Class J_iX ^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm PEEFACE I HAVE often been asked to select and epitomize the practical and especially the pedagogical conclusions of my large volumes on Adolescence, published in 1904, in such form that they may be available at a minimum cost to parents, teachers, reading circles, normal schools, and college classes, by whom even the larger volumes have been often used. This, with the cooperation of the pub- lishers and with the valuable aid of Superintendent C. N. Kendall of Indianapolis, I have tried to do, following in the main the original text, with only such minor changes and additions as were necessary to bring the topics up to date, and adding a new chapter on moral and religious education. For the scientific justification of my educational conclusions I must, of course, refer to the larger volumes. The last chapter is not in "Ado- lescence," but is revised from a paper printed elsewhere. I am indebted to Dr. Theodote L. Smith of Clark Uni- versity for verification of all references, proof-reading, and many minor changes. G. Stanley Hall. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. — Pre-Adolescence. Introduction: Characterization of the age from eight to twelve — The era of recapitulating the stages of primitive human development — Life close to nature — The age also for drill, habituation, memory work, and regermination — Adolescence superposed upon this stage of life, but very- distinct from it 1 II. — The Muscles and Motor Powers in General. Muscles as organs of the will, of character, and even of thought — The muscular virtues — Fundamental and acces- sory muscles and functions — The development of the mind and of the upright position — Small muscles as organs of thought — School lays too much stress upon these — Chorea — Vast numbers of automatic movements in children — • Great variety of spontaneous activities — Poise, control, and spurtiness — Pen and tongue wagging — Sedentary school life vs. free out-of-door activities — Modern decay of muscles, especially in girls — Plasticity of motor habits at puberty . 7 III. — Industrial Education. Trade classes and schools, their importance in the interna- tional market — Our dangers and the superiority of German workmen — The effects of a tariff — Description of schools between the kindergarten and the industrial school — Equal salaries for teachers in France — Dangers from machinery — The advantages of life on the old New England farm — Its resemblance to the education we now give ^groes and Indians — Its advantage for all-sided muscular develop- ment 29 vii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE IV. — Manual Training and Sloyd. History of the movement — Its philosophy — ^The value of hand training in the development of the brain and its sig- nificance in the making of man — A grammar of our many industries hard — The best we do can reach but few — Very great defects in our manual training methods which do not base on science and make nothing salable — The Leipzig system — Sloyd is hypermethodic — These crude peasant in- dustries can never satisfy educational needs — The gospel of work; William Morris and the arts and crafts movement — Its spirit desirable — ^The magic effects of a brief period of intense work — The natural development of the drawing instinct in the child 35 V. — Gymnastics. The story of Jahn and the Turners — ^The enthusiasm which this movement generated in Germany — ^The ideal of bringing out latent powers — ^The concept of more perfect voluntary control — Swedish gymnastics — Doing everything possible for the body as a machine — Liberal physical culture — Ling's orthogenic scheme of economic postures and movements and correcting defects — The ideal of symmetry and prescribing exercises to bring the body to a standard — Lamentable lack of correlation between these four systems — Illustrations of the great good that a systematic training can effect — Athletic records — Greek physical training .... 53 VI. — Play, Sports, and Games. The view of Groos partial, and a better explanation of play proposed as rehearsing ancestral activities — The glory of Greek physical training, its ideals and results — The first spontaneous movements of infancy as keys to the past — Necessity of developing basal powers before those that are later and peculiar to the individual — Plays that interest due to their antiquity — Play with dolls — Play distinguished by age — Play preferences of children and their reasons — The profound significance of rhythm — The value of dancing and also its significance, history, and the desirability of rein- troducing it — Fighting — Boxing — Wrestling — Bushido — viii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Foot-ball — Military ideals — Showing off — Cold baths — Hill climbing — The playground movement — The psychology of play — Its relation to work 73 VII. — Faults, Lies, and Crimes. Classification of children's faults — Peculiar children — Real faults as distinguished from interference with the teacher's ease — Truancy, its nature and effects — The genesis of