227 Supplies : Alcohol ' ' Pumice Bay rum ^ "^ Scouring powder . ~ Bicarbonate of soda -a T Shaving cream or soap .' "oc? Cold cream 3 ^J^ Soap ' ^- Hair tonic c- 9 ^oap powder Hand lotion ^ ^ ^ Toilet ammonia "^ ' Hydrogen peroxide Toilet Avater - ' Iodine -i Talcum powder ' Listeriiie Tooth wash _Porcella or whitinff — —Witch hazel Shoe-cleaning Outfit. — Cleaning oi shoes is often done out of the house ; but if they are to he cleaned and polished at home, one needs an outfit of a cleaning brush, a daubing brush, and a polishing brush. These are bulky enough to require a box, which takes up considerable room. There may be a difference of opinion as to where this cleaning work should be done. If the bathroom is large enough, there is no reason why the cleaning should not be done there. If the box is the usual blackening box, it has a carpeted top, and may serve as a seat. In houses where back hallways are commodious, that may seem a better choice, because the time required to clean shoes may mean that the bathroom is in use too long for the comfort of other mem- bers of the family. Tool Closet. — A closet or chest of tools should be provided with a work bench. A list of desirable items follows: Awl; brass hooks ; brass rings ; chisel — cold, wood ; emery paper ; gimlet ; glue ; hammer ; hatchet ; nails, several sizes ; oil can ; paint brushes ; picture hooks; picture wire; pliers; punch for leather; sandpaper; saw; screw eyes; screws, several sizes; screw driver; shears, heavy; steel wool ; tacks, several sizes and kinds ; tack puller ; upholstery tacks ; wire ; wire cutter ; wrench. CLOTHING STORAGE Hangers. — Those garments which are in frequent use will keep their shape better if hung on coat and skirt hangers. The coats should be buttoned to keep the fronts from sagging. Skirts will hang much better if clamped by the band in a skirt hanger. If one is travelling, or is without sufficient hangers for coats, some may be made for coats and dresses by rolling newspapers tightly and tying in the middle of the roll with a string or tape, or in an emergency 228 HOUSEWIFERY M'ith a handkercliief. i\lako a looj) to go over the hook. Half of a wooden l)arr('l lioop, wouiul with strips of cloth and suspended with a tape in tlie middle, is an excellent hanger. Two safety pins fast- ened in each end of a folded skirt hand will hold the skirt in good shape. Dress garments for l)oth men and women, as well as other s]ipcial clothing, will ha\(> snitahle protection if slipped into an old night- dress, or a caml)ric or percale slip, or cover bag made for the pur- pose. The material slionld be light so that its weight will not crush soft laces and dress fabrics. The sleeves may be stuffed with tissue paper. To Put Away Clothing. — Tiie first essential in storing cloth- ing is cleanliness ; therefore all spots should be removed, especially from woolens. Muslins and linens should be washed, not starched, and left rough dry. Silks when possil)le should be rolled. The thoroughly clean garment should l^e packed in moth-proof con- tainers, which range all the way from tight newspaper wrappings, and sheets of tar paper, to tar-paper bags and cedar chests. Pepper, tar balls, camphor, cedar chips, or a combination of cedar, camphor, and tar, such as is sold in packages, are usually enclosed with gar- ments as an extra precaution. The object of these materials is to keep out moths and other insects, as they are pungent and irritat- ing to the air passages of the insect. In wrapping clothing, the essential point is to overlap the wrap- ping's to avoid having cracks. This may be done by interweaving sheets of newspaper so that the journey of the moth Avould be decidedly roundabout. NewspajDer caps can be fitted over the ends, and then when tied tightly one has a bundle which may be con- sidered safe. Packages, boxes, and even closets, can be sealed with strips of paper. This is advisable in houses where, for some un- known reason, there is much trouble with moths. In city homes where one is especially limited for room, it may seem advisable to send large pieces such as furs and rugs away to be put in cold storage. The cold storage of clothing is like the cold storage of food — the temperature so low (3-i degrees) that bacterial life is inactive. Shoes, when not in use, should be stored where there is a circulation of air, and should be put away clean and dry (Fig. 141). Leather will resist a certain amount of water, but needs to be dried STORAGE 229 carefully in order to maintain its pliability. If it is dried too close to heat, as is so often done with shoes, the leather becomes hardened and parched beyond repair. Leather dries in the air, Fig. 141. — Clothing storage, with special place for shoes. and needs redressing with some oil mixture. This is especially so with shoes that have hard wear. Keep shoes in shape by stuffing with paper, or by using a shoe 230 HOUSEWIFERY tree ; a corset steel will make a good siioe-tree substitute. Two pairs of shoes worn alternately will wear longer than if they are Avom consecutively. Clothing Storage Closet or Boxes. — Moths and other small ])ests, such a,s silver fish and hufTalo l)Ugs, may do great damage to clothing, Ijlankets, etc., when in storage. Often the housekeeper stores these articles in old trunks that perhaps have served their first use for travelling. This kind of storage seems satisfactory because the trunk affords a means of locking up the extra material ; but the disadvantage of such an old tnmk is that it may not be tight enough to be vermin-proof. Special chests, either cedar lined or all cedar, furnish a much better means of storage. They are usually tongued and grooved, so the cracks are virtually sealed. The cover has a heavy molding and when in place puts the contents into a closed and sealed box. Closets in the attic or top floor are often plaimed on a large scale especially for summer storage of woolens. These are sometimes cedar lined, have sealed floors, and the door closes against a molding, so that when entirely packed it is possible to seal the door and thus make an air-tight room. None of these closets can insure proper care of the clothing unless the clothing is first thoroughly cleaned, and the closet cleaned and properly sealed. Under these conditions any w^ell-made closet, even if without cedar, may be a good storage closet. Closets have aii advantage over trunks, for they can take large garments, even rugs, robes and heavy coats, and suits without folding. It is far better, for example, to hang furs, than to fold tliem and pack tightly in a box. Sewing materials, such as extra pieces of goods, odd bits of trimming, hooks and eyes, buttons, tapes, and many other things needed for mending and marking are best stored near the sewing machine and its working center. This place may be in the house- wife's bedroom, or the nursery, but best of all in a room set aside as a sewing-room. This room ma}^ if necessary, be so planned that it makes an excellent extra guest room; but sewing work really demands its owai accommodations. Every housewife has her own ideas about storing patterns and left-over bits of material, but it Avould seem that had she ever tried shelves with hinged drop-fronts (like a linen closet) or drawers, she would not consider bags. With bags, too often the whole contents STORAGE 231 must be emptied to find the thing desired. If a case of small and shallow drawers were built on one side of the room, they would furnish exeellerit storage for all sewing materials that are small but can be so easily classified. In a chest of larger drawers can be kept pieces of materials, trim- mings, bolts of belting and ■^ braid. Besides these, there is needed at least one drawer for collecting garments for mend- ing, and another for stockings for mending. Sewing cabinets (Fig. 1^'^), tables, and baskets are good in a small way, but if a house- keeper is to do much sewing, altering and mending, she will need more storage room. An old chiffonier will serve the purpose well for the larger things, one drawer being par- titioned off to make bins for the small necessities. Boxes of different sizes will ser^'e as bins, or there may be made many small partitioned spaces (perhaps b}' the man of the house), which will give addi- tional chance for dividing and classifying sewing supplies. Wire nails one inch long, driven at regular intervals in the bottom of a drawer, will keep spools in order ready for instant use, because the size of thread is sho-ma. (For Sewing Supplies, see chapter on Supplies, page 143.) STORAGE OF ARTICLES OF PERSONAL USE There are many personal articles of more or less daily use about the house, the convenient care of which is a problem. Such articles as books, magazines, music records, athletic goods illustrate this Fig. 142. — Design for a sewing supply cabinet. Designed by Mrs. Caroline R. Wadhams. 232 HOUSEWIFERY problem. Mucli of the daily work of the home consists of putting these thinay is the best. CLEAXIXG OF EOO]MS General Rules for Cleaning a Room. — Dust and remove or ]nit under cover small articles and bric-a-brac. Dust or brush furniture; if small, remove from the room, if large, cover with a dust sheet. Shake and brush curtains and hangings; remove from the room, or pin in dust bags. Roll up small rugs and remove from the room to clean ; if large, sweep and fold back the edges towards the center. Dust ceiling and walls. Dust window shades. Clean radiators. Dnst closet floor. Dust floors. Dust doors, baseboard, and other woodwork to the floor and base- board. Clean windows. Clean chandelier. Wash globes. AYash mirrors. Wipe pictures. Polish floor. Return rugs, furniture and bric-a-brac. Polish brass and silver unless all are done on a special day. The question arises. Shall all things that can be moved, be taken from the room, or shall the dusted bric-a-brac stay on some cleaned table or bed, covered, and only the small pieces of furniture that stand on the floor, in the way, be removed ? Time allowance will perhaps answer the question. If a maid has many rooms to clean in a specified time, she cannot take everything out. A tray for small articles will help a great deal; and to cover after dusting will also save time, because less dust gets on the furniture or fur- 16 242 HOUSEWIFERY nishinti-s. For a thorough cleaning (Fig. 147) remove as much from the room as possible, because in the end much handling is avoided, and besides there is tlie handicap of having to work around things. On cleaning the things that are left in the room, various routines of work may be employed, but a good general rule is to dust high things first, then lower ones, taking everything in order. In a bedroom, the bed brings in a different problem; but if the mattress and springs are brushed, and the bed made up before the Fig. 147. — Room ready for sweeping. really dusty work is started, it can be used to hold small ornaments, and then kept thoroughly covered during the cleaning process. Dust covers should be freely used during the cleaning process. (See Cleaning Kijuipment, page 120.) Dustless Sweeping.' — In sweeping try to keep from flirting the broom, as this throws the dust about unnecessarily. There are sev- eral " dustless " ways of sweeping, by moistening the broom and shaking out all the water before sweeping; l^y sprinkling damp, left-over tea leaves or bits of moistened paper on the carj^et, be- cause these toss ahead of the broom and moisten and gather up the dust ; by spreading moist sawdust on tile or Imoleum floors ; and by CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 243 using a broom bag over the broom, or some prepared dustless sweeper on wood floors. The moistened broom is the least work, but unless one is very careful the broom is used too wet, and soon the dust is made into mud which when spread by the broom dulls the carpet or wood floor. The dampened paper is a cheap, satisfactory method and does no harm to the rug or carpet. Sprinkle a newspaper as clothes are sprinkled, and then tear into bits and scatter over the floor ; it need not be over the whole floor, but here and there in small quantities. In homes where the vacuum cleaner is used daily or weekly, much dust and dusting have been eliminated. There is less shaking of rugs and almost no whipping of upholstery and drapery, Yacuum cleaners will not, however, remove dust films from wood- work, or haze from windows and mirrors, or dust from ornaments, so some cleaning still remains to be done by hand. (For vacuum cleaners see Cleaning Equipment, page 132.) Dustless Sweepers. — (See Cleaning Equipment, page 121.) Dusting. — A good duster is any soft, clean, non-scratching and non-linting cloth, A good dusting stroke is one that wipes and at the same time gathers the dust into the cloth. Cheesecloth is a good material for all kinds of dusting ; old silk makes a soft duster, but cheesecloth, if clean, will do as well. (For cleaning cloths, see Cleaning Equipment, page 118.) Dustless dusting is quite like dustless sweeping. A soft cloth, one that wrings dry easily, may be wrung out of very hot water, shaken to let out the steam, and it will make an excellent dustless duster. A tablespoon of kerosene added to a quart of hot water, from which the duster is wrung, will make a duster as satisfactory as the more expensive ones for dusting all wood surfaces. Of course, no oily duster should be used on wallpaper or wherever the oil may make a mark. To Wipe Walls. — Either painted or papered walls need wip- ing, and because a soft duster gathers dirt without scratching, plan to use a long-handled, soft hair brush or outing flannel bag on a broom. Wool brushes are sold for the purpose, but they are expen- sive, need a great deal of care to wash and keep clean, and their effi- ciency does not warrant the time and effort cost. Wallpaper may be easily marred by hard rubbing. Use a soft, perfectly clean cloth, like outing flannel, and rul) with a very even stroke and very little pressure. Rubbing hard blurs the pattern^^ 244 HOUSEWIFERY wipes ofT o'ilt.^ and often roughs the paper so that a spot results. One method for spotted or sooty paper is that used with soft stale bread by cutting away the bard sciatchy crust, and using a fresh part of the inside of the loaf as fast as it soils. Putty erasers and pro]>ared starch or dough cleaners can be used, but unless one has much time and more patience to do it evenly, one ought not to begin. The results are not very satisfactory, and, too, all the cleaner must be removed. The starch and dough cleaners may draw ants, flies, silver fish, and small insects that feed on flour or wheat. Putty wallpaper cleaners ma}^ be bought in cans. Grease spots are hard to remove from wallpaper. A warm iron and blotting paper is one way to absorb grease ; but one that is better, in that it will not change the color of the paper, is to put on as thick a layer of fullers' earth or magnesium, or even talcum powder, as will stay on the upright surface. xVfter twenty-four hours lightly brush off the powder. Heavy rubbing will spread the grease that the jjowder has absorbed. Several applications will do much toward cleaning the paper if it does not succeed entirely. Oilier Wall Coverings. — Heavy, embossed paper, burlap, tapes- tries, and brocades, will hold dust, so the main care is a frequent l)rushing w^ith a hair brush, or going over them with the vacuum cleaner. Any very special cleaning with gasolene, or detergents, will end in very irregular results, and had better not be ujidertaken. rainted Walls. — Painted walls are- very likely to be found, at least in the laundry, kitchen, bathroom, and vestibules; besides, many bedroom and living room walls are often painted. Any painted wall in a room where there are grease fumes or moisture will soil quickly and needs to be Aviped frequently. Dull finished paint, especially white painted woodwork, may be cleaned with whiting applied AWth a cloth moistened with very hot water. Clean only a small space at one time, and in straight lines. Yellow soaps, and soda or washing powders, wdll do rapid work on cutting grease on painted walls, but they will yellow white paints and may change the color of colored paints. Washing powders may be used in cleaning painted walls when the walls are very dirty and greasy, and the one thought is to get them clean, regardless of the effect on the color. Use three to five tablespoons of powder to a pail of warm water. Wash with one cloth and wipe with another, changing for clean water and clean, cloths often enough to prevent streaks. Use an up and CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 245 down motion and be sure each stroke overlaps the last and leaves no streaks. Enamel painted walls may be washed like a dish, only they require many changes of water and cloths, much perse- verance, and a standard for good work. If the wall is to l)e renewed by painting, the painter's estimate should include a preliminary washing, and then it should be done under the supervision of the housekeeper. No one wants to paint on top of dirt ; and on top of grease, paint will not stick. Culcunine trails are often used, as their first cost is much less than that of enamel paint. This may not in the end represent econ- omy, because calcimine spots easily, streaks with moisture, as steam condenses on the walls, and it cannot he washed or even wiped with a stroke hea\y enough to clean. Tiles. — Wall tile is usually glazed tile, and therefore is easy to clean l)y washing with warm soapy water. The floor tile is of the same material, but usually it has less glaze and is more difficult to clean on that account, and also because the wear of the foot action and the grit from the soil on shoes leaves a grimy mark. For tile floors, use strong soap suds applied with a long-handled scrub brush or a cloth mop; either tool allows pressure which a string mop does not give. xV strong suds for the work may be made by coml)ining 1 lb. washing soda with 1 lb. soap and 4 gallons of water. In houses or institutions where there is much tile to clean, this mixture may well be kept on hand ready for use. If there is paint on the tile, as is often the case after repainting walls, it may be removed by rubbing ^nth a cloth moistened with turpentine, or if very fresh, by yellow laundry soap and water. If any of the paint has dried and is hard to remove, moisten the cloth in turpentine and then use some abrasive cleaner; the turpentine softens the paint, and the scratchy material loosens it. Stains on floor tile are likely to happen because of the lack of glaze. Should the soda and water solution not remove such a stain, apply to the spot a dilute acid, either oxalic or hydrochloric, using two parts water to one part acid. The acid dissolves a little of the lime in the tile and produces a new clean surface. As soon as the acid touches the tile there will be an effervescing, which shows the dissolving power of the acid. Use only a little at one time and in definite places, then wash quickly with soapy water. Soap will stop the action of the acid. 246 iioi si;\viFEi{V Painted floors should be wi|X3d up with clear water, without soap iL' j)ossible. Any soap used must bo I'rec from excess soda, and no was! ling powders should be used. Hard Wood. — Any hard-wood lloor, whether oiled or waxed or varnished, nnist be kept free from dust and grit if it is to be kept bright and shining, as grit scratches and clouds the floor. Moisture changes the color, oil darkens; so it is wise to keep the floor clean by the use of a clean soft dusting cloth. When a more thorough cleaning is desired, the woodwork may be wiped up with the fol- lowing mixture, using it much as one would use water to wash up a floor. T^se two pieces of cheesecloth, one for washing and one for wiping, and as fast as the mixture soils mix a new quantity. ]\Iix 1 quart boiling water 3 tablesi^oons boiled linseed oil 1 tablespoon turpentine For other suggestions for Woods, see cha})ter on Cleaning and ]\enovation, page 2S\i. White Enamel Wood or Metal. — Use clear lukewarm water and with a soft cheesecloth wipe the enamel paint. Two or three drops of ammonia in a jDail of water will cut the grease better than soap which yellows the paint. Whiting or Bon Ami may be used on a moistened cloth. Both of these cleaners will leave a dust, but the washing of the woodwork may be done between the sweeping and the dusting of a room. Care of Floor Coverings. — The floors of a room require daily care, Avhich is the brushing up of lint, dust fluff, thread, or perhaps crumbs as in the dining room. A carpet sweeper may be used for this, or a long-handled dustpan and a small broom. The expense of the last two articles is a trifle more than for the short- handled dustpan whicli we have, lieen accustimied to use, l)ut there is a great saving to the worker. For the weekly care of rugs, it is well to take those easily handled out of doors to clean. It means less dust for the worker and less dirt stays in the house. Eugs should be laid face down on the grass or on a platfoi-m, or if space does not permit, be hung on a clothesline. Beat with a flat rattan beater, rather than a wire or stick beater, which will cut fine rugs ; and then briish both sides. To keep from marring the rug, hang it wrong side down over the clothes line. This CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 247 method will give the rug less wear than to shake it, which tears and frays the ends. Carpets, fortunately, are not so much, used as they once were. They reiiresented so much work, that, as has heen said in the chapter on Furnishings, most carpets have been cut into strips or rugs. Any carpet, when taken up, can be cleaned like a small rug, and if too large to remove often, may be swept and rolled towards the center of the room from each side, so that as large a space as possible is left on all sides to clean. Any carpet or rug tacked to the floor needs very special care around its edges as too often that part of the rug may get moth-eaten. Of course, a vacuum cleaner may be used so frequently and easily that few rugs or carpets, large or small, need to be taken up. The vacuum does not harm rugs, even the fine ones, as much as the sand and grit are likely to do if left in the rug, as they gradually cut the fibers with their sharp particles. Matting or any jute or straw covering may be swept, but because of its weave it is very likely to sift dirt to the floor underneath. To sweep matting well aud then wipe it with cloths wrung out of hot water to which a few drops of ammonia have been added, should keep this floor covering in good condition ; the dirt beneath should be regularly removed, of course. Linoleums are made of cork, packed tile fashion on a cloth foun- dation, and the whole is waxed or varnished over as a to]) finish. Linolemu may be kept in good condition by washing with a soft cloth or brush, and by avoiding as far as possible the scratching of the surface. For a washing solution, use the best white household soap, or better still castile, as too much strong soda will not only fade the colors, but will more ot less dry out the surface fuiish. Linoleums have so much wear and tear from the friction of walking, and from the moving of tables or chairs, that they need care by oiling or waxing. Waxing with the wax described on page 294, under Table Tops, is an excellent way to keep floor linoleum in good condition. Linoleum is a cork composition material and quite porous, so the wax may be rubbed on until it sinks into the pores of the linoleum. This fills all the interstices between the particles of cork, and makes the linoleum surface a solid mass with much greater durability than without it. Milk, which has sometimes been recommended as a cleaner, gives a sticky finish and leaves a sugary covering on the linoleum to attract flies and insects, perhaps vermin. 