FIRST BOOK IN UNITED STATES HISTORY H WADDY THOMPSON ^Eliia Class Book J Copyright ]^^T^ CilEOUGHT OSFOSI& i THE FIRST BOOK IN UNITED STATES HISTORY BY WADDY THOMPSON AUTHOR OF ■A PRIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES "a HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES " AND "a HISTORY QF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES " D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO ./ Copyright, 192 i, By D. C. Heath & Co. MAR 24 1921 ©CLA608808 bo si PREFACE The value of biography in teaching history to young pupils is well recognized. The personal, or human, element that this form of narration adds to the text arouses the interest that is essential to the study of history. Care should be taken, however, not to overemphasize biography lest the relative importance of the in- dividual and the event be misunderstood and lest the historical connection between events be lost. The biographies furnished in this text are abundant, and they have been selected because, taken together, they cover nearly all the events of the history of our country that the young pupil need know. Wherever biography is not available, or wherever it is advisable to emphasize the event rather than the individual or to preserve a closer connection between events, the author has resorted to the ordinary form of narration. In preparing the text he has used portions of his earlier work, A Primary History of the United States. When undertaken properly the study of history is not only very useful, but is a source of delight. If the pupil, in taking up the study for the first time, can see in it the wonderful story of people who have gone before him and builded that he might live the better, he will acquire a liking for history that will abide with him in after years. To give to the young people of America not only the advantages, but the pleasure, that may be found in the study of the history of their country is the purpose of the author. With the hope that his purpose will be fulfilled, this little book is sent forth on its mission. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The World before America Was Discovered Life in the Old World . Trade with the East "Prince Henry the Navigator" II. III. IV. VI. VII. Finding a New World Columbus Discovers America Cabot First Reaches the Mainland of x\merica The People whom Europeans Found in America The Spaniards in America .... The Rush of Gold Seekers .... Ponce de Leon, Seeking the Fountain of Youth, Finds Florida Balboa, Seeking a Sea, Discovers the Pacific Ocean Magellan's Ship Sails around the World De Soto, Seeking Gold, Discovers the Mississippi River Coronado's Quest of the Seven Cities of Cibola The Coming or the French .... Why Other Europeans Followed the Spaniards to America ..... Admiral Coligny and His Huguenot Colony Samuel de Champlain, "The Father of New France' The Coming ot the English . Sir Francis Drake, who "Singed the King Beard" Sir Walter Raleigh and His "Lost Colony" John Smith and the Virginia Colony The ComNG or the Dutch Henry Hudson on the River that Bears His New Netherland and New Amsterdam of Spain Name vi CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII. The English in New England .... William Bradford and John Winthrop in Massachu setts Thomas Hooker and His Congregation Seek Con necticut . . . . . Roger Williams Founds Rhode Island IX. Neighbors of Virginia Lord Baltimore and His Maryland Colony The Eight Lords Proprietors of Carolina . Oglethorpe and the Georgia Colony . The Middle Colonies Peter StU3rv^esant Surrenders New Netherland William Penn Founds Pennsylvania . XI. In Old Colony Days .... Industrial and Commercial Conditions Social Life in Early Colonial Times . Relations with the Mother Country . Troubles with the Indians XII. The French in America Marquette and La Salle on the Mississippi Iberville and Bienville in Louisiana . XIII. Driving the French from America . George Washington, an Ofhcer in the Virginia Militia Montcalm and Wolfe, Heroes of Quebec . 79 79 87 91 96 96 100 104 no no 115 122 122 12S 134 139 142 142 150 159 159 169 XIV. English Settlements Extend beyond the Alle- GHANIES 177 The Western Country 177 Daniel Boone and his Experiences in the West . 178 XV. Later Colonial Times 185 Growth of the Colonies 185 The Unwise Course of Great Britain . . . 188 Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, Forerunners of the Revolution . . . ... .189 CONTENTS Vll CHAPTER XVI. Armed Resistance to Great Britain George Washington, Commander of the American Army .... Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration of Independence . Benjamin Franklin and the French Alliance . XVII. A Successful End to the Contest George Rogers Clark Holds the Illinois Country John Paul Jones, the Naval Hero of the Revolution The Partisan Bands of the South . Westerners Win a Splendid Victory Surrender of Cornwallis XVIII. Early Days of the Republic . The Constitution of the United States George Washington, the First President Thomas Jefferson, and the Purchase of Louisiana XIX. Protecting Our Rights .... The Second Struggle with Great Britain Harrison and Perry, Heroes of the Northwest Andrew Jackson, the Hero of the Southwest How We Gained Florida The Monroe Doctrine XX. Industrial Changes . The Use of Machinery . Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin Cyrus Hall McCormick and the Reaper Robert Fulton and the Steamboat The Coming of the Railroad . Samuel F. B. Morse and the Telegraph Elias Howe and the Sewing Machine The Cotton Gin and Sectionalism XXI. Winning the Far West The Republic of Texas . The Story of Sam Houston War with Mexico . , Completing Our Boundaries . viii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXII. Progress of the American People .... 286 Growth of the Middle West . . . .286 Immigrants from the Old World . . . .292 The Factory System and the Eastern Cities . 295 Influences of the Masses 296 The "Forty-niners" 298 XXIII. The North and the South Drift Apart . . 301 Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, "The Great Trium- virate" 301 Secession of the Southern States .... 307 Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States . 308 Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States 315 XXIV. The War of Secession 321 Early Events of the Contest 321 Robert E. Lee, the Leading General of the South . 322 Ulysses S. Grant, the Leading General of the North . 328 Grant and Lee Grapple 332 XXV. An Era of Int)ustrial Progress (1865-1920) . 338 Rapid Growth of the United States . . . 338 The North and the Middle West . . . .340 Peophng the Far West 341 Building a "New South" 344 Thomas A. Edison, "The American Magician" . 346 Alexander Graham Bell and the Telephone . .350 The Wright Brothers Invent the Aeroplane . -351 John Philip Holland Invents the Submarine . -354 Other Important Inventions . ... . -355 XXVI. How We Became a World Power The Cruel Treatment of Cuba War with Spain Our Colonial Possessions Cutting the Panama Canal . 357 357 359 362 364 CONTENTS IX CHAPTER PAGE XXVII. American Women 367 Woman's Part in Our History .... 368 Hannah Dustin and Eliza Lucas, Colonial Hero- ines 371 Molly Pitcher, Elizabeth Zane, and Nancy Hart, Heroines of the Revolution . . . -374 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Champions of Woman's Suffrage . . -377 Frances E. Willard, Leader of the Temperance Movement 380 Clara Barton and the Red Cross . . . .382 XXVIII. The World War 386 Before the United States Entered the War . . 386 After the United States Entered the War . . 393 The Treaty of Peace and the League of Nations . 399 List of Presidents . . . 403 Date of Admission of the States 404 Pronouncing Vocabulary 405 Index 407 THE FIRST BOOK IN UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER I THE WORLD BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Life in the Old World Four Hundred Years Ago. — A little more than four hundred years ago civilized people lived only in Europe, Asia, and the northern part of Africa. They did not know that there was such a country as America. Beginnings of Our History. — The history of the United States began long before America was discovered. The ancestors of most of the people of this country were immi- grants just as are the foreigners who seek our land to-day. They brought to the New World the knowledge that had been gained by thousands of years of civilization in the Old World ; and they planted in their new homes many of the customs and laws of their old homes. What We Owe to the Old World. — Though we now have more knowledge and enjoy more conveniences than did the people who lived four or five hundred years ago, yet we owe much to the civilization that existed before America was known. In fact, for the origin of a great BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED part of that civilization we must go back to very ancient times. For instance, from the ancient Greeks we get the best art, from the ancient Romans we get government and laws, and from the ancient Hebrews we get Chris- tianity. Science was begun by the early Egyptians, banking by the Baby- lonians, and printing with type by the ancient Chi- nese. From ancient peo- ples has come some of our finest literature. The Classes that Ruled in Europe. — At the time of the discovery of America, Europe had made little advancement over ancient times. Many cruel customs still prevailed. Every country was ruled by a king. With few exceptions the kings were all powerful — they alone declared what should be the law and they compelled the people to obey. Next to the king came the nobility and clergy — the classes that owned most of the land. These two classes had great influence, not only on account of their wealth, but for other reasons. The nobility were regarded as superior by birth to the so-called common people; and A King of England Who ruled less than a hundred years before America was discovered LIFE IN THE OLD WORLD 3 the common people were made to do as the nobility wished. All the people of western Europe were Catholics. The clergy were revered because they were the priests of that faith and because they were the only class that had any learning. Few of the nobility could do more than barely read or write; the common people could do neither. The Merchants. — Another influential class was the merchants. When we speak of a merchant we usually Venetian Merchant Ships of the Fifteenth Century mean a man who keeps a store for selling to his neighbors, but in those days the merchant traveled from country to country to dispose of his wares. He often sailed in his own ship to near-by ports of Asia and Africa to get valuable cargoes which he would sell in Europe at a large profit. The Laboring Class. — The great mass of people were peasants who farmed the land. In most countries the peasant was a serf. A serf could not own land, but must 4 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED till it for its owner — usually a nobleman or the clergy. Without the consent of the owner he could not leave the land upon which he worked. Most of the crop that the serf raised went to the landlord. What was left was barely sufficient for himself and his family to live upon. Indeed, the serf had so few rights that he could not even marry without permission of the landlord. Extract from the Great Charter The Rights of Englishmen. — In England, the land from which the ancestors of most of the people of the United States came, there was more freedom than in other countries. The English had a charter which they had forced a king, many years before, to give them. The charter was intended to protect the rights of the people, and they called it the Magna Carta (Latin words meaning Great Charter). The English also had a parliament, composed of smaller landlords and citizens of the towns as well as noblemen and clergymen. This body, instead of the king, had the right to make laws and levy taxes. Yet, the kings of LIFE IN THE OLD WORLD 5 England were still so strong that they were often able to ignore the Magna Carta and to control parliament. England was one of the few countries that had abolished serfdom, but the freeing of the English peasant had not helped his condition much. He was paid so little for his labor that he could not buy land, and he was not allowed to vote. A Promise of Better Things. — It must not be thought, however, that the times were altogether bad. There were kings who ruled wisely ; there were noblemen who had the interests of the people at heart; and many of the clergy nursed the sick, cared for the poor, and gave shelter in their monasteries to the distressed. Already there had been going on in Europe for more than a century a movement that was improving conditions. This movement is known by the French word. Renais- sance, meaning " new birth," because it put such a new spirit into the world that it seemed as if men were born again. It grew out of the desire of Europeans for greater knowledge. Not only did Europeans wish to know more about hterature, art, and science, but they wished to know more about the problems of life. The Renaissance was the beginning of the spread of learning, and learning was making the minds and hearts of men better. The Desire for Exploration. — As a part of the broaden- ing of their minds that the Renaissance had brought about, men began to travel more. Visits to other countries made them wish to explore unknown lands, and most of the land of the world was unknown then. The desire for exploration led to the discovery of America. 6 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Trade with the East The Center of Commerce. — The trade most valuable to Europe came from the eastern part of Asia, called India. The easiest way then known to get this trade to Europe was across the Mediterranean Sea. Con- sequently, this sea was the center of commerce, and Europeans were accustomed to sail upon it. Though for many hundreds of years European mer- chants had traded with the people of eastern Asia, they had learned little about that distant land. Most of the people in Asia did not wish strangers to enter their country. They brought their wares to cities on the Asiatic and African shores of the Mediterranean Sea and there traded with Europeans. Traders from the East did not know much about the sea and sailing. They usually traveled overland much of the way to reach the Mediterranean. They loaded their goods on the backs of camels, and made the journey in large parties called caravans. Merchants of Venice and Genoa Do Most of the Trad- ing. — European merchants bought from the caravans silk and cotton cloths, pepper, nutmegs and other spices, ivory, gold and silver, and precious stones. Most of the trading with the caravans from the East was done by merchants from the Italian cities of Venice and Genoa. Stories of Marvelous Riches in the East. — When the European merchants and the men from the East met to trade, they talked about the countries from which they came; and the Eastern men told wonderful stories of TRADE WITH THE EAST 7 the wealth of their land in gold and silver and sparkling gems. The few white men who succeeded in making visits to India came back with even more wonderful stories. They described great cities where people dressed in cloth of gold and in finest furs, and lived in palaces built of marble, with roofs, floors, and pillars made of gold. In these wonderful palaces guests sat in chairs of solid silver. They said also that the beds of the rivers were covered with gold, that in one place there was a mountain of turquoise, and that there were islands rich in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and spices of all kinds. It was not hard in those days for people to believe in almost any kind of marvelous story. When Europeans heard these tales about India, they became even more eager to go into that country and get some of its riches. 8 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Why a Water Route to India was Needed. — The Turks, a wild race from the interior of Asia, began to conquer the lands through which the caravans came. This made it very hard for Europeans to keep up their trade with that country. Europeans then began to dis- cuss whether a way to India could be found by following the Atlantic Ocean around Africa. The People Very Ignorant of Geography. — So little of the world was known at that time that most persons did not believe that such a thing as sailing around Africa could be done. Seamen did not mind sailing the Mediterranean Sea where they could keep near the land, but they were unwilling to go any great distance out on the Atlantic Ocean, which they called the " Sea of Darkness." Most persons beheved that the earth was fiat. They feared that the ocean might have no end, and that if they sailed very far they might not be able to return. Besides, they thought that the ocean was filled with monsters that would devour sailors who ventured too far on its waters. Bold seamen had steered a little way down the Atlantic coast of Africa, but had always kept close to the shore. They had not ventured farther because it w^as the common belief that the equator was so hot that the water there boiled. And, they reasoned, even if one could cross the equator, a land of terror might lie beyond. It was generally believed that Africa was joined to some unknown land in the southern part of the world, and that; therefore, a ship could not sail around it to India. Does PRINCE HENRY, THE NAVIGATOR 9 it not seem strange that people could ever have been so ignorant of geography ? "Prince Henry, the Navigator" A Portuguese Prince Starts Exploring. — At that time there were very few men besides kings who were rich enough to fit out fleets for long voyages. A prince named Henry, son of the king of Portugal, became very much interested in finding a water route to India. He thought it would be a great thing to teach the Christian religion to the heathen, and at the same time to encourage trade with the East. He therefore decided to spend his money in sending out ships to ex- plore the coast of Africa. On the coast of Portugal, on a high point of land that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean, Prince Henry built an observatory. There he studied the stars and consulted maps and charts. There he kept a light burning to guide his ships on their return. The Portuguese Cross the Equator. — For forty years Portuguese ships sent out by the prince explored the coast of Africa, each going farther south than the one before it. But the noble prince died before any of his ships had reached the equator. Prince Henry, the Navigator 10 BEFORE AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED Prince Henry had inspired the Portuguese with such a spirit of discovery that his work did not stop with his death. His countrymen sailed their ships farther and farther down the coast of Africa, until in 1471 a Portu- guese ship finally crossed the equator. The Portuguese Route to India The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East. The solid line shows the new Portuguese route The Value of Prince Henry's Work. — We should always honor the memory of this wise and enterpris- ing prince, for he began the explorations that brought about the discovery of America. So earnest was he in this work that he is rightly called " Prince Henry, the Navigator." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW II QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Where did all civilized people live a little more than four hundred years ago? 2. How did our history begin before the discovery of America? 3. What do we owe to the Old World? 4. Tell about the kings, the nobles, and the clergy of Europe at the time America was discovered. 5. Tell about the merchants ; the serfs. 6. How was there more freedom in England than in other countries? 7. Tell all you can about the Renaissance. 8. How did the Renaissance lead to the discovery of America? 9. Tell how the people traded in those days with the East. 10. What did Europeans buy from India? 11. What did the merchants from India tell about their country? What did the travelers tell? 12. Why did not European traders go overland to India? 13. Why were sailors afraid to take long voyages on the ocean? 14. Tell about ''Prince Henry, the Navigator." 15. Why should we honor the memory of this prince ? Dangers of the " Sea of Darkness " FroEQ an old picture CHAPTER II FINDING A NEW WORLD Columbus Discovers America Boyhood of Columbus. — Soon after the Portuguese began their explorations down the African coast, there was born in or near the city of Genoa a boy who became one of the greatest of all explorers. His name was Christopher Columbus. The father of Columbus earned his living by weaving woolen cloth. He sent Columbus to school for a while. Later he put the boy to work at his own trade, but the lad did not like this work. He must have spent his spare hours studying geography, as far as it was known at that time. He longed to become a sailor. ^ Genoa, as we have seen, was then one of the greatest seaports of Europe. Ships were always entering or leav- ing its harbor. Little Christopher listened to the won- derful tales that sailors told of strange lands they had visited and of the thrilling adventures they had met with. Columbus Takes to the Sea. — When Columbus was about fourteen years old he had a chance to go on a voy- age. After that he spent much of his time on the water. In those days the rival European cities on the Medi- terranean Sea were almost always at war with one another. They captured one another's trading vessels and seized COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 13 the cargoes. There were many pirates upon the seas, and the Turks were always ready to destroy a vessel belonging to a Christian. So when men went to sea they had to be ready to fight as well as to trade. Probably Columbus was in more than one sea battle. Columbus Believes in the Western Route to India. — As Columbus went on studying maps and charts his ambition grew. He wished to do greater things than nean Sea. The Atlantic ImW^ ^V\ ness," had no terrors for ^Km^^M W him. He had heard of ^^^^ "fi^ W^ the brave Portuguese and ^Sjptf^g* / coast of Africa, and after ^^HH^^^^g^BI^^^ a time he went to their ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^R\\ He made his home in _ . . - • 1 r Christopher Columbus Lisbon, the capital 01 Portugal, until he married. Then he went to live on an island off the coast of Africa, where he kept up his studies, reading every book that he could get that told about the earth or the heavens. ^ Out on that lonely island, with only the waves beating upon the shore and the stars shining overhead, Columbus, after deep study, came to believe that the world is round. He reasoned that a route to India shorter than the one around Africa could be found by sailing directly westward across the Atlantic Ocean. 14 FINDING A NEW WORLD The Portuguese King Tries to Trick Columbus. — It would take a great deal of money to buy ships and fur- nish them for the voyage across the Atlantic. As Colum- bus was poor, he asked the king of Portugal for help. The king asked a council of wise men what they thought of Columbus' idea of reaching India by sailing westward. The wise men thought the idea very foolish ; so the king refused to aid Columbus. Yet the king seemed to have some faith in what Colum- bus said, for he secretly sent out ships to try to discover for himself a westward route to India. His treachery failed, for a storm came up and the men, frightened by the great ocean before them, turned the ships back to port. Aid Asked of the King and Queen of Spain. — Colum- bus was very angry when he heard that the king had tried to deceive him. He left Portugal and went to Spain, tak- ing with him his httle four-year-old son. When Colum- bus arrived in Spain, he asked King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to help him carry out his plan for a westward voyage. Ferdinand and Isabella did not treat him un- kindly, but their time was taken up with a war against the Moors, an African race that occupied parts of Spain. They left the matter to their court geographers, who laughed at Columbus when he laid his plan before them. After seven years of pleading and waiting and suffering, Columbus gave up hope of getting aid from Ferdinand and Isabella, and set out for France to ask help of the king of that country. A Monk Befriends Columbus. — On the way to France Columbus stopped at a monastery in Spain to beg bread COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 15 for his little boy, and there he met a monk who became greatly interested in his story. It so happened that the monk was a friend of Queen Isabella, and he persuaded Columbus to wait at the monastery until he himself could see the queen. Columbus Asking the Aid of Queen Isabella The monk went to the queen and told her that he be- lieved in the idea of Columbus. He said that it would be a pity for Spain to lose the glory of finding the western route to India. Queen Isabella Aids Columbus. — Queen Isabella listened attentively to the monk and decided to give Columbus a hearing. She sent the monk back to the monastery with a sum of money for Columbus, and with a message bidding the sailor appear before her. i6 FINDING A NEW WORLD Columbus found the queen in the camp of the army where she then had her court. She consented to fit out a fleet for him, and to make him admiral and viceroy of all lands he should discover. It was further agreed that he should be given a certain portion of all the gold, precious stones, and spices that should be found. Three vessels were secured — the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. These vessels were very small, and would to-day be thought unsafe for sailing except near the land. Yet Columbus was willing to risk crossing an unknown ocean with them. Difficulty in Getting Sailors. — It was not easy, how- ever, to get sailors to man the fleet. Most persons thought Columbus was crazy. They said that if the world were round, a ship would have to sail downhill one way and uphill another. '' Who ever heard of a ship sailing uphill?" they asked. On the other hand, they argued, if the earth should prove to be flat the ships would keep on sailing forever and could never get back. Besides, who wanted to go out on a sea that was full of monsters? But Columbus would not give up, and at last ninety men were secured. The Voyage. — On August 3, 1492, the ships set sail from Palos in Spain. Women, and even men, wept when they saw the three little vessels disappear on the ocean, for they did not expect to see the ships or ):heir crews again. They had not the faith of Columbus, who was so sure that he would reach India that he took a letter from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to the Emperor of India. COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 17 The vessels were hardly out of sight of land when the sailors wished to turn back; but Columbus kept the prows of his ships pointed to the west. Each day added to the terror of the men. They muttered among them- selves in discontent and talked about killing their leader. Columbus never faltered. On and on he sailed. After Cara\^els of Columbus After the model shown at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 the first few weeks he began to see land birds and float- ing weeds and other things that made him more and more certain that he was going in the direction of land. The Discovery. — Many weeks had passed when early in the morning of October 12, 1492, land was sighted. There was the wildest excitement on the little vessels. A boat bearing the admiral was put to shore at once ; and Columbus, kneeling upon the beach, offered a prayer of thanks. Then rising, he claimed the country in the name of the gracious queen who had sent him. i8 FINDING A NEW WORLD The land discovered was one of the islands that we now know as the Bahamas, lying off the coast of North America. Columbus believed it to be one of the islands near India. The men thought their chance had come to make fortunes from the riches of the East. Overcome with joy, they crowded about Columbus, begging his for- giveness for the way they had acted during the voyage. The inhabitants of the island — people of a race un- known to the Spaniards — flocked to the shore. At first they were frightened, and stood at a distance peeping from behind trees and bushes. Soon, however, presents of beads and other bright trinkets from the newcomers made them friendly. The Land Believed to be Asia. — The visitors and natives could not understand each other ; but Columbus thought from certain signs made by the natives that gold was to be found toward the south. Setting sail, he soon came upon an island which we now know as Cuba, but which he took to be the continent of Asia. As the natives here also pointed southward when he asked about gold, Columbus continued his voyage in that direction until he reached an island that he took to be Japan. He named this island Hispaniola, meaning " Spanish Land,'' but we now call it Haiti. The Return to Spain. — Columbus could not under- stand why he found no traces of the rich and populous cities of the East, yet, he was so sure that he had reached Asia that he decided to return to Spain to report the discovery to his sovereigns. Moreover, his largest ship, the Santa Maria, had been wrecked on Christmas day, COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 19 and the captain of the Pinta had sailed away with his ship to search for gold. Leaving nearly half his men on one of the islands to await his return, Columbus set out for Spain in the Nina, the smallest of his vessels. Early in the year 1493 he arrived at Palos, the port from which he had set sail the ATLANTIC SALVADOR ^. OCEAN PORTO RICO t discovered by Columbus Map of Lands Discovered by Columbus summer before. The people of the town, who had given him up for lost, welcomed him with joy. Ferdinand and Isabella received him at court with great honor. The curiosities that Columbus brought from the strange lands attracted much attention, especially some natives whom he had persuaded to return with him to Spain. To the natives Columbus gave the name " Indian, '^ because he thought they were inhabitants of India. This is the name by which we know these people to-day. 20 FINDING A NEW WORLD Other Voyages of Columbus. — Ferainand and Isabella at once began to make plans for taking possession of the new-found country. Another and larger fleet was fitted out, and Columbus was put in command. There was no trouble in getting men to go this time. As everybody believed that Columbus had reached India, people from all walks of life crowded upon his ships, hoping to find riches in the wealthy cities of the East. Since it was the intention of Spain to colonize the new country, Columbus, on reaching the island of Hispaniola (Haiti), built a town which he called Isabella in honor of the queen. Then he began to explore the neighboring islands. He was still puzzled because he could not find great cities, but he was as firmly fixed as ever in his belief that the land was Asia. When Columbus returned to Spain the second time his sovereigns soon sent him on a third voyage on which he discovered the northern coast of what is known as South America. Here sickness came upon him, so he sailed to Hispaniola to recover. Columbus in Chains. — Columbus found no rest at Hispaniola. Troubles bore heavily upon him. The colony that he had planted on the island had become rebellious. Disappointed because they had not found riches quickly, the settlers had quarreled among them- selves and also with the Indians. Many had been killed in brawls with one another and in fights with the natives. Those who remained put on Columbus all the blame for the bad condition of affairs. A man who had been sent from Spain to find out the cause of the trouble declared COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 21 himself governor, arrested Columbus, and sent him back to Spain in chains. To see Columbus treated like a criminal caused great indignation among the Spanish people. The queen was very angry and she at once ordered the chains removed. Columbus was afterwards sent on a fourth voyage, but failing again to find won- derful cities he returned disappointed to Spain. Death of Columbus. — When the great dis- coverer was sent home in chains, his sovereigns promised to restore to him his rights in the lands that he had found, but the promise was not kept. His good friend, the queen, died soon after his fourth voyage. Columbus now an old man, broken in health and spirit, soon followed her to the grave. He passed away at Valladolid, Spain, in 1506. He died be- lieving that he had found India by the western route. Perhaps his last hour would have been happier could he have known that he had discovered a new world. The Name America. — The new world should have been named Columbia in honor of its discoverer. If the The Columbus Monument at. Genoa 22 FINDING A NEW WORLD truth of his discovery had been known at first, without doubt it would have been so named. It came to be called America from an Italian explorer, Americus Vespucius, who for some time was thought to have discovered it. Cabot First Reaches the Mainland of America John Cabot. — It was believed in England, as else- wTiere, that Columbus had found Asia. People were excited and said, "It is a thing more divine than human to sail by the West into the East." Nobody in England was more excited over the news than John Cabot. Cabot, like Columbus, was born in Genoa and, also like Columbus, he was a sailor. When Columbus made his first voyage across the Atlantic, Cabot was living in Bristol, then the chief seaport of England. Cabot's First Voyage to America. — Cabot thought that Columbus had found the southern part of Asia. That portion, therefore, would belong to Spain. He saw no reason why he should not explore and claim for Eng- land some other part of Asia. With this idea in mind, he presented himself before the English king, Henry VII. He reminded that monarch that Spain and Portugal were winning wealth and glory by their explorations. He said that if King Henry would permit him, he would sail westward and secure for England some of the riches of the East. The king was pleased with the idea and gave his consent. With one vessel, the Matthew, and with only eighteen men, Cabot started across the Atlantic in the year 1497. CABOT FIRST REACHES THE MAINLAND 23 At the end of six weeks he came in sight of land. But it was not the beautiful country Columbus had visited. It was bleak and barren, and there was no sign of wealth. Going on shore, Cabot claimed the country for England. He saw no people, but he found traps set to catch game, and from these and other signs he' knew that the land was inhabited. He feared that if he were to come upon strange people they would kill him and his crew, so he hastened back to his ship and set sail for England. Cabot's Second Voyage to America. — Cabot thought that he had visited Asia, but he had really found what is now Canada, the country north of the United States. Cabot firmly believed that if he should return to the land that he had dis- covered and then sail southward, he would reach Japan. This island was known to be off the coast of Asia. When Cabot told the king of this belief, the king gave his consent to a second voyage. The next year (1498) Cabot again crossed the Atlantic. With his son Sebastian and a fleet of five or six ships he explored a great part of the coast of what is now the United States. Cabot's Explorations 24 FINDING A NEW WORLD When Cabot made his first voyage the people of Eng- land looked upon him as a hero, but after his second voyage they became disappointed with what he had done. They thought that he had found a cold, bleak part of Asia, while they had expected him to discover the part where there were gold and precious stones and spices. Consequently the English did not follow up his discovery. Why the Voyages of Cabot Are Important. — For two reasons the voyages of Cabot are important. First, John Cabot was the first European known to have landed on the American continent. Though Columbus had already discovered islands off the American coast, Cabot landed on the coast of North America a year before Columbus made his voyage to South America. Second, many years afterward, when England wished to plant colonies in North America, she claimed the right to do so because Cabot had discovered the continent for England. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Where was Columbus born? 2. What made it possible for a poor boy like Columbus to accomplish such great things? 3. W^hat great idea came to him? 4. Tell how he tried in different countries to get help. 5. Describe his first voyage. 6. When did he discover land? 7. What is it now called? Where is it? 8. What did he do when he first landed? 9. What did he think he had discovered? 10. How many voyages did he make? * 11. Tell of his misfortunes and his death. 12. For whom was America named and why? 13. Who was John Cabot ? 14. When Cabot heard of the discovery made by Columbus, what did he propose to the King of England? 15. Describe his first voyage and what he found. 16. How much did Cabot explore on his second voyage? 17. Why did England not follow up Cabot's discovery at once? 18. For what two reasons were the voyages of Cabot important ? CHAPTER III THE PEOPLE WHOM EUROPEANS FOUND IN AMERICA The North American Indians. — The land that Colum- bus found was a wild country, covered with forests and prairies. It was inhabited only by a barbarous red- skinned people of a race that was unknown to Europeans. Indian and Canoe Columbus, as we have already learned, called these people Indians, thinking that they were the inhabitants of India. How the Indians Lived. — When the Europeans first came to America, the Indians usually lived in tents made 25 26 THE PEOPLE WHOM EUROPEANS FOUND of skin or bark These they called wigwams. They hunted in the great woods with bows and arrows ; and fished in the rivers and lakes, using light birchbark canoes in which they could glide about very swiftly. They also did some planting. The tobacco and potato plants, now so common with us, had never been known to the white people until they saw them raised by the Indians. On the other hand, there were no horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, nor barnyard fowls in America until Europeans brought them over. How the Indians Dressed. — In summer, the men wore only light coverings on their bodies ; in winter, they wore shirts and leggings made of skins. Their shoes, called moccasins, were also made of skins, and with them they could easily walk through bramble or thicket. The women wore loose-fitting sleeveless dresses made of skins. Both men and women painted their faces and bodies in many colors. The red men had no money, but used, instead, in their trade, strings of shell beads called wampum. Wampum belts were also used in mak- ing records of treaties. Indian Worship. — The Indians knew nothing about our God. Some tribes worshiped the sun, the moon, and the stars ; others, the trees, the mountains, and the rivers ; others, the wind and the snow. Besides the gods of the tribe every Indian had his own personal god — some beast or bird or fish, which he called his manitou. A Warlike Race. — The Indians were a warlike people, and tribes were constantly fighting against one another. Until they obtained firearms from the white people, they THE INDIANS 27 fought with bows and arrows and stone hatchets called tomahawks, and they carried knives with which to take the scalps of enemies. They were very cruel and used to torture their prisoners by putting them to death in the most dreadful manner. Indians did not fight in open battle; they preferred to steal upon their enemies and kill them while sleeping ; or to fight them from behind trees or rocks. Yet the Indians had good traits. They always kept their promises ; they were loyal to their friends, and were exceedingly hospitable. When tribes wished to be friendly with one another, they would join in smoking tobacco in a calumet, or pipe of peace. The Red Men and the White Men. — The Indians treated the first Europeans who came to this country very kindly. They thought that the white-faced, beau- tifully dressed strangers were beings from heaven ; and that the ships, with their great sails stretched to the wind, were white-winged birds. The red men found out all too soon that many of the newcomers, though fair in face, were not fair at heart. They found that the palefaces would cheat and plunder and murder. So there came to be almost constant war- fare between the two races. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. How did the Indians live at the time America was discovered? 2. Describe their dress. Their religion. 3. Tell how they made war. 4. Describe the^r character. 5. How did the natives treat the white men at first? 6. Why did the Indians' feeling for the white man change? CHAPTER IV THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA The Rush of Gold Seekers Finding the Precious Metal in Haiti. — Four years after Columbus discovered Hispaniola (Haiti), all Spain was set wild over the news that gold had been found there. Immediately a number of adventurers from Spain flocked to the newly discovered island, eager to seize its wealth. They were for the most part bold, bad men ; and did not stop at any sort of wickedness in their greed for riches. They were especially cruel to the Indians. When the ignorant natives heard the roar and saw the flash and smoke of the Spanish guns, they thought that the white men were using thunder and lightning against them, and became too terrified to defend themselves. Settlement of the West Indies. — The Indians were forced to yield much of their richest lands -to the white men ; and the Spaniards soon had small settlements planted on the larger island of the West Indies and even on the near-by shores of the continent. Ponce de Leon Finds Florida De Leon Governor of Porto Rico. — ^ Among the ad- venturers who came to Hispaniola from Spain on account 28 PONCE DE LEON FINDS FLORIDA . 29 of the gold fever was Juan Ponce de Leon. On arriving at Hispaniola, he took a leading part in subduing the natives and was rewarded for his services by being made the first governor of Porto Rico, an island east of Hispaniola. Ponce de Leon lost no time in conquering the natives of Porto Rico and making himself master of the island. By gathering gold and working the Indians as slaves, he soon grew rich. He was living in luxury when he heard the Indians tell about a wonderful spring, the waters of which had the power to make people young forever. De Leon's heart leapt for joy, for he was growing old. Like others of his time, he was ready ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^°^ to believe all sorts of fanciful stories. It had long been believed that such a magic spring did exist somewhere in Asia. Since it was still thought that the islands dis- covered by Columbus were near Asia, Ponce de Leon be- came convinced that the fountain of which the Indians told him was the famous Asiatic Fountain of Youth. The Search Started. — Determined to find the magic fountain, De Leon fitted out at his own expense a fleet of three vessels, and sailed from Porto Rico in the spring of 1 5 13. He explored the group of islands .now called the Bahamas, searching through forests and thickets for the secret of youth. He tasted of every spring he saw, and bathed in every rivulet and lake. 30 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Discovery of Florida. — Failing to find the youth- giving fountain on any of these islands, De Leon con- tinued his voyage in a northwesterly direction. On Easter morning he sighted land, to which, because that day is known in Spanish as Pascua Florida, he gave the name Florida. This land is now the State of Florida. Ponce de Leon landed and claimed the country for Spain. Thinking Florida was an island, and hoping to find there the wonderful fountain, he once more began his vain search. Finally, disappointed by his failure, he returned to Porto Rico. A few years later De Leon died from an arrow wound received in a fight with the Indians while he was trying to plant a colony in Florida. Balboa Discovers the Pacific Ocean Balboa Goes to Darien. — Spaniards had settled on the isthmus of Darien (now Panama), little dreaming that only a narrow strip of land separated them from another ocean. Among these settlers was Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa, who belonged to a noble but very poor family of Spain. Soon after arriving at Darien, Balboa became a leader in the colony. By his tact he gained for the Spaniards the friendship of neighboring Indians. This friendship he made stronger by marrying a daughter of one of the chiefs. Hearing of a Great Sea. — One day a party of Spaniards were dividing among themselves some gold that the Indians had given them. They soon began to quarrel BALBOA DISCOVERS THE PACIFIC OCEAN 31 over the amount that each one should receive. The Indians were surprised that the white men should value so highly a metal they thought to be of no use except for making simple trinkets. One of the Indians said that, since the Spaniards desired gold so much, they should go to a great sea which lay only a little way toward the south. On the shores of that sea they would find Indians who had so much gold that they made their cups and plates of it. Balboa Gazes upon the Great Sea. — Balboa was eager to find the sea and the wealthy Indians. In the autumn of 15 13 he started upon the search, taking with him a small body of men. Had Balboa known it he could have gone straight across the narrow neck of land in a very short time. As it was, he spent more than three weeks in roaming through forests, climbing moun- tains, and fighting hostile Indians. At last he came to a mountain from the top of which, his Indian guide said, the great sea might be seen. Balboa wished to be the first white man to gaze upon the sea. Bidding his companions stay behind he climbed alone to the top of the mountain. From the lofty peak he looked down upon blue water stretching further than the eye could reach. Going down to the shore, Balboa, with his sword in one hand and the flag of Spain in the other, waded into the Vasco Nunez Balboa 32 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA water to the depth of his thighs. In a loud voice he declared that the sea and all lands bordering on it be- longed to the king of Spain. The Pacific Ocean Called the South Sea. — The body of water that Balboa discovered we now know as the Pacific Ocean, but Balboa and his companions, still thinking that Asia was near, took it for a smaller sea. Balboa called it the South Sea. When Balboa found that Darien (Panama) was an isthmus, he suggested to the king of Spain that a canal be cut through the isthmus to connect the Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea. It remained for the United States, four hundred years later, to cut the canal. Fate of Balboa. — While making plans for going further in search of the Indians who owned so much gold, Balboa was arrested by the governor of Darien. The governor had become jealous of Balboa. Pretending to believe that Balboa was guilty of treason against the colony, he caused the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean to be beheaded. Magellan's Ship Sails around the World Discovery of an Eastern Water Route to India. — The Portuguese had continued their explorations down the African coast. Before Columbus died,' a Portuguese seaman, named Vasco da Gama, had succeeded in reach- ing India by sailing around Africa. Da*Gama returned to Portugal with a cargo of fine cloths, spices, and precious stones. Other Portuguese seamen followed in voyages to India, bringing back great riches. MAGELLAN'S SHIP SAILS AROUND THE WORLD 33 Magellan Wishes to Try the Westward Route to India. — Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese soldier and navigator, spent some years in the East Indies. Because the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, are so far east, Magellan came to think that the shortest way to reach them from Portugal was by sailing westward and passing around South America. He asked the king of Portugal to fit out for him a fleet with which to make the western voyage to the Spice Islands. His monarch refused his re- quest. Thereupon, Magellan went to Spain to ask the king of that country to help him. The king of Spain at that time was Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns who had helped Columbus. He was only a boy, but he remembered the glory and riches that had come to his grandparents through listening to the pleadings of a poor sailor. So he readily consented to fit out a fleet for Magellan. Mutiny, Shipwreck, and Famine. — Five ships were secured and with these Magellan put to sea in 1519. The voyage across the Atlantic was long and full of danger. At the end of two months the fleet sighted the coast of Brazil in South America. Then Magellan turned the prows of his ships south- ward and sailed down the coast. Four months had thus Ferdinand Magellan 34 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA passed by the time he reached Patagonia. There, as cold weather was coming on, he landed and went into winter quarters. Some of the men mutinied, one of the vessels was wrecked, and the food supply ran low ; but Magellan was determined to go on. He declared that he would go to the Spice Islands if he " had to eat the leather on his ship's yard&.'' Winter over, the fleet passed into the strait now known as the Strait of Magellan. This passage would carry the exploring party into the ocean on the other side of South America. While in the strait one of the ships deserted and sailed back to Spain. Eating the Leather on the Shipyards. — The ship that deserted, the largest in the fleet, carried most of the pro- visions. The danger of starvation became still greater for the men who remained faithful to Magellan. Never- theless the bold commander, with his three remaining vessels, steered out into the great western ocean. The smoothness of this ocean was in such strong contrast to the stormy Atlantic that Magellan called it the Pacific Ocean. The word Pacific means peaceful. The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic and it took many weeks to cross it. A number of the sailors sickened and died for want of food Fortunately the sea continued calm, for none would have been strong enough to contend against the added hardship of storms. What little food there was soon spoiled, and the men gladly caught and ate the rats that were in the ships. MAGELLAN'S SHIP SAILS AROUND THE WORLD 35 At last Magellan was forced to do what he declared he would do rather than turn back — eat the leather from the yards of the ships. The leather was tough, but the crew soaked it in sea water for several days, broiled it, and ate it with great relish. Those who could not get enough had to satisfy themselves with sawdust. To add to the horror of their plight, the drinking water was nearly gone, and the ships were now near the equator The Route of Magellan where the heat is intense. The men had become so weak from thirst and heat that often a sailor in climbing the rigging would fall lifeless to the deck. In all the terrible hardships of the voyage Magellan cheerfully took his part. He ate the same food as his men, and night and day kept faithful watch over his fleet. Death of Magellan. — In March, 1521, the Spaniards arrived at a group of islands now known as the Philippines. Here Magellan heard a native tongue very much like the language of islands near India. Here he met traders from Asia ; so he knew that his goal, the Spice Islands, 36 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA was near. Magellan died in the hour of his triumph. He was killed in a fight with the natives of one of the Philippine Islands. One Ship Completes the Voyage. — The Spaniards hurried away from the Philippines. Soon after leaving, one of the ships was considered no longer safe, and she was emptied and burned. Of the five vessels with which Magellan had set out, only two were now left. These two ships reached the Spice Islands in the autumn of 1 52 1. There both vessels were loaded with spices to carry home, but one of them was soon captured by the Portuguese. The sole remaining vessel, the Victoria, continued her westward way. Many of the crew were dying for want of food, and the vessel was battered and worn. Finally the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa was rounded and the voyage up the west coast of that continent was begun. Death continued to reduce the crew. At last in the fall of 1522, the Victoria arrived at Seville, in Spain, the port from which the fleet had sailed more than two years before. Of all that great expedition only eighteen half- starved men returned. The little vessel had sailed around the world. She had made the greatest voyage known to history. Importance of Magellan's Voyage. — Magellan's voyage had two important results. It showed that a wide ocean lies between America and Asia, and proved beyond doubt that the world is round — for one of his ships had sailed out by the west and come back by the east. DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI 37 De Soto, Seeking Gold, Discovers the Mississippi Conquest of Mexico and Peru. — Hernando Cortez, leading an army over from Cuba, had conquered Mexico. Later Francisco Pizarro crossed the Isthmus of Darien (Panama) with an army and conquered Peru. Both of these countries were very rich in gold and silver. Peru is thought to be the country about which Indians had told Balboa. The Spaniards robbed the natives of Mexico and Peru of the precious metals. De Soto Made Governor of Florida. — Among those who had gained riches in Peru was Hernando de Soto. While in Peru he had been an under ofhcer in Pizarro 's army. He wished now to be at the head of an expedition in search of gold. Hernando de Soto Believing that Florida and the lands lying near con- tained even more gold than Mexico or Peru, De Soto told the king of Spain that he would undertake a search for the metal, if the king would make him governor of the territory he explored. As the expedition might bring further riches to the king, and would cost him nothing, he gladly accepted De Soto's offer. An Army Sets Forth Gayly. — De Soto at once began to prepare for the journey. His fame was so great and everybody was so sure that aU who went with him would ^S THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA find wealth, that members of the best famihes of Spain hastened to join. his army. To equip themselves for the expedition many sold all the property they owned. Amid a blare of trumpets and the shouts of a great multitude assembled on the wharves, De Soto sailed from Spain with a large and well-equipped fleet. Since every one of the adventurers thought he was going on a trip that would be one of pleasure and wealth getting, there was much merry-making and music and dancing through- out the voyage. The March through the Wilderness. — Early in the year 1539 De Soto's fleet appeared off the west coast of Florida. Almost from the moment of landing the Spaniards met with trouble. De Soto, instead of making friends with the natives, treated them with cruelty and injustice. He began by capturing Indians and trying to force them to go with him as guides. At every opportunity along the march Indians, hidden behind trees, showered arrows upon the explorers. When the Indians captured a Spaniard, they put him to death. When the Spaniards captured an Indian, they placed him in chains and made him carry their heavy burdens. If they had no need for him, they killed him. In his search for gold, De Soto spent two years in marching through the present states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. He met disappointment after disappointment, for as he marched on, he was always greeted with the same story, that gold was to be found a little farther ahead. The men suffered greatly from want of food and from DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI 39 the constant attacks of the Indians. De Soto had kept up his cruelties and news of his outrages went ahead of him. Naturally the fierce red men were ready for him all along the way. Battle of Mavilla. — In southern Alabama De Soto's army came upon a palisaded Indian village, called De Soto's Route— — — -. Map of De Soto's Route — 1539-1542 Mavilla. There a severe battle was fought, for the natives felt that their homes were at stake, and they made a desperate resistance. The Indians were defeated and many of their warriors were killed. Among the dead was their brave chief, Tuscaloosa. In the fight the Spaniards lost a number of their men and all their baggage. 40 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Soon after landing in Florida the men wished to turn back. All along the march they had begged De Soto to return to Cuba. After the battle of Mavilla they became more discouraged than ever, and pleaded with their leader to march towards the coast where ships awaited them. But De Soto was proud as well as brave, and could not bear the thought of failure. He declared that he would not turn back until he had found gold. Discovery of the Mississippi. — In the spring of 1541 De Soto and his men reached a high bluff near the present city of Memphis. There they beheld a mightier river than they had ever dreamed could exist. It was the Mississippi and it flowed a mile wide between them and the unknown west toward which they had set their faces. So far as is known, they were the first white men to look upon the waters of that great stream. Death of De Soto. — De Soto and his men crossed the river in rudely constructed boats, and spent the third winter in Arkansas, still searching for gold. Discouraged by failure, De Soto at length made his way back to the Mississippi. The ranks of the army that had set out so joyously had been greatly thinned by death, and those left were weary with the toil and hardships of the long march. The Indians, seeing the desperate condition of the Spaniards, became bolder. With his health broken and his fierce spirit crushed, De Soto died in the spring of 1542. It was thought best to keep his death a secret, for the Indians held him in great dread and should they learn that he had died they might increase their attacks. The men placed his body in CORONADO'S QUEST 41 a boat, and in the darkness of the night they lowered it into the muddy waters of the great river that he had discovered. An unknown grave was the only reward of the man who had dared so much for gold. The Survivors Escape to Mexico. — The followers of De Soto, reduced to one half their number, wandered De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi, 1541 After the picture by W. H. Powell, in the Capitol at Washington. over the country a year longer. Finally they built boats, floated down the Mississippi River, and succeeded in reaching a Spanish settlement on the shore of Mexico. CoRONADo's Quest of the Seven Cities of Cibola The Seven Cities of Cibola. — While De Soto was making his unsuccessful search for gold in the southern 42 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA part of what is now the United States, other Spaniards were exploring the far western part. Reports had come that in the country north of Mexico the people were so rich that they lived in great luxury. Their cities were large. Their houses were built of stone and were many stories high; the doors of the houses were decorated with turquoises. Men and women used balls of gold as ornaments for their ears and noses and wore belts studded with the turquoises around their waists. Indeed, the country was so full of gold and silver and precious stones that whole streets were used by goldsmiths and jewelers. The cities were seven in number and came to be called the Seven Cities of Cibola. Coronado Seeks the Wealthy Cities. — Having seen the wealth of the natives of Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards believed the stor>\ Francisco de Coronado, a Spanish official of Mexico, led an army in search of the seven cities. He marched over the dreary desert lands of Arizona and New Mexico, and was the first white man to gaze into the depths of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. He crossed the rolling prairies until he had gone as far north as Kansas and probably Nebraska. The men of Coronado 's party did not suffer as much as those of some other Spanish expeditions. It is true that, because they were cruel to the Indians, they had con- stantly to fight their way forward, but they did not lack for food. For meat they killed the buffalo, and they forced the Indians to give them large supplies of corn. No gold was found and the Seven Cities of Cibola turned out to be only seven squalid Indian villages. CORONADO'S QUEST 43 Disappointed and dejected were the men who turned back over the many weary miles to Mexico. (SOUTH SEA) PA CIFI C O C E AN Coronado's Route .._•_•■•> ^ The Route of Coronado Results of the Spanish Explorations and Settlements. — By this time much of the Atlantic coast of America had become known through the explorations made mainly by the Spaniards. The long marches of De 44 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA Soto and Coronado into the interior proved North America to be a large continent. Spain claimed the continents of both North and South America, but had made settlements only in Mexico and Central America and South America where gold had been found in abundance. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I . When gold was discovered in America, how was the news received in Spain? 2. What class of people hurried to the New World? 3. How did they treat the natives ? 4. What kind of man was Ponce de Leon? 5. For what was he searching? 6. What land did he discover, and what did he call it ? 7. How did he die ? 8. What name is now given to the Isthmus of Darien ? 9, Who was Balboa? 10. How did he hear of another ocean? 11. Describe his journey to the ocean. 12. What did he do when he reached the ocean ? 13. What name did he give to the ocean, and why ? 14. Tell the fate of Balboa. 15. What great idea did Magellan wish to prove ? 16. How did the king of Portugal treat him ? What did Charles V do for him ? 17, De- scribe the route that he took. 18. Tell about the sufferings of his men. 19. How did Magellan die? 20. Tell about the Victoria's home-coming. 21. What two important results had Magellan's voyage ? 22. Tell about the wealth that the Spaniards seized in Mexico and Peru. 23. What did the finding of so much wealth make De Soto ambitious to do ? 24. How was De Soto equipped for his expedition ? 25. How did he treat the Indians? 26. Trace the line of his march. 27. What great discovery did De Soto make? 28. Tell about his death and burial. 29. Compare the expeditions of De Soto and Columbus. 30. Tell the story of the Seven Cities of Cibola ; and Coronado's search for them. 31. Give the result of the Spanish explorations. 32. Where did the Spaniards make settlements? CHAPTER V THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Why Other Europeans Followed the Spaniards to America The Power of Spain. — Spain had become the strongest nation of the world. Most of her power came from the great quantities of gold and silver and precious stones that she obtained from America ; for with this treasure she equipped large armies and fleets. Other nations feared that Spain would become so powerful as to endanger their independence, and they set about crippling her by attacking her commerce with America. Whether a nation was at peace or at war with Spain made no difference. The Work of the Corsairs. — In those days every nation had its corsairs. It was mainly the corsairs that attacked Spanish commerce. The corsair sailed in his own ship, but with the consent of his king who often helped to outfit the vessel. He usually divided with his king the booty that he captured. Nowadays we all know that it is very wrong for a ship of one nation to attack a ship of another nation unless the nations are at war. But in those days it was considered right to attack a ship of another nation, in time of peace, if such an attack would benefit one's own country. 45 46 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Indeed, the corsair considered himself a patriot, and his fellow countrymen looked upon him as one. By capturing or destroying Spanish ships coming from America, and seizing their rich cargoes, corsairs did much damage to Spanish commerce. As all vessels venturing beyond the waters around home were heavily armed, many fierce combats occurred. The most active of the corsairs preying upon the ships of Spain were those of England, France, and Holland. Jacques Cartier in Canada. — The French were the first to think of the idea of planting colonies in America as a help in the struggle against Spain. They hoped that such colonies would, as in the case of Spain, bring wealth to the treasury of France. They believed that the colonies might be used as starting points for expedi- tions against Spanish ships coming from the West Indies. The French naturally turned their attention to Canada, for the voyage to that country had become familiar to French fishermen who had for many years been catching cod off the banks of Newfoundland. Francis I, king of France, sent Jacques Cartier to Canada with a small party of settlers in 1541. One winter in the cold climate was enough for Cartier and his men. With the coming of spring, they sailed back to France. For some years afterward the French could do nothing more toward establishing colonies in America, for a war with Spain had broken out, and they had all they could do to defend their country. The Reformation. — INIeanwhile a religious movement, known as the Reformation, had begun in western Europe. WHY THE FRENCH CAME 47 It resulted in many persons leaving the Catholic Church. Those who left the Church are now usually called Protes- tants. In Spain, every one remained faithful to the Catholic Church. In England and Holland, the government and most of the people became Protestant. In France, SCALE OF MILES. 