crime — The lie, its classes and relations to imagination — Preda- tory activities — Gangs — Causes of crime — The effects of / stories of crime — ^Temibility — Juvenile crime and its treat- ment 120 VIII. — Biographies of Youth. Knightly ideals and honor — Thirty adolescents from Shakespeare — Goethe — C. D. Warner — Aldrich — The fugi- tive nature of adolescent experience— Extravagance of autobiographies — Stories that attach to great names — Some typical crazes — Illustrations from George Eliot, Edison, Chatterton, Hawthorne, Whittier, Spencer, Huxley, Lyell, Byron, Heine, Napoleon, Darwin, Martineau, Agassiz, Madame Roland, Louisa Alcott, F. H. Burnett, Helen Keller, Marie Bashkirtseff, Mary MacLane, Ada Negri, De Quincey, Stuart Mill, Jefferies, and scores of others .... 141 IX. — The Growth of Social Ideals. Change from childish to adult friends — Influence of favorite teachers — What children wish or plan to do or be — Property and the money sense — Social judgments — The only child — First social organizations — Student life — Associations for youth controlled by adults 207 X. — Intellectual Education and School Work. The general change and plasticity at puberty — English teaching — Causes of its failure, (1) too much time to other languages, (2) subordination of literary content to form, (3) too early stress on eye and hand instead of ear and mouth, (4) excessive use of concrete words — Children's interest in words — Their favorites — Slang — Story telling — Age of reading crazes — What to read — ^The historic sense — Growth of memory span 234 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XL — The Education of Girls. Equal opportunities of higher education now open — Brings new dangers to women — Ineradicable sex differences begin at puberty, when the sexes should and do diverge — Different interests — Sex tension — Girls more mature than boys at the same age — Radical psychic and physiological differences between the sexes — The bachelor women — Needed recon- struction — Food — Sleep — Regimen — Manners — Religion — Regularity — The topics for a girls' curriculum — The eter- nally womanly 277 XII. — Moral and Religious Training. Dangers of muscular degeneration and overstimulus of brain — Difficulties in teaching morals — Methods in Europe — Obedience to commands — Good habits should be mechan- ized — Value of scolding — How to flog aright — Its dangers — Moral precepts and proverbs — Habituation — Training will through intellect — Examinations — Concentration — Origi- ^ nality — Froebel and the naive — First ideas of God — Con- science — Importance of Old and New Testaments — Sex dangers — Love and religion — Conversion , . . . 324 YOUTH: ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE CHAPTER I PRE-ADOLESCENCE Introduction: Characterization of the age from eight to twelve — The era of recapitulating the stages of primitive human development — Life close to nature — The age also for drill, habitviation, memory- work, and regermination — Adolescence superposed upon this stage of life, but very distinct from it. The years from about eight to twelve constitute a unique period of human life. The acute stage of teeth- ing is passing, the brain has acquired nearly its adult size and weight, health is almost at its best, activity is greater and more varied than it ever "vvas before or ever will be again, and there is peculiar endurance, vitality, and re- sistance to fatigue. The child develops a life of its own outside the home circle, and its natural interests are never so independent of adult influence. Perception is very acute, and there is great immunity to exposure, danger, accident, as well as to temptation. Reason, true morality, religion, sympathy, love, and esthetic enjoy- ment are but very slightly developed. Everything, in short, suggests that this period may represent in the individual what was once for a very protracted and relatively stationary period an age of maturity in the remote ancestors of our race, when the young of our species, who were perhaps pygmoid, shifted 1 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE for themselves independently of further parental aid. The qualities developed during pre-adolescence are, in the evolutionary history of the race, far older than hered- itary traits of body and mind which develop later and which may be compared to a new and higher story built upon our primal nature. Heredity is so far both more stable and more secure. The elements of personality are few, but are well organized on a simple, effective plan. The momentum of these traits inherited from our indefi- nitely remote ancestors is great, and they are often clearly distinguishable from those to be added later. Thus the boy is father of the man in a new sense, in that his qualities are indefinitely older and existed, well com- pacted, untold ages before the more distinctly human attributes were developed. Indeed there are a few faint indications of an earlier age node, at about the age of six, as if amid the instabilities of health we could detect signs that this may have beerf the age of