248 HOUSEWIFERY If the linoleum is varnished or shellaced, wipe it with the linseed oil and turpentine mixture recommended for cleaning hard woods (page 24G). Radiators. — liadiators and registers are dust catchers hecause of their situation and construction. A small flat brush comes for this purpose, or a cloth may be folded on a flat stick and used as a substitute (Fig. 148). Wlien cleaning, put a moistened i)aper 1 I... 14.S. — Cleaning the radiator. under the radiator, to catch the dust as it falls down. Registers are often screwed in the floors but these screws are easily removed and the register lifted out ; then open tlie shutter and wipe the fans of the register with a moistened cloth. Window cleaning may be well done by using paper instead of a cloth. This is economy to the worker, as various pieces of soft paper come into the house and can be easily saved for this work ; CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 249 choose paper that does not lint. Should one prefer a cloth, choose one clean and free from lint. Chamois is a good cleaner but expen- sive at first cost, and requires care to be kept very soft and ready to do good work (Fig. 149). Various cleaning mixtures may be used -svith cither the paper or the cloth; clear water, or clear water with a few drops of ammonia, oi- Avith a little dissolved washing soda, about 1 tablespoon to a pail of water; and on very cokl days, the cloth may be moist- ened with wood alcohol. This last makes a most effi- cient cleaner, but is expen- sive. Soap is less satisfac- tory because it leaves a film over the surface of the glass. Whiting or some prepared cleaning paste may be used on Arindows. The idea is to let these dry and then wipe off the poAvder, which takes off the grease film, leav- ing the Avindows bright and clear. If the AvindoAvs are cleaned by this method it should be before the room is all cleaned, as there Avill be a great deal of dust about, especially close to the window on AvindoAV sills and floors. Try to clean win- dows Avhen the sun is not shining on them directly, as it causes uneven evaporation of moisture and gives a streaked surface. Mirrors. — In cleaning mirrors, care should be given to keep the Avater from the backs. This is especially true Avith the small hand mirrors, mounted either in silver or celluloid, because in the cleaning there is a chance for Avater to get in behind the glass. Whiting applied Avith a cloth Avhich has been moistened Avith a feAv drops of wood alcohol or water Avill make an excellent cleaner and Avill not need an abundance of water. The Avhiting method of Fig. 149. — Washing a window. 250 HOUSEWIFERY cleaning mirrors and windows should be done before the room is dusted ; see cleaning of windows, above. Paint on Glass — Window or Mirror. — Remove by washing with washing soda and boiling water, or with turpentine, in the same way as for paint on tile. Piano keys are best cleaned with wood alcohol. If alcohol can not be used, it is best to use clear warm water, not hot, and no soap. Should soap be used, choose only a good white soap, as the soda in many household soaps will be enough to yellow the keys. Marble. — j\Iarble is best washed in soap and water, and wiped dry so as to leave no water stains. To polish marble, rub with a smooth piece of marble and water. Acids of any kind take off all polish, so one should be careful of lemon juice or any acid medicines and acid drinks. Even the spoon that has stirred them, unless rinsed, if laid on marble will be likely to destroy the polish. Kerosene Lamps. — Fill kerosene lamps about three-quarters full of oil; if entirely full it will leave no room for the expansion of gases, and the oil will ooze out of the screw top. With a soft paper wipe the wick, being careful to remove all the charred par- ticles. This will give a straighter wick than to cut with the scissors. Wash and wipe the chimney like any piece of glass (see page 248), and ^vith soap and water M^ash the lamp itself. By keeping the wick turned down in the burner when not in use, and l^y boiling the wick and burner in strong soap suds or soda and water at least once in two weeks, the strong odor so common to kerosene lamps is rarely present. Attend to the lamps in the morning, and then they are ready, for it is a bad plan to do such work after dark. BED ROO:^I— CLEANING AND CARE To Clean a Bed. — The care of the bed is one of the special problems which must be considered in addition to the general methods of cleaning rooms. The bed frame should be kept dusted ; if of enamel or wood, it may be cleaned as such ; if brass, the use of a little lemon or linseed oil on the cloth will do much to keep the shellac soft and prevent its cracking because too dry. Springs. — Wipe the springs Avith a soft cloth and two or three drops of lemon oil. To say use oil, need in no way mean to use enough to grease the mattress. Tf the springs are box springs, CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 251 brush thoroughly to keep free from Just; if one has a vacumii cleaner it will give most satisfactory results. The springs should be dusted often enough to keep free from dust. The mattress should be brushed and beaten with a flat rattan beater at least once a month. The mattress should be aired every day and turned (Fig. 150). Turning a mattress keeps it in good shape and makes it wear more evenly. Each day the bedroom should be thoroughly aired, and at the same time the bed should be aired. Take all bedding off the bed, spread it over two chairs so as to keep Fig. 150. — Airing the bed. it from getting on the floor and soiling. There is no need to dangle bedding out of the ^dndow, for then it is likely to wipe the side of the house and get soiled. A good way to air the mattress is to stand it up against the wall or draw it over the foot-board. To Make the Bed. — Mattress Cover. — If one keeps a mattress cover on the mattress, as was suggested on page 192, it is not taken off except as the mattress is cleaned. Mattress Pad. — Sometimes this is large enough to tuck in; if 60, it should be stretched very tight so as to be free from wrinkles. More often it just fits the top of the mattress, and in that case the sheet holds it in place (Fig. 151). The lower sheet is put on with the wide hem at the top and with the right side up. To make the bed more comfortable and also to 252 HOUSEWIFERY have the sliccts wear bettor, ]jc sure to tuck the sheet in well at the top am] to ]-)ut the sheet on very straight. If the suggestion that is given in tlie cliapior on Furnishings is followed, the housewife will buy her sheets enough larger than the mattress to have at least a half-yard to tuck in on all sides of the bed. If a lower sheet is short, tuck it in well at the top, and there will bo enough below to cover the mattress even if it does not tuck in. The hospital tuck-in of sheets Fig. 151. — Enamel bed witli woven wire spring, imperial edge mattress and quilted bed pad. can easily be used in the home, and after one becomes accustomed to turning in the corners of the sheets it is so easy and makes the bed so much better looking, thnt one wonders Avhy it has not always been done. To make the bed hospital fashion, tuck in the sheet at the bottom and the top, drawing it in both directions until very tight; then mitre the corners by bringing the corner of the sheet around the corner of the mattress to the sides of the bed, box fashion (Fig. 152) ; meantime have the side part of the sheet up on the mattress out of the way, to drop down only after the corner is mitred. Turn CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 253 Fig. 152. — First step in making a square ccrner. Fig. 153. — Second step in making a square corner. 254 HOUSEWIFERY the tuck-in part of the corner under the side of the mattress (Fig. 153), finishinj^ the mitred corner; tlien bring down the side of the sheet under the mattress. The lower sheet is mitred at all four corners, while the upper slieet and blanket are done at the foot. Sometimes the border on the blanket helps one to see how the fold is placed because the border as a guiding line goes around the foot of the mattress just as far as it hists. The Upper Sheet. — Put this on with the right side down and the wide hem at the top, which brings the turn-lmck of tlie sheet right side up (Fig. 15-i). A sheet that fits the bed well will have a good wide turn-back which protects the blanket. Blankets. — The blanket comes next to the sheet, and economy teaches that it' is better to cut the pair of blankets apart, bind them and use separately. Put the blanket on like the sheet, and when it fits the bed it will come up to the fold of the sheet as it is turned back over the blanket, about ten inches from the head of the bed (Fig. 155). The spread or counterpane is arranged differently on different types of beds. The wooden beds give a place to tuck in the counter- pane, while the cots and brass beds look better when made up so that less of the bed frame shows. A valance makes a pretty finish and usually the spread meets it in such a way that the bed looks c|uaint and attractive. The bed for a sick person is made up like any other bed that has the mitred corners, excejDt that in cases of severe illness, when the patient is quite helpless, a draw-sheet is put on top of the lower sheet. This draw-sheet is a strong sheet folded in half wdth hems together. These hems are strong enough to resist tearing and slough- ing down in the bed as the patient slides down (Fig. 156). Place this draw-sheet so it will come under the heavy part of the body as the patient lies in bed. Stretch it tight and tuck it well under the mattress. In severe cases this draw-sheet takes the place of the lower sheet and the lower sheet becomes more a cover to the mattress, not often changed, even pinned with safety pins to the corners of the mattress. The draw-sheet is easily changed, with less dis- comfort to the patient ; the necessary lifting of the patient can be done by two people, one at each side of the bed, making the sheet like a hammock. It can also be changed without lifting the patient, by rolling the patient first to one side of the bed, while the sheet is CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 255 Fig. 154. — The corner finished. Fig. 15.5. — Blanket in place showing square corner and sheet protection. spread over oue-half of the bed, then to the other side of the bed upon the fresh sheet, which can then be stretched over the whole mattress. For a long sickness the bed frame may be raised on heavy 256 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 15G. — Bed maJe with draw sheet. Fig. 157. — A home bed raised on blocks. Also, invalid's bed stand. CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 257 blocks, makin,? it much easier for the nurse; Ijlocks of wood with a place hollowed out for the casters so that the bed will be steady are satisfactory (Fig. 15T). If blocks are used without a hollow in them, take out the casters so that the bed cannot possibly roll when upon the blocks. To Prepare Bed for Night. — To save the good clav-spread, take it off and fold carefully so it will be ready to go back on the Fig. 15S. — Preparing bed for night. bed in the morning looking fresh. A sheet or light Marseilles spread for night use may be made up under the day-spread, or a sheet may be spread over the blanket at night to keep it clean. It quite pays to do this as the blanket keeps clean much longer. Turn down the sheet and the blanket by turning back the corner far enough so that the occupant need not feel it necessary to pull the bed to pieces to get into it (Fig. 158). CLEANING OF BATHROOiM FURNISHINGS Care of Porcelain and Enamelled Iron. — Whether in a bath- tub, wash basin, or washtub, porcelain needs the same kind of care. If each time it is used, it is washed with soap suds, rinsed, and 17 258 HOUSEWIFERY wiped dry, it can be kept in <^ood condition. Water leaves it stained by niaki]i^i; water marks, and if the water has iron in it, as it dries it leaves a yellow tiiit which slowly discolors porcelain. Leaky faucets produce iron rust staius. These stains may be rubbed off with lemon juice or vinegar, pronded the stain is not of too long standing. For what seems to be a more permanent stain, moisten a small wad of toilet paper with a few drops of dilute oxalic acid or hydrochloric acid (both poisons) and wipe the stain; then when it is dissolved, wash the porcelain with soapy water. The paper that Fig. 159. — Metal forceps for cleaning flush closet. has been used can be burned, or put into the toilet. To dilute acids, use equal amounts of acid and water; pour ihe acid info the irater. The stains from soiled soapy water will clean off with kero- sene. N"o scratchy cleaner should be used with porcelain or enamel- lined plumbing fixtures. The use of a gi'itty or scratchy cleaner produces a multitude of tiny scratches which soon look like dirt and wear. Scratches cannot l)e taken off porcelain. As cleaners, whiting or porcella, applied witli a damp cloth, Avill give the best results. Flush Closets. — A daily washing of flush closets can be done by a ten-cent string mop, or by soapy water in the metal forceps which have been made for the purpose (Fig. 159). Soap and water is a good sterilizer for ever\r-day work; but for occasional special cleanings, washing powders may be used, or dissolved soda, chloride CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 259 of lime, or potassium permanganate. Put any of them down the flush closet, let stand fifteen or twenty minutes, and then flush thorougJily. The washing powders introduce soap and soda to- gether; the chloride of liine may be used directly from the can, or the sediment left from making Javelle water (see page 138) may be used as a disinfectant. In using potassium permanganate to sterilize flush closets, make up a solution in the proportion of one teaspoon of the crystals to one quart of water. The solution will be a rich purple color, and if it is to be kept, it should be carefully labelled. Potassium perman- ganate used in the same proportion makes an excellent floor stain ; as it dries, it oxidizes and turns a rich brown. Handles. — All handles in the bathroom — the pull of the flush closet, the faucet handles, the door knobs — should have special and frequent cleaning. The scientist tells us that the hand is a most important link in the transfer of disease germs. To Clean Combs. — Combs should be regularly cleaned in a sanitary way by soaking the comb in cool water to which a few drops of ammonia have been added. This will loosen the dirt and will not discolor the comb. After soaking about one-half hour, an ordi- nary brush like a nail brush, will clean the coml) finally. Rinse and wipe dry. In a less sanitary way a comb may be dry cleaned by a stiff brush or by one of the little cleaners that may be found on the market. One is made of horse hair, another of white cord, which may be worked back and forth between the teeth of the comb ; a third is a little fine steel brush which brushes the comb clean. If any of these cleaners are used, be careful to see that they are kept clean, CLEANING OF BRUSHES As hot water and strong soda soaps yellow the bristles of brushes, and soften them, wash brushes by shaking them up and down in cool water to which a few drops of ammonia have been added. Rinse in cool water and shake out all the water possible. Stand in the air to dry with bristles down in such a way that the water will run out of the bristles away from the back. Very soft-fibred brushes had better be hung with bristles down to dry, as the bristles would spread under the weight of the back if stood to dry. This method of cleaning applies to every kind of brush which is used in the house. 260 HOUSEWIFERY METALS Metals arc discolored by water sjiots, grease films from the air, or from food, soot, and charred food, or by the oxygen of the air and sulphur fumes combining with the metal, producing oxides and sulphides of the metal. Metals are also discolored by other chemi- cals ; as salt discolors aluminum. Saponifying the grease film is an easy way to remove that kind of soil. Soap and water, or dissolved wasliing soda and water, are the two agents commonly used. Friction, such as rubbing with a soft cloth or a chamois, will remove light discolorations and will assist the soap and water just as in any dish washing. Heavier friction, such as is secured l)y a paste of whiting with alcohol or water, rottenstone, pumice, buffing wheel, ashes, or sand, is needed for deeper discolorations of the sturdy nu'tals, and to remove dirt and grime Avliich have adhered to the metal. The solvent action of chemicals is quite an everyday way of dissolving oxides and sulphides of tlie metal. The method is quicker than the friction or saponifying method alone. Some acid foods, such as tomato, rhubarl), lemon, vinegar, or cream of tartar, often furnish enough acid and are safe to use as cleaners. Oxalic acid is a stronger acid, but because it is a poison it should be used with great care. One hesitates to ha\e such things aljout in any cleaning, and cleaning a cooking and a serving dish with a poison should mean most careful work in order to be assured that no acid remains. The dish should be thoroughly washed with soap and water, followed l)y a hot rinse, to remove the last trace of the acid. Concentrated oxalic acid may be bought at the drug store, or if the housewife prefers to buy the acid in crystal form, it is easy to make a concentrated solution l)y a little more tlian enough water to cover the crystals. Allow to stand long enough for the crystals to dissolve; use the liquid from this mixture. It is always a con- centrated solution as long as undissolved crystals remain in the bottom of the jar. Dilute for use by adding a given quantity of acid to an equal quantity of w^ater. (Th(^ acid and Housewife's IMetal Polish recipe given below are poisons.) The housewdfe should consider a numl)cr of things in cleaning metals. All metals should he cleaned l)y the method which means the least loss, the least roughening, and the least expense both as CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 261 to time and effort, and the best color as a finish. This is especially true for expensive metals like gold and silver. Chemicals are in- clined to leave a very bright glaring metal surface, to which one may apply the term flat, not a rich lustre as the metal at its best should have. Such cleaning often means that the surface does not last so long. Metals, esj)ecially silver, are roughened by cleaning as the microscope will show ; the aluminum pan method of cleaning silver gives less roughening and shows the flat color tone. Weighing the metal before cleaning and after would be the only way to tell which method is the most destructive to the metal. With the suggestions given concerning the cleaning of all metals, the following directions may be used for the cleaning of special metals. Agate. — Boil in soda water to remove grease. Eub with fine abrasive. Wash in hot soapsuds. Wipe dry. Aluminum. — Wash in hot soap and water. Polish with steel wool, or whiting moistened with alcohol. Dilute acid may be used (page 94). Alkalies darken aluminum. Einse in hot water. Wipe dry. Brass. — If badly tarnished, wash in soda solution to remove grease. Clean with housewife's solution : Houseirife's Metal Polish for Brass and Copper. 2 oz. dilute oxalic acid, y^ cup 1 lx)X electro-silicon 4 oz. wood alcohol, % cup 1 pt. kerosene (1 pt. = 16 liquid oz.) Add the acid to the water, instead of water to acid, to avoid its sput- tering, ^lix tlie recipe by putting the silicon in a bottle ; add the alco- hol, oxalic acid, and kerosene. Shake well each time before using. Clean with dilute oxalic acid, or strong lemon juice or vinegar, and fine abrasive ; wash in plenty of water. Polish with rottenstone or with metal polish. Wipe dry with clean soft cloth. Copper. — Same as brass. Iron. — Boil in strong solution of soda and water to remove grease. Rub with any good abrasive (use newspaper instead of clotli). Wash in hot soapsuds. Einse in hot water. Dry while hot. Wrought Iron. — Eub with a soft cloth devoid of lint; use a thin oil as kerosene, lemon oil, or a prepared mixture, and rub thoroughly. Nickel.— rWash with soap and water. Polish with whiting moist- 262 HOUSEWIFERY cued with alcohol, aiinnoiiia, or water. (Do not use an}' chemicals or coarse abrasive on nickel.) Wipe dry. Pewter or Britannia Ware. — I'se any ptw abrasive, as metal is very soft and scratc-lies easily; whitin<;" aiid oil, rottenstone and oil, fine steel wool and oil. Wash with hot soapsuds. Wipe dry. Porcelain. — For gejieral cleaning, wasli with soap and water. Polisli with fine powder (porcella or whiting). Wipe dry. For Stains. — Iron rust : dilute hydrochloric acid ; apply with soft cloth or tissue paper ; wash off acid with soap and water. Other stains: kerosene — apply with soft cloth or tissue i^aper; wash with soap and water ; wipe dry. Steel. — If greasy, clean as iron. Rub with an}^ fine abrasive (bath brick best) ; if knives, apply with cork or wad of paper (avoid soaking handles). Wash in warm soapsuds. Wipe dry. If rusty, rub wath oil and fine abrasive like rottenstone. Tin. — Place in hot soda solution for a few (3-5) minutes to re- move grease (longer will tend to dissolve the tin, leaving iron sur- face). Rub with any fine abrasive, as whiting. Wash in hot soap- suds. Rinse in hot water. Wipe dry while hot to prevent rust. Zinc. — Rub hard with whiting moistened with water or kero- sene. Hot vinegar may he used. Wash with hot soapsuds. Wipe diy. Cleaning Silver. — Wa.sJiing. — The careless gathering of dishes for dishwashing brings kitchen knives an-d forks into contact with the silver, and subjects it three times daily to the wear and tear of scratches and dents. This is most quickly discovered on silver which is of the severely plain pattern. The first point, then, in the care of silver is in careful sorting and washing. The best plan is to sort the silver and put it in a papier niache holder. In the absence of such a special holder any deep pitcher or bowl, deep enough to allow water to come over the soiled part of the silver, may be used. The best utensils of this kind are pur- chasable with two compartments, one for the knives, which are always heavy and scratch the spoons and forks ; and an adjoining compartment for the lighter silver. The larger pieces should be kept separate from one another, because stacking will give oppor- tunity for them to rub and scratch. Wash the silver in clean, hot, soapy water, give it a hot rinse, and wipe very dry with a clean towel. If this is done carefully with CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 263 every piece of silver used on the table, that silver will need less of the so-called weekly or semi-monthly cleaning. Washing of silver does much less harm than scouring. Be careful in taking the silver from the wash water not to mix the knives with the forks, and do not throw them upon tables or trays. They are drained more satis- factorily on a towel. This is especially true of silver vegetable dishes, creamers, and sugar bowls ; it is not so easy to keep the small silver from scratching. Even silver that is not often used should have a frequent washing in hot soapy w^ater, to prevent tarnish. This will save cleaning. Cleaning. — All silver will need cleaning at some time, whether used frequently or not. Some housewives do this cleaning regularly once a week. This involves unnecessary wear on the silver, as well as unnecessary tax on the worker, and can be done quite as well only once in two weeks, if the dining-room silverware is promptly and thoroughly washed after each use, and if the silver ornaments, door knobs, bureau silver, etc., are rubl)ed with a soft cloth when the dusting is done. Soft cloths should be on hand for the rubbing of the silver. White outing flannel gives perhaps the best all-around satisfaction, because it is very soft and can be washed out easily by means of warm soapy water. Asseml)le all silver tools and supplies. Apply the polish with a clean soft cloth and rub thoroughly, then polish with another clean soft cloth. If silver is much ornamented, soft brushes will have to be used. (See Cleaning Equipment, page 119.) If the silver cleaning pan (see chapter on Supplies, page 134), is used, one tablespoonful each of baking soda and salt are used to every quart of water ; this mixture is right for quick cleaning action. If the housewife does not have a regular cleaning pan, she may substitute a clean bright aluminum saucepan, with one tablespoon- ful each of salt and baking soda, or one teaspoonful of soap powder, to each quart of water. Have the water hot, the salt and soda measured, and the silver ready to put into the pan as soon as the salt and soda have been added to the water. There will be a strong effen^escence for the first few seconds, for which reason the pan must not be too full of water. After cleaning silver, have ready a pan of hot soapy water, with a drop or two of ammonia, and clean towels for drying. Wash the 264 HOUSEWIFERY polished silver, rinse, and dry, according to the directions given above for washing. In washing hand mirrors, care should be taken that no water gets in behind the glaas, as the mirror may be spoiled. No silver should be used after c-leaiiing Avithout being washed. It not only does not look so well, but is not in a suitable condition to use. WASHIXG DISHES Preparation. — A little time spent in preparing dishes for washing will in the end be much time gained. To prepare dishes for washing, all scraps of food should