100 200 30Q 400 JNIap Showing Jacques Cartier's Voyages Thus; ist Voyage 2nd Voyage 3d Voyage -^ —> the Protestants, or Huguenots as they were called in that country, became very numerous, though the king, the nobility generally, and most of the people continued to be Catholic. Persecution on Account of Religion. — The ruler of almost every country believed that the government would be stronger if all its people had the same religion as the king. Therefore, any one who did not willingly 48 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH accept that religion should be forced to do so. Besides, it was generally thought that it would benefit the soul of a person of another religion for him to suffer per- secution and even death. Consequently, Catholic or Protestant, whichever was in power, maimed or put to death followers of the other faith. Admiral Coligny and His Huguenot Colony IN Florida Persecution in France. — Religious wars broke out in France. The Huguenots being the weaker party, were the greater sufferers. The distress of the Huguenots deeply grieved Gaspard -de Coligny, a Huguenot nobleman. He determined to found in America a colony where his fellow-churchmen might live free from persecution. Charles IX, who was then king of France, though a Catholic, was very friendly to Coligny, whom he had appointed an admiral. The king would be glad to be rid of the Huguenots, and he looked upon a French colony in America as a great blow against Spain. For these reasons he willingly gave Coligny per- mission to establish the colony. Huguenots in Florida. — In 1 564 Coligny sent out a party of Huguenots to settle in America. These Hugue- nots built a fort on the St. John's River, near the site of the present city of Jacksonville. In honor of their king, they called the fort Caroline, from Carolus, the Latin word for Charles. Founding of St. Augustine. — The king of Spain was alarmed when he heard that a French colony had been HUGUENOT COLONY IN FLORIDA 49 planted so near his West Indian possessions. He hurried over Pedro Menendez de Aviles with a strong fleet and army to destroy the young colony. The Spaniards landed on the coast of Florida at a point south of Fort Caroline. Here they set to work (1565) to build a fort. From this fort has grown St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States. Tte Massacre at Fort Caroline. — Jean Ribault, the cool brave commander at Fort Caroline, acted quickly. He put most of his men on board ships, and sailed forth to attack the Span- iards before they could finish their fort. Un- fortunately, a furious storm arose which so tossed the ships about that they could not get near enough to shore for the French to make an attack. Menendez, seeing that the French fleet was helpless, immediately marched across the country to attack Fort Caroline. He fell upon the small garrison that had been left to defend the fort and massacred all except a few who escaped into the woods. Meanwhile the storm had wrecked the French fleet and only a few persons escaped and reached land. When Menendez came upon the survivors from the wrecked ships, he massacred them also. Fort Caroline, the French Huguenot Settlement in Florida 50 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH The Revenge of the French. — The people of France were very indignant when they learned of the foul way in which their countrymen had been murdered. Charles IX, who was a weak king and at heart afraid of the power of the Spanish king, did nothing ; yet the crime was avenged. A Frenchman, Dominique de Gourgues, in- censed at the cowardice of his king, took it upon himself to punish the Spaniards. In order to raise the money to buy ships and supplies for the men whom he induced to join him, Gourgues sold all his lands. StiU not having enough money, he borrowed what was lacking from his brother. Upon landing in Florida, Gourgues persuaded an Indian tribe against whom the Spaniards had made war to aid him in the attack. Most of the Spaniards who had taken part in the massacre were at Fort Caroline. Sud- denly and without warning Frenchmen and Indians surrounded the fort. All the Spaniards except about fifty were killed ; these Gourgues hanged later. The Frenchmen had heard that Menendez had placed over the scene of the massacre an inscription which read, '^ I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans (Protestants)." After the Frenchmen had finished their work of revenge, Gourgues nailed upon a tree a notice reading, '' I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to traitors, robbers, and murderers." Spain Continues to Hold Florida. — Gourgues and his men soon afterward returned to France, and the Span- iards continued to hold Florida. The Huguenots made no further attempt to plant colonies in America. SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN 51 Samuel de Champlain, ^^The Father of New France" New France. — Peace having come once more to the French, they again turned to Canada, which they called New France. The French king gave New France to a commercial company. This company was to get its profits from having entire con- trol of the fish and fur trades. Samuel de Champlain. — One man, Samuel de Cham- plain, stands out above all others in the early history of Canada. Champlain had spent his young manhood in the service of France, part of the time in the army and part 'fh in the navy. Champlain was a most loyal Frenchman, and he resented *^ that France should be domineered over by Spain. His life on the sea had increased his spirit of adventure, and he longed to explore the wilderness that stretched far into the interior of America. It was natural, there- fore, that Champlain should wish to take part in es- tablishing in Canada a French colony. Beginnings of Quebec. — Having been appointed governor of New France, Champlain founded the town of Quebec in 1608. He carried to Quebec twenty-eight men; but so great was the suffering from cold and Samuel de Champlain 52 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH disease that all, except Champlain and eight others, died during the first winter. The brave Champlain kept up the courage of the survivors. In the spring other settlers with more provisions came and the colony was saved. Why New France Grew Slowly. — For nearly a quarter of a century Champlain was governor of New France. So slow was the growth of the colony that during all that time the number of inhabitants was never more than about one hundred. The trouble was that the company owning the colony wished to make out of it all the money possible. It cared nothing for settlements where people built homes and made their living by planting crops ; it cared only to establish trading posts where furs and skins could be bought from the Indians with cheap trinkets. There were only one or two farms at Quebec, for practically every inhabitant of the town was employed in trading for the company. Champlain knew that only through thrifty, self- supporting settlers could the colony become strong. He begged the company to send over such settlers, but he begged in vain. Champlain and His Indian Allies. — Champlain made friends with the neighboring Indians, who were Algon- quins. I'hese Indians were the bitter enemies of the Iroquois, who dwelt in what is now the upper part of the State of New York. The Iroquois were the most powerful and the most warlike of all the North American tribes. When the Algonquins saw how deadly was the shot from the Frenchmen's guns, they looked upon it as some- thing marvelous. With such weapons they could easily SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN 53 conquer the hated Iroquois. They reasoned among themselves that if the white chief was a real friend to the Algonquins, he would be willing to fight against their dreaded foes. They asked Champlain to go on the war- path with them against the Iroquois, and he, wishing to keep them friendly, consented. War with the Iroquois. — Bedecked with war-paint and shrieking their war-whoop the Algonquin warriors 1% , ^ij, ^ >.Uin The Defeat of the Iroquois at Lake Champlain After the drawing by Chaplin in his Voyages guided Champlain and two other Frenchmen to Lake Champlain in the Iroquois country. These three French- men were the first Europeans to look upon the beautiful waters of the lake. Near by they met the Iroquois. Just as the fighting was about to commence, the Algonquins called to their white allies to come forth ; and Champlain and his two companions took position in front of the battle line. The 54 THE COMING OF THE FRENCH Iroquois had never before seen white men, and they stood dumbfounded while they watched the Frenchmen approach- ing. When Champlain fired his gun and two of their chiefs fell dead, they turned and fled in terror. Why the Frenchmen Pushed Westward. — As the years passed Champlain joined the Algonquins in other battles against the Iroquois. These wars had an im- The First View of Quebec After an old print portant effect upon the history of America. The Iro- quois, ceasing after a while to look upon the French as superhuman, came to hate them. They prevented the French from carrying their explorations and settlements into New York. Unable to go southward from Canada, the Frenchmen pushed westward, thus leaving New York, as we shaU see later, for the Dutch and then the English to colonize. Champlain's Work. — Champlain stands foremost among the explorers of America. He sailed along the QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 55 entire coast of New England and he penetrated the western forests as far as Lake Huron. He was a close observer, and in his accounts of his explorations he described so well everything he saw that he gave Euro- peans their first clear ideas of the northern part of the continent of North America. Though he explored much, Champlain did not neglect the Frenchmen under his charge. He watched over them with the greatest care. In his twenty-five years as governor he made many sacrifices and suffered many hardships in order that the colony he had founded might survive. He richly deserves the title that has been given him, "The Father of New France." Champlain died and was buried in his beloved Quebec. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why was Spain the most powerful nation of Europe? 2. What did other nations fear from Spanish power? 3. Describe the work of the corsairs. 4. How did the French plan to injure Spain? 5. Tell about Jacques Cartier. 6. Tell about the Reformation, and the perse- cution that followed it. 7. Relate how the Huguenots attempted to plant a colony in America. 8. Tell how it was destroyed. 9. How was its destruction avenged? 10. Which is the oldest city in America? 11. Who continued to hold Florida ? 12. What country was formerly called New France ? 13. Describe the settlement of Quebec. 14. Why did New France grow so slowly ? 15. Why did not the French settle New York? 16. Tell why you think Champlain deserves the title, "The Father of New France." CHAPTER VI THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH Sir Francis Drake, who ''Singed the King OF Spain's Beard" Growth of the English Navy. — In the many years that had passed since John Cabot, saiHng in an Enghsh ship, discovered the continent of North America, the Enghsh nation had grown much stronger. Ehzabeth, one of the greatest queens of the world's history, ruled over England for nearly fifty years, from 1558 to 1603. As England is on an island, Elizabeth knew that the best way to defend her country would be to have a large navy. She built many warships ; still, her navy was not as powerful as that of the king of Spain. English, French, and Dutch corsairs continued to attack the commerce of Spain for the purpose of crippling her power. The English corsairs did more damage than those of any other nation. Drake Sails around the World. — The most famous of the English corsairs was Sir Francis Drake. In the year 1577 Drake started from England with five vessels for the purpose of attacking the rich Spanish colonies on the Pacific side of South America. By the time that he had passed the Strait of Magellan all but one ship, s6 SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 57 the Golden Hind, had deserted him, yet he kept on. Cruising northward along the Pacific coast Drake ran his single ship into the ports of Chile and Peru, and vast quantities of gold, silver, and precious stones fell into his hands. From one ship alone he took a cargo worth three million dollars. Drake continued' his course northward, and explored the coast of California. On the shores of a bay, now thought to be the San Francisco Bay, the natives made Drake their king, placing upon his head a crown of feathers. But Drake, instead of keeping the kingship thus thrust upon him, claimed the country for Elizabeth, his queen. From California Drake steered the Golden Hind straight across the Pacific, and, passing around Africa, returned to England. Drake was the second explorer, and the first Englishman to sail around the world. His voyage had lasted nearly three years. The people of England welcomed Drake home with much enthusiasm. Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with his exploits that she went down to the Golden Hind, anchored in the Thames River near London, and knighted the intrepid sailor. Sir Francis Drake 58 THE COIVIING OF THE ENGLISH " Singeing the King of Spain's Beard." — A few years later, Philip II, king of Spain, determined to punish England for her continued unfriendly acts against his country. In the harbor of Cadiz, Spain, he began build- ing a great fleet, or Armada, for the purpose of invading England. Drake was sent with a fleet to do what damage he could to the Armada. Cadiz was strongly defended by forts and warships. Boldly entering the harbor, Drake sunk all the supply ships and many of the warships of the Armada. Sailing out of the harbor he continued his work of destruction by attacking Spanish vessels on the high seas. Drake called his exploit in the harbor of Cadiz " singe- ing the king of Spain's beard." It took a year for Philip. to repair the damage done to his Armada. Defeat of the " Invincible Armada." — Finally, in 1588, the Armada was completed. Undoubtedly it was one of the most formidable fleets that the world had ever seen. It numbered one hundred and thirty ships and carried three thousand cannon and thirty thousand men. The king of Spain boastingly called the fleet the " Invincible Armada." So sure was he of victory that he posted on the coast of France a large army which was to land in England as soon as the Armada had swept the English ships off the sea. Englishmen rallied to save their native land from the threatened calamity. Volunteers hurried to join the army and shipowners loaned their vessels to the navy. When the dreaded Armada appeared in the English channel, Drake and other high commanders of the English SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 59 navy were playing a game of bowls at Dover where their fleet had been assembled to await the coming of the Spaniards. The other players wished to stop and rush to their ships, but Drake insisted that the game continue, for, he said, '' There is time to finish the game first and beat the Spaniards afterwards." The Spanish Armada in the English Channel After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the House of Lords Drake was right. The battle ended in a disastrous defeat for the Armada. Few of the Spanish ships got back home. Some were sunk by English gunners and others were wrecked in a storm that arose while they were trying to make their escape. Twenty thousand Spaniards were killed or drowned. The English lost only about a hundred men. Decline of Spanish Power. — The defeat of the " In- vincible Armada " did more than save England ; it 6o THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH marked the beginning of the end of Spain's naval power. The Spaniards were disheartened by the terrific blow. England kept up her destructive war upon Spanish ships and it was not many years before Spain was so weakened in her naval power that she could not prevent other nations from colonizing America. Sir Walter Raleigh and His "Lost Colony" The English Turn to America. — Before the defeat of the " Invincible Armada," Sir Walter Raleigh had tried to plant an English colony in America. Raleigh and the Queen. — Raleigh was a great favorite of Elizabeth. There is a pretty story of the way he first came into her notice. One day as her Majesty was walking through the garden with her ladies, she came to a muddy place in the path and hesitated. Raleigh was near by, and he quickly drew off his handsome scarlet cloak, and kneeling, spread it over the mud, that the queen might pass without soiling her shoes. Queen Elizabeth was so much pleased with this graceful act that she made Raleigh one of her courtiers. Raleigh Sends out an Exploring Expedition. — Raleigh believed that a better way to cripple Spain than by seizing her ships would be to settle English colonies in America, and through them check the growing power of Spain in the New World. You will remember that the French had the same idea. Raleigh probably got his idea from them. When Raleigh asked Queen Elizabeth to let him plant a colony in the New World, she willingly gave him a charter which declared that the colony should be his own. SIR WALTER RALEIGH 6i Raleigh was to govern the colony and all the profits were to be his. The colonists, of course, were to continue to be subjects of Elizabeth. A colony like Raleigh's — one owned and governed by a man or a set of men instead of the sovereign — is called a proprietary colony. Raleigh sent two ships to America to find a good place for his colony. These entered Pamlico Sound on the coast of North Carolina. There the men found much to please them — a mild climate, fish and game in plenty, and good fruits and vegetables. They made friends with the Indians, who enter- tained them most hospitably on Roanoke Island. On their return to England, the men gave a glowing account of the land they had visited, and the queen herself suggested that it should be called Virginia, in honor of herself. Elizabeth was known as the " Virgin Queen " because she had never married. Raleigh's First Colony. — In the next year (1585) Raleigh sent a colony to Roanoke. But as their food ran low and they could get none from the Indians, whom Sir Walter Raleigh 62 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH they had offended, the colonists, after a short stay on. the island, returned to England. They carried back to Raleigh tobacco and white po- tatoes. The Spaniards and the Portuguese had long before discovered these American products, but people in England knew little or nothing about either. Sir Walter Smokes a Pipe. — When Sir Walter re- ceived the tobacco, he formed the habit of smoking like the American Indians. Now Raleigh's servant did not know how the weed was used. On entering the room one day he saw smoke coming from his master's mouth. He thought his master on fire and instantly threw a pitcher of water into his face to " put him out." Raleigh planted on his estate in Ireland the potatoes that his colonists gave him. They became so plentiful in that country that, although the plant was brought from America, it came to be called the Irish potato. Raleigh's Second Colony. — Of course Raleigh was sorry that his colonists did not remain on Roanoke Island, but he was not yet ready to give up. In 1587, he sent out another party with John White as governor. Among these colonists were Eleanor, daughter of the governor, and her husband, Ananias Dare. Shortly after the landing at Roanoke, a daughter was born to them. The little girl was called ^' Virginia " from the new province. This baby was the first child born of English parents within what is now the United States. When little Virginia Dare was only ten days old, her grandfather, the governor, had to return to England to get aid for the colony. SIR WALTER RALEIGH 63 It was just at this time that England was preparing for the coming of the " Invincible Armada." Raleigh could not send White back to America for all the ships in England were needed to repel the invasion. As the war with Spain continued even after the defeat of the Armada, more than three years passed before White could return to Roanoke. Disappearance of the Second Colony. — When White's ships at last ar- rived at Roanoke Island, there was not a living being on shore to hail them. Cannon were fired and English songs were sung by the sailors in the hope that the colonists would answer. But no reply came except the murmur of the waves. White and his companions were seized with a terrible fear as they passed through thicket and forest to the spot where the colonists had built their village. There their worst fears were realized. Everything was deserted ; the houses were in ruins, and grass had grown in the fort. '' Croatoan " Carved on a Post. — Before White had sailed for England, it had been agreed that should the colonists decide to move their settlement, they would mark on doorposts and trees the name of the place to Map of Virginia 64 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH which they had moved. In case they were in danger, they were to make a cross under the name. White saw, plainly carved on a doorpost, the word " Croatoan." His heart bounded with joy because Croatoan was the name of an island near by where friendly Indians lived. Since he saw no cross under the name. White felt sure that his loved ones, with the other colonists, were safe on this island. He wished to go at once to Croatoan Island to search for the missing settlers, but a storm arose, and the captain of the ship refused to skirt those dangerous shores. So leaving the colonists to their fate, the fleet put for the open sea and home. What became of the colony is not definitely known. Raleigh sent out other searching parties, but the missing ones were never found. The Fate of Raleigh. — Misfortune now befell Raleigh himself. His good friend Queen Elizabeth died, and James I, who had no love for Sir Walter, came to the throne of England. Raleigh was accused of plotting to take the throne from James. The charge v/as false but that made little difference in those days. At his trial Raleigh was given no chance to defend himself and was convicted. King James sent him to the Tower of London, a famous old prison that is still standing. For thirteen long years Raleigh was kept a prisoner in the Tower, and was then released. The king of Spain looked upon Raleigh as one of his most dangerous enemies, and the Spanish king had much influence over the weak English king. Two years after his release from prison, JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 65 Raleigh, because the Spanish monarch wished it, was led to the scaffold and beheaded. Thus died the brave, generous knight — a victim of the ambition of kings. John Smith and the Virginia Colony The London Company. — Raleigh's work lived ; for other men, inspired by his example, planted in Virginia the first permanent English colony in America. For the purpose of establishing the colony these men formed a company, which came to be known as the London Company, because the members lived in or around London. King James I gave the company a charter very much like the one Queen Elizabeth gave to Sir Walter Raleigh. As was the case with Raleigh, the com- pany was to govern the colony and receive all the profits. Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607, the London Company sent out a fleet of three vessels, having on board one hundred and five colonists — all men. On New Year's Day, they bade farewell to England and set their faces toward a new world. After four long months, the straining eyes of the colonists sighted the Virginia shore. The fleet entered Chesapeake Bay and sailed some distance up a broad river. The land was fair and all things promised well. Choosing a spot on the bank of the river for a settlement, the colonists landed. May 13, 1607. In honor of their king they named the settlement Jamestown and the river the James. As soon as the settlers had pitched their tents, they began building a fort. They made a church by nailing 66 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH between two trees a board for, a pulpit and stretching a sail from one of the vessels above it. Under the shelter of this awning the colonists had prayers twice a day. The Indians did not like the idea of white men settling on their lands, and before long they banded together and attacked the little col- ony. They were quickly driven away. Sickness and Starva- tion. — Soon a worse danger threatened the settlers. The food had spoiled during the long voyage, and the only drinking water was from the muddy river. Be- sides, the location of the Captain John Smith ^^^^^ ^^.^^ unhealthful. Fever broke out, and the suffering was most pitiable. Before the end of the summer more than half the colo- nists had died of fever or starvation. Captain John Smith. — One man. Captain John Smith, saved the colony. Smith had already lived a life of varied adventure before trying his fortune in the wilds of America. Before he was twenty years old he took part in two wars. Then, growing tired of helping Christians kill one another, he set out to join in a war against the Turks. While fighting the Turks he was taken prisoner and sold into slavery. After suffering JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 67 much from cruel treatment, he made his escape and wandered on foot through many countries of Europe. On arriving in England, Smith found that the London Company was preparing to send its first shipload of settlers to America. His love of adventure would not permit him to remain in England ; so he joined the band of colonists. John Smith Gets Corn from the Indians. — One of the first things that Smith did after the colonists had settled at Jamestown was to make friends with the Indians. Now that starvation was threatening the few survivors of the colony, Smith's friendship with the natives stood them in good stead. Smith went up and down the river, trading with the Indians. He exchanged hatchets, knives, looking-glasses, and bright-colored cloth for corn. When winter came, Smith had collected such a large quantity of corn that all danger from starvation had passed. In the meantime cool weather had driven away the fever. John Smith and Pocahontas. — Smith's task often exposed him to danger. On one visit to the red men they suddenly turned against him. Their chief, Pow- hatan, decided that he should die. Accordingly, Smith's hands were tied behind his back, he was stretched upon the ground, and his head was laid upon a rock. As a brawny warrior raised his club to crush Smith's head, Pocahontas, the young daughter of Powhatan, rushed forward, and throwing herself across the captive's body begged her father to spare his life. Powhatan loved his little daughter, and he could not refuse her request, so he set John Smith free. 68 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH Marriage of Pocahontas. — From that time Pocahontas was a good friend to the colonists, bringing them food herself, and persuading other Indians to help them. Some years later Pocahontas was married to one of the settlers, John Rolfe. Pocahontas had one son. Through him some of the best families in Virginia are to-day proud to claim descent from the '' Indian princess," as Poca- hontas was fondly called by the colonists. Further Trouble for the Colonists. — When Smith re- turned from his captivity, he begged the settlers to plant corn, for he feared that the Indians would not always fur- nish them with food ; but the men would not listen to him. Most of them had been unused to hard work in England, and thought themselves too good for it. They had come to Virginia to find riches, so instead of working they searched for gold which, of course, they did not find. Smith's fear that the Indians would stop trading with the settlers soon came true. With alarm the natives saw more and more white men coming over to the settle- ment, and they began to think that there would soon be too many to drive away. The Indians of Virginia were not yet used to the strangers, and were timid about making war upon them. Pocahontas JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 69 They had seen many of them die of starvation, however, and they planned to refuse them corn and let the colony perish. Therefore, at the beginning of the second winter, when Smith went again to the Indians, they would not trade with him. Smith found that he could not per- suade them, so with a show of boldness he frightened the redskins into letting him have a large supply of corn. Smith Puts the Colonists to Work. — The charter that the king gave the London Company did not allow a settler to own the product of his labor. The crop he raised, the fish he caught, the game he killed, and the food he secured from the Indians had to be placed in the village storehouse, there to be divided equally among all. Even the house that a man built belonged as much to the other colonists as to himself. Thus the lazy men, of whom there were many in the colony, spent their time in idleness, living upon what the hard-working men had earned. • Now John Smith, who had by this time been placed at the head of the colony, was a just man and he was as wise as he was bold. He knew how to make the lazy men work. He rnade a new law : "He who will not work shall not eat." Every man in the colony under- stood that John Smith meant what he said, and the idle went to work in a way that was surprising. Before the second year ended a number of houses had been built and much land planted. Smith Returns to England. — A few months later John Smith was severely wounded by an explosion of gunpowder. As there was no surgeon in Virginia who 70 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH could properly treat the wound, he had to return to England. The ''Starving Time." — After Smith left there was no one strong-willed enough to rule the colony, and the men again fell into idle and evil ways. They treated the Indians harshly, and the Indians in turn killed every settler who strayed any distance from the town. The settlers were wasteful of their provisions, and when they had eaten up everything, they found that the Indians would not supply them with food. In the winter of 1609-10, what is known as the " starv- ing time " set in. The suffering was terrible. \Vlien Smith left in the autumn, the settlers numbered five hundred. When spring came so many had died from hunger and cold that only sixty half-starved settlers were left. Prosperity Comes to Virginia. — In the spring some English ships arrived at Jamestown, and the wretched settlers decided to give up the colony and go back to England. Bidding farewell to Jamestown, they boarded the ships and sailed down the river. Before they reached the bay, however, they were met by a fleet sent over from England. As the fleet had plenty of provisions, the settlers changed their minds and returned to Jamestown. With the fleet had come Lord Delaware, whom the London Com- pany had made governor of the colony. John Smith, whose energy and force of character had kept the colony from perishing in its infancy, never came back to Virginia. But his wise counsel in making the JOHN SMITH AND THE VIRGINIA COLONY 71 settlers work was followed by Lord Delaware and other governors who came after him. Since every person works better when he is allowed to enjoy the product of his labor, each settler was allotted a plot of ground to cultivate for his own profit. The planting of tobacco was begun, and trade in the weed was opened up with England. Soon the colony was prospering. First Legislature in America. — The London Company allowed the colony to have a legislature, or assembly as m - ^f I 111 > mm^m^^- 1^^^%- #=-^ Jamestown in 1622 it was called, to make its laws. The legislature, the first in America, met in the little wooden church at Jamestown in 161 9. One of its acts was to declare that the colonists should be taxed only with the consent of the assembly. The meeting of the first legislature of Virginia is an important event in our history. English colonists who came to Virginia regarded themselves still as English- men, and, therefore, entitled to the same rights as English- men who remained at home. In England the people were taxed only with their consent — that is, by a parlia- 72 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH ment whose members they elected. The EngHshmen in Virginia claimed that they should be taxed only by their own assembly. The English, who settled other colonies later, followed the example of Virginia in claiming the right to be taxed only by their own representatives in their own assemblies. Women Come to Virginia. — In the same year that the first legislature met at Jamestown a shipload of young women of good character came to Virginia. The London Company sent them over to become wives of the colonists, for the company knew that the men would never be satisfied unless they had wives in their homes. Each woman was allowed to marry whom she chose, but the husband had to give the company enough tobacco to pay the cost of sending her over. We may well imagine how gladly the men in that lonely country sought life- mates among these young women. Virginia Becomes a Royal Colony. — In England, opposition to the king's ruling as he pleased had become so strong that a political party had been formed to check his power. Most of the members of the London Company belonged to this party, and King James, becoming angry with them, took away their charter in 1624. The king became the owner of Virginia, thus making it a royal, or crown colony. After that time the king appointed the governor, though the colonists still retained the right to elect the members of the assembly. The Virginia Colony Brings Other English Colonies. — The success of the Virginia colony was now assured. While there were occasional troubles with the Indians QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 73 and quarrels with unjust governors sent over by the king, the colony continued to prosper. We shall see later how other Englishmen, attracted by the success of Virginia, planted colonies in America. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did Queen Elizabeth wish England to have a great navy? 2. Who was the first Englishman to sail around the world? 3. Tell the story of the Golden Hind. 4. How did Drake singe the King of Spain's beard? 5. What was the Invincible Armada, and what became of it ? 6. Mention some of the results arising from the defeat of the Armada. 7. How did Raleigh win the favor of the queen? 8. How did Virginia receive its name? 9. What became of the first Raleigh colony? 10. Tell the story of the "Lost Colony." 11. Why was Raleigh put in the Tower of London, and why was he finally put to death ? 12. Tell how, when, and where the Virginia colony was planted. 13. Describe the sufferings of the first settlers. 14. Relate some of the early experiences of John Smith. 15. How did John Smith save Virginia? 16. Tell the story of Pocahontas. 17. How were idle men allowed to impose on the industrious? 18. What rule did Smith make to change this injustice ? 19. Why did Smith return to England ? 20. What terrible trouble came upon the colonists after Smith left? 21. When and where did the first legislature in America meet? 22. Why was the meeting of this legislature important? 23. How were wives obtained for the early settlers? 24. What is a royal, or crown colony, and why was Virginia made such a colony ? 25. What effect did the success of the Virginia colony have ? CHAPTER VII THE COMING OF THE DUTCH Henry Hudson on the River that Bears His Name Henry Hudson. — Captain John Smith had a friend in England named Henry Hudson, who, Hke Smith, was fond of adventure and would undergo any peril for the sake of it. Hudson, who was a sailor, had made a number of voyages into far-away waters, and his fame as a seaman had spread throughout Europe. Seeking a Northeast Route to Asia. — The Dutch had for many years carried on a fine trade with India by sailing around Africa. This was a long way, and they began to wonder if a shorter route could be found. At length a Dutch Company employed Hudson to find a northeast route to India — for it was thought that a passage around the north of Europe would be shorter than the one around Africa. Hudson Sails in the Half Moon. — The Dutch Company fitted out for Hudson a small vessel called the Half Moon. The crew was made up half of Dutchmen and half of Englishmen — about twenty in all. With his little ship and small crew Henry Hudson started bravely out to find the northeast passage to India, but in the 74 HENRY HUDSON 75 Arctic region north of Europe the ice became so thick that the ship could go no farther. The Dutchmen and the Enghshmen in the crew quar- reled with each other, and their suffering from the bitter cold made their discontent worse. Hudson was in a dangerous position. Up in that lonely ice-covered sea he was facing a crew ready to mutiny. He knew that at J .^S^.' ^^ The " Half Moon " in the Hudson River any time they might kill him in order to sail the ship back home. Hudson Turns His Ship Westward. — Hudson was un- willing to return home without further effort to find a passage to India. He told the crew of a letter which he had received from his friend John Smith, in Virginia. In the letter Smith said that somewhere, not far north of Virginia, a sea or strait passed around North America, and that through this body of water India could be 76 THE COMING OF THE DUTCH reached. Although more than one hundred years had passed since Columbus first came to America, Europeans still held to the belief in such a passage to India. Hudson suggested to his men that since the ice kept them from finding the northeast passage to India, they might try to find the northwest passage which Smith had told him about. The crew, glad to get away from the frozen sea, agreed to make the attempt. The little Half Moon was then turned westward, and the voyage acro'ss the broad Atlantic was made. Entering New York Harbor. — When North America was reached, Hudson sailed his ship up and down the coast, looking for the northwest passage. Finally, in 1609, he entered a magnificent bay which is now New York harbor. He saw emptying into this bay a large river. Sailing on the Hudson. — Nothing would satisfy Hud- son and his adventurous crew but that they should ex- plore the river. So the Half Moon sailed upstream as far as the depth of the water would permit. The men were charmed with the magnificent scenery. Because of the picturesque mountains on either side, Hudson named the stream the " River of Mountains," but it is now called the Hudson in honor of its discoverer. As the Half Moon sailed up the river and down again, the crew traded with the Indians along the banks, buying valuable furs and skins in exchange for cheap trinkets. On coming out of the Hudson River and New York harbor, the Half Moon steered straight for Europe, for every one was eager to report the discovery. NEW NETHERLAND AND NEW AMSTERDAM 77 New Netherland and New Amsterdam The Beginning of New York. — When the Half Moon returned to Holland, news quickly spread through that country that a beautiful river had been discovered, on the banks of which rich furs and skins could be bought from the natives for almost nothing. The Dutch at once began sending out vessels to trade on the Hudson. ^mjlcrdu' The Earliest Picture of New Amsterdam Sketched by a Dutch ofl&cer in 1633 In 1 61 3, a fort and a few small trading houses were built on Manhattan Island. This little settlement was the beginning of the great city of New York. New Netherland Given to the Dutch West India Com- pany. — Dutch vessels also explored as far north as Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, and as far south as the Dela- ware River. They claimed for Holland all the land be- tween these points. They called the country New Nether- land, in honor of Holland, which is sometimes called The Netherlands. 78 THE COMING OF THE DUTCH In 1 62 1, the Dutch government gave this land to a com- pany of rich merchants in Holland, known as the West India Company, and settlers were sent over. The island of Manhattan was bought from the Indians for twenty- four dollars, and the settlement already begun there was named New Amsterdam, from Amsterdam, the chief city of Holland. The Slow Growth of New Netherland. — The colony of New Netherland grew very slowly. As was the case with the French colonies, most of the men who came to New Netherland were not seeking to make homes there but to trade with the Indians. Hence they were con- stantly coming and going. The Patroons. — In the hope of increasing the popula- tion of New Netherland, the West India Company agreed to give a large tract of land and the title of '^ Patroon " to every one of its members who should bring over to the colony fifty settlers. A few men, who succeeded in bring- ing over fifty settlers, were made ^' Patroons,^' but the plan was soon given up for it did not work well. The conditions under which the tenants were to till the lands of the '' Patroons " were too hard to induce many farmers to leave Holland. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What did Henry Hudson undertake to do for the Dutch? 2. What change did he make in his plans ? Why? 3. What discovery did he make for the Dutch ? 4. Tell about the beginning of New York City. 5. What part of this country did the Dutch claim? 6. What was the Dutch West India Company? 7. Why was the growth of New Netherland slow? 8. Why did not the plan of creating "Patroons" succeed? CHAPTER VIII THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND William Bradford and John Winthrop in Massachusetts Who the Puritans Were. — Before the first English settlement in America was made, the Protestants of Eng- land had begun to quarrel among themselves about church matters. The Church of England had long been, as it is now, the '' established church " ; that is, the church favored by the government. From this church has come the Episcopal Church in America. A number of the members of the church objected to the way it was gov- erned and to its form of worship. These people were called Puritans, because it was said they wished to purify the church methods. King James I did not like the Puritans because he thought their attacks upon the church were attacks upon himself and his government. He had his officers break up their meetings and put them in prison. The Pilgrims. — At length a little band of Puritans, who had suffered persecution because they withdrew from the church, decided to leave their native country and seek a place where they could worship as they wished. They went first to Holland, where they called them- selves Pilgrims — meaning travelers. But as they did 79 8o THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND not wish to mix with the Dutch, they decided to take refuge in the wilds of America, where the Virginia colony had already been successfully planted. A committee was sent over to England to ask King James to give the Pilgrims a charter for planting a colony in America. The king refused to give the charter, be- cause he did not wish to have any dealings with the Pil- grims. However, he dropped a hint that the Pilgrims might without his consent settle a colony in America. He gave them to understand that he would not trouble them if they lived there peaceably. The Voyage of the Mayflower. — The Pilgrims were very poor, so they had a hard time raising enough money to get ships and the supplies needed for the long voyage. When everything was ready, those who had been chosen to make the first voyage to America went back to England, for it was planned that they should start from that coun- try. One hundred and two persons, — men, women, and children, — crowded upon one small vessel — the May- flower — and set sail from Plymouth harbor. The voyage was stormy, and the vessel, which came near being wrecked, took three months to cross. The Landing at Plymouth. — The Pilgrims had in- tended landing somewhere near Virginia, but storms drove them far north, and when they at last sighted land they were off the coast of New England. Winter had come ; the ground was frozen, and heavy snows were falling. Yet the Pilgrims had become so weary of being crowded together in the little vessel that they welcomed even that cold bleak coast. MASSACHUSETTS On December 21, 1620, a landing was made on the shore of what is now Massachusetts. A site was chosen for their town, which they called Plymouth, after the city from which they had sailed. The Mayflower Compact. — Before landing, the men had met in the cabin of the Mayflower and drawn up a paper by which all agreed to obey the laws of the govern- ment that they would set up. The paper is known as the Mayflower Com- pact. John Carver was made the first governor. A Winter of Suffer- ing. — At first the The ''Mayflower" building of houses From the model in the Smithsonian Institution progressed slowly, for at Washington bad weather often kept the men from working. The colonists suffered much from cold and hunger, and sick- ness spread rapidly among them. So many became sick and so many deaths occurred that at one time there were hardly enough well men to bury the dead. By the end of the winter half the settlers had died, and among the dead was Governor Carver. William Bradford. — The survivors kept stout hearts. In the spring when the Mayflower returned to England, not one of the brave Httle band went back. They chose 82 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND William Bradford to succeed Carver as governor. Brad- ford was a young man who, much against the wishes of his family, had joined the Pilgrims and had come to the New World ready to undergo all sorts of hardships for what he believed to be the right faith. Samoset and Massasoit Make Friends with the Pil- grims. — Fortunately the Indians did not attack the settlement in its weak condition. It was not long before the colonists learned why the Indians had left them un- troubled. One day, an Indian named Samoset walked into the settlement, saying, " Welcome Englishmen.'' The settlers were surprised to see a native who could speak English. They found that Samoset had learned a little of the language from some Englishmen who had come to the coast of New England to fish. Samoset told the settlers that about four years before, a band of Indians had killed some white fishermen, and soon afterward a plague had wiped out all the tribe. The Indians of other tribes believed that the plague had been sent as a punishment for the killing of the whites, so they were afraid to harm the Pilgrims. Samoset brought Massasoit to visit the Englishmen. Massasoit was the chief of the Wampanoags, the tribe living nearest to Plymouth. The settlers received the chief most kindly, and made a treaty of peace with him. Massasoit lived for fifty years longer and during all that time the terms of the treaty were faithfully kept. The First Thanksgiving Day in America. — The friend- ship of the Indians was worth a great deal to the colonists, for the Indians were able to help them in many ways. MASSACHUSETTS 83 g the settlers how to Their greatest help was in teachin plant corn. Py autumn the health of the colonists had been restored ; a good crop of corn had been raised ; wild turkeys, deer, and fish had been secured in abundance ; and enough fuel for the coming winter had been laid by. Then Governor Bradford set a day for thanksgiving to God for His blessings to the colony. Thus began the cus- Copyright. 1S91, by A. S. Burbank A View of Plymouth in 1622 torn of setting aside one day in the year as Thanksgiving Day — a custom that is now followed all over the country. The Desperate Struggle of Plymouth against Diffi- culties. — The Pilgrims were very thrifty. They wrenched crops from the stony soil, and they traded with the Indians for skins and furs. By dint of hard work Plym- outh became in a few years a self-supporting colony. Other Pilgrims came over, but the colony did not be- come strong in numbers for the Pilgrims were only a very small branch of the Puritans. 84 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND Bradford lived for thirty-five years after coming to America, and was governor of Plymouth with the excep- tion of four years during all that time. He ruled J:he colony so wisely that he was greatly beloved. Other Puritans Come. — When James I died, he was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Charles I. The new king treated the Puritans who remained in Eng- land even worse than his father had done. Some of them decided to follow the example of the Pilgrims in planting a colony in America as a place of refuge. They organized a company and, in 1628, sent ovpr sixty men who settled Salem, in Massachusetts, not far from the town of Plymouth. I The company thought it would be safer to have a charter from the king if possible. It will be remembered that King James had refused to give the Pilgrims a charter. King Charles, however, willingly gave a charter to the Puritans when they asked one of him, for they were not like the Pilgrims, poor humble folk, but were persons of influence and wealth. They were members of the strong political party that had been formed against the king, and doubtless Charles was glad to be rid of them. The new company was called the Com- pany of Massachusetts Bay. John Winthrop. — The persecution of the Puritans in England became so severe that the members of the company themselves resolved to go to America, and to carry their charter with them. They thought that it would not be so easy for the king to take away their charter if the broad ocean lay between them and England. MASSACHUSETTS 85 John Winthrop, who was a member of the company, was elected governor. In 1630 he crossed the ocean with a large party of Puritans in a fleet of four vessels. Puri- tans now began coming in great numbers and before the end of the year there were more than one thousand in the Massachusetts Bay colony. Settlement of Boston. — There were not enough houses in Salem for all these people, so they scattered along the shores of Massachusetts Bay, building new towns. Among these was Boston, which was made the capital of the colony. Winthrop Encourages His People. — As was the case with most other colonies, the settlers suffered greatly during the first winter for want of food and proper shelter. The food sup- ply got so low that they were glad to eat acorns and nuts. Many of the colonists died. Governor Winthrop by his courage kept up the spirit of his people. Though he was rich, and had been used to all the comforts of life, he set to work with his own hands to build houses and clear the ground for planting. Massachusetts Has a Church-Controlled Government. — The Puritans had come to America in order to worship God in their own way. They feared that if they allowed other religions, they might lose control of the colony and perhaps finally be persecuted again. So when any one John Winthrop 86 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND who did not attend the Puritan Church came into the colony, he was sent away. Only members of the Puritan Church were allowed to vote. The ministers decided who should be church mem- bers, and they admitted only a few. In this way the church controlled the government of the colony. It is interesting to know that the present Congregational Church grew out of this early Puritan Church. Winthrop's Great Heart. — We now realize that it is wrong to pass laws against religion, but in those days even good men like John Winthrop thought it dangerous to allow any other religion than their own. Still, though most of the Puritans believed in dealing very severely with people who did not belong to their church, John Winthrop was too kind-hearted to be harsh. He always tried to make the punishment of offenders as light as possible. Winthrop lived in the Massachusetts Bay colony nine- teen years. He was elected governor term after term, serving in all fifteen years. Most of the other four years, he served as deputy governor. He, more than any one else, made the Massachusetts Bay colony a success. Winthrop left a record that stamps him as one of the fore- most men of America's colonial history. Rapid Growth of Massachusetts. — Unlike the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth, the Massachusetts Bay colony grew very rapidly. In twelve years it had a population of twenty thousand. In 1691 the English government united the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth under the name of Massachusetts Bay. CONNECTICUT 87 The English Settle in New Hampshire. — Before the Puritans settled Massachusetts Bay, a few men from England founded (1623) the towns of Portsmouth and Dover in New Hampshire. Later, emigrants from Massa- chusetts moved into the colony. For a while during the colonial period, New Hampshire was a part of Massachusetts, but at the time of the Revo- lution it was a separate colony, belonging to the king. Thomas Hooker and His Congregation Seek Connecticut Dutch and English Claim Connecticut. — We have seen that the Dutch claimed that the territory of New Nether- land extended far into New England. For the purpose of trading for the fine furs that were plentiful in the valley, the Dutch had built a fort on the Connecticut River. This fort they called Good Hope. Now, the English also claimed Connecticut, and the people of the Plymouth colony wished the fur trade of the valley. So a small band of Plymouth men built a trading post on the Connecticut River. The Dutch governor of New Netherland vowed that the English should not be allowed to stay on land that he claimed belonged to Holland, and he sent a body of soldiers from New Amsterdam to drive them away. But the men from Plymouth would not leave. The Dutch soldiers, after much talking and blustering, marched back to New Amsterdam without firing a shot. News of a Rich Valley Reaches Massachusetts. — The Dutchmen and the Plymouth people, seeking only to 88 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND trade with the Indians, made no effort to settle Connecti- cut. It was finally settled by emigrants from the Massa- chusetts colony. The people of Massachusetts had a hard struggle to make a living from the stony soil of their colony. When news of the fertile land and rich furs of the Connecticut Valley reached them, it seemed to them that the valley was a land of milk and honey. Many longed to go there. As one colonist wrote with the quaint spelling of the time, ^' Hereing of ye fame of Conightecute river, they had a hankering mind after it." There was another reason why these people were im- patient to leave Massachusetts and make new homes in the wilderness of Connecticut. Although they were mem- bers of the Puritan Church, they did not like the church- controlled government of Massachusetts ; they wished to go where they could form a government of their own that would be freer. The First Towns in Connecticut. — In the year 1635, small parties of Massachusetts people moved overland into Connecticut. Some of them, settling around the Plymouth trading post, began the town of Windsor ; others founded the town of Wethersfield. Thomas Hooker and His Congregation. — The next year, the entire congregation of the church at Newton (now Cambridge), Massachusetts, decided to leave. Led by their pastor, Rev. Thomas Hooker, they started through the wilderness for Connecticut, driving their cattle and hogs before them. In the congregation were about one hundred men, women, and children. The dis- CONNECTICUT 89 tance to be traveled was less than one hundred miles, and Hooker and his flock were ten days on the way. It was a pleasant journey. The time was the balmy days of early June, when the woods were bright with flowers and green foliage, and alive with the music of the /' ' ;-'r. o'^u'o ^^ _ ..... t) ^~f^' ^^ / \%% JJcioucesUr luseits t ^ / ^ S^r^' \ / %%% JJcicucest I ^M A S S^ A C^")h U S E T T S Lcxingi^3-A^J^ynn3fassac7i I ' • ~) yVatertownT^BostonieSO ■=■) i^Roxbttry'^Dof^hester Ban I { '- ^i^- ^._^% A ^ " X.-a; r Duxburyo ] I o' « ■^ 1620O Pro •idcnceo i O '^ \iC36^ S ^Seekonh'. *, a^ C^ %^ NANTUCKET _i3^ —z: New England in the Seventeenth Century birds. Some traveled on horseback, some on foot, and the weaker ones in wagons. All went with light hearts, seeing before them happier times in the land of promise. Founding of Hartford. — Arrived at the Connecticut River, Hooker and his congregation built their cabins around the spot where the Dutch had erected Fort Good Hope. This settlement became the city of Hartford. 90 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND Trouble with the Indians. — Within less than a year after the arrival of Hooker's party, eight hundred persons from Massachusetts had moved into Connecticut. The Pequots, the most powerful Indian tribe in New England, lived in Connecticut. They watched with alarm the coming of the English, for they knew that, if the English became very numerous, the Indians would be driven from the home of their ancestors. So they went upon the warpath to wipe out the colony while it was still feeble. They killed men, women, and children, and destroyed houses, hvestock, and crops. Weak as the colony was, it raised a little army which, after some months of fighting, destroyed the whole Pequot tribe. Other tribes of New England were amazed that any people should be strong enough to destroy the powerful Pequots. Warned by the fate of this tribe, they gave no trouble for forty years. This long period of peace enabled all the New England colonies to grow steadily. The Connecticut Constitution. — Shortly after the Pequot War, the inhabitants of the three towns, Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield, drew up a constitution for the government of Connecticut. It was the first written constitution in the history of the world, and was the only constitution adopted by an English colony before the outbreak of the Revolution. Why We Should Honor the Connecticut Constitution. — The drawing up of the constitution was a bold thing to do, for the people of Connecticut had not asked permission of the king. Indeed, the king was not men- tioned in the document, which required that the people RHODE ISLAND 91 take an oath to support the colonial government, not the king. Most governments, at that time, oppressed the people, but the government of Connecticut gave them many rights. Thomas Hooker took a leading part in the framing of the constitution. We should always honor these pioneers of the forest who were so far ahead of their time. Roger Williams Founds Rhode Island Young Williams in Massachusetts. — Soon after the founding of Massachusetts, there came to that colony one of the best and bravest men known to American history, Roger Williams. Williams had been a Puritan minister in England, but he was wiser than most of his sect. He did not like the kind of government that had been formed in Massachusetts, and he spoke strongly against it. Williams' Liberal Views. — Williams declared that every one should be allowed to worship God as he pleased ; that a man should be allowed to vote whether he belonged to the Puritan Church or not ; that people should not be made to pay taxes for the support of any one church ; and that a man should not be made to go to church against his will. Roger Williams meant simply that the govern- ment should not meddle with a person's religion. He was merely trying to put an end to laws that we all know now to be wrong, and that have long since been changed. The Young Minister Called a " Troubler." — For the Puritans of Massachusetts to do what Williams wished 92 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND meant the overthrow of the government that they had been at such great pains to set up. Naturally they did not like this idea, and they tried to make Williams hold his peace. There was no power great enough to silence him. He even went further and said that the king had no right to give to settlers land in America for the reason that the land was not the king's to give. The Indians, he said, were the owners of the land, and they alone could give it away or sell it. Roger Williams so annoyed the Puritans that they called him a '' troubler." Williams Flees to the Wilderness. — When they found that they could not control his speech, the Puritans de- cided to drive Williams from the colony. Orders were given to arrest him and place him on board a ship about to sail for England. Williams heard of these orders ; so, kissing his wife and children good-by, he slipped out of his house in the dead of night and fled into the wilderness. Befriended by the Indians. — Finally Williams sought shelter among the Indians. He had often before visited them, staying with them days at a time. He once said, very truly, " My soul's desire is to do the natives good." The natives had learned to love him, and they gave him a cordial welcome when his own people had driven him from home. Massasoit, the old friend of the Plymouth colony, took Williams into his wigwam, and later gave him land upon which to build a house. Williams Ordered to '' Move On." — Soon a messenger came from Plymouth to warn Roger WiUiams that the RHODE ISLAND 93 land which Massasoit had given him belonged to the Plymouth colony, and to order him to move on further. Again the wanderer set out with his staff. Rhode Island Begun. — Williams went to the head of Narragansett Bay, and there, with a few friends who had followed him from Massachusetts, he founded the town of Providence in 1636. Williams was careful to buy the land from the Narra- gansett Indians to whom it belonged. A government was formed which was not in any way to interfere with a man's religion. As Wil- liams said, the colony was founded " as a shelter for the poor and persecuted." To all who sought the colony, Williams gave land. He gave away so much land that he had none left for himself. From this humble beginning grew the colony of Rhode Island. Williams Saves New England. — When the Pequots went on the warpath to destroy the colony of Connecticut, they wished the Narragansetts, another very powerful tribe, to join them in the war. The Pequots thought that by this union every colony of New England could be overwhelmed. At that time the two tribes could muster many more warriors than there were fighting men in all the colonies of New England combined. The Monument to Roger Williams at Providence 94 THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND When news of the plan of the Pequots reached Massa- chusetts, the ofhcials of that colony — the very men who had persecuted Roger Williams — wrote Williams a letter beseeching him to use his influence with his friends, the Narragansetts, to keep them from joining the Pequots. Williams, forgiving the men who had wronged him, took a canoe, and alone, in a heavy storm, paddled across Narra- gansett Bay to the village of the chief. There he found messengers from the Pequots begging the Narragansetts to help drive the white men from the land of their fathers. For three days and nights Williams stayed with the Narragansetts, urging that they remain friendly to the whites. At every moment he was in danger of being murdered by the Pequot messengers, but not once did he waver in his purpose. His influence with the Narra- gansetts was so great that he not only kept them from joining the hostile tribe, but actually persuaded them in- stead to help the colonists against the Pequots. Williams in Later Life. — The other New England colonies disapproved of Rhode Island because it allowed all kinds of people to live within its boundaries. They would have nothing to do with such a colony, and pre- dicted that it would fail. But its founder cared nothing for other, people's opinion when he knew that he was in the right, and continued to welcome every unfortunate white man who sought protection in his colony. He pro- tected the red men, too, and he never lost their good will. Roger Williams' name shines brightly upon the pages of American history, for his long and useful life was spent in the cause of liberty and justice. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 95 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Who were the Puritans ? Why were some of them called Pilgrims ? 2. Describe the voyage of the Mayflower, and the first winter at Plym- outh. 3. Who was William Bradford? 4. Why were the Indians good to the Pilgrims at first ? 5. Tell about the first Thanksgiving Day. 6. Why was the Plymouth colony never strong, and how did Bradford watch over it ? 7. Why was Massachusetts settled? 8. Tell all you can about John Winthrop. 9. Why did the Puritans treat other people harshly? 10. What kind of government did Massachusetts have? 11. What became of the Plymouth colony? How was New Hampshire settled? 12. What two nations claimed the Connecticut Valley? 13. Why did people in Massachusetts wish to go to the valley? 14. Relate the story of Thomas Hooker and his congregation. 15. Tell of the Pequot War. 16. Why should we honor the framers of the Connecticut constitution? 17. What was it about the Puritan Church of Massachusetts that Williams did not like? 18. Do people now think as he did? 19. What did he say the king had no right to do? 20. How did the people of Massachusetts treat him? 21. Where did he go; and what colony did he found? 22. How did he get on with the Indians? 23. Tell how Roger Williams saved New England. 24. Why should the name of Roger WilHams be a household word with Americans ? CHAPTER IX NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA Lord Baltimore and His Maryland Colony Why Baltimore Wished to EstabUsh a Colony. — Catholics were persecuted in England on account of their rehgion. George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, was a CathoHc and wished to settle a colony in America as a refuge for people of his faith. As he was a just man, he desired that the colony should be a haven of peace for every Christian, whether Cathohc or Protestant. The King Gives Baltimore a Charter. — In order to carry out this worthy plan. Lord Baltimore asked King Charles I, who was his friend, to give him a charter and a grant of land in America. The king consented and gave him land north of the Potomac River, next to the colony of Virginia. How Maryland Received Its Name. — When the char- ter was written, Baltimore had a space left for the name of the colony. He took the charter to the king to be signed, and Charles asked, '' What wiU you call the country? " Baltimore answered, " I wish your majesty to name it.'' " Then," said the king, " let us name it for the queen. Let it be Mary Land." So Maryland became the name of the new colony. 