puberty in remote ages of the past. I have also given reasons that lead me to the conclusion that, despite its dominance, the function of sexual maturity and procreative power is peculiarly mobile up and down the age-line independently of many of the qualities usually so closely associated with it, so that much that sex created in the phylum now precedes it in the individual. Rousseau would leave prepubescent years to nature and to these primal hereditary impulsions and allow the fundamental traits of savagery their fling till twelve. Biological psychology finds many and cogent rea- sons to confirm this view if only a proper environ- ment could he provided. The child revels in savagery; and if its tribal, predatory, hunting, fishing, fighting, roving, idle, playing proclivities could be indulged in the country and under conditions that now, alas ! seem hope- 2 PRE-ADOLESCEXCE lessly ideal, they could conceivably be so organized and directed as to be far more truly humanistic and liberal than all that the best modern school can provide. Rudi- mentary organs of the soul, now suppressed, perverted, or delayed, to crop out in menacing forms later, would be de- veloped in their season so that we should be immune to them in maturer years, on the principle of the Aristote- lian catharsis for which I have tried to suggest a far broader application than the Stagirite could see in his day. These inborn and more or less savage instincts can and should be allowed some scope. The deep and strong cravings in the individual for those primitive experiences and occupations in which his ancestors became skilful through the pressure of necessity should not be ignored, but can and should be, at least partially, satisfied in a vicarious way, by tales from literature, history, and tradition which present the crude and primitive virtues of the heroes of the world's childhood. In this way, aided by his vivid visual imagination, the child may enter upon his heritage from the past, live out each stage of life to its fullest and realize in himself all its manifold ten- dencies. ' Echoes only of the vaster, richer life of the remote past of the race they must remain, but just these are the murmurings of the only muse that can save from the omnipresent dangers of precocity. Thus we not only rescue from the danger of loss, but utilize for further psychic growth the results of the higher heredity, which are the most precious and potential things on earth. So, too, in our urbanized hothouse life, that tends to ripen everything before its time, we must teach nature, although the very phrase is ominous. But we must not, in so doing, wean still more from, but perpetually incite to visit, field, forest, hill, shore, the water, flowers, 3 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, RJ IGIMEN, AND HYGIENE animals, the true homes of childhood in this wild, un- domesticated stage from which modern conditions have kidnapped and transported him. Books and reading are distasteful, for the very soul and body cry out for a more active, objective life, and to know nature and man at first hand. These two staples, stories and nature, by these informal methods of the home and the environ- ment, constitute fundamental education. But now another remove from nature seems to be made necessary by the manifold knowledges and skills of our highly complex civilization. We should trans- plant the human sapling, I concede reluctantly, as early as eight, but not before, to the schoolhouse with its im- perfect lighting, ventilation, temperature. We must shut out nature and open books. The child must sit on unhygienic benches and work the tiny muscles that wag the tongue and pen, and let all the others, which consti- tute nearly half its weight, decay. Even if it be pre- maturely, he must be subjected to special disciplines and be apprenticed to the higher qualities of adulthood ; for he is not only a product of nature, but a candidate for a highly developed humanity. To many, if not most, of the influences here there can be at first but little inner response. Insight, understanding, interest, sentiment, are for the most part only nascent; and most that per- tains to the true kingdom of mature manhood is em- bryonic. The wisest requirements seem to the child more or less alien, arbitrary, heteronomous, artificial, falsetto. There is much passivity, often active resistance and evasion, and perhaps spasms of obstinacy, to it all. But the senses are keen and alert, reactions immediate and vigorous ; and the memory is quick, sure and lasting ; and ideas of space, time, and physical causation, and of many a moral and social licit and non-licit, are rapidly unfold- 4 PRE-ADOLESCENCE mg. Never again will there be such susceptibility to drill and discipline, such plasticity to habituation, or such ready adjustment to new conditions. It is the age of external and mechanical training. Reading, writing, dr-awing, manual training, musical technic, foreign tongues and their pronunciation, the manipulation of numbers and of geometrical elements, and many kinds of skill have now their golden hour; and