be removed. This is usually called scraping the dishes, but it is better if wiping is the process actually employed, because the sharj) edges of knives used in scraping luirm fine dishes. A little wad of paper or the skin of a baked potato makes an excellent wiper. A rubber scraper is made for the purpose, but it costs ten cents, and is only one thing more to keep clean. As the dishes are cleaned of all particles of food, the}' may be stacked in piles of plates, saucers, etc. ; silverware put in a pitcher or pan with water ; glasses or cups gathered together, and heavier platters aud vegetable dishes placed together. Cooking utensils are better kept by themselves because they are too In'avy to l)e washed with the ])ott'er dislK'S. Kitchen Utensils. — Most people dislike to wash the pots and pans ; but if they are put to soak the minute they are emptied, with a little soap powder or di:?solved soda to cut the grease, with cold water for the egg and milk dishes, and hot water for the greasy and sugary dishes, it will be found that they have cleaned themselves to such an extent that their washing is no harder than that of china. The small quantity of grease that adheres to frying pans may be wiped out with paper before putting them to soak. It will be fomid that they will wash with hot soapy water like any dish. Use a wooden skewer to reach corners. Washing. — Now that the dishes are ready to be washed, have a clean dishpan full of hot soapy water. The dishes can stand any heat that is comfortable to the hands. With a clean dish cloth, wash the glassivare first. Einse in a second pan of water hotter than the wash water, and stand to drain on a drainboard at the side of the sink, in a wire dish drainer (Fig. 27). or on a large tray, using a towel on which to stand the CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 2G5 glasses to prevent chipping the edges of them. While still warm the glasses should be wiped with a peri'eetly clean glass towel, one that is free from lint. The silver should be the next pile washed. The hot water which has washed the glasses may be used for the silver. Have plenty of soap in tliis water, and take time to give the silver a good nibbing with soap, for this rubbing, followed with a very hot rinse, will keep the silver bright. Silver washed thoroughly every day will lessen the work of the special cleaning (page 133). While still hot, wipe the silver very dry. China. — A second clear wash water should be prepared and the rest of the dishes washed; take thought to wash the cleanest ones first. If a very hot rinse is used for these dishes and they are placed on a wire dish drainer (which may be purchased for a few cents) , the dishes will need little wiping. Fine gold decorated dishes and cut glass must not have as hot a rinse as other dishes. The reason that the dish drainer is worth many times its cost is that it eliminates much of the work of wiping, and the consequent use of many towels, and the wiping with towels that have been used too long and are no longer fresh ; if the rinse is very hot, and the dishes are placed in the rack, they will dry while the heavier dishes are being washed. Grouping the dishes at the beginning means that the same group or pile is now ready to be put away without further sorting. Knives. — The knives are usually separated and washed by them- selves for three reasons : first, l)ecause they are heavy and are likely to scratch the silver forks and spoons ; second, if they have pearl, bone or wooden handles, the handles should be kept out of water, as soaking takes the lustre out of the pearl or bone and yellows it, while wooden handles swell in water so that they gradually loosen and come off; a third possible reason for washing them by them- selves is that the blades, if of steel, need to be scoured. Pulverized bath brick, which may be bought in packages at ten cents each, with a good sized flat cork will make the cleaning of the steel easy and quick work. If a cork is not at hand, use a little wad of paper, as there is no need of staining or wearing a hole in a good dish cloth. Wipe all knives dry liefore putting away. Dish Towels and Cloths. — It is essential to have clean dishes, not only for the looks of the dishes, but especially because the dish comes in such close contact with the food that it must be absolutely 266 HOUSEWIFERY clean. If the dishes have been ])n)perly prepared for washing, and have beeji well washed, and the towels used only for wiping dishes, once a day would be sufficient for a washing out of the dish towels themselves. The dish-cloths, however, should be washed after each dishwashing. At the times when the towels are not washed, they should be hung out, singly, to dry, always in the air, and with as much sun as possible. Warm soapy water is best for washing towels, and two or three times a week they may have, besides the washing, a few minutes boil. After washing, boil the clean towels; rub them thoroughly with soap, put in a pan of cold water, and heat to the boiling point. Boil five minutes, follow with a hot rinse, then a cold, and hang to dry. To Clean the Sink. — The sink should have care three times daily. The first thing that has been done toward its care is scraping or wiping the dishes before washing, so that the dish water is clean and without particles of food in it. This is necessary, because the grease and the particles of food clog the drain. A sink strainer, which is preferably of the type of a wire puree sieve rather than the kind often sold under the name of sink strainer, should be kept in the bottom of the sink over the drain outlet, so that all water may be poured through it. jSTever pour grease into the sink, for first of all, it is wasteful ; and secondly, when it cools it forms a coating on the inside of the drain, which, if through carelessness, it is allowed to continue to form, will in time close the pipe. The little grease which is bound to come in any dishwater wall not stop the sink drain if after each dishwashing the pipe is flooded with hot water. This hot water liquefies the grease, and carries it down and out of the pipe. If washing soda is used to cut the grease, as is so often done, it should be followed with an abundance of very hot water, otherwise the soda which is used to clean the sink, and the grease in the pipe, make soft soap which congeals on cooling and may close the drain. The hot water flushing of a sink three times a day, where particles of food and grease have been carefully kept out of the drain, will almost entirely do aw^ay with the use of soda. Finally, wash the sink as porcelain, soapstone or iron (see pages 261 and 262). Clean the faucets as brass or nickel (see pages 260 and 261). Outline for Washing Dishes. — Put cooking utensils to soak as soon as emptied. Egg, milk, and flour dishes sliould soak in cold water. Sugar and fat dishes should soak in hot water. Wipe frying CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 2G7 pans with paper ; soak in hot water and dissolved soda. Scrape and pile dishes according to size and shape. Keep handles of knives and eggbeater out of water. In General. — Wash everything in hot soapy water. Kinse in clear hot water ; drain, and if necessary, dry while hot. Use dishcloth or brush for washing. Use wooden skewer for corners. Glasses. — A\'a&h in warm soapy water. Einse in clear hot water. Wipe with towel free from lint. Silver. — ^Wash in hot soapy water. Rub silver well. Einse in very hot water. Wipe dry with very clean towel. China. — Wash in hot soapy water. Einse in hot water. Drain or dry. Sieel Knives. — Scour with bath l)rick applied with a cork, Tf 006? (Spoons, Table Top). — Wash with cold water. Scrub with an abrasive material and scrub brush. Einse well. Dough Boards. — Soak with cold water to soften dough. Wash as above, using cold water and an abrasive cleaner rather than soap. Utensils. — Wash inside and outside. Supplies: Ammonia Bath brick for knives Dissolved soda Metal cleaner: silver coarser material Equipment: Bottle brush Cork Dish cloth Dish pan Dish drainer Dish mop Metal mesh pot cleaner Scrub brush Sink brush Scouring powder or soap Soap Washing soda Sink strainer Soap dish Soap shaker with soap scraps Towels for china and glass kitchen hand Vegetable brush Dishwashing machine CLEANING STOVES As we clean up the sink after each meal, so should we care for our stoves. They will not only be much less of a care, but they will look better and be always ready for service. All stoves may be kept in good condition by wiping off, while still warm, any grease spat- terings or spilled food, with a crushed newspaper. Eub the stave 268 HOUSEWIFERY briskly witli a second piece of paper, and the stove will be smooth ;ind black enough to make constant blacking unnecessary. Any sticky Food can l)e easily waslied ofP with hot soapsuds again using ihc papci- ill ])rcference to the cloth, so that there will be no dirty cldtb, citbiM- lying about constantly dirty, or having to be washed. Once or twice a week, tbe stoves [when cold), niay be gone over Fig. IGO. — Cleaning a gas stove. with a cloth moistened with kerosene, rublnng them tlioroughly until they are clean and bright. If blacking is preferred to oil, one may protect the hand during the process by using paper bags which are usually plentiful in the home. The stove must be clean, that is, free from particles of food, bits of coal, wood or ashes, before applying the blacking. Moisten the blacking with a little warm water, and with a dauber, apply to the stove either before lighting the fire, or when the fire in the coal CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 269 or wood stove is so low that the blacking does not sputter or boil on the surface. Polish with tlie polishing brush as soon as the l)lacking is dry. Blacking should be put on a cool stove for two' reasons: The hot stove wastes blacking, and some blackings contain inflam- mable liquids which would cause fire. It takes a great deal of time to l)lacken stoves, to say nothing of the dirt involved, and the oil Avill give a much better looking stove with less effort. Gas stoves and kerosene stoves may be kept in good condition by washing with soap and water, or soda and water when very greasy, and then when cold, wiping over with kerosene or a mixture of two parts kerosene and one part turpentine. These stoves with enamel finish need only washing. The tray under the gas top burners should be taken out regularly and cleaned. Burners from oil and gas stoves may be cleaned by detaching them from the stove, placing in a pan large enough to hold them, and covering with washing soda and water (Fig. IGO). One-half to one pound of soda may be used to a gallon of water. Bring to boiling point and let boil until the grease, soot and charred food sloughs off. Wipe off with paper or an old brush, rinse with hot water, and put back on the stove to dry by lighting the fire. The nickel on the stoves should be kept free from rust Avitli a little kero- sene, lemon or linseed oil, and can be washed frequently. Any of the metal polishes will keep it Ijright. (See Cleaning of iSTickel, page 261.) REFRIGERATOR.— CLEANING AND CARE Daily. — Wash the ice before putting it into the refrigerator. Do not wrap the ice ; it must melt in order to keep the box cold. Bemove discolorations on porcelain lining with whiting or porcella (see page 3G2). Look over the contents and plan to use all left-overs while per- fectly fresh. All food must be in clean utensils. Do not put food into the refrigerator on dining-room china. Keep food in the section of the refrigerator intended for it. Do not allow food of strong odor to remain uncovered in the refrigerator. Covers may be made of waxed paper. Keep food such as broken eggs, mayonnaise dressing, etc., covered; lettuce and parsley should be washed and then stored in 270 HOUSEWIFERY clean clotlis or glass jars, without water. Uiil)roken egg yolks may bo covered with water; this will keep thein from drying; change water ever)' day. Fig. 161. — Cleaning a refrigerator. Charcoal, unless fresh, has no power to absorb odors. To freshen, boil in water and cool. Twice a Week. — Wash thoroughly the outside of the refrigera- tor with a damp cloth, and dry. Wash all parts of the inside except the ice section, using cold CLEANING AND CARE OF ROOMS 271 Avater to wliicli a few drops of ammonia have been added. Soda Avater may be used. Weekly. — Remove ice rack and scrub it, wash in soda solution and in clear cool water. Einse in cold water. Boil with hot soda water once in two weeks (Fig. 161). Wash shelves and walls, using hot water to which a few drojis of ammonia have been added. Use a wooden skewer to clean grooves. Einse in clear hot water. Dry thoroughly. Wash outside of refrigerator with a damp cloth, then dry thoroughly. General Suggestions. — Keep doors of refrigerator closed. Do not use cleaning materials like soap which leave a strong odor ; ammonia or soda and warm water are the best. Washing a refrigerator wii;h hot water of course raises its tem- 23erature ; so use cold water ordinarily. Hot water is necessary occa- sionally because it cleans better, and sterilizes when the parts are boiled in it. TO CLEAN FILTERS The very small filters, which are filled with cotton, asbestos, or pebbles and charcoal, filter very rapidly. Because the filtering sub- stance is in small amounts and of very porous material, such a filter cannot be considered dependable. To increase their efficiency, some .small filters may be reversed daily by turning end for end and flooding the filtering medium ; then by boiling the whole filter daily, it may be made temporarily sterile. Filters with pads should have the pads changed regularly each day. Another type of filter is made of stone crocks, set one upon the other, and through the porous material of the bottom of the upper crock the water passes by gravity to the lower crock. This filter is slow in its action, and must be cleaned regularly. None of these can be safely relied upon in water eariwing disease germs. The Pasteur " germ-proof " type of filter with proper care is more to be depended upon ; in this, the water is forced through a porcelain cylinder from the outside. It can be cleaned ])y the house- wife, by shutting off the inflow of water, loosening the metal band and lifting the porcelain tubes carefully from the outer metal or 272 HOUSEWIFERY glass cylinder; with a brush wash the outside of the tubes to remove deposit, rinse and replace; then fasten the clamp and turn on the water. This does not give a sanitary cleaning, however, and de- pendence must be put upon replacing the iiltering cylinder regularly with a sterile one and sending the used one to the factory to be re- l)aked. Do not attempt to rebake the tubes at home, as the house- wife's oven is no more suited to that work than it is to firing china. The supply house will exchange fresh tubes for those needing to be baked. (See chapter or Plumbing, page 42.) The filtering prol)lem is a doul)le one, to remove visible sediment from water, and various filters will do this ; and to remove invisible disease and other germs, which cannot be certainly accomplished by the household filter. The only reliance to be placed in the latter case is u|xm having the water boiled l)efore using it. A household filter not i:)roperly cared for may even increase the bacteria in the water, liecause it afi^ords a place in the uncared-for filter medium for bacteria to multiply. sug-CtEStive questions 1. How would you proceed to clean a brass bed? 2. How can one take liiit^er marks off mahogany? 3. If a machine is very greasy, how may it be cleaned ? 4. How may one remove a rusty deposit in the bottom of a water bottle ? 5. Make a set of rules to be. given to a maid for cleaning metals. 6. How do you remove burned food from an enamel saucepan ? 7. List a number of economies possible today in cleaning. EEFEREXCES Broadhurst, Jeax, Home a^vd Community Hygiene. J. B. Lippincott Company. Buchanan, Estelle D., and Robert E., HousEnou) Bacteriology. Mac- millan Co. Conn H. W., Bacteria, Yeasts and IMolds. Ginn & Co. ]\IacLeod, Sarah, HANnHOOK of Cleaning. Harper & Bros. DoNHAM, Agnes. ^Marketing and Housework. Little, Brown & Co. Richards, E. H., Cost op Cleaning. Whitcomb & Barrows. Talbot, Marion, House Sanitation. Whitcomb & Barrows. CHAPTER X CLEANING AND RENOVATION Eenovation is renewal, and iiR'aiis the cost in time and money to make like new. It is economy in so far as the renovation cost of an article does not exceed the original cost. In fact, the cost of reno- vation should he considered ^vell by the housewife when she pur- chases the various types of household furnishings. Beds, bedding, carpets, furniture, kitchen equipment — in fact, every tool or uten- sil, all furniture and furnishings, should be purchased only after the consideration of first cost, depreciation, such as fading, crackirg, and roughing, and renewal cost. Fabrics may justify a large first cost if they are of material that can be cleaned, or dyed, or which is worthy of re-cutting. To pay for quality under such conditions justifies^ the purchase. FABRICS The first and most common type of renovation is laundering with soap and water. The housewife is so accustomed to this process in connection with her clothing that she rarely stops to consider it as renovation. However, when her attention is directed to the fact that such things as blankets, curtains, portier.es, etc., which are usually sent to the dry cleaning establishment, can be renovated by an in- telligent use of soap and water, the process acquires a new signifi- cance. WTien these furnishings are sent to the cleaner, the cost of renewal adds materially to their original cost, and so may not repre- sent economy. Careful laundering by the housewife will eliminate this extra cost, with no harm to the fabrics. And the chances are that, if so cleaned, they will be cleaned as frequently as is necessary to keep them fresh, whereas the cost of dry cleaning makes its use infrequent. Fabric stains are unsightly and make a garment look either old or untidy if not removed. The stains that are fomul on household fabrics are in most cases possible to remove ; they will always come out lietter when fresh. For that reason, let the housewife try to 18 273 274 HOUSEWIFERY remove them firsl with clear cold water, a.s half the stains may be washed out in cold water without further work and with no harm done to the fabric. Rtain irork outfit : Borax 1 dropper for eacli cliemical (.' h lor o form or ether I cup Cream of tartar (jr salts of 1 liowl lemon Blotting paper and eloth the Detergent color of tlie fabric, or Gasoline white and' non-linting Hydrochloric acid Soft cloth Javelle water Soft brush Lard or tallow iitain Re- A gents: Oxalic acid Alcohol Potassium permanganate Ammonia Soap Recipe for Beiergent. — 1^ oz. white castile soap, 1 oz. ether, 1 oz. alcohol, 4 oz. ammonia. Cut soap tine and heat in one pint of soft water until dissolved. Then add three quarts of cold water and the other ingredients. For cleaning black goods, use one (juarter cup of this liquid in one pint of warm water. If this makes the article too stiff, add more water. For removing spots from woolen goods such as men's clothing, apply the detergent, only slightly diluted, with a sponge. It is always safer to test this detergent or any other cleansing solution with a piece of the material {e.g., an underseam) before attempting to remove stain, as the ether may affect the color. Stains and Their Removal. — (For detailed directions, seepage 276.) To remove all unknown stains, gi-ass and mildew, wash the stain in cold water. To remove chocolate with cream, cocoa with cream, cream, gravies, scorch, sewing machine grease, and tea with cream, wash with cold water and soap; any trace of stain may be removed with warm water and soap. To remove blood and mucus, mucus, and pus, soak in cold water to which salt has been added, 1 cup of salt to 8 quarts of water, then wash in warm water and soap. To remove blood, punch, sugars, and syrups, wash in warm water until the stain disappears. To remove grease, meat juice, and perspiration, wash in warm water and soap, or use magnesium, chalk, starch or meals — not flours. CLEANING AND RENOVATION 275 To remove iiidelible pencil, stove blacking, tan shoe polish, tar, and wagon grease, put lartl on stain, rub well into the grease spot; wash with soap and warm water, liepeat until removed. To remove bluing, clear cofEee, clear tea, and fruit, spread stain over bowl ; pour boiling water through the stain from a height. To remove old stains of chocolate, cocoa, coffee, and tea, moisten with cold water; cover with borax, and let stand a few minutes; rinse with boiling water. To remove wine, put thick layer of salt on stain as soon as made; pour boiling water from a height through the stain as soon as convenient. To remove ink and iron rust, use dilute acids (lemon Juice, sour milk, cream of tartar, rhubarb, pineapple, hydrochloric and oxalic acids. Use food acids direct without dilution; dilute hydrochloric and oxalic acid, with equal quantities of water.) . Apply the acid, let stand a few seconds, rinse with warm water; continue until stain disappears, then wash with soap and water. To remove ink and stubborn stains, use dilute acids (see para- graph above) and Javelle water. Apply the acid, then follow with Javelle, finalty rinse with hot water and soap. To remove old stains and stubborn stains, use dilute oxalic acid (as above) and potassium permanganate. Apply a few drops of potassium permanganate ; rinse with warm water, then apply oxalic acid. Eepeat until stain disappears and finally wash with soap and water. Before beginning to work on the stain find out if possible : What kind of fabric is stained, and what is the stain. If the fabric is colored, one must decide which is least objectionable, the stain, or the resulting color or lack of color which may come from the action of the chemical used to remove the stain. Try the stain remover on a sample of the fabric or on some under-seam, to see the effect. In using chemicals one should know that alkalies, like soda, potash, ammonia, and strong soaps, yellow and destroy wools and silks. Dilute acids, such as half-strength oxalic, citric, and hydro- chloric, may be used on wools and silks. Dilute acids and alkalies may be used on, cottons and linens. Cold water will remove many stains and is, therefore, the first thing to try, especially if the stain is unknown. The worker must realize that it takes time, and that several short applications are 276 HOUSEWIFERY better tliaii one coiit imious (nic If any reagent has been used, ex- cept ehloroforni or gasoline, which always quickly evaporates, wash out with soap aiid water or a very ahundant use of water. This will sto]) further work of the chemical and the possihle i'oriiuitiou of holes. Method of Procedure. — The method of removing stains is as follows: Spread the stained portion over a bowl. With dropper apply the proper chemical. Follow quickly with warm water. (Test by holding the whole finger in the water ; it should not bum.) Many short applications are surer and safer than the one long-continued use of a chemical before rinsing. When the stain has disappeared, wash the s])ot well until the chemical is entirely removed, then wash in soaj) and water, and rinse. Eules that a good worker on stains follows: 1. Know material. 2. Know stain. 3. Use dilute chemical. 4. Use a dropper. 