96 MARYLAND 97 The Rights of the Lord Proprietor. — The great seal of England had to be put on the charter to make it lawful. Before this could be done Lord Baltimore died, and the document was given to his son, Cecilius Culvert, the second Lord Baltimore. By this charter Baltimore was made lord of the colony. In fact, he had as much power as if he had been its king. The revenues from the col- ony were to go to Lord Baltimore, and the laws passed by the colonists were to be sent to him for ap- proval, and not to the king. As Lord Baltimore was the owner of Maryland, he was called the Proprietor. However, to show that the king was sovereign over the colony, Baltimore was made to give him two Indian ar- rows every year. The Voyage of the Ark and the Dove. — Balti- more intended to come to America with the colonists, but as there was hard feeling in England because the charter had been given to a Catholic, he stayed in London to protect his rights. He sent his brother, Leonard Cal- vert, to act as governor in his stead. Lord Baltimore had said Christians of any creed might live in his colony. Hence, a number of Protestants as Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore After a painting in the State House, Annapolis 98 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA well as Catholics sailed in his two ships, the Ark and the DovCy when they left England near the end of the year 1633. Two Catholic priests came with the colonists. The fleet crossed the ocean in a terrible storm, and arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, after a three months' voyage.. The Virginians Jealous of the Maryland Colony. — The Virginians did not like Lord Baltimore's plan of settling Maryland. They claimed that the land given to him belonged to Virginia, and furthermore they did not wish to have so near them a colony ruled by a Catholic. They had to be friendly, however, for the king had written a letter commanding them to be kind to the new colonists. Landing on the Potomac. — After a short stay at James- town, the Maryland colonists sailed up the Chesapeake Bay into the Potomac River, and landed on an island about thirty miles from the mouth on a bright day in 1634. A large cross made of wood was at once set up, and around it the Christians knelt while the priest said mass. Then Leonard Calvert took possession of the country, " For our Savior and for our Sovereign Lord, the King of England." Buying a Town from the Indians. — Before choosing a place for the settlement, Calvert visited the native chiefs to tell them that the settlers had come as friends. One chief received him kindly and said that his people and the white men should share all things in common. Another would not at first express any opinion about the coming of the white men ; but before Calvert left him the two were friends. I MARYLAND 99 A Maryland Shilling Sailing up the St. Mary's River, which flows into the Potomac, Calvert came to a high bluff that overlooks the stream. There stood an Indian village, and he spent the night with the natives, the chief giving him his own sleeping mat. Calvert was so much pleased with the place that he decided to plant his settlement there, if the Indians would sell the land. Calling the natives together under a large mulberry tree, he bought the land and the village in exchange for cloth, axes, hoes, and other tools, to- gether with some gaudy trinkets. Maryland Prosperous and Peaceful. — As the Indians had already begun their planting, it was agreed that they should keep half the village until their crop was harvested. In the meantime the white people were to live in the other half. The colonists at once began planting. Side by side the white men and the red men worked together, and together they went hunting. The squaws taught the white women to make corn bread and hominy. By the time winter came, the colonists had built com- fortable houses to live in, and had raised so much corn that they were able to send a shipload to New England to exchange for codfish. From the first Maryland was one of the most prosper- ous and most peaceful of the colonies. lOO NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA The Eight Lords Proprietors of Carolina Puritans in Control in England. — It will be remembered that the Puritans in England had, on account of their persecution by the government, joined a political party opposed to the king. As most of its members were Puri- tans, it was known as the Puritan party. In the reign of Charles I, the Puritans secured control of parliament. A civil war between the Puritan party and the king's party followed. Charles I was taken prisoner and be- headed. His young son. Prince Charles, had to flee from England to save his life. A republic, called the Commonwealth, was then set up in England, with Oliver Cromwell at its head. Crom- well ruled England until his death, nine years later. After Cromwell's death. Prince Charles was brought back to England and put on his throne. He was known as Charles II. King Charles II Rewards His Friends. — Charles II was so glad to secure his throne that he showered all kinds of gifts upon the friends who had helped him. In 1663, he gave to eight of these friends the vast tract of land lying between Virginia and Florida, and known as Caro- lina. These eight men were to be lords and proprietors of this entire tract and were given the right to establish a colony here. North and South Carolina. — In 1653, ten years before Charles II gave Carolina to his eight friends, people from Virginia had begun to settle on Albemarle Sound. In 1670, the proprietors sent over from England colonists THE CAROLINAS lOI who settled on the Ashley River. This settlement was named Charles Town, in honor of the king. In 1680, the town was moved to the peninsula between the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, where the city of Charleston now stands. The proprietors did not intend to form two colonies in Carolina, but the settlement on the Albemarle Sound and the settlement on the Ashley River were so far apart that their government had to be more or less separate. From the settlement on Albemarle Sound grew the colony of North Carolina, and from the settlement on the Ashley River grew the colony of South Carolina. Troubles with the In- dians, the Spaniards, and the French. — From the very first the two colonies of the Caro- linas had trouble with the Indians who would swoop down upon the settlements without warning, and kill men, women, and children. The settlers had to take turns at their work, one planting while the other stood guard with his gun. The colony of South Carolina was also exposed to at- tacks from the Spaniards who claimed the land as a part of Florida. Port Royal, a small settlement south of St Augustine V 1565 ,C The Carolina Coast I02 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA Charleston, was destroyed by Spanish soldiers who came up from St. Augustine in Florida. Later, France and Spain, then at war with England, joined in sending a fleet with an army to capture Charles- ton, but the little colony fought so bravely that the in- vaders were driven away. Noblemen and Serfs for Carolina. — Besides their many war troubles, the colonies of North Carolina and South Carolina both suffered from bad government. The proprietors had drawn up a constitution, known as the Grand Model, for the government of Carolina. The constitution was entirely too big for the needs of the handful of settlers living in log cabins in the wilderness. It also interfered too much with the personal rights of the people. For example, a court should decide what kind of clothes men and women should wear and what kind of games children should play. One of the most absurd things about the Grand Model was that it provided for noblemen and serfs for the colony. There were to be two orders of nobility, '' langraves '^ or earls and " caciques " or barons ; and there were to be laborers, called " leet-men " and " leet-women," who could not own land at all, and could not leave the land they -rented without the consent of the owner. The proprietors appointed a few langraves and caciques, but this system soon died out. This is the only instance in the history of the English colonies in America where orders of nobility were established. Quarrels between the governors and the people were frequent because the governors tried to enforce the foolish THE CAROLINAS 103 constitution and to collect taxes that the colonists thought to be unjust. The colonists were not backward in assert- ing their rights and successfully resisted these acts of oppression. The Carolinas Become Royal Colonies. — Finally, South Carolina grew tired of the rule of the proprietors and rose in revolt. Though the revolution was bloodless, it was Charleston in 1673 From an old print none the less complete. The colonists turned the governor out of office and asked George I, who was then king of Great Britain, to appoint the officials of South Carolina instead of allowing the proprietors to do so. The king granted their request and South Carolina became a royal province. Though the proprietors no longer ruled the colony, they continued to own it until 1729, when the king bought I04 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA their rights to all Carolina. The two colonies which, for many years, had really been separate, were then for- mally divided into North and South Carolina. Oglethorpe and the Georgia Colony How Debtors Suffered in Prisons. — Up to a hundred years ago it was legal and customary in England to put men in jail when they could not pay their debts. The same law existed in America, though it was not put into practice very much in this country. The jails, even in England, were filthy, loathsome places and, sometimes, debtors were thrown into cells with mur- derers, thieves, and other criminals. They often suffered horrible tortures, and deaths among them were frequent. The most distressing feature was that many of the prisoners in jail for debt were worthy men. Oglethorpe's Plan for Relieving Debtors. — James Edward Oglethorpe, who had served as a soldier in the English army, was for many years a member of parliament. All the time that he was in parliament, Oglethorpe worked to have laws passed for the relief of the poor and dis- tressed. It grieved him that so many worthy men were serving as prisoners for debt, and he thought that a good way to relieve their pitiable condition would be to send them to America where they could begin life again. Aid of the King Sought. — With this idea in- mind, Oglethorpe and some of his friends asked King George II to grant them a charter for planting a colony between the Carolinas and Florida. Oglethorpe told the king that such a colony would protect the growing settlements in GEORGIA 105 the Carolinas from the Spaniards. The king was wise enough to see the truth of this statement ; so he granted the charter (1732). The colony was called Georgia in honor of the king. Oglethoi;"pe and the other men who had asked for the charter were made trustees of the colony on condition that they should serve without pay. Aid of the Public Sought. — Oglethorpe then asked everybody who could to give money to the colony. Many were glad to help in such a good cause, and money was given by persons in every walk of life. Parliament also added a large sum, while Oglethorpe spent nearly all his private for- tune on the scheme. Oglethorpe Appointed Gov- ernor. — When enough money was raised to make a begin- ning, the trustees visited the jails and chose for colonists J^^^^ ^°^^^° Oglethorpe debtors of good character. The trustees appointed Ogle- thorpe governor of the new colony, and he consented to take the office, but refused to accept pay for his services. There were those who thought Oglethorpe very foolish to give up his fine home and high position in society for a life of hardship and danger in a wilderness; but these were selfish people who could not understand the nobility of spirit that led this man to sacrifice himself for others. Settlement of Savannah. — With one hundred and twenty colonists in one ship, the Amie, Oglethorpe crossed io6 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA the ocean. Early in 1 733, the settlers sailed up the Savan- nah River. On a high bluff overlooking the river, a few miles from its mouth, they began building a town which they named Savannah. Oglethorpe and Tomochichi. — While Oglethorpe urged on the work in the town as much as possible, he did not neglect to make friends with the Indians. For this pur- pose he paid a visit to Tomochichi, the chief of the tribe living nearest to Savannah, and through his influence made friends with all the neighboring tribes. A treaty was made by which the Indians gave to the English a large tract of land along the coast, and Ogle- thorpe agreed to see that the white men dealt justly with the Indians. In token of the treaty the chiefs gave Ogle- thorpe eight buckskins, one for each tribe, saying that they were the best they had to give. Then Tomochichi presented Oglethorpe with a buffalo skin, saying, '' Here is a buffalo skin adorned with the head and feathers of an eagle. The eagle signifies speed, the buffalo strength. T^e English are swift as an eagle and strong as a buffalo. But the feathers of an eagle are soft, and signify kindness ; the skin of the buffalo is a covering, and signifies protection. Let these remind them to be kind to us and to protect us." Oglethorpe's Influence over the Indians. — No man ever had greater influence over the Indians than Ogle- thorpe. He was so kind and just to them that they soon learned to love and trust him. If a wdiite man did them a wrong, they would not kill him or make war upon the colony, as Indians would often do in the case of other GEORGIA 107 colonies. Instead, they would report the matter to Ogle- thorpe and let him settle it. They were always satisfied with his decision. It was most fortunate for the Georgia colony that Oglethorpe won the friendship of the Indians. Spain claimed that the land upon which Oglethorpe and his colonists had settled was a part of Florida, and demanded Settlements in Georgia This map shows the size of the original grant of Georgia in 1732 that they should leave. Of course, Oglethorpe refused. Thereupon the Spaniards in Florida tried to persuade the Georgia Indians to attack the English, hoping thus to destroy the young colony. The love of the Indians for Oglethorpe was too great, however, for the Spaniards to overcome. The Colonists Well Cared For. — Oglethorpe also took good care of the colonists. He made them work, but he did so because he knew that their safety depended upon their having houses to live in and forts to protect them from the Spaniards in Florida. He made them do no work io8 NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA that he did not share. Often he slept in a tent or by a camp-fire, while his men were comfortably housed. As more settlers came over, Oglethorpe built other towns besides Savannah, and on the islands toward Flor- ida he erected a number of forts. Spaniards Invade Georgia. — War having broken out between Spain and England, the Spaniards planned to drive the English out of Georgia and the Carolinas by sending a large army up through Georgia. In 1742, the Spaniards came. With more than five thousand men and fifty ships they landed on St. Simon's Island, on the coast of Georgia, to attack the town of Frederica. To meet this strong force Oglethorpe had only eight hundred men, including Indians, and two ships. In order to reach Frederica, the invaders had to march over a narrow road where not more than three men could walk abreast. As the Spaniards came up the narrow pass they were caught in ambush. Oglethorpe and his men, hidden in the forest, poured volley after volley upon them, killing or wounding many. The others fled in confusion and retreated to Florida. Oglethorpe cap- tured cannon and great quantities of ammunition and provisions. After this the Spaniards never again in- vaded Georgia. Georgia Becomes a Royal Colony. — In the year fol- lowing the defeat of the Spaniards, Oglethorpe returned to England where he lived until a very old age. Because of Oglethorpe's unselfish devotion to others, his is one of the names most cherished in America to-day. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 109 Seal of the Georgia Colony On account of its growth Georgia became too large for the trustees to take care of. In 1752, they turned the colony over to the king, who then governed it through officials whom he appointed. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did Lord Baltimore wish to plant a colony in America? 2. Tell how the colony came to be called Maryland. 3. What rights were given Lord Baltimore by the charter? 4. Why did not the Jamestown colonists like the plan of settling Maryland? 5. How did Leonard Calvert take possession of the country? 6. TeU about Calvert's visits to the Indians. 7. How was land obtained for the settlement ? 8. Describe the life of the Indians and the settlers during the first summer. 9. What religious rights were granted in Maryland ? 10. Compare these rights with those in the Puritans' colony. II. Tell about the civil war in England. 12. How did Charles II reward some of his friends? 13. From what did the colony of North Carolina grow ? The colony of South Carolina ? 14. Tell of the early history of the CaroHnas. 15. What may be said of the only two orders of nobility in America? 16. Tell about the troubles between the settlers of South Carolina and the Spaniards and the French. 17. How did the Carolinas become royal colonies ? 18. Describe the suffering of debtors in the English prisons. 19. Who was James Edward Oglethorpe ; and why did he wish to plant a colony in America? 20, Why was King George II willing to give him a charter? 21. What town was founded in 1733 ? Where? 22. What sort of man was Tomochichi? 23. What may be said of Oglethorpe's influence over the Indians? 24. Relate the events of the Spanish invasion of Georgia. 25. Why should the character of Oglethorpe be admired ? CHAPTER X THE MIDDLE COLONIES Peter Stuyvesant Surrenders New Netherland Growth of New Netherland Continues Slow. — While the English colonies were growing rapidly, the growth of the Dutch colony of New Netherland continued to be slow. Although New Amsterdam was still a small village, it had become a place of some importance ; for it was situated on the best harbor in America. The fine furs secured in the valleys of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers were shipped to Europe from this port. Traders from many different countries of Europe met at New Amsterdam. Peter Stuyvesant Comes to New Netherland. — The settlers of New Netherland had suffered so long from the harsh rule of other governors sent over by the Dutch West India Company, that they were glad when they heard that Peter Stuyvesant, whom they knew as a brave soldier, was coming to govern them. As the ship bearing Stuy- vesant entered the harbor of New Amsterdam (1647), the people greeted it with loud cheers and used up nearly all the powder in the town in firing salutes. When he landed, Stuyvesant, instead of receiving the enthusiastic welcome of the people in a friendly way, marched through the town " like a peacock, with great no NEW NETHERLAND III state and pomp." The citizens who had come to pay him their respects were made to stand bareheaded in the sun while he sat comfortably in his chair with his hat on. It is said that after listening to the speeches of welcome, the only promise he would make the people was, '' I shall govern you as a father his children." Stuyvesant's Stern Rule. — Stuyvesant must have had stern notions of a father's govern- ment, for he ruled with an iron hand. He was a bluff old soldier, who did not think the people had sense enough to help in the government. He was hard-headed and impatient, and would have his own way about everything. For any one to appeal to the mother country, Holland, over his head was to his mind treason. To one person he said, " If I thought there was any danger of your trying an appeal, I would hang you this minute to the tallest tree on the island." " Father Silver Leg." — It must not be thought, how- ever, that Stuyvesant was a bad man. He had the welfare of the people at heart, and wished to do what he thought was right. He made many rules that were of benefit to the colony, and under them the people did well. He treated the Indians justly, and they became his friends. Peter Stuyvesant 112 THE MIDDLE COLONIES Stuyvesant had lost a leg in war, so he wore a wooden leg, around which were silver bands. The Dutchmen nicknamed him " Old Silver Leg," but the Indians affec- tionately called him " Father Silver Leg." Swedes Settle Delaware. — Some years before Stuy- vesant came to America, a company formed in Sweden had sent out a party of colonists. Sailing up Delaware Bay, they had built a fort on the Delaware River on the site of the present city of Wilmington. The Swedes called their settlement New Sweden. As the Swedes had settled on land claimed by the Dutch, Stuyvesant attacked the feeble Swedish garrison, over- powered it, and made New Sweden a part of New Nether- land. The English Overrunning the Dutch Claim. — In the meantime. New Englanders who swarmed into Connecti- cut, which it will be remembered the Dutch claimed, had pushed their settlements over to Long Island, which the Dutch also claimed. Stuyvesant fussed and fumed against the English, but he could do nothing, as his forts were weak and his soldiers few. He wrote to Holland for troops, saying, " We declare it is wholly out of our power to keep the sinking ship longer." He pleaded in vain, for Holland sent him no help. England Covets New Netherland. — As long as Holland owned a colony between the English settlements, England could not unite her colonies. Moreover, the English coveted the fine harbor of New Amsterdam and the fur trade that passed through it. Therefore, since England had long claimed the territory included in New Nether- NEW NETHERLAND 113 land, Charles II resolved to make good the claim by seizing the Dutch colony. The fact that England and Holland were at peace made no difference to Charles II. First, he gave New Nether- land to his brother, the Duke of York, who afterward be- came King James II. Then, in 1664, he sent a large fleet and army to capture the colony. New Netherland Given Up to the Eng- lish. — When the fleet entered the harbor of New Amsterdam, the town was summoned to surrender. The leading men of New Amsterdam, knowing that the town could not be held against such a strong force, advised Stuyvesant not to fight. Most of the people had grown tired of Dutch rule, and were willing that the English should govern them ; but the brave old Stuyvesant, purple with rage, stumped around on his wooden leg, refusing to surrender. The English commander, who was still with his ships some distance down the harbor, sent a second summons for Stuyvesant to surrender, saying, '' I shall come for your answer to-morrow with ships and soldiers." 114 THE MIDDLE COLONIES Still the valiant Dutchman held out. But when women and children in tears crowded about him begging him to surrender, and even his own son joined with the other citizens in advising him to give up, the old soldier finally consented. ''Well, let it be so," he said with a heavy heart, " but I had rather be carried to my grave." A white flag was raised over the fort of New Amster- dam in token of surrender. The Dutch soldiers marched New Amsterdam in 1665 After Van der Donck's New Netherland out, and the English soldiers marched in. The Dutch colony became an English colony. New Netherland Becomes New York. — The names of both the colony and its chief town were changed to New York, in honor of their English master. Stuyvesant and the Dutch settlers stayed in the colony, and English- men then began coming in even greater numbers. Under English rule New York soon became prosperous, though many of the English governors were as objectionable as the Dutch governors had been. PENNSYLVANIA "5 William Penn Founds Pennsylvania The Quakers. — Of all the religious sects that were persecuted in England at the time of the settlement of America, the most ill-treated was that of the Quakers, or Friends, as they called themselves. The Quakers at that time came mainly from, the poorer classes and had many peculiar customs. Because of their poverty they were held in contempt, and because of their peculiar customs they wTre ridiculed. Contempt and ridicule soon led to cruel persecution. A Quaker, because he believed all men to be equal, would not take off his hat to any one, or call any one by a title. In speaking to another he always used ''thou" and "thee" instead of ''you"; he would not take an oath, even in the courts, and was opposed to war or any kind of strife. According to the rules of the sect, preachers were not allowed to receive pay for their services. The Quakers had no churches, but held their meetings in the open fields, in the streets, or in market places. Persecution of Quakers. — ^Laws were passed in England forbidding the Quakers to hold meetings, but they contin- ued to do so, and as a consequence they were often arrested. To punish them for holding meetings against the law, they were flogged, put in the pillory, or thrown into jail. Even women and children were treated in this cruel manner. a Quaker of the 17TH Century Ii6 THE MIDDLE COLONIES William Penn. — The greatest of all the Quakers was William Penn. He did not come from the poorer classes. His father was a rich man and an admiral who stood high in the favor of King Charles II and his brother, the Duke of York. From early childhood Penn was very religious, but he did not like the Church of England to which his father and most of the great men at court belonged. His father wished him to be a statesman and sent him to college at Oxford. While he was a student there, he attended a Quaker meeting and was much moved by the eloquence of the preacher. From that time he drifted further and further from the Church of England. Penn Becomes a Quaker. — Penn's father, the admiral, was much disappointed that his son, for whom he had such high ambition, should favor the despised Quaker sect. He sent the boy first to France and then to Ireland to keep him from the influence of the Quakers. In Ire- land, young Penn again met the preacher who had so affected him while at college. Unable to resist longer the promptings of his heart, he became a Quaker. The admiral sent for Penn to come home, and father and son again quarreled. As the use of " thee " and '' thou " was considered very disrespectful, the old ad- miral said to his son, '' You may thee and thou other folk as much as you like, but don't you dare to thee and thou the king, or the Duke of York, or me." Young Penn declined to promise not to thee and thou these three personages, so his father drove him from home. PENNSYLVANIA 117 Penn a Quaker Preacher. — Penn then went about the country, staying with friends and preaching the Quaker faith. His mother in the meantime secretly sent him money. He was several times put in prison, and his old father was always willing to help him out, though still unwilling to forgive him. Disappointed as he was in Penn's course, the admiral loved his son dearly, and it is pleasant to know that they at last became friends. On his deathbed the admiral called Penn to him and said, " Son William, let nothing in this world tempt you to wrong your conscien^ce . ' ' The admiral had at last learned, what his son already knew, that the highest duty of a man is to follow his own conscience. Quakers Buy New Jersey. — The death of the admiral left Penn rich, and he decided to use his wealth in provid- ing a refuge in America for Quakers. The Duke of York had given the part of the colony of New York lying be- tween the Hudson and the Delaware rivers to two of his friends. The new owners had sent over a party of Englishmen who had settled Elizabethtown. This colony became New Jersey. Penn and other rich Quakers bought New Jersey for the purpose of making there a Quaker settlement, and a William Penn At the asfe of 22 ii8 THE MIDDLE COLONIES considerable number of the persecuted sect came to this colony. Some years later the Quakers sold New Jersey to the king, thus making it a royal colony. Penn and King Charles II. — In the meantime, how- ever, Penn had established a larger colony in America for Quakers. In order to establish the larger colony it was necessary to secure territory not yet occupied by white men. Penn, therefore, asked King Charles II for a grant of such lands. Now the king liked Penn both for his own and for his father's sake, and the two were on very friendly terms. The king, who was called the " Merry Monarch " because he was so fond of fun, always had a joke for Penn. One day on meeting him the king took off his hat, while Penn, according to the Quaker custom, kept his hat on. Said Penn to the king, '' Why dost thou remove thy hat. Friend Charles? " The king laughingly replied, " Because, wherever I am, it is customary for only one to remain covered." But Penn had another claim on Charles besides the bond of friendship. The king had borrowed a large sum of money from Penn's father and had never returned it. Penn asked the king to give him in payment of this debt a tract of land in America for a colony. Charles was delighted to grant the request, for by giving away land for which he had no use, he could not only pay a large debt but could do his friend a favor as well. The King Gives Pennsylvania to Penn. — In 1681, the king gave to Penn the land lying north of Maryland and west of the Delaware River. The Merry Monarch named the country Pennsylvania — '^Penn's Woods" — in PENNS\XVANIA 119 honor of the old admiral. In order for Pennsylvania to have an outlet to the sea, the Duke of York gave Penn the colony of Delaware, which was still a part of New York. Over all the land given to Penn, Charles, of course, was still to be king, and in token of the king's sovereignty Penn. was to send him every year two beaver skins. Rapid Settlement of Pennsylvania. — In making up his colony Penn welcomed any settler of good character, but he especially wished Quakers to go to Pennsylvania. Reduced Facsimile of Part of the Royal Deed Given to Penn His plans for the colony were good and generous. Settlers were to own their homes ; every man in the colony was to help to make its laws ; and each was to worship God as he pleased. Truly the scheme was what Penn called it — "a holy experiment." William Penn was held in such high esteem, especially among his own sect, that his colony at once became popular. During the first year about three thousand settlers, most of whom were Quakers, came over. Houses could not be built fast enough, and many of the settlers had to spend the first winter in caves dug in the banks of the Delaware River. Philadelphia. — The next year (1682) Penn himself came to Pennsylvania. The settlers gave a warm greet- 120 THE MIDDLE COLONIES ing to their proprietor and governor. Penn laid out the streets of a town that he wished to make the chief city of the colony, and called it Philadelphia — the City of Brotherly Love. Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — In drawing up his plan for his " holy experiment," Penn had not forgotten The Treaty Elm, Philadelphia From an old print the Indians, for he arranged to pay them for their land. He was so desirous that the Indians should always have justice that he provided in his plan for governing the colony that every dispute between a settler and an Indian should be tried by a jury of whom half should be settlers and half natives. Soon after his arrival in America, Penn met with Indian QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1 21 chiefs under a spreading elm tree and made with them a treaty of friendship. As a great man has said, this is ^^ the only treaty between savages and Christians that was not sworn to and that was never broken." Quakers and Indians alike kept their pledge of friendship. The Old Age of Penn. — Pennsylvania grew more rapidly than any other colony, though, in spite of this rapid growth, Penn had to use his own money to keep up the government. Once Penn wrote sadly, " O Pennsyl- vania, what hast thou cost me ! " In his old age, with his 'health gone and his fortune vanished, Penn was imprisoned for debt. Yet his life must be counted as a glorious triumph, for it brought religious liberty to thousands of oppressed Christians and by its noble example gave to the whole world a wonderful lesson in brotherly love. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe the growth of New Netherland, 2. What kind of man was Peter Stuyvesant? 3. How was Delaware settled? 4. Give an account of the capture of New Netherland by the English. 5. Com- pare the growth of the colony under English rule with its growth under Dutch rule. 6. What may be said of the Quakers and their persecution? 7. Who was William Penn ? How did he become a Quaker ? 8. Tell about his quarrel with his father, and how the two finally made friends. 9. State how New Jersey was settled. 10. How did the Merry Monarch treat Penn? 11. Plow did William Penn get the land for Pennsylvania? 12. Describe the rapid settlement of Pennsylvania. 13. What city was laid out by Penn? 14. Tell how Penn and his colonists treated the natives. 15. What was remarkable about the treaty Penn made with the Indians? 16. What hardship did Penn suffer in his old age? 17. Why must his life be counted a success? CHAPTER XI IN OLD COLONY DAYS Industrial and Commercial Conditions Population of the English Colonies. — By the year 1700 the population of the Enghsh colonies in America had reached about two hundred and seventy-five thou- sand. When we think of the one hundred and ^ve million people, or more, now in the United States, the number of inhabitants of the colonies in 1700 seems very small. However, when we remember that less than one hundred years had passed since the first permanent English settle- ment in America was planted in Virginia, and that crossing the Atlantic and building homes in the new country were still full of danger, we realize that the English colonies had made wonderful growth. As yet the English settlements extended inland such a short distance from the coast that they lay like a narrow fringe along the Atlantic Ocean. Just back of this narrow fringe lived the Indians. Farther to the north and west were the French and to the south the Spaniards. The English in the Majority. — The majority of the white people in every colony, except New York, were of English birth or descent. In New York there were still more Dutchmen than Englishmen, though the Enghsh were rapidly gaining in numbers. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 123 The Colonies in 1734 124 IN OLD COLONY DAYS In some of the colonies there were small numbers of immigrants from countries in Europe other than England. Besides the Dutch in New York, that colony also con- tained Huguenots and Germans and a few Jews. In Pennsylvania and Delaware were Dutch, Germans, French, Swedes, Finns, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish. In North Caro- lina were Huguenots, Swiss, Moravians, and Germans. More Huguenots came to South Carolina than to any other colony. Later, when Georgia was settled, Sal- burgers, Moravians, and Scotch Highlanders were among the first to come to that colony. Fishing and Manufacturing in New England. — In New England, except in the valleys of the few large rivers, the 'soil is stony and infertile. The farms in that sec- tion were small, and many of the people took to the sea for a living. They caught cod off their own coast and the coast of Newfoundland, and they went as far as the Arctic Ocean fishing for whales. The chief products of New England were dried cod, fish oil, timber, hay, grain, and cattle. New Englanders had made a beginning in manufacturing. There, as everywhere else in the world, manufacturing was done entirely by hand, and most of it was done in the home. A few es- tabhshments had been started, however, for making linen, Spinning Wheel and Colonl\l Loom INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 125 woolen goods, hats, paper, and furniture of the simplest kind. Agriculture in the South. — In the South, where the climate is mild and the soil fertile, agriculture was the main occupation. Large plantations lay along the rivers. Often they were many miles apart, with great forests between. Tobacco was the chief crop in Virginia and Maryland, yet some wheat, barley, and corn were grown. Carrying Tobacco to the Wharf in Virginia In North Carolina, while the growing of tobacco was im- portant, the people found profitable trade in lumber, turpentine, and tar. Rice and indigo were the chief crops of South Carolina and Georgia. In both the Caro- linas cattle were raised, and in all the Southern colonies there was some trade in furs. Cotton, which is now the largest crop of the South, was then very little gro^vn in America. Except for the few things that could be made on the plantation, manufactured goods used in the South were purchased from England. Occupations in the Middle Colonies. — The farms in the Middle colonies were larger than those of New Eng- land, yet not nearly so large as the plantations of the 126 IN OLD COLONY DAYS South. Wheat was the staple crop, though almost every kind of farm product was raised. Nowhere in the English colonies were to be found furs of greater value than those obtained from the interior of New York and Pennsylvania. There was some manufacturing in the Middle colonies, but most of the manufactured articles were brought over from England. Colonial Commerce. — The colonies engaged in a lively trade with one another. They also shipped many of their products to the West Indies and to England and other countries of Europe. Practically all the trade between the colonies, and much of the trade with foreign countries, was carried on in ships built in New Eng- land. Very soon after the settlement of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies New Englanders began building ships. By 1700 shipping had become as important an in- dustry in New England as the fisheries. Slavery. — In 161 9, the year that the first legislature in America met in Jamestown and the first shipload of women came to Virginia, a Dutch vessel brought to James- town a few negroes from Africa and sold them to the Virginia planters. From this beginning slavery spread to all the English colonies. At that time few persons thought that slavery was wrong. Slaves were never numerous in the Northern colonies, for the climate of the North and the kind of crops grown there made slavery in that region unprofitable. Most of the slaves in the North were employed as house servants. In the South, on account of the climate and the crops, INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS 127 slave labor could be used to advantage and slaves were more numerous. Although slavery did not flourish in the North, many New Englanders engaged in the slave trade. The traders sailed to Africa, where negroes were bought from the native chiefs, or forci- Redemptioners. THERE AjII remain on board tKeihip Aurora from Atnftcrdam, about 18 paffcngers, aitiongft bly seized. The negro men and women were then brought to Amer- ica, and sold to the Southern planters for slaves. Redemptioners and Indentured Servants. — Besides the negro slaves there were white servants who were bound to work for their masters for a certain period of years. These servants were of two kinds — redemp- tioners and indentured servants. Redemptioners were men and women who wished to come to America but were too poor to pay for their pas- sage. They voluntarily sold their labor for a period of years to colonists who, in return, paid the expenses of the voyage across the ocean. As a rule the redemptioners were of good character and, after serving their term of labor, became highly respected inhabitants. Indentured servants were usually criminals sent over whom are, Servant girls, gardeners, butchers, marons, fugar bakers, bread bakers, i fttoeroaker, i fiber fmith, I leatLer dreffer, 1 tobacconift, 1 pafhy cook, and feme a. Lrtle acquaipted with waitinc on families, as well zs farming and tendixig horfes, &c- They are all in. good health. Any perfoQ defirous of beiog accommodated in the above branches will pleaiefpeedily toapply to Captam JOHN BOWLES, In tKe ftream, off FeU'sPoint: Who ojerj/or Sale, 80 Iton*bound Water Calks 1 chett elegant Fo^wling 4*iece5; fins^e and dou- ble barrelled 1^,000 Dutch Brick, and Sundry fbips Provillons. July 24. 33he94t Advertisement of Servants for Sale 128 IN OLD COLONY DAYS from England. The colonists paid the government for their labor for a term of years. Sometimes indentured servants were men or women, or even children, kidnapped in England and sold to the colonists. If a redemptioner or an indentured servant attempted to escape from his master, his term of service was made longer. Social Life in Early Colonial Times Life in the South. — Since agriculture was the main occupation in the South, most of the people of that section lived on the plantations. Visiting was common, and with neighbors so far apart, often a visit lasted for days. Stran- gers were given such cordial welcome at every home, that the Southern planter became noted for his hospitality. Dancing was the fa- vorite amusement for the young people, who a Virginia Mansion Party ^.^^^^ gather from miles around at the commodious home of some genial host and make the evening merry. Outdoor sports, such as horse- racing, cock-fighting, and wrestling, were very popular. The capital of a Southern colony during the meeting of the assembly was the scene of much gayety. All the prominent families of the colony then gathered there to SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES 129 attend the receptions of the governor, and the rounds of balls and tea parties. Life in New England. — In New England the people lived in villages built close together. Consequently, there was no need for much entertaining. Besides, the Puritans looked upon most pleasures as sinful, and they forbade all amusements except such as corn -husking bees and quilt- ing parties. On Sunday, or the Sabbath as the Puri- tans called the day, no work of any kind was done. No one could walk the streets except to go to church, and everybody was made to go to church. The prayers and sermon lasted for hours. Dur- ing the rest of the day every person, old and young, was expected to think only of religious matters. Boston, Newport, and Old South Church, Boston ^^^ Haven were the principal towns of New England, and, as their inhabitants were gaining wealth, many handsome homes adorned their streets. Life in the Middle Colonies. — People from so many nations gathered in the town of New York for the pur- pose of trading that many different languages might be heard on its streets. Many of the Dutch customs still I30 IN OLD COLONY DAYS An Old-time Stagecoach prevailed. The houses were built, as in Holland, of yellow brick, and the floors were covered with white sand. Both in the town and in the rural districts there were many amusements. The anniversaries that the Dutch are so fond of observing, such as New Year's Day, Easter, and Christmas, were celebrated with much merry-making. When Penn founded Philadelphia, he laid out the streets regularly, like a checker- board. The to\vn pre- sented a neat appearance with its brick residences set back from the street amid gardens and or- chards. The Quakers, whether they lived in town or in the country, were a sober, thrifty sect that frowned upon worldly pleasures. How the Colonists Dressed. — Men wore knee breeches, long stockings, and low shoes with large buckles. Fashion- able men and women had garments of finest material. The plainer folk contented themselves with homespun. Laborers wore breeches of leather or buckskin. Traveling in Early Colonial Days. — Traveling was very difficult. The roads were bad, and few were fit for heavy vehicles. In the interior they were mere bridle paths. On account of the miserable condition of the roads, the most popular mode of travel in the Northern colonies, when not on foot, was horseback, though a light two- wheeled vehicle, known as the sulky, was some- times used. SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES 131 In the South, travel was mostly done by water, because the rivers in that section are usually deep for great dis- tances from the sea. In a small sailing vessel, known as a sloop, the Southerners went to church, paid social visits, or made business trips. Few Towns Established in the South. — It was because the rivers were navigable that there were so few towns in the South. The plantations lay along the river banks, and the plant- er did his trading at his own door. On his planta- tion he had a wharf where ships unloaded the goods from the outside world and reloaded his products. Charleston, which later became the only impor- tant town in the South, had not long been settled and was then only a small place. How Children Got Their Education, — Every town in New England had a public school. Though these schools would be considered very inferior when compared with the splendid schools that we find all over the country to- day, they were excellent schools for the times. The sessions were usually two months in the winter and two months in the summer. There were not many schools in the Middle colonies nor in the South. The few schools that were in these A School in New England 132 IN OLD COLONY DAYS sections were usually taught by ministers and were at- tended only by children whose parents could pay the tuition. The children of the well-to-do were often in- structed by a tutor who lived with the family. Sons of very rich men in the South were sometimes sent to Eng- land to be educated. Harvard College, in Massachusetts, was established in 1636 ; WiUiam and Mary College, in Virginia, in 1693 ; and Yale College, in Con- necticut, in 1 701. These institutions are still in existence. Punishment for Crime. — For many offenses not now considered very seri- ous, persons were then put to death, and, for many other acts not now considered offenses at all, persons were often severely punished. It was commonly believed that if a convicted person was punished as publicly as possible it would prevent others from com- mitting the same crime. Hence, for some offenses the culprit was made to wear upon his breast a placard, bear- ing the initial letter of his crime ; for other offenses he was placed in the pillory or the stocks erected on the most public street; and for still others his forehead was branded, or his ear clipped. Religious Differences Cause Injustice. — Persecution on account of religion was not common in America as In the Stocks / SOCIAL LIFE IN EARLY COLONIAL TIMES 133 it was in the Old World, for one of the chief reasons for people coming to this country had been to escape persecution. Still, there had been persecution, more or less severe, in many of the colonies. For instance, Virginia at one time fined or put in the pillory Catholics and Quakers. Religious persecution was extreme only in Massachu- setts, where it will be remembered the Puritan Church controlled the government. Between 1659 and 1661 four Quakers, one a woman, were hanged in Boston be- cause they refused to leave the colony. By 1700 all persecution of a cruel nature had stopped, but there was still a good deal of rehgious injustice. Most of the colonies levied taxes to support a particular church. It made no difference whether a person be- longed to that church or not; he had to pay the tax. Some colonies allowed only the members of a particular church to vote or to hold public office. Witchcraft. — Superstition lingered throughout the world, even among the intelligent classes. One of the commonest superstitions was the belief in witches. Per- sons convicted of witchcraft had been punished in Vir- ginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other colonies. In 1692, the witchcraft craze, in its most violent form, seized upon Salem, a town in Massachusetts. The colony had been visited by disastrous fires, Indian wars, and epidemics of smallpox, and the people of Salem had be- come convinced that these troubles were due to the evil spell of witches. More than a hundred men and women were arrested upon the charge of being witches. Of these. 134 IN OLD COLONY DAYS nineteen were put to death. Most of the evidence against the victims was given by little children, who afterward confessed that they had sworn falsely. The craze did not last long, and, when the people of Salem came to their senses, they released all the supposed witches who were still held in jail. Relations with the Mother Country The King and His Unworthy Officials. — The colonists were very proud of being Englishmen and were loyal to the mother country ; yet they often had cause to complain of the way they were treated by the government in Eng- land. Although the colonies were generally allowed to manage their home affairs through their assemblies, the king had the right to veto laws passed by the colonies. Sometimes he vetoed a law because it prevented selfish persons in England from making money out of the colonists. Many of the governors and other officials that the king sent over to America were incompetent or dishonest. They gave the colonists much trouble, and would have given more had it not been for the fact that the assem- blies paid their salaries and could hold them in check by refusing to do so. Laws of Navigation and Trade. — We have already learned about the profitable trade that the colonies had built up with one another and with the West Indies and certain countries of Europe. We have learned also that manufacturing had been established in America. Most of this trade and manufacturing was illegal, for England RELATIONS WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 135 had passed laws to forbid it. It was England's plan to control all American commerce for the benefit of English merchants and manufacturers. Laws were passed compelling Americans to sell to Eng- lish merchants nearly everything they produced, although they could often have had better prices elsewhere. They were required to buy from English merchants nearly everything they needed, even when they could have bought goods cheaper from other countries. These merchants could thus buy from the colonists at a low price and sell to them at a high price. To force the colonists to buy all manufactured articles from English manufacturers, laws were passed forbidding them to manufacture anything. So rigid were these laws that a distinguished English statesman said that Ameri- cans could not legally manufacture a nail for a horseshoe. The Laws Evaded. — On account of the lonpj years of warfare between Great Britain and France, the mother country was unable to enforce strictly these laws of navi- gation and trade, as they were called. In fact, the colonists paid little attention to them and traded very much where they pleased. The attempts that were made to enforce the laws caused much irritation in America. Colonial Policies of England, France, and Spain. — In considering the policy of England toward her American colonies two things should be borne in mind. First, the English colonial policy, though it was unjust, was better than that of other countries at that time. England al- lowed her colonies a great deal of self-government, and in this and in other ways, she treated her colonies more 136 IN OLD COLONY DAYS generously than France or Spain treated theirs. Second, although parliament had taken from the king much of his power, that body did not, as it does to-day, represent all the English people. It represented only the upper class and most of its laws were passed for the benefit of that class. The wishes of the great mass of people had little influence then upon parliament. Bacon's Rebellion. — Sir William Berkeley, whom Charles II appointed gov- ernor of Virginia, made himself very unpopular with Virginians by the despotic way in which he conducted his office. One of the things that greatly outraged the people was that he made very little effort to protect outlying settlements from Indian attacks. Nathaniel Bacon, who lived on the frontier near the present site of the city of Richmond, made up his mind that, if the governor would not stop these savage raids, he himself would, and he led a party of neighbors against the Indians. As Bacon had acted without his consent, the governor declared him a rebel. Many of the colonists took sides with Bacon, and a civil war, known as Bacon's Rebellion, broke out (1676). Bacon's little army de- feated the governor's forces. Berkeley fled from James- town, and Bacon's men burned the town to keep the gov- ernor from getting possession of it again. Bacon and Berkleley RELATIONS WITH THE IMOTHER COUNTRY 137 In his hour of triumph, Bacon died of a fever. After the death of its leader, Berkeley quickly put down the rebellion. Once more in power, the governor took re- venge by hanging more than twenty of Bacon's followers. Charles II was shocked at Berkeley's brutal course, for Charles, though he made a very undesirable king because he was too fond of his own pleasure, was more kind hearted than most monarchs of his time. King Charles said, " The old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father." He removed Berkeley from the governorship, and Berke- ley, crushed because of the way his king had treated him, died soon afterward. The New England Confederation. — In 1643, the New England colonies, with the exception of Rhode Island, formed a union for the protection of their interests. It was the first union of American colonies and was known as the New England Confederation. Rhode Island was not allowed to become a member of the Confederation because the Puritan colonies of New England did not approve of the religious liberty allowed in Rhode Island. Charles II distrusted the New England Confederation for he thought it might make the colonies so powerful that they would become independent of England. Charles thought Massachusetts especially showed a disposition to be too independent. He ordered the colony to change some of its laws that he did not like, and when the colony refused, he took away its charter, making Massachusetts a royal province. I3S IN OLD COLONY DAYS James II and Sir Edmund Andros. — When Charles II died he was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother James, the Duke of York, to whom Charles had given the colony of New York. The new king was known as James II. James II, who was a very tyrannical king, determined to crush the independent spirit of New England, which his brother had failed to do. He took away the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut; then, he united all the New Eng- land colonies and New York and New Jersey under one govern- ment with Sir Edmund Andros as governor. Andros thus ruled over the country extending from the present state of Maine to the Delaware River. He made his capital at Boston. Andros had, ideas as tyrannical as those of his king. He governed so harshly that the colonists hated his very name. Finally the people of England, growing tired of the tyranny of James II, drove him from the throne (1688). When the news reached America, the people of Boston seized Andros and put him in prison. The Colonies under William and Mary. — When James II was driven from the throne, William and Mary were made joint sovereigns of England. William, who was at the head of the Dutch government, was a nephew, Sir Edmund Andros TROUBLES WITH THE INDIANS 139 and Mary, his wife, was a daughter of James ll. WilHam and Mary were good sovereigns and during their reign the colonies received better treatment. Troubles with the Indians King Philip's War. — The Indians had never become reconciled to the coming of the English, for they knew that either the white men must go, or else they, themselves, would have to give up their homes. They were constantly attacking exposed settle- ments and farms. The Indian war from which New England suffered the most is known as King Philip's War. King Philip was the name that the whites had given one of the Indian chiefs. Through King Philip's influence many Indian tribes united to make a combined attack on all the New England colonies and utterly destroy the English. The war began in 1675. Fortunately the New England Confederation was still in existence, and it was able to raise an army promptly. A year was required to subdue the red men. In the meantime twelve towns in New England had been de- stroyed, numerous others had been attacked, and many men, women, and children had fallen victims to the tomahawk. War with the Tuscaroras. — One of the most severe Indian wars in the Southern colonies was with the Tus- I40 IN OLD COLONY DAYS caroras, a very warlike tribe that lived in North Carolina. In 1 71 1, the Tuscaroras took the war-path and killed every settler they came upon. The North Carolinians flew to arms and volunteers from South Carolina came to their aid. In a terrible battle fought on the Neuse River the Tuscaroras were defeated. They remained quiet for two years, when they broke out again. This time an army from the tv/o Carolinas inflicted such a terrific defeat that the Tuscaroras removed from North Carolina. French and Spaniards Incite the Indians. — The French colonists to the north and v/est of the English, and the Spanish colonists to the south, were as desirous as the English of controlling the American continent. To cripple English power they incited the Indians to make war upon the English colonies. In another chapter we shall see that when wars between England and France spread to America, the French were able to get more aid from the Indians than the English could get. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What was the population of the English colonies in 1700; and what did it show? 2. What other peoples, besides the English and the Dutch, came to the English colonies? 3. Tell of the occupations of New England; the Southern colonies; the Middle colonies. 4. De- scribe colonial commerce. 5. Relate the story of the beginning of slavery in the English colonies. 6. Why were slaves more numerous in the South than in the North? 7. What colonies engaged in the slave trade? 8. Name the kinds of bonded white servants, and tell the difference between them. 9. Describe life in the South in early colonial times ; in New England ; in the Middle colonies. 10. Describe the dress of the early colonists. II. How was traveling done in the North ? In the South? 12. Why QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 141 were there so few towns in the South in colonial times? 13. How were boys and girls in early colonial times educated? 14. Name some of the methods for punishing crime. 15. Describe the religious in- tolerance of the colonies. 16. Tell the story of the witchcraft delusion. 17. What was the attitude of the colonists toward the mother country? 18. How did the king interfere with the colonies, and why did some of his officials give trouble? 19. What were the laws of navigation and trade? 20. How did they come to be evaded? 21. Compare the colonial policies of England, France, and Spain. 22. Tell the story of Bacon's Rebellion. 23. What was the New England Confederation, and how did King Charles II feel about it? 24. What did he do to Massachusetts? 25. Tell of the tyranny of James II and Sir Edmund Andros. 26. Who were WilHam and Mary, and why should we remember them with gratitude ? 27. Describe King Philip's War. 28. Describe the War with the Tuscaroras. 29. Why did the French and Spaniards incite the Indians to make war upon the English? Tinder Box, Flint, and Steel CHAPTER XII THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Marquette and La Salle on the Mississippi The French in Canada. — The population of Canada grew very slowly. The French were interested chiefly in trading for skins and furs, and gave little attention to clearing the land for settlement. Yet it was from Canada that the Middle West was explored. Catholic missionaries came from France to Canada soon after Champlain had founded Quebec. As the years passed they came in larger numbers. These pious men devoted themselves to carrying the gospel of Christianity to the Indians. They plodded through tangled forests and drifts of snow, and waded in ice-cold rivers ; they went without food, and slept on the frozen ground ; they bravely faced even the greater danger of the tomahawk and scalping knife. Some w^ere put to death by torture ; but no danger could turn them from their noble work, and they succeeded in making Christians of many of the Indians. French traders also penetrated the forests. Before 1660, the West had been explored by missionaries and traders as far as Illinois. Father Marquette. — One of the missionaries who had come out from France was Father Jacques Marquette. Upon his arrival in Canada, Marquette at once began to 142 MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 143 study the languages of the different tribes so that he might work among them more easily. It was not long before he could speak with ease six native tongues. This good priest went into the wilderness, even to Lake Superior. He lived among the In- dians like one of them, caring for the sick and afflicted. He told them of God, baptizing all whom he con- verted. Marquette was a delicate man, and was ill fitted to endure the hardships of the wilderness, but the faith that was in him gave him strength. Marquette Seeks the Mississippi. — The Indians spoke often of a great river called the Mississippi ; and the French thought that it must empty into the Pacific Ocean. The French- men could not know that this river, far up in the northwest, was the same stream that DeSoto had discovered, far to the south, more than a hundred years before, nor did they dream that |?f ^"^"^^ ^^ '^^ ^^p^^°^' •^ ' -^ Washington. it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico. The governor of Canada wished to find the river so that he might claim for France all the lands drained by it and also might secure for that country a western route to Asia. Marquette wished to find the river in order that he might carry the knowledge of God to the Indian tribes along its banks. Jacques Marquette From the statue in the 144 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Marquette and an explorer named Louis Joliet began a search for the Mississippi. In the spring of 1673, they set out from the upper end of Lake Michigan. They traveled in two canoes made of birch bark, and took with them five men. For food they had smoked meat and Indian corn, but they carried a large supply of hatchets and beads and other trinkets as presents for the Indians. Difficulties of the Journey. — In their light canoes they kept along the western shore of Lake Michigan until they came to the Fox River, up which they headed their boats. Finally the seven explorers came to a point on the Fox River where a path led to the Wisconsin River. Over this path, which ran through woods and swamps, Mar- quette and his men plodded. Two of them carried the canoes on their heads while others bore the baggage strapped to their backs. When the Wisconsin River was reached, they again launched their canoes and gently drifted downstream. They soon passed out of its waters into those of the broad Mississippi. They gazed upon the mighty river with a joy they could not express. On the Mississippi. — Up to this time the explorers had met with many Indians, all of whom they had kept friendly by giving them presents. Now, as they journeyed down the Mississippi, sometimes paddling, sometimes using sails, they did not see a human being for more than two weeks. They saw only great herds of buffalo that stared quietly at them through their shaggy manes as they passed. With their trusty rifles they were able to kill game enough to supply themselves with food. MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 145 Although they met with no human being, the men moved very cautiously. At nightfall they would go on shore and cook and eat their supper, and then, pushing out into the stream, would sleep in their canoes — one man always keeping watch. .Finally they came upon an Indian village. Here the Frenchmen and the Indian chiefs smoked together calu- mets or peace pipes. These Indians tried to persuade Marquette not to proceed on his journey, saying that the tribes living farther down the river were very warlike. Indian Peace Pipe When he insisted on proceeding down the river, the chief gave him a calumet, telling him that if he showed it no Indian would harm him. It was well that Marquette had this token, for more than once, as he drifted down the Mississippi, natives would have attacked the little band if he had not shown the calumet. The Return. — Having gone down the river as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, Marquette and his com- panions became convinced that the great river did not enter into the Pacific Ocean, but the Gulf of Mexico. Therefore, seeing no reason why they should go farther, they decided to return to Canada. 146 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA As the men had been two months on the trip it was now midsummer, and they found it very hard to paddle their canoes upstream under the intense heat. Worse still, the health of the good Marquette gave way under the strain of the journey. He kept up until the party reached a mission in Wisconsin, but there he had to remain while Joliet went on to Quebec to make a report of their exploration to the governor. Marquette never recovered from the tax the journey put upon his weak constitution. Two years later he died in the wilderness of Michigan. La Salle. — At the time that Marquette explored the Missis- sippi River there was living in Canada a Frenchman named Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, who had become noted as an explorer. When twenty-three years old he had come to Canada and engaged in the fur trade. While exploring the western country he discovered the Ohio River. Marquette's expedition to the Mississippi determined La Salle to go down that river to its mouth and thus establish for France a claim to all the country along its banks. La Salle and the King of France. — To carry out so great 'a scheme, money was needed to buy supplies and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 147 to hire men. La Salle was poor ; so he went to France and told the king what he wished to do. The king was pleased with the young man and gave him the right to hold land, build forts, and control trade in all the countries he might explore. As much as the king liked the young man's plan, however, he would give no money for it. La Salle was a man who would let nothing stop him when once he had set his mind on doing a thing, so he borrowed the money to fit out the expedition. Others Jealous of La Salle. — As the king had given him the sole right to trade on the lands bordering on the Mississippi River, other traders became jealous of La Salle, and did all they could to make his expedition a failure. They sent word to the king that La Salle was crazy ; they persuaded men in his employ to leave him ; and they tried to get the Indians to kill him. Still, La Salle would not give up. Years of Disappointment. — La Salle started out from Canada for the Mississippi in the fall of 1678. Four winters passed without his getting farther than the Illinois River, because the suffering of his men from cold and hunger was so great. At one time the con- dition of the men was so desperate that some deserted. Others who feared La Salle too much to run away — for he was a stern man — tried to kill him by putting poison in his food. Twice during his stay on the Illinois River La Salle made the one thousand mile journey back to Montreal on foot to get more food and more men. La Salle Reaches the Mouth of the Mississippi. — At last La Salle was able, with twenty-three Frenchmen 148 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA and a number of Indians, to push on toward the goal that he was seeking. This time his efforts were successful. Out of the Illinois River and into the broad Mississippi, La Salle and his party sailed in 1682. The fleet of canoes went down the river. At the end of two months they reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and La Salle looked upon the mighty waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Louisiana. — Near the mouth of the river La Salle planted a column bearing a cross and the arms of France. He claimed for France all the land drained by the river, and called the country Louisiana in honor of the French king, Louis XIV. The country thus claimed stretches from the Alleghany Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. An Attempt to Colonize Louisiana. — The explorers turned their boats about and made their toilsome journey back to Canada. La Salle then went to France and laid before the king a plan to settle a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi. Louis XIV readily agreed. It made no difference to him that more than a hundred years before De Soto, on discovering the river, had claimed the country for Spain. Spain was now too weak to prevent the French king from doing what he pleased. With nearly three hundred settlers, La Salle sailed from France in 1684 to plant a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Through a mistake the party passed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed on the coast of Texas. There the ship containing the supplies went to the bottom. These misfortunes were so dis- heartening that about half of the colonists, together with the captain of the fleet, sailed away for France. MARQUETTE AND LA SALLE 149 Map Showing French Explorations Death of La Salle. — Those who remained suffered intensely for two long years. Finally, La Salle set out for Canada — a distance of two thousand miles — to get aid for his colony. He had not gone far on his journey when some of his companions, who blamed him for the disasters that had befallen the colonists, I50 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA treacherously killed him. Thus ended the life of the '' Father of Louisiana." Fate of La Salle's Colony. — Some of La Salle's colo- nists died of disease, some were killed in quarrels among themselves, and many were massacred by the Indians. Only a few of the three hundred ever got back to France. Iberville and Bienville in Louisiana France again Turns to Louisiana. — France had be- come engaged in war with England and other nations, and King Louis had to wait for some years before follow- ing up La Salle's idea of colonizing Louisiana. The king knew that if France did not hold the country, England would seize it. Therefore, as soon as the war ended, he began preparations for sending out another colony. Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville. — From those who asked to be allowed to lead the expedition he selected Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville. This man, commonly known as Iberville, was a Canadian, born of French parents. Perhaps no better selection could have been made. Iberville was brave and, like most Canadians, was accustomed to life in the forests. As an officer of the French navy he had distinguished himself by defeating with a single vessel an English fleet of three vessels in Hudson Bay. Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. — In 1698, Iberville set sail from France with two ships. Among those who accompanied him was his brother, Jean Bap- tiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, commonly called Bienville, a youth only eighteen years old. Young as IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA 151 Bienville was, he had already served in the French navy and had been wounded in battle. Entering the Mississippi River. — The voyage across the Atlantic was made without mishap. On reaching the shores of Florida, Iberville skirted the coast of the Gulf of Mexico till he reached Ship Island, off the coast of the present state of Mississippi. Here he left his ships at Iberville Bienville anchor and, with Bienville and a few of his men, sailed westward in two barges in search of the Mississippi River. He kept close to the shore and watched intently that he might not pass the mouth of the river as La Salle had done. In a few days the boats ran into the mouth of a mighty river. As Iberville could not be sure that he had found the Mississippi, he continued his journey for many miles upstream until he became convinced from what Indians told him that he was on the river that La Salle had 152 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA descended. Satisfied at length that it was the river he sought, he returned to his ships. Settlement of Mississippi. — As provisions were run- ning low, Iberville returned to France for more supplies and other settlers, without waiting to plant his settle- ment on the Mississippi River as he had intended. Be- fore sailing, he left orders which the colonists were to follow. Acting under these directions, they started their first settlement by building, in 1699, a fort on the Bay of Biloxi, in the present state of Mississippi. Bienville the Saving Spirit of the Colony. — Food became scarce in the new settlement and fresh water was even more difficult to get. The hot summer, to which the men were unaccustomed, added to the suffering. Soon there was much sickness. The youth Bienville was the saving spirit of the colony. Active, brave, and tactful, he spent the time encouraging the settlers, exploring the country, and making friends of the Indians. Bienville gained the affection of the Indians in a marked degree, for he knew how to touch their savage hearts. He visited them, slept in their wigwams, smoked their pipes of peace, and gave them trinkets for presents. He very soon learned their language. The friendship of the Indians was valuable, for, if they had wished, they might easily have destroyed the feeble colony. A Poor Class of Colonists. — Meanwhile, Iberville sailed back and forth between Louisiana and France to bring over settlers and supplies. He begged for men who would make their homes in the new country and who would earn their living from the soil, as the English IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA 153 colonists were doing, but the government sent out men to search for gold and silver and to gather wool from the The Country around the IMouth of the jMississippi From a map made in 1758 buffalo. They found neither gold nor silver, and the gathering of buffalo wool was not profitable ; yet the men would not try to raise crops. Settlement of Alabama ; Death of Iberville. — Iber- ville built Fort Mobile, in the present state of Alabama, in 1702, and moved the capital of the colony there. Soon afterward, another war between France and England 154 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA having broken out, Iberville resumed his command in the French navy. While fighting the English in the West Indies he fell ill of yellow fever and died. Bienville in Charge of the Colony. — The entire care of the colony now fell upon Bienville, and a harder task could hardly be imagined. The war prevented France from helping the colony and the colony could do little to help itself. More than once the settlement was on the verge of famine. To lessen the number of mouths to feed, Bienville sent the young unmarried men into the woods to live with the Indians. To add to the horrors of hunger, yellow fever broke out and carried many a poor settler to the grave. Other officials of the colony, jealous of Bienville, often hindered his noble efforts to save Louisiana. There were foes without the colony, as well as within. An English fleet, cruising in the gulf to cut off supplies for the colony, threatened to attack the settlement, and traders from the English colonies went among the In- dians, urging them to make war upon the French. Bravely, Bienville met these difficulties. He went about caring for the sick among his people, cheering the timid, warding off starvation, and watching his jealous officials. As best he could, Bienville defended the settlement against the English fleet, and he visited the Indians constantly to hold their friendship. Why Louisiana Did Not Prosper at First. — Except for a short interval Bienville was governor of Louisiana from 1 702 to 1 724. During most of that time, life in the colony was a mere struggle for existence. Even when peace IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE IN LOUISIANA 155 came to France, prosperity did not come to Louisiana, but it was not the fault of Bienville that the colony did not flourish. The French had wrong ideas about col- onizing. The men sent over were too few and they were not the kind to build thriving settlements. Moreover, France would not allow the settlers to govern themselves and made laws for the benefit of home merchants that ruined the trade of Louisiana. New Orleans in 17 18 In time there came a change in the policy of sending over colonists. Shipload after shipload was sent until Louisiana suffered from too much immigration. Settlers came so fast that it was difficult to take care of them. Many were worthless and seemed to think that all they had to do was to sit idly by and let Bienville feed them. He was sorely taxed to provide for so many persons until he could transport them to various points in the territory, but with his usual tact and energy he succeeded. 156 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Founding of New Orleans. — Bienville took advantage of the coming of the new settlers to carry out a project that he had long cherished — the starting of a settlement at a place on the Mississippi River that he had selected as a site for the chief town of the colony. In 1 718, he cleared the site, erected buildings, and settled there sixty-eight persons. Thus began the great city of New Orleans. In a few years, New Orleans was made the capital of Louisiana. Prosperity Comes to Louisiana. — The colony now began to prosper. Many of the worthless immigrants died; others deserted to the English colonies or went to live among the Indians, while others took to the sea and became pirates. The better class remained in the colony, built homes, and tilled the soil. They laid the foundations of the high type of society for which Louisiana has ever since been noted. Bienville Goes to France. — There were still in the colony officials who were jealous of Bienville. They sent charges against him to France. Thereupon the king removed Bienville from the ofhce of governor and ordered him to France. Although the charges were false Bienville could not convince the king, who refused to reinstate him in the governorship. Bienville again Governor. — For nine years the officials who had been left in charge of Louisiana governed the colony very badly. They treated the natives so unjustly that some of the red men started a war upon the whites. It was feared that all the tribes would combine to wipe out the little colony. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 157 The colonists in their distress remembered how well Bienville had managed the Indians and wished for his return. The king, in his anxiety for the colony, turned to Bienville as the man to save it. He again made him governor and ordered him to Louisiana. Bienville arrived at New Orleans in 1733 and served as governor for ten years. He then resigned because he had failed to govern to the satis- faction of the settlers and he was unwilling to remain at the head of the colony when some one else might take his place ^ , . ^^ ^ Bienville's Autograph and accomplish more. In 1743, Bienville sailed away from Louisiana forever. He had come to this land as a boy, and to it he had given forty-four years of devoted service. He took up his abode in Paris where he lived a quiet life, reaching the good old age of eighty-eight. The French gave many great men to the exploration and early settlement of America, but none greater than Iberville, the founder of the Louisiana colony, and Bien- ville, its preserver. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What pious work did the French missionaries in Canada do? 2. What kind of man was Father Marquette? 3. Why did the governor of Canada wish to find the Mississippi? 4. Why did Mar- quette wish to find that river? 5. Tell what route Marquette and JoHet traveled. 6. How did the Indians treat them? 7. Relate the story of the calumet. 8. How far down the Mississippi did Mar- quette and Joliet go ; and why did they turn back ? 9. Describe the death of Marquette. 158 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 10. Who was La Salle and what expedition did he undertake? II. Why did others become jealous of him ? 12. Describe the suffer- ings of La Salle and his men. 13. After entering the Mississippi, how long did it take La Salle to reach its mouth? 14. How did he take possession of the country? 15. What was it named? For whom was it named? 16. Why was the king of France willing to take land that Spain claimed? 17. How did La Salle meet his death? 18. What became of La Salle's colony ? 19. Who was Iberville? Who was Bienville? 20. Tell how Iber- ville found the Mississippi River. 21. When was Biloxi settled? 22. Tell what Iberville did for the young colony. 23. Describe the work of Bienville. 24. Explain why the colony of Louisiana did not flourish at first. 25. When was Mobile settled? New Orleans? 26. How did prosperity come to Louisiana? 27. Why was Bienville removed from the office of governor and why was he reinstated? 28. Why did Bienville resign the governorship ? CHAPTER XIII DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA George Washington, an Officer in the Virginia Militia Great Britain and France at War. — Great Britain and France had for many years been almost constantly at war. As Spain's power had declined, both Great Britain and France were struggling to take her place as the leading nation of the world. Since the nation that controlled North America would be the stronger, the wars were extended to this country and the British and French colonies took part in them. Three wars had already been fought, in which Great Britain had greatly weakened the power of France in Europe. In America she had gained the French provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ; but France still held Canada and Louisiana. A fourth war between Great Britain and France was likely to occur because both na- tions claimed the Ohio Valley — the country lying be- tween the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi River and drained by the Ohio River. George Washington. — Trouble began in 1753 when the French started building forts in the Ohio Valley. The governor of Virginia resolved to send a message to the French commander, warning him that the French were upon British territory and would have to leave. 159 i6o DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA But who should be the bearer of the message ? It is an easy matter now to travel by train from Virginia to the western part of Pennsylvania, where the French were building the fort, but in those days the journey could be made only on foot or on horseback. The route lay through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages and claimed by unfriendly Frenchmen. So the governor had to select a man who was strong enough to endure the hardships of the trip, brave enough to face its dangers, and tactful enough to make friends of the Indians. The governor chose as his messenger George Washing- ton, who, though only twenty-one, was already a major in the Virginia militia. Boyhood of Washington. — George Washington was born in the colony of Virginia on February 22, 1732. His father, who was a planter, died when the boy was eleven years old, leaving the mother to rear a large family and to take care of the plantation. George Washington said of his mother in after life, *' All I am I owe to her." When we think what a noble son Mary Washington reared, we realize that she must have been a great and good woman. George was like his mother in character. Though he was high spirited, he learned from her how to control his spirit so that it would not lead to ill temper. Even as a boy he understood that the whole duty of life is to do right. He was sober-minded, yet he was full of life, and there was not a boy in the neighborhood who could beat him running, wrestling, pitching quoits, or riding. At an early age George was sent to a country school. GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER i6i The building was rough, and the boys and girls had to sit for hours on hard benches. Only reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. As he grew older George went to better schools. By the time that he was fourteen, he had become a very serious boy, studying even at recess, for he now saw that he would have to help his mother with her business affairs. Birthplace of Washington The house is no longer standing : its site is marked by a monument Washington as a Surveyor. — When sixteen years old, Washington became a surveyor. He was given his first work in the western part of Virginia — a section that was then a wilderness, inhabited by Indians and a few traders. This work taught him how to live in the woods and how to deal with the natives. Washington Delivers the Governor's Message. — When Washington started out to deliver the letter of the governor of Virginia to the French commander in the Ohio Valley, he took with him as guide Christopher Gist, i62 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA a man who knew the woods well, and six other companions. On the way he made treaties of friendship with several Indian tribes who had become alarmed because the French were building forts on their land. A chief, called Half King, and two other Indians went with him to the French fort. On reaching the fort, Washington handed to the commander the letter from the governor of Virginia. The French officer received him politely and gave him a letter in reply. Washington Returns with the Frenchman's Reply. — Washington set out on his return trip. The ground was covered with heavy snow and the streams were choked with floating ice. After a few days the pack horses carrying the tents, baggage, and provisions began to give out. To relieve the jaded animals Washington and his companions dismounted and placed a part of the load on their own horses. The men proceeded on foot. Washington was impatient to deliver the letter to the governor, so he took Gist, the guide, and pushed forward rapidly, leaving the rest of the party to follow. At every step on the way back the two men faced danger and suffering. Once Washington narrowly escaped death from a shot fired at him by. an Indian. At another time, he came near drowning by falling from a raft while crossing an ice-choked river. At length, however, Washington delivered to the governor the letter from the French commander. The Virginia Governor Decides to Build a Fort. — The letter was such as might have been expected. It said that the Ohio Valley did not belong to the king of Gre^t GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 163 Britain, but to the king of France, and that, therefore, the French commander would not withdraw from it. Then the governor of Virginia decided that he, also, would build a fort in the disputed territory. Washington Builds Fort Necessity. — Washington sug- gested as the site for the English fort a place that is now the site of Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania. Acting upon this suggestion, the governor sent Washington, who had been made a colonel in the Virginia militia, to seize and hold that point. The little army of less than two hundred men toiled over the mountains only to find that the French had acted more quickly than the British and had built a strong fort, called Fort Duquesne, at the very place that Washington had selected. Washington was very much disappointed. His army was not strong enough to capture Fort Duquesne, which was defended by a large force of French and their Indian allies. Yet he did not wish to retreat, for the Indians usually wished to be on the winning side. If they saw the French advancing and the British retreating, they would all take sides with the French. Map Showing French Forts i64 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA Washington, therefore, decided to stand his ground, although his suppHes had run so low that his men were suffering. He threw up small earthworks, which he called " Fort Necessity," on account of the half -starved condition of himself and his men. There he waited for more soldiers. The Indian chief. Half King, joined him with a few warriors. Washington Starts a War. — One day Washington heard that a party of Frenchmen were scouting near his fort, so taking a few of his men and the Indian warriors, he went in search of the scouting party. Coming upon their camp in a secluded spot in the woods, Washington began an attack, and in the skirmish that followed all the French were killed or captured, except one, who escaped and carried the news of the fight to Fort Duquesne. Thus Washington, a young man of twenty- two, began a war that spread not only over America, but over Europe as well. In America the war became known as the French and Indian war. Washington Surrenders Fort Necessity. — The French at Fort Duquesne, on learning of the defeat of their comrades, determined to have revenge. A strong body of French and Indians marched to attack Washington at Fort Necessity. Half King and his warriors, seeing the weakness of the English defense and not liking the scarcity of provisions, deserted Washington in his greatest need. From behind trees and sheltering rocks, the French poured a galling fire upon the Virginians, who found GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 165 their small intrenchment little protection. Yet the Virginians fought well. Standing knee-deep in water in a blinding rain, the brave men held their little mud fort all day long and into the night till their guns became useless from the dampness. Then, since further resistance was impossible, Washington surrendered. He was allowed, however, to march out with the honors of war. Washington re- turned to Virginia. Nowhere west of the Alleghany Mountains did the British flag now wave. General Edward Braddock. — The next year (1755) Gen- eral Edward Braddock sailed from England and landed in Virginia. He had been sent to command the British forces in America, and he brought with him two regiments of regulars. Braddock was as brave as the bravest, but he would not listen to advice. He thought that British regulars knew how to fight anywhere, and he had a contempt for colonial troops and even for the Indians. When warned that he would find the Indian allies of the French formidable enemies, Braddock refused to believe that they could stand against the king's troops. He was soon to find that the king's troops, trained to fight in open battle, were no match for Indians shooting from behind cover. George Washington At the age of 30, in the uniform of a Virginian colonel i66 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA Braddock's Treatment of the Militia and the Indians. — In spite of the fact that Braddock had spoken scorn- fully of the colonial troops, militia from both Virginia and Maryland joined his army. But Braddock had so little confidence in the American troops that he had an officer of the regular army drill them so as to make them, as he himself said, " as much like soldiers as possible." Indians who were friendly to the British offered to join Braddock, but he treated them so coldly that they left in disgust. One of the chiefs said of him, " He looked upon us as dogs and would never hear anything we said to him." The March across the Mountains. — When everything was in readiness, the army crossed the mountains to drive the French from the Ohio Valley. Colonel Washing- ton went with Braddock as an aide. The army was a fine sight as it marched through the woods with bands playing and banners flying, and the gay red uniforms of the British regulars and the blue uniforms of the colonial militia contrasting beautifully in the bright sunlight. Washington advised Braddock to place the colonials in the front of the army because they were used to fighting in the woods, but Braddock was indignant that a pro- vincial colonel should try to teach a British general how to fight. Braddock's Defeat. — The French at Fort Diiquesne had learned that Braddock's army was marching to capture the fort, so they determined to attack first. A party of French and Indians went out from the fort to meet the British, hoping to surprise them. GEORGE WASHINGTON, AN OFFICER 167 Braddock's army, unaware of danger, had arrived within a few miles of the fort, when suddenly from both sides of the road a deadly volley was poured into its ranks. The British, though taken by surprise, stood their ground, shouting " God save the King." They returned the fire, but could do little damage because they could not see the enemy who had placed themselves behind trees and rocks. On the other hand, the red uniforms of the British in the open road gave the enemy fine targets to shoot at. Bullets mowed down the British as they crowded together. Above the din of battle the forest rang with the terrible war-whoop of the Indians. The colonial militia used to this way of fighting sought protection of trees, and from this cover kept up a spirited fire. Some of the regulars tried to follow the example of the militia, but Braddock beat them back into line with the flat of his sword ; and there they huddled to- gether in confusion. When Braddock saw that the day was lost, he ordered a retreat. Just at that time a bullet struck him down, and the retreat became a panic. The regulars fled pell- mell along the road from which they had come, leaving the wounded and all the artillery and baggage. Braddock, British Soldier i68 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA mortally wounded, was carried away by the Virginians. He died on the retreat. Washington's Narrow Escape. — It seemed a miracle that Washington's life was spared, for at all times he was in the thickest of the fight. Two horses were shot under him and four bullets pierced his coat. He and Fort Duquesne his troops covered the retreat and saved the army from complete destruction. Washington Raises the British Flag over Duquesne. — Three years later (1758) another British army crossed the mountains to attack Fort Duquesne. Washington com- manded the Virginia troops. This time the British were successful. The French had left in the fort only a few men who, when the British drew near, destroyed the fort and fled. Washington was given the honor of raising the MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 169 British flag over the ruins. The British rebuilt the fort and named it Fort Pitt in honor of WiUiam Pitt, a great British statesman. By the capture of Fort Duquesne the British gained control of the Ohio Valley. Washington's Modesty. — ' Washington returned to Virginia and took his seat in the colonial legislature to which he had just been elected. When the meeting was called to order, the speaker arose from his chair and said that he had been instructed by the House to thank Colonel Washington, in the name of Virginia, for his valiant service to his country. Washington was taken completely by surprise. He arose to his feet but was so much embarrassed that he could make no reply. The speaker came to his rescue, however, saying, " Sit down. Colonel Washington, your modesty is equal to your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I possess. '^ Montcalm and Wolfe, Heroes of Quebec Marquis de Montcalm. — Before the British were able to take Fort Duquesne, they had met with a number of reverses in America besides that of Braddock's defeat. The British generals frequently made a great show of doing much, yet in the end did nothing. In the mean- time the French general, Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- calm, a skillful and active oflicer, captured and held im- portant posts. Montcalm was so successful in outwitting the slow-moving British generals that most of the Indian tribes eagerly sought to become his allies. On one occasion a party of Indians traveled from the lyo DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA far west all the way to Montreal just to see Montcalm, the man whose generalship they had heard so much about. The chief said to Montcalm, ''We wanted to see this famous man who tramples the English under his feet. We thought that we should find him so tall that his head would be lost in the clouds. But you are a little man, my Father. It is when we look into your eyes that we see the greatness of the pine tree and the fire of the eagle." William Pitt at the Head of the British Government. — After a while the fortunes of war changed, for there came to the head of the British government the great states- man, William Pitt, who was determined to push the war with vigor, and to drive the French from America. Pitt removed the slow inefficient generals who had command of the British forces in America, and put in command men who knew how to win battles. Then success after success followed. General James Wolfe. — Still, to break the power of France in America, Quebec, the most important post in Canada, had to be taken. For this task Pitt selected General James Wolfe. At this time Wolfe was only thirty- two, yet he had already distinguished himself in many battles. It was because he had proved himself such a good soldier that Pitt selected him for the important and difiicult work of capturing Quebec. Just before the beginning of spring in the year 1759, Wolfe set sail from England with his army, accompanied by a strong fleet. The Defense of Quebec. — WTien news that Quebec was to be attacked reached Canada, there was much MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 171 bustle to put the town in a state of defense, and Mont- calm hurried to Quebec to take command. He had to depend on a few French troops already in the colony, aided by Canadian militia, Indian allies, and volunteers from among the- farmers of the country. Quebec is divided into an upper and a lower town. The upper town is built on a very steep cliff rising more Quebec in the Eighteenth Century than two hundred feet above the St. Lawrence River. As Montcalm did not think it possible for the British to scale the heights, he posted only a few men there to guard them. Looking over the great precipice, Montcalm declared that the enemy could not reach Quebec that way unless they had wings. The lower town is built along the river bank. To protect this side of the town, Montcalm threw up strong intrenchments and placed his army behind them. Unsuccessful Assaults upon Quebec. — Toward the latter part of June, Wolfe's army and fleet joined in a 172 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA bombardment of the lower town, hoping that Montcalm would be compelled to come out of his intrenchments and give battle. Though buildings in the town were destroyed, the French army remained unharmed behind the fortifications, and the British gained- nothing. At last, a French officer, carrying a flag of truce to Wolfe, said to him, '^ You will demolish the town, no doubt, but you shall never get inside of it." And Wolfe replied, " I will have Quebec if I stay until the end of November. '^ Nevertheless, Wolfe was becoming anxious. A month had now passed. True, the town was nearly reduced to ruins by the bombardment, but he was no nearer capturing it or defeating Montcalm's army than when he began. At length Wolfe grew so impatient because Montcalm would not come out to fight him that he resolved to attack the French in their fortified lines. Wherever Wolfe would lead, his men were glad to follow, and gallantly they charged the French works, but only to be driven back with great slaughter. When news of this reverse reached England some one remarked to the king that Wolfe was mad. '' Wolfe mad?" replied the king, who had grown tired of generals who did nothing. ^' Then I hope he will bite some others of my generals." Wolfe Falls 111. — Under the stress of anxiety and disappointment, Wolfe now fell desperately ill. Lying on his bed, racked with pain and burning with fever, he still would not give up the idea of taking Quebec. On MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 173 the contrary, he resolved to try what had been thought impossible — to scale the heights of the upper town. It was a desperate chance, but his only hope. Knowing that he could not recover from his illness, Wolfe's one fear was that he might die before he could put his daring plan to the test. He said to his physician, '' Oh, doctor, just patch me up enough for this business, and I'll ask no more.'' Scaling the Heights. — As soon as he could leave his sick- bed, Wolfe marched a part of his army up the opposite bank of the river some distance above the town. Selecting a dark night, the British soldiers embarked in their boats and drifted down the river, moving quietly to keep from alarming the French. They finally reached a spot ever since known as Wolfe's Cove, where a path leads up the lofty precipice. Here the men left the boats and began the ascent. The path was so narrow that they had to go in single file, and so steep that in many places they had to pull themselves up by trees and roots and overhanging rocks. The few Frenchmen guarding the path were surprised and quickly overpowered. The Battle on the Plains of Abraham. — By early morning, September 13, 1759, Wolfe and his men had gained the plateau at the top of the cliff, called the Plains General James Wolfe 174 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA of Abraham. They were less than a mile from the walls of Quebec. The British were now in a position where Montcalm would have to fight them in open battle, for if he allowed them to remain where they were, they would capture all the provisions intended for his army. When Montcalm saw the British drawn up on the plateau, he was amazed, for, as will be remembered, he had said that an enemy would have to have wings to get up the cliff. " This is a very serious business !" he exclaimed. Montcalm sent orders for his army to come up from the lower town as quickly as possible. He soon had on the plateau more men than Wolfe, but they were mostly militia. Hurriedly forming his ranks, the gallant French general made an impetuous charge. The British held their fire until the French got quite near them, when they poured forth such hot volleys that the French line gave way. The British then charged ; and the French, thrown into confusion, fled. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Wolfe had led the charge of the British. He was shot in the wrist, but tied up the wound with a handkerchief. He was shot in the thigh, still he kept at the head of his men. Finally, shot in the breast, and about to fall, he called to an officer and said, " Support me. Do not let my brave soldiers see me drop, the day is ours — keep it." The brave general was borne to the rear and gently laid upon the ground. He was dying then, but he heard MONTCALM AND WOLFE, HEROES OF QUEBEC 175 some one cry out, " They run ! They run ! See how they run ! " " Who run?" he gasped. '' The enemy, sir, they give way everywhere." Sending a hurried order to one of his officers, Wolfe turned upon his side, and said faintly, " Now God be praised, I die in peace." Montcalm had also received a mortal wound. He was trying desperately to rally his flying troops when a bullet pierced his breast. When told by his physician that he could live only a few hours, he calmly remarked, " So much the better, I shall not live to see Quebec sur- rendered." He spoke truly. Quebec surrendered a few days later, but Montcalm had already passed to his reward. Many years afterward a monument was erected in Quebec upon which was inscribed, " To the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm." Linked in fame is the memory of these two men — as noble soldiers as ever met in battle. The fall of Quebec was followed by the surrender of all Canada. Effect of the French Wars. — When the war ended in 1763, French power in America was broken. Great Britain kept Canada. France gave up all claim to the Ohio Valley, and ceded to Great Britain all her ter- ritory east of the Mississippi except New Orleans. The city of New Orleans and that part of Louisiana lying west of the river she gave to Spain. After that, for a time, France had no possessions in North America. 176 DRIVING THE FRENCH FROM AMERICA QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe the rivalry between France and England. 2. What part did America play in this rivalry ? 3. Tell how Great Britain was weakening the power of France both in Europe and America. 4. What valley in America were both nations desirous of controlling? 5. Why was George Washington selected to carry a message to the French? 6. Tell of Washington's boyhood. 7. How did his work as a surveyor help him? 8. Tell the story of Washington's visit to the French fort. 9. What reply did he bring from the French commander? 10. Where did the Virginia governor wish to build a fort, and why did he not build it? 11. How did Fort Necessity come to be built ? 12. How did Washington begin the French and Indian War? 13. Relate the story of the loss of Fort Necessity. 14. Who was Braddock, and what kind of man was he? 15. Tell of Braddock's defeat. 16. Tell of Washington's part in the fight. 17. How was Fort Duquesne finally taken? 18. Tell how Virginia thanked her valiant son. 19. What kind of general was Montcalm? 20. What did Pitt do when he came to the head of the British government? 21. Why did he select Wolfe to attack Quebec? 22. Describe the situation at Quebec. 23. Describe Wolfe's attempt to take the lower town. 24. What did the king say of him? 25. What desperate plan did Wolfe make during his illness? 26. How did he gain the Plains of Abraham? 27. Describe the battle that followed. 28. Relate the story of Wolfe's death. 29. Tell how Montcalm died. 30. What were the results of the French wars ? CHAPTER XIV ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS EXTEND BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES The Western Country Traders First Visit the West. — The Enghsh had pushed so far inland, by 1760, that stragghng settlements had reached the foot of the Alleghany Mountains. Far to the west, near the Mississippi River, were the few scattered villages that the French had begun. The wide stretch of country between the Alle- ghany Mountains and the French set- tlements was a wilderness. As a result of the wars with the French, this wilderness had become an undisputed possession of the English. French traders from Louisiana and Spanish traders from Florida had long been accustomed to trade among the Indians in the region now comprising the states of Tennessee and Kentucky. Through these traders news of the valuable furs and skins that could be obtained on the western side of the mountains reached the English. Then 177 French Fur Trader 178 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES traders from Virginia and the Carolinas began crossing the Alleghanies to share in this profitable trade. The " Long Hunters." — Enghsh traders brought back home stories of the abundance of game in the country they had visited. Game had now become scarce near the Enghsh settlements, and when English hunters heard the glowing stories of the traders, they turned to the West. These hunters were daring men, accustomed to hardship, and in their search for game they went much farther into the western forests than the traders had gone. Often hunters would remain in the West for a year or even two years. On account of their long absences they became known as the '' long hunters." Kentucky and Tennessee. — The " long hunters " told the eastern settlers of the fine fertile land in the West inhabited only by a few scattered Indians. Lands in the East were rapidly being taken up ; and here was the chance for a poor man to get land merely by occupying it. In 1769, Daniel Boone, then living in North Carolina, began exploring Kentucky. In the same year, William Bean of North Carolina built a home near the Watauga River in Tennessee. Soon other settlers removed from North Carolina to the Watauga. Five years later (1774) James Harrod, of Virginia, following in the wake of Boone, founded Harrodsburg, the first town in Kentucky. Daniel Boone and the West Boone's Early Life. — Daniel Boone was the most famous of all the early frontiersmen. The story of his THE WESTERN COUNTRY 179 life will give an idea of the hardships endured by the pioneers of the West. Daniel Boone was born in Pennsylvania. His parents were Quakers, but there was little of the quiet Quaker in him, for he loved adventure from the time he was a little fellow. When he was about sixteen years old, his father moved to North Carolina and settled in a region that was still a wilderness. The boy loved the woods and spent much of the time hunting. He lived for months away from the settle- ment. Boone Goes West. — From his cabin door in North Caro- lina Boone could see the moun- tains that raised their lofty peaks in the direction of the setting sun. As he looked upon them, he wondered whether the stories told about the country on the other side, by traders and hunters who had been there, were true. He resolved to find out for himself. If the country proved to be as wonderful as they had described it, he would make his home there. He talked so enthusiastically about exploring the West, that several neighbors decided to go with him. The party set out in 1769, and spent a month crossing the mountains. The Beautiful Lands of Kentucky. — On the summit of the last range, Boone and his five companions stopped Daniel Boone i8o BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES one bright summer day to gaze upon the beautiful scene below them. Stretching to the west, as far as the eye could reach, were the great green forests and vast prairies of Kentucky. The First Winter in the West. — Descending from the mountains to the level country Boone built a hut in which to pass the winter. Later Boone and one of his friends, named Stewart, while on an exploring expedition, were captured by Indians. It was seven days before they could make their escape and when they returned to their hut they found it deserted. What became of the men they had left in the hut is not known. Boone Alone in the Forest. — Daniel Boone's brother. Squire, and a companion crossed over the mountains and joined Boone and Stewart in their camp. Soon after- ward, Stewart was killed, probably by the Indians. The man who had come with Squire Boone was so frightened by Stewart's death that he deserted and fled back to the white settlements. Daniel Boone and his brother continued to live in the wilderness. It finally became necessary for one of them to return home for fresh supplies, and they agreed that it was better for Squire to go. In that immense forest Daniel Boone remained alone. For three months he stayed there, often changing his sleeping place to keep the Indians from finding him. Boone Moves His Family to Kentucky. — When Boone's brother came back, he brought supplies, and together these hardy frontiersmen explored a great part of Ken- tucky on horseback. Having decided to settle in Ken- THE WESTERN COUNTRY i8i tucky, the brothers returned to North CaroHna for Daniel's family. In 1773, Daniel Boone and his family set out for Ken- tucky. Other settlers joined them until there were in all sixty or more persons in the party. On the way, Indians attacked the emigrants and killed six, among whom was Boone's oldest son. Most of the others were so frightened that they returned home. ^M E K y^ Mt Mitchell NO R rj: ti Boone's Trail But Boone and his family would not retreat. The family stayed in a deserted cabin, while Boone went on ahead and joined other pioneers in building on the Ken- tucky River a fort that they called Boonesborough. To this fort Boone moved his family. Capture of Boone's Little Daughter. — The dangers in such a wild country were great for men ; what must they have been for women and children? Late one •eve- ning Boone's daughter and two other little girls went out on the river in a canoe. They were having so much fun i82 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES playing in the water and splashing with the paddles that before they realized it they were out of sight of the fort. Suddenly five Indians sprang out of the bushes, caught hold of the canoe, and drew it to shore. They seized the girls and ran into the woods with them. The Rescue. — : The screaming of the little girls was heard at the fort, and the men rushed out in pursuit. They could follow the trail by the twigs and bits of clothing that the girls scattered as they were hurried along. All that night, and all the next day, the Indians carried their captives through the woods. On the second night, Boone and his men slipped upon the redskins so quickly that they did not have time to seize their rifles. The Indians, seeing that they were outmatched, fled into the deeper forest, leaving the little girls in the hands of their overjoyed rescuers. Boone Adopted by the Indians. — One day, while Boone was hunting alone, he was captured by Indians who carried him many miles away from Boonesborough. The Indians had great respect for him. They knew that he was a just man and had always treated them well, and they ad- mired his skill as a hunter. Instead of killing him, they adopted him as a member of their tribe. They pulled out by the roots all the hair of his head except a small tuft on the crown which they allowed to remain for a scalp lock. This they decorated with feathers and ribbons. They took him to a river and scrubbed him to wash out the white blood. Then they painted his face and body and dressed him in Indian THE WESTERN COUNTRY 183 y^jr^r" clothes. Truly, Boone looked so much like an Indian warrior that he could hardly be told from one. An Attack on Boonesborough. — Boone did all he could to keep in favor with the Indians. He knew that he must win their confidence or he would have no chance of escape. When Boone found out that the Indians were planning an attack on the fort at Boonesborough, he felt that he must warn the settlers as soon as possible. He seized the first op- portunity to slip away from his captors and set out in the direction of the fort. He had to go nearly a hundred miles, but he covered the distance in four days, although he had almost no -food in all that time. As soon as the Indians discovered that Boone had run away, they pursued him, but failed to overtake him. Shortly after this, five hundred warriors appeared be- fore Boonesborough, and one of the most furious Indian battles ever fought in Kentucky followed. The brave defenders of the fort, though numbering only fifty, fought so desperately that they finally drove the savages away. Boone's Old Age. — When Daniel Boone was an old man he lost all his property. Broken-hearted, he emi- Boone's Fort i84 BEYOND THE ALLEGHANIES grated to Missouri, where he went into the woods trap- ping for furs. At the age of eighty-five, the man who blazed the way for the settlement of the Middle West — the great hero- hunter — died, leaving all America indebted to him. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe the western country in 1760. 2. Tell of the traders who went into that region. 3. Account for the name "long hunters." 4. How were Kentucky and Tennessee settled? 5. Tell of the boyhood of Daniel Boone. 6. Where did he go in 1769? What was this region like? 7. Describe Boone's life in the wilderness before his family joined him. 8. What happened to the immigrants who joined Boone on his return to Kentucky with his family ? 9. Tell the story of the capture of the three little girls. 10. Relate the story of Boone's adoption by the Indians. 11. Give an account of the Indian attack on Boonesborough. 12. What trouble came to Boone in his old age ? 13. Why are we indebted to Daniel Boone ? CHAPTER XV LATER COLONIAL TIMES Growth of the Colonies Population. — By 1765, a little more than one hundred and fifty years after the EngHsh had first settled in America, the population of the thirteen colonies had in- creased to about a million and a half. The colonies were thirteen in number: New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Settled Areas Growing. — In the early days, when colonists were few, great stretches of forests separated the settlements of one colony from those of another. With the increase of population the colonists had spread out until, in 1765, the settled portions were almost con- tinuous along the Atlantic coast. These settled portions extended inland to the foot of the AUeghanies. Germans and Scotch-Irish. — The colonists continued to be overwhelmingly English ; but for some years large numbers of Germans and Scotch-Irish had been coming over. Most of the Germans had sought the unoccupied lands of the interior of Pennsylvania and from there many of them, following the base of the mountains, had moved down into the back country of the Southern colonies. i8s i86 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The Scotch-Irish had come in two streams, one entering at Philadelphia and the other at Charleston, and had settled between the Germans and the mountains. Most of the pioneers who passed over the Alleghanies a few years later and opened up the Middle West, were men and women of the hardy Scotch-Irish race. Trade and the Cities. — Trade had increased as rapidly as population. Since trade had brought much wealth to the colonies and had given employment to many per- sons, life in the cities and other well-settled sections had become more comfortable. Philadelphia, though it had been settled much later than either New^ York or Boston, was rivaling those cities as a seaport for the trade of the Northern colonies. Charleston had become an important port, controlling practically all the trade of the Southern colonies. Slaves and Bonded Servants. — In every colony could still be found slaves, redemptioners, and indentured serv- ants. Slaves had become very numerous in the South where they w^orked on the large plantations. Colonial Government. — The colonies still managed their home affairs through their assemblies. The quarrels between the assemblies and the governors and other officials, which had been going on for so many years, almost always ended in victories for the assemblies. Thus the colonists were receiving excellent training in self-government. All the colonies continued to require that a man should own property in order to vote, and some of them still taxed the people for the support of a particular church. GROWTH OF THE COLONIES 187 The Colonies in Closer Touch. — As the colonies had been settled as separate and distinct communities, they were naturally jealous of one another. Yet there were many things that were bringing them closer together in feeling. Foremost was the fact that for years hostile Frenchmen and Indians had been at their backs. The colonies, fighting shoulder to shoulder against these com- mon enemies, had learned to depend more upon one another. With the opening of new lands, and the building of new settlements, roads had improved somewhat, and travel from one colony to another had become more common. Between some of the larger towns stage- coaches, for carrying pas- sengers, were making regular trips. A colonial postal system had been put in operation by the British gov- ernment. While post offices were yet few in number and a letter was a long time in reaching its destination, still the postal system was another link binding the interests of colonies together. Newspapers had also been established. They were not many and none were dailies ; yet they gave the people of one colony news of what the people of another colony were doing. Travel, letter writing, and newspaper reading brought the people of all the colonies closer together in their sympathies. Post-Rider of the Olden Times i88 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The Colonists Self-Confident. — The colonists were very proud of what they had accomplished. They had a right to be proud, for they had erected in a wilderness stable communities, had built up a world-wide trade, and had fought successfully against the French and Indians. They had become confident of themselves and of their country. They had begun to realize that, no matter in what colony they lived, they all had interests in common, and that while they were still Englishmen and loyal to the mother country, they were something more — they were Americans. The Unwise Course of Great Britain The Mother Country Would Tax Her Colonies. — Just at the time when the colonies were beginning to realize their own strength, the British government adopted a very unwise course toward them. The French and In- dian War, and the many other wars that Great Britain had been engaged in for nearly a hundred years, had left the mother country very much in debt. George III and his ministers claimed that, as these wars had been waged partly to protect the American colonies, the people of England should not be taxed for the further protection of the colonies, but that the colonies should be made to raise the money through taxes levied by parliament. Therefore it was announced that parliament would be asked to levy a stamp tax upon the colonies. Under such a law all deeds, wills, mortgages, and all other legal papers and all newspapers and advertisements must bear stamps purchased from the British government. PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 189 ^' Taxation without Representation." — Naturally the colonists objected. They said that Great Britain had profited by the wars more than America had. They claimed that they had already paid their share of the ex- penses, and declared that they did not need British pro- tection. But the truth is, Americans objected to being taxed by the British parliament for any purpose whatso- ever. It will be remembered that at the very first meeting of the first colonial assembly, which was held in Jamestown, it was declared that the colonists had the same right as the Englishmen at home to be taxed only by their own representatives. This had come to be the established principle in every colony that was settled afterwards. ^ ^''^''^ °^ ' ^^' If the colonists should be taxed by parliament, they would be taxed by a body in which they were not represented. They protested against such a course, proclaiming that '' taxation without representation is tyranny." Passage of the Stamp Act. — In spite of the objections of the colonists, parliament, which was under the control of the king, passed the Stamp Act in 1765. Then began the greatest struggle in our history. Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, Forerunners OF THE Revolution A Country Lawyer and His Resolutions. — The Virginia assembly was in session at Williamsburg when the news igo LATER COLONIAL TIMES of the passage of the Stamp Act came Kke a summons to battle. The members were indignant. What to do was the question. There was much excited discussion. They were yet undecided when a tall, awkward young man arose to speak. He was hardly known to the others, for he was a country lawyer who had become a member of the assembly only a few days before. His name was Patrick Henry. This new member had written some resolutions on a blank leaf which he had torn from an old law book, and he now asked the house to adopt them. The resolutions startled the assembly by declaring that Great Britain had no right whatever to tax Americans without their consent. They were meant, of course, to con- demn the Stamp Act. Patrick Henry's Great Speech. — It was a serious matter for a colonial assembly to object to a law passed by parliament, as the members voting to do so might be charged with treason. There were some even among those opposed to the Stamp Act, who thought that Henry had gone too far. When the fiery young patriot exclaimed '' Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus ; Charles I, his Cromwell, and George III — " some of them broke in with the cry, '' Treason, treason ! " but Henry defiantly continued — " and George III may profit by their example. Patrick Henry PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADA^IS 191 If this be treason, make the most of it." His resolutions were adopted amid intense excitement. Patrick Henry, the ''Son of Thunder." — After his speech against the Stamp Act, the young country lawyer, who had been looked down upon by the great men of the colony, suddenly became the leading statesman of Virginia, and the most famous speaker in America. His eloquence earned for him the nickname " Son of Thunder." Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly The Action of Virginia Stirs the Other Colonies. — When news reached the other colonies that Virginia had taken such a bold stand against the Stamp Act, the spirit of Americans was fired as never before. The feeling was aroused everywhere that the colonists should resist the tax. Most of the colonial assemblies followed the ex- ample of Virginia and condemned the Stamp Act. Thus' Patrick Henry " gave the first impulse to the ball of the Revolution." 192 LATER COLONIAL TIMES The People Stand Firm. — Riots broke out in every colony, and stamps were seized and destroyed. " Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " was the popular cry. Crowds marched through the streets carrying banners upon which was printed, " England's Folly and America's Ruin." Societies, called " Sons of Liberty," were formed for the purpose of resisting the tax. Merchants of New York and other towns agreed not to buy goods from England as long as the Stamp Act was a law. Women formed societies, called " Daughters of Liberty," for spinning thread, weaving cloth, and knitting socks. It came to be the fashion to wear homemade clothes. Samuel Adams. — Boston became the center of the opposition, and Samuel Adams was the leader. Adams was of a fine old family, and a graduate of Harvard College. His father had left him some property, but Adams spent so much time working for the rights of the people that his own business went to ruin and he was reduced to poverty. He became the people's trusted champion, and he never betrayed their trust. The Stamp Act Repealed. — The Stamp Act was never put into effect, because when the day came for it to be- come a law, there was no one in all America who would sell the stamps that had not been destroyed. The courts could not proceed and all business requiring stamped paper was at a standstill. Ships lay idle at their docks. However, newspapers were issued bearing skulls and cross- bones in place of the stamps. There was great rejoicing among the colonists at the failure of the act. The rejoicing was still greater when PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 193 the British parHament, seeing that Americans could not be forced to use the stamps, repealed the law. The Colonies again Taxed. — Great Britain, however, had no idea of giving up her claim to the right to tax America. Shortly after the repeal of the Stamp Act, parliament passed an act taxing all glass, paper, lead, paints, and tea brought to the colonies. Again the Americans were aroused, and they declared that they would not buy these articles as long as they were taxed. Samuel Adams and His Circu- lar Letter. — Samuel Adams once more came to the front. He wrote a circular letter for the Massachusetts assembly, asking the other colonies to join in " maintaining the liberties of America." All the colonies re- ^^^^^^ ^°^^' sponded, saying that they would stand by Massachusetts. The " Boston Massacre." — In Boston the feeling became so intense that two regiments of British troops were sent to the town, at the request of the governor, to help him keep order. The king announced to parliament that he would make Boston obey the laws. The people of Boston resented having troops forced upon them, and there were many quarrels between the citizens and the soldiers. On a night in March, 1770, a riot occurred in which the citizens fought with sticks and balls of ice while the soldiers used their muskets. Firing 194 LATER COLONIAL TIMES int^' the crowd, the soldiers killed five citizens and wounded others. In the moonlight the stain of blood shone red on the snow. '' That stain, though it melted away in the next day's sun, was never forgotten nor forgiven." A Famous " Tea Party." — The bitter opposition of the colonists to the taxes caused Great Britain to remove all except the tax on tea. This tax she kept merely as a sign that she did not give up her claim to the right to tax America. And just because of the claim, the colonists objected, for it was taxation without representation still. As the tax on tea affected the women chiefly, they de- cided to do without tea, and used in place of it the dried leaves of mullein, catnip, sage, or raspberry. Three English ships loaded with tea appeared in Boston harbor. In the darkness of night, about sixty men, dis- guised as Indians, boarded the ships and threw the tea into the harbor. This affair, known as the " Boston Tea Party," occurred in 1773. In New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston the people either drove away the ships bringing tea, or seized the tea. Boston Punished. — The British government .was very angry with the people of Boston for destroying the tea, and parliament passed a law closing the port of the town. No ships were allowed to enter or to leave the harbor. Of course this was a serious blow to the business of Boston. It began to look as if the people would be hard pressed for food ; but every other colony came to their assistance, and rye, flour, rice, peas, cattle, sheep, oil, fish, and money poured into the town. Even far-away Georgia sent rice PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS 195 and money. The cause of Boston was felt to be the cause of all America. The day on which the port bill went into effect was observed throughout the country as a day of mourning, fasting, and prayer. Virginia Calls a Continental Congress. — The governor of Virginia would not allow the assembly of that colony to meet. The members, therefore, formed a con- vention which invited all the colonies to hold a Congress for the purpose of consulting as to what had best be done to pro- tect the interests of America. Meeting of the First Continental Congress. — In response to this invi- tation of Virginia, the First Continental Con- gress met in Philadelphia in 1774. The Congress condemned the acts passed by parliament for the taxation of America and approved the course of Massachusetts in opposing them. It advised all the colonies to help Massachusetts if Great Britain should attempt by force to put the laws into effect. Both Sides Determined. — Meanwhile, in every colony miUtary companies were organized and constantly drilled. Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, 1774 Where the First Continental Congress met 196 LATER COLONIAL TIMES Some of these companies were called " minutemen " be- cause their members pledged themselves to be ready at a minute's notice to fight for their country. Swords and bayonets were forged, bullets were molded, muskets were made, and gunpowder was manufactured. Each colony tried to outdo the others in preparing for defense. Nor was Great Britain idle. The prime minister boasted that he was determined to see America at the king's feet. He sent more soldiers to reenforce the troops at Boston. Massachusetts was declared to be in a state of rebellion, and General Gage was made military gover- nor of the colony. To prevent an attack from the pa- triots. Gage threw up fortifications around Boston. Another Great Speech by Patrick Henry. — At a con- vention held in Richmond, Virginia, in the spring of 1775, Patrick Henry offered resolutions urging that the militia of the colony be even better organized for resistance. The resolutions were adopted. Some members of the convention, though disliking the action of Great Britain, still hoped that the quarrel between the colonies and the mother country might be settled peaceably. These mem- bers did not like Henry's resolutions, for they could mean but one thing — war. To the members who yet hoped for peace Henry passionately cried : " Gentlemen may cry peace, peace — but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweep>from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Why stand we here idle? Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it. Almighty God ! I know QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 197 not what course others may take, but, as for me, give me liberty or give me death.^'' QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What was the population of the thirteen colonies in 1765? 2. How had settlements expanded? 3. Tell of the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish. 4, Describe the condition of trade. 5. What can you say of the cities? 6. What may be said of slaves and bonded white servants? 7. Give an account of the colonial governments. 8. Give reasons for the colonies having become closer in feeling. 9. How did the colonists feel toward England? 10. Of what accomplishments were they proud? II. Why did Great Britain decide to tax the colonists? 12. What was the Stamp Act? 13. Why did the colonists object to it? 14. When was the Stamp Act passed? 15. Tell about Patrick Henry and how he "gave the first impulse to the ball of the Revolution." 16. How did the people show their opposition to the Stamp Act? 17. Who led the opposition in Massa- chusetts? Tell what you can of this great patriot. 18. Why was the Stamp Act not put into effect? 19. What other taxes were imposed on the colonists? 20. Tell of Samuel Adams' circular letter. 21. Why did the king send troops to Boston? 22. What clash came between the citizens of Boston and the soldiers? 23. Tell the story of the famous "tea party." 24. How did the British government punish the people of Boston? 25. How did the other colonists feel about Great Britain's treatment of Boston, and what did they do? 26. How was the meeting of the First Continental Congress brought about? 27. When and where did the Congress meet, and what did it accomplish? 28. Who were the "minutemen"? 29. What was the next move made by Great Britain? 30. Relate what happened at the convention held in Richmond in 1775. CHAPTER XVI ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN George Washington, Commander of the American Army Battle of Lexington. — The warning of Patrick Henry, that " the next gale that swept from the north would bring the clash of resounding arms," came true. Less than a month after he made his speech in the Virginia convention, a battle was fought in Massachusetts and the Revolutionary War began. About daylight on the morning of April 19, 1775, British soldiers fired into a small party of minutemen who had gathered on the village green at Lexington, ten miles from Boston. Eight men were killed and several wounded. The soldiers thought they were doing some- thing very much to their credit in killing a few minute- men, but the battle of Lexington sealed the doom of British rule in America. The British Retreat. — With loud huzzas the soldiers marched on to Concord for the purpose of destroying the guns and ammunition that the patriots had stored there. By the time the soldiers reached Concord, the alarm had gone through the country and many Ameri- cans, armed for battle, had already arrived in the town. 198 GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 199 After a skirmish, in which the patriots gained the ad- vantage, the soldiers began a retreat to Boston. The Americans followed. From behind houses, fences, and trees the patriots poured shots into the ranks of the British, many of whom fell dead. Panic-stricken, the soldiers fled in disorder. The patriots kept up the pur- suit until the British had reached Boston. The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 After an engraving made by two Continental militiamen who were in the battle Effect of Lexington upon the Country. — Reports of the fighting spread so rapidly that by the next morning a small army of New England militiamen had gathered in camp near Boston, ready to defend their rights. The news flew from colony to colony. Men on fleet horses galloped through town and village crying, " To arms! to arms! the war has begun." The patriots, dropping their work, rushed to arms. 200 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN Washington Made Commander-in-Chief. — The Con- tinental Congress was in session in Philadelphia when the news of the battle of Lexington reached that town. Immediately plans were made to carry on the war. George Washington was chosen commander-in-chief of the American forces. Bunker Hill. — Before Washington could take command of the army, another battle ha^ been fought near Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments on a spur of Bunker Hill. General Gage ordered his troops to seize this point, and twice the British charged up the hill only to be driven back by the Americans. Once again the British charged ■ — this time with success. The ammunition of the Americans had given out, and they were forced to retreat. The battle of Bunker Hill, though ending in defeat, greatly encouraged the Americans, for twice their mihtia had driven back trained British soldiers. They were soon to find, however, that they had little ground for confidence. The American Army. — When Washington took com- mand of the patriots near Boston, they could hardly be Bunker Hill jMonument GEORGE WASHINGTON. COMMANDER 20I called an army, but rather a great " gathering of neigh- bors, school-fellows, and friends." Many did not have bayonets and some even lacked muskets. Their only food was what patriotic farmers gave them. Unused to soldier life, the Americans were high-spirited and unruly. It was one of the hardest tasks of Washington's life to make of this motley crowd a well- organized army. The British Driven from Boston. — During the next summer and winter, Washington was unable to risk a battle because he did not have enough am- munition. In the spring, however, he determined upon a move. In one night he fortified Dorchester Heights, a hill near Boston, and so placed his guns as to have the British army and fleet at his mercy. When General Howe, then in com- mand of the British forces, awoke in the morning he was surprised to see what the Americans had done. Knowing that he could hold Boston no longer, he embarked all his troops on the fleet and set sail for Nova Scotia, and the Americans took possession of the town. The Declaration of Independence. — Up to this time the Americans had been fighting only in self-defense and without any clear idea of separating from the mother country. But the desire for independence had grown and on July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, declaring that '' the colo- A Continental Soldier 202 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN nies are and of a right ought to be free and independent states.'^ From this time on the Americans fought to become an independent people. It should be remembered, however, that in every colony there were Americans who sided with Great Britain, some even fighting in the British army. The patriots called these men " Tories " and calle'd themselves '' Whigs." Capture of New York. — Washington knew that the British would not remain idle, and felt sure that the next point attacked would be New York City. Therefore, he marched his forces from Boston across country to New York. He had hardly arrived when General Howe and his army appeared in the harbor, supported by a strong fleet. The little American army made a brave stand to save New York, but it was overwhelmingly defeated by the larger force of the British, and compelled to retire to a point above the city. The British then took possession of New York and held it until the end of the war. Days of Gloom. — The loss of New York greatly dis- couraged the Americans. Soldiers, whose term of service had expired, went home in such large numbers that Wash- ington was left with only the remnant of an army. Fortunately, Washington would not yield to despair. BeHeving that the British would next try to capture Phila- delphia, he crossed over into New Jersey to block their way. He had only a few men and could not stop the tri- umphant march of the large British force through New Jersey. All he could do was to retreat before the enemy, and watch for a good chance to attack. GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 203 The American soldiers suffered dreadfully on the re- treat which continued until they had crossed into Penn- sylvania. They had little to eat, and their scanty cover- ing could not protect them from the cold, which was very severe. Their path was marked by the bloodstains that their bare feet left on the snow. The outlook seemed dark for America. Many of the people of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania be- lieved that the cause was lost, and sought protection of the British arms instead of helping Washington and his army. Trenton and Princeton. — Still, Washington did not de- spair, though his heart ached on account of the faithlessness of his people. Hoping to win back, by a bold stroke, the confidence of the Americans, he determined to attack a British force that was then stationed at Trenton, New Jersey. The force at Trenton was composed of a number of Hessians. These were German troops whom King George had hired to fight against the Americans. Washington believed that in celebrating Christmas the Hessians would George Washington in 1775 After the portrait by Peale 204 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN be off their guard, and he chose that night to attack them. In a storm of snow and sleet he and his men had to cross the Delaware River in rowboats through masses of floating ice. Because of the severe weather they were delayed until dayhght before reaching Trenton. Yet the Hessians were taken by surprise and completely routed. Many prisoners and a considerable amount of arms and ammuni- tion fell into the hands of the patriots. After the battle of Trenton, Washington marched on to Princeton, where he defeated and routed another detachment of the British. Hopes of the Americans Revive. — The results of the battles at Trenton and Princeton revived the hopes of the American people. Patriots of New Jersey rose again in defense of their homes and drove the British garrisons from the other towns of the state. When the summer of 1777 came, the enemy had lost all ground they had gained except the city of New York. Capture of Philadelphia. — Reverses to the Americans came soon again. Howe planned another attack on Phila- delphia. He carried his army by sea to the head of Chesa- peake Bay and marched it from there across the country. Washington hurried his forces overland to try to stop the British general. Washington's men were poorly armed and were clad in all sorts of coats, most of which were in rags. Howe had an army of well-equipped and well-disciplined troops nearly twice the size of Washington's force. The ill-matched armies met near Brand}^vine Creek, in Pennsylvania, in September, 1777, and a battle followed in which Washington was defeated by the superior force of GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 205 the enemy. Howe entered Philadelphia, but the Conti- nental Congress had left the city to meet elsewhere. The Marquis de Lafayette, a French nobleman, who had left home and wealth and high position in France to help the Americans in their struggle for liberty, was wounded at the battle of Brandy wine. A Band of Heroes at Valley Forge. — As cold weather was coming on, Washington placed his shivering little Valley Forge Washington and Lafayette visiting the suffering army, painting by A. Gilbert After the army in winter quarters at Valley Forge, a short distance from Philadelphia. The suffering of the soldiers during the winter that followed can hardly be described. The men cut down trees to build huts of the logs, but even then they could not protect themselves from the cold. Blankets were few and it was a common thing for two men to share a suit of clothes — one staying in his hut, covered with rags, straw, and leaves, while the other wore it. The sick lay upon the dirt floors of the huts, without proper 206 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN food or medicine, and many of them died. Yet the little band remained faithful. Surrender of Burgoyne. Alliance with France. — Meanwhile (1777) a large army composed of British, Ca- nadians, Tories, and Indians, and commanded by General Burgoyne, had invaded upper New York from Canada. Meeting defeat in two battles near Saratoga and almost The SuRREiSDER OF Burgoyne at Saratoga surrounded by the Americans, Burgoyne had surrendered his army. Besides the great number of men, a vast amount of war supplies had been captured. General Horatio Gates had commanded the Americans, but the victory was almost wholly due to his subordinate officers, especially Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan. Since the king of France looked upon England as his hereditary enem.y, he desired that the Americans should win the war ; and the surrender of Burgoyne made him think that they would if he helped them. Therefore, in GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER 207 1778, he made an alliance whereby France would aid America. Evacuation of Philadelphia. — With the coming of spring, news was received tha^t France had consented to aid the Americans in their struggle for freedom, and the gloom at Valley Forge was dispelled. On the other hand, the British forces in Philadelphia — now commanded by General Clinton — were much dis- turbed by this news. They feared that a French fleet would come up the river, cut them off from the sea, and help the Americans pen them up in Philadelphia. They hurriedly left the town and retreated toward New York. Immediately everything was stirring at Valley Forge, for Washington resolved to attack the retreating British. He pursued them hotly and came upon them at Monmouth, New Jersey. In the battle that followed the British were driven from the field. Under the cover of night they con- tinued their retreat to New York. The British army, driven back to New York, now held no more of the country than it had held three years before. Treason of Benedict Arnold. — Washington moved his army close to New York to watch Clinton. While he was thus engaged one of the saddest incidents of the war occurred. Benedict Arnold, who as a general in the American army had shown such bravery at Saratoga and other battles, tried to betray his country by turning over to the British the fort at West Point, the most important post on the Hudson River. The plot was discovered by the capture of Major Andre, who was acting as a messen- 2o8 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN ger between the British and General Arnold. Andre was hanged as a spy, but Arnold escaped to the British, and was made a general in their army. Washington Watching New York. — Though at no time was his army strong enough to drive the British from New York, Washington continued for three years to keep a close watch of the city. We will, therefore, leave for a time the account of his campaigns to learn of other important events of the Revolution. Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration OF Independence A Student Listens to an Orator. — While Patrick Henry was making his eloquent speech in opposition to the Stamp Act in the Virginia assembly at Williamsburg, a young man, seventeen years old, stood at the door listening eagerly. The young man was Thomas Jefferson, then a student at William and Mary College. He was strongly opposed to the taxing of America by Great Britain, and it may easily be imagined how Patrick Henry's eloquence fired his youthful heart. Jefferson in His Younger Days. — Thomas Jefferson was the son of a rich planter. His early life was that usual to the sons of the wealthy Virginians of those days — a life of culture, refinement, and ease. At college he was a hard student, but he was fond of music and dancing and the society of young ladies, and would often ride many miles to attend a party. He was full of fun and wit, and' had a grace of manner that made him a great favorite in the social circles of Virginia. THOMAS JEFFERSON 209 Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. — At thirty years of age, Jefferson was elected a member of the Virginia assembly. Just at that time, all America was greatly excited over the tax on tea, and Jefferson at once took a prominent part in the assembly in opposition to Great Britain's policy. Patrick Henry was a member of the assembly at the same time and was still the leader of the opposition. Jefferson, though seven years the younger, made him an able co-worker. As has been aptly said, Henry could not write well, but was a wonderful orator ; Jefferson could not speak well, but was a powerful writer. To- gether they worked, Henry speaking and Jefferson writ- ing, to persuade the colony that the only thing left to do was to resist by force the injustice of Great Britain. Jefferson Declared a Traitor by Great Britain. — In his efforts to arouse the people, Jefferson wrote an article denouncing the course of Great Britain and urging all the colonies to make a united stand against it. So bold was the article that the British government declared the writer a traitor. Jefferson could not be frightened in this way, and he kept on appealing to the people to defend their rights. Thomas Jefferson After the portrait by Gilbert Stuart 2IO ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN Writing the Declaration of Independence. — Jefferson was everywhere recognized as the ablest writer on poHtical subjects in America. When the Continental Congress got ready to adopt the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson, who was then a member of that body, was selected to write it. There was no one in Congress and perhaps no one in the world who could have done the work Facsimile of the Last Lines of the Declaration of Independence In the writing of Jefferson, with the first three signatures better. The Declaration of Independence is one of the greatest papers ever written. Some members of Congress were not sure that it was wise to adopt the Declaration. Jefferson, who, as we have said, was no speaker, did not defend it on the floor of Congress. He left this to be done by his friend John Adams, a Massachusetts orator, and a cousin of Samuel Adams. So well did John Adams perform his part that the Declaration was adopted, July 4, 1776. FRANKLIN AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 211 What the Declaration Meant. — In the Declaration of Independence, Americans proclaimed themselves free from British rule. Of course, their saying that they were free did not, of itself, make them free. It took them five more years to win their independence. Benjamin Franklin and the French Alliance America's Agent in France. — The man who secured the French Alliance was Benjamin Franklin, whom the Continental Congress had sent to France to get aid. Franklin's Boyhood. — Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, the son of a candle and soap maker. Benjamin was the youngest son in a family of seventeen children. His father first sent him to the public schools of Boston and then to a private academy. When Benjamin was ten years old, he began to work in his father's shop. Although he had to work hard all day, at night he read every book he could lay his hand on. At first he borrowed books. He could not borrow many, for at that time books were few throughout the colonies. By saving his wages, Franklin was at last able to buy some books. The first one that he bought was '' The Pilgrim's Progress," and he read it many times. It was this habit of constant reading when a boy that made Franklin a deep thinker when he grew to be a man. From being a deep thinker, he became a great benefactor to mankind. Franklin's Birthplace 212 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN Franklin worked in his father's shop for two years. Then an older brother James, who had just set up a printing business in Boston, agreed to take Ben into his shop. There Ben quickly learned the printer's trade. Franklin Runs Away. — ■ Franklin continued his reading, for he saved half the money his brother gave him to pay for his board, and bought books with it. Often^his meal would consist of only a biscuit or a slice of bread, and a handful of raisins. The brothers did not get on well together. Quarrels were frequent and the older one would often strike the younger. Unable to stand this harsh treatment longer, Ben ran away when he was seventeen years old. The Runaway's First Day in Philadelphia. — Franklin wTnt by sea from Boston to New York, but failing to get work there, he journeyed on foot to Philadelphia. He arrived hungry and tired, with only a dollar in his pocket. He was lonely for he did not know a soul in the city, but hunger gave him more worry just then than loneliness. The first thing he did was to spend a part of his last dollar to buy three loaves of bread. Putting a loaf under each arm, and eating the third, he set out to look for a place to sleep. His clothes were dusty, and not having a bag, he had stuffed shirt and stockings into his pocket. He looked so ridiculous that a little girl standing in the front doorway of her home laughed at him as he passed. This same saucy little girl afterward became the wife of the runaway boy. Under the rough appearance of the boy, there was a noble, generous heart. Later in the day, he found a FRANKLIN AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 213 woman and a little child who were hungry, and Franklin divided his bread with them. When the weary traveler at last found a lodging place, he went to bed early, and slept soundly. The next day a printer gave him a trial at typesetting, and seeing how well he could work, offered him a position. Publisher of a Newspaper and an Almanac. — Thus Benjamin Franklin began life in Philadelphia. By hard work and by saving his earnings he was soon able to set up a print- ing shop of his own, and publish a newspaper and an almanac. In those days a number of almanacs were printed in America. They were very popular because reading matter was scarce. Every home had an almanac and often there would be no other book, besides the Bible, for family use. Franklin de- cided to use his almanac, which he called " Poor Richard's Almanac," as a means for teach- ing, through bits of wisdom, that he who is industrious and frugal leads a happy and a good life. '' Poor Richard's " Wisdom. — The maxims of " Poor Richard " are full of wit and humor, and are written in such a plain way that they carry their truths straight to the heart. Most of them are used commonly in our speech to-day. " God helps them that help themselves," " Never leave that till to-morrow which you can do to-day," " A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," and '' Early Franklin's Printing Press 214 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," are known to us all. " Poor Richard's " sayings were reprinted in many languages and they made Franklin's name famous the world over. Franklin a Many-Sided Man. — Besides being a writer, Franklin did successfully many things along other lines. He it was who discovered that lightning is a form of electricity and, following up this discovery, invented the lightning rod. His many valuable discoveries in elec- tricity greatly increased throughout the world the fame that his writings had already brought him. Franklin organized a library in Philadelphia, founded a school which afterward became the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, and built the first hospital in the town. He organized the first fire company in Philadelphia, and was a member of it for fifty years. He invented the Franklin stove, which is still used in many homes. Franklin in Congress. — Franklin was an old man when the Revolution began, but Pennsylvania sent him as a delegate to the Continental Congress, and he served on the committee appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence. When Congress wished Franklin to go to France to get Ben'jamix Fraxklix After the portrait by Duplessis FRANKLIN AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 215 aid for America, he said, " I am old and good for nothing, but as the storekeepers say of their remnants of cloth, ' I am but a fag end and you may have me for what you please.' " But Congress knew better. If Franklin, with his shrewd mind and his great reputation in Europe, could not secure aid from the king of France, nobody in America could. Franklin in France. — The French people gave Franklin a hearty welcome. Crowds followed him on the streets of Paris, and great men and women feasted him. His picture was hung in pubHc places and in many homes; his head w^as engraved on jewelry. Franklin, though pleased with such attention, had so much common sense that he did not let it keep him from attending to the serious business that had carried him to France. He remained in that country during the rest of the war. By his skillful management FrankHn persuaded the king of France to lend secretly, from time to time, large sums of money to aid the Americans in their struggle. As has already been stated, the king of France wished the Americans to succeed because he hated Great Britain. Upon the surrender of Burgoyne, Franklin persuaded him to come out openly for the Revolution and to sign a treaty between France and America. Then the king sent French troops and French fleets to America to as- sist in the war. Without the aid of France we should not have won our independence when we did, and without the skill of Franklin we should probably not have received that aid. 2i6 ARMED RESISTANCE TO GREAT BRITAIN QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe the first battle of the Revolution. 2, How did the people receive the news of the battle of Lexington? 3. What did the Continental Congress do? 4. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. 5. What was the condition of the army when Washington took com- mand? 6. How were the British frightened out of Boston ? 7. What was the Declaration of Independence ? WTien was it adopted ? 8. De- scribe Washington's retreat through New Jersey. 9. Tell about the battles of Trenton and Princeton. 10. Describe the battle of Brandy- wine. Who was Lafayette ? 11. Tell about the winter at Valley Forge. 12. What army was captured in 1777, and what aid did this victory bring us from Europe? 13. Why did the British give up Philadelphia? Where did they go? 14. Tell the story of Benedict Arnold and Wesi^ Point. 15. What did Washington do for three years after Cliaton had retired to New York ? 16. Tell about the youth of Thomas Jefferson. 17. How did he and Patrick Henry work together ? 18. Why was Jefferson denounced by the British government? 19. What great paper did Jefferson write? 20. Who defended this paper in the Continental Congress and secured its adoption? 21. What did the Declaration of Inde- pendence proclaim? 22. For how long afterward did Americans have to fight for their rights ? 23. Tell the story of Benjamin Franklin's life. 24. Relate the incidents of his first day in Philadelphia. 25. What business was he finally able to establish for himself? 26. Mention some of the sayings of "Poor Richard." 27. What great discovery did Franklin make? What institutions did he found in Philadelphia? 28. On what com- mittee did he serve when a member of the Continental Congress? 29. To what country was he sent by Congress? For what purpose? 30. What did he accomplish for America there ? CHAPTER XVII A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST George Rogers Clark Holds the Illinois Country The British Incite the Indians in the Northwest. — The British had placed garrisons in the old French towns of the region between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, then known as the Illinois country. These garrisons incited the neighboring Indians to cross the Ohio River and attack the American settlements west of the Alle- ghany Mountains. George Rogers Clark, a young surveyor, had only a few years before moved from Virginia to Kentucky. He conceived the idea of taking the French towns, and by holding them, putting a stop to the Indian raids. Kentucky was still a part of Virginia and Virginia also claimed the Illinois country. Patrick Henry was then governor of Virginia, and Clark journeyed all the way to Williamsburg to get from him permission to carry out his scheme. Clark Seizes the Illinois Country. — Having received from Governor Henry permission to undertake the expedition, Clark returned to Kentucky and raised a force of less than two hundred volunteers. This small band crossed the Ohio River, in the summer of 1778, and 217 2l8 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST marched through many miles of wilderness. Often they went hungry, and the heat was intense. Coming upon Kaskaskia in Illinois, they took it by surprise. In quick succession Cahoka in Illinois and Vincennes in Indiana surrendered. All these towns were taken without the loss of a man. The Contest for Vincennes. — Colonel Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, heard with amazement of Clark's bold stroke. Col- lecting a large force, mostly Indians, he descended upon Vincennes and retook that town. When Clark learned of what Hamilton had done, he said, '^ I must take Hamil- ton, or he will take me." Clark was then at Kaskaskia, two hundred and fifty miles away. It was now the dead of winter, yet with his little army he set out for Vin- cennes. The march was exceedingly difficult, for much of the country was covered with water. At many places the men had to wade through water reaching to their arm- pits. Without warning Clark appeared before Vincennes and, after a short but sharp fight, once more took posses- sion of the town. Colonel Hamilton, who was among the captured, was sent to Virginia as a prisoner of war. The Debt We Owe to Clark. — Clark continued to hold Illinois country. By making friends of some of the Indian George Rogers Clark JOHN PAUL JONES 219 tribes, and by defeating others, he was able to protect the American settlements in the West from raids from north of the Ohio. The brave work of Clark and his men had an even more important result. Had they not held the Illinois country when the war ended, Great Britain would probably have retained that region and made it a part of Canada. Our northern boundary would then have been the Ohio River instead of the Great Lakes. From the territory saved by Clark have been formed the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and a part of Minnesota. John Paul Jones, the Naval Hero of the Revolution Jones an Officer in the American Navy. — John Paul Jones was born in Scotland, the son of a gardener. His name was at first John Paul. At the age of twelve he became a sailor, and, after fifteen years of seafaring life, he settled in Virginia. It was upon his coming to Vir- ginia that he added Jones to his name. Soon after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, John Paul Jones was appointed an officer in the little navy that the Continental Congress had created. He made a number of cruises and destroyed many British merchant ships. He even attacked ships close to the English coast. The Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. — In the year 1779, Jones was cruising off the coast of England in a warship which France had loaned America. This vessel was called Bon Homme Richard in compHment to 220 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST Benjamin Franklin's '' Poor Richard." After sunset of an autumn day, he came across the British warship, SerapiSj and immediately a fierce fight began. Jones lashed the ships together, and with the firing at such close range, the decks of both vessels were soon strewn with dead and wounded. Once, when the British commander thought that the Americans were weakening, he asked Jones whether he was ready to surrender, and Jones replied, " I have not begun to fight." Finally, the Americans' fire became too terrible to withstand longer, and the British com- mander himself surrendered. Immediately Jones and his men boarded the Serapis. Shortly afterward the Bon Homme Richard, which had been badly shot up, went to the bottom. The fight between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis was the greatest sea battle of the Revolutionary War and one of the most hotly con- tested of history. The Partisan Bands of the South A Fort of Palmetto Logs. — In 1776, a few days before the Declaration of Independence was adopted, a British fleet, having on board a strong army, appeared before Charleston for the purpose of conquering South Carolina. On hearing that a fleet was going to attack the town, the militia had built a fort of palmetto logs on Sullivan's Island at the entrance of the harbor. Many thought that this fort was too weak to withstand a bombardment, and advised that it be abandoned. But Colonel William Moultrie, who commanded the THE PARTISAN BANDS OF THE SOUTH 221 fort, felt sure that his brave men behind the palmetto logs would stop the approach of the enemy. When the fort was finished a sea captain asked Moul- trie, " Well, what do you think of it now?" Moultrie replied, '' I think we shall beat them." The Attack on Fort Moultrie ^' Sir," said the captain, " when those ships come to lie alongside your fort, they will knock it down in half an hour." " Then," quickly remarked Moultrie, " we will lie behind the ruins and prevent their men from landing." Attack on Fort Moultrie. — All through a hot June day the battle raged. The ships pounded away at the 2 22 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST palmetto logs, but they could not batter down the fort, for the balls that struck it sank into the soft wood without doing any damage. Though the Americans had to fire sparingly because their ammunition was scarce, they di- rected their aim so well that the ships were nearly riddled. After nightfall the fleet sailed away. The fort on Sullivan's Island has ever since been called Fort Moultrie. Capture of Savannah and Charleston. — The defeat of the British at the battle of Fort Moultrie was so com- plete that they did not make another attempt to conquer the South for nearly three years. Then (1778) they captured Savannah, which was only feebly protected. Their success at Savannah encouraged the British to attack Charleston a second time. General Clinton came down by sea from New York to take charge of the cam- paign. After a long siege, both by army and fleet, the town was compelled to surrender in the spring of 1780. South Carolina and Georgia Overrun. — The Con- tinental Congress had never furnished an army for the protection of the South, and, after Charleston was captured. South Carolina and Georgia seemed helpless. They had no army, and Congress could send them none ; they had no funds, and Congress could give them no financial aid. British soldiers spread over the country. They treated the Whigs most cruelly, seizing or destroying their property and driving them from their homes. Bands of Tories committed as many outrages as British soldiers. People who did not wish to take either side in the war were not allowed to remain neutral, for General Clinton THE PARTISAN BANDS OF THE SOUTH 223 ordered that all who would not take up arms for the king should be treated as rebels. Partisan Warfare. — Clinton, believing that the cam- paign in the South was practically won, returned to New York. He left Lord Cornwallis in command. The British, by their very cruelty, had aroused the people to resistance, and since there was no army for them to join, they gathered together in bands to fight as best they could. Among the leaders in this " partisan warfare," as it was called, were Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, and Andrew Pickens from South Carolina ; WiUiam R. Davie from North Carolina; and Elijah Clark from Georgia. Without pay and almost without food men from the Carolinas and Georgia would gather under one of the leaders and strike the enemy a sudden blow. Rushing out from wood or swamp, they would capture some detachment, seize wagons of provisions intended for the enemy, or rescue Americans whom the British had taken prisoners, and then as suddenly disappear. The next day they would be at home quietly attending to their own affairs, but ready to assemble again at the call of their leader. The " Swamp Fox " and the " Game Cock." — Marion usually made his camp in a swamp. Because he could Thomas Sumter 224 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST slip into and slip out of a swamp too quickly for the British to catch him, they called him the '' Swamp Fox." On account of Sumter's impetuous and hard fighting, the British called this leader the '' Game Cock." CornwalHs said that Sumter was the '' greatest plague" with which his army had to contend. Marion Inviting the British Officer to Dinner Marion Dining the British Officer. — A story is told of Marion that illustrates the desperate condition under which the partisan leaders and their bands often fought. A British ofhcer visited Marion's camp, under a flag of truce, for the purpose of arranging an exchange of prisoners. Marion invited the officer to dine. There was neither chair nor stool ; so the host and his guest sat on the trunk of a fallen tree. When dinner was brought, it proved to be sweet potatoes served on pieces of pine bark. WESTERNERS WIN A SPLENDID VICTORY 225 " Surely," said the officer, '' this is not your usual fare?'' Marion bowed and replied, '' Yes, and as we have company for dinner, we are lucky to have a larger supply than usual." The officer was astonished. When he returned to the British camp, he told his comrades that it was useless to wage war against such determined men. Poorly clad and poorly fed, they would fight to the death for the sake of liberty. And he resigned from the army. The Partisan Fighters' Place in History. — Too much praise cannot be given the partisan fighters of the South in the struggle for independence. When everywhere else fighting had ceased, and the cause seemed hopeless, these bold Southerners, without help from the rest of the country, kept up the contest. Westerners Win a Splendid Victory Defeat of Gates. — At last Congress tried to help the South by sending to South Carolina a few troops from Washington's army. General Gates was placed in com- mand. Gates was the general in command of the Americans who captured Burgoyne's army. Though this victory had been gained more by the leadership, of his subordinate officers, Gates thought himself the best general in America, and he went South confident that he could crush Cornwallis. Marching on in his pride. Gates was ingloriously defeated by Cornwallis at Camden in the summer of 1780. The American soldiers fled from the field, and none faster than Gates himself. 226 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST Gloom in the South. — Encouraged by the defeat of Gates, British and Tories pillaged and burned more than ever. Most of the partisan bands had joined the army of Gates and were scattered by the defeat, hence little resistance could be made. Gloom again settled over the South; but the gloom did not last long, for from beyond the mountains came rays of hope. The Western Patriots. — The inhabitants of the coun- try west of the mountains were loyal to the American cause almost to a man. They had given the British much trouble by assisting the partisan bands east of the mountains. A British ofhcer. Colonel Ferguson, who was in the upper part of South Carolina with a force, mostly Tories, sent word to the Westerners that, if they did not stop their opposition to the British government, he would go over the mountains, hang their leaders, and destroy their crops. When the message reached the western country, the leaders consulted together, and it was decided that the mountaineers should go forward to attack Ferguson instead of waiting for his coming. A call was sent up the mountainsides and through the valleys for volunteers. The response was so enthusiastic that all the fighting men of the region gathered at the meeting place. Old men, women, and children accompanied them there to bid them Godspeed. King's Mountain. — All the fighting men could not be taken, for some had to guard the settlements against the Indians. Colonel William Campbell commanded the WESTERNERS WIN A SPLENDID VICTORY 227 men selected from western Virginia, and Colonels John Sevier and Isaac Shelby those from Tennessee. After a toilsome march across the mountains, the party was joined by small partisan bands from the Carolinas. Ferguson heard of the coming of the frontiersmen, and The Southern Colonies in 1780 he beat a hasty retreat in hopes of reaching Cornwallis' army which was stationed at Charlotte. The best armed and the best mounted of the mountaineers, about nine hundred in all, pushed forward in hot pursuit. They overtook Ferguson at King's Mountain, in South Carolina, in October, 1780. Ferguson had placed his force in a very strong position on the top of the mountain; the 228 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST dauntless Westerners climbed the sides of the moun- tain, shouting and firing as they went. Of Ferguson's force of about eleven hundred men, nearly half were killed or wounded. Every man who was not killed was captured. Ferguson himself was slain. Effect of King's Mountain. — When it is remembered that Washington's army in the North was at this time too weak to fight, and that the American army in the South had just been dispersed, it is not too much to say that the battle of King's Mountain turned the scales of the war. Jefferson called it the '' joyful turn of the tide." The patriots of the South were so encouraged by this victory that partisan bands again took the field. By annoying and harassing the enemy with their sudden and unexpected attacks, they kept them from gaining complete control of the South. Surrender of Cornwallis Cowpens. — Congress sent another general, Nathanael Greene, to take command in the South. Greene ordered General Daniel Morgan to protect the western part of South Carolina. A British officer, named Tarleton, attacked Morgan's force at Cowpens in January, 1781. Morgan won a complete victory, but his position was critical. His force was small, and Cornwallis was march- ing against him with a large army. Guilford Courthouse. — Morgan retreated into North Carolina, Cornwallis following him closely. Greene joined Morgan and took charge of the retreat. Though the pursuit was close, Cornwallis could not overtake Greene. SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 229 Finally, Greene, having been reinforced, met Cornwallis in battle at Guilford Courthouse in North Carolina. Be- cause his militia gave way, Greene had to retire from the field, and CornwaUis claimed the victory; yet the army of CornwaUis was so badly shattered that he retreated to Wilmington, leaving the rest of North Carolina in the hands of the patriots. ^Z" fifr-^ The Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19, 1781 From the painting by Trumbull, in the Capitol at Washington Effect of Guilford Courthouse. — A prominent English statesman said of the battle of Guilford Courthouse, " another such victory would ruin the British army." This victory itself ruined the British army. Cornwallis retired with his weakened force into Virginia ; and, when he took up a position at Yorktown, Washington, who for three years had been watching the British in New York, immediately decided to attack him. 230 A SUCCESSFUL END TO THE CONTEST The Surrender at Yorktown. — Joined by an army that had been sent over from France, Washington left Chnton in New York in doubt as to where he was going, and marched his forces southward. The combined American and French armies surrounded the troops of CornwalHs on the land side of Yorktown, while a French fleet prevented their escape by sea. Though Cornwal- lis resisted, he was forced to surrender. His veteran redcoats filed between the lines of the ragged patriots on the one side, and the bril- liantly uniformed French on the other, and stacked their shining guns on the nineteenth day of October, 1781. End of the War. — The surrender of CornwalHs was hailed with joy everywhere in America, for it was felt that so great a success would bring an end to the war. In this belief the Americans were not mistaken. The British government, weary of the war, was at last willing to make peace. A treaty of peace between Great Britain and America was signed in 1783. In this treaty every one of the thirteen English colonies in America was declared to be a '' free and independent state." The^-Coivpeni..^ l_ TAR-LETON , - .r^^^^; CoRNWALLis' Wandering Campaign AT THE South QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 231 Washington, the Patriot. — Washington was looked upon as the savior of his country. Some people thought he ought to be made king, but he who had fought to make his people free loved them too well to take advantage of their gratitude. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did the Indians of the Northwest give trouble? 2. Tell about George Rogers Clark in the Northwest. 3. What important result did Clark's remarkable achievement have ? 4. Tell of John Paul Jones' younger days. 5. When was he ap- pointed an officer in the American navy? 6. Describe the battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. 7. Give the story of the attack on Fort Moultrie. 8. Describe the taking of Savannah and Charleston. 9. Tell how the people of the South were treated by the British and by the Tories. 10. Describe ''partisan warfare." 11. What did the British call Marion? Sumter? 12. Relate the story of Marion's entertainment of the British offcer. 13. Why do the partisan bands deserve a high place in history? 14. What can be said of General Gates ? 15. What did the British do following the defeat of Gates at Camden? 16. What message was sent to the men west of the mountains, and what did they do about it? 17. Give the facts of the battle of King's Mountain, and explain its effects. 18. Tell of the battle of Cowpens; of Guilford Courthouse. 19. What did Cornwallis do after the battle of Guilford Courthouse? 20. Describe the surrender of Cornwallis. 21. What important change was made by the treaty of 1783? 22. How did the people regard Washington? What proposal did they make? 23. What response did Washington make to this proposal ? CHAPTER XVIII EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC The Constitution of the United States The Confederation. — While the Revolutionary War was in progress, the States, having decided that they should form a union, established a government for the United States of America. This first government is known as the Confederation because the rules under which it was conducted are called the Articles of Con- federation. The government of the Confederation consisted of a Congress in which each state had only one vote. From the very beginning it did not work well for the reason that it was not a strong government. Each state, jealous of its own rights and wishing to retain control of its own affairs, had been unwilling to give Congress much power. If Congress wanted an army, it had to ask each state to furnish a certain number of men ; and if it wished to raise money, it could only ask each state to furnish a certain amount. If the state refused, that was the end of the matter. The Country Drifting toward Ruin. — When peace was declared it was thought that times would immediately become prosperous, and, as a consequence, most persons THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 233 began to live extravagantly. Soon the American people as a whole were heavily in debt. They had no money which would be accepted in payment of what they had bought. All the states had issued a great deal of paper money during the war, and most of them were continuing to do so. The paper money was valueless because nobody believed that the States could make it good in gold or silver. To make matters worse, many states placed taxes on goods brought into their terri- tory for sale from other states. Business came al- most to a stand- still. Conditions grew so bad that per- sons who were pressed for pay- ment of Our Country in i; Black dots show the settled regions in the United States ; circles show the regions of Canada in settle- their ment; crosses show the Spanish settlements; the , , 1 1 . 1 white shows the unoccupied territory. debts and did not have the money to pay them, became desperate, and in many places riots broke out. The Government Helpless. — The general govern- ment, or Confederation, was nearly bankrupt. Congress asked the States to allow it to regulate trade and raise a revenue by taxation, but the consent of all the states was necessary and some refused. A Constitutional Convention Is Held. — Leading men were alarmed, for, if this condition of affairs continued, 234 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC the country would go to ruin. They urged the States to strengthen the Confederation by giving it more power. A convention called for this purpose met in Philadelphia in 1787. All the thirteen states, except Rhode Island, sent delegates. The convention decided that, rather than make the Confederation stronger, it would be better to form a new government by framing a constitution. The work was too important to be done hurriedly, and it was four months before the convention presented to the country the " Constitution of the United States." The Constitution Adopted. — Since the States could not be compelled to accept the Constitution, it had to be submitted to them to accept or reject, as each thought best. Despite the trouble growing out of the Con- federation, many persons did not favor the Constitution because it provided for a strong central government. They said that as the state government was the home government and nearer to the people, it was better able to protect their interests ; therefore a state should not surrender to the United States as much power as the Constitution demanded. The advocates of the Con- stitution succeeded, however, in convincing a great majority of the people that the Constitution gave to the United States only as much power as was needed to make the government strong enough to be of use. By 1788, a sufficient number of states had ratified the Con- stitution to put it into effect. The Constitution furnishes the government under which we are living to-day — the government which all true Americans believe now to be the best on earth. WASHINGTON, THE FIRST PRESIDENT 235 Our Government. — Congress is divided into two houses — the Senate, in which each state has two members, and the House of Representatives, in which a state has membership in proportion to its population. Among other things that it may do, Congress may levy taxes, coin money, declare war, raise armies maintain a navy, and regulate commerce with foreign countries and between the states. A President, whose duty it is to see that the laws of Congress are executed, is elected every four years. There are also courts that have charge of legal matters concerning the United States and such matters as the ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ state courts cannot properly settle. United States George Washington, the First President Starting the Government. — When the election for President took place, it was found that everybody in America had the same choice — George Washington, the man who, through the bitterest hardships, never wavered in his leadership in the struggle for independence. Washington was inaugurated in 1789. Difficulties of Washington's Position. — Washington had a difficult task as President. He had to set all the machinery of the new government in motion and to accustom the people to its laws. Many in America did not believe that the young republic would be popular enough with its own people to last, and already foreign 236 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC nations were interfering with it. But Washington, with the same wisdom that he had displayed in war, guided the new government safely through its first years. Alexander Hamilton Helps Washington. — One of the first of the many important matters that Washington had to attend to was to put the government on a sound financial basis, for the United States was deeply in debt, Washington Taking the Oath as President, April 30, 1789 and had no credit. Washington appointed as Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, of New York, who had been well trained in the banking business and who had a genius for financial matters. Hamilton soon arranged a plan for paying the debt. This gave people here and abroad confidence in the new government. To-day, no country in the world has a higher credit than the United States, and to no one is this standing due more than Alexander Hamilton. WASHINGTON, THE FIRST PRESIDENT 237 The Wish to Aid France. — The French people, unable longer to stand their oppressive government, had risen in revolution, put their king to death, and established a republic. The other kings of Europe feared that if the French republic proved successful the revolutionary spirit might spread to their countries. Therefore they made war upon France. France had helped the United States in the Revolutionary War. For this reason, a great clamor arose in America that we should now help that country in its fight for democracy. Washington, however, did not think that we were under obligation to aid France, and he issued a proclamation declaring the United States would remain neutral — that is, would take neither side in the war. Some of the friends of France in America, forgetting for the time what Washington had done for our country, said many abusive things about him. But Washington would not alter his decision that the United States must remain neutral. Finally, the people who had disapproved of his course came to realize that he was right, and those who had abused him were sorry that they had done so. Great Britain and France Attack Our Commerce. — Meanwhile, Great Britain had begun capturing American vessels bound for France and seizing the cargoes. What was even worse, she seized our sailors and made them serve in the British navy. Great Britain claimed the right to the services of every man who was a Briton by birth, even though he had become a citizen of another country. Consequently, American ships were boarded 238 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC and seamen who had been born in Great Britain were forcibly carried off. Sometimes native Americans were seized under the pretense that they were EngHshmen. On the other hand, France became angry with us for not siding ^ith her and, seeing how Great Britain treated us, began attacking our ships. As her navy was smaller, she could not do as much damage as Great Britain. Washington knew that our country was not strong enough to go to war again so soon. All the time that he was President he tried in a peaceable way to stop the assaults upon our commerce. Washington Retires to Private Life. — Washington served two terms as President. Although the people wished him to serve, he declined a third term, because he felt that for one person to remain long at the head of the government would make our republic too much like a monarchy. Since Washington established this prin- ciple, no President has served more than two terms. After his services as President were over, Washington retired to his beautiful home. Mount Vernon, in Virginia. There he passed the remainder of his days in quiet, loved and revered by a grateful people. He was beloved because the people knew that through him they had gained their liberty ; he was revered because they knew that he was a man who had no ambition but to serve his country faithfully. On December 14, 1799, Washington died. All Ameri- cans mourned the loss of their great leader, for he was to them, as he is to us to-day, '' first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." JEFFERSON AND THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA 239 Thomas Jefferson and the Purchase of Louisiana Jefferson's Idea of Government. — Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, became President in 1801. Jefferson had much faith in the ability of the people to manage their own affairs, and he thought that the best government is the one that The White House, Washington, in 1800 governs them the least. He held that all power, not expressly granted to the national government by the Constitution, should be left to the people of the states. Upon this doctrine he had founded, before he became President, the great Democratic party of to-day. Attacks upon Our Commerce Continue. — With short intervals of peace, the war between France and other countries of Europe had continued, and Great Britain and France had kept up their assaults upon American ships. 240 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC Importance of the Mississippi River. — The chief event of Jefferson's administration — the purchase of the Louisiana Territory — came about by reason of the wars in Europe. It will be remembered that, at the close of the French and Indian War, France had ceded to Spain the Territory of Louisiana. This territory extended westward a great distance from the Mississippi River and included the mouth of the river and the important city of New Orleans. Thus Spain had control of the navigation of the great river. On account of miserable roads it was very difficult for Americans living in the West to carry their products across the Alleghany Mountains to the states on the Atlantic Ocean. A much easier way was to float them down the Mississippi to New Orleans, whence seagoing vessels would take them to ports of the Atlantic states or to foreign countries. A treaty had been made with Spain whereby Americans were allowed to use the Mis- sissippi free of charge and to keep their products in ware- houses in New Orleans until ocean vessels should come for them. Louisiana Ceded Back to France. — Napoleon Bona- parte, a very great general, had come to the head of the French government. Hoping to build up a colonial system as strong as that of Great Britain, he induced Spain to cede Louisiana back to France. The cession was made just at the time the commander at New Orleans refused longer to let Americans use that city as a shipping point. Jefferson Offers to Buy a Part of Louisiana. — Jefferson saw the trouble that this turn of affairs would bring. JEFFERSON AND THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA 241 He knew that the Westerners would go to war before they would give up the use of the Mississippi. He realized also that it would be dangerous to the interests of the whole country for so powerful a nation as France to control the river. He sought to buy from Napoleon the city of New Orleans and the land on both sides of the mouth of the SCALE OF MILES The Louisiana Purchase Mississippi in order that the United States might control the river. Napoleon Sells All Louisiana. — For months the American minister in France tried in vain to persuade Napoleon that the land at the mouth of the Mississippi, while of value to the United States, was of no use to France. He was astonished one day to have Napoleon's agent ask him, " What will you give for the whole of Louisiana?" 242 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC Napoleon needed money, for he was about to engage in another war with Great Britain ; and he feared that if he should retain Louisiana, the British would take it from him. Besides he thought that the United States, by holding Louisiana, would develop into a great power that would rival England. For these reasons Napoleon came to the conclusion that he had better sell the whole of Louisiana Territory to the United States. It is need- less to say that the American minister was delighted to buy it. The purchase was made in 1803, and the price paid was fifteen million dollars. In those times this seemed an enormous sum for a government, especially one so young as the United States, to pay. Many persons in America thought the territory not worth the money. Some in the eastern part of the country objected to the purchase because they thought the additional territory would make the West so strong that the East would lose its influence in the government. The vast majority, however, approved of the purchase, and time has shown that it is one of the best bargains the United States has ever made. Immense Size of Louisiana. — The Louisiana Territory was so immense that, when added to our country, it made the United States more than twice the original size. From the territory have since been formed the states of Louisi- ana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Montana, and parts of the states of Oklahoma, Colorado, Wyoming, and Minnesota. Expedition of Lewis and Clark. — So little was known of the Louisiana Territory at the time of its purchase that JEFFERSON AND THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA 243 wonderful stories told about it were readily believed. One of the stories was that somewhere in the territory there was an immense mountain of salt. President Jefferson sent two young men, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to explore Louisiana. Clark was a brother of George Rogers Clark, who, during the Revolutionary War, saved for us the Illinois country. With a few companions, Lewis and Clark set out from Lewis and Clark's Route St. Louis in 1804. They went up the Missouri River for its entire course, crossed the Rocky Mountains beyond the limits of Louisiana Territory, descended the Columbia River, and looked out upon the Pacific Ocean. These explorers were the first white men to cross the North American continent within the bounds of what is now the United States. When they returned to St. Louis they had been absent on their journey more than two years and had traveled in all more than eight thou- 244 EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC sand miles. Sometimes they had made their way in canoes and sometimes on horseback, and among the Indians they met were some who had never before seen white men. Lewis and Clark brought back a great deal of information about the regions they had visited. Jefferson in His Old Age. — When his term of office ended, Jefferson retired to his home, Monticello, in Virginia, where he livfed to a ripe old age. To the very last he took an active part in public affairs. As a defender of the rights of the people, Jefferson stands illustrious among statesmen. As the author of the Declaration of Independence, he lives immortal in the memory of Americans. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What government for the United States was organized during the Revolution, and why did it not succeed? 2. Describe the condition of the country immediately following the Revolutionary War ; the condi- tion of the government. 3. For what purpose did a convention meet in Philadelphia in 1787? 4. What did the convention do? 5. Why did some persons object to the Constitution? When was it adopted? 6. What do all good Americans now think of the Constitution? 7. Give the chief provisions of the Constitution. 8. Who was elected our first President ? 9. Why was Washington's task difficult? 10. What may be said of Alexander Hamilton? II. Tell of the Frendi Revolution and the desire in America to help the French. 12. What course did Washington pursue ? 13. Describe the way Great Britain and France treated our commerce. 14. Tell of Washington's last days. 15. Give Jefferson's idea of government. 16. Why was the use of the Mississippi of importance to Americans? 17. Relate the story of the purchase of Louisiana Territory. 18. Tell something about the size of the territory. 19. Describe the expedition of Lewis and Clark. 20. Why will Jefferson always live in the memory of Americans? CHAPTER XIX PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS The Second Struggle with Great Britain " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights." — The high-handed course of the British in seizing our cargoes and carrying off our seamen became so unbearable during the presi- dency of James Madison that indignant Americans de- manded that the United States again make war against Great Britain. " Free trade and sailors' rights " became their cry. War was at last declared. It is usually called the " War of 1812 " because it began in that year. Unpreparedness Causes Defeat. — The Americans were unprepared for the struggle, as they had only a small army and very few battleships. In the first year of the war the American army invaded Canada by way of New York State for the purpose of conquering that country, but the attempt was a failure. On the other hand, a British army from Canada captured the town of Detroit and Michigan Territory in the extreme Northwest. The next year (181 3) an American army again invaded Canada by way of New York State and was again driven back. Success on the Sea. — While the Americans had failed so far in their fighting on land, they had met with successes on the ocean. United States frigates scoured the seas 245 246 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS and made many important captures from the British. The most famous of the American frigates was the Con- stitution. ^ Harrison and Perry, Heroes of the Northwest William Henry Harrison. — An American army, under the command of General WiUiam Henry Harrison, had been sent into the Northwest. Harrison wished to invade Canada by way of Lake Erie in order to force the British to give up Michigan Territory, but he could not do so because a strong British fleet guarded the lake. Oliver Hazard Perry. — In order to clear the way for Harrison's progress, Captain Oliver Haz- ard Perry of the American navy was ordered to proceed to Lake Erie, build a squadron, and destroy the British fleet. Although beset with many difhculties, Perry had his fleet built within three months after his arrival on Lake Erie. Battle of Lake Erie. — In September, 1813, Perry sailed out on the lake in search of the enemy. It was not long before the British fleet was sighted, for its commander was as eager to fight as Perry. The American fleet con- sisted of nine vessels, while the British fleet had six, but Lake Erie and the Surrounding Country HARRISON AND PERRY 247 the British vessels were larger than the American and carried more men and more cannon. Most of the cannon of the British fleet were directed against Perry's flagship, which, under the terrific fire, soon became a wreck. Nearly every man on board was killed or wounded, but Perry was not dismayed. Seizing the flag, he jumped into a small boat, and amid a storm of shots was rowed to one of his other vessels. Assuming (^J-Tvry Facsimile of Perry's Report to General Harrison command of this vessel, he continued the fight and so raked the British fleet with his cannon that it surrendered. Perry announced his splendid victory to General Harri- son by writing modestly, " We have met the enemy and they are ours." Battle of the Thames. — The British at once gave up Michigan Territory and retreated into Canada. General Proctor commanded the retreating forces. Besides his regulars he had a large number of Indians led by a noted warrior named Tecumseh. Harrison at once started in pursuit. On the Thames 248 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS River in Ontario, Canada, Proctor's forces were overtaken, and there a battle was fought. The Americans quickly drove the regulars from the field, but the Indians stoutly held their ground until Tecumseh was killed, when they fled. Capture of Washington. — Perry's victory on Lake Erie and Harrison's on the Thames made the Northwest safe from the British, but failure again followed a third attempt in 1 814 to invade Canada from New York. The mortification of the Americans on account of their many defeats in the East was increased by the capture of Wash- ington, our capital city. The British burned the Capitol, the White House, and many other public buildings. Andrew Jackson, the Hero of the Southwest Early Life of Jackson. — We have just learned how notable victories were won in the Northwest by Harrison and Perry ; and we shall now learn how the most brilliant victory of the war was won in the Southwest by Andrew Jackson. Jackson, the son of a poor Irish immigrant, was born in the Waxhaws, a small settlement on the line between North and South Carolina. His mother, left a widow without means, had a hard struggle to support her three boys, of whom Andrew was the youngest. Andrew was a tall, thin lad, with blue eyes and sand}^ hair, and a freckled face. He was as fond of fun as any boy, but he did not have much time for play, or even for going to school, for he had to help his mother. In speak- ing of his early life Jackson once said, '' At the age most ANDREW JACKSON, HERO OF THE SOUTHWEST 249 ,^;'W'^ people learn to spell, I was working for a living and helping the best of mothers." He might have added, " and fight- ing for my country," for while a mere boy he fought in the Revolutionary War. A Boy Soldier of the Revolution. — When the Revolu- tionary War began, Andy, as everybody called him, was only eight years old. His family and friends were all good patriots. His oldest brother en- listed in the Ameri- can army, served gallantly, and died of fever while in camp. Andy's young heart natu- rally beat high at the stories of the war that he heard and at the thrilling sights that he saw. Andy was so high-spirited that he could not wait to be a man before becoming a soldier. When he was barely thirteen, he and his brother Robert, a few years older than he, joined the band of the famous General Sumter. Just think of a boy thirteen years old being in battle ! Andy and the British Officer. — Robert and Andy were captured by the British and held as prisoners. Once during their imprisonment, a British ofhcer ordered Andy to black his boots, but the boy indignantly refused, saying, ^' I am a prisoner of war and demand to be treated as such." To see the spirit of American independence in a mere child so angered the officer that he struck at the Birthplace of Andrew Jackson 250 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS boy with a saber. Andy threw up his hand to ward off the blow, but the saber came down with force and cut deep gashes in his head and arms. Andrew Jackson car- ried to his grave the scars of those wounds. A few days after the release of the boys from prison, Robert died ; and soon afterward the good mother herself passed away. Poor little Andy would have been left alone in the world had not a kind-hearted relative taken him into his home. A Young Lawyer in Tennessee. — For a time Andy worked in a shop making saddles and bridles, and then he taught school. Before he was twenty-one, he studied law and was admitted to the bar of North Carolina. Jackson then removed to Tennessee, which was at that time still a border country. As is always the case in. new settlements, there were, besides thcj sturdy pioneers and their families, many rufhans against whom it was a danger- ous matter to try to enforce the law. Having been made prosecuting attorney, it became Jackson's duty to bring these outlaws to trial, and many stories are told of how fearlessly he did his duty. On one occasion a gang of bullies, who had committed all kinds of lawless deeds, defied the court, refusing to be tried for their offenses. Jackson seized the leader, and the two men engaged in a rough-and-tumble fight in the courtroom. Soon the fight became general, for the spec- tators, encouraged by Jackson's course, attacked the rest of the rowdies and thrashed them soundly. Meanwhile, Jackson and the leader of the gang had, in the struggle, fallen out of the door, but Jackson, holding fast to his ANDREW JACKSON, HERO OF THE SOUTHWEST 251 man, dragged him back into the courtroom and forced him to stand trial. The dehghted judges, who had never been able to control the bullies, ordered the clerk to put in the records, " The Court thanks Andrew Jackson for his brave conduct." Horseshoe Bend. — After the War of 181 2 broke out, the Creeks, a powerful and warlike tribe in Alabama, went on the warpath and mas- sacred so many people that Tennessee raised an army to march against them. An- drew Jackson, who had be- come a general, was placed in command. The Indians made a brave resistance, but Jackson surrounded their stronghold at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River, in Alabama, and de- feated them with great slaughter. Most of them sued for peace, and the rest fled into Florida. " Old Hickory. " — Jackson was very strict with his soldiers, yet they loved him because he was a good fighter and because he shared all their hardships, even to the point of going hungry with them. His soldiers called him ^' Old Hickory," for, they said, he was tough as hickory. Battle of New Orleans. — When it became known that part of the British plan in the War of 181 2 was to capture New Orleans and separate the Louisiana country from the Andrew Jackson 252 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS rest of the United States, General Jackson was ordered to defend New Orleans. For this purpose he collected a force of Kentucky and Tennessee volunteers — men who were noted for their skill with the rifle. When Jackson reached New Orleans he was joined by Louisiana militia. He also took into his army the men of the town who would consent to serve. Many foreigners who were in the city volunteered, so his army became a mixture of Gold Medal Presented by Congress to Andrew Jackson Americans, French, Spaniards, Irish, and Germans, with a few negroes and Indians. With this motley crowd Jackson undertook to defend •New Orleans against an army of the best-trained regulars Great Britain could furnish. He took up a position be- low New Orleans between the Mississippi River on the one side and a swamp on the other. Here he built a for- tification of logs, filled in with earth. The British army marched against this fortification. Jackson's men waited until the enemy got within easy range and then poured such a hot fire upon them that their ranks melted away. The British lost two thousand men, while the Americans HOW WE GAINED FLORIDA 253 lost less than a dozen. As the British were too disheart- ened to make another trial they boarded their vessels and sailed away. A Victory after Peace. — Brilliant as was the victory at New Orleans, it was won after peace had been made between the United States and Great Britain. Both sides having become tired of the war, a treaty of peace was signed in Belgium in December, 1814 ; while the battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 181 5. Steam- boats did not then cross the ocean, and no electric cable connected America with Europe, so news of the treaty did not reach America until a month after the battle of New Orleans. While neither Great Britain nor America won the War of 181 2, America gained what she had been fighting for. Great Britain has never since attempted to seize American seamen or to commit other high-handed acts against American commerce. How We Gained Florida Spaniards and Indians in Florida. — It will be recalled that in colonial times the Spaniards in Florida often in- cited the Indians to attack the English settlements. After the colonies had gained their independence, the Spaniards continued to make trouble by stirring up the Indians. The Creeks, who fled to Florida when defeated by An- drew Jackson at Horseshoe Bend in the War of 181 2, joined the Seminoles, a Florida tribe. From that terri- tory which belonged to Spain the Creeks and Seminoles made raids upon Georgia and Alabama. 254 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS Purchase of Florida. — Soon after the close of the War of 1 812, the United States government sent a force under Andrew Jackson to put a stop to these raids. It was expected, of course, that Jackson would do his fighting only on United States soil, but that impetuous warrior followed the retreating redskins into Florida and cap- tured St. Marks and Pensacola At St. Marks he court- martialed and executed two British subjects for having given aid to the Indians. To invade the territory of a nation with which we were at peace and put to death subjects of another nation with which we were also at peace were two very serious acts, and it was feared that Jackson's course would involve our country in war with both Great Britain and Spain. Jack- son insisted that it was necessary in order to protect our Southern border from further Indian raids and the American people approved of what he had done. War did not follow because Great Britain and Spain were very desirous of avoiding it. On the contrary, the affair ended most satisfactorily to the United States. A treaty was made with Spain, in 181 9, whereby the United States purchased Florida for five million dollars. The Monroe Doctrine The Spanish American Republics. — Spain had treated her colonies so cruelly that by 1822 Mexico and the South American colonies had revolted and thrown off the Span- ish yoke. They had set up republican forms of govern- ment. The stronger monarchies of continental Europe had formed an alliance to put down republics wherever THE MONROE DOCTRINE 255 they arose. As Spain was a weak nation, she asked these monarchies to help her regain control of her lost colonies in America. The people of the United States sympathized with the Spanish Americans in their struggle for democracy. They realized that, if the autocratic monarchies of Europe should succeed in suppressing these newly made republics and should gain a strong foot- hold in America, they might next try to overthrow our own republic. The United States Takes a Stand. — James Monroe, who was then President of the United States, announced, in 1823, that the United States would not allow any more European colo- nies planted in America. He declared that the United States would go to the aid of the Spanish American republics should other nations of Europe help Spain in an effort to reconquer them. He further declared that, as an offset to Europe's letting America alone, the United States would not interfere with the internal affairs of European countries. This policy came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine. The nations of Europe gave heed to President Monroe's warning and refused to give aid to Spain, with the result that Spain never regained the lost provinces. On a number of occasions since, European countries James Monroe 256 PROTECTING OUR RIGHTS have shown they did not like the Monroe Doctrine, but the United States has always compelled them to ob- serve it. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did America engage in a second war with Great Britain? 2. When was this war declared? 3. What happened in the first year of the war? 4. What happened on the eastern front in the next year? 5. What did WilHam Henry Harrison wish to do? 6. Describe the battle of Lake Erie. How did Perry announce his victory? 7. What land battle was fought by General Harrison in October, 181 3, and what was the result? 8. What defeats did the Americans now suffer ? 9. Tell of Andrew Jackson's boyhood. 10. Relate his experience with the Tennessee outlaws. 11. Tell how he defended the people of Alabama from the Indians. 12. Why was he called "Old Hickory"? 13. What city was Jackson sent to defend in the War of 181 2? 14. De- scribe the troops that he got together and the troops that opposed him. 15. Tell the story of the battle of New Orleans. 16. How long after the signing of the treaty of peace did the battle occur ? 17. What was the result of the War of 181 2 ? 18. Show how the Spaniards in Florida gave the United States trouble. 19. What did Jackson do in Florida, and why were his acts serious? 20. Tell the result of our troubles with the Spaniards in Florida. 21. Why did the Spanish colonies in America rebel, and in what way did Spain try to get help in her efforts to reconquer them? 22. Explain the Monroe Doctrine. CHAPTER XX INDUSTRIAL CHANGES The Use of Machinery Manufacturing by Hand. — Ft)r several hundred years England had been the leading manufacturing country, but there, as elsewhere in the world, all manufacturing had been done by hand. The word " manufacture " is formed from two Latin words and means '' to make by hand." There were some factories in England where a few men and women were employed, but most of the manufac- turing was done in the homes of persons of small means. In a humble cottage in the countryside one might find all the family engaged in making cloth — the mother and daughters spinning thread on the spinning wheel, and the father and sons weaving it on a small hand loom. In an adjoining cottage might be seen a family making shoes or hats, nails or candles. Manufacturing by hand was slow and the articles made were often coarse or clumsy. Think of how much work there was to be done in the household, since all the world was supplied in this way ! The " Industrial Revolution." — About the time of the Revolutionary War machines were invented in England which brought about a change in the industrial life of that 257 258 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES country. This change was so great that it is commonly spoken of as the " Industrial Revolution." The first machines invented were for the making of cloth. They were run by water power until James Watt, a Scotchman, invented an engine that would run them by steam. Since articles can be made by machinery in much larger quantities and of much.better quality than by hand, rich men saw the wealth that would come from manufac- turing with machinery on a large scale, and they put their money into factories. Immense buildings, capable of holding many machines, were erected. The small manufacturers, who had been doing their work by hand at home, could not compete against machinery. With their business thus taken from them, they were obliged to seek employ- ment in the factories. No longer could they enjoy the independence of work in the healthful surroundings of their village or country homes. They must now labor for long hours in factories and live in crowded tenements in cities. Yet, manufacturing by machinery is of the greatest benefit to mankind, for it would be impossible to supply the needs of the great world of to-day by the old method. The factory system gives employment to many 'millions Watt's Steam-Engine WHITNEY AND THE COTTON GIN 259 of persons, and the conditions surrounding the life of these workers is constantly improving. The Factory System in America. — Before the inven- tion of machinery, but little manufacturing was done in America and most of it was done in the home. By the close of the War of 181 2 manufacturing with machinery had made a start in the United States. With each suc- ceeding year the number of factories has increased until to-day the United States is the greatest manufacturing country of the world. For very many years practically all the factories were in the North, because, as will now be explained, the in- vention of the cotton gin had already turned the people of the South to cotton planting. Eli WniTNiiY and the Cotton Gin Americans as Inventors. — No people have shown a more wonderful genius for invention than those of the United States, and to this genius we owe much of our national greatness. Our First Great Inventor. — The first great American inventor was Eli Whitney. He was born of poor parents on a farm in Massachusetts, in the year in which the Stamp Act was passed. From early childhood he showed a taste for mechanics, and it was by selling nails he made by hand that he earned enough money to pay his way through Yale College. Whitney and Mrs. Nathanael Greene. — Soon after graduating from Yale, Whitney removed to Georgia to teach school. Mrs. Greene, the widow of Nathanael 26o INDUSTRIAL CHANGES Greene, the great Revolutionary general, befriended the poor young man by taking him into her home. To re- turn her kindness he made himself useful by repairing worn-out tools and making many articles needed on the plantation. One day, when guests were gathered at the home of Mrs. Greene, the conversation turned to the subject of cotton planting for which the land of the South was well suited. Cotton was then separated from the seed by hand and it took a whole day to separate one pound. For this reason not much money could be made by raising cotton. The guests had heard of the machinery that had re- cently been invented in England. One of them expressed regret that a machine for separating cotton from the seed had never been in- vented, when Mrs. Greene said, '^ Gentlemen, apply to my young friend, Mr. Whitney — he can make anything." Thereupon the company turned to Whitney, and urged him to try to make such a machine. The young man had to confess that he had never seen cotton growing and had never seen the seed, but at last he modestly agreed to try what he could do. The Cotton Gin. — Whitney first went into the field and closely examined the growing plant. Then he watched Eli Whitney Mccormick and the reaper 261 the negro slaves separate the cotton by hand. He studied over the problem until in 17^3 he hit upon a scheme. As he' had no money, Whitney had to make his own tools and prepare the material for the machine ; but this did not discourage him and before long success crowned his efforts. He arranged a set of saws to tear the cotton from the seed and draw it through a network of fine wires through which the seed could not pass. This machine is Improved model Whitney's model Cotton Gins the celebrated cotton gin. Whitney gave it the name " gin " — a contraction of the word " engine." Before the invention of the cotton gin very little cotton was grown in the United States, but now we produce more than any other country in the world. Cyrus Hall McCormick and the Reaper Cutting Grain. — As the cotton gin has developed the cotton crop, so the reaper has developed the grain crop. Before the reaper was invented, grain was cut with the scythe or sickle, implements that had come down from 262 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES the ancient Egyptians. This way of cutting by hand was slow and tiresome. The reaper is a machine that cuts grain many times faster than it can be done by hand. McCormick's Reaper. — The inventor of the reaper was Cyrus Hall McCormick, of Virginia. His father, who was a farmer, had tried for years to invent a reaper, but had failed. Then the son took up the problem where his father had left it, and he succeeded. The First Type of McCormick Reaper In 1 83 1 a reaper that McCormick had made was tested in an oat field, and it worked fairly well. But it was ten years (1841) before McCormick made a machine that he was willing to put on the market. What the Reaper Does. — The reaper has since been so much improved that it not only cuts the grain, but gathers and binds it into sheaves. We can realize, there- fore, what a wonderful machine it is, and how much labor and expense it saves the farmer. The reaper has been of the greatest benefit to the North and the Northwest ROBERT FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT 263 where the grain crops are extensively grown. So re- markable has been the development of our grain crops that the United States now grows more wheat, oats, and corn than any other nation. Robert Fulton and the Steamboat Fulton's Young Days. — In the same year in which Eli Whitney was born, Robert Fulton, another great in- ventor, was born in Pennsylvania. Fulton began life as a portrait painter. He had a mechanical turn and found time from his painting to learn the uses of tools and machinery. Invention of the Steamboat. — In 1793, the year in which Whitney invented the cotton gin, Fulton began to study how to make a vessel that would run by steam. At that time only sailing vessels were used. Two or three men had already tried to make steamboats, but no one had been successful. Few persons believed it possible that a steamboat that would go faster than a sailing vessel would be invented. After thirteen years of unsuccessful effort, Fulton be- gan to work on a boat in New York City. People made all manner of fun of him. They called his boat '^ Fulton's Folly " ; but no amount of ridicule could turn him from his purpose. The steamboat, which Fulton named the Clermont, was ready for a trial trip in 1807. To those who gazed upon it as it lay at the wharf it was a strange looking vessel. Indeed, it would appear strange to us, for it was not like the steamboats we see now. The tall smokestack and 264 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES the large paddle wheels and all the machinery, which was uncovered and plainly visible, made the vessel look very dangerous to people who had seen only sailboats. The First Trip of the Clermont. — The newspapers of New York announced that at a certain hour the Cler- mont would start up the Hudson River for a trip to Albany, and would take passengers to that city. When the time arrived for the steamboat to start, the wharves and the housetops in the neighborhood were crowded with people. Very few of them had the slightest idea that the voyage would prove a success, and most of them made fun of Fulton and his vessel. As the boat pulled away from its mooring, turned and started upstream — the en- gine puffing, and the smoke stack throwing out clouds of smoke — the crowd watched for a moment in mute as- tonishment ; then their jeers turned into loud huzzas. All along the route people who had heard that the steam- boat was coming lined the banks of the river or filled row- boats and sailboats to cheer her as she passed. There were some, however, who had not heard of the invention, and they fled in terror when they saw the steamboat belching fire and smoke like some horrible monster. The Clermont reached Albany and returned to New York without further mishap than a slight accident to Watching the " Clermont ROBERT FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT 265 the machinery, which was quickly remedied. The trip was made at a speed of about five miles an hour, which was thought to be very fast time. Yet, even then, there were those who doubted whether the steamboat would be a lasting success, and said that the Clermont could not make the trip again. But the Clermont did make the trip several times. A Steamboat Crosses the Ocean. — Soon after Fulton had proved that his invention was a success, other steam- The "Savannah boats were built for the inland waters of the United States. Fulton never seemed to think that steamboats could be made that would cross the ocean. The most that he hoped was that they would be able to go up and down the great Mississippi. He lived to see the day when a steamboat first plied that river. Could he have lived until 1819, only four years longer than he did, he would have heard the wonderful news that the steamboat Savannah had made a voyage across the ocean from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool, England. This voyage, which was considered a great event, took twenty-six 266 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES days. To-day steam vessels often cross the Atlantic in six days. The Coming of the Railroad Horse Railways and Canals. — For many years rail- roads had been used in Europe and America. The cars were generally drawn by horses, though sometimes they were propelled by sails. None of these roads were more than a few miles long. They were used only for hauling ->'?"