if it passes unim- proved, all these can never be acquired later without a heavy handicap of disadvantage and loss. These necessi- ties may be hard for the health of body, sense, mind, as well as for morals ; and pedagogic art consists in breaking the child into them betimes as intensely and as quickly as possible with minimal strain and with the least amount of explanation or coquetting for natural interest, and in calling medicine confectionery. This is not teaching in its true sense so much as it is drill, inculcation, and regimentation. The method should be mechanical, re- petitive, authoritative, dogmatic. The automatic powers are now at their very apex, and they can do and bear more than our degenerate pedagogy knows or dreams of. Here we have something to learn from the schoolmasters of the past back to the middle ages, and even from the ancients. The greatest stress, with short periods and few hours, incessant insistence, incitement, and little reliance upon interest, reason, or work done without the presence of the teacher, should be the guid- ing principles for pressure in these essentially formal and, to the child, contentless elements of knowledge. These should be sharply distinguished from the in- digenous, evoking, and more truly educational factors described in the last paragraph, which are meaty, con- tent-full, and relatively formless as to time of day, method, spirit, and perhaps environment and personnel 5 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE of teacher, 'and possibly somewhat in season of the year, almost as sharply as work differs from play, or perhaps as the virility of man that loves to command a phalanx, be a martinet and drill-master, differs from femininity which excels in persuasion, sympathetic insight, story- telling, and in the tact that discerns and utilizes spon- taneous interests in the young. Adolescence is a new birth, for the higher and more completely human traits are now born. The qualities of body and soul that now emerge are far newer. The child comes from and harks back to a remoter past ; the adoles- cent is neo-atavistic, and in him the later acquisitions of the race slowly become prepotent. Development is less gradual and more saltatory, suggestive of some ancient period of storm and stress when old moorings were broken and a higher level attained. The annual rate of growth in height, weight, and strength is increased and often doubled, and even more. Important functions, previously non-existent, arise. Growth of parts and or- gans loses its former proportions, some permanently and some for a season. Some of these are still growing in old age and others are soon arrested and atrophy. The old measures of dimensions become obsolete, and old har- monies are broken. The range of individual differences and average errors in all physical measurements and all psychic tests increases. Some linger long in the childish stage and advance late or slowly, while others push on with a sudden outburst of impulsion to early maturity. Bones and muscles lead all other tissues, as if they vied with each other; and there is frequent flabbiness or ten- sion as one or the other leads. Nature arms youth for conflict with all the resources at her command — speed, power of shoulder, biceps, back, leg, jaw — strengthens and enlarges skull, thorax, hips, makes man aggressive and prepares woman's frame for maternity. 6 CHAPTER II THE MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL Muscles as organs of the will, of character, and even of thought — The muscular virtues — Fundamental and accessory muscles and functions — The development of the mind and of the upright position — Small muscles as organs of thought — School lays too much stress upon these — Chorea — Vast numbers of automatic movements in children — Great variety of spontaneous activities — Poise, control and spurtiness — Pen and tongue wagging — Sedentary school life vs. free out-of-door activ- ities — Modern decay of muscles, especially in girls — Plasticity of motor habits at puberty. The muscles are by weight about forty-three per cent of the average adult male human body. They expend a large fraction of all the kinetic energy of the adult body, which a recent estimate places as high as one-fifth. The cortical centers for the voluntary muscles extend over most of the lateral psychic zones of the brain, so that their culture is brain building. In a sense they are organs of digestion, for which function they play a very important role. IMuscles are in a most intimate and peculiar sense the organs of the will. They have built all the roads, cities, and machines in the world, written all the books, spoken all the words, and, in fact, done every- thing that man has accomplished with matter. If they are undeveloped or grow relaxed and flabby, the dread- ful chasm between good intentions and their execution is liable to appear and widen. Character might be in a sense defined as a plexus of motor habits. To call con- duct three-fourths of life, with ]\Iatthew Arnold ; to de- scribe man as one-third intellect and two-thirds will, with 