5. Always use simple reagents first. (j. Wash thoroughly. Each stain presents its own ])eculiar problem, because the dye and the fabric play an important part, and even with these two conditions understood, the stain itself presents difficulties. For example, coffee with cream, and coffee without it are two distinct problems. A good general rule to follow when there are combined problems is to work as if the stain were all due to the material that is most difficult to treat. In ease of a stain of coffee with cream, work as if it were entirely cream. Cream being a fat, use cold water, and then cold water and soap. Coffee without cream is instantly removed with boiling water. Fruit under the same condition responds similarly. In the same way, when a combined fabric is to be cleaned, proceed always as if the whole material were entirely the most delicate one. For example, wool and cotton, wash as wool. Good general rules to follow are : Clear sugar stains, like punch, use hot water. Clear fat stains, like olive oil, use cold water and soap. Clear albumen stains, like blood or egg, use cold or tepid water. Use magnesia or chalk for grease stains only. CLEANING AND RENOVATION 277 Any combination of material like blood and grease as in gravy, use cold water; like fat, sugar and albumen, as chocolate ice- cream, cold water. Precautions in Spotting. — Stain removal or " spotting " means that a water ring will often follow, and that the fading or running of colors may result. ^Yhen the whole garment is to be washed after the stain is removed, the problem of stain removal is much less difficult than if only the spot is to be removed. If the garment is to be washed, take out the spot first, and then proceed to wash the whole. If the garment is to have a stain removed, place the garment on a clean work-table and isolate the spot as much as possible for two reasons — first, to keep from spotting the rest of the material by any accidental dropping of water or chemicals; and, second, so that the chemical or water used will have the least chance to spread. Put a cloth over the larger part of the garment as pro- tection. Place the stain on a folded cloth, or white blotting paper, or over a bowl. Use the cloth method for silks or fabrics not to be washed later, and use the bowl method for white goods to be washed or where water does not harm. Moisten the stain with cold water, then apply the chemical l)y di-opjiing from the dropper; the chemi- cal does better work if the way is prepared by moistening the stain. As fast as the stain loosens and is absorbed by the cloth and blotting paper, use a new pad. If colors are very delicate, use cold water instead of warm, and use dilute chemical, even though it takes a longer time. Warm water often loosens a dye. A water ring may be left after a spot has been removed. (See below.) Saving Colors. — Stripes are saved by streaking the adjoining stripes with soap or borax, especially if acid is to be used ; for ex- ample, in taking ink out of a white stripe among colors. Where colors are very uncertain, it is helpful to use pieces of material of the same color for the pad under the stain and for the rubbing cloth. A white cloth often leaves a fine lint stain which is very difficult to remove. To remove a water ring, hold the stain over steam and shake until tlioroughly moist, not wet, then shake dry. Often the whole breadth of material will have to be steamed. Steam is easily ob- tained l\y boiling a small amount of water in the teakettle, fitting the top tightly and tying a piece of cheesecloth over the spout. 278 HOUSEWIFERY This cheeseeloili prevents sputterings of water from spotting the fabric. Laundering. — LaiuHlry work is a weekly renovation, requiring much consideration, too mucii for a small part of a chapter; but as laundering is renovation and I'enewai, a few brief directions will l)e given. (For Laundr}- J']ipiipnicnt, see j>ag(! 103; for Supplies, see page 13(5.) Sort the clothes into piles of white and color, and separate these piles of fa!)rics into wool, silk, cotton, and linen. ]\lend wherever possible, ])efore washing. A stitch in time saves nine. Remove stains from white clothes if these stains are of such a nature as to need special attention. ]\Iany ordinary stains come out in the process of washing. Soaking clothes in cold water helps to clean them, because it softens and dissolves so much of soil, and it certainly makes washing easier. On account of the possible stains, use cold water, not hot. Soak only cottons and linens. Wash in warm water and soaj) suds. There has been enough soap used when the suds holds and does not settle on the water as a scum. Boil only white linens and cottons; should one wish to econo- mize on time, fuel or work, scald the clothes by covering Avith hot water, not waiting to boil. Boiling helps to clean very soiled cloth- especially soiled spots, with soap, fill boiler with cold water, and put ing and is good to sterilize the clothes. To boil, rub the clothes, on to boil. There must be good suds. Boil five minutes after boiling point is reached, then rinse in hot rinse. Boiling, when done, should follow the washing and two hot rinses should follow that. Do not boil dirty clothes, and do not boil with naphtha soaps. Rinse in two hot rinses so as to flood off all greasy dirty soap suds, which would form a sticky scmn if cooled. Einse in cold water, because the cold water opens the fabric and chills the clothes, preparing them for the blue. Blue in well-stirred, clean blue water. Tf solid blues are used, tie them in several thicknesses of cheesecloth or a heavy piece of flannel or muslin. Use about one teaspoonful of liquid blue to a tub, and about one-third of a ball to a tub. Starching is a process which, when used, follows the bluing. When the garment is to be starched, use the following proportions : CLEANING AND RENOVATION 279 1-3 tiiblespoons starch 1 teaspoon paraflin 1 teaspoon borax 1 quart hot water Mix all dry ingredients, moisten with cold water, and then add boiling water, stirring well. Cook until paste is clear, about ten minutes, stirring to prevent burning. Use starch only after being well cooked and strained. Use hot starch for all things except colors. Starch with garments wrong side out, wring out all the starch that can be wrung out, and rub in the remainder. A good worker never leaves a glaze of starch on the garment, but works it well into the fabric. Avoid using a starch too thick and pasty. Dry 1iy hanging with the wind, by pinning straight, and by hanging enough of the garment over the line to prevent the corners from tearing. A doul)le garment like a petticoat is less likely to tear if it is hung so that the opening is with the wind. Take down from the line, fold in even folds without crushing, and much will be saved in the ironing. Sprinkling should be done evenly and thoroughly, but not too heavily. A good rule is that thin and thick goods, require the most care, like lace and tucks. Eoll tightly so that the moisture pene- trates, and place the rolls close together in the basket. Clothes should be moistened at least one-half hour before the ironing is to be done; and when the weather is not too warm, over night is ])etter ; too long a delay after moistening for ironing may result in mildew. Iron with clean, hot irons, and always iron as large a space as possible at one time. Always iron each section dry as it is ironed, for this prevents the rough-dry appearance which follows if the clothes are not sprinkled enough or arc not ironed dry as they are ironed. Iron the garment by first ironing those parts that when finished may hang off the board out of the way while the rest is ironed. Iron table linen half dry on the wrong side, and entirely dry on the right. Iron embroidery on the wrong side on a pad heavy enough to allow the embroidery to sink well into the pad. Thick embroidery requires a thick pad. Silks should be pressed on the wrong side, and heavy silks are best pressed with a cheesecloth under the iron ; this is especially true for heavy seams or folds. Too hot an iron will not only glaze but crack the silk. Silks often finish better if the cheesecloth or the silk itself is slightly damp 280 HOUSEWIlKin' wlicn iroiuHl. Wooloits sliciild he ii-f)ii(il on llic vvroncr side or should lie ]n-('ss('(l on the right, side with (hinipcncd ohcosecloth over the wool. I'lill lip the choesofluth against I he nap of the wool, and in thai way lift and lliifT it. Woolen l)laiikets are much improved hv hrushing with a stiff whisk hroom. Washing Colored Goods. — For these, it may not he possihle to use soap, in which case starcli water, such as might he made by using grated potato, bran, soap bark, or in fact, ordinary laundry' starch paste, may be substituted. A^'ith these agents the only thing that could affect the color would be the water softening the dye ; avoid this by using cold water instead of Avarm. To use any of these, add them directly to the wash water, using about 2 cups to a half- gallon of water. Small quantities of l)ran or soap bark will go farther if heated in the water for 10 to 15 minutes, and then strained out. Use the grated potato raw, but without paring. Colors may be preserved to a great exteut by the use of cool water, soap in solution, and the use of soap sul)stitutes. If the ■water causes the color to " run " or " bleed,'' use salt a.s quickly as ])ossihle— so quickly that the salt nuist be at hand ready for instant use; but do not use "for fear"; salt hardens the Avater, 60 better results will follow washing first. Use 1 to 2 cups salt to enough water to cover garment. Bleaching — To Bleach Cottons and Linens. — In bleaching, always have the fabrics clean. So the first step is to wash out the dirt. There are three household methods of 1)leaching. The first method is to spread the wet garment on the grass or on a towel in the sun. As it dries, romoisten, Ijecause water supplies one of the best bleaching agents — oxygen. The second method is by using JaveJle. Javelle is a ^lution which may be purchased at the drug store, or may be made with little effort and expense by the housewife. Recipe for Javelle Water: 1 lb. wasliiiig soda 1 qt. boiling water % lb. chloride of lime 2 qts. cold water Put the soda into an agate pan and add l)oiling water. Mix the lime in the cold water. Pour this mixture into the dissolved soda. When settled, pour the clear liquid into a bottle and use as Javelle water. Keep in a dark place. The sediment will disinfect sinks and flush closets. CLEANINCr AND RENOVATION 281 This Javelle mixture should ho allowed to settle and only the liquid bottled and u^^vi]. It is cloudy .hiAellc wliieli is harmful to clothes. To every pail of water use one to two cups of Javelle liquid. Hot water will facilitate the work, but do not boil. Wungc the clean W'et garment into the water to which Javelle has been added. After three or four minutes wash in hot soapy water. l\epeat if necessary. The third method of bleaching is by potassium permanganate ajid oxalic acid. They may Ije used in large quantities for the whole garment, or with a dropper to remove spots. Make the per- manganate solution by using one teaspoon of crystals to one quart of water, and use half-strength oxalic acid, which is made from a concentrated solution by adding to an equal amount of water. Add acid to water instead of water to acid, to avoid its sputtering. Apply the permanganate to the clean, moistened garment, then rinse with Avann water ; the garment will turn a good brown ; follow with dilute oxalic acid, which will whiten. Einse with several washings of water, and finally wash either the spot or the whole garment with soapy water. This last step is always necessary, so as to be sure that no chemical has been left in the garment. Oxalic acid is a poison. To Bleach Wools and Silks. — Neither Javelle nor potassium permanganate can be used to remove stains from silks or wools, unless a stain is so bad that the slight yellowing from Javelle or permanganate is nothing as compared to the stain. For both silks and wools, borax can be used, as it is a mild bleach for either fabric. Hyposulphite of soda, which is the ^' hypo '' used in photography, can also be used for woolens or silks. A tablespoonful of crystals dissolved in a quart of water will make a good rinse to whiten silks ; follow with clear water. Silk or w'ool, once yellowed, is hard to bleach because of its delicateness. For wools, sulphur fumes allowed to pass through the- clean, wet garment is the best bleach. Care should be used in doing this work to avoid fire and not to subject the worker to the danger of inhaling the fumes. Unless one has facilities for working out of doors it is rather inadvisable to attempt it. A barrel and a sulphur candle make a good bleaching outfit. Place the pan of water, in which stands the candle, down in the bottom of the barrel, so that the fumes from the lighted candle are forced to rise and circulate through the garment, which is suspended in the barrel on clean 282 HOUSEWIFERY white strings or strips of muslin. Be careful of two things : do not inhale the fumes, and arrange the candle so as to prevent fire. Pale bluing in the rinse water of either white silks or wools will do considerable towards keeping the white clear and preventing its yellowing. Photographers' "liypo'' (hyposulphite of soda) can be used to restore the whiteness to silks or wools, but any stronger elienn'cal l)leach will yellow both wools and silks. Velvets. — All materials of this nature, often found in portieres, table runners, and cushions, may be renovated by brushing thor- oughly with a soft brush. If any whipping is to be done, it should always be done from the back so as not to mar or print the velvet with the beater. Water spots on \el\et may l)e steamed out. This may be done by either of two methods : Put about one-half inch of water in the teakettle, tie a piece of cheesecloth over the spout, and let the water boil hard. In this way a jet of steam will be produced in which the velvet can be shaken. This process may have to be repeated several times, but in almost all cases the worker will be rewarded. If one prefers to use a wet cloth on a hot iron, steam can be produced this way ; but for large, heavy pieces the teakettle method is best. Cleaning may he done satisfactorily with mag- nesium or chalk by spreading a thick layer of powder; let it remain for several hours, even a day or so, and then shake and brush off the powder. This method is not a])plicable when the garment is badly soiled. Eiderdown Quilts. — Prepare a suds of warm water and white soap. Souse or knead the quilt in the suds. Use a second suds, two waters for rinsing, and then hang to dry Ijy spreading out be- tween two lines. As often as possible while drying shake from all four sides to re-liven the down, and to help to re-spread it. It will be found that any wringing must be done by squeezing. The pressing of the silk or sateen cover may be done with a warm iron. A little time will be required after the down is dry to spread it about with the fingers. The quilts mav be most satisfactorily cleaned in this way, and will lack only a little of the original pufTiness, which came from the down being Idown into the various section patterns as the quilt was being made. Pillows. — Pillows may be washed, without removing the feathers from the case, in a tub or washing machine. Wash by sousing up and down in the water, and then after rinsing, hang to dry in CLEANING AND RENOVATION 283 the suii and wiiul. Choose a wiiuly day for this work if possible, as wind dries and livens the feathers well. It will be easier to clean the tick if the feathers are removed, as the tick often needs rubbing wliich will break the feathers. For this, transfer the feathers to aeheesecloth bag\ and wash feathers in the bag, and wash the ticking separately. Gold and Silver Lace and Embroidery. — These may be cleaned l)y l)nisliing with alcohol or gasoline. If this lace is in a dress, cai-ry ont the same precautions as given above (page 2T7 ) for " spot- ting.'' This metal lace may also be cleaned by boiling in salt and water, using two tablespoonsful of salt to each pint of water. Corduroy. — Corduroy, wliich is often used for hangings as well as clothing, can l)e washed successfully. To wash, prepare a suds of luke-warm water and soap. Wash or souse the material up and down in the soapsuds, rinse in several waters, and hang dripping on the line. There can be no wringing, because that would mar the velvet. When dry brush with a soft brush and do not iron. To Dry Clean. — Dry cleaning is a problem for the expert worker, and because there is so much of a fire risk involved, it should never be done by the careless worker and never by anyone except under excellent conditions, such as plenty of air, suitable containers, a possible way of disposing of the gasoline after use, and no oppor- tunity for fire, such as cigars, matches, candles, gas light or lamps, or even a cook stove. An open flame of any sort will ignite the gasoline fumes at a distance of several feet — real contact of the fire and the liquid is not necessary. For the best gasoline work a person should have on hand as much gasoline as she would have water for washing, and it should be used in as generous quantities as water, otherwise streaky, grimy clothes will result. Soap may he used in conjunction with the gasoline by taking the cleansing brush and rubbing the spot directly with the gasoline and soap, as if it were soap and water. There should be much rinsing to insure good color. Finally, however, things which have been continuously gasolined are likely to turn yellow and are almost impossible to bleach white. Saving used gasoline for the next cleaning is not in the long run a saving, be- cause the exposure causes the gasoline to become less volatile and more oily, and consequently a grimy cleaner. To dispose of used 284 HOUSEWIFERY gasoline, pour on a gravel or sandy soil, or let it evaporate in the shade. (lasoiine must not he put down drains. Other ways of (h'y cleaning arc hy the use of fullers" earth, dry starch, magnesia, and meals, e.g., hran and cornmeal. The principle of this cleaning is that these dry materials absorh the grease which hinds soil to the fal)rics, and then the soil is set free to he brushed off with the dry powder. lleCore doing much hrushing always shake off the powder. This will help to prevent the griminess that otherwise will follow. Dyeing. — Dyeing is rather a last alternative toward renovation of a fabric which cannot be washed or dry cleaned with satisfactory results, or which has spots. To dye the garment, wash it clean, rinse well, and it is ready to dye; no one would dye a soiled gar- ment, ^lany housewives attempt to dye goods at home. It is sug- gested that some snmll, inexpensive thing he attem2:)ted first, as much can he learned in this way ahout the best way to proceed. In all cases the garment should be cleaned from grease, the dye should 1)6 mixed according to the prescribed methods which come with almost every package of dye, and there should be sufficient quantity, so that the garment may completely float in the dye solu- tion and in that way avoid streaking. If, in its original state the gar- ment is uneven in color, for example, if a j^erson has tried to " spot " it, and some of the color has been withdrawn, the dye should he put on these lighter spots with a cloth or brush before the rest of the garment is dipped. Otherwise, when the garment is dyed for the purpose of covering up spots, the spots will in all probability appear a shade lighter. This is the reason for the expert's advice that the color chosen for an old garment should be a very dark one, either l)lue or black, for then it will be so dark that it will probably cover u]) many imperfections. As dyeing requires soaking in water, the fabric is very likely to shrink. All of this must be taken into consideration before attem])ting to do any work. It is one thing to have a garment renovated and ha^e it turn out so well that it may be called an economy ; but it is decidedly a waste to pay for renewal, and have a garment which cannot be used. Rugs and Carpets. — The first thought in renovating rugs and carpets is to get them clean. To remove the soil they are usually sent away to be scoured, and this is advisable, especially if the rug or carpet is very large and weighty to handle. A rug can be freed CLEANING AND RENOVATION 285 from dust by whipping with a tiat rattan boater. A wire or a stick beater is hard on the rug because either may cut the liber. Shaking a rug often frays the ends. Any rug, if one has tlie endurance, may be thoroughly fresh- ened at home by first getting it entirely free from dust, and then preparing a heavy lather (as heavy as a shaving lather), of any white soap and water (Fig. 1G2). With a soft brush this suds may be spread on the rug, always with the thought of keeping up a strong Fig. 162. — Washing rug or carpet. Any rug may be washed, if the colors are fast, with a little water first. Test frothy lather. Apply the suds with the brush and rinse it off with soft cloths or sponges Mliicli ha\e been wrung out of warm water. Do only a small part at a time, llinse each part as you work rather than spread over too large a surface at one time. The rinsing is an essential part, so be careful to change tlie water very frequently, and as fast as it darkens in color. The washing method may lie applied to practically all rugs, except those that would fade even with water. Many rugs may be actually washed in the waslitub or in a wash- ing machine. First brush or beat to remove all possible dust ; then 286 HOUSEWIFERY give it a clear wash first to remove the dirt it is not possible to brush 'Out. Then add soapsuds and wash until clean. Several rinses will clear up the coloring and remove any soap wliich if allowed to remain would make the rug sticky. In order that the rug be not marked, do not attempt to wring, but hang dripping on the line wrong side down, and let drip until dry. The washing of rag rugs should be planned for when they are made hy having the rags of permanent color so as to allow for washing. Many rag rugs do not appear to wash well because they have been washed in too small an amount of water, and not rinsed well. This is often the case when done in the washtub and is especially so if the person is not strong enough to handle the rug easily and rinse it well. In such a case the mg had better be laid on a floor, like that of the porch, scrubbed with a broom and suds, and rinsed by pails of water or by means of the hose. Poor rinsing leaves a grimy rug. Matting. — To clean matting, use ammonia and cold water, trying to avoid using much soap ; never use veiy hot water, or a soap that contains a good deal of soda. Cold water wdll give the best results. To remove grease spots, spread either fullers' earth, dry starch, or whiting on the stain. This dry absorbent should take up the grease. A second application may be necessary, each time letting the absorbent remain for a few days. Detergent (page ST-f ) can be used to remove grease, or ether or chloroform will dissolve grease. Be careful to absorb the grease by a pad under the stain, changing it as fast as soiled. (Avoid a fire with ether.) Linoleum. — A much worn linoleum can be freshened and saved by using varnish. This varnish, like that for the floor, must be of a very good quality and put on as a thin covering, because varnish that is either of poor quality or is put on too thick, is likely to prove worse than none. Tapestries. — Tapestries, either wools or silks, should be kept thoroughly brushed or cleaned with the vacuum cleaner to keep out the dust, and also to ward off moths. To wash, lukewarm or cold water should be used, and in this dissolve enough white soap to make a good suds. With a soft brush apply the suds, and rinse with clear water until all soap is removed. It is advisable to keep the tapestries flat. They may be tacked on a table top, or they may be hung to be cleaned. With careful workmanship they could be cleaned in their frames provided they were not fastened on a back mounting CLEANING AND RENOVATION 287 so that there would be no cliaiiee for soap and water to get in under- neath where it would not dry out easily. Warm cornmeal or fullers' earth will give a dry cleaning, but every particle must be brushed off when finished. Window Shades, — ^Window shades can be first cleaned by leav- ing them on the roll and gradually unwinding, as one wipes care- fully on both sides. If this were done often there would be less need for special cleansing. Any good white window shade can be cleaned by making a very thick soapsuds of white soap and warm water, and applying with a soft sponge. The sponge should be wrung almost dry so as not to water-soak the shade. To do this work one should spread the shade on a table or some large flat surface. Cornmeal or fullers" earth may be used with a stiff brush in cases where the shade is not to be washed. Shades that are too old to be washed can sometimes be painted with a good quality of white paint, being careful to put it on in a thin layer, and getting it thoroughly dry before putting the shade up. To wash colored shades may be a risk, because the color is likely to fade and become streaky. LEATHER Fur Rugs. — Fur rugs are like any other skin material, very likely to dry in the heat of the room. For that reason a rug will deteriorate faster than one would imagine. A white fur rug can be washed with soap in somewhat the same way as one would wash a small dog, rinsing in lukewarm water, and then letting it lie on the floor to dry. Blue rinse water will whiten the white hair. Be- cause, unlike the live animal, there is no supply of natural oil, the housekeeper may make up this deficit by putting a little neatsfoot oil, lemon oil, or linseed oil on the back of the skin. A mounted fur rug, if very soiled, can be cleaned with heavy lather and rinsed by wiping with wet sponges, as was suggested for rugs (page 285). It is not possible to wash the rug, of course, if the skin is mounted with a heax'y flannel or wool back. In such a case, clean the skin with warm cornmeal. Put the cornmeal in the oven until thoroughly warm; then, in handfuls, rub it over the rug. As fast as it soils, use fresh meal. Then cover the rug with fresh meal and let stand over night on several days; shake and brush. Be sure the cornmeal is out of the rug so as not to attract any insects. 