- ^^^ A Canal Passenger Boat heavy freight, such as coal or granite, from a mine or quarry to the nearest navigable body of water. Almost everybody at that time thought no better method of transportation than by water could be found. Consequently, a number of canals had been dug in the United States to connect the interior countr}^ with cities on the seacoast. Boats on the canals carried both pas- sengers and freight. An Englishman Invents the Locomotive. — George Stephenson was an engineer in a coal mine in England. Watching every day the working of Watt's stationary THE COMING OF THE RAILROAD 267 engine, it occurred to him that steam might be used to make an engine move on wheels and thus draw heavy loads. In 1814, Stephenson invented the locomotive, or ^' traveling engine," as it was then called. Eleven years passed (1825) before he had so perfected his locomotive as to make it of value. The Locomotive in America. — Locomotives were quickly brought to America and tried on one or two of our few short rail- roads. They did not work satisfactorily, and most persons laughed at them, saying that they did not believe the loco- motive would ever prove a success. A Horse Wins over a Locomotive. — In spite of the failure of their first efforts, the few who believed that the locomotive would prove successful kept on experimenting. Peter Cooper, of New York, built the first locomotive made in America. Because it was so small it was called the " Tom Thumb." In 1830, the " Tom Thumb " was placed on the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad which then extended only a few miles out of Baltimore. To test the usefulness of the locomotive a race of thirteen miles was run, on parallel tracks, between the " Tom Thumb " and a horse-drawn car. A belt slipped from a wheel of the engine, and the horse car won the race. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 1830 268 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES Soon afterwards the " Tom Thumb " was taken off the road because it was too small to be of much use. First Successful Locomotive in America. — In the same year, another locomotive built in America, the "Best Friend," was run with most gratifying results on the South Carolina Railroad. This road, when completed in 1833, extended 136 miles from Charleston to Hamburg, South Carolina. It was then the longest railroad in the world and was the first railroad in the United States to carry the mails. The First Locomotive Built in the United States Drawn on the same scale as the modern locomotive shown behind it The Early Trains. — Still, most people clung to the idea that the canal furnished the best method of trans- portation, slow as it was. For this reason, very few rail- roads were built for some years after the first locomotive was brought to America. It is not surprising that the locomotive-drawn train of those days was not popular, for in it the passenger found no comfort and little pleasure. The coach was shaped like the old stagecoach with seats for passengers both in- side and on top. Passengers riding on top frequently carried umbrellas to protect them from the sparks, cinders, and steam that escaped from the locomotive. If the THE COMING OF THE RAILROAD 269 train made fifteen miles an hour it was considered re- markable speed. The locomotive did not draw the train up a steep hill. At the foot of the hill the train was detached from the locomotive, and was pulled up by means of a stationary engine and a cable. At the top of the hill another loco- motive took the train and carried it further on its way. Large rivers were not spanned by bridges or trestles, and the traveler had to leave one train, cross the river by ferry, and board another train on the other side. With railroads so few a traveler, in making a long journey, frequently had to take advantage of the other means of travel and change from railroad to steamboat, canal boat, or stagecoach. Locomotives were frail and roadbeds were poorly con- structed. Consequently, accidents were very common. Benefits of the Railroad. — These drawbacks did not prevent the railroad from finally proving superior to the canal as a means of transportation. By 1850, the building of railroads was going on rapidly. Improvements in locomotives, coaches, and roadbeds were constantly made. To-day, the United States is covered with a network of railroads — about 250,000 miles of track. One may A Railroad Train in 1831 270 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES travel with comfort, in palatial trains, across the continent in five days. Great locomotives with tremendous power draw long freight trains from one end of the land to the other. The railroad, more than any other one thing, has developed the central and western sections of our country. Samuel F. B. Morse and the Telegraph Experiments with the Electro-Magnet. — The honor of inventing the telegraph belongs to Samuel F. B. Morse, of Massachusetts, who was an artist by profession. Morse had heard of an experiment made in Paris with the electro- magnet, in which the magnet had sent an electric current almost instantly along a hundred feet of wire. Thinking over this fact,, he reasoned that the current might be carried almost as quickly to any distance and, by using a system of signals, it might be made to give messages. The idea took strong hold of Morse. For months, then years, he labored to make the necessary apparatus. The artist became so wrapped up in his wish to invent the telegraph that he found very Httle time to give to his painting. Often he and his little children suffered for want of food ; yet he persevered until he succeeded. In 1838 Morse exhibited his model in a hall in New York City. In the presence of an astonished audience he sent and received messages over wires stretched along the walls. Morse Asks Aid of Congress. — Morse's troubles were not over, however. To make his invention valuable, he had to prove that messages could be sent by electricity, not only across a room, but miles and miles across the MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH 271 A C0 country. For such undertaking money was needed, and money Morse did not have. He apphed to Congress for funds to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. At first, Morse was made the subject of many jokes, for few thought that the telegraph would work be- tween places so far apart. Some Congressmen called him a humbug ; others looked upon him as a madman. Morse and a Young Friend. — The last day that Congress was to remain in session came, and Morse's bill had not yet been passed. All day long he sat in the gallery of the Senate awaiting anxiously the fate of his bill. Late at night, when the time for adjournment was near, Morse gave up all hope, and returned to his hotel. Downcast and heartsick, he intended to leave the next day for his home in New York, for he felt there was nothing for him to do but to go back to his painting. At breakfast the next morning a young lady came in, and greeted him smilingly with the words, '' I have come to congratulate you." Morse's First Telegraph Instrument (1837) In the U. S. National Museum, Washington 272 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES " For what, my dear friend? " exclaimed Morse. " Upon the passage of your bill." Her face beamed with pleasure. Morse could scarcely believe that the news was true, but when he found that the young lady was not mistaken, he promised her that she should send the first message. ''What Hath God Wrought !" — With the money given him by Congress, Morse began at once to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The line was completed in 1844, and Morse sent word to his young friend that he was ready for her message. She w 'h* "a t'iv*h'"a t h" o o d ''I||, w 'r o "u '^ '4,'^*''^';iJ W/' The First Telegraph Message in the Morse Alphabet wrote on a slip of paper, '' What hath God wrought ! " These words Morse sent over the wires to Baltimore — the first formal dispatch sent by telegraph. Since it costs much less to erect telegraph lines than to build railroads, telegraph wires were extended over the country much faster than railroad tracks. Elias Howe and the Sewing Machine A Conversation and Its Result. — About the time of the invention of the telegraph, Elias Howe invented the sewing machine, that great boon to toiling women. Howe was born in Massachusetts of very poor parents, and at sixteen he had gone to work at the trade of a ma- chinist. THE COTTON GIN AND SECTIONALISM 273 Some years afterward, while at work in a machine shop, Howe heard the owner of the shop and a visitor discussing the matter of inventing a sewing machine. The shop o^vner said he beheved he could make one that would be a success. " Well, you do it," said the visitor, " and I'll assure you an independent fortune." The conversation set Howe to thinking. Why should he not invent a sewing machine and become rich? Certainly there was no harm in trying. Howe Invents His Machine. — Howe studied over the problem for years, and at last worked out a plan. He did not have enough money with which to make a model, but for a half interest in the invention a friend offered to board him and his wife and children free, and to give him five hundred dollars for use in making the model. Howe gladly accepted the offer. The garret of his friend's house was turned over to him for a workshop, and there he labored day and night. At the end of six months, after many failures, Howe made (1845) a machine that would sew. Howe's First Sewing Machine The Cotton Gin and Sectionalism Effect of the Cotton Gin on Slavery. — Up to the Revolutionary War, there were slaves in every colony. Slave labor did not pay in the North, so slavery had begun 274 INDUSTRIAL CHANGES to die out in that section. In the South there had been a strong incKnation to free the slaves ; but, when the in- crease in the cultivation of cotton was brought about by the cotton gin, slave labor, which was thought to be best for the cotton fields, took a firmer hold upon the South. Slavery Becomes an Important Question. — In 1819, Missouri Territory, which had been a part of the Louisi- ana purchase, asked to be admitted into the Union as a state, and immediately a fierce quarrel broke out between the North and the South because Missouri wished to be a slave-holding state. By this time all the states in the North had abolished, or had taken steps to abolish, slavery within their boundaries. They did not wish to see any more states, in which slavery was allowed, admitted into the Union. The South, of course, wished more slave-hold- ing states. The question of slavery was then only a poKt- ical one. The North feared that more slave-labor states would give the South control of the government, and the South feared that more free-labor states would give the North control. The 'Missouri Compromise. — The quarrel over the admission of Missouri became so bitter that it came very near breaking up the Union. On both sides threats were made that states would secede — that is, leave the Union — if they could not have their way. Finally, a com- promise was agreed upon. In 1820, Congress passed an Act allowing the admission of Missouri as a state with slavery, but forbidding slavery in the rest of the Loui- siana purchase north of a line drawn westward from the southern boundary of Missouri. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 275 Such was the " Missouri Compromise." It satisfied neither side, and, as we shall see, the bitter feeling over the slavery question soon broke out again. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe how manufacturing was done before the invention of machinery. 2. Tell the story of the ''Industrial Revolution" in Eng- land. 3. How did the "Industrial Revolution" affect America? 4. Why were most factories placed in the North? 5. Who was the first great American inventor? 6. Tell the story of the invention of the cotton gin. 7. Describe the cotton gin, and tell what effect it had upon the planting of cotton. 8. How were the grain crops formerly cut? 9. Who was the inventor of the reaper, and what does the reaper do? 10. WTiat sec- tions does the reaper benefit the most, and why? 11. Of what grain crops does the United States grow more than any other nation ? 12. Tell of Robert Fulton's younger days. 13. What is meant by "Fulton's Folly"? 14. Relate the story of the C/erww^/. 15. What may be said of steamboats since the Clermont made its first trip ? 16. Tell about the railways and canals in America before the coming of the locomotive. 17. Give an account of the invention of the loco- motive. 18. How were locomotives first looked upon in x\merica? 19. Relate the story of the "Tom Thumb"; of the "Best Friend." 20. Describe travel on railroad trains in early days. 21, What have the railroads done for the country ? 22. Who invented the telegraph? 23. Tell how Morse got the idea. 24. Tell how he struggled, and how at last good news was brought to him. 25. When, and between what cities, was the first telegraph line completed? 26. What was the first message sent over the wires? 27. Relate the circumstance that led Elias Howe to think of inventing a sewing machine. 28. Tell something of his struggles when he was working on his invention. 29. What was the effect of Whitney's invention on slavery? 30. Why did the North and the South quarrel over the admission of Missouri? 31. What was the Missouri Compromise ? CHAPTER XXI WINNING THE FAR WEST The Republic of Texas Americans in Texas. — Texas was formerly a part of Mexico. Even while Texas was yet Mexican territory Americans had gone there, attracted by its fertile soil. In 1830, Mexico forbade any more Americans settling in Texas, and passed very unjust laws against those already living there. But Americans kept on emigrating to Texas, and in a few years the Texans, most of whom were American settlers, rose in revolution and drove the Mexican troops out of the country. Fall of the Alamo. — For the purpose of putting down the revolution, Santa Anna, who was president of Mexico, entered Texas with a large army. He marched to attack the Alamo, an old Spanish mission at San Antonio, which the Texans were using as a fort. The garrison consisted of one hundred and seventy-five men, while Santa Anna had an army of more than four thousand. Early in 1836, the Mexicans appeared before the Alamo. The little garrison made such a heroic resistance that it was seven days before the overwhelming force of Mexicans succeeded in scaling the walls surrounding the Alamo. Once within the walls, the Mexicans killed every survivor of the garrison. 276 THE STORY OF SAM HOUSTON 277 San Jacinto. — Santa Anna continued his march through Texas with fourteen hundred men. The only hope of the Texans now lay in an army, commanded by General Sam Houston, which was just half as large as that of the enemy. When Santa Anna encamped at San Jacinto, on a point of land almost surrounded by water, Houston saw a good chance to strike a blow. He drew his men up in line of battle and said to them, " Remember the Alamo. '^ Immediately from every throat went up the cry, " The Alamo ! The Alamo !" Every man was impatient to avenge the slaughter of his countrymen. The Mexicans, who were not expecting the attack, made but slight resistance and then broke and fled, the angry Texans hotly pursuing them. Half the Mexicans were slain and the rest were captured. Texas Declares Its Independence. — Meanwhile, Texas had already declared itself a free and independent re- public, and had selected a president to serve temporarily. When the time came, in the fall of 1836, to elect the first regular president of the young republic, the people chose Sam Houston, the hero of San Jacinto. The Story of Sam Houston Boyhood among the Indians. — Of all the heroes of American history, none had a more romantic career than Sam Houston. Though born in Virginia, he was brought up in East Tennessee, in a neighborhood where there were very few white settlers and where Indians still roamed the forest. 278 WINNING THE FAR WEST Sam attended a log schoolhouse and learned to read and write fairly well, but his brothers soon put him to work in* a store. He did not like his brothers to control him, and he ran away. He went to live among the Cherokee Indians, whose lands were a few miles distant from his home. The Indians gave the boy a warm welcome. A chief, Ooloo- teka, adopted him as a son, and gave him a new name, Coloneh, which in the Cherokee language means ^' Rover." Sam was so delighted with the free life of the woods that for four years he lived Sam Houston ' , t- ,. among the Indians. In the War of 181 2. — Houston left the Indians when he was eighteen and was teaching school when the War of 181 2 broke out. He immediately joined the army as a private. His friends did not like his going into the ranks instead of seeking to be an officer. /'I would much sooner honor the ranks than disgrace an appoint- ment," Houston answered to their sneers. "You don't know me now, but you shall hear of me." The regiment in which Houston served became part of Andrew Jackson's army in the campaign against the Creek Indians, and Houston was soon made an officer. At the battle of Horseshoe Bend, Houston, rushing into the thickest of the fight, was twice wounded; first a barbed arrow penetrated deep into his thigh, and then two bullets struck his shoulder. / THE STORY OF SAM HOUSTON 279 Houston as a Lawyer. — On account of his wounds, Houston was not able to serve again in the war. After peace was declared he resigned from the army and became a lawyer. He was now twenty-five years old. His wounds were slow in healing. He not only spent all his pay as an army officer, but was compelled to go into debt for medical treatment. On recovering, he rented an office for a dollar a month, and began the practice of law. Within a year he had paid every cent he owed. Congressman and Governor of Tennessee. — Houston's rise to prominence was rapid. At thirty years of age he was elected to Congress, and at thirty-four he was made governor of Tennessee. At that time he was the most popular man in Tennessee, with the exception of Andrew Jackson, and a brilliant future seemed before him. But a tragedy came into Houston's life to mar it and, for a while at least, to crush his noble spirit. While governor he had married a young lady whom he loved very muck. Soon he found out that his wife had been persuaded to marry him against her will. Though Houston had been reared on the frontier and had lived among the Indians, he was too chivalrous to make his wife miserable by his presence ; so he suddenly resigned the governorship and disappeared from Nashville. Again with the Indians. — In his great trouble, Hous- ton's thoughts turned longingly to the quiet life he had spent as a boy in the wilderness. He determined to go to the Cherokee chief, Oolooteka, who had received him so kindly into his wigwam. The Cherokees had long since left East Tennessee and removed to the western part of \ 280 WINNING THE FAR WEST Arkansas, then a wilderness almost untrodden by white men. To that remote region Houston went to find once more a home among his Indian friends. Oolooteka received his adopted son, now a great statesman, with open-hearted welcome, and said to him, " My wigwam is yours, my people are yours — rest with us." Houston as an Indian Chief. — The Indians made Houston one of their chiefs, and for three years this self- exiled man lived among them. On one occasion Houston, dressed like an Indian chief, went at the head of a party of Indians to the city of Washington to consult the government on business for the tribe. What a sensation he must have caused — a man who had once been in Washington as a Congress- man now walking the streets as an Indian chief ! It was while living among the Indians that Houston heard that the Texans were fighting against the Mexicans. When the news reached him he said, '' I am going, and in that new country I will make a man of myself again." Houston was so famous that the Texans welcomed him and made him commander-in-chief of their army. War with Mexico Admission of Texas. — As nearly all the Texans were Americans most of them wished Texas to become a part of the United States. After remaining an independent republic for nine years, Texas was admitted (1845) i^^^ the Union as a state. The Mexicans Aggrieved. — The Mexicans objected to the annexation of Texas by the United States, for they WAR WITH MEXICO 281 still considered Texas a part of Mexico. Besides, they claimed that Texas extended westward only to the Nueces River, while the United States, as well as Texas, claimed that Texan territory extended as far as the Rio Grande River. The government of the United States, early in 1846, sent General Zachary Taylor, with a small army, to take possession of the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. War Begins. — Taylor stationed his army on the Texas side of the Rio Grande and there built Fort Brown. On the op- posite side was a Mexican army twice the size of his own. When a force of Mexicans crossed the river and attacked the Ameri- cans war began. Taylor defeated the Mexicans and led his army across the Rio Grande. Buena Vista. — Taylor marched more than three hundred miles into Mexico, and captured the important city of Monterey. He was about to push on when orders came from Washington to send the larger part of his army to reinforce General Winiield Scott in a campaign against the city of Mexico. Taylor, like a good soldier, obeyed without a murmur, but he had Gulf of Mexico Map of the Republic of Texas Showing territory claimed by Texas 282 WINNING THE FAR WEST SO small an army left that he could not continue his march. Santa Anna, who was again commanding the Mexican army, learned of the weakened condition of Taylor's force, and immediately marched against him with an army five times as large as that of the Americans. ^' Old Rough and Ready," as his soldiers were fond of calling Taylor, stood his ground. Toward the afternoon of the second day the battle seemed to be going against the Americans. '* We are whipped," said one of his generals to Taylor. " That remains for me to determine," quietly replied Taylor. So stubbornly did "Old Rough and Ready" and his men resist the onslaught of the overwhelming odds against them that the Mexicans, after suffering severe losses, gave up the fight and retreated from the field. A Famous March. — When General Winfield Scott was sent against Mexico, he was ordered to capture Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico, then march across country and take the city of Mexico, the capital. In the spring of 1847, Scott's army, a large part of which had belonged to Taylor's command, landed on the Mexican coast near Vera Cruz. With the exception of Quebec, Vera Cruz was then the strongest fortified place in Amer- ica, yet after a three-weeks bombardment it surrendered. Scott then moved his army toward the city of Mexico. At a pass through the mountains, called Cerro Gordo, Santa Anna with a much larger army opposed Scott's advance. The Americans attacked. They so completely COMPLETING OUR BOUNDARIES 283 routed the Mexicans that Santa Anna in his haste to get away left behind his wooden leg. In midsummer, Scott resumed his march toward the city of Mexico. For a month battle followed battle in quick succession. Though the Mexicans fought bravely, every engagement was a victory for the Americans. In September, 1847, Scott entered the city of Mexico in triumph. He had marched through a tropical country, opposed by an army always larger than his own, and sometimes three times as large, without meeting with a single defeat. Treaty of Peace. — When the city of Mexico was captured, Mexico asked to make peace. A treaty was signed in 1848 by which Mexico gave up all claim to Texas. For fifteen million dollars, Mexico agreed to sell to the. United States the vast area of land extending from Texas to the Pacific Ocean. From this territory have been formed the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colo- rado, and Wyoming. Completing Our Boundaries Americans and Englishmen in Oregon. — While the Mexican War was in progress, the United States had secured peaceable possession of another large domain. The territory lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, and extending from the northern bound- ary of the present state of California to the southern boundary of Alaska, was known as the Oregon country. Both the United States and Great Britain claimed 284 WINNING THE FAR WEST Oregon. It was famous for its furs and skins, and for many years people from both the United States and Great Britain had, through an agreement made between the two nations, been building trading posts in the terri- tory. At first, the agreement worked satisfactorily, for Americans then looked upon Oregon as a country too far away to be of much use to them ; but as their settle- ments beyond the Missis- sippi spread, Americans began to think Oregon was of value. One of the remarkable things about the Ameri- can people is the rapid way in which they pushed westward. Nothing would satisfy but that the United States should reach from ocean to ocean. It was this spirit that made Americans eager to get into Texas and then made them turn their thoughts to far-away Oregon. Extending the Northwest Boundary. — Just at the time that Americans were beginning to realize the value of Oregon, Englishmen were going into the territory very fast by way of Canada. Americans feared that, if the United States did not take possession of the country, Great Britain would. Many declared that rather than give up one foot of Oregon, the United States should fight Great Britain. X^ I c o I I — M E The Oregon Compromise QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 285 ' Fortunately, the matter was settled without war. By a treaty made in 1846, the Oregon country was divided between the two nations, each getting about one half. The division was made 'by* extending the bound- ary line between the United States and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, westward to the Pacific. From our share of the Oregon country have been created the states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. Rounding out the Southwest Boundary. — In 1853, the United States purchased from Mexico a narrow stretch of land on the southern border of New Mexico and Arizona. The land was purchased through James Gadsden, our minister to Mexico, and for this reason it is called the '' Gadsden Purchase.'' . With the " Gadsden Purchase'' the area of the United States proper, as it stands to-day, was completed. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. By what people had Texas been chiefly settled? 2. Why did the Texans rise against Mexico? 3. Tell the story of the Alamo. 4. Describe the battle of San Jacinto. 5. What kind of government did the Texans set up ? 6. Tell of Sam Houston's boyhood. 7. What part did he take in the battle of Horseshoe Bend ? 8. Tell how he rose to prominence. 9. Why did he leave Tennessee ? Where did he go ? 10. What was the cause of the Mexican War? 11. Tell of the movements of General Zachary Taylor in the early part of the war. 12. Describe the battle of Buena Vista. 13. What campaign was General Winfield Scott directed to make? 14. Describe Scott's cam- paign. 15. What did the United States gain by the treaty of peace? 16. What two nations claimed Oregon? 17. What early agreement was made by the two nations? 18. How was the double claim to Oregon finally settled? 19. What was the " Gadsden Purchase"? CHAPTER XXII PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE Growth of the MmoLE West What the Census Showed. — Along with its expansion in area, the United States was increasing in population very fast. The first census, taken in 1790, one year after the government under the Constitution began, showed only four million persons then living in this country. Fifty years later (1840) the census gave the population as seventeen million. In twenty years more (i860) the population had increased to thirty-one million. All sections had gained in population. " Westward Ho !" — Six years before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, Daniel Boone crossed the Alle- ghany Mountains and gazed for the first time upon the lands of Kentucky. From that day the wave of em- igration westward had not stopped. Lands in the west were fertile and cheap, and many of those struggling for a living in the East saw in the West a better place for them to build their homes and try their fortunes. These emigrants were brave and strong and they did not fear the dangers and hardships that they knew they would meet in the new country. From every town, village, and community in the Atlantic States people turned their faces to the West. They went 286 GROWTH OF THE MIDDLE WEST 287 singly or in families, in small parties or in companies of hundreds. They went in wagons, they went on horse- back, they went on foot. The usual way of making the journey was in a long covered wagon in which the family The Westward Movement of Population rode and in which the household goods were carried. It was a common thing to see a long train of these emi- grant wagons moving along the roads leading to the West, with herds of cattle and droves of hogs driven ahead. But there were many too poor to travel in this manner. 288 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE Sometimes an entire family, except the infant in the mother's arms, would trudge along the dusty road on foot, hauling everything they owned in a small hand- cart or wheelbarrow. Winter did not stop the westward movement. With those who could afford it, sleighs took the place of wagons ; others plodded through the snow. Towns Quickly Spring Up. — When the mountains were crossed, the most difficult part of the long and tedious journey was over. When they reached the rivers flowing westward, the emigrants either bought or built a raft or a flat-bottomed boat and let the rivers carry them to the heart of the Middle West. The emigrant who wished to farm selected a place suitable for his home, erected his cabin, cleared a bit of the forest, and began his plant- ing. But the pioneers were not all farmers ; there were many lawyers, doctors, ' storekeepers, and laborers of all kinds. Around a store or blacksmith shop a settle- ment started and with amazing quickness became a town. States of the Middle West. — So rapidly had been the settling of the Middle West that by 1820 the frontier had crossed the Mississippi River. By i860, all the region east of the Mississippi and even the west bank of the river for its entire length had been made into states. Gold had been discovered in California, and the emigrants had passed over the intervening territory and developed states on the Pacific Coast. Communication between the East and the West. — When emigrants first started toward the West there were no roads across the mountains, so they followed Indian GROWTH OF THE MIDDLE WEST 289 trails and buffalo paths. They opened up roads as they moved on, but such roads as the pioneers could make were so poor that they were almost impassable for wagons. The cost of sending freight over these roads to the people of the West and the carrying of their produce to the markets of the East was enormous. Consequently, the Westerners found much difficulty in buying what they needed and selling what they raised. The Westerners demanded better communication with the East and, as their section filled up with settlers, the Route of the Cumberland Road, i8j 2-1840 demand became so strong that it could no longer be ignored. The merchants of the Eastern cities joined in the demand, for they knew that if the Westerners could not trade with them, they would trade with New Orleans by using the Mississippi River. The Cumberland Road and the Erie Canal. — Before railroads had come to America, the cry went up for canals and good roads leading to the West. Since to give the people these conveniences could be done only at very great cost, corporations and the Federal and State govern- ments undertook the work. The best wagon road con- structed to connect the East and the West is the National Road, or, as it is more commonly called, the Cumberland 290 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE Road. This is a splendid turnpike built by the United States government and extending from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vidalia, Illinois, a distance of eight hundred miles. The most noteworthy of the canals is the Erie, built by the state of New York. This canal extends from Lake Erie to the Hudson River, and thus connects the waters of the Great Lakes with the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It is 352 miles in length and is the second longest canal in the world. The building of the canal was a remarkable feat of engineering for the times. The Cumberland Road and the Erie Canal, by greatly reducing freight rates between the East and the West, built up a flourishing trade between the two sections. They further developed the West by giving emigrants cheaper and better ways of getting to that section. Once arrived in the West, steamboats on the Great Lakes or the numerous rivers now made traveling comparatively easy. Railroads Help the West. — After 1850, when rapid building of railroads was going on throughout the country, the locomotive proved of great help in opening up the Middle West, especially the Northwest where many railroads were soon built. The locomotive brought the Northwest closer to the rest of the country, and emigrants poured into that section. The impetus given to the growth of the Northwest may be seen in the increase in the population of its cities. Cincinnati, which, in 1850, had one hundred and fifteen thousand inhabitants, had, in i860, more than one hundred and sixty thousand. St. Louis increased its population, in the same time, from GROWTH OF THE MIDDLE WEST 291 seventy-five thousand to one hundred and sixty thou- sand. Chicago, a small city of thirty thousand in 1850, became, in ten years, a city nearly four times as large, having jumped to one hundred and ten thousand inhabitants. Farming in the West. — Another factor that developed the Northwest was the invention of farm machinery. With the exception of the cotton gin, all machines for An Overland Train on Its Way to the Far West farming that had been invented were used in connection with grain and grass crops. The crops of the farmers who went to the Northwest were wheat, barley, oats, corn, and hay. As slavery' was forbidden north of the Ohio River their farms were small. When the McCormick reaper and other machines for cultivating grain and grass crops came into use, work on the farms of the Northwest was made lighter and more profitable. The small farms gave room for many settlers and the fertile soil drew them like a magnet. Lands in the Southwest were also very fertile, and steamboats and railroads were carrying emigrants to that 292 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE section; but the settlers of the Southwest depended mainly upon the planting of cotton, and they used slaves to do the labor. Plantations, instead of small farms, were the rule, and living there was, in the main, much the same as it had been for many years in the rest of the South. Immigrants prom the Old World Foreigners Seeking America. — Since so many thou- sands had left the East to go to the West, it naturally would seem impossible for the East also to show a great increase in population. But the loss was offset by births in the East and by the foreigners who settled in that section. Immigration from Europe had, of course, stopped during the Revolutionary War, but, with the close of that war, it set in again. Many of the people of the Old World were still dissatisfied with their governments and their conditions of living. They still looked with longing eyes upon the freedom of the New World and the greater opportunity given there to live the life one wished. Immigrants of Early Years. — While every year, except when war prevented, immigrants came to the United States, they came in greater waves at some periods than at others. About the time that our War of 1812 closed, the long series of wars in Europe also came to an end. These wars had almost ruined the business of Europe and had thrown many persons out of employment. Not only were these unfortunates out of work and earning nothing, but they were burdened with heavy taxes to meet the IMMIGRANTS FROM THE OLD WORLD 293 expenses of the wars. As soon as the coming of peace gave them the opportunity, thousands upon thousands of these men and women emigrated to America to escape the almost unbearable conditions. In one year (181 7) fifty thousand came over. While they came from every country of Europe, most of them came from England, Ireland, and Germany. The large majority of the immigrants of this period settled in the Eastern States. Foreign Immigrants irish swede german italian russian chinaman Immigrants of Later Periods. — In 1846, and again in 1847, the potato crop of Ireland, which furnished the main article of food for that country, failed. Terrible fam- ines followed, causing the death of very many of the inhabitants. Numbers of Irishmen, rather than face starvation at home, sought relief by coming to America. In 1848, a revolution -broke out in Germany against the despotic government of that country. The revolution was put down, and many persons, fearing that they would be put to death for taking part in it, fled to the United States. In the five years, 1 846-1 850, more than a million 294 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE and a quarter, mostly Irish ^nd German, landed on our shores. The Irish, as a rule, remained in the cities of the East ; the Germans moved on into the Northwest, where they became farmers. Every year after 1850, except during the War of Secession, immigration kept up at enormous figures until stopped by the World War. In recent times it has not been unusual for more than a million immigrants to arrive in one year. How Foreigners Become Americans. — When a for- eigner has lived in this country not less than five years and has complied with certain requirements he becomes as much a citizen of the United States as a person born in this country. The process through which he goes in order to become a citizen is called " naturalization,'' and he is spoken of as a '' naturalized" American in dis- tinction from the native American. Immigration a Serious Problem. — Immigrants that come from the northern countries of Europe are of a class that make good citizens, and as long as most of the immigrants were of that class all went well. But since the War of Secession most of the immigrants coming to this country have been from the lower classes of eastern and southeastern Europe, and they give much trouble. They are for the most part very ignorant, and, having been downtrodden in their old homes, they have no respect for law or government. In fact, many of them would like to see the government of the United States destroyed. How to deal with this undesirable class of immigrants is one of the most serious problems that we have to-day. THE FACTORY SYSTEM 295 The Factory System and the Eastern Cities Growth of Manufactures. — While grain and grass crops are still raised in the North and East, manufacturing has become the chief industry of those sections. Such had been the growth of manufacturing that by 1850 nearly every kind of manufactured article was made in the United States. By that time the number of persons a Cotton Mill employed in manufacturing, together with their families, had become greater than the whole number of inhabitants in the country when Washington became president. Cotton and woolen goods were made in New England, while wooden articles and iron wares were made in the Middle States and Ohio. Growth of the Cities. — In the North and East the population of the cities had grown faster than that of the rural districts. Much of this growth is due to the fact that the factories, which are usually located in cities, 296 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE have attracted many laborers who would otherwise have found employment on the farm. The four largest cities were still, in i860, in the North and East. New York then had a population of more than eight hundred thousand; Philadelphia, nearly five hundred and seventy-five thousand ; Baltimore, two hun- dred thousand ; and Boston, one hundred and seventy-five thousand. Not one of these cities was more than a good sized town in Washington's time. Life in the cities had become more comfortable. Public buildings, office buildings, and stores were larger and more handsomely constructed ; homes were better built and had more conveniences. Lighting was done by gas and heating by coal. There was much gayety, theater- going and dancing being the favorite amusements. The North and the South. — The numerous factories and the many small farms cultivating various crops by machinery had so developed the North and Northwest that those sections had become much more populous than the South and the Southwest. Influences of the Masses The Working Men Given the Ballot. — For some years after the States had gained their independence they continued the old colonial laws that required that a voter should be a property owner. Under these laws many among the masses could not vote. As time passed, however, it was realized that the more liberal a govern- ment is regarding the ballot the more democratic it is. By 1824, most states had passed laws allowing every INFLUENCES OF THE MASSES 297 man to vote. The effect was soon seen in the choice of candidates for office. Andrew Jackson the " People's" President. — Of all the men then in public life Andrew Jackson was the favorite of the masses, for he was a '' self-made" man. Jackson, though born and bred in poverty, had risen to high position. In 1828, he was elected President. While many of the so-called " upper-class" had voted for him^ the masses had supported him solidly. Because of Jackson's humble birth the " plain people " looked upon him as belonging to them, and they followed his leadership without question. For his part, Jackson's devotion to these people was unbounded. Whenever he thought he saw a chance to advance their interests, he acted quickly. His political opponents sometimes ac- cused hirn of acting too quickly. Most of the statesmen did not think that he knew how to run a great govern- ment like ours. But Jackson, strongwilled and coura- geous, usually had his way ; and even in the heat of the political fight made against him, no one ever doubted his honesty. By his firm and aggressive course he made an impression on American politics that is felt to the present time. Why Jackson's Election Was Important. — Since Jack- son was the first President who was a self-made man, and the first chosen mainly by the votes of the masses, his election marks the beginning of an important period in our history. From that time the influence of the masses in the management of the affairs of government has steadily increased. 298 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE The " Forty-Niners " Finding of Gold in California. — In 1848, nine days before the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was signed, whereby Mexico sold CaHfornia to the United States, gold was found near Sacramento. In that far-away country, then sparsely settled and having neither telegraph nor railroad, news traveled slowly. Fortunately for us the Mexicans did not hear of the dis- covery before signing the treaty, for otherwise they would not have been so willing to part with California. Early in 1849, news of the discovery spread over the United States and the gold fever swept the country. Every- where in the East the most improbable stories of the vast wxalth to be gathered in California were believed. The Rush to the Gold Fields. — Such another migration as the one that im- mediately began to California has never been known in our history. Thousands upon thousands of eager fortune hunters followed one another to the gold fields. There were three routes to California. One was entirely by ship around Cape Horn ; one was by ship to the Isthmus of Panama, across the Isthmus on foot or on mules, then by another ship up the Pacific ; and the third was overland across the continent. Tropical fever took away many an unfortunate gold A FORTY-NINER THE "FORTY-NINERS" 299 seeker while waiting on the Isthmus for a ship to take him to CaHfornia ; yet the trip across the continent was also full of danger and numbers of those who tried this route died on the way. Most of those going overland used the '' prairie schooner," a long wagon drawn by six horses or oxen. The white canvas top and boat-shaped body of the " prairie schooner " as it moved over prairie or plain gave in the distance the appearance of a vessel. The thousands of these wagons passing across the continent, all through the spring and summer, made a picturesque scene. Magic Growth of California. — While Mexico owned the territory there had been in all California only a few thousand people; by the end of 1849 the inhabitants numbered one hundred thousand, mostly Americans. San Francisco and Sacramento, which less than a year before were mere hamlets, had grown into young cities, the former having twenty thousand and the latter ten thousand inhabitants. A State Government for California. — Because the first emigrants had reached California in 1849, they called themselves the '' forty-niners." Of course, the desire to get rich quickly had carried there many criminals who committed all kinds of lawless acts. To preserve order in the territory the better class of " forty-niners " or- ganized a government in November, 1849, ^^^ applied to Congress for the admission of California into the Union as a state. The constitution they adopted forbade slavery. 300 PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Tell something about the increase of population between 1790 and i860. 2. Relate the story of the migration to the Middle West. 3. Give some idea of the growth of the Middle West. 4. Describe the method of communication between the East and the West in early days. 5. Tell the story of the Cumberland Road ; of the Erie Canal. 6. How did railroads help the West ? 7. Tell how life in the North- west and in the Southwest differed. 8. Why did foreigners wish to come to America ? 9. Compare the immigrants of early years with those of recent years. 10. Tell how a foreigner may become a citizen of the United States. 11. Why is immigration a serious problem? 12. Tell about the growth of the factory system. 13. How does the factory system affect the cities? 14. Which were the four largest cities in i860? 15. Describe life in the cities at that time. 16. Why had the North become more populous than the South ? 17. Whatgreat change had been made in voting by 1824? 18. W^hy is Andrew Jackson called a "self-made man" ? 19. How did the "plain people" look upon Jackson, and how did he treat them? 20. What may be said of Jackson's character? 21. Tell about the influence of the masses upon public affairs. 22. What important discovery was made in California? 23. Give an account of the rush to the gold fields. 24. Describe the remarkable growth of California, and tell how a state government was formed. 25. Did the constitution of California allow slavery? CHAPTER XXIII THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH DRIFT APART Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, "The Great Triumvirate'' The Three Giants. — During the War of 1812 there were three young men serving in Congress whose names are Hnked together in history because, for nearly forty years afterward, they were chief among the leaders of the republic. These men were Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun were the leaders in the United States Senate during a time when feeling between the North and the South was be- coming bitter. Webster was a Senator from Massachusetts, Clay from Kentucky, and Cal- houn from South Carolina. Webster, a Northern man, represented the views of the North ; Calhoun, a Southern man, represented the views of the South ; and Clay, coming from a central state, represented views that were midway between the views of the North and of the South. Daniel Webster 301 302 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART States' Rights. — At the time of the adoption of the Constitution it was a belief common to North and South that, since each state had voluntarily joined the Union, a state might secede, or leave the Union, at any time it saw fit. During the first years of the government under the Constitution, New Englanders were not satisfied, for they thought many of the laws passed by the United States injured their commerce. They opposed the War of 1 812 because they believed that their commerce would be damaged by the war. New England made threats of secession. States of that section claimed also the right of " nullification " — that is, the right of a state to refuse to obey a law of Con- gress that it considered unconstitutional. During the War of 181 2 some of those states nullified laws passed by Congress. After a time there came a change. New England ceased to believe in secession and nullification, while, on the other hand, the South continued to advocate them. South Carolina Nullifies a Federal Law. — Congress had placed a high tax on goods brought from other coun- tries. A tax placed on foreign goods is called a tariff. The North favored the high tariff because it bene- fited its manufacturers. The South thought that the tariff injured its business. In 1832, South Carolina refused to allow the tax to be collected in the state. Cal- houn guided his state in this act of nullification. Andrew Jackson was President of the United States at WEBSTER, CLAY, AND CALHOUN 303 the time. " Old Hickory," though a Southern man, be- Heved, Hke most people in the North, that the laws of the United States should be enforced in spite of the objec- tion of any state. He declared that the Federal Union must be preserved, and promptly took measures to send troops into South Carolina to compel the people of that state to obey the law. Meanwhile, citizens of South Carolina quickly took up arms to defend their state against an invasion of United States troops. The greatest excitement prevailed over the coun- try, for it looked as if there would certainly be war between Americans. Clay's Compromise. — Violent debates occurred in Congress. In the Senate, Webster was the leader for the North, the section that wished the high tariff continued because it benefited its manufacturers. Calhoun was the leader for the South. When excitement was at its highest pitch. Clay thought of a way to keep peace. He offered in the Senate a com- promise to the effect that the tariff should be reduced gradually — that is, year by year, over a certain period of years. The compromise was accepted by both sides, and the danger of a war between the sections was, for a time, warded off. Henry Clay 304 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART " Rather Be Right than Be President." — While Clay was preparing his compromise some one who did not favor it advised him not to offer it to the Senate as it would destroy his chances for the presidency. Clay nobly replied, ^^ I had rather be right than be Presi- dent." The Slavery Question. — Good feeling between the North and South was not restored, however, because the two sections continued to quarrel about slavery. We have already learned that the Missouri Compromise quieted the slavery question for a short time only. As the western country opened up and more territories applied for admission as states, objection of the northern people to new states with slavery grew stronger. Though op- position of the North to slave-labor had at first been on political grounds, there were now other reasons. Some Northerners objected because, believing that slavery was wrong, they thought it should be abolished everywhere in the United States, and many others objected for in- dustrial reasons, believing that free-labor was better for the new states than slave-labor. The North claimed that, under the Constitution, Con- gress had the right to prohibit slavery in the lands be- longing to the United States ; the South denied that Con- gress had this right. Year in and year out the question of slavery was de- bated in Congress, discussed in the pulpit and the news- papers, and argued in political meetings. The more the question was agitated the further apart the North and the South drifted. So great was the influence of Webster, WEBSTER, CLAY, AND CALHOUN 305 Clay, and Calhoun in all those years that they became known as the ^^ Great Triumvirate." Clay's Compromise of 1850. — The last time' the great three met in debate in the Senate was in 1850. The question under discussion was whether California, which had asked to be admitted as a free-labor state, should come into the Union with or without slavery. The South wished the new state to have slavery and the North objected. The question had aroused such bad feeling between the two sections that the South was on the verge of secession. Once more Clay came forward to pacify both the North and the South by a compromise. Calhoun opposed the compromise because he did not think that it gave the South justice. Webster joined with Clay in supporting it, and after months of debate it was adopted. By the compromise, California was admitted without slavery and certain laws that the South demanded were passed. Again the slavery question seemed to have been settled by a compromise, and again the settlement was only temporary. The Passing of the Giants. — The three giants of the Senate were now old men. Clay was so feeble that he could hardly walk up the steps of the Capitol, yet he John C. Calhoun 3o6 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART made a speech in favor of his compromise that lasted three days. Calhoun was even more feeble. He was not able to deliver his speech, and he sat in his seat in the Senate while another Senator read it. Before the de- bate on the compromise had ended Calhoun died, and Clay and Webster followed him to the grave two years later. How the Giants Differed Intellectually. — Webster is ranked as America's greatest orator. He had a most remarkable memory, and a great passion for reading. From the time that he was a boy he had read much and stored in his mind a vast amount of learning. His elo- quence was unexcelled and on account of his able speeches in behalf of the Constitution of the United States he is called the " Defender of the Constitution." Clay was also a great orator, but he did not have the learning of Webster. His power lay in his graceful way of speaking and his pleasing manner. His personality was so charming that men loved him much. Indeed, no other statesman of America has ever had a following so devoted to their leader. Because he so often smoothed out the difficulties between the North and the South, he is called the " Great Pacificator." Calhoun had the deepest intellect of the three. He was as much a lover of the people's rights as either Web- ster or Clay ; but he believed that these rights could better be protected by the home, or the state government, than by the United States government. Webster said of him in a speech delivered in the Senate at the time of his death, '' Nothing that was selfish or impure ever came near the head or heart of Calhoun." SECESSION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES 307 Secession of the Southern States Sectional Discord Increases. — Clay's Compromise of 1850 quieted the quarrel over slavery for only four years ; then it broke out again more violently than ever when the question arose whether slavery should be allowed in Kansas and Nebraska, which were about to be organized as territories. The Slave-Labor States before the War A new political party, the Republican, was organized in the North for the express purpose of preventing the spread of slavery into any more territories. In i860, the Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for President of the United States. Every Northern state voted for Lincoln and he was elected. The Southern states voted against him, for it was believed in the South that Lincoln's election would bring disaster to that section. 3o8 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART The Confederate States. — Soon after it became known that Lincoln was elected, the following Southern states seceded: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The seceding states formed a government of their own known as the Confederate States of America and elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi their President. The Southern people believed that their states had a right to leave the Union, but Lincoln and a majority of the people of the North did not believe that a state had such a right. On account of this difference of opinion a terrible war between the North and South broke out. Rather than engage on the side of the North in a war waged against their sister Southern states, Virginia, Ar- kansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee also seceded and joined the Confederacy. After four years of desperate fighting, in which hundreds of thousands of lives were lost, the North, being much the stronger, was victorious, and the attempt on the part of the South to leave the Union failed. Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States Lincoln's Log Cabin Home. — Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, in a log cabin on a small farm in Kentucky. The cabin was hardly more than a shack. Built of roughly hewn logs, carelessly put together, it contained only one room with one door and one window. The land upon which the miserable home stood was rocky and infertile. ABRAHAM LINCOLN 309 When Abraham, or Abe, as he was called, was eight years old, his father moved to the frontier country of Indiana. All the furniture and clothing that the family owned were carried on the backs of two borrowed horses. In the forests of Indiana, Thomas Lincoln, Abe's father, built a hut. As one side of the hut was entirely uncovered, the family was exposed to the snows and rains and winds of winter. When Thomas r^^=^^ Abe's bed was a kind of v:^-^' -^^"^v-^^^^^^^^^^i; .-^^^%r^ bunk or platform built of Log Cabin in Which Abraham - - •11 Lincoln Was Born planks, raised almost to the height of the roof and supported on one side by the wall of the cabin and on the other by poles nailed to the floor. He climbed to his bed by means of pegs driven into the wall, and slept on leaves for a mattress, using the skins of animals for covering. Lincoln Educates Himself. — Abe did not go to school more than a year in his whole life, for he had to do a man's work while yet a mere boy. When he was not working at home, he was hired out to a neighbor, at twenty-five cents a day, the wages going to his father. The boy longed for an education, and since he could not go to school, he decided to teach himself. At night, after a day of hard work, he would lie on the floor of the cabin in front of the wide chimney and study by the light 3IO NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART of the fire. He would work sums on a wooden shovel with a piece of charcoal for a pencil, and the next day would plane off the shovel in order to use it another night. The Books Young Lincoln Read. — The books that young Abe enjoyed the most were Msop's Fables, Robin- son Crusoe, Pilgrim's Progress, the Bible, a History of the United States, the Statutes of Indiana, and a Life of Washington. The Life of Washington was a borrowed book. One night, after climbing on the pegs to his bed, he placed this book under the rafters of the cabin. In the night a heavy rain fell and, leaking through the roof, soaked its pages. As soon as daylight came, Abe set out for the farm of the man who had lent him the book, and there worked three days in the cornfield to pay for it ; but having now become the proud possessor of the Life of Washington, he walked gayly back home, forgetful of the toil that it had cost him. Young Lincoln borrowed all the books that he could find for miles around. By teaching himself he became bet- ter educated than any one else in that rough community. At the age of seventeen he had a fair knowledge of history, geography and arithmetic ; and at spelling matches he could outspell any one in the country Popular with His Neighbors. — Lincoln was a clever mimic, and he had a vast fund of wit and humor. Often while yet a boy, he would make stump speeches for the amusement of his friends, and he was always considered excellent company. The neighbors of young Lincoln looked up to him be- ABRAHAM LINCOLN 311 cause he was better educated than they, yet they seemed to admire him more for his physical strength. By the time that he was eighteen he had reached his full height, six feet four inches, and he could " outlift, outwork, out- run, and outwrestle every man of his acquaintance." Removes to Illinois. — When Lincoln was twenty-one his father moved to Illinois. There Abe helped build a new cabin, split rails for a fence, and prepare a small plot of ground for planting. A Mississippi River Flatboat Lincoln, having now become of age, decided to see what he could do for himself. At first he hired out, now on one farm and now on another. Next he guided a flatboat loaded with merchandise down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Then he became, in turn, a clerk in a village store, a soldier in a war against the Indians, and the ow^ner of a small store. While Lincoln was trying to manage his store, he spent too much time in reading, so of course the business went to ruin. '' Honest Abe." — Though Lincoln failed in business he won an enviable reputation for honesty. One day by 312 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART mistake he overcharged a customer a few pennies. That night, after the store was closed, he walked three miles to the home of the customer to return the overcharge. When his store failed, he was left with a heavy debt; but he paid it off, dollar for dollar, though it took him seventeen years to do so. Is it any wonder that he came to be known as '^ Honest Abe " ? Lincoln a Lawyer. — Next Lincoln became a surveyor. While following this work he began the study of law, and he was still so poor that he would walk twenty miles from his home to the town of Springfield to borrow law books from a friend. Before finishing the study of law he was elected to the legislature of Illinois. He was now twenty- five years old. In becoming a law^^er Lincoln had at last found his calling. He was successful, and what is better, he would never defend a man whom he believed to be guilty. In Congress. — At the age of thirty-seven, Lincoln was elected to Congress. Though he served only one term, it was at the time when the question of slavery in the territories was making the North and the South very bitter toward each other. Lincoln was opposed to the policy of allowing slavery in the territories. After his term as Congressman was over, he made many public speeches against the policy, and became very popular throughout the North. A Homely Man. — In personal appearance, Lincoln was not attractive. He was plain of feature, though honesty was stamped on every line of his face. He had long arms and legs and large hands and feet, and was ABRAHAM LINCOLN 313 very awkward in his movements. His dress was often uncouth, yet no sooner had he begun to speak than his earnestness and eloquence made the audience forget his plainness and awkwardness. As a War President. — Lincoln, as President of the United States when the North and the South were warring against each other, had to raise the armies for the Union, select command- ers, and direct cam- paigns. The task would have been tremendous for any one, but it was espe- cially so for a self-taught man whose life had been spent on the frontier. Yet it is doubtful whether any one could have done the work better. Many times during the war, the Union army was de- feated and gloom was spread over the North. Lincoln was often blamed for these reverses ; but he let nothing keep him from following the course he thought right, and, though often discouraged, he did not once lose hope. Lincoln was very tender-hearted. It grieved him that so many brave men on each side should lose their lives, but he believed it to be his duty to continue the war until the South should give up. The Proclamation of Emancipation. — At the beginning of the war Lincoln did not believe that he had a right to in- Abraham Lincoln 314 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART terfere with slavery Jn the states where it already existed ; but later he came to the conclusion that as the slaves were raising the crops that supported the Confederate army, he had the right to free them as an act of war. Therefore, he issued, in 1863, the Proclamation of Eman- cipation, declaring every slave in the parts of the country held by the Confederates, forever free. The proclama- tion marked the beginning of the end of slavery. Soon after the war closed, slavery was abolished every^vhere in the United States. Assassination of Lincoln. — Just at the time when the war was drawing to a close, Lincoln was assassinated. One night while he was seated in a box in a theater at Washington, witnessing a play, an actor slipped into the box and shot him. Lincoln died the next day, April 15, 1865. The murderer thought that in killing Lincoln he was doing the South a service, but he did that section a -great injury. Lincoln had the most kindly feeling for the South- ern people, and would have done all in his power to help them recover from the effects of the war. Scarcely had the war ended when dishonest white men — mainly from the North — and ignorant negroes got control of the State governments in the South, and for many years longer that section suffered almost as much as it had during the war. Every one now believes that, had Lincoln's life been spared, he would have saved the South from such a calamity. No career in our history is more remarkable than that of Lincoln. He rose from the humblest walks of life to the JEFFERSON DAVIS 315 highest position in the gift of the people, and that position he filled so well at a most critical time that his name is honored and revered. As long as Americans value un- failing honesty, faithfulness to conviction, and rugged iorce, so long will the memory of Abraham Lincoln live. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States The Boyhood of Davis. — Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky June 3, 1808. It will be noted that he was born only eight months before Abraham Lincoln, and in the same state. The lives of these two Kentucky boys were to cross in an unusual manner. Jefferson Davis came of fighting stock. His father had been a soldier of the Revolutionary War, serving in the patriot bands of South Carolina and Georgia, and three of his brothers fought in the War of 181 2 and were with Andrew Jackson at the battle of New Orleans. When little Jefferson was three years old, his father removed to Mississippi and became a cotton planter. The Davis family was not well-to-do and the older boys had to help on the farm. As soon as Jefferson was old enough, he was sent to a log cabin school near his home, and then he was sent to better schools away from home. Later he was appointed to a cadetship at the Military Academy at West Point where the United States govern- ment trains young men for soldiers. In the Army and in Congress. — Jefferson Davis was graduated from West Point when he was twenty years old, and was appointed a lieutenant in the army. For 3i6 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART seven years he served on the frontier, building forts, pro- tecting settlements, and fighting Indians. After a time Davis resigned from the army and settled in Mississippi as a cotton planter. Soon the people of his district, recognizing his ability, sent him to Congress. A Volunteer in the Mexican War. — While Davis was serving in Congress, the Mexican War broke out. A regiment of volunteers raised in Mississippi, and known as the " Mississippi Rifles," elected him their colonel. He resigned his seat in Congress and returned South to take command — glad of a chance to serve his country on the battle field. Davis and his regiment joined Zachary Taylor's army in Mexico, and became noted for their bravery. At the battle. of Buena Vista, it will be remembered, the over- whelming numbers of Santa Anna's army were, on the second day, pressing back Taylor's little force. It was Jefferson Davis and his Mississippi volunteers who charged the enemy and turned the tide of battle toward victory. In the Senate and in the Cabinet. — Soon after Davis came back from the war he was made a United States Senator from Mississippi. When he entered the Senate Chamber in Washington to take the oath of office, he was on crutches for he had not yet recovered from a wound received at Buena Vista. As may well be believed, the Senators gave him a cordial welcome, for the reports of his great bravery had spread over the country. Davis served four years in the Senate. Later he was appointed Secretary of War in the cabinet of President JEFFERSON DAVIS 317 Franklin Pierce, and he conducted the affairs of that office with great skill. When his term as Secretary of War ended, he again became a United States Senator. The Leader of the South. — After Calhoun's death, Davis became the leader of the Southern sentiment in the Senate. High-minded and courageous, he commanded the respect of all. Davis loved the Union. His father had fought in the Revolution- ary War ; his brothers had de- fended the Union in the War of 181 2, and he had bled for it in the Mexican War. Davis, however, insisted that the Union must give every sec- tion of the country the rights guaranteed by the Constitu- tion. He believed firmly, as almost every Southerner did, in the right of a state to secede, but he did not wish his state to secede unless its rights could not otherwise be pro- tected. Often during the many years of quarreling be- tween the North and the South, the more hot-headed Southerners accused Davis of being too slow because he wished, if possible, to avoid secession. When Mississippi finally seceded, Davis approved of her course because he believed that the time had come when her rights could no longer be secured in the Union. In his farewell speech in the Senate he ex- pressed his deep regret that the North and the South Jefferson Davis 3i8 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART should part, and his wish that the two sections might live in peace. # Davis Desires a Command in the Southern Army. — While' Jefferson Davis wished for peace he had not much hope for it. Many persons in the South thought that the Southern States would be al- lowed to secede peaceably, but Davis warned them that war would probably follow secession. Since he believed that war would come he hoped to be made an ofhcer in the Southern army. Great, therefore, was his disap- pointment when he was elected President of the Confederate States. But his people had called him to a position in which they thought he could best serve them, and he accepted the call. President of the Confederacy. — Davis, who was in- augurated at Montgomery, Alabama, then the capital of the Confederacy, threw all his talents and energy into the work of the new government. The duties of the President were mainly those of carrying on the great war in which the Confederacy was engaged during the few years of its existence. The task of Abraham Lincoln in conducting the war for the North was hard, but the task of Jefferson Davis in conducting the war for the South was very much harder. The North had a population four times as large as the South from which to draw armies. The Union had plenty Confederate Battle Flag JEFFERSON DAVIS 319 of money to buy arms, food, and clothing for its soldiers, while the Confederacy had little. The Union had a navy ; the Confederacy had none. It was a constant struggle for President Davis to raise supplies for the Confederate armies. Try as he might, the armies were never properly equipped at any time dur- ing the war. As the overwhelming Union forces, pressing back the Confederate armies, seized more and more Confederate territory, and as the outlook for the Southern cause grew darker and darker, Jefferson Davis faced every new re- verse, every new danger, with fortitude. Up to the very last his faith in the justness of his cause made him hope that the Confederacy would succeed. Davis in Prison. — At the close of the war Davis was captured and sent to Fortress Monroe, where he was held a prisoner on the charge of treason. Knowing that nothing he had done made him guilty of treason, Davis repeatedly asked for a trial. After he had been kept in prison for two years he was released without a trial. All through the South the people rejoiced at the release of Jefferson Davis for they felt that he had been made to suffer for them. The Last Days of Davis. — Davis returned to his home in Mississippi, there to live a quiet life for the remain- der of his days. He survived the war many years, dying December 6, 1889. Truly has it been said of Jefferson Davis, " His heart was as tender as a woman's ; he was as brave as a lion, and true as the needle to the pole to his convictions; 320 NORTH AND SOUTH DRIFT APART in disposition generous, in character courteous and chivalric." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Who were the Great Triumvirate ? 2. What is "nullification"? How did New England regard it at first ? How afterwards ? 3. What did the South think about nullification? 4. Tell the story of the trouble between South CaroUna and the United States government. 5. What is meant by ''secession"? 6. How did the whole country feel about secession when the Constitution was adopted? 7. Which section changed its views ? 8. Tell about the discussions over slavery. 9. Describe the places in our history that Webster, Clay, and Calhoun occupy. 10. Who was elected President of the United States in i860? 11. How did the country divide in voting when Lincoln was elected? 12. What seven states seceded from the Union because he was elected? 13. Who was elected President of the Confederate States ? 14. What did the secession of the seven states bring on? 15. What four other states seceded? 16. How long did the war last? What was the result of it? 17. Did the North ever believe in the right of a state to secede? When? 18. Tell of the boyhood of Lincoln. 19. How did he get his educa- tion ? What occupations did he follow ? 20. How did he come to be called "Honest Abe"? 21. After he became a lawyer and went to Congress, what cause did he take up with all his heart? 22. What can be said of Lincoln as President ? 23. What proclamation did he issue? 24. Describe the death of Lincoln. Tell why Lincoln was a great man. 25. Describe the boyhood of Jefferson Davis. 26. What did Davis do before he became a planter in Mississippi? 27. What part did he play in the battle of Buena Vista ? 28. What high office was he given by President Pierce ? 29. Tell how he defended the rights of the South in the Senate. 30. Why was he willing that Mississippi should secede? 31. How was the struggle between the North and the South unequal? 32. What kind of man was Jefferson Davis ? CHAPTER XXIV THE WAR OF SECESSION Early Events of the Contest Fall of Fort Sumter. — When the Confederate States of America was formed, the new government took pos- session of only the forts, within its territory, that it could secure peaceably, because the Southerners hoped that their states might withdraw from the Union without war. Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was held by a small Federal (Northern) garrison. This fort the United States refused to give up. Still peace was kept until President Lincoln tried to reenforce the fort. Then General P. G. T. Beauregard, commanding the Confederate forces in Charleston harbor, demanded that the fort be surrendered. The demand was refused, and a severe bombardment followed, which forced the little garrison to surrender, April 13, 1861. The fall of Fort Sumter made the country realize that the war had begun. President Lincoln and President Davis called for volunteers, and each side made ready for the conflict. Fort Sumter 321 322 'THE WAR OF SECESSION First Manassas. — The first great battle of the war was fought in Virginia in July, 1861. The Confederates, under Generals Joseph E. Johnston and Beauregard, routed at Manassas and drove back to Washington a Federal army that had invaded Virginia for the purpose of capturing Richmond, which, upon the secession of Virginia, had been made the capital of the Confederacy. The Federals Close to Richmond. — The South was elated over the victory, but the North, though dismayed at first, had no idea of giving up the contest. A large and well-equipped Federal army was put under the command of General George B. McClellan. In the spring of 1862, McClellan landed his army on the south- eastern coast of Virginia and marched so close to Rich- mond that his soldiers could see the church steeples of the city. In an attempt of the much smaller Confederate army to prevent further advance of the Federals, its commander, General Joseph E. Johnston, was wounded. Then General Robert E. Lee was placed in command of the Confederate army. Robert E. Lee, the Leading General of THE South Early Life of Lee. — Robert Edward Lee was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, January 19, 1807. His father was Henry Lee, a dashing cavalry officer in the Revolutionary War, who was commonly called *' Light Horse Harry." Through his mother he was descended from Robert Bruce, the Scottish king and hero. The heroic spirit of his forefathers early showed itself ROBERT E. LEE 323 in young Lee, for he was a strong, manly, fearless boy. He wanted to become a soldier — such a soldier as his father had been; so an appointment to the Military Academy at West Point was secured for him. Robert Lee was an exceedingly handsome young man and was noted at the academy for grace of manner and elegance of dress, as well as for his talents. He was graduated high in his class, and during his four years at the academy he did not receive a single demerit. Lee in the Mexican War. — Lee had been in the army eighteen years when the Mex- ican War began. He served in that war under Winfield Scott as captain of engineers, and did such splendid work that General Scott said his own success in Mexico was " largely due to the skill, valor, and undaunted energy of Robert E. Lee." Lee came out of the Mexican War with the highest reputation as a soldier. His promotion in the army continued until he became a colonel. Lee Offered Command of the Federal Army. — Upon the breaking out of the war between the North and the South, Lincoln wished Lee to command the Federal Army. But where Lee saw his duty he went. Believing that he owed his allegiance to Virginia, his native state, Robert E. Lee 324 THE WAR OF SECESSION he resigned from the United States army, and was soon made a general in the Confederate army. The Federals Driven from before Richmond. — When Lee succeeded Joseph E. Johnston in command of the Southern army facing the Federals under McClellan just outside of Richmond, he at once began a vigorous campaign, striking the Federal army quick and heavy blows. For seven days battle followed battle, each engagement forcing McClellan further back until he was driven away from Richmond. Then turning quickly, Lee advanced against another Federal army, which, under the command of General John Pope, was marching toward Richmond from the direction of Washington. He fell upon this new force, on the old battle field of Manassas, and drove it back to Washington. Invasion of Maryland. — Now that Lee had foiled both attempts of the Federals to capture Richmond, he decided to try to relieve the South by carrying the war into the North. True, his army was much weakened by losses in battle and by sickness. Food was scarce, and the men were in rags and many were without shoes. Still, the spirit of the army was high. Lee was willing to lead, and where Lee led, his men were willing to follow. In September, 1862, the Confederates crossed the Potomac into Maryland. At Sharpsburg on Antietam Creek, a severe battle was fought. It was a drawn battle, neither side driving the other from the field. As McClellan, who still commanded the Federals, was getting reenforcements and Lee could get none, Lee retreated into Virginia. Because Lee had been unable ROBERT E. LEE 325 to carry the war into the North, the effect of the battle was to give the Northern people much encouragement. The Confederates were disappointed, but not disheartened. Map of Campaigns in Virginia Two More Victories for Lee. — The Federal army- followed the Confederates into Virginia. In December, 1862, the Federals, now under command of General 326 THE WAR OF SECESSION A. E. Burnside, attacked Lee, who held a strong position on the heights of Fredericksburg. Six times the brave Federal soldiers charged up the hills, but every time they were driven back with fearful slaughter. Again, in May, 1863, the Federal army under another commander. General Joseph Hooker, advanced against Lee. The armies met at Chancellor sville, where a battle raged for two days, with the result that the Federals were forced to retreat. Death of '' Stonewall " Jack- son. — Chancellorsville was one of the greatest of Lee's victories, but the success to the South was overshadowed by the loss of the Confederate general T. J. Jackson, famil- iarly called '' Stonewall " Jack- son, who was killed by his own men through mistake. Jackson was the ablest of Lee's officers ; indeed he was one of the ablest officers on either side. He was called " Stonewall " because it was said that he stood in battle like a stonewall. Gettysburg. — Though Lee could win battles, his army was always too small to follow up. and crush the defeated Federals. On the other hand, when the Federal army lost many men in battle its ranks were quickly filled again. Therefore, Lee decided once more to try to relieve the South by invading the North. Stonewall" Jackson ROBERT E. LEE 327 Shortly after the battle of Chancellor sville, Lee marched his army northward across Maryland into Pennsylvania. The Federal army followed under still another commander, General George G. Meade. A battle occurred at Gettys- burg, Pennsylvania — the most terrific battle ever fought on the American continent. It lasted three days, July 1,2, and 3, 1863. The Federals were so strongly posted on a ridge known as Cemetery Hill that all the assaults of the Confederates could not drive them away. The Gettysburg National Military Park Looking southwest over the fields across which Pickett charged On the third day a small body of Confederates made one of the most brilliant charges known to history. It is called '' Pickett's Charge " because it was led by Gen- eral George E. Pickett. Up the side of Cemetery Hill, in the face of a withering fire of cannon and musketry, the men in gray advanced with fearless step. The killed and wounded fell fast; the others closing the gaps in their ranks, pressed on. But the storm of shot was too great. Only a few reached the Federal lines, where they 328 THE WAR OF SECESSION planted the Confederate flag — they were too few and they were driven down the hill again. There was now nothing left for Lee to do but to return to Virginia. On the second night after the battle his army began its retreat. When Lee invaded the North for the second time, the Confederacy had reached its high tide of success. After Gettysburg its fortunes began to wane. The Nobility of Lee. — Lee's nobility of character was never better shown than at Gettysburg. The credit for his victories he had always been quick to give to others ; the blame for the reverse at Gettysburg he was just as quick to take upon himself. ^' It is all my fault," he said. But history shows that the battle of Gettys- burg was not lost through the fault of Lee. Ulysses S. Grant, the Leading General OF THE North In the West. — While Lee was winning renown as a soldier in the East, a Federal general, Ulysses S. Grant, was becoming famous through his victories in the West. Early Life of Grant. — LTlysses S. Grant was born in a village in Ohio, April 27, 1822. His father, who was a tanner, was not well off; yet, wishing to educate his children, he sent young Ulysses to school regularly. The boy was very modest and retiring. He seldom had much to say and seldom played with other boys. When not at school Ulysses helped his father. As he did not like the tanning business, he worked on a farm that his father owned. His father could not afford to pay the boy's ULYSSES S. GRANT 329 way through college, and he secured for Ulysses an appointment to West Point. Young Grant did not care for military life, and was not enthusiastic about going to West Point, but he went because his father wished him to do so. He was noted at West Point as the best rider in the academy. Grant in the Mexican War. — Grant served in the Mex- ican War under both Taylor and Scott, taking part in every battle except that at Buena Vista. His superior officers often praised his cour- age. He performed his acts of bravery as he did everything else, in a quiet unassuming way. Grant Resigns from the Army. — After staying in the army eleven years, and reaching the rank of captain. Grant resigned. As he was about to leave the army he remarked to one of the officers of his regiment, " Who- ever hears of me in ten years will hear of a well-to-do Western farmer." Fate had in store quite a different career for this modest man. In ten years' time he was known the world over as a great commander. Grant went to live near St. Louis on a farm that be- longed to his wife. For a while he tilled the soil and sold firewood in the city, but he did not make a success of farming. Grant not Appreciated at First. — When the War of Ulysses S. Grant 330 THE WAR OF SECESSION Secession broke out, Grant was a clerk in a village store in Illinois. Believing that his experience in the army had fitted him to command a regiment, he tried to get an appointment as colonel, and for some time without success. At first no one seemed to think that the quiet clerk could be fitted to command men ; but finally the governor of Illinois decided to appoint him colonel of a regiment. Even after Grant went to the war his superior officers were slow to place much confidence in him. He suggested plans for conducting the war, and at first little attention was paid to them.* His plans were later accepted and by following them the campaign in the West was fought and won for the Federals. Donelson and Shiloh. — Grant's first victory was the capture, in February, 1862, of Fort Donelson, a Confed- erate stronghold in Tennessee. The fall of Fort Donelson compelled the Confederate army of the West to with- draw from Kentucky and give up a large part of Ten- nessee. Grant, who as a young man did not like military life, was beginning to show that he was a born soldier. He was not the man to stop at one victory. After the capture of Fort Donelson, he pushed further into Ten- nessee. The Confederate army, under Albert Sidney Johnston, a most skillful general, came near defeating him in a battle fought near a country church, called Shiloh. The death of Johnston, and the arrival of reenforcements for Grant, turned the tide. On the next day, when the battle was renewed, the Confederates were so outnumbered that they were forced to retreat. ULYSSES S. GRANT 331 Vicksburg. — It was very important for the Federals to get control of the Mississippi River. The Con- federates, holding Vicksburg, a strongly fortified town on the river, prevented them from doing so. Grant laid siege to Vicksburg. For nearly two months the Con- Map o? the Vicksburg Campaign federates within the town withstood the siege. When their food gave out, they lived on rats and mule flesh. Finally, on July 4, 1863, they were compelled to sur- render. The fall of Vicksburg was a severe blow to the Con- federacy. With the Federals controlling the Mississippi River, troops and supplies could no longer be sent from I 332 THE WAR OF SECESSION points west of the Mississippi to the Confederate armies east of the river. The victory at Vicksburg, coming just a day after the success at Gettysburg, filled the North with unbounded joy. Chattanooga. — Soon the North was to have another cause for joy. A Federal army had been driven into Chattanooga and there besieged by a Confederate force. Grant was sent to Chattanooga to relieve the Federals in their perilous situation. Though the Confederates held a strong position on mountains just outside the city, Grant ordered his army to give them battle. Up the steep sides of the mountain the Federal soldiers clambered despite the volleys of shot poured upon them, and drove the Confederates into Georgia. Thus the year 1863 brought disasters to the Confederacy, yet the South- ern people were not willing to give up the struggle as long as there was a chance of winning. Grant and Lee Grapple Grant Commander-in-Chief. — Everybody now rec- ognized that Grant was the ablest general on the Fed- eral side, and early in 1864 he was made commander of all the Federal armies. Grant took charge of the army in Virginia, and placed General William T. Sherman in command of the army in Chattanooga, with instruc- tions to push into the heart of the Confederacy. Sher- man captured Atlanta and then marched through Georgia and the Carolinas, laying waste the country. Condition of the Armies. — The Federal army in Virginia, when Grant took charge of it, was the largest GRANT AND LEE GRAPPLE 333 and best equipped army that had ever been assembled in America, while Lee's forces, only half as large, were lacking in everything except dauntless courage. Grant realized that to bring the war to a close he must do more than defeat Lee's army — he must crush it. Since he could get men to take the place of those lost in battle, and Lee could not, he planned to destroy Lee's army by a series of rapid attacks. A View of Richmond From an old print Grant's Hammering Process. — The fighting began early in May, 1864. For a month battles and skirmishes followed one another in quick succession. The battles in the Wilderness, at Spottsylvania, and at Cold Harbor, cost the lives of thousands of brave men on both sides. The losses of the Federals were very heavy. In one month Grant lost almost as many men as Lee had in his whole army when the campaign began. As his ranks 334 THE WAR OF SECESSION were rapidly filled up, he knew that he would in the end wear away Lee's strength. Grant's purpose had been to pass around Lee's army and get between it and Richmond. He failed, for every time he shifted his position he found Lee blocking the way; and with all his hammering he could not break through the Confederate lines. Capture of Richmond. — Grant next tried to capture Petersburg, a town about twenty miles south of Rich- mond guarding the Confederate capital from that side. Through the rest of the summer and through the whole winter the siege of Petersburg continued, Grant con- stantly extending his large army in the hope of over- lapping Lee's forces. To meet this movement, Lee had to stretch his little army to such length that at no time could every point be strongly guarded. Still, every attempt of Grant to pass around or break through the Confederate lines was thwarted. During the winter the Confederate soldiers suffered intensely as, poorly clad and more poorly fed, they lay in the trenches exposed to rain, sleet, and snow. The limit to human endurance was at last reached. By the spring of 1865 the Confederate line had become so thin that Grant broke through with a mass of troops. Lee was compelled to give up Petersburg and retreat ; and Richmond, the city that he had so long defended, was taken. Surrender of Lee. — The Federals closely pursued Lee's worn, hungry remnant of an army, and at Appomattox Courthouse, in Virginia, threw an overwhelming force GRANT AND LEE GRAPPLE 335 across its path. Lee realized that further fighting would be only a useless shedding of blood, and surrendered April 9, 1865. "Heroes and Great Hearts." — When Lee returned from the meeting with Grant where the terms of sur- render had been arranged his devoted soldiers crowded about him. Tears filled the eyes of the great warrior, and his men, battle-scarred and powder-stained, wept as they pressed his hand. " Men," he said, ^' we have fought through the war together; I have done the best for you ; my heart is too full to say more." As Lee was great in his defeat, so was Grant great in his hour of triumph. Grant would not allow his men to cele- brate the victory because he did not wish to hurt the feelings of the brave but vanquished Confederates ; and when he learned that the Confederate soldiers had been living for days on parched corn, he fed them from the supplies of his own army. End of the War. — The surrender of Lee was followed by the surrender of the other Confederate forces, and the War of Secession was at an end. Later Years of Lee. — After his surrender General Lee retired to private life and was soon made president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee Uni- versity) in Virginia. By his practice and by his teaching Confederate Sol- dier IN Uniform 336 ■ THE WAR OF SECESSION he set a standard for the Southern people to follow in their time of defeat. He accepted uncomplainingly the verdict of. the war, and strove with all his power to restore good feeling between the North and the South. On October 12, 1870, Lee died. The whole South mourned the loss of their leader — a soldier with a fearless heart, a man with a noble soul. The world to-day acknowl- edges him to be one of the greatest of commanders and one of the best of men. Later Years of Grant. — A grateful people elected Grant President of the United States. He served two terms, from 1869 to 1877. Of Grant's many lofty traits of character, the greatest were his strict honesty, his love of country, and his generosity to friend and foe alike. For these virtues he was much beloved, and for his magnificent services in the war his memory is honored. Grant died July 23, 1885. It pleased him that he had been permitted to live long enough to see the North and the South coming together again in bonds of friendship. His wish that all bitter feeling caused by the war might pass away, he expressed in words which have become memorable : " Let us have peace." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Why did not the seceding states seize all the forts within their borders? 2. Describe the first event of the war. 3. Describe the first battle of Manassas. 4. What attempt was next made to capture Richmond? 5. Who succeeded General Joseph E. Johnston in com- mand of the Confederate army in Virginia ? 6. What kind of boy was Robert Lee ? 7. Where was he educated ; and what was the first war in which he distinguished himself ? 8. What high office in the Federal army was offered Lee ? 9. Tell how Lee drove QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 337 McClellan and Pope away from Richmond. 10. How did Lee, in 1862, seek to relieve the South? With what success? 11. Describe the battle of Fredericksburg; of Chancellorsville. 12. What loss did the Confederacy sustain at Chancellorsville? t 13. Why did Lee invade Pennsylvania? 14. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. 15. Describe the boyhood and youth of Grant. 16. Where was he educated? What kind of soldier did he make in the Mexican War? 17. Tell about his life between the Mexican War and the breaking out of the War of Secession. 18. What was Grant's first victory? 19. Describe the battle of Shiloh ; the siege of Vicksburg. 20. What other battle did Grant win in the West before going to Virginia ? 21. Who was made commander-in-chief of the Federal armies? 22. Describe the condition of the Federal army in Virginia when Grant took command of it. What was the condition of the Confederate army at that time? 23. What .were Grant's plans? 24. W^hat battles between Grant and Lee followed one another in quick succession? 25. Describe the siege of Petersburg and the capture of Richmond. 26. Why were the Confederates finally overpowered? 27. When and where did Lee surrender? 28. What did he say to his men? 29. How did Grant treat Lee and his men? 30. What is said of General Lee's after life and his character? 31. Describe the character and after life of General Grant. CHAPTER XXV AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Rapid Growth of the United States Population and Production. — Beginning in the latter half of the last century, all the civilized world has made wonderful growth in industry. No country has grown faster than the United States. The population of the United States increased from thirty-one million in i860, to one hundred and five million in 1920. The United States has more factories than any other country.' It stands first in the production of wheat, corn, oats, cotton, and tobacco. It raises more horses, cattle, and hogs than any other country, and produces more coal, iron, silver, copper, and petroleum. How Improved Machinery Has Helped Industry. — That so much progress has been made the world over is due mainly to the widespread use of improved machinery. Formerly machines were made of iron. In 1856 Henry Bessemer, an Englishman, discovered a cheap way of converting iron into steel. As steel is stronger and more durable than iron, better machines can be made of it. When it was found that steel could be so easily produced, men turned more than ever to inventing machines. More inventions have been made since Bessemer's discovery than were made in all the thousands of years before. 338 RAPID GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 339 The manufacturer now uses machinery to make every- thing that comes out of the factory, from the powerful locomotive to the tiny needles and pins. The farmer uses machinery in planting and gathering most of his crops, and the miner uses it in digging the metals and the minerals from the ground and loading them upon the cars. Machinery is used in constructing buildings and roads, and is of assistance in science and even in A Bessemer Converter of Iron into Steel medicine. Indeed, machines are now used for so many purposes that it is impossible to estimate how much time and labor they save. Electricity and Gasoline. — Industrial progress has been greatly aided by the uses to which we have learned to put electricity and gasoline. We make electricity give light and carry sound, and we make it serve as a fuel and as a power for running engines. Gasoline also is used for light, fuel, and power. Since engines driven by gasoline are lighter than those driven 340 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS by steam we use them for many purposes for which steam-engines would not be practicable. The gasoline engine is better for running aeroplanes, automobiles, and farm machinery. Petroleum, from which gasoline is obtained, is found beneath the soil in different parts of the world. It is found in large quantities in the middle- western and the south-western parts of the United States. The North and the Middle West The Growth of Factories. — Before i860 factories were located mainly in the North and East, but since that year many have been built in the Middle West. To-day, the region north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of the Mississippi River contains by far the greater num- ber of all the factories in the United States. In this section the towns that have grown up around the fac- tories are often so close together that a person in travel- ing through them hardly realizes that he is passing from one town to another. Coal, Iron, and Steel. — More coal is found in the states of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Illinois, and more iron is found in the mountain ranges near Lake Superior, than elsewhere in the United States. Because of this Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and Chicago are the leading centers of the steel industry. Agriculture in the North and the Middle West. — It should not be forgotten, however, that although manu- facturing and mining form so large a part of the industrial life in this section, agriculture is still an important in- PEOPLING THE FAR WEST 341 dustry, especially in the western parts of New York and Pennsylvania and in the Middle West. Population and Wealth. — Because the region north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of the Missis- sippi River has made such great industrial progress, it contains the densest population and the most wealth. Peopling the Far West Seeking Gold and Silver. — After the discovery of gold in California in 1849, many thousands of persons rushed to the Pacific coast. A few years later gold was discovered in what is now Colorado and silver in what is now Nevada. Then followed a rush of emigrants to the Rocky Mountain region. Building Railroads to the Pacific. — The vast stretch of country between the Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains was still uninhabited by white men. It had been passed over unnoticed by the eager seekers for gold and silver. It was considered of no value and most of the soil was thought to be so poor that it was called on the maps the " Great American Desert." No railroad extended further westward than the Mis- sissippi Valley. From the westernmost railroad station to the Pacific coast was nearly two thousand miles. Over this great distance stage-coaches carried passengers and mail. The stage-coaches were slow, and for years the people who had gone to the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast regions had clamored for a railroad that would give them quicker communication with the rest of the country. 342 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Since it would be very costly to build a railroad nearly two thousand miles long, the United States government finally consented to aid in its construction. Congress gave to two companies, formed for the purpose of building the road, large sums of money and great tracts of land lying along the proposed route. By selling much of the land the companies secured more money. The Principal Railroads West of the Mississippi in 1884 Building a railroad to the Pacific coast was an immense task, yet three years after work was begun the road was completed (1869). Thus was the continent at last spanned by rails. Later other railroads to the Pacific coast were built with the aid of the United States government. The Ranchman and the Farmer Go West. — The Pacific railroads carried many more people to the Far West. First went the ranchmen who made immense PEOPLING THE FAR WEST 343 fortunes by raising cattle and sheep on the unoccupied government lands. Then farmers of the East, learning that the lands of the Far West are not as infertile as had been thought, sought that distant region. They secured tracts of land from the United States government for almost nothing, as the government sought to attract settlers. Gradually these farmers crowded out the ranchmen. The farmers of the Far West are now raising most of our cattle and sheep and most of our wheat. California is the greatest fruit-growing state of the Union. The Immense Size of Western Farms. — Many of the farms of the Far West upon which wheat is grown contain thousands upon thousands of acres. It is possible to cultivate these immense farms with few laborers because both the planting and the gathering of the crop are done by machinery. On account of the large farms much of the Far West is thinly settled. At points that are centers of trade, however, flourishing cities have sprung up. How Dry Lands Are Fitted for Agriculture. — In some parts of the Far West the land becomes very dry because there is httle rain. To remedy this the United States government has spent large sums in building huge dams across rivers and lakes to retain the water in great reser- voirs. From these reservoirs canals carry the water over the land. The farmer of the Far West is thus more for- tunate than the farmer further east who depends on rainfall, for the western farmer may have his land dry or moist as he pleases. 344 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Building a "New South'' The South Prostrate after the War. — The South was left in a deplorable condition by the War of Secession. Her plantations were laid waste and her slave labor was gone ; her railroads were torn up and many of her cities and towns were burned. Numbers of her people who had formerly been well-to-do were reduced to direst poverty. Reconstruction. — An unwise policy pursued toward the South by Congress, after the war, added to her troubles. The plan for bringing the seceded states back to their former place in the Union was called '' Recon- struction " of the South. In formulating this plan Congress passed a law that gave to the negro men of the South the right to vote and at the same time prevented many white men who had served the Confederacy from voting. The result of this law was to turn over to the negroes the state governments of the South. " Carpet-bag " Governments. — As the negroes were ignorant and only recently freed from slavery, they did not know how to govern. Dishonest white men hurried down from the North and became their leaders. As a rule, these men were worth so little in their homes in the North that, it was said, they brought South with them all they owned in carpet-bags — a kind of valise used in those days. Hence they were -all called '^ carpet-baggers " by the white people of the South. The " carpet-baggers " and negroes levied very heavy taxes upon the white people already made poor by the war. Yet the state governments became deeply in debt, BUILDING A "NEW SOUTH" 345 for when the money raised by the high taxes reached the pubHc treasury the officials stole it. Many an unfortunate Southerner had to give up his land and other property because he could not pay the high taxes. Prosperity Returns to the South. — Gradually, how- ever, as the white men of the South had the right to vote given back to them they regained control of their state governments. By 1 87 7 every Southern State had thrown off the '' carpet-bag " and negro rule. With the white people once more in control the South immediately began to prosper. The industrial progress that had already come to other sections of the country now came to the South. Changed Conditions in Agriculture. — As a result of the War of Secession, the agricultural conditions in the South have changed very much. With slavery aboHshed it is impossible for Southerners to secure sufficient labor to cultivate their large plantations ; consequently, they rent much of their lands to the poorer whites and negroes. In many cases these tenants have become landowners by buying the land they rented. The doing away with slave labor has also brought about a change in the crops raised in the South. Before the War of Secession the Southerners had planted, in addi- Carpet-Baggers Permission of Dr. Walter L. Fleming. 346 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS tion to cotton, considerable tobacco, rice, and sugar cane. Since the war they have very greatly increased the crops of tobacco, rice, and sugar cane, besides planting much corn and wheat, fruits and vegetables. The South still produces most of the cotton of the world. Other Industries of the South. — In the Carolinas where water power is abundant for generating electricity to run machinery, many factories have been built for weaving cotton into cloth. Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and Alabama produce much coal. Alabama is rich in iron. Birmingham, Alabama, has become a cen- ter for the iron and steel industry. Formerly all the petro- leum produced in this country was obtained from the Middle West, but in recent years large quantities of this oil have been found in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. The "New South." — Indeed, so great has been the change in industrial conditions in the South that the section is now spoken of as the " New South " to dis- tinguish it from the South as it was before the War of Secession. Thomas A. Edison, ''The American Magician" Our Country Leads in Inventions. — We have already learned that the people of the United States have shown a more wonderful genius for invention than those of any other country. It will be interesting to learn about some of our recent inventors. Among these inventors Thomas A. Edison stands first. Edison's Boyhood. — Thomas Alva Edison was born in 1847 ill a small town in Ohio, and is the son of a very THOMAS A. EDISON 347 poor man who did whatever work he could get in the village or on neighboring farms. Edison went to school only two months in his life, but he learned a good deal from his mother, who had a good education. Even as a child he was very fond of books, and from early boyhood he showed a liking for chemistry. Edison as a Newsboy. — When he was twelve years old, Edison secured a position as newsboy on a railroad in Michigan. Since his wages were small, he undertook to print and sell a newspaper of his own, and for this purpose he secured from a newspaper ofhce a lot of old, worn type. As the road upon which he was working was the Grand Trunk Railway, he called his paper The Grand Trunk Herald. It contained only news of the movement of trains and personal items about the employees of the road. Yet the paper was eagerly bought every week by railroad men, because it pleased them to see in print news about themselves, their friends, and their road. Studying Chemistry. — Though he was kept busy selling papers, magazines, and fruit to passengers, and printing The Herald, Edison did not give up the study of chemistry. In a corner of a baggage car he fitted up a little laboratory where he made experiments. On one occasion a bottle containing a chemical was spilled and the car was set ablaze. The baggage master was so angry when he learned the cause of the fire that he threw out of the car all the materials that Edison had been at such pains to collect, and gave the boy a sound beating. Becomes an Expert Telegraph Operator. — While a newsboy Edison saw what great service the telegraph is 348 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS in the running of trains, and he became ambitious to learn telegraphy. But he was too poor to stop his work to take up a regular course of study. At last good for- tune came to him as a reward for an act of bravery. One day, at the risk of his own life, Edison snatched a little child from the railroad track just in time to save it from being crushed under the wheels of a train. The father of the child was a telegraph operator and, wishing to reward the boy for his heroism, offered to teach him telegraphy. Edison gladly accepted the offer. For three years, while continuing his other work, Edison studied telegraphy, and at eighteen years of age he was given his first position as telegraph operator. In a short time he became one of the most expert operators in the country. Edison's First Inventions. — Edison invented several devices for the improvement of the telegraph system, and these soon brought him enough money to enable him to give up the position of operator and devote his whole time to inventing. Edison's Best Known Inventions. — Edison's experi- ments have been mainly in electricity. The best known of his inventions are the incandescent electric light, the phonograph, and the kinetoscope. The incandescent electric light was invented in 1880 and is probably Edi- son's greatest gift to the world. The phonograph repro- duces human speech ; and the kinetoscope, by a process of rapid photographing, makes motion pictures. The Secret of Edison's Success. — It has been well said that the secret of Edison's success is ^' persistency, THOMAS A. EDISON 349 more persistency, still more persistency," for he is a tireless worker. On one occasion some flaw in one of his in- ventions kept it from working satisfactorily, so Edison locked himself in his shop, declaring that he would not Thomas A. Edison in His Library come out until he had discovered the trouble. For two days and a half he stayed in the shop, and when he reappeared he had not only found the trouble, but had remedied it. During all that time his only food was crackers and cheese, which he ate while working at his bench. The Genius of the Great Inventor. — Edison is the greatest inventor of the age. From the United States government alone he has secured more than seven hundred 350 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS patents. On account of the number of his inventions, Edison is often called, '' The American Magician." Alexander Graham Bell and the Telephone Early Life of Bell. — Alexander Graham Bell was born in the same year as Edison. He is not a native of America, Part of a Telephone Exchange however, but of Scotland. He came to this country when he was twenty-four years old and settled in Boston. Bell devoted most of his early life to teaching deaf mutes. How Bell Came to Invent the Telephone. — While experimenting with electricity in the hope of finding a way to relieve the unfortunate condition of deaf mutes, Bell discovered that by means of electricity sound could THE WRIGHT BROTHERS 351 be reproduced at the end of a wire. With a cigar box and two Httle magnets, such as children use in playing with toy fish, he carried the sound of music along a wire from the cellar of his schoolhouse to the fourth floor. First Exhibition of the Telephone. — Such was the beginning of the telephone. Bell improved his apparatus and exhibited it at an exposition held in Philadelphia in 1876. Though the invention was yet very imperfect, it was even then recognized as one that could become of great benefit to mankind. The Telephone as It Is To-day. — The telephone has since been so improved that persons can now talk through it to each other when thousands of miles apart. The Wright Brothers Invent the Aeroplane The Balloon Called the Dirigible. — For hundreds of years we have had the balloon, a bag which, when filled with gas or hot air, flies through the air. The bal- loon, when large enough, carries passengers in a basket suspended from it. The balloon, however, could go only in the direction in which the wind was blowing. It was therefore of little use. Toward the end of the last century, a propeller driven by a small engine was attached to the balloon and by this means it could be guided in any direction. A balloon that may be guided thus is called a '^ dirigible," meaning '' may be directed or steered." The Dirigible Not Fast Enough. — The dirigible moves through the air very fast, even faster than the steamboat plies the ocean, but people were not satisfied. They 352 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS wished a machine that would fly faster — fly through the air like a bird. Wilbur and Orville Wright. — Many experiments to make such a machine failed. The feat was at last ac- complished by the brothers, Wilbur and Orville Wright. Wilbur Wright was born in Indiana in 1867 and Orville in Ohio in 1871. From boyhood both had been fond of mechanics and later became much interested in the prob- lem of air navigation. While conducting a bicycle shop in Dayton, Ohio, the brothers experimented on a flying machine until they invented the aeroplane. The Invention of the Aeroplane. — The aeroplane is a machine that is heavier than air and is forced through the air by a propeller driven by an engine. Some ma- chines have across the body one plane ; others have two. The planes correspond somewhat to the wings of the bird. A machine with one plane is called a monoplane, and a machine with two planes is called a biplane. The aero- plane invented by the Wright brothers is the biplane. Successful Tests of the Aeroplane. — When their aeroplane was completed the Wright brothers took it to Kitty Hawk on the coast of North Carolina in 1903 to try it out. In their first attempt to use the machine it flew for a mile in a straight line. The test showed that the brothers had nearly solved the problem. They con- tinued to work on the machine until they had adjusted its mechanism so that they could guide it as they pleased. Then their success was complete. The Wright Brothers Honored. — Many honors were bestowed upon the Wright brothers both in the United THE WRIGHT BROTHERS 353 States and Europe on account of their wonderful inven- tion. Wilbur Wright died in 191 2. Orville Wright is now living in Dayton, Ohio. The Aeroplane in War. — The aeroplane, in the few years that have elapsed since the Wrights invented it, has been much improved. It now flies at high speed, often covering 120 miles per hour. In the great World War, about which we shall learn later, the aeroplane proved of very great value. It was used by all armies ELEVATING PLANES UPPER SUPPORTING PLAN^ SPROCKET WHEELS AND CHAINS -PRO'PELLERS.. RUNNERS LEVER FOR TURNING RUDDER LEVER FOR ELEVATING PLANES LOWER SUPPORTING PLANE FLEXIBLE END The Original Wright Biplane The first successful flying machine. to watch the enemy's movements and to drop bombs upon the enemy's position. The Aeroplane in Peace. — The aeroplane promises to be of even greater value in peace. Already the United States government uses it to some extent for carrying mails and individuals use it for pleasure trips. In 19 19, Captain John Alcock, a British ofhcer, and Lieutenant Arthur W. Brown, an American ofhcer, flew in an aero- plane over the Atlantic Ocean, from Newfoundland to Ireland, in 16 hours and 12 minutes. 354 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS John Philip Holland Invents the Submarine A School Teacher Becomes an Inventor. — John Philip Holland was born in Ireland in 1844. For fifteen years he was a school teacher, first in Ireland, and then in the United States. The school in which he taught, in this country, was located in Paterson, New Jersey. While engaged in teaching Holland gave much thought to the invention of a submarine, a boat that can be navi- gated under the surface of the water. Many men before him had tried to make such a boat and failed. In 1898, after meeting with several failures, Holland built a sub- marine that was a success. The invention profited him nothing, however, for he died in 19 14 in poverty. Holland's Invention. — The submarine is a small tube- shaped vessel. While the boat is submerged, the crew breathe air that has been pumped into tanks. They see what is going on above the surface of the water by looking through a periscope — a tube extending above the water and having in it mirrors and lenses. Uses of the Submarine. — As yet the submarine has been used mainly in warfare. Gliding unseen under the water it may sink an enemy's vessel with a torpedo. We shall learn later how the illegal use of the submarine by Germany aided in drawing the United States into the World War. It is believed that the submarine will in the future be of much service in times of peace. That it can make long voyages was proved in 1916, before the United States entered the World War, when a German submarine OTHER IMPORTANT INVENTIONS 355 slipped through the British and French fleets blockad- ing the German coast, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and appeared in Baltimore harbor on a friendly visit. Other Important Inventions Wireless Telegraphy. — Among the most important of the foreign inventions of recent years is wireless teleg- raphy. In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian, invented an instrument for sending messages by electricity without the use of wires. Within two years the instrument was so improved that messages were sent across the English Channel, and very soon afterward ships at sea began using wireless telegraphy. Many persons have been saved from death by shipwreck through wireless messages bringing them timely aid. In 1 90 1 Marconi sent messages by wireless telegraphy across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1920 a wireless message sent out from Paris went round the world and returned to the station in Paris from which it started. The Automobile. — Another recent invention of foreign origin is the automobile. For a hundred years men in various countries of Europe had been experimenting on vehicles which would run on the ground with the use of steam. These vehicles were commonly called " horseless carriages." They did not prove successful, yet from them grew the automobile. The first automobile that was used with success was invented in Europe in 1886. The automobile is now run by gasoline or electricity. 356 AN ERA OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What country has made the greatest industrial progress ? 2. Tell of the growth of the population of the United States from i860 to 1920, and mention some of the ways in which this country leads all others industrially. 3. Tell the story of the making of steel and state why steel is better than iron as a material for machinery. 4. Show how improved machinery has helped industry. 5. Explain the uses of electricity and gasoline. 6. Discuss the growth of factories in the North and the Middle West. 7. Describe the mining and agricultural industries of this section. 8. What section has the largest population and the greatest wealth? Why? 9. Relate the story of the building of the Pacific railroads. 10. What class of people first followed the gold and silver seekers to the Far West ? What class went next? 11. Where is most of our wheat grown? Our fruit? 12. Describe the farms of the Far West. 13. Tell how dry lands in the Far West are made moist. 14. In what condition was the South left after the War of Secession? 15. Describe the Reconstruction of the South. 16. Relate the man- ner in which industrial conditions of the South have changed. 17, Why is the South of to-day called "The New South"? 18. Tell about the boyhood of Edison. 19. What are the best known of Edison's inventions ? 20. What is the secret of his success? 21. Who is Alexander Graham Bell? 22. How did he come to invent the telephone? 23. Describe the telephone of to-day. 24. What is a dirigible ? 25. Relate the story of the Wright brothers and tell how they invented the aeroplane. 26. To what uses has the aeroplane been put? 27. Who was John Philip Holland? 28. De- scribe his submarine and tell what use has been made of it. 29. Give the story of the invention of wireless telegraphy. 30. Tell about the invention of the automobile. \ CHAPTER XXVI HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER The Cruel Treatment of Cuba Spanish Misrule. — Cuba, the largest island of the West Indies, lies only about a hundred miles south of the United States. Columbus, it will be recalled, dis- covered Cuba, in 1492, on his first voyage to America. On account of his discovery the island became a Spanish colony. Spain did not govern Cuba justly. The beautiful island, fertile in soil and rich in tropical growth, should have become one of the fairest places on earth, but the Spanish policy made this impossible. It was a selfish policy de- signed, not for the good of Cuba, but for the enrichment of Spain. Most of the officials were Spaniards who cared little for the welfare of the island, and most of the taxes collected were spent in Spain. The Cubans could not remedy matters because they were allowed to take very little part in the government. Cubans in Revolution. — Many times the Cubans rebelled in the hope of freeing themselves from Spanish rule, but Spain succeeded in putting down ^ach uprising. In 1895 the Cubans again revolted. This time the insurrection spread to so great an extent that Spain found it necessary to send a large army to Cuba. 357 358 HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER The Cubans were too weak to meet the Spanish army in battle ; so they carried on a partisan warfare as the people of the South had done in our Revolutionary War. Gathering in small bands, they would attack detachments of the Spanish army and then disappear into the hills. In this manner the war dragged on. Though the Cubans could not drive the Spaniards from the island, the Span- iards could not subdue the Cubans. At length the Spaniards saw that they could not conquer by regular warfare, and adopted very cruel measures toward the inhabitants. Sympathy of America for Cuba. — From the very first the Americans had sympathized with the Cubans in their struggle for freedom. As the war progressed and the cruelty of the Spaniards increased, the sympathy of the Americans grew to indignation, and there was a strong feeling that our government should help Cuba. Now, for the United States to help the Cubans would mean war between the United States and Spain, and our gov- ernment wished to avoid war, if possible. It therefore tried to persuade Spain to give up her rule over the island. But the effort failed. The Blowing Up of the Maine. — Then came a tragedy that stirred all America. One night early in the year 1898 the battleship Maine, which the United States had sent to Havana, Cuba, on a friendly visit, was blown up and many of its crew were killed. It has never become known what caused the explosion, but the common be- lief among Americans at the time was that Spaniards had blown up the ship. Instantly, " Remember the Maine '^ WAR WITH SPAIN 359 was heard all over our country, and the people demanded that our government use force to drive Spain from Cuba. War Declared. — William McKinley was then Presi- dent of the United States. He was a safe leader, for he was always careful never to act hurriedly. In spite of the demand that force be used. President McKinley kept on trying to persuade Spain to give up Cuba peaceably. U. S. Battleship "Maine" Spain still refused ; and conditions in Cuba grew so much worse that, finally, the President asked Congress to give him power to stop the war in Cuba and set up for the Cubans a free and independent government. Congress promptly agreed, directing the President to use the army and navy to drive the Spaniards from the island. There- upon (1898), war was declared between Spain and the United States. War with Spain Raising an Army. — The President called for volunteers for the army, and from all parts of the country came a hearty response. There seemed no longer any '' North 360 HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER and South." Men who had been officers in the Confed- erate army were appointed to high positions in the United States army, and sons of men who had fought against each other in the War of Secession stood shoulder to shoulder, ready to obey the call of their common country. Manila. — When war was declared Commodore George Dewey was commanding an American squadron in the China Sea. He was ordered to capture or destroy a Spanish fleet in the Philippine Islands in the Pacific Ocean. These islands which Magellan had discovered for Spain nearly three hundred years before still belonged to that country. Dewey was prompt to obey. Early in a morning of May, 1898, he ran his fleet into the harbor* of Manila, the capital of the Philippines, where the Spanish warships lay at anchor just outside the forts of the city. Cannon belching forth shells from ships and forts could not stop the advance of the American fleet which withheld its fire until it got within close range. After a fight of only a few hours, the Spanish fleet was entirely destroyed. The loss of life among the enemy was severe. The fire from the Spanish ships and forts was poorly directed and not an American was killed ; nor was an American vessel much damaged. The victory was one of the most complete in naval annals. Santiago. — A few weeks after the victory at Manila, an American army commanded by General Wflliam R. Shafter landed in Cuba for the purpose of capturing the town of Santiago. The Americans charged the Spaniards and captured their outer line of defenses. On the next WAR WITH SPAIN 361 day the Spaniards tried to retake the lost ground, but the Americans drove them back. On the third day, foreseeing that the town could not hold out, and not wishing to be captured, a Spanish fleet, which was then in the harbor of Santiago, made a sudden dash for the open sea. An American fleet was on the outside blockading the harbor, and it was the desperate hope of the Spaniards that some of their ships might escape by breaking through the blockade. Commodore W. S. Schley, of the American fleet, gave the signal for attack as soon as he sighted the Spanish fleet. Chase was immedi- ately given to the fleeing ships, the Americans firing as they pursued, and in a very short time every Spanish vessel was destroyed. A number of Spaniards were killed or wounded and the others were taken prisoners. Only one life was lost on the American side. Two weeks later the Spanish army, unable longer to hold Santiago, surrendered the town and a large part of eastern Cuba. Treaty of Peace. — The Spaniards were at last willing to sue for peace, and in December, 1898, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris. By this treaty Spain acknowledged the independence of Cuba, and ceded to the United States (i) Porto Rico and other islands of the West Indies belonging to Spain ; (2) Guam, one of the Ladrone WiNFiELD Scott Schley 362 HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER Islands in the Pacific Ocean; and (3) the Philippine Islands. The United States agreed to pay Spain twenty million dollars for the Philippines. Our Colonial Possessions Porto Rico, The Philippines, and Guam. — Except in the case of Alaska, which our government purchased from Russia in 1867, the United States had heretofore acquired only territory that adjoined our country and that could soon be made into states of the Union. The War with Spain resulted in changing this policy, for, as we have seen, the United Sta-tes, by the treaty of peace, acquired lands separated from it by wide seas. Porto Rico is one of the larger of the islands of the West Indies. It is nearer to the United States than any of the other possessions obtained from Spain, lying about one thousand miles southeast of Key West, Florida. White people are in the majority on the island, though there are many negroes. The principal products are sugar, coffee, tobacco, and maize. The Philippine Islands are fifteen hundred or more in number, and most of them are small. They are situ- ated in the Pacific Ocean, nearer to Asia than to America, for they are distant six thousand miles from San Fran- cisco. Most of the population is of the Malay race, though, since we bought the islands from Spain, many Americans have moved to them. Manila is the capital and chief city. In the Philippines the chief products are hernp, rice, corn, sugar, tobacco, and cocoanuts. Guam is the largest of the Ladrone or Madrianne OUR COLONIAL POSSESSIONS 363 Islands, an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean. It is five thousand miles distant from San Francisco. Its popula- tion is also mostly of the Malay type and its products are very much the same as those of the Philippines. When Spain ceded Guam to the United States she sold the other islands of the Ladrone archipelago to Germany. Hawaiian, Wake, and Samoan Islands. — While the War with Spain was yet in progress, the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, at the request of the government of those islands. The Hawaiian Islands are twelve in number, and are situated nearly three thousand miles from San Francisco. Besides the native Hawaiians there are on the islands many Chinese and Japanese. The white population is increasing. Honolulu is the capital and chief city. Sugar is the staple crop, though rice and bananas are grown in considerable quantities. In the year following the War with Spain (1899) the United States took possession of Wake Island, in the Pacific, and acquired six of the Samoan Islands, also in the Pacific. Wake Island is very small and is unin- habited. The Samoan Islands lie in an almost direct line between San Francisco and Australia. The inhabit- ants are Malays, and the chief products are copra, cotton, and coffee. The United States acquired six of these islands through an agreement with Great Britain and Germany. The Virgin Islands. — Nineteen years after the War with Spain (191 7) the United States purchased from 364 HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER Denmark, the Virgin Islands, or the Danish West Indies, three small islands east of Porto Rico. The price paid was twenty-five million dollars. The population of the Virgin Islands is mostly negro and the principal products are sugar, indigo, cotton, nuts, and salt. The Result of Holding Colonies. — As long as the United States held territory only on the American con- tinent it was cut off to a considerable degree from the af- fairs of the rest of the world. The colonies it has acquired are close to the lands of other nations and whatever affects the interests of those nations is now more apt to affect the interests of this country. The- United States has, since the War with Spain, been compelled to take a greater part than it did before in settling inter- national affairs, and each year its influence in such matters has increased. In this way the United States has be- come a world power. Cutting the Panama Canal The Canal Advocated for Many Years. — It will be remembered that more than four hundred years ago, Balboa, when exploring the Isthmus of Panama, sug- gested to the Spanish government that a canal be cut across the Isthmus to connect the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the waters of the Pacific Ocean. Magellan's voyage around the world a few years later showed the great length of the route from the Atlantic to the Pacific by way of Cape Horn, at the end of South America. Through the centuries that followed people never lost sight of the advantage that would come from shortening CUTTING THE PANAMA CANAL 365 the distance by cutting a canal across the narrow strip of land at Panama. Colombia Tries to Block the Canal. — The United States finally decided to dig the canal. In 1903 a treaty was made by the United States with representatives of the Republic of Colombia, of which Panama was then a state. By the terms of this treaty Colombia was to receive ten million dollars and an annual rental, in re- turn for which the United States was to be allowed to Route of the Panama Canal construct, own, and control the canal. To the surprise and disappointment of everybody in the United States the Congress of Colombia rejected the treaty because it did not think the amount to be paid Colombia was suffi- ciently large. Panama to the Rescue. — The people of Panama were most desirous of having the canal, and they decided to take the matter in their owti hands. They declared Panama an independent republic. Theodore Roosevelt, then President of the United States, was enthusiastic in promoting the canal, and promptly made a treaty 366 HOW WE BECAME A WORLD POWER with the new repubhc. By this treaty the United States gave to Panama, for the privilege of cutting the canal, practically the same terms as had been offered to Co- lombia. The Canal Completed. — President Roosevelt immedi- ately took steps to start work on the canal. Work was begun in 1904. The cutting of the Panama Canal was one of the most gigantic projects ever undertaken. Ten years were required to complete it, and the cost was more than three hundred million dollars. The value of the canal, in saving the many thousands of miles around South America, is so great that there is no way to calcu- late it. All the world is benefited for the ships of every nation are allowed to use the canal. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Describe Spanish rule in Cuba. 2. Describe the revolution of 1895 in Cuba. 3. Tell of the blowing up of the Maine. 4. Why- was war declared between the United States and Spain? 5. How did the people respond to the call for troops ? 6. Describe the battle of Manila. 7. Describe the land and naval battles of Santiago. 