2 7 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENI Schopenhauer; to urge that man is what he does or th -i he is the sum of his movements, with F. W. Robertso: that character is simply muscle habits, with Maudsle; that the age of art is now slowly superseding the age oi science, and that the artist will drive out with the pro- fessor, with the anonymous author of " Rembrandt als Erzieher"^; that history is consciously willed move- ments, with Bluntschli; or that we could form no con- ception of force or energy in the world but for our own muscular effort; to hold that most thought involves change of muscle tension as more or less integral to it — all this shows how Vve have modified the antique Cice- ronian conception vivere est cogitari,^ to vivere est velle,^ and gives us a new sense of the importance of muscular development and regimen.* Modern psychology thus sees in muscles organs of expression for all efferent processes. Beyond all their demonstrable functions, every change of attention and of psychic states generally plays upon them unconsciously, modifying their tension in subtle ways so that they may be called organs of thought and feeling as well as of will, in which some now see the true Kantian thing-in-itself the real substance of the world, in the anthropomor- phism of force. Habits even determine the deeper strata of belief; thought is repressed action; and deeds, not words, are the language of complete men. The motor areas are closely related and largely identical with the psychic, and muscle culture develops brain-centers as nothing else yet demonstrably does. Muscles are the vehicles of habituation, imitation, obedience, character, and even of manners and customs. For the young, motor education is cardinal, and is now coming to due 1 Dieterich. Gottingen, 1886. 2 To live is to think. 3 To live is to will. See Chap. xii. 8 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL recognition; and, for all, education is incomplete without a motor side. Skill, endurance, and perseverance may almost be called muscular virtues; and fatigue, velleity, caprice, ennui, restlessness, lack of control and poise, muscular faults. To understand the momentous changes of motor functions that characterize adolescence we must con- sider other than the measurable aspects of the subject. Perhaps the best scale on which to measure all normal growth of muscle structure and functions is found in the progress from fundamental to accessory. The former designates the muscles and movements of the trunk and large joints, neck, back, hips, shoulders, knees, and elbows, sometimes called central, and which in general man has in common with the higher and larger animals. Their activities are few, mostly simultaneous, alternating and rhythmic, as of the legs in walking, and predomi- nate in hard-working men and women with little culture or intelligence, and often in idiots. The latter or acces- sory movements are those of the hand, tongue, face, and articulatory organs, and these may be connected into a long and greatly diversified series, as those used in writing, talking, piano-playing. They are represented by smaller and more numerous muscles, whose functions develop later in life and represent a higher standpoint of evolution. These smaller muscles for finer move- ments come into function later and are chiefly associated with psychic activity, which plays upon them by inces- santly changing their tensions, if not causing actual movement. It is these that are so liable to disorder in the many automatisms and choreic tics we see in school children, especially if excited or fatigued. General paralysis usually begins in the higher levels by breaking these down, so that the first symptom of its insidious and 9 V YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE never interrupted progress is inability to execute the more exact and delicate movements of tongue or hand, or both. Starting with the latest evolutionary level, it is a devolution that may work downward till very many of the fundamental activities are lost before death. Nothing better illustrates this distinction than the difference between the fore foot of animals and the hu- man hand. The first begins as a fin or paddle or is armed with a hoof, and is used solely for locomotion. Some carnivora with claws use the fore limb also for holding as well as tearing, and others for digging. Arboreal life seems to have almost created the simian hand and to have wrought a revolution in the form and use of the forearm and its accessory organs, the fingers. Apes and other tree-climbing creatures must not only adjust their pre- hensile organ to a wide variety of distances and sizes of branches, but must use the hands more or less freely for picking, transporting, and eating fruit; and this has probably been a prime factor in lifting man to the erect position, without which human intelligence as we know it could have hardly been possible. ' ' When we attempt to measure the gap between man and the lower animals in terms of the form of movement, the wonder is no less great than when we use the term of mentality." ^ The degree of approximation to human intelligence in anthro- poid animals follows very closely the degree of approxi- mation to human movements. The gradual acquirement of the erect position by the human infant admirably repeats this long phylogenetic evolution.