288 HOUSEWIFEliV Chamois. — Chamois as a window ck'aiu'r roquiros so inni'li can' to keep it ill ^ood condition that it is used much less than it once was. The iirst cost also is high. Whetlier it he chamois window cloth or chamois gloves, wash in lukewarm water, rinse well aJid then pull to shape hefore drying. As the skin dries it should he pulled, shaped, and ruhhed to keep it from drving stilt. Should the skin hecome very hard, a warm water rinse with a teaspoon ol" olive oil to two quarts of water will do much to soften it. The chamois such as are used for tahle covers may he washed hy taking a hrush and lukewarm soapsuds. With a dry lather go all over the chamois, then rinse with lukewarm water, wiping with a soft sponge or cloth ; when the chamois is dry, hrush up the fihrc with a soft brush. iMany water spots and grease spots can be removed in tliis way. Often it is better to do the whole piece rather than to try to remove certain spots. Certain colors will be affected by this method, but if the whole skin is done, the tone of color will be quite even and look I^etter than if the skin is " spotted." Leather Upholstery. — Ijeather used as upholstery is very likely to become dried from indoor heat; as it dries it parches and cracks. To keep it in good condition and hence to help it to resist wear, it should bo rubbed over with oil, with the same idea as one often puts oil on the hands to keep them from chapping. Remembering that any oil dressing will darken the leather, use as light an oil as possible, such as paraffin oil, lemon oil, neatsfoot or linseed oil. If the leather is soiled it can be cleaned with some of the cleansers which the housekeeper will obtain most easily by purchas- ing in bottles prepared for shoe cleaning. A solution of white soap and water to which oil and alcohol have been added, will give a good cleaner. To prepare, use one bar of white soa]) dissolved in one cup of water ; then add one cu]) of alcohol and two cups of light oil. This will not only clean the leather but will help to supply some of the oil it naturally requires. If one is to oil leather, be careful to rub off all excess oil as it will catch dirt, and very quickly darken the leather. Imitation leathers, which are really enamelled cloth, will be somewhat renewed l)y the oil, in the same way as linoleum would be, but the housekeeper must remember that this is only a cloth with an enam(dled iinish and has no jxwer of absorption. It is bound to scale off in time with wear. CLEANING AND RENOVATION 289 METALS Stoves. — Stoves may be painted by using black enamel s^toxo paint, and il' allowed to dry thoroughly, the paint will remain for several months, making the cleaning of the stove only a matter of washing with a cloth or paper and soapy water. Steel or rusty iron is probably most easily cleaned with pumice or emery powder. This is cleaning by abrasion, or the scratch method, and caxe will have to be taken to avoid scratching too deeply into the metal. The pumice alone will not only remove the rust, which may have penetrated below the outer coating, but will tend to leave a rough mieven surface. Oil used with the pumice will lubricate the pumice^, and keep it from attacking the metal loo directly, thus producing a smooth cleaned surface. Tin or zinc bathtubs can be painted with white enamel paint. One sliould be very sure that the tub is thoroughly dry before be^ ginning, and that after each layer of paint there has been ample time for the paint to dry. Two layers of house paint followed by two of enamel paint will give a good finish for a bathtub that will probably last one season. To harden the paint before putting the tub to use, fill the tub with cold water and let stand for several hours. Do tliis before attempting to use it at all. Do not begin to paint a tub unless it is the last resource for renovation, as once painted it will require frequent renewal. WOODS The care and renewal of woods is one of the complex problems of the housewife. The problem is made complex by the many kinds of woods, and the varied ways of finisliing them. It would require an expert to meet these complexities, but there are a number of simjile suggestions that may be followed with much success. The everyday woods are pine, which is the soft wood most com- monly used, and oak, ash, maple, walnut, mahogany, and cherry, which are the common hard woods. Any of the woods may be found in house finish, or used for furniture. They are finished with either wax, oil, or varnish. The wax or oil dressing sinks into the wood, while the varnish produces a shell-like glaze which prevents the wood from absorbing oil or wax. The best care for all wood finish is to keep it free from dust and grit by using a clean dry cloth, and when the wood is to be polished or "done over,'' give special attention to 19 290 HOUSEWIFERY it. i'oor results often follow wiping- wood with an oiled or dampened cloth. To re/inish means to reoil or rewax or repolish, besides covering up scratches, dents, heat or water marks. The work involved is more or less limited, and so is within the strength of the housewife. However, no one ought to undertake the more extensive work of " doing over " a piece of furniture unless thoroughly familiar with the amount of time and labor required. To compare the exj^ense of doing over at home and of hiring it done, one needs to think of the cost of the many kinds of material necessary in order to have a little of this or a little of that which will be necessary for a small job, yet sufiicient to do many pieces of work; and if the materials are not entirely used, this means an expense about equal to the price charged by the professional; while with him there is a much greater likelihood of success than if the work is done at home. The work, to he successful, cannot be dropped at many stages, and the housewife's results often suffer on this account. The materials dry quickly if not used, and a.s most of them are inflanmiable, they should be carefully put away. Care should be given, too, to the cloths and brushes ; wash the cloths and brushes, or else put them in a stone crock or tin can where they could not cause a fire if spontaneous combustion results. These difficulties are not mentioned to discourage the housewife, l)ut to present the jn-oljlem as one for which a person of some ex- perience is needed, and which involves considerable expense and much time for successful work. If the man of the family enjoys this kind of shop work in the evenings, then it is good home work for him, giving exercise and providing a means of saving money, as well as securing pleasurable results in the good finish to which many woods readily respond. To Remove Paint or Varnish. — Prepared removers may be Ijought, but a less exjiensive remover is either potash or soda or ammonia. The worker should l)e careful, as all these materials are very caustic, burning hands or fal)rics, and any spatterings would ruin wall or woodwork. To work with any one of them, have all the air possible, and leave the room while the paint or varnish is softening, as one should not inhale their fumes more than is neces- sary. A folded, moistened handkerchief over the nose and mouth will add to the comfort of the worker. The softened varnish on CLEANING AND RENOVATION 291 floors nia}' be removed by hot water put on and taken oil by a mop and a mop wringer. The hands cannot be used, as no giove would resist tlie caustic. For proportions use — Either, 1 Ih. soda — 5-0 qts. boiling- water or, 1 lb. potash — qts. cold water To Bleach Wood. — Add to eitlier soda or potash solution 1 lb. quicklime, using cold water to mix, and apply to bleach wood. Oxalic acid will also whiten wood if applied long enough ; it is espe- cially good to remove spots like ink or stains of wear from floors. Use the acid about concentrated and to a room 15 x 30 ft. about foui pounds will be needed. The acid is a POISON. To Use a Filler. — " Fillers " are used for wood before finish- ing. A filler is made of boiled linseed oil (1 pint), turpentine (fi/ij qts.), and whiting or cornstarch (1 pint of either, or both mixed half and half). This makes a white filler which must be darkened for dark wood, as follows : For oak, use about 1 teaspoon raw umber. (1 tsp. burnt sienna For nialiogany use J 14 tsp. yellow oolire [i/^tsp. Bismarck brown II tsp. burnt umber 1/4 tsp. Venetian red V^ tsp. yellow ochre Test all colors on a board and if too light add more coloring; if too dark, add more oil and turpentine. To Stain. — Various stains may be bought, and as there are so many good ones, it seems unwise to try to make them, and so spend time uselessly, unless one knows definitely that good results may be obtained. One homemade stain is very satisfactory and easily made by using 14 ^^^- potassium permanganate crystals and ■i quarts of wa.ter. This stain turns brown soon after mixing aild may be tested on a l)oard or folded newspaper. Let the stain dry thorough^, and then rub the wood with oil or wax, or varnish. Do not use for two or three days, and then polish the oiled or wa^xed wood again, and the results will be most satisfactory. The var- nished floor needs only to set and harden to resist wear before being used. To Oil. — Oil should be used to renew an oiled surface. Apply 292 HOUSEWIFERY the Iciuoii Dil, ])ariiirm oil, or lioilcd linseed nil hy riil)l)in<,'' in circles and ])()lisli hy I'lihhin*? in straight lines with the grain of the wood. To Wax. — lleniove every particle of dirt, which must be done hel'orc anything is put on any wood. Wax an oiled or waxed surface. Any spots rna.y he removed with a soft wooleu cloth and turpentine, and it' the spots are very persistent, use a little rottenstone well mixed with the tur])entiiic. Wax by a])])lying a very thin coating of i>repared wax (p. 295) and then rub. Use a piece of donlet flannel or a weighted brush. For table tops the worker's hand is best. When the worker is sure she has rul)l)ed enough, rub some more. To Shellac or Varnish. — Use good quality materials and be careful to have both shellac and varnish very thin, in no way thick enough to be sticky. Apply with a clean brush in straight lines, and just as far as possible in continuous, non-lifting strokes. Good shellac work is quite dependent upon the stroke of the worker, for if a short, irregidar, lifting stroke is used, shellac will stick and turn white. In other words, keep the stroke so even and continuous that air does not get under the brush. W^aterproof varnish may be used on wooden floors in rooms where Avater plays an important part, such as the kitchen, bathroom, or laundry; and also in halls and vestibules. To Remove Scratches. — Often a good furniture polish will cover up the scratches, because it contains dye or stain enough to darken the wood which has been bared by a scratch. If one has no prepared furniture polish, rub Avith lemon oil or lioiled linseed oil. Scratches on mahogany may be retouched with a little permanganate of potash. Its use as a wood dye has just been stated. If the scratch is to be polished, rub -!^he spot arefully with fine grade sandpaper or steel wool, and then brush away every particle of dust formed by sandpapering. Make a pad by folding a small wad of cotton in a soft cloth free from lint. Wet the pad with paraffin oil and then shellac. Touch the surface v;ith the pad, using no pressure but a sliding stroke. Do not lift the pad when rubbing as air will cloud the shellac. Several repetitions may be necessary for the color desired. To Remove Dents or Bruises. — This kind of a bruise is deeper than skin deep. It means that the layers of wood have been packed down by the force of a knock or fall. If not too deep a bruise, it is possible to oil and rub, and darken the bruise so that it CLEANING AND RENOVATION 293 is little noticed. If the dent is deeper than this, moisten soft thin blotting; paper in hot water and gently apply heat by means of a hot iron. The moistnre and heat swells the wood and the dented part rises. This would not be possible with veneer, which is only a thin wood surface finish, glued to a wood backing. To Remove Water Spots. — Often the radiator leaks, or in some other way water has been spilled on wood; the water mark left is a filmy gray spot. It is easily removed with a few drops of household ammonia on a cloth. Moisten the cloth, add two or three drops of ammonia, and rub the spot with a clean cloth. Polish afterwards with oil and a soft cloth. To Remove Alcohol Spots. — Fortunately an alcohol spot is not deep, and often a quick rubbing at once with a cloth or even with the fingers, rather than lose time looking for the cloth, will return the finish. Lemon, linseed or prepared oil on a cloth and good rubbing will help to restore an old spot. Rottenstone and lin- seed oil, rubbing in circles, keeping plenty of oil to lubricate the rottenstone, will bring up a polish. The rottenstone must float in the oil, or it will scratch. To Clean Water Spots on Waxed Floors. — Eub in circles with turpentine and flannel cloth. The turpentine cleans, and will partially soften the wax so that it gives up its dirt. To Clean Painted, Varnished, and Oiled Wood. — ^Use linseed oil and petroleum, and rub with a soft cloth, following with a clean polishing cloth. To Polish Wood. — Eub with turpentine and linseed oil in equal ]iroportions. It will polish like wax and not be so slippery. If this mixture is used to rub unpolished wood and the rubbing is continued long enough, the polish will he beautiful, with soft satiny lustre, much prettier than any shellac or varnish could produce. Painting. — Paint can be renovated by cleaning either with clear water, with whiting, or whiting and water, but actually to renovate it will require repainting. To do this, either scrape off, burn off, or with washing soda or some patent remover wash off, all the old ])aint. If this is not to be done, as in the case of repainting bread boxes, enamelled shelves, etc., the loose paint should be scratched oft' witli fine sandpaper. This should bring the spots where the paint is off to a smooth level witli tlie paint surrounding th(Mn. Touch these uiu*overed spots witli tbe paint (Jrst^ g"'"g '''1 over the 294 HOUSEWIFERY article to be painted. \Mu'ii this coat is dry, paint the whole surface with one coat; when thoroughly di'v, j>ut on the second coat, if it is white enamel paint that is to be used, a better finish and a more economical piece of Avork will be accomplished by usiiig two coats of house paint, and then one or two of enamel paint. Enamel paint will go on very irregularly if pat directly on tlie unpainted surface. To Glue Furniture. — Buy a standard glue, and if it seems thick and stringy, stand in hot water until it has thinned with the heat. Clean the two pieces to he glued, as glue will not adhere to old glue. Vinegar will remove old glue. Apply glue to both pieces and fit perfectly. There is no need to use so much glue as to have it j)rotrude beyond the mend. A little warm water will remove the surplus, only do not let it mix "with the glue and thin it. When the mend has been made, some press or support must be used to hold the pieces tightly together. As cord often marks, tapes or pieces of torn cloth with sometimes a straight " splint '" makes a good 1)andage for a break until the glue sets. Iron clamps, for holding furniture together while glueing, may be purchased at small cost. Wickerware. — Wickerware can be stained or painted just like wood, the main precaution being to put the stain on in two light coats, instead of one dark one, so that where the wicker overlaps in the pattern, the dye will not be too dark. It will be fomid troublesome to paint the wicker unless the paint is used rather thin. Use turpentine to thin the oil stain, and test the color on an under side where, if the color is over dark, it will not be noticed. Stain or paint on newspaper gives one a very good idea of the degree of color tone. Do not use water stain. Table Tops. — Table tops will have to be sandpapered to pro- duce a new finish. Before tliis is done a certain amount of bleaching can be done by using soda to extract grease; and follow this wdth several scrubbings to overcome the yellowness from the soda. To sandpaper, use fine-grained sandpaper; by folding it on a block of wood, it can be used more easily as well as more economically. To stain an old table : Sandpaper it down to as near one tone of color as possil)le. Apply the stain, as an oil stain, making two applications of a thinner stain rather than one' of a thicker dye. This oil stain should sink into the table and when dry, it may be rubbed with wax. CLEANING AND RENOVATION 295 Old tables can be covered -with a thin oilcloth which will last for a considerable time. x\ heavy jjiece of linoleum will give longer service. Receipt for Prepared Wax. — Use any prepared wax; or melt 1/4 lb. beeswax over water, and when melted remove from the fire and stir in one pint of tuq^entine. Stir until the mixture is like a thick batter, when it is ready to put into a jar and be used as needed. The hand is the best wax rubber, as its warmth softens the wax. The soft outing flannel may be used, and in either case put on a thin layer and rub. The finish is all in the rubbing; there cannot be too much. RENOVATING SUNDRY JMATERIALS Lacquered Ware. — Lacquered ware may be washed by using a soft cloth or a sjoonge which has been wrung nearly dry out of warm soapsuds. Rinse with clear cold water, wipe off all the soap, and then polish with a dry soft cloth. Do not put into the water. Wiping a lacquered bed or desk set with thin oil will do much to keep it from scratching and it also prevents the lacquer from drying and cracking. Brass mountings are usually covered over with a fine lacquer finish. This lacquer in some measure jDrotects the brass, although tarnish is gradually produced by the air. Perspiration of the hands and cleaning will finally remove the lacquer; then the surface must be either refinished or polished. To reburnish and refinish is often quite expensive, as in the case of knobs and handles and brass beds. The housewife may polish by using fine rottenstone and sweet oil. Mix these two together as a paste; rub with a light, even stroke, being sure to use plenty of oil so as to prevent the rottenstone from scratching. The success of the work depends entirely upon the gentleness and evenness of the stroke. The house- wife may find that it is advisable to try first the oil finish or one of the metal polishers for fear that the untrained worker will rub too hard with the rottenstone. Plaster Casts. — Plaster casts that have a dull finish are often seriously harmed by water, so that frequent dry dusting and never handling the cast with soiled hands, is the first and best care. To renew a plaster cast, cover with fine whiting and magnesia, or fullers' earth. This may be applied without rubbing, but in order 290 HOUSEWIFERY tliiit all of the surface lie covered it iiiav be patted on with a soft cloth or soft (M)ttoii. Ivoll tlic cast in a cloth, and let it remain for se\eral davs ; brush olf with a soft lu'ush, beiuu- cai'cful not to ruh hard. This will do much towards clean in<(, hut there is no special way to remove stains without chan^'iii;^" the color of the cast. Oil Paintings. — With a soft sponi^e oi' cloth wrung out of warm soapsuds (not hot), wasli the paintinjf by washing a small strip each time and then wiping it. After tlie painting is clean, apply a thin coating of linseed oil with a soft cloth, either cheesecloth or outing flannel, or even a bit of gauze into which a little cotton has been folded. Put this on evenly, and the oil will sink in, doing somewhat as it does with leather, keeping the paintings free from cracking. If the painting is to be varnished later, it should be varnished two or three days after it has been oiled. The best oil and the best varnish should, be used. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. If a mattrpss is spotted, what simple methods may be used to clean it witliout wasliino' it? 2. How may lacquered bread boxes be freshened and made like new? 3. How may gi-ease spots be removed from carpets? 4. If a hot water faucet leaks and steams the bathroom so tdiat the walls are darkened and the wood work wdiitened, how may both be renewed to original condition ? 5. How may brass handles on an old bureau be refinished bv the house- wife ? fi. How may a window sill be refinished after havino; had paper stuck to it? 7. Given cretonne draperies, how may tlicy be cleansed in the home? REFERENCES Balderstox, L. Ray, LAUNPERrr^o. L. Ray Balderston. Brams't, William T., Dry Cleaner, Scourer and Garment Dyer. H. C. Baird tt Co. Clark, T. M., Care of the House. Macmillan Co. IjANG and Whittlesey, Removal of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles. U. S. Department of Ajiriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 861. Parloa, Maria. Home Economics. Centairy Co. Rankin, Margaret, Science of Laundry Work. Blackie & Son, London. CHAPTER XI DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS In this day of preventive treatment rather than cures, why not apply the idea to the home ? Why not try to ward off the need of disinfectants and fumigants as cures, by adopting effective pre- ventive measures? The housewife should attack the sanitation problems of the home daily as a housekeeper, rather than prepare for special emergencies which must be met with heroic measures. Various points which concern disinfection and fumigation have been suggested in the chapters on Plumbing, Houseliold Pests, and Cleaning. The following outline states some of the practical preventive measures to be taken by the housewdfe in her daily work. PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN HOUSEHOLD SANITATION A. The Grounds about the House. — Cover all rain barrels and cisterns to prevent breeding of mosquitoes ; put a film of kerosene on pools of water during the summer. Screen all privies to prevent flies from carrying disease. Test all water for purity. Carry all 'waste water far enough from the house and from cis- terns and wells to prevent contamination. Clean and sterilize by whitewashing all outhouses — cow stalls, pig pens, chicken coops, etc. B. The Cellar. — Ventilate the cellar by providing two or more open windows, to keep it dry and hence sanitary as a storage room, and as a foundation to the house; if there is but one window, open half of it and run an air flue from the other half to a point near the cellar floor. Whitewash the walls and ceiling of the cellar; this cleans and sterilizes. Place a concrete floor in the cellar to i)romote dryness. C. The Kitchen. — Keep the kitchen well aired, because this will keep it cooler. Keep the sink clean, as soiled pipes not only produce odors, but may draw vermin. Scald all milk bottles and pans, air well, and keep clean. Keep the refrigerator free from old food, lest the food decay and become a breeding place for bacteria. 