8. What were the terms of the treaty of peace? 9. What change of policy on the part of the United States took place following the War with Spain ? 10. Give a description of Porto Rico ; of the Philippines; of Guam. ii. How did we get, the Hawaiian Islands? Wake Island? The Samoan Islands? 12. Give a de- scription of each of these possessions. 13. Tell how we secured the Virgin Islands, and give a description of them. 14. Why is the United States now a world power ? 15. What plan had long been considered for shortening the voyage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans? 16. Give the story of how the republic of Colombia tried to block the Panama Canal. 17. Tell how the republic of Panama came to the rescue. 18. Describe the Panama Canal and tell how it benefits the world. CHAPTER XXVII AMERICAN WOMEN Woman's Part in Our History America's First Mothers. — In 1619, while the Virginia colony was still struggling for existence, ninety young women from England landed at Jamestown. They had been carefully selected by the London Company, which then owned the colony, and sent over to become, if they chose, wives of Virginia settlers. These worthy young women were the first mothers of our country. When the Pilgrims approached the Massachusetts coast in 1620 the first person to step from the Mayflower was a girl, Mary Chilton. Eighteen other women were in the little band of Pilgrims that had left comfortable homes in the Old World and sought a strange land that they might worship God in their own way. Thus from the first women have played an important part in the up- building of America. The Pioneer Women. — The pioneer women of America had hard enough work making comfortable homes of log cabins in the wilderness, yet they did much more, for they shared the hardships and dangers of the pioneer men. They planted and gathered crops and often, when the men were away, protected the home from attacks of the Indians. 367 368 AMERICAN WOMEN As the frontier moved westward the same hardships and dangers were met ; yet side by side with the frontiers- men went the frontier women. Westward, ever west- ward, the heroic women went until the Pacific coast was reached and there was no more frontier. Women in the Revolution. — In times of the country's sorest need women have proved devoted patriots. In the Revolutionary War women raised crops and made clothing and bandages for the army ; they molded their pewter utensils into bullets, and in many other ways helped the patriot cause. In the War of Secession. — In the War of Secession women of the North and women of the South responded to the call of duty. From both sections many served as nurses in the army hospitals. In the North the women raised nearly five million dollars to provide clothing, food, and medicines for the Federal soldiers, and to keep the camps and hospitals in sanitary condition. For want of means the Southern women had a much harder task in aiding the Confederate soldiers. As the South became more and more reduced, the women ran- sacked their homes, and everything that they thought might add to the comfort of the men in the field they cheerfully gave. The women of the South patiently suffered many sorrows and the severest hardships. They did everything they could to keep the Confederacy alive. The heroism of Southern women in those dark days has never been surpassed. In the World War. — When the United States entered the World War, many thousands of American women WOMAN'S PART IN OUR HISTORY 369 volunteered for service in Europe. In connection with the Red Cross, the Salvation Army, the Young Men's Christian Association, and the Young Women's Christian Association, they nursed the wounded and the sick, and, by looking after the comfort and entertainment of the men, they relieved the monotony of camp life and lessened the horrors of war. In every city and town in America, the women who re- mained at home organized chapters of the Red Cross for making bandages and garments, and they assisted the government in raising money to carry on the war by selling bonds and thrift stamps. The Women's Movement. — The part that women have taken in public affairs, in time of peace, has been to bring about reforms. About a hundred years ago leaders among women began a crusade — the '' women's move- ment " it is commonly called — against injustices and wrongs, especially those concerning women and children and the home. For a long time the movement made little progress, for it had to contend against much preju- dice. Few persons then beheved that women should take part in public affairs. For a woman to speak in pubUc was thought improper, and those who were the first to do so were criticized and ridiculed. Yet, they kept on, and their ranks gradually increased. By speak- ing in all parts of the country and to all kinds of gatherings and by writing for newspapers and magazines, women so aroused public sentiment that they have been able to bring about a number of reforms. Some of these reforms we shall now learn about. 370 AMERICAN WOMEN Better Opportunities for Women. — The efforts of wo- men reformers were firsl directed toward better educa- tion for their sex. Formerly it was thought that if a woman could read, write, and cipher, she had as much education as she needed. Consequently there were no colleges for women. The reformers protested against this unjust attitude toward woman's place in life. They urged that education helps the woman who stays at home, for the more knowledge she has the better wife and mother she makes ; and it helps the woman who has to go out into the world to work, for it enables her to work more efficiently. Their argument was so convincing that many colleges for women have been established, and most of those es- tablished for men are now also open to women. Because women are receiving better education, they are now occu- pying places in business and the professions that it was once thought only men could fill. Other Reforms. — The women have succeeded in hav- ing laws passed giving married women many legal rights that were formerly denied them, and laws for safeguarding the health of women and children while at w^ork. They have caused better pay to be given working women and they have improved conditions in asylums and prisons. Women and Temperance. — Formerly intoxicating liquors were sold to any one who wished to buy them, and excessive drinking caused much poverty and distress. Largely through the efforts of women, the liquor traffic is now prohibited by law. Women and the Ballot. — Formerly women were not allowed to vote. Soon after the women's movement HANNAH DUSTIN 371 began, some of the leaders became convinced that women could accomplish more if they shared with men the con- duct of the government, and they demanded that women be given the right to vote — a right that carried with it the right to hold office. Only after years of agitation, and after the reforms that have been mentioned were brought about, were women given the ballot. Hannah Dustin and Eliza Lucas, Colonial Heroines Hannah Dustin Captured by the Indians. — Now that we know of some of the things that women have ac- complished, let us learn about a few of America's famous women. In one of the wars between the English and the French in America, in colonial times, Indians who sided with the French attacked the town of Haverhill, Massachusetts. Bursting into a house where Mrs. Hannah Dustin lay ill in bed, they killed her infant and carried Mrs. Dustin and her nurse away as captives. The two women, Mrs. Dustin half-clad and barefooted, were forced to trudge through the snow, one hundred and fifty miles into the forest, to an island in the Merrimac River, near the pres- ent town of Concord, New Hampshire, where the chief was making his camp. There the women met a white boy who had been captured some time before. The Escape. — The chief told the women that they would be taken farther into the forest and subjected to torture. Mrs. Dustin resolved to make her escape. Upon her suggestion the boy prisoner learned from an 372 AMERICAN WOMEN Indian how to kill with one blow of the tomahawk. In the dead of night, when the Indians were sleeping soundly, Mrs. D us tin awakened her companions. She and the boy each quietly secured from a sleeping Indian a toma- hawk, and together they slew every warrior, ten in all. Only a squaw and a young Indian escaped into the woods. Hurrying down to the river bank, Mrs. Dustin and her companions got into a canoe and swiftly paddled down- stream to safety. There was much rejoicing when the two women returned to Haverhill, for they had been given up for lost. How Eliza Lucas Managed Three Plantations. — It must not be thought that all colonial life was full of Indian fighting. As the colonies became more thickly settled, dangers lessened. The following story of Eliza Lucas will show how a young colonial girl managed her father^s business. In 1738 George Lucas, an Englishman, came to South Carolina. He soon secured considerable property. Later the British government appointed him governor of one of the islands of the West Indies. As his wife's health prevented her living in a tropical country, Mr. Lucas left his family in South Carolina. Upon his seventeen- year-old daughter, Eliza, fell the burden of taking care of the plantations, besides nursing the sick mother. Such responsibility would be too great for many girls of her age, but Eliza Lucas accepted it uncomplainingly, and she performed her duties well. In one of her letters, which is still in existence, Eliza shows what a busy young woman she was. She wrote : ELIZA LUCAS 373 "We are seventeen miles from Charleston by land and six by water. There are six agreeable families around us, with whom we Hve in great harmony. I have a library, for my papa left me most of his books. My music and the garden take up the spare time that is not given to books. I have the business of three planta- tions to transact, which requires more writing and fatigue than you can imagine ; but by rising early I find that I can get through my business." A Girl First Plants Indigo. — Mr. Lucas sent from the West Indies, to his industrious daughter, seeds of the indigo plant. In those days the plant was very valuable for making dyes. The process of extracting the coloring matter from the plant is extremely difficult, but after many attempts to extract it properly Miss Lucas succeeded. Other planters follovi^ed Miss Lucas's example, and the production of indigo became one of the chief industries of the colony. It continued to be very generally planted in South Caro- lina until after the Revolutionary War, when the growing of cotton took its place. Silk Raising. — Miss Lucas was also successful in silk raising. In after years when, as the wife of Judge Charles Pinckney, she was presented to the king and queen of England, she wore a dress made from silk of her own raising. The dress is now in the possession of her descendants in Charleston. Indigo Plant 374 AMERICAN WOMEN Molly Pitcher, Elizabeth Zane, and Nancy Hart, Heroines of the Revolution Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth. — In the time of the Revolutionary War, women sometimes ac- companied an army to look after the comfort of their husbands. One of these women was Moll McCauley, Molly Pitcher at the Gun whose husband was an artilleryman in the American army. Because she would carry water to the soldiers, even while a battle was raging, they began to call her " Moll o' the Pitcher." This nickname became " Molly Pitcher," and as ^^ Molly Pitcher" the heroine is known in history. At the battle of Monmouth, while carrying water from a spring to her husband, who was loading a cannon, she saw him fall wounded. Dropping her pitcher, she rushed forward, first to attend to her husband's wound ; and MOLLY PITCHER AND ELIZABETH ZANE 375 then, taking his place, she loaded the cannon during the rest of the battle. The next day General Washington thanked Molly for her bravery. Later the Continental Congress gave her a sergeant's commission and half pay for life. Ever afterward the soldiers affectionately called her " Captain Molly." Elizabeth Zane Saves a Village. — While the Revolu- tionary War was in progress, the Americans held Fort Henry on the site of the present city of Wheeling, West Virginia, and around the fort had grown up a small village. Indians of the Northwest, incited by the British, attacked the fort. The settlers on hearing of their approach had hastened to the fort for protection. After desperate fighting the garrison drove the Indians back to the woods. Everybody knew, however, that they would again attack. The people in the fort were in dire straits, for the ammunition had given out. When it was remembered that a keg of powder had been left by mistake in a house in the village, every man in the garrison volun- teered to go for the powder, but the commander refused each offer since it meant almost certain death to the per- son who made the venture, and the men were so few that the loss of one would be a very serious matter. A Race for a Keg of Powder. — Then a young woman, Elizabeth Zane, asked permission to go for the powder. The men remonstrated, saying that she was a mere slip of a girl. Elizabeth replied that because she was a slip of a girl she should be allowed to go, for her death would not be so great a loss to the defenders of the fort as the death of one of the men would be. 376 AMERICAN WOMEN Consent was finally given, and when the gate of the fort was opened the brave young woman dashed across the sixty yards of open space to the house where the powder had been left. Placing the keg under her arm she dashed back again. The Indians fired shot after shot at her, but she gained the gate of the fort and passed in unhurt. The battle was renewed, and the Indians were finally driven away. Elizabeth Zane had saved the lives of the garrison and the people of the village. Nancy Hart Captures Six Tories. — Nancy Hart lived in Georgia during the Revolutionary War. She and her husband were ardent patriots. One day, when her hus- band was absent, six Tories appeared at the house and demanded that Nancy cook a dinner for them. Nancy, pretending that she was glad to do so, set about cooking a most savory meal. When it was ready, the Tories stacked their guns and took seats at the table. With lightning-like quickness Nancy seized one of the guns and, aiming it at the Tories, vowed that she would kill the first one that stirred. Then she said to her daughter, " Go tell the Whigs I have taken six base Tories." Nancy was cross-eyed, and it is said that each Tory thought that she was aiming at him. Consequently, each was afraid to be the first to make a move. Nancy's captives were carried off by Whigs who came to her assistance. Nancy Hart performed many other deeds of bravery during the Revolutionary War. She was held in such high esteem by her neighbors that they named a county in Georgia for her. ELIZABETH CADY STANTON 377 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Champions or Woman Suffrage Two Life-Long Co-workers. — The names of two women, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, stand out above all others in the history of the early struggle of women for the right to vote. They made the advancement of woman suffrage their life work and to them is mainly due the success of the movement. Mrs. Stanton Calls First Women's Convention. — Eliza- beth Cady was born in Jamestown, New York, in 1815. At the age of twenty-five she married Henry B. Stanton. Early in life Mrs. Stanton became interested in securing for women equal opportunities with men. Becoming convinced that her sex could not get their rights except by having the ballot, she joined with three other women in calling a convention of women. The convention — the first woman's rights convention held in America — met in Mrs. Stanton's home in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. It organized the National Woman Suffrage Asso- ciation, of which Mrs. Stanton was made first president ; and it adopted a '' declaration of rights " of woman. Prominent among the " declaration of rights " was the right of a woman to vote. Mrs. Stanton Campaigns for Woman Suffrage. — The women's convention and its '' declaration of rights " were much ridiculed by the newspapers and were even de- nounced by the preachers. Ridicule and opposition could not stop Mrs. Stanton and the zealous women working with her. 378 AMERICAN WOMEN Mrs. Stanton spoke in favor of woman suffrage before many state legislatures, state constitutional conventions, and committees of Congress. She delivered addresses all over the country and canvassed states in campaigns where the question of woman suffrage was put before the voters. In addition, she wrote many newspaper and magazine articles in behalf of her cause. Susan B. Anthony often accompanied Mrs. Stanton on her tours and often she traveled alone. At that time public speaking by women was still frowned upon, and the two women had to endure much criticism and many cold receptions. Mrs. Stanton and Miss Anthony together published, in the interest of woman suffrage, a weekly newspaper called The Revolution^ and with the assistance of Matilda Joslyn Gage they wrote a History of Woman Sufrage. Early Life of Susan B. Anthony. — Susan B. Anthony was born in South Adams, Massachusetts, in 1820. When she was five years old her family moved to New York State. For fifteen years Miss Anthony taught school. Aroused to indignation by the fact that she and other women teachers were getting much smaller pay than men teachers for the same work, Miss Anthony joined in the movement for improving the position of all women. Miss Anthony Becomes a Suffragist. — Miss Anthony was not at first an advocate of equal suffrage, but meeting Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, that gifted woman con- verted her. Once converted. Miss Anthony entered whole-heartedly into the suffrage cause. For many years she was President of the National Woman Suffrage Asso- SUSAN B. ANTHONY 379 elation. Besides appearing before state legislatures and Congressional committees, in behalf of woman suffrage, Miss Anthony lectured in all the Northern States and many of the Southern States. For a period of ten years she delivered on an average one hundred lectures a year. In 1872 Miss Anthony, to test her right to vote, cast a ballot in an election at Rochester, New York, where she was then living. She was arrested and fined one hundred dollars for illegal voting. She refused to pay the fine and to this day it remains unpaid. How Women Secured the Vote. — Mrs. Stanton died in 1902, and Miss Anthony in 1906. Despite the slow growth of sentiment for woman suffrage both lived to see the right to vote granted to women by a few states. By 1914, twelve states had given the vote to women. Still, the cause of equal suffrage was gaining ground slowly, when the splendid work done by women in the World War brought about a rapid change. Many men who had formerly opposed the movement came then to believe that women are not only deserving of the ballot but are capable of using it wisely. Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution of the United States giving the women of every state the right to vote on the same footing as men. By 1920 enough states had ratified the amendment to make it a law of the land. Susan B. Anthony 38o AMERICAN WOMEN Frances E. Willard, Leader of the Temperance Movement The Woman's Christian Temperance Union. — In 1874 the Woman's Christian Temperance Union was or- ganized. The purpose of the Union is the protection of the home, the mainstay of civihzation. Since intemper- ance brought the greatest misery to the home, the Union has devoted most of its activities to fighting the traffic in intoxicating Hquors. It urged the passage of laws pre- venting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors, except for use in medicine, science, and the church com- munion. Such laws are known as prohibition laws. Frances E. Willard. — For many years the leader of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union was Frances E. Willard. Miss Willard was born in Churchill, New York, in 1839. While she was a little child her father moved to a section of Wisconsin that was then a wilder- ness, and she spent the rest of her childhood on the frontier. Miss Willard graduated at a college in Illinois, for the time had come when it was recognized in America that women should be given every advantage of educa- tion. She chose teaching as her profession and at one time was president of a college for women — the first woman in the world to hold such a position. Miss Willard in Temperance Work. — Miss Willard took a prominent part in organizing the Woman's Chris- tian Temperance Union. She was urged to become the first president of the Union, but she declined, becoming instead one of its secretaries. In 1879, however, in re- FRANCES E. WILLARD 381 sponse to a universal demand, she became president, and continued to hold that office until her death in 1898. Miss Willard gave up teaching in order to give her entire time to working for temperance. As one of her friends said, '' Frances Willard caught the spirit of the Woman's Crusade and believed herself called of God to take up the temperance cause as her work." How Miss Willard Built Up the Temperance Union. — When Miss Willard took charge of the Union it was a small organiza- tion, weak in numbers and finances ; and it was waging a fight against the prejudice of a great majority of the people. By her skill and intelligence she put the organization on a firm basis, establishing branches in every state. It is esti- mated that Miss Willard visited in the interest of tem- perance '' every town in the United States of over ten thousand inhabitants and most of those above five thou- sand." By her eloquence and charming manner she won many converts. In 1883 Miss Willard founded the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and a few years later became its president. Miss Willard, like Mrs. Stanton and Miss Anthony, did not live to see her work in her native land bear full fruit, but she was permitted to see many towns and counties and even some states pass prohibition laws. Frances E. Willard 382 AMERICAN WOMEN Other Foes of Intemperance. — Of course, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union did not alone fight the evil of intemperance. The church fought it ; men in every walk of life used their influence against it ; and the Anti- Saloon League, of which men were members, did much toward promoting prohibition. However, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union was the first national organ- ization established for the purpose of fighting the liquor traffic, and no organization has done more to put an end to it. Federal Prohibition. — By the year 191 7, when the United States entered the World War, prohibition laws had been passed by more than half the states, and by many towns and counties in the other states . Congress, realiz- ing that the drinking of intoxicating liquors would lessen the fighting capacity of our soldiers, passed a law for- bidding the sale of such liquors for the period of the war and until the army had been demobilized. Then Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution per- manently prohibiting the manufacture or sale of intoxi- cating liquors, except for use in medicine, science, and the church communion, anywhere in the United States or its territorial possessions. Early in 1920, a sufficient number of states having ratified the amendment, pro- hibition went into effect throughout the United States and its territories. Clara Barton and the Red Cross Clara Barton, a Nurse in the Federal Army. — Clara Barton, one of the world's heroines, was born in North CLARA BARTON 383 Oxford, Massachusetts, in 182 1. She began Kfe as a school teacher ; later she accepted a position in one of the departments of the government at Washington. While she was holding this position the War of Secession broke out and she immediately volunteered as a nurse for the Federal army. Throughout the war she nursed wounded and sick soldiers, and often in the performance of her duties she was exposed to greatest dangers on the battle- field. In recognition of her heroic work a Federal com- mander appointed her "Lady in Charge'^ of the hospitals at the front. Miss Barton nursed the wounded of both armies, and as such a thing was not common at that time, she was very much criticized for doing so. All the ^^° <^^^^J ^^^^^^ ^ AND Flag world now recognizes that Miss Barton was right. To-day the suffering of a soldier is relieved whether .he be friend or foe. Miss Barton with the European Red Cross. — After the War of Secession Miss Barton went to Europe for rest. There she learned of the Red Cross Society which had been organized, in 1864, by a Swiss philanthropist. The purpose of the society is to care for the sick and wounded in war time regardless of the army to which they belong. A number of the nations of Europe had joined in a treaty, permitting a branch of the society to be organized in each nation, and allowing it to do its relief work in the battle area and guaranteeing to its members protection from hostile fire. While Miss Barton was in Europe a war broke out be- 384 AMERICAN WOMEN tween Germany and France, and she assisted the Red Cross in nursing German and French soldiers. . The American Red Cross. — Returning home Miss Barton persuaded the United States government, in 1881, to join in the treaty recognizing the Red Cross. Under her leadership, the American Red Cross Society was organized and she was made its first president. Through Miss Barton's efforts the work of the American Red Cross has been enlarged so as to extend beyond the relief of suffering in time of war. The society has given aid to sufferers from every kind of public calamity, such as, fire, flood, storm, earthquake, and pestilence. In the World War no voluntary organization did nobler work in Europe and at home than the American Red Cross. After the war ended the American Red Cross continued to relieve the distressed in the stricken dis- tricts of Europe. A Life Full of Years and Honors. — Miss Barton held the position of president of the American Red Cross Society until 1904, when age and infirmity compelled her to retire from active work. This wonderful woman died in 191 2 in her ninety-first year. She was loved and hon- ored by all the world. For her bravery and good work nearly every civilized nation had bestowed medals or other decorations upon her. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. Tell of the arrival of the first women in Virginia. 2. Tell of the women who came over on the Mayflower. 3. Describe the life of the pioneer women and the frontier women. 4. What did women do in the Revolution? In the Wax of Secession? In the World War ? QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 385 5. What is the women's movement and how were its leaders treated at first? 6. In what way have women become better fitted for life? 7. Mention other reforms that women have brought about. 8. What is meant by prohibition ? 9. What is woman suffrage ? ID. How was Hannah Dustin captured by the Indians, and how did she make her escape ? 11. Tell the story of Eliza Lucas. 12. Give reasons in each case for thinking that Molly Pitcher, Eliza- beth Zane, and Nancy Hart were heroines. 13. Which do you think performed the bravest deed? 14. Who were the chief leaders in the cause of woman suffrage? 15. Teirwhat Elizabeth Cady Stanton did for the cause. 16. Tell what Susan B. Anthony did. 17. Tell what Mrs. Stanton and Miss Anthony did together. 18, How did women secure the vote? 19. What is the purpose of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union? 20. Who was Frances E. Willard, and what was her great work? 21. Did the Temperance Union alone fight the liquor traffic? 22. Tell how prohibition became a law of the land. 23. Describe Clara Barton's experiences as a nurse in the Federal army. 24. What is the Red Cross Society? 25. Tell how the American Red Cross was organized and what work it does. 26. Tell of the last years of Clara Barton. !♦ CHAPTER XXVIII THE WORLD WAR Before the United States Entered the War Germany Brings on a Terrible Conflict. — In August, 1 91 4, the greatest war of history broke out in Europe. It is called the World War because three fourths of the nations of the world took part in it. The war grew out of the desire of Germany to dominate the world. Germany was an empire with an autocratic government. Its emperor, or kaiser, together with a small so-called upper class, had almost complete control. The empire had grown very rich. The kaiser and those who aided him in governing persuaded the German people that this prosperity had come because Germany had the best government on earth and because the German race was superior to all other races. They also led the people to believe that, on account of this superiority, Germany should control the world. Democracy against Autocracy. — Naturally, most na- tions were unwilling to submit to Germany, and as the years passed, the ill-feeling between that country and other countries of Europe increased. In the World War only Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria, which also had auto- cratic governments, fought on the side of Germany. These four nations were called the Central Powers. .^86 BEFORE THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 387 The chief nations fighting against Germany and her associates in the early part of the war were Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Belgium. The nations fighting against Germany became known as the Allies. Most of the Allies had democratic governments. In these nations, as in the United States, the people govern. If Germany had won, these democratic governments would have been destroyed. Consequently, the war be- came a contest between democracy and autocracy. The Germans Invade Belgium. — Germany had the strongest army in Europe because for more than forty years she had been preparing for war. At first Germany was at war with only Russia and France. She planned to crush France quickly with her immense army and then defeat Russia with the aid of the Austrian army. In order to reach France as soon as possible, the German army started to march through Belgium. Germany, together with other great nations, had promised never to invade little Belgium. Thus her first act of war was to break a promise ; and dearly she paid for it, for Belgium was forced into the war because she resisted the German invasion, and Great Britain was drawn in because she had promised to protect Belgium against invasion. First Battle of the Mame. — The Belgian army was small, yet it so bravely resisted the hordes of Germans pouring into Belgium that time was given the French and British to bring up their armies. Forty years of prepara- tion for war had made the German army stronger in men, guns, and ammunition than the combined French, British, and Belgian armies. The Germans drove the Allies out 388 THE WORLD WAR of Belgium and into France as far as the river Marne, at a point very near to Paris. Here the AlHes, under the French general Joseph J. B. Joffre, turned and struck the invaders, driving them back into northern France and Belgium, and thwarting Germany's attempt to win the war by a quick overwhelming blow. The Armies in Western Europe Deadlocked. — Soon after the first battle of the Marne, the armies on the western front settled down to trench warfare. They dug a series of deep trenches from Switzerland, through France and Belgium, to the North Sea, a distance of six BEFORE THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 389 hundred miles, and in them the soldiers held their lines. For Jour years each army tried by assaults to force the other to leave the trenches. These assaults brought on battles that often lasted for months, but no decided advantage came to either side. Germany Gains in Eastern Europe. — While the armies on the western front were deadlocked, the fighting on the Italian front, the Russian, and other eastern fronts, had given Germany and the nations leagued with her a de- cided advantage. The Germans Practice Great Cruelty. — The world stood aghast at the awful slaughter of men that four years of such tremendous warfare had caused. To add to that horror, the Germans acted with the utmost cruelty. In violation of the rules of war, they destroyed the towns and laid waste the lands of France, Belgium, and Poland that they occupied, and killed or maimed many of the inhabitants. Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey were equally cruel in the sections of eastern Europe that they overran. Neutrality of the United States. — As the war did not at first directly affect this country, Woodrow Wilson, who was then President, issued a proclamation declaring the United States neutral. However, the people of the United States from the beginning took deep interest in a war of such magnitude. Most Americans sympathized with the Allies because they were fighting for democracy ; this sympathy became stronger when the Germans showed how cruel they could be. As the war went on, the United States became directly affected by it. 390 THE WORLD WAR Germany Decides to Use the Submarine. — The British navy had blockaded Germany for the purpose of keeping ammunition and food sent by other countries from reach- ing the German army. Germany claimed that the block- ade was illegal, but she could not prevent it because her navy, being much weaker than the British, was shut up in her harbors by the blockade. All this time England was getting from other countries the food she needed. Germany knew that if this supply were cut off, England could not long continue in the war, so she determined to destroy all hostile merchant ships carrying food to England. Since Germany could not use her navy for this purpose because of the blockade, she announced that she would use the submarine. Navigating unseen under the surface of the water, submarines could slip by the English warships and get out on the ocean. Why Use of the Submarine Is Illegal. — According to a law that civilized nations had long ago agreed upon, a merchant ship must not be sunk unless the passengers and crew are first put into a place of safety. The reason for this law is that passengers and crews of merchant ships are non-combatants — that is, they are not fighters — and should not be killed. Germany utterly disregarded this law. The little submarine may with a single torpedo sink the largest unarmored vessel, but the submarine is very frail and may be easily sunk if seen before it attacks. Of course, this made it impossible to make the lives of passengers and crew safe before the submarine attacked. Germany, therefore, announced that her submarines would sink without warning the merchant ships of her BEFORE THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 391 enemies when sighted on seas near England. It made no difference to Germany that such method of fighting is not proper warfare, but murder. President Wilson Warns Germany. — The people of every nation have the right to sail the seas on the mer- chant ships of a nation which is at war ; and all the world, except the countries on the side of Germany, condemned her use of the submarine. They declared that, since the submarine could not be used in a legal manner to de- stroy merchant ships, it should not be used for this purpose A Submarine at all. President Wilson promptly served notice on Ger- many that the United States would hold her responsible for any injury done to an American citizen by the unlawful use of the submarine. Sinking of the Lusitania. — Germany did not heed the warning. In May, 191 5, the English passenger ship, Lusitania, while making a regular trip from New York to England, was torpedoed and sunk, off the coast of Ire- land, by a German submarine. More than a thousand innocent men, women, and children — among whom there were about three hundred Americans — were killed or 392 THE WORLD WAR drowned. The American people felt greatly outraged at the murder of their fellow citizens. Many thought that the United States should immediately declare war upon Germany. President Wilson, not wishing to rush the country headlong into war, made a demand upon Germany that she pay damages for the injuries done Americans, and promise not to commit the crime again. Germany ignored the demand, and continued to sink merchant ships of her enemies, causing the loss of other American lives. Germany Breaks a Promise Made to the United States. — Finally, Germany promised to stop sinking mer- chant ships without warning. But her promise was not sincere. The British nayy had destroyed most of her submarines and until she could build more, she was willing that the United States should be deceived into thinking that she had given up the illegal practice. Early in 191 7 a new fleet of submarines was completed. Germany then announced that she would resume her submarine warfare upon shipping, and that it would be on an even greater scale than before. Not only merchant vessels of nations at war with Germany, but those of na- tions not at war with her, were to be sunk without warn- ing ; and the waters in which they were to be sunk were extended so as to include seas bordering on other Euro- pean countries besides England. To Make the World Safe for Democracy. — President Wilson asked Congress to declare that, by Germany's acts violating the rights of Americans, a state of war existed between the United States and Germany. He said that AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 393 the war should be waged not for conquest, but to make the world safe for democracy. On April 6, 191 7, Congress declared war. After the United States Entered the War Germany Thought America Weak in War. — The United States, not being a mihtary nation, was unpre- pared for war. It was be- cause of our unpreparedness that Germany was willing to risk our joining her many ene- mies. The German leaders be- lieved, and they led the German people to believe, that America would not count for much in the war. They thought that their splendid army and their submarines would bring the war to an end before an Ameri- can army could get ready to fight, or if not, that their sub- marines would sink the vessels carrying the American army over the ocean. Americans Bent on Winning the War. — In spite of their natural dislike for the grim business of war, when the American people reahzed that they must fight, they responded vigorously \and enthusiastically. " Win the War," became the national slogan. Raising an Immense Army. — The regular army of the United States and the militia of the states, called the WooDROw Wilson 394 THE WORLD WAR National Guard, were together not a force sufficient for so large a war. The government, therefore, required every man in the United States between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one to register, and from those registered were drawn, or drafted, such men as could be best used in the army. Thousands upon thousands of Americans, however, volunteered before the draft was made ; and even after it was made many, both over the draft age and under, volunteered. The National Guard, the volunteers, and the drafted men were all sent to camps for military training before being sent to Europe. The camps located in different parts of the country were built at great cost, and each was large enough to take care of twenty-five to forty thousand men. The Building of Ships. — Submarines destroyed so many ships carrying food to the allied countries that for a time it seemed that the Germans might succeed in de- feating the Allies by starving them ; but the United States began the rapid building of ships to take the place of those destroyed. England also rushed work on new ships. When the point was reached at which these two countries were building ships faster than the submarines could sink them, the danger of defeat for want of food was passed. How America Fed the Allies. — The United States had to furnish the food sent to the Allies, besides feeding its own army. In order that there might be enough food for this gigantic undertaking, the people of the United States used less than they had been accustomed to. On certain AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 395 days they did not eat meat, and on others they did not eat wheat. Such days came to be called " meatless days " and '' wheatless days." Other articles of diet needed by the Allies were saved by limiting the amount that each person in America might use. To save coal for fuel for the ships carrying food to the Allies, heat was cut off from public and business buildings on certain days — ■ " heatless days,'' and the use of electric lights was curtailed on certain nights — " lightless nights." Work of the American Navy. — Soon after the United States entered the war. General John J. Pershing, who had been placed in command of the American army, reached France. Then our soldiers began cross- ing the Atlantic. By the spring of 1 918 three-quarters of a mil- lion American soldiers had ar- rived in Europe, and the number going over each month was steadily increasing. The fact that our army could cross three thousand miles of an ocean infested with hostile submarines was due to the excellent condition of our navy. When war was declared, the navy was ready. An American fleet under the command of Admiral William S. Sims was immediately sent to European waters. It assisted the allied navies in blockading Germany, sinking German John J. Pershing 396 THE WORLD WAR submarines, and guarding the transports carrying -our troops across the ocean. Germany Realizes that She Must Act Quickly. — By the beginning of 191 8, German mihtary leaders realized that their submarine warfare was a failure. It had neither starved the Allies nor kept American soldiers from reach- ing Europe. These leaders also knew that although the fighting in eastern Europe had gone well for Germany, the war could not be won until Germany had crushed the alHed armies in France and Belgium, and that she would not be able to crush them unless she did so before many more Americans arrived in France. The Germans Shoot Their Last Bolt. — Therefore, the Germans collected on the western front a very large army for the purpose of striking the allied armies quick and terrific blows. In March, 191 8, they began their drive. The first blow fell upon the British army in north- ern France, which, unable to withstand the assault of overwhelming numbers, retreated from their trenches. The retreat of the British compelled the other aUied armies to leave their trenches and fall back in order to keep from being separated. With the trenches evacuated, the fighting was now carried on in the open. The next blow fell upon the French who were, in turn, driven back. The number of men killed and wounded on both sides was appalling. In three months the drive had forced the Allies so far back into France that once more the Germans had reached the river Marne, only a few miles from Paris. Americans Rushed to France. — The months of the German drive were months of anxious suspense for the rest AFTER THE UNITED STATES ENTERED 397 of the world. An appeal was sent to America to save the cause by hurrying over troops. America responded by sending across the Atlantic three hundred thousand sol- diers, or more, a month — the most remarkable military and naval feat of history. Chateau-Thierry. — Meanwhile (June, 191 8), General Ferdinand Foch, a French officer who had been made commander-in-chief of all the allied armies, had stopped the Germans at the river Marne. He had used French troops and a small body of Ameri- cans. The Americans, stationed near the village of Chateau-Thierry, held their ground against a greatly superior number of Germans, and showed that, though they had not re- ceived much training, they were good soldiers. Second Marne, St. Mihiel, and Argonne Forest. — Hav- ing stopped the Germans on their drive to Paris, Foch continued to attack them instead of waiting to be attacked. Soon the French, with the assistance of the Americans, had driven the enemy from the river Marnb. Shortly afterward the Americans won two battles. They first beat the Germans back from St. Mihiel and then drove them through Argonne Forest. The battle of Argonne Forest was one of the most difficult of the war and was the largest engagement in which an American army has ever ea-^?*V./-; "A Caterpillar Tank 398 THE WORLD WAR taken part. It was fought in woods thick with under- brush where the Germans had placed many nests of ma- chine guns. In fighting their way through, thousands of brave Americans gave up their Hves. Breaking through the Hindenburg Line. — Ameri- cans also fought side by side with the British army, and they vaHantly assisted that army in driving the Germans back. In front of the British was the famous Hindenburg Hne, the most strongly fortified of all the German trenches. It was not thought possible that an army could pass these trenches, but the British and Americans smashed the Hindenburg line to pieces, the Americans being the first to break through. Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria Surrender. — By the middle of October, 1918, the Germans had given up most of the territory that they had captured in northern France and Belgium, and their whole army on the western front was in retreat. While the Germans were meeting with defeat, the Italians had routed the Austrians in northern Italy, and another allied army was marching toward Bul- garia. In quick succession Bulgaria, Austria, and Turkey surrendered. Germany Seeks Peace. — With her associates out of the fighting and with no more men at home for her to draw upon for her army, Germany saw her scheme of world conquest vanish. The German government sent a note to President Wilson asking that an armistice — that is, a cessation of hostilities — be arranged so that peace might be made. President Wilson had already announced the terms THE TREATY OF PEACE 399 upon which America would be wilHng to make peace. Among them were : Every nation, great and small alike, should have the right to its own government ; Germany and the nations in alliance with her should give back to other nations all territory taken from them in the past ; a League of Nations should be formed for the purpose of preventing wars in the future. In the note to President Wilson the German government accepted his terms as a basis upon which to make peace. The Armistice. — The allied nations having also ac- cepted President Wilson's terms. General Foch arranged the armistice. Under the conditions of the armistice Germany was compelled to surrender much of her fleet and most of her arms and ammunition. This was to make it impossible for her to continue the war if she should be unwilling to sign the treaty of peace when finally drawn up. The armistice went into effect November 11, 1918. The Awful Toll of War. — The fighting that had for more than four years drenched Europe in blood had come to an end. About nine million men had been killed in battle or had died in service. More than twice that number had been wounded. Large areas in France, Belgium, Russia, Poland, and Serbia had been laid waste, and in these devastated areas suffering and misery and death had befallen the inhabitants. The Treaty of Peace and the League of Nations The Nations Gather at Paris to Make Peace. — The Peace Conference met in Paris in January, 191 9. All 400 THE WORLD WAR the nations, great and small, that were at war with Ger- many, sent delegates. President Wilson headed the delegation from the United States. Never before had a President left the country for more than a day or two at a time. Since, however, the terms which he proposed had been accepted as a basis upon which to make peace. President Wilson thought that he should present them to the Conference in person. So many difficult questions growing out of the war had to be settled that the Conference was in session for nearly six months before it completed the treaty of peace with Germany. The treaty required Germany to restore territory that she had seized from other countries in previous wars ; to pay large sums for damages she had un- lawfully inflicted upon other countries during the World War ; and forbade her keeping a large army. The treaty also acknowledged the independence of certain small nations that had sprung up in Europe as a result of the war ; and it contained a plan for a League of Nations. The Senate Refuses to Ratify the Treaty. — Under the Constitution of the United States the Senate must ratify a treaty by a two-thirds vote before it can go into effect. When President Wilson sent the peace treaty to the Senate for ratification, in the summer of 1919, the members of the Senate divided on the question of the League of Nations. Some were willing to accept the plan of the League just as it was written in the treaty ; others were willing to accept the plan provided certain clauses, or " reserva- tions '^ which they thought necessary to protect the in- dependence of the United States, were added ; while still others — these few in number — were opposed to a League QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 401 of Nations in any form. The differences of opinion caused the Senate to remain deadlocked over the treaty for some months. Finally, all efforts to come to an agreement having failed, the Senate, in the spring of 1920, returned the treaty to President Wilson unratified. The Ireague of Nations before the People. — Mean- while most of the nations of the civilized world had joined the League of Nations, and in the election, in the fall of 1920, for a President of the United States the League was made an issue before the people. The Democratic party advocated the United States' entering the League ; the Repubhcan party opposed the country's entering the League under the existing plan, but favored its joining with other nations in forming, under some other plan, a league or association for preserving peace. The Demo- crats nominated James M. Cox of Ohio, for President, and the Repubhcan s nominated Warren G. Harding of Ohio. Harding was elected by an overwhelming vote. While other issues entered into the campaign, the immense ma- jority given the Republican candidate indicated that the people preferred a League of Nations different from the one that had been established. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. How did Germany bring on the World War? 2. Explain how the World War was a struggle between democracy and autocracy, and name the principal countries engaged on each side at the beginning of the war. 3. How did Germany lose her national honor when she invaded Belgium? 4. Describe the first battle of the Marne, and show the results of this battle. 5. Which side gained the advantage in Eastern Europe? 6. Tell about the cruelty of the Germans. 7. How did the people of the United States at first look upon the World War? 402 THE WORLD WAR 8. Describe Germany's use of the submarine, and explain why this use was illegal. * 9, Describe the sinking of the Lusitania. 10, Why did the United States enter the World War ? II. Why was Germany willing that the United States should join her many enemies? 12. Tell how we raised an army, built ships, and fed the Allies. 13. Describe the work of the American navy. 14. Tell all you can about the great German drive of 1918. 15, Describe the battles of Chateau-Thierry, Second Marne, St. Mihiel, and Argonne Forest, and the part that Americans took in these battles. 16. Tell about breaking through the Hindenburg line. 17. Tell how the war came to an end. 18. What was the Armistice ? 19. Relate the story of the Peace Conference at Paris. 20. What is meant by a League of Nations? 21. Why did the Senate refuse to ratify the treaty of peace with Germany ? 22. What did the presiden- tial election of 1920 show? \ LIST OP PRESIDENTS 1789-1797 George Washington of Virginia 1797-1801 John Adams of Massachusetts 1801-1809 Thomas Jefferson of Virginia 1809-1817 James Madison of Virginia 1817-1825 James Monroe of Virginia 1825-1829 John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts 1829-1837 Andrew Jackson of Tennessee 1837-1841 Martin Van Buren of New York 1841 William H, Harrison of Ohio 1841-1845 John Tyler of Virginia 1845-1849 James K. Polk of Tennessee 1849-1850 Zachary Taylor of Louisiana 1850-1853 Millard Fillmore of New York 1853-1857 Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 1857-1861 James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 1861-1865 Abraham Lincoln of IlHnois 1865-1869 Andrew Johnson of Tennessee 1869-1877 Ulysses S. Grant of lUinois 1877-1881 Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio 1881 James A. Garfield of Ohio 1881-1885 Chester A. Arthur of New York 1885-1889 Grover Cleveland of New York 1889-1893 Benjamin Harrison of Indiana 1893-1807 Grover Cleveland of New York 1897-1901 William McKinley of Ohio 1901-1909 Theodore Roosevelt of New York 1909-1913 William H. Taft of Ohio 1913-1921 WooDROw Wilson of New Jersey 1921- Warren G. Harding of Ohio 403 DATE OF ADMISSION OF THE STATES 1. Delaware 3. New Jersey 4. Georgia . . . . 5. Connecticut g 6. Massachusetts o 7. Maryland ^ 8. South Carolina -Q Dec. 7, 1787 Dec. 12, 1787 Dec. 18, 1787 Jan. 2, 17-88 Jan. 9, 1788 Feb. 6, 1788 April 28, 1788 May 23, 1788 June 21, 1788 June 25, 1788 July 26, 1788 Nov. 21, 1789 May 29, 1790 9. New Hampshire t3 10. Virginia ^ 1 1 . New York '^ 12. North Carolina pcn 13. Rhode Island 14. Vermont : March 4, 1791 15. Kentucky June 1, 1792 16. Tennessee June 1, 1796 17. Ohio Feb. 19, 1803 18. Louisiana ' April 8, 1812 19. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 20. Mississippi : Dec. 10, 1817 21. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 22. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 23. Maine March 15, 1820 24. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821 25. Arkansas June 15, 1836 26. Michigan .^ Jan. 26, 1837 27. Florida. March 3, 1845 28. Texas Dec. 29, 1845 29. Iowa Dec. 28, 1846 30. Wisconsin May 29, 1848 31. California Sept. 9, 1850 32. Minnesota May 11, 1858 33. Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 34. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 35. West Virginia June 19, 1863 36. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 37. Nebraska March 1, 1867 38. Colorado Aug. 1, 1876 39. North Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 40. South Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 41. Montana Nov. 8, 1889 42. Washington Nov. 11, 1889 43. Idaho July 3, 1890 44. Wyoming July 10, 1890 45. Utah Jan. 4, 1896 46. Oklahoma Nov. 16, 1907 47. New Mexico Jan. 6, 1912 48. Arizona Feb. 14, 1912 404 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Key to Symbols as in bay, as in bat, as in bare, as in farm, as in solace, as in cask, as in walk, as in be, as in bet, as in there, g as in her, e as in they, i as in pie. i as in bit, 6 as in go. 6 as in got, 6 as in corn, oo as in moon, u as in tune, 11 as in but. e represents a sound similar to, but shorter than, short u almost silent, g hard as in get, n as in ink, hunger, ow has the sound of ow in how. sometimes Alamo, a'la-mo Andr^, an'dra or an'dr! Antietam, iln-te'tam Bahama, ba-ha'ma Balboa, bal-bo'a Beauregard, bo're-gard' Bienville, be'an-veP Biloxi, bil-ox'i Bon Homme Richard, bo-nom' sharr' Buena Vista, bwa'na ves'ta Cabot, kab'ot Cartier, kar'tya' Cerro Gordo, ser'ro gdr'do Champlain, sham'plan' Chateau-Tliierry, sh a-to'tye-re' Chippewa, chip'pe-wa Cibola, se'bo-la Coligny, Gaspard de, gas-parr de ko-len'ye • Concord, konk'urd Coronado, ko-ro-na'tho Corsair, kor'sar Duquesne, du'kfin' Foch, f5sh Genet, zhe-na' Gourges, Dominique de, do 'me' nek de goorg Guam, gwam 405 4o6 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Haiti, ha'ti Hawaii, ha-wi'e Houston, ha'ston Huguenot, hii'ge-not Iberville, e'ber-vel' Iroquois, ir-o-kwoi' Jesuit, jez'u-it Joffre, zhoff Joliet, zho'le-a La Espagnola, la es-pan-yo'la La Fayette, la'fa'yet' La Salle, Robert de, ro'bairr de la sal' Magellan, ma-jel'an Manila, ma-nil'a Marconi, mar-ko'ne Marquette, mar' kef Massasoit, mas'sa-soit' Menendez de Aviles, Pedro, pe'drO ma-nen'deth dji-a-vee'les Monterey, mon-te-ra' Moultrie, mool'tri New Orleans, nu or'le-anz Niiia, nen'ya Palos, pa'los Pamlico, pam'li-ko Pascua Florida, pas-cwa flor'i-da Pequot, pe'kwot Philippine, fil'ip-in Pinta, pen'ta Pocahontas, po-ka-hon'tas Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-on' Porto Rico, por'to re'ko Powhatan, pow-ha-tan' Pueblo, pweb'lo Raleigh, raw'li Ribault, Jean, zhon re 'bo' Roosevelt, roz'e-velt Samoa, sa-mo'a Santa Maria, san'ta ma-re'a Santiago, san'te a'go Schley, sll Sevier, se-ver' Stuyvesant, sti've-sant Tecumseh, te-kum'seh Tomochichi, tom'o-che-chi Valladolid, val'ya-tho-leth' . Vincennes, vin-senz' Oglethorpe, o'g'l-thorp Wampum, wom'pum INDEX Abraham, Plains of, 173, Adams, John, 210. Adams, Samuel, 188-197. Aeroplane, the, 351-353. Agriculture, 125, 261, 291, 338, 340- 341, 342-343, 345-346. x-Mabama, 38, 153, 251, 253, 308, 346. Alamo, battle of, 276. Alaska, 283. Allies, the, 387. American Women, 367-385. Andre, Major, 207. Andros, Sir Edmund, 138. Anthony, Susan B., 377-379. Antietam, battle of, 324. Anti-Saloon League, the, 382. Appomattox, 334. Argonne Forest, battle of, 397. Arizona, 42, 283, 285. Arkansas, 40, 242, 308. Armistice, the, 399. Arnold, Benedict, 206, 207. Atlanta,. 332. Automobile, the, 355. Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, 49. Bacon's Rebellion, 136. Bahama Islands, the, 18, 29. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 30-32. Baltimore, 267, 271, 296. Baltimore, Lord, 96-99. Barton, Clara, 382-384. Bean, William, 178. Beauregard, P. G. T., 321, 322. Bell, Alexander Graham, 350-351, Berkeley, Sir William, 136. Bessemer, Henry, 338. Bienville, 150-157. Biloxi, 151. Birmingham, 346. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 240, 241. Bon Homme Richard, the, 219. Boone, Daniel, 178-184. Boonesboro, 181, 183. Boston, 85, 129, 138, 186, 192, 193, 194, 196, 201, 296. Boston Massacre, the, 193. Boston Tea Party, the, 194. Braddock, Edward, 165-168. Bradford, William, 79-84. Brandy wine, battle of, 204. Buena Vista, battle of, 281. Bunker Hill, battle of, 200. Burnside, A. E., 326. Burgoyne, surrender of, 206. Cabot, John, 22-24. Cabot, Sebastian, 23. Cahoka, 218. Calhoun, John C, 301-306. California, 283, 298-299, 305, 343. Calvert, Leonard, 97-99. Camden, battle of, 225. Campbell, William, 226. Canada, 23, 51, 142, 159, 175, 245, 248. Canals, 266, 289. ''Carpet-bag" Governments, 344-345. Cartier, Jacques, 46. Carver, John, 80. Catholic Missionaries, 142. Catholics, the, 3, 47, 96. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 282. Champlain, Samuel de, 51-55. Chancellorsville, battle of, 326. Charles I, of England, 84, 96, 100. Charles II, of England, 100, 113, 118, 136, 137- Charles V, of Spain, 2)Z- Charles IX, of France, 48, 50. Charleston, loi, 102, 131, 186, 194, 200, 220, 222, 321. Charlotte, 227. 407 4o8 INDEX Chateau Thierry, battle of, 397. Chattanooga, battle of, 332. Chicago, 291, 340. Chilton, Mary, 367. Church of England, the, 79, 116. Cibola, the seven cities of, 41-43. Cincinnati, 290. Clark, Elijah, 223. Clark, George Rogers, 217-219. Clark, William, 242-244. Clay, Henry, 301-306. Clermont, the, 263. Cleveland, 340. Clinton, General, 207, 222. Cold Harbor, battle of, 2,2>3,' Coligny, Gaspard de, 48. Colombia, United States of, 365. Colonial Governments, 186. Colorado, 242, 283, 341. Columbus, Christopher, 12-22. Commerce, 126, 186. Concord, 198. Confederate States, the, 308, 321-336. Confederation, the, 128-134. Congregational Church, the, 86. Connecticut, 87-91, 138. Constitution of the United States, the, 2337235. Constitution, the, 246. Continental Congress, the, 195, 200, 201, 204, 210. Cornwallis, Lord, 223, 225, 228-230. Coronado, Francisco de, 41-43. Corsairs, the, 45. Cotton gin, the, 259-261, 273-275. Cowpens, battle of, 228. Cox, James M., 401. Crime, punishment for, 132. Croatoan, 63. Cromwell, Oliver, 100. Cuba, 18, 357-362. Cumberland Road, the, 289. Dare, Virginia, 62. Darien, 30-32, Davie, William R., 223. Davis, Jeflferson, 308, 315-320, 321. Declaration of Independence, the, 201, 210-211. Delaware, 112, 124. Delaware, Lord, 70. De Soto, Hernando, 37-41. Detroit, 245. Dewey, George, 360. Dirigible, the, 351. Drake, Sir Francis, 56-60. Dustin, Hannah, 371-372. Edison, Thomas A., 346-350. Education, 131-132, 370. Electricity, 214, 339, 348. Electric light, the, 348. Elizabeth, queen of England, 56, 60. Erie Canal, the, 289. Ferdinand, king of Spain, 14, 16, 20. Ferguson, Colonel, 226, 228. Fishing industry, the, 124. Florida, 30, 37, 38, 48, 151, 177, 253, 254, 3o8._ Foch, Ferdinand, 397. Forts, Caroline, 48; Donelson, 330; Duquesne, 163, 166, 168; Fredrica, 108; Good Hope, 87; Moultrie, 220; Necessity, 163; Pitt, 169; Sumter, 321. Franklin, Benjamin, 21 1-2 15. Frederica, 108. Fredericksburg, battle of, 326. French Alliance, the, 206, 215. Fulton, Robert, 263-266. " Gadsden Purchase," the, 285. Gage, General, 196, 200. Gama, Vasco da, 32. Gasoline, 339. Gates, Horatio, 206, 225. Genoa, 6, 12. George I, of England, 103. George H, of England, 104, George HI, of England, 188, 193, 203. Georgia, 38, 104-109, 124, 194, 222, 253, 308, 322. Gettysburg, battle of, 326. Gist, Christopher, 161, 162. INDEX 409 Gourges, Dominique de, 50. "Grand Model," the, 102. Grant, Ulysses S., 328-336. Greene, Nathanael, 228, 229. Guam, 361, 362. Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 228. Haiti, 18, 20, 28. Half King, 162, 164. Hamilton, Alexander, 236. Harding, Warren G., 401. Harrison, William Henry, 246-248. Harrod, James, 178. Harrodsburg, 178. Hart, Nancy, 376. Hartford, 89. Harvard College, 132. Hawaiian Islands, the, 363. Henry VII, of England, 22. Henry, Patrick, 189-197, 209, 217. Hessians, the, 203. Hindenburg line, the, 398. Hispaniola, 18, 20, 28. Holland, John Philip, 354-355. Honolulu, 363. Hooker, Joseph, 326. Hooker, Thomas, 88-91. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 251. Houston, Sam, 277-280. Howe, Elias, 272-273. Howe, General, 201, 202, 204. Hudson, Henry, 74-76. Huguenots, the, 48-49, 125. Iberville, 150-154. Idaho, 285. Illinois, 142, 219, 340. Illinois country, the, 217. Immigration, 292-294. Indentured serv^ants, 127, 186. India, 6, 8, 9, 13, 32. Indiana, 219. Indians, the, 25-27. Intemperance, 370, 380. ''Invincible Armada," the, 58. Iowa, 242. Iroquois, the, 53. Irrigation, 343. Isabella, queen of Spain, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21. Jackson, Andrew, 248-254, 297, 302. Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), 326. Jacksonville, 48. James I, of England, 64, 65, 72, 79, 80. James II, of England, 113, 138. Jamestown, 65, 98, 126. Jefferson, Thomas, 208-211, 239-244. Johnston, A. S., 330. Johnston, J. E., 322. Joffre, Joseph J. B., 388. Joliet, 144. Jones, John Paul, 219-220. Kansas, 42, 242. Kaskaskia, 218. Kentucky, 177, 178, 179, 252, 286, 346. King Philip, 139. King's Mountain, battle of, 226. Lafayette, Marquis de, 205. Lake Erie, battle of, 246. La Salle, 146-150. League of Nations, the, 399-401. Lee, Robert E., 322-328, 332-336. Legislature, the first in America, 71. Lews, Meriwether, 242-244. Lexington, battle of, 198. Lincoln, Abraham, 307, 3o8-3i5> 321. Lisbon, 13. London Company, the, 65, 72. "Long Hunters," the, 178. Louis XIV, of France, 148, 150. Louisiana, 148-157, 159, i75> i77> 24c^244, 251, 308, 346. Lucas, Eliza, 372-373- Lusilania, the, 391. McClellan, George B., 322, 324. McCormick, Cyrus H., 261-263. McKinley, William, 359. Machinery, 257, 338-339- Madison, James, 245. Magellan, Ferdinand, 32-36. Magna Carta, the, 4. Maine, the, 358. 4IO INDEX Manassas, battles of, 322, 324. Manufacturing, 124, 257, 259, 295- 296, 338-339, 340-341, 346. • Manila, battle of, 360. Marconi, Guglielmo, 355. Marion, Francis, 223, 224. Marne, battles of the, 387, 397. Marquette, Father, 142-146. Maryland, 96-99, '^33, 324- Massachusetts, 79-87, i33, i37, i93, 194, 195, 196, 198. Massasoit, 82, 92. Masses, influence of the, 296-297. Mavilla, 39. Mayflower, the, 80. Mayflower Compact, the, 81. Meade, George G., 326. Mediterranean Sea, 6, 8, 12. Mexico, 37, 41, 276, 280-283. Michigan, 219. Minnesota, 219, 242. "Minutemen," the, 196. Mississippi, 38, 151, 308, 315, 317. "Mississippi Rifles," the, 316. Mississippi River, 40, 144, 147, 148, 151, 240-241. Missouri, 242, 274. Missouri Compromise, the, 274. Mobile, 153. Moluccas, the, S3- Monmouth, battle of, 207. Monroe, James, 255. Monroe Doctrine, the, 255. Montana, 242. Montcalm, Louis de, 169-175. Monterey, 281. Montgomery, 318. Morgan, Daniel, 206, 228. Morse, S. F. B., 270-272. Motion picture, the, 348. Moultrie, William, 220. Napoleon I, 240, 241. Narragansetts, the, 93. Navigation and Trade, laws of, 134. Nebraska, 42, 242. Nevada, 283, 341. New Amsterdam, 78, 116. New England Confederation, the, 137. Newfoundland, 159. New France, 51. New Hampshire, 87. New Haven, 129. New Jersey, 117, 203. New Mexico, 42, 283, 285. New Netherland, 74-78, 110-114. New Orleans, 153, 175, 240, 241, 251. New Orleans, battle of, 251. Newport, 129. New York, 74-78, 110-114, 124, 186, 192, 194, 202, 207, 296. North Carolina, 60-64, 100-114, 124, 140, 228, 229, 308, 322, 346. North Dakota, 242. Nueces River, 281. Nullification, 302. Oglethorpe, James Edward, 104-109. Ohio, 219, 340. Ohio River, 146, 159. Ohio Valley, 159, 161-169, 175. Oklahoma, 242, 346. Oolooteka, 278, 279. Oregon, 283-285. Pacific Ocean, 31, 32, 34. Palos, 16, 19. Panama Canal, the, 364-366. Panama, Isthmus of, 30-32, 298, 364- 366. Parliament, 3, 188, 189, 193, 194. Partisan Warfare, 223-225. "Patroons," the, 78. Penn, William, 115-121. Pennsylvania, 115-121, 124, 133, 203, 326, 340. Pennsylvania, University of, 214. Pensacola, 254. Pequots, the, 90, 93. Perry, Oliver Hazard, 246-248. Persecution, religious, 47-48, 79, 84, 92, 96, 115, 132. Pershing, John J., 395. Petersburg, siege of, 334. INDEX 411 Philadelphia, 119, 186, 194, 195, 204, 207, 234, 296, Philip II, of Spain, 58. Philippine Islands, the, 35, 360, 362. Phonograph, the, 348. Pickens, Andrew, 223. Pickett, George E., 326. Pierce, Franklin, 317. Pilgrims, the, 79-84. Pitcher, Molly, 374-375. Pitt, William, 1 70. Pittsburgh, 173, 340. Plymouth, 80-34. Pocahontas, 67. Ponce de Leon, 28-30. "Poor Richard's Almanac," 213. Pope, John, 324. Population, 122, 185, 286, 290, 295- 296, 338, 341, 343- Porto Rico, 361, 362. Port Royal, loi. Powhatan, 67. Prince Henry, the Navigator, 9-10. Princeton, battle of, 203. Prisons, 104, 370. Proclamation of Emancipation, the, 313. Proctor, General, 247. Prohibition, 370, 380-382. Providence, 93. Puritans, the, 79-94, 100, 129, 133. Quakers, the, 115-121, 133. Quebec, 51, 170. Railroad, the, 266-270, 290, 341-342. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 60-65. Ranchman, the, 342. Reaper, the, 261-264, 291. Reconstruction, 344-345. Red Cross, the, 369, 383-384. Redemptioners, 127, 186. Reformation, the, 46. Renaissance, the, 5. Rhode Island, 91-94, 137, 138, 234. Ribault, Jean, 49. Richmond, 136, 196, 322, 324. Roanoke Island, 61, 62. Rolfe, John, 68. Roosevelt, Theodore, 365-366. St. Augustine, 48, 102. St. Louis, 243, 290. St. Marks, 254. St. Mary's River, 99. St. Mihiel, battle of, 397. St. Simon's Island, 108. Salem, 84, 133. Salvation Army, the, 369. Samoan Islands, the, 363. Samoset, 82. San Jacinto, battle of, 277. Santa Anna, 276, 277, 282, 283. Santiago, battles of, 360. Saratoga, battles of, 206. Savannah, 105, 222, 265. Savannah, the, 265. Schley, W. S., 361. Scott, Winfield, 281, 282-283. "Sea of Darkness," the, 8, 13. Secession, 274, 302, 307-308. Sevier, John, 227. Sewing machine, the, 272-273. Shafter, W. R., 360. Sharpsburg, battle of, 324. Shelby, Isaac, 227. Sherman, W. T., 332. Shiloh, battle of, 330. Ship Island, 151. Sims, William S., 395. Slavery, 126, 186, 261, 273-275, 291, 299, 304-305. Smith, John, 65-71. Social life, in early colonial times, 128-134; in later colonial times, 185-188. South Carolina, 100-104, 124, 140, 220, 222, 302, 308. South Dakota, 242. Spice Island, the, S3^ 3^- Spottsylvania, battle of, 333. Stamp Act, the, 188-193. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 377-379- States' Rights, 302. 415 INDEX Steamboat, the, 263, 290. Steam engine, the, 258. Stephenson, George, 267. Stuyvesant, Peter, 110-114. Submarine, the, 354-355, 390-392, 394- Sumter, Thomas, 223, 224. Tarlton, Colonel, 228. Taylor, Zachary, 281-282. Tecumseh, 247, 248. Telegraph, the, 270-272, 355. Telephone, the, 35^-35 1- Tennessee, 177, 178, 250, 251, 252, 308, 346. Texas, 148, 276-277, 280-281, 283, 308, 346. Thames River, battle of, 247. Thanksgiving Day, 82. Tomochichi, 106. Tories, the, 202, 222, 226. Traders, the French, 142, 177. Travel, modes of, 130, 187, 266-270, 289-290, 341-342. Trenton, battle of, 203. Turks, the, 13. Tuscaloosa, 39. Tuscaroras, the, 139. Valladolid, 21. Valley Forge, 205. Venice, 6. Vera Cruz, 282. Vespucius, Americus, 22. Vicksburg, siege of, 331. Vincennes, 218. Virginia, 61, 65-73, 124, 126, 133, 136, 191, 195, 196, 308. Virgin Islands, the, 363. Wake Island, 363. Wampanoags, the, 82. Wars, Pequot, 90; King Philip, 139; Tuscarora, 139; French and Indian, 159-175; Revolutionary, 198-231; War of 181 2, 245-256; Mexican, 280-283; War of Secession, 321- 336; Spanish American, 359-362; World War, 386-399. Washington (city), 248, 271 Washington (state), 285. Washington, George, 159-169, 198- 208, 230, 231, 235-238. Washington and Lee University, 335. Watauga, 178. Watt, James, 258. Webster, Daniel, 301-306. West Point, 209, 315. West Virginia, 340. Wethersfield, 88, 90. Whigs, the, 202, 222. White, John, 62-64. Whitney, Eli, 259-261. Wilderness, battle of, S33- Willard, Frances E., 380-382. William and Mary, of England, 138. William and Mary College, 132, 208. Williams, Roger, 91-94. Williamsburg, 189, 208, 217. Wilmington, 229. Wilson, Woodrow, 389, 391, 392, 398, 399-401. Windsor, 88, 90. Winthrop, John, 84-87. Wireless telegraph, 355. Wisconsin, 219. Witchcraft, 133. Wolfe, James, 169-175. Woman's Christian Temperance Union, the, 380-382. Woman suffrage, 370, 377-379. Women, the first to come to America, 72; their place in American His- tory, 367-371. Wright, Orville, 351-353- Wright, Wilbur, 351-353. Wyoming, 242, 283. Yale College, 132. Yorktown, 229-230. Young Men's Christian Association, the, 369. Young Women's Christian Association, the, 369. Zane, Elizabeth, 375-376.