^ At first the limbs are of almost no use in 1 F. Burk in From Fundamental to Accessory. Pedagogical Semi- nary, Oct., 1898, vol. 6, pp. 5-64. 2 Creeping and Walking, by A. W. Trettien. American Journal of Psychology, October, 1900, vol. 12, pp. 1-57. 10 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL locomotion, but the fundamental trunk muscles with those that move the large joints are more or less spas- modically active. Then comes creeping, with use of the hip muscles, while all below the knee is useless, as also are the fingers. Slowly the leg and foot are degraded to locomotion, slowly the great toe becomes more limited in its action, the thumb increases in flexibility and strength of opposition, and the fingers grow more mobile and controllable. As the body slowly assumes the verti- cal attitude, the form of the chest changes till its greatest diameter is transverse instead of from front to back. The shoulder-blades are less parallel than in quadrupeds, and spread out till they approximate the same plane. This gives the arm freedom of movement laterally, so that it can be rotated one hundred and eighty degrees in man as contrasted to one hundred degrees in apes, thus giving man the command of almost any point within a sphere of which the two arms are radii. The power of grasping was partly developed from and partly added to the old locomotor function of the fore limbs ; the jerky aimless automatisms, as well as the slow rhythmic flexion and extension of the fingers and hand, movements which are perhaps survivals of arboreal or of even earlier aquatic life, are coordinated; and the bilateral and si- multaneous rhythmic movements of the heavier muscles are supplemented by the more finely adjusted and spe- cialized activities which as the end of the growth period is approached are detci-mined less by heredity and more by environment. In a sense, a child or a man is the sum total of his movements or tendencies to move; and nature and instinct chiefly determine the basal, and edu- cation the accessory parts of our activities. The entire accessory system is thus of vital impor- tance for the development of all of the arts of expression. 11 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE These smaller muscles might almost be called organs of thought. Their tension is modified with the faintest change of soul, such as is seen in accent, inflection, facial expressions, handwriting, and many forms of so-called mind-reading, which, in fact, is always muscle-reading. The day-laborer of low intelligence, with a practical vocabulary of not over five hundred words, who can hardly move each of his fingers without moving others or all of them, who can not move his brows or corrugate his forehead at will, and whose inflection is very monoto- nous, illustrates a condition of arrest or atrophy of this later, finer, accessory system of muscles. On the other hand, the child, precocious in any or all of these later respects, is very liable to be undeveloped in the larger and more fundamental parts and functions. The full unfoldment of each is, in fact, an inexorable condition precedent for the normal development to full and abid- ing maturity of the higher and more refined muscularity, just as conversely the awkwardness and clumsiness of adolescence mark a temporary loss of balance in the opposite direction. If this general conception be correct, then nature does not finish the basis of her pyramid in the way Ross, Mercier, and others have assumed, but lays a part of the foundation and, after carrying it to an apex, normally goes back and adds to the foundation to carry up the apex still higher and, if prevented from so doing, expends her energy in building the apex up at a sharper angle till instability results. School and kinder- ■ garten often lay a disproportionate strain on the tiny ac- cessory muscles, weighing altogether but a few ounces, that wag the tongue, move the pen, and do fine work re- quiring accuracy. But still at this stage prolonged work requiring great accuracy is irksome and brings dangers homologous to those caused by too much fine work in the 12 7 / MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL kindergarten before the first adjustment of large to small muscles, which lasts until adolescence, is estab- lished. Then disproportion between function and growth often causes symptoms of chorea. The chief danger is arrest of the development and control of the smaller muscles. Many occupations and forms of athlet- ics, on the contrary, place the stress mainly upon groups of fundamental muscles to the neglect of finer motor pos- sibilities. Some who excel in heavy athletics no doubt coarsen their motor reactions, become not only inexact and heavy but unresponsive to finer stimuli, as if the large muscles were hypertrophied and the