297 298 HOUSEWIFERY Wash the ice before ])iitliii-i- it into the refi'i<,a'rator, lest it carry in mi necessary dirt. Empty the garbage can each chiy, wash, and air it. If garbage is not used as food for animals, or removed by the community, it should be buried to be used as fertilizer, or burned to avoid its attracting vermin or puifcfying. D. The Laundry. — Keep soiled clothes dry and well aired until washed. Wash often enough to prevent any chance of odors from soiled clothes. Clean clothes, fresh from the laundry, are safe, whereas soiled clothes may carry the risk of disease, and may attract vermin. Isolate and wash separately all clothing that has been used in connection with colds or any other sickness. As a precaution wash laundry bags and clean clothes l)askets. E. The Bedroom. — Air Ijeds at the same time that the rooms are being aired, half an hour to an hour. Kee]) Ix'ds free from dust, as dust invites vermin. F. The House in General. — Prevent the collecting of dust, which not only makes the liouse untidy, l)ut draws many kinds of small household pests. Do all dusting with dampened or oiled dusters or sweepers, so as not to spread the dust. DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS Every housewife should be acquainted with disinfectants and fumigants, because drains, garbage cans, and ice boxes need them; and cellars must be kept free from chance causes of odors or sick- ness. One must be ready for the unexpected need of an exter- minator for vermin, or the need of a disinfectant or fumigant during and after the appearance of disease. The terms disinfectants, germicides, fumigants, and the like are often used without an understanding of the terms ; indeed, they seem often to be used interchangeably. Disinfectants and germicides are sul)stances which destroy dis- ease germs. Antiseptics retard the growth of germs, Imt do not necessarily destroy germ life. Salt and sugar may preserve food by retarding germ action but they do not destroy the germ. Bichlo- ride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) is an antiseptic if used in a solution of 1 part to 300,000 parts of water, and is a disinfectant in a solution of 1 part to 1000 parts of water (1 tablet to 1 pint of DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS 299 water) ; the latter destroys germ life. Both solutions are poisons. Fumigants and deodorants destroy or cover up odors, and may disinfect. In nature there are many powerful and safe disinfectants : sun- light, dryness, cleanliness, and heat — so-called physical means of disinfection. Dry air and sunlight are foes to germs; moisture and filth are their best friends. With sunlight, cleanliness, and dry air, decaying vegetation and filth diminish, and in the same measure the chance for health increases. Heat like oven heat up to 300^ Fahrenheit, or boiling temperature of 213° Fahrenheit for one hour, will thoroughly disinfect. To test oven heat witliout a ther- mometer, lay a small wad of cotton in the oven; at 300° Fahrenheit, the cotton will scorch as if ironed with too hot an iron. Boiling for ten minutes in a closed vessel' destroys all disease germs except the spores, which may later develop into germs, and makes disin- fecting of clothing jjossiblc. In the laundering of clothing various alkaline reagents are used which increase the disinfecting power of the water, and decrease the length of time required for disinfecting ordinary soiled clothing. Many of our household cleaning methods fortunately are disinfecting methods. Let the study begin with these simple everyday methods. They are effective and inexpensive ; besides, the substances are so familiar as to cause no hesitancy in their use. Soap, borax, ammonia, and washing soda are sufficient in the cleaning of ice-boxes, window boxes, basins, and flush closets which are to be cleaned daily. Soapsuds Solution. — One cake of soap dissolved in 3 quarts of water. Soda Solution. — One-half pound of washing soda dissolved in 3 gallons of water. Either solution may be used for wall or floor washes, when a room is to be disinfected. Such a solution is easily applied with a pail of hot water and a broom or mop. It has been proved that the usual methods employed in washing- clothes disinfect the clothing for general use. A good laundering with soap and water, five to ten minutes boil or hot scald, the sun and air in drying, and finally, the heat of the iron in ironing, are sufficient for disinfecting clothing. Lime in its various forms is especially good as a disinfectant or germicide. It is cheap and harmless. QuicTc-Ume is lime oxide, and has great power of absorbing water. 300 HOUSEWIFERY On exposure to the air it absorl)s so iiuieh water that it breaks up iuto a powdered form called air-slaked lime. Quick-lime is often put about damp cellars and outhouses because of this power to absorb moisture. When it breaks down into a powder, it has no more power, to absorb water from the air, and no more power as a germicide. Slalicd lime (hydrated lime) and iiiilL: of lime are used to dis- infect excreta. A 5 per cent, solution of slaked lime will require one hour to do its work thoroughly, Wliitewasli is slaked lime thinned with water until it is of tiie consistency to spread with a brush. Adding glue heljis to make the whitewash stick to the surface. Whitewash is much used on fences, outhouses, cellars, and chicken coops, to kill bacteria and vennin, to deodorize, and to improA'e appearance. Recipe for Wliifeuash''' % bu. lime slaked witli boiling water % peck of salt dissolved in warm water 3 lbs. ground rice boiled to a thin paste 1/2 lb. powdered Spanish whiting 1 lb. clear glue, dissolved in warm water Mix: and let stand for several days. Use hot as possible. Lime water may be used to rinse milk pans and bottles, and chambers. A 3 per cent, solution is known to kill typhoid bacteria, and a 20 per cent, solution Avill disinfect excreta. This requires from one-half to one hour. Cliloiinated lime, commonly called chloride of lime, and sold as a bleaching powder, is a disinfectant when used dry as when put dowTi basins and toilets. As a bleaching solution, when used in washing, it not only bleaches but disinfects. It deteriorates rapidly on exposure to the air. Hydrogen peroxide is an unstable compound, which is readily affected by light and heat. Therefore it should be kept in dark- colored glass bottles, and tightly corked. It is especially good for use in connection Avith discharging wounds to disinfect the suppura- tion products. It is not used so much as formerly as a general dis- infectant for wounds, or as a gargle, on accomit of its irritating effect on the membranes. Its action is over in about five minutes. Alcohol. — Alcohol above 50 per cent, strength is a good disin- fectant for the hands, or for a needle that is to be used to remove a splinter. * U. S. Bureau of Standards, Dept. of Commerce; (.'ircular No. 70. DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS 301 The preceding disinfectants liavc been those used in regular liome methods. The ones given below are stronger in action and poisonous. Great care should be exercised in their use, and it is quite necessary that the one doing the work should be thoroughly trained for her task. For two reasons is this necessary — the chance for a fatal mistake, and the risk of having an essential point omitted so that doubt enters into the point as to whether the work is thor- oughly done. Tincture of iodine is very good to apply to any fresh wound vrhicli may later be infected, such as an open bruise, a cat scratch, or a cut from a rusty nail. It is bought in a 7 per cent, solution, and may be used in this strength or in half-strength. Bichloride of mercury, or corrosive sublimate, is purchased in tablet form. It is a poison and should be handled as such, with the greatest care, and when not in use should be so stored or bottled that no one can possibly mistake it for medicine. To tie a small toy bell around the neck of the bottle is a good safeguard, especially for dark places. (White of egg is the antidote.) It is a powerful disinfectant, but limited as to its use because soap, proteins, and sulphur precipitate it. It will not stain fabrics, except after constant and long-continued soaking. But it does corrode metal, and so cannot be used for disinfecting any metal utensil. Its best use is for the disinfection of smooth surfaces such as rubber, enamel and glassware, and for clean hands. For the hands a solution of 1 tablet (71/2 grains) to 2 pints of water should be used. Do not mix in a metal dish. For other disinfection use 1 tablet to 1 pint of water. Allow from one-half to one hour for disinfection of things placed in the solution. Formalin is a water solution of formaldehyde gas, valuable as a disinfectant. It is second to bichloride of mercury as a disin- fectant of rubber, and is good for clothing and utensils. It may be purchased at the drug store as a 40 per cent, solution and reduced to a 4 per cent, solution (by adding some of it to ten times its bulk of water), which is the strengtli used for disinfection. Soak the articles in this 4 per cent, solution for one hour. Carbolic Acid Solution (Antidote — Alcohol). — The usual strength in which this is- used is 5 per cent. — in the proportion of 1 lb. of carbolic crystals to 2% gals, of hot water. Stir or shake in a corked bottle until the mixture is free from the small drop for- mation on the bottom of the vessel. Exposure for one hour to a 302 HOUSEWIFERY 5 per cent, solution is usually ell'ective for bacteria, not for spores. In cleanijig slop-jars and chambers use a string mop, as carbolic is very irritating to the skin. It is generally used to disinfect articles that cannot be boiled ; articles, like clothing and bedding, which can be boiled, can be completely sterilized by boiling in water witiiout the use of carbolic acid. Creolin, lysol or cresol, and tricresol are coal-tar products used in jjlacc of carbolic acid. Creolin lias about the same value as pure carbolic, and lysol and tricresol arc about three times as powerful. They are less irritating to the skin, but are more expen- sive than carbolic. Use a 1 per cent, or 2 per cent, solution dis- solved in tepid water. Table of Disinfectants Strength Time Used for H-l hr... All articles that are not harmed by water. Slaked lime 2 lb. Hme to 1 pt. water 1 hr Excreta. Milk of lime 2 lb slaked lime to Excreta. 4 qt. water Lime water 3^ cup lime to 4 qt. ^^-Ihr... Rinsing milk vessels water and chambers ; ty- phoid bacteria. Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime) ^2 lb chloride of F ush closets, basins, lime to 1 gal. bleaching. water Hydrogen peroxide. . Undiluted 5 min .... Discharging wounds. Alcohol 50 per cent. -70 per cent. 1 min. . . . Hands, instrmiients. Tmcture of iodine . . 7 per cent., or 1 part 1 min. . . . Fresh wound where 7 per cent, solu- danger of infection. tion 1 part water 1 tablet (7H gr.) 2 pt. water Hands. mercury (b) 1 tablet to 1 pt. 32-1 hr... Clothing, rubber, water enamel, glassware. Formalin, 4 per cent. 1 cup 40 per cent. 1 hr Rubber, clothing, solution to 5 pt. utensils. water Carbolic acid 5 per cent 1 hr Clothing that cannot be boiled. Creolin [l-2 per cent M-lhr... Lysol or cresol Same as carbolic. Tricresol DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS 303 FUJVHGANTS Fumigants- are agents which give off a gas which is destructive to bacteria or to vermiu. They are uot used as much as formerly after contagious diseases like measles. In ordinary contagious dis- eases the main reliance now is placed upon thorough soap and water cleaning. If of real value, fumigants must be strong in the gas they give off; this makes it dangerous for an untrained person to carry on the work, and under ordinary conditions the results will scarcely pay her for her lahor and attendant risk. However, it is well for the housewife to know about these agents, for they are useful in their ability to destroy vermin; and she may, in the absence of a trained nurse or a Board of Health representative, be called upon to fumigate a room after sickness. It is important for her to be thoroughly informed as to the method 1:)efore she undertakes to do the work. Formaldehyde gas and sulphur fumes are the usual fumigants. The sulphur is most often used to exterminate household pests, while formaldehyde is a valuable disinfectant, but does not kill vermin. Formaldehyde gas may be produced in several ways. One espe- cially effective way is to combine potassium permanganate with formalin. Allow one-half pound of potassimn permanganate to each 1000 cu. ft. of air space. To every half-pound of permanganate allow 1 pint of formalin. Prepare the room as for any fumigation (see page 304), and when all is ready, put the permanganate in a galvanized iron kettle or pan, which is set upon bricks or in water to protect the floor from heat; pour on the formalin and imme- diately leave the room. The formaldehyde gas is given off, which is most irritating to the mucous membrane and is poisonous. Its penetrative power is not very great, so that it is necessary for every- thing in the room to be entirely exposed to its action. Park and Williams * give the formulae for formaldehyde gener- ation found on page 30-i. Sulphur Fumes. — Sulphur is not very effective in destroying germs, but it is very valuable in the extermination of pests. Sul- phur fumigation involves the danger of fire as well as of inhaling the poisonous fumes. A sulphur candle or flowers of sulphur * Park and Williams, Pathogenic Microorganisms. 304 HOUSEWIFERY may be used; the candle- is easily obtained and the wick helps to keep it burning. For flowers of sulphur pour on a tablespoon or more of alcohol to insure its burning; the worker will not then need to go into the room to relight the sulphur, and expose herself to the fumes. Allow 4 lbs. of sulphur to every lUOO cu. ft. of air space. Expose eight to twelve hours. Two Formulw (or Formaldehyde (leneration Either will disinfect 1000 cu. ft. in a hours. I. Potassium permanganate . 10 o/.. Formaldehyde solution, 40 jjer cent !> o/.. Water 4..") oz. II. Quicklime 2 oz. Potassium permanganate o oz. Oxalic acid i/L- gram Formalin .1 oz. Water 'i '4 oz. Mix lime and potassium permanganate in pan. Pour over this the remaining substances in solution. Hydrocyanic acid gas is effective in destroying household pests, but is one of tlie most poisonous gases known, and for that reason work with it should be done only by an experienced person. To Prepare a Room for Fumigation.^ — Knowledge on the part of the worker is necessary, and when she is thoroughly trained to do the work she will not need to be cautioned against either fire danger or the risk of inhaling the fumes. Get all the things in the room ready. Arrange the contents of the room so that every- thing will be exposed to the gas. Bedding should be hung over a line. Do not remove from the room anything that was there during the illness. If sulphur is used, the metal door knobs and bed should have a thin coating of fresh (non-salty) fat. Sulphur will corrode metal and will fade color; but colored fabrics may have to be left in, subject to fading, in order to run no risk of leaving germs or vermin in draperies, etc. Seal the room by closing the window and door cracks with paper or cotton, and stopping the key-holes. Put the potassium perman- ganate, the potassium cyanide, or the sulphur candle, in a galvanized pail or stone crock. Stand the pail or crock on two bricks or in a larger pan of -water, so that the heat created by the chemical action or from the l)urning sulphur may have no chance to burn the floor or other surrounding material. Pour the formalin on the perman- DISINFECTANTS AND FUMIGANTS 305 ganate, or the sulphuric acid and water on the cyanide, or light the sulphur, and go quickly from the room. The door may be addi- tionally sealed on the outside after closing it. Be sure to have everything so planned and ready that there will be no need to hesitate or to try to go back. For a person who may be slow from inexperi- ence, it is a good safeguard to tie a moist handkerchief over the nose and mouth. The room should be kept closed for eight to twelve hours; then it must be thoroughly aired and cleaned, so that no fumes remain. SUGOBSTIVE LIST OF HOUSEHOLD DISINFECTANTS The above suggestions include established solutions and methods of fumigating and disinfecting. Through advertising, various new disinfectants and f umigants may reach the housewife ; but the sim- plest and most active have been suggested. Additional problems regarding household pests are given in Chapter XII (page 307) and that chapter and this may well be considered together. Salt and water Listerine Potassium permanganate Boiling water Soap and water Soda and water Lime Carbolic acid Creolin Lysol or cresol Tricresol Alcohol Tincture of iodine Carbolic acid Lysol and tricresol Formalin ' Bichloride of mercury Sulphur Hydrocyanic acid gas Formaldehyde gas are standard mouth washes, and tliey may be used in a dilute form as a gargle. are standard solutions for washing, cleaning and disin- fecting cuspidors, cliambers, flush closets, clothing. are standard killers of germs such as may produce disease. are standard f umigants. SUGOESTIVE QUESTIONS What precautions can every housewife take in caring for soiled clothing? Suppose one member of a family must nurse another who has a severe nose and throat cold. What care should the well member take for her own safety. List all suggestions. 20 306 HOUSEWIFERY 3. What are the usual ways and means whereby contagion may lie spread? List. 4. How may a lied lie treated after a severe sickness? REFERENCES Broadiiurst, Jean, IIo.mi: a.\u Community Hygiene. J. B. Lippincott Company. Buchanan, Esteixe D., anu Roueut E., Household IUcteriolooy. :Mac- millan Co. Conn, H. W., Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds. Ginn & Co. Dakin and Dunham, Handbook of Antiseptics. Macmillan Co. Elliot, S. Maria, Household Hygiene. American Scliool of Home Economics. LiPMAN, J. G., Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Macmillan Co. Maxwell and Pope, Practical Nursing. G.. P. Putnam & Co. Richards, E. H., Sanitation and Daily Life. Whitcomb & Barrows. Talbot, Marion, House Sanitation. Whitcomb & Barrows. CHAPTER XII HOUSEHOLD PESTS Prevention, — Household pests are trouljlesome, dangerous, and desti-uctive ; therefore they call for constant vigilance. They crawl or fly, hide in dark unexpected nooks, and often come from filthy ]ilaees. They reproduce so rapidly that they are much easier to keep out than to exterminate after they have gained a foothold. Eternal vigilance is the price of preventing pests. Prevention means to fill up cracks and holes, allow no dust to collect or spilled food to remain, keep food tightly covered, use screens or traps, fill up stagnant pools, cover rain barrels, keep house leaders free from stagnant water, screen or fumigate manure piles, and use insecticide in garbage containers, privies, and manure piles. The cleanest house, however, may gain the unexpected visitor in the grocery basket, laundry bundle, or even in the valise when travelling. Cleanliness is the one great preventive measure, but not the absolute cure, because of the possibility of this miexpected entrance of vermin. Extermination becomes a cure of a more heroic nature and involves much work, and often the use of some powerful agent. Methods of extermination include closing runways and cracks; use of powders, fumes, poisons, and traps. Closing runways is accomplished by using putty, plaster-of- Paris, wooden strips, etc. Putty is the best agent to use with wood. It may be bought at the paint shop, and colored to match the wood. If the cracks are not too large, putty will make a good filling; but very wide cracks had better have a strip of wood put in, with putty on each side of the strip. Molding may often be used to advantage. Plaster-of-Paris is also used to fill cracks; it is bought as a powder, and is mixed with water when and as it is needed. It hardens almost immediately. It can be mixed in an old cup or tin cover, or even in a cardboard box. Just as it is to be used and in such small quantities as can be handled quickly. It is very white, and may be colored to match the rest of the wall or floor; any coloring 307 308 HOUSEWIFERY desired may be put into the water before mixiiit^ it with the plastcr-ot'-l'aris. Powders. — The second step, A\hich calls for the use of non- poisonous and non-intlaminable methods, is by spreading powder such as Ijorax, alum, soap powder, or eveu pepper. Next to these iu strength arc pyrethrum, Persian insect powder, and bulach — a Cali- fornia product. The next in strength and last of the powders to use are strychnine and arsenic. These should be used with the greatest care and only as the last resort, as they are dangerous poisons. Powder can be sprinkled in cracks and about shelves or drawers ; on shelves try to keep it on the back edge so that it will not mix with the contents of the shelf. It is wise to blow the powder far back into cracks, and for that work, one may buy a blower which by means of its bellows blows the powder deep into crevices. Strychnine and arsenic may be used as powders, or in a solution with a'}taint brush or feather. To be sure of better control of these poisons, either may be mixed with a paste made of flour and water and spread on strips of paper, which in turn are laid in drawers or closets or on tables and drain boards, especially at night. The great danger of using these powerful poisons in the kitchen is obvious, and should be carefully considered beforehand. Fumes. — In the place of powders, remedies with strong pungent odor may be used, such as kerosene or ammonia, and also those that are not only pungent but also highly inflammahle, such as gasoline or benzine. The danger of these last two is the risk of fire, and both should 1)6 used out of doors as much as possible; or if indoors, with all windows open and ahsolutely no fire or open flame of any kind about. Poisonous gas fumes such as sulphur, fonnalin, or hydro- cyanic acid gas may be used, but it is liest always to try thoroughly the simplest and safest methods first, using the inflammable or poisonous only as a last resort. Kerosene, ammonia, or carbolic acid may be used in wash water, or by themselves as washes on the floors and in the closets. They should 1)6 applied with a paint brush in order to save the hand. Inflammables. — The usual method of using gasoline or benzine is to saturate the articles of clothing or upholstery by spraying it in with a sprinkler, or a brush, or by pouring it on to soak the place where the vermin have deposited their eggs. To do this work, the greatest care must be exercised ; a careless worker should never be HOUSEHOLD PESTS 309 allowed to do it. The work is best doue out of doors and usually mattresses, pillows, clothing, etc., can be carried outside. To do the work on the lawn will kill the grass, so work on a walk or gravel path. Be sure to let the gasoline all evaporate before using the article; alx)ut twenty-four hours should be allowed for this. Don't light matches or bring any light to see ivhetlier the gasoline is destroying the pest. It may destroy you. Sulphur, Formalin. — These fumes are very pungent and irri- tating to the nasal passage, besides being poisonous, if inhaled. Sulphur fumes will bleach out color, so that carpets and any color in the room may be effected. Metal beds and all door knobs will have to be covered with a thin coating of lard or fresh fat to keep the sulphur from corroding the metal. Formalin is used for fumigat- ing, and is a germicide. (See chapter on Fumigation, page 303.) Traps and Screens. — These exterminators are in a class by themselves. They may or may not kill; often they simply prohibit action, as do many traps, mosquito nets, etc. With some traps there is a sweet attractive mixture which may contain a poison. Some traps operate by killing. Any trap should be kept clean because, as in mouse and rat traps, the odor may be a warning to the otherwise next victim; scalding is helpful in removing odors. IISTDIVIDUAL PESTS House Fly. — A carrier of disease, hence a menace to health (Fig. 163). Prevention. — 1. Do away with breeding places of maggots in manure piles, chicken yards, privy vaults. Build fly-proof. De- stroy maggots with kerosene, borax, chloride of lime, hellebore, iron sulphate. 2. Screen all windows and doors, especially kitchen and dining- room. 3. Absolute cleanliness in house. 4. Keep food and garbage containers tightly covered. 5. Store no soiled papers and cloths. Extermination. — 1. "Swat the fly." 2. Sticky flypaper. 3. Fly traps — various good types. A good home-made trap consists of a cup or can on the end of a stick with liot soapy water in cup ; hold under flies on ceiling. 310 HOUSEWIFERY 4. Natural eiieiny is tlie (•eiitijx'do. 5. Poisons: to get best results i'vnm these remedies, darken the room except one M'indow; place poison in lif^-lit near this window. Pyrcthruui. — Persian insect powder and hulach. Sprinkle lib- erally at night in niiused rooms. Sweep up in morning. Formaldehyde- — 1 i)art formahh'hyde to 10 ])arts wattn'. l^lace in saucers. Bichromale of Folasli. — 1 pai't bichromate to 'I parts water. Place in saucers. Fig. 163. — The house fly, Musca domestica: larva witli details at riglit, puparium at left Mosquitoes. — Carriers of malaria^ yellow fever, and several other fevers. Prevention. — By treatment of breeding places. 1. Drain or till up ponds, pools, etc., or if this is not possible — Spread kerosene oil over surface every two weeks during summer. Introduce natural enemies into ponds, such, as gold fish, silver fish, and minnows. 2. Remove old tin cans, pails, bottles, and other possible con- tainers of water. 3. Cover rain barrels and tanks with fine w'ire netting. 4. Screens at all windows and doors. Extermination. — 1. P)ed nets at night (have net large enough to allow free circulation of air; be sure no mosquito is inside the net, and net is free from holes and tears). HOUSEHOLD PESTS 311 2. Mosquito traps — home-made, same as for flies. 3. Eepellent oil: (a) Oil of citronella (apply to screens if badly infested), {b) Eepellent mixture: Oil of citronella, 1 oz. ; spirit of camphor, 1 oz. ; oil of cedar, I/2 oz, A few drops of this mixture on a cloth hung on the bed at night is effective. ■i. Smudges : An^ything that will make a dense smoke will drive away mosquitoes. Pyrethrum powder made into paste and burned is effective. 5. Fumigants : Sul|)hur is burned in case of disease-causing mosquitoes. Fig. 164. — Clothes moth — with puparium and larva below. The latter two must not be burned where peoj^le can inhale the fumes too closely. Clothes Moths. — ^Destructive to woolen textiles, fur, feathers, and caq^ets or upholstery. The destruction is done by the larva or worm which develops from the moth egg (Fig. 16J:). rrevention. — Keep moths from depositing eggs. 1. Hang textiles in sun and air, and 2. Carefully beat and brusli so as to remove any eggs that may be present, and 3. Pack tightly in clean boxes, bags of cotton, linen or strong paper, and include l. Repellents such as tobacco, j^epper, camphor, naphthaline balls, and cedar chips, which are effective in keeping moths out, as long as odor is strong; then 5. Seal edges of boxes with wrapping paper. 6. Keep closets clean. 312 HOUSEWIFERY 7. Or use cold storage method (adopted by dealers in furs, etc.). Tenipcraturo is so low as to produce inactivity. E.rfeniiination. — If tlie moth worm has developed, the house- k('e])er must give her attention to the closet or storage place. 1. Take clothing to sunlight and brush thoroughly. 2. Wash the closet with strong soapsuds. ;?. Burn a sulphur candle. 4. S])ray walls, slielves, and boxes with oil of cedar, gasoline, or benzine. (Avoid fire.) Fig. 165. — The bed-bug from above and below and egg. Bed Bugs. — Possible carriers of disease (Fig. 165). Found in dusty, midisturbed places first; easily carried in clothing. Preventiun. — 1. Inspection of beds and bedding, especially seams and tuftings of mattresses. 3. Careful inspection of all baggage and clothing coming into house. Extermination. — 1. Hot water. 2. Benzine or kerosene injected into all crevices of beds and walls. 3. 4. Corrosive sublimate. Oil of turpentine. 5. Fumigants: sulphur — to be burned — most efficient remedy, but to be handled wnth oTeat care (see page 303). Roaches. — Cock roaches, croton bugs, water bugs (Fig. 16(!). More abundant in pantries and kitchens, near garbage pails, sinks, and warm places such as hot water boilers. They feed on dead ani- HOUSEHOLD PESTS 313 mal matter and food of all kinds. Wet scrubbing brushes, refriger- ator drip pans, and dish cloths seem especially to draw them. Prevention. — 1. Keep kitchen and pantry clean from crumbs. 2. Cover all food. 3. Keep sink dry ; no wet mops or dish cloths. 4. Place alum or boras in water pan under refrigerator. 5. Sprinkle roach powders under refrigerator. Extennination. — 1. Dnst: Powdered borax, pyrethrum powder, sodium fluoride, sulphur flowers. 2. Poison paste : Spread on bits of cardboard placed in runways. Fig. 166. — The Oriental roach, Periplaneta orientalis. — a, the male; b, the female; c, egg-case. 3. Trapping. — Eoaches like rancid grease, and can often be caught in a pan well lined with grease, as they cannot crawl through it. A bread pan with sides about three inches deep makes a good trap. To kill trapped roaches, plunge trap into very hot water. Ants. — Especially hard to fight because they are so small and usually come in such myriads. Prevention. — 1. Keep all food covered. 2. Place legs of tables and refrigerators in cups of water covered with a coating of oil. Extermination. — 1. Find the ant-hill, and inject kerosene into it and close tightly with cotton soaked in kerosene. 2. Soak sponges in sweetened water; after ants have crawled into it, plunge the sponge into boiling water. 3. Spread borax on shelves. 314 HOUSEWIP^ERY 4. Poison. Sojik spoiig-es in syrup poisoiicil with arsenate of soda, and the ants will carry the poison to larviu in nest. (Use arsenate with groat eare, as it is a poison.) 5. Strong soapsuds — harmless and very efl'ective. Carpet Beetles (IJuHalo Bugs). — Feed u])on carpets and woolens and silk. Are most destructive because they eat so many types of things (Fig. 1G7). Prevention. — 1. Eeplace carpets Ijy rugs. 2. Take up carpets at least twice a year, and thoroughly clean carpets and floors. Fig. 167. — The carpet-beetle, Anthrenus scrophularicB. — a, larva; b, larval skiu split to expose the pupa within it; c, pupa; d, beetle. Extermination. — 1. Thorough house cleaning : Thoroughly clean carpet. Spray with benzine. Wash floors with hot water. Clean out cracks — pour kerosene or benzine into cracks and under base- boards. (Benzine very inflammable.) Fill cracks with plaster-of- Paris. Lay tarred paper under carpets. Every little while take up edges of carpet and look for insects. 2. Steam. — Place damp cloth over carpet; iron with hot iron. Steam will pass through carpet and will kill insects directly under the ironed part. 3. Poison. — Corrosive sublimate and alcohol — 60 gr. corrosive sublimate dissolved in 1 pint of alcohol. Apply to edges and under- sides of carpet; will destroy larvfe. (Great care must be used because corrosive sublimate is a violent poison.) Fleas. — Parasites and carriers of disease. Two s|)ecies in dwell- ing houses : human, and cat or dog flea (Fig. 168) , HOUSEHOLD PESTS 315 Prevention. — 1. Destroy adult flea; the eggs are like small black powder, called nits. 2. Keep cats and dogs clean and free from fleas. Bathe fre- quently in solution of creolin. For dogs — -t tablespoons creoline to 1 quart water. For cats — 2 tablespoons creoline to 1 quart water. 3. Animals' sleeping rvig or pillow should be often beaten and ]]\m'x in sun. E.rterminaiion. — 1, Care of carpet, rugs, or floors — (a) Sweep carpets and take up often; (&) wash floors with strong soapsuds; Fig. 168. — The jigger flea: a, normal female; h, distended with eggs; c, larva. (c) fill up cracks of floors; {d) sprinkle carpets with benzine or gasoline; naphthaline, or alum (powdered or in solution). 2. Repellents — (a) Oil of pennyroyal; (&) boughs and chips of pine; (c) naphthaline crystals; {d) pyrethrum. The oil of pennyroyal can be applied to the human skin ; or can be used in the household by rubbing around window or on floor. Rats and Mice ; Squirrels ; Chipmunks. — All are very destruc- tive of food, clothing and leather, and are very dirty. Prevention. — 1. Close all holes or openings by which they enter. Tin makes a good cover. 2. Keep all food covered. 3. Leave no crumbs about. 316 HOUSEWIFERY Extenninalion. — 1. Traps set near possible entrance. Scald traps l)efore setting to remove suspicious odors. ,2. Poisons — various preparations on the market. Cannot be used M-itli pet animals about. Fig. 169. — The silver-fish, Lepiima domestica. Fig. 170. — A house centipede, Scxitigera forceps. 3. Cats as catchers. 4. Weasels — professional vermin exterminator brings his own weasels. Silver Fish (fish moth, bristle tail) (Fig. 169). — Injurious to "bookbindings, glazed paper, starched clothing, linen, curtains, stiflE silks, wallpaper paste. c Prevcniion. — 1. Keep the jDlace dry and well aired. HOUSEnOLD PESTS 317 Extermination. — 1. Pyrethnim powder sprayed on book shelves, in drawers, etc.. 2. Sodiimi fluoride sprayed wherever pests occur. 3, Arsenic (deadly poison). Add to starch paste. Place on small pieces of cardboard Avhere pests occur. Centipedes. — Abundant in bathrcx)ms, moist closets, cellars, conservatories, and around heating pipes and registers (Fig. 170). Prevention. — 1. Constant inspection of moist places. 2. Keep places dry and aired. Extermination. — 1. Destroy centijsedes whenever seen. 2. Apply fresh pyrethrum powder. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Wliat safe ways can be suggested for ridding a bed of vermin? 2. How can you clean a sugar box of ants? 3. A housewife once tlioughti slie had a cricket and hated to kill it because of an old-fashioned superstition. Later she found she had been har- boring a household pest. ^^liat was it? 4. If a kitchen is infested with roaches what means may be employed to exterminate ? REFERENCES 15ISHOPP, F. C, Fleas as Pests to Man and Animals, with Suggestions FOR TiiEiB Control. U. S. Dept. of Agric., Farmers' Bulletin No. 683. r.rsHOPP, F. C, Fly Traps and Their Opeeation. U. S. Dept. of Agri- culture, Farmers" Bulletin No. 734. Herrick, Glen W., Household Insects and Methods of Control. Cor- nell University Bulletin No. 49. Howard, L. O., The Carpet Beetle, or Buffalo Moth. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 020. Howard, L. O., House Flies. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 4.59 and 679. Howard, L. O., Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Against Household Pests. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 699. Howard, L. 0., Mosquitoes, How They Live, Carry Disease, Etc. McClure, Phillips & Co. Howard, L. O., Remedies and Preventives Against Mosquitoes. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 444. ]MacLeod. Sarah, The Housekeeper's Handbook of Cleaning. Harper & Bros. Marlatt, C. L., The Bedbug. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 754. Marlatt, C. L., Cockroaches. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 658. Marlatt, C. L., House Ants, ICinds and Methods of Control. U. S. Dept of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 740. Marlatt, C. L., The House Centipede. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 627. Mablatt, C. L., The Silver Fish, an Injurious Household Insect. V. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 681. Marl.\tt, C. L.. True Clothes Moths. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 659. Parloa, ]\Iaria, Home Economics. Century Co. CHAPTER XIII SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS Housewifery^ as presented in this hook, represents technique of housekeeping. As a siihject of study, it may form either a course hy itself which is to give special attention to the practical processes of housekeeping with appropriate laboratory exercises ; or, where the curriculum has not yet developed so that housework is taught in a course by itself, housewifer}^ may be made a part of the course in household management ; or together with other manage- ment topics, selected lessons in housewifery may be introduced into other courses in the home economics curriculum, as in cooking courses. If provision is made for a separate housewifery course, it should have its specially prepared teacher and its special equipment and laboratory, just as is provided for any other subject of instruction. At the same time this subject is of such a nature that simple lessons in housewifei-y may be given by teacher's of the home economics courses, and indeed Ijy regular classroom teachers provided they have had proper training. Moreover, the importance of the subject is such, dealing as it does Avitli the fundamental sanitary problems of household living, that it is desirable- that it should be taught most widely to older as well as to younger students everywhere. The problems to be met l)oth by the teacher of housewifery who gives a special course in this suljject, and by teachers of other sub- jects who introduce a number of housewifery lessons into other courses, will be considered in this chapter. Methods of Teaching. — Housewifer}^ is a subject which can be presented theoretically by lectures or talks, but since it concerns practical processes it is very important that the teaching of theory be constantly accompanied by practice in order to try out ideas, to make mental impressions more vivid, and to equip the learner to do successfully the particular task concerned. A textbook in the hands of students will help present theory in well-organized form, though of course there must be oral instruction by the teacher who describes processes and leads the group in discussion; a textbook becomes later a reference book. Students will usually keep note- 318 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 319 books. Illnstrative material (Fig. 171) and excursions to places of business, to homes and to institutional households, will help make clear the problems involved. Laboratory Work. — Practical work must be provided, whether it be in the student's own home, in and about the school building, or in a special housewifery laboratory suitably equipped, or in a practice house or apartment. The special housekeeping laboratory ought to be provided in all higher institutions, and even in high Fig. 171. — Storage of illustrative material. schools there is a great advantage in the special room set aside with its proper equipment and teaching materials. For one thing it gives an importance in the minds of the students to the prosaic work problems of the home to find them the subject of instruction appropriatelyhousedina housewifery laboratory. And such a special room makes it also possible to do better teaching, since equipment and teaching material of all kinds can be gradually collected in such a room where it is at hand to illustrate points arising in the teaching. Housewifery Laboratory. — A room 30 x 30 or thereabouts will make an adequate housewifery laboratory (Fig. 171). The equip- ment actually required for a beginning may be very simple — a few tables, a sink with water supply, a gas stove or better several gas 320 HOUSEWIFERY burners, and storage facilities for teaching materials. This of course is an inexpensive furnishing which will place much addi- tional labor on the teacher, but it does make the work possible if there is only a small amount at first available for the equipment of a housewifery laboratory (Fig. 17"3). With such a meagre equip- ment, the illustrative material must be furnished by borrowing Fig. 172. — Laboratory equipment. from other departments, and by teacher or students Ijringing in special problems for the day, and the class may have to be satisfied with such help as is furnished by demonstrations given by the teacher. Like all demonstration work it has only a small part of the value of the actual work done by the students themselves. The supplying of pieces of silver and of various metals to be cleaned, a few pieces of linen that might be used for teaching- hemming of nappery, or cretonnes to be made up into various ])ags and holders or upholstered into pillows — this and similar SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 321 material might easily be brought in by students. But when beds, refrigerators, stoves, etc., are part of a lesson, it will be seen at once that it would be more practical to have them in the laboratory, if possible; at any rate somewhere in the school where a class can assemble and study them. Teachers sometimes take their classes to their own apartments or homes for special lessons, but this is unsatisfactory, because of the time lost in the students' going and coming, and because often tlie class is too large to work without confusion. As soon as conditions permit, therefore, the requisites for in- struction in this subject should be provided as adequately as for any other subject. This requires a good-sized laboratory room with one or more large store-rooms, for there is a large amount of teach- ing material which can wisely be used. The room should have work table space for 30 students; the tables should be moveable, with soft wood tops, so that they will not he injured by rough work and can be refinished readil}^; they should be of standing height (3-i"-38"), with high -chairs provided. The tables may well be arranged in a horse-shoe form with the teacher's desk raised at the opening of the horse-shoe. In addition to running water, and gas outlets including a range, there should be storage cupboards and glass display cases in the room, and ample space for bringing in from the store-room, a bed, refrigerator, furniture, utensils of all kinds, and exhibits. Ample blackboard space should be provided and also cork board for pinning up exhibit material. The store-rooms should have shelving and cupboards, and con- siderable floor space for storing materials, labor-saving equipment, etc., when not in use in the laboratory. One or two rooms 12 x 15 will not be too large for storage space. Laboratory Equipment. — To equip the laboratory, one would have to set aside about $500, if the ideal work-room is to be estab- lished, but, given a room, teaching materials can if necessary be gradually accumulated. In general there should be present sam- ples of the materials, tools, working equipment, and supplies, and of the furnishings which enter into the ordinary household. The various items listed in the chapters of this book so far as they can conveniently be brought into a school workroom suggest what equip- ment the laboratory should have. If one has to equip from the first, one should inquire as to materials which can be had on loan so 21 322 HOUSEWIFERY as to make one's funds reach as far as possible. Gradually, however, get into the laboratory the things used regularly. Some idea of desirable equipment may Ije had from the following concrete suggestions : Plumbing fittings as trap, faucet, etc. ; charts of plumbing and heating systems; sample lighting equipment; working equipment of kitchen, laundry, and cleaning 2:>rocesses; larger labor-savers as washing-machines, dish-washers, vacuums; supplies of all kinds, as soaps, dustless sweeper materials; sam23les of the materials with which the housewife deals — wood samples in various finishes, types of flooring, etc. ; metals of all kinds in forms suitable for experi- mental cleaning; household linens, floor coverings, wallpapers, hang- ings, curtain and curtain fixtures, etc. The teacher may bring out both the art and economic side of furnishing by having the students mount their illustrations of furniture and their samples of materials so as to represent the fur- nishings of one room, which they present with an estimate of the cost. By comparison and classroom discussion, students are led to see better combinations as to both line and color. At all times, comparative cost must be part of the study, and at no time should expensive things alone be considered. The type of student controls the desirable range of costs in such a problem, but the teacher of housewifery must always teach economy. One handicap to the above method is the viewpoint of the mer- chants. ]\Iany catalogs are put out at great expense, so great that the merchants feel that it is impossible for them to furnish these expensive catalogs without there being some anticipated purchase of the article. The author has found that many firms gladly co- operate in this type of educational work if they are consulted and given time to prepare some sheets of special value to students, rather than have them use or cut up catalogs. Loans from Firms. — Teachers may have help through the loaning of equipment by manufacturers or local dealers. This is especially important with expensive equipment such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines. It is a disadvantage to own too many of these, because the laboratory soon becomes a museum of machines which finally become too old to serve as up-to-date equip- ment. An exhibit of large labor-savers is valuable for compara- tive purposes. Manufacturers will often extend the courtesy of SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 323 a visit to the plant to the class, and such excursions to both fac- tories and stores are of great ser\'ice. Lantern slides will often be furnished by firms, they being given the privilege of putting their names in the corner of the slides. Helps in Classroom. — Catalog and advertising material, to- gether with newspaper articles may be made available for the stu- dents through the use of folio boxes ; catalogs may also be filed on edge in a deep drawer. This material to be of service must be well indexed. Folio or filing boxes may be obtained from any book dealer. A catalog of larger sized index cards is useful for infor- mation taken from catalogs and other sources. The bulletin board should be used for interesting items. A shelf of reference books should be provided in the laboratory. Whether or not a text-book is used, it may be found helpful to outline the lesson and. give such an outline on a tyi^ewritten sheet preceding a lesson. On this outline may also be added a set of prob- lems and a list of reference readings; this sheet helps the student to prepare her lesson. Any recipes, e.g., of cleaning solutions, or directions for work, should be given to each student on mimeograph sheets, cut to fit the notebook. These sheets will save time of dic- tation by the teacher in class, and also eliminate mistakes in copying. Practice Work, Practice Houses (Figs. 173, 174).— The labo- ratory method is extended to a more real and definite working out of the problem by the use of practice houses or practice apartments. Practice houses, have proved to be an advantage for different types and ages, from the girls of grammar school to those of college age, and even in teaching housekeepers in extension classes. To make the practice house very real and of the desired help to the individual, the class should be of a family size, otherwise there is too much division of labor, as well as too small a share of responsibility. The public school practice house lacks a large part of the value that a regular practice house may have, because students do not make it their real home, being there only through school hours. Some have suggested that in time eighth-grade and high school girls will be asked as part of their practical study of housekeeping to live for a week or more in a model house or apartment. In a practice apartment or a practice house, the student should ideally be given the individual tasks of a member of the " family " living in the house. Her work should finally extend through all 324 HOUSEWIFERY branches of housekeeping^ and honieniaking — mistress, maid, laun- dress, buyer, guest etc. A good way is to cliange the working schedule once a week, then to bring h\ a Jiew groujj, because this gives time to i)errect methods reasonably and, too, the home schedule is usually o])erated on a weekly basis. This is also of service to the one wIk) has charge oT the food and the budget. A senior student or Fig. 173. — Practice house, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon. an assistant teacher in the department may act as a leader of the group, but the work must be closely supervised ; a good standard of work gives sufficient basis for credits for this practice work. The number of points allowed a student for this practical work varies with different standards of training, but when properly supervised it should be counted as equivalent to laboratory hours within the institution, and given credit accordingly. Model housekeeping centers are established in some cities as a basis of teaching better housekeeping standards, especially to the SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 325 foreign women who live iu the conmiiuiity. These are apartments furnished economically but with all necessities for good housekeep- ing and homemaking; often each item is marked with the cost for the information of visitors. Such centers are also used by the public school children, who come for certain periods a week to have work ill an apartment which is a standard for the kind of an apartment in KiG. 174. — Living-ruom of practice house, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon. which they live. The center is usually in charge of a special teacher who conducts all the work of the center. Practice Work in Homes. — Some teachers of housewifery have encouraged definite work being done by students in their own or others' homes, credit being given for stated hours of work. The main difficulty has been to find some way to supervise and check up the work and to rate students. Such work, particularly when done for compensation in the homes of others, may prove an important step toward the training of young women in wage-earning occu- 326 HOUSEWIFERY pations related to the home. The disadvantage in having the stu- dent talve her training in homes of others results from laek of standardized housekeeping methods. Eaeh iujusewife may he a good teacher and a good housekeeper hut the methods of any two will vary widely. This in fact, is one reason that housekeeping schools have made such slow progress. School Courses in Housewifery. — Tn high scliools, hotli junior high schools and regular high schools, and in technical and voca- tional schools for girls, a defmite course of lessons in housewifery should he taught. This will be either a unit course in the home economics department, or perhaps a half unit with some other course. There are given below two outlines of courses : the first a nine- lesson course given in the Washington Irving High School, Xew York City, where a practice apartment is available ; and the second a more detailed outline of eight lessons which may be used in schools, in settlements or other special classes, or in rural extension work. LESSON OUTLINES NO. I. HouseJcceping Lessons (liven at Wa^shington Irving High, ^ehool, Neiu York City Lesson I 1. Discussion of previous work under other subjects related to the home. 2. Habits, their value and formation .3. Practice Apartment shown and explained a. Rooms discussed — number and size b. New Law for Tenements — average size and rent c. Necessary points in any apartment 4. Home work. Each girl examines her cellar and the door leading to the roof. Lesson II 1. Plumbing, — construction and care a. Importance of good plumbing b. Open plumbing c. Traps — construction and use d. Care of sink, pipe, and tray. L^se of alkalies o. Care of bathroom fixtures. ITse of disinfectants 2. Practical work — Opening of trap, cleaning of sink, tub, basin and flush closet SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 327 Lesson III Care of Floors and Woodwork 1. ISTatural wood 2. Stained or i)ainted floor 3. Oiled "and waxed floors 4. Linoleum and oilcloth 5. Matting 6. Carpets and rugs. Lessox IV Care of Closets and Windows 1. Kitchen closets a. Treatment and arrangement b. Care and cleanir:g 2. Clothing closets a. Economical use of space h. Care 3. Windows and mirrors a. Care and cleaning Lesson V Cleaning of Metals 1 . Purpose 2. Danger of cheap, unknown polishes 3. Making of simple, inexpensive ones at home 4. Method of cleaning steel, iron, tin, zinc, copper, brass, gold, silver, and nickel Lesson VI Daily Care of Rooms 1. Kitchen a. Sweep floor with hair broom b. Dust if necessary c. Clean sink d. Clean stove ( 1 ) If it is a gas range, wipe burners and top of stove with a damp cloth. Clean the pan underneath tlie burners (2) If it is a coal range, remove ashes, brush hearth, and wipe stove. Rub with oily cloth if necessary e. Wash tables and shelves if necessary 2. Bathroom a. Wipe floor if necessaiy b. Clean inside of flush closet if necessary. Bathtub and wash basin should be left clean by each person who uses them 3. Other rooma, such as living room or bedroom a. Brush rug or carpet with carpet sweeper b. Dust bare floor with dustless mop or liag on the broom c. Dust window sills, furniture and ornaments. Do not wrinkle bureau covers or table covers when removing them. Empty and dust sweeper, brush dust from dustless mop and wash duster 328 HOUSEWIFERY Lesson VTI Cleaniiiff a Room 1. Difference between Daily Care and Cleaning of a room 2. Preparation of room a. For cleaning with a vacuum cleaner b. For cleaning with broom ( 1 ) Furniture (2) Hangings (3) Pictures (4) Ornaments (5) Carpet or rugs 3. Cleaning. JNIethods as dustless as possible — ^use diistless mop and duster and dampened jjaper for the floor, if necessary Lesson VIII Cleaning and Polishing of Furniture 1. Substances to be avoided, and why 2. Substances to be used, and why 3. Cleaning: a. Water b. Neutral soap c. Whiting d. Oil 4. Polishing: * a. Polishes to Ije avoided. Eeasons b. Simple home-made polishes. Advantages c. Method of work d. Care of oily cloths Lesson IX Furnishing and Care of the Sleeping Room 1. Furnishing: a. All furnishings should be easy to clean or wash ( 1 ) Floor covering. Bare floor with a rug is liest. Carpet is undesirable (2) All hangings and covers should be made of washable material (3) Furniture should be plain. An iron bed is best 2. Care a. Of room ( 1 ) Keep free from dust (2) Keep well ventilated (3) Keep neat b. Of bed ( 1 ) Air bedding and room in the morning, if possible. Open closet door while airing room (2) Examine bed occasionally to keep it free from vermin (3) Turn mattress often SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 329 LESSON OUTLINES NO. II For f^chools, Settlement and Other Special Classes; or Rural Extension Work Introduction to the Course — An Appeal for Scientific Homemaking. Present-day IVJethods — Results Possible Establish concept of: A house — a building A home — what the family life makes it Housewifery — a study of the problems daily confronting the housewife Homemaker— the one upon wliom the success or failure of the home primarily depends Lesson I Choosing the Home. Analysis of the House 1. Considerations in choosing the home a. Surrounding conditions ( 1 ) Physical (a) Character of buildings in vicinity (b) The water supply (2) Social (a) Cliaracter of neighborhood (b) Proximity to business and school b. The house or apartment itself ( 1 ) Condition of building (2) Plumbing (3) Ventilation (a) what it is (b) how secured (c) influence on health (4) Sunlight ( 5 ) Heating (6) Lighting ( 7 ) Arrangement of rooms 2. Analysis of the House a. Divisions into I 1 ) the work part the rest part the pleasure part (2) the communications between parts b. The law that parts should relate as well as connect Lesson II The Cleaning Process In the cleaning process, we consider: 1. The cleaning tool a. What constitutes a tool to-day b. How to choose a tool (1) Analysis of tool as to (a) need (b) quality, and suitability to purpose ( e ) cost (d) cost of repair Note. — Demonstration with tools. 330 HOUSEWIFERY 2. Tlie Cleaning Material a. Talk over cleaning solutions tlio women use b. Make solutions to be used in tlie class work * (1) Soap solution (2) Javelle (3) Washing soda (4) Oxalic acid solution (5) Detergent Lesson III The Kitchen Correlate the analysis of the house with tlie principles or organiza- tion as applied in tlie remaining lessons: even if the home consists of one room and all thei processes and divisions be included in it, the analysis and principle remain the same; therefore these processes and divisions will ])e taken up as such, the class to make application to individual home conditions. 1. Analysis of work performed in the kitchen, viz.: The preparing of food, the cooking of food, washing dishes, putting away dishes a. As determining ( 1 ) The essentials in the structure and finish of thei floor, walls, and ceiling (2) Ventilation ( 3 ) Light b. With regard to efficient routing of work t 2. Practical work: Measure working heights, (-^how a room: a. Inefficiently arranged b. Efficiently arranged without extra cost Problem for next lesson : To bring in list of, or have in mind, the necessary kitchen equipment. Lesson IV Permanent Equipment L Tlie kitchen cabinet t a. Construction b. Organization and contents § c. Care 2. The stove a. Kinds ( 1 ) Coal (2) Gas (3) Tireless cooker b. Working principles c. Care * The teaclier to make these solutions as a demonstration. t Emphasize and enlarge upon routing of all housework from this text. J Emphasize correct height of working surfaces. § Correlate with last lesson. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 331 3, The sink a. Principles of construction b. Kinds ( 1 ) Porcelain (2) Enamel on iron (3) Iron, etc. c. Care Practical work, combined with teaching: Utensil cleaning, dish washing, care of sink, disposal of kitchen waste. Lesson V Tlie Kitchen. Permanent Equipment (continued) 1. Tlie refrigerator a. Principles of construction b. Care 2. The window box a. Principles of construction b. Use c. How made 3. The cupboard for dining room dishes a. Organization b. Equipment of dishes c. Care Discussion of cheaper devices or make-shifts. Practical work: Cleaning refrigerator, constructing a window box or refrigerator, according to the season of the year. Lesson VI The Laundry 1. Analysis of its use as determining a. Esisentials in structure and finish of floor, walls, and ceiling b. Light c. Heat d. Ventilation 2. The equipment * a. Tubs b. Ironing board c. Equipment for making starch d. Table Practical work, combined with teaching: Stain removing, empha- sizing danger and necessity for care, in using stain-removing materials ; lesson in laundering; care and cleaning of laundry. Note. — As laundry work is only a small part in the whole scheme of the course, let the practical work be along the line of bleaching, remov- ing stains, making starch, sponging and pressing. Emphasize correct height of working surfaces. 332 HOUSEWIFERY Lessox VII, Tlio Dining Room. Tlio Living E-oom. 1. Tilt? Dining Room a. Analysis of its use as determining (1) The essentials in structure and liiii.sli of lloor, walls, and ceiling (2) Light (3) Heat (4) Ventilation (5) The essential characteristics of the furnishings (a) Furniture (b) Floor coverings (c) Curtains (d) Pictures and ornaments 2. The Living Room '^ In connection with living and dining rooms, discuss 3. The cleaning closet a. Need of, whether it be a real closet or space in the corner b. Equipment c. Organization Practical work, combined Avith teaching: Cleaning the living room and the dining room; renewal and renovation of furniture, floors, walls, and ceiling, emphasizing danger and necessity for care, in handling ma- terials. Rug cleaning. Note. — This practical lesson should teach correct methods of scrub- bing, sweeping, dusting, disposal of dust, window cleaning, etc. Lessox VIII. The Bedroom. Vermin. Tlie Bathroom. 1. The Bedroom. a. Analysis of its use as determininc b. (1) The essentials in structure and finisli of floor, walls and ceiling (2) Light ( 3 ) Heat t (4) Ventilation (5) Furnishings The bed (1) Parts (a) Bedstead (b) Spring (c) Mattress (d) Pillows (e) Covering (2) How made (3) Cleaning and sanitation * Emphasize importance of " homey " quality in living room. Show that the laws of good taste are the same for elaborate and for simple interiors. t Try to offer some solution for the heatless bedroom. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 333 2. Vermin a. Habits b. Kinds c. Prevention d. Eradication .'?. The linen closet a. Need of, wlietlier it be a real closet or a space set aside for it b. Organization c. Equipment 4. The bathroom a. Analysis of its use as determining (1) The essentials in structure and finish of lloor, walls and ceiling (2) Light ( 3 ) Heat (4) Ventilation b. Equipment ( 1 ) How to tell bad from good c. Plumbing ( 1 ) Water supply (a) Filtration ( 2 ) Sewage (a) Principles of drainage (b) Traps, safe and unsafe XoTE. — Emphasize importance of using bathtub for bathing, and importance of extreme cleanliness if laundry tubs are used for bathing. This lesson should not only teach sanitation and hygiene, but convince the class of their vital connection with health. If this group is to have a course in laundry work, omit Lesson VI, use VII as VI; and divide this lesson into two lessons for VII and VIII. Reviews. — It is important by constant reviewing to get a broad survey, and to bring together general explanations and procedures. The review may be in terms of principles ; for example, to explain the applications of bacteriology in securing sanitary standards of housekeeping, or to justify the various cleaning processes on this basis ; to explain the management of a furnace, tireless cooker, etc., in terms of the physical principles of heat. Reviews may also be of a practical nature, and concern the technique of the household. This is particularly important so that the person trained in housewifery may become a capable manager and wise economizer of time, labor, money, and materials. Such reviews should be given not only at the end of a course, in order to test knowledge, but as brief exercises in connection with regular class meetings to enliven interest and to give that practical knowledge and skill which make the house- wife ready to meet any emergency in her domain, and also help her serve as a real economizer for the nation. 334 HOUSEWIFERY As a sample review project, there are listed below typical " econ- omies and sliort cuts." Such a list may be used as a check on per- sonal practices : how many of these do I ])ractice ? How many could I adoi)t? Let the student, liousewil'e, or reader extend the list to a dozen practical points under each heading, Ilouseu'ifery as a Business: Have a plan for houseworl: — saves time and keeps order. Make a budget of expenditures — helps to save income. Study your liouse plan — may suggest im])rovements. Plumbing : Keep small strainer in sink — will catch small particles of food which may block the drain. Keep washers on faucets — saves water bills. Pipe iTuining water wherever used — saves steps. HeaUng and Lighting: Put covers on saucepans — saves heat and hence fire. Give care to dampers of stove — saves stove and fuel. Put mantles on lights — ^give more light, save fuel, hence cost less money. Equipment and Labor Saving Appliances: Use paper on table in cleaning vegetables — saves scrul)]jing table. Use paper to line garbage can — makes cleaning easy and less distasteful. Place pans and utensils near stove, sink, or table, where they are to be used — saves steps, work, time. Get a power washing machine — do other work while it works. Raise the table, ironing board, washtub — saves the worker's back. Use electric or gas iron — saves time and work for the ironer, Siipplies: Save scraps of soai> — use for wash l)oiler or machine. Save and clarify fat — it cooks food, and makes soap. Use blue that dissolves — saves money and 'svill not streak on clothing. Furnishings : Choose small figures — saves material in matching, hence money. Money spent in fast colors good economy — saves time and work of making new. Keep leather cool, aired, and oiled — saves it from cracking. Cleaning and Care : Put dust sheets over furniture when sweeping — saves work. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 335 Use moistened paper to take up dust — saves worker. Scrape, stack dishes, and wash in regular order — saves time in washing, wiping, and putting away. Cleaning and Eenovution: Mend clothes before washing — a stitch in time saves nine. Put clothes to soak — makes washing easy, saves clothes. Try cold Avater first on stains — removes many and saves cloth- ing and work. Use kerosene to remove discolorations on porcelain — will save scratching. Disinfectants and Fuinigants: Put cheap wallpai)er on children's room — may often need to be taken off after children's diseases. ' Use soap and water freely — kills genns and saves doctors' bills. The College Course in Housewifery. — A college teacher of housewifery has the interesting task of teaching a practical subject and placing it upon a scientific basis. Obviously there is need of making the instruction entirely sound as regards scientific facts, and the college teacher will need to draw upon the resources of her own scientific training and also have close working cooperation with the scientific departments. At the same time, the housewifery course is not intended to be a course in applied science but a course in technique or the various practical processes which are carried on in the home. If the practical note is not dominant, the instruction will fail as did to a certain extent agricultural education for so long a time through its efforts to be " scientific." How may the college instructor best use this text? She may either follow it rather closely as an outline of subject matter, break- ing up the chapters so as to f crm the appropriate number of units ; or on the other hand, she may wish to follow a dift'erent sequence of topics, suggestions of which may be drawn from the two courses outlined in detail in this chapter. In such a sequence an important element may be a discussion in turn of the various rooms of the house from cellar to attic, under each room bringing in the problems of equipment, supplies, storage, and cleaning appropriate to it. What- ever be the sequence of topics, this text is intended to be an outline of subject matter which will be serviceable in the hands of the indi- vidual student. The text is, however, only the verbal aspect of the instruction, a very important part of which must be acquaintance with, and skill in, the actual processes of housekeeping to be secured through laboratory and other practice. 336 HOUSEWIFERY Laboratory exercises in college teaching while primarily arranged to illustrate dilTerent lunisehold processes may well be chosen because of tlieii- relation to the various lields of scientific study with wluch the students are I'aniiliar. For example, tests of various household su])])Iies, such as metal polishes, may be under- tiiken by the student and carried out in tei-nis of clienucal science. Concrete items of household ecpiipnient such as the dish washer, vacuum cleaner, washing inachini', may be exanuned and tested in terms of physical principles as well as used practically to acquire a desiralde technique. Sanitary problems such as the care of dish cloths, the washing and drying of dishes, the removal of dust, may 1)0 tested by the methods of bacteriology. Studies economic in nature may be made of the work problem ; household equipment, de- preciation and ujikeep. Social studies may be made, for example, of the hcmsehold employee, or the housewife as a worker. Also, archi- tectural studies of house plans, particularly of the service portion of the house, will be appropriate. These suggestions are given to indicate the fact that the subject matter of housewifery really in- volves the problems that lie in a dozen sciences, so that it merits an imj)ortant and dignified place in the college curriculum. The class period in housewifery for college instruction may well he a three-hour period, providing time both for instruction and laboratory practice, or a separate lecture period may Ije provided with a two-hour laboratory period at another time. The instruction may be made interesting by relating it very closely to the real life of the home and the community. The class hour may well begin by five-minute reports from students on assigned topics, such as housewifery articles in the current newspapers, magazines and other literature, observations on household practice in homes visited during the vacation; suggestions from manufacturers' demonstra- tions, and \dsits to stores and institutions. Student participation in developing the subject matter in a practical field like this is directly effective in making them interested to' apply the subject matter presented by the instructor. Following such brief reports, the instructor presents the topic for the period on which the students have already examined reference material ; discussion follows to clear up points in theory before the ])ractical work begins. Half to two-thirds of the three-hour period may then be devoted to practice work. The general topic is assigned for the consideration of the class — for example, the cleaning of metals. Then the students SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 337 are orgaiiized into working groups and to ladi a special topic, i'or example, brass, silver, or nickel is assigned. The students test various reagents and tools for the problem in hand and make notes on results. Each group is organized with a student leader who is responsible for progress and results, and this is in itself a training of value. At the close of the hour the students clean up the room and put away materials and supplies, which is a valuable house- keeping lesson. The part-time service of a maid is necessary for such a laboratory, with duties of caring for materials, getting materials out for labora- tory use before the class hour begins, emergency cleaning, caring for bulletin boards, etc. The instruction to be successful should have a wealth of illustrative material as well as other adequate provision of materials, tools, and supplies, and their organization and care is in itself a piece of work requiring part of a worker's time. A laboratory fee may well be charged for the work ; $3 seems sufficient for a half-year course. In the college curriculum, housewifery will probably be closely related to the household management courses as explained below. Demonstration Teaching. — For the teacher who is working with the college student or with the housekeeper, much may be done by demonstration lectures in which one carries through a process, or shows a tool or piece of equipment and illustrates its use. Such drawings as those sho\\T:i to illustrate height of working surfaces and posture during worl<^ may be easily drawn, by the teacher ( Fig. 175, a, h, c, d, e, /). Demonstrations may be given, in the school by the teacher, by the lecturer in extension work, and by " demonstrators " employed in the educational departments of manufacturing comjDanies, including gas and electric companies in- terested in introducing their products. With this type of work, moving pictures begin to play an important part, and the teacher of housewifery will find that it is possible to rent re^ls on different sub- jects, showing both the mechanical methods of equipment and de- vices, and the efficiency aspects of housekeeping. This is a new field that we are just entering, for which the possibilities seem without limit. Much has been made of demonstration lecture methods in teaching foods and cooking to adult audiences, and housewifery is a subject in which demonstrations are equally applicable. With the emphasis now on the teaching of vocational home- 22 338 HOUSEWIFERY Fig. 175. — a, table too low. Note worker's back, b, table height good. No strain anywhere. <■, ironing board height good; is lower to allow for pressure with iron. J, sink, position good, e, correct position at w-ashtub; /, incorrect position at washtub. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 339 making in many states, a large problem will be the teaching of actual housekeepers, and more consideration will be given to demon- stration teaching. In rural communities, a private kitchen in one home when equipped with running water or with new devices, may be used as a "demonstration " for the housewives in that section. Concrete working " demonstrations " of this kind have been used in rural extension teaching both of home economics and of agriculture in many states. The home or farm thus ^' demonstrates " some con- crete items of good housekeeping or good farming to the neighbors. Housewifery Topics in a Cooking Course. — The following housewifery topics among many others may l)e readily brought into a cookery course : dish-washing, laundry equipment, laundering process (towels), stain removal, care of range, silver polishing, care of woods, metals, etc., cleaning a room, care of sink, economy of fuel, care of refrigerator, and kitchen equipment. Some of these topics may be used as separate lessons in the foods course; or they may l)e brought in incidentally in a cooking lesson. Teachers of cookery mil find it helpful to consider the topics presented in this book from the point of view of adapting parts of them to their courses. The book may also be assigned their students as reference reading on many problems related to food preparation. Special Classes in Housewifery. — Teachers will find it pos- sible to organize special classes in housewifery for housekeepers, and for household employees, who may come at hours when labora- tories are not otherwise used. Classes for wage-earning young women will be popular in the evening, especially if a model house or an apartment is available, so that the teaching is real and there is opportunity for home-like gatherings. In such classes, a small unit of four to eight lessons on definite practical topics is desirable. (Seei Lesson Outlines I and II, pages 326, 329.) Housewifery and Household Management. — Instruction in household management, whether in high schools or in higher insti- tutions, presents the theory of organizing and administering the household. The problems of housework, or the technique of house- keeping which forms the subject matter of housewifery, are evidently closely related to household management. Accordingly, many courses in household management already provide laboratory and other practice work in what is really housewifery, and to such teachers this book may prove useful as a text. Advanced Study of Housewifery. — The problems of house- 340 HOUSEWIFERY wifery are worthy of advaneed study and rosoaroh, and in higher institutions the instructor will do well to secure for such studies the cooperation of such scientific departments as chemistry, physics, and hacteriology. The prohlems can often he guided cooperatively, the housewifery teacher checking up the ])ractical aspects of a prohlem such for example as dish-washing metliods, and the scientific department conducting as its part, the study of the mechanism of machines. In such institutions, the housewifery work merits an. advanced research lal:)orat