small ones ar- rested. On the other hand, many young men, and prob- ably more young women, expend too little of their avail- able active energy upon basal and massive muscle work, and cultivate too much, and above all too early, the delicate responsive work. This is, perhaps, the best physiological characterization of precocity and issues in excessive nervous and muscular irritability. The great influx of muscular vigor that unfolds during adolescent years and which was originally not only necessary to suc- cessful propagation, but expressive of virility, seems to be a very plastic quantity, so that motor regimen and exercise at this stage is probably more important and all-conditioning for mentality, sexuality, and health than at any other period of life. Intensity, and for a time a spurty diathesis, is as instinctive and desirable as are the copious minor automatisms which spontaneously give the alphabet out of which complex and finer motor series are later spelled by the conscious will. Mercier and others have pointed out that, as most skilled labor, so school work and modern activities in civilized life generally lay premature and disproportionate strains upon those kinds of movement requiring exactness. Stress upon basal 13 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATIOxN, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE movements is not only compensating but is of higher therapeutic value against the disorders of the accessory system; it constitutes the best cure or prophylactic for fidgets and tense states, and directly develops poise, con- trol, and psycho-physical equilibrium. Even when con- tractions reach choreic intensity the best treatment is to throw activities down the scale that measures the differ- ence between primary and secondary movements and to make the former predominate. The number of movements, the frequency with which they are repeated, their diversity, the number of combi- nations, and their total kinetic quantum in young chil- dren, whether we consider movements of the body as a whole, fundamental movements of large limbs, or finer accessory motions, is amazing. Nearly every external stimulus is answered by a motor response. Dresslar ^ ob- served a thirteen months' old baby for four hours, and found, to follow Preyer's classification, impulsive or spontaneous, reflex, instinctive, imitative, inhibitive, ex- pressive, and even deliberative movements, with marked satisfaction in rhythm, attempts to do almost anything which appealed to him, and almost inexhaustible efferent resources. A friend has tried to record every word ut- tered by a four-year-old girl during a portion of a day, and finds nothing less than verbigerations. A teacher noted the activities of a fourteen-year-old boy during the study time of a single school day,^ with similar results. Lindley ' studied 897 common motor automatisms in children, which he divided into 92 classes: 45 in the re- 1 A Morning Observation of a Baby. Pedagogical Seminary, Decem- ber, 1901, vol. 8, pp. 469-481. 2 Kate Carman. Notes on School Activity. Pedagogical Seminary, March, 1902, vol. 9, pp. 106-117. 3 A Preliminary Study of Some of the Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort. American Journal of Psychology, July, 1896, vol. 7, pp. 491-517. 14 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL gion of the head, 20 in the feet and legs, 19 in the hands and fingers. Arranged in the order of frequency with which each was found, the list stood as follows : fingers, feet, lips, tongue, head, body, hands, mouth, eyes, jaws, legs, forehead, face, arms, ears. In the last five alone adolescents exceeded children, the latter excelling the former most in those of head, mouth, legs, and tongue, in this order. The writer believes that there are many more automatisms than appeared in his returns. School life, especially in the lower grades, is a rich field for the study of these activities. They are familiar, as licking things, clicking with the tongue, grinding the teeth, scratching, tapping, twirling a lock of hair or chewing it, biting the nails (Berillon's onychophagia), shrugging, corrugating, pulling buttons or twisting garments, strings, etc., twirling pencils, thumbs, rotat- ing, nodding and shaking the head, squinting and wink- ing, swaying, pouting and grimacing, scraping the floor, rubbing hands, stroking, patting, flicking the fingers, wagging, snapping the fingers, snuffling, squinting, pick- ing the face, interlacing the fingers, cracking the joints, finger plays, biting and nibbling, trotting the leg, suck- ing things, etc. The average number of automatisms per 100 persons Smith found to be in children 176, in adolescents 110. Swaying is chiefly with children ; playing and drumming with the fingers is more common among adolescents ; the movements of fingers and feet decline little with age, and those of eyes and forehead increase, which is significant for the development of attention. Girls excel greatly in swaying, and also, although less, in finger automatism; and boys lead in movements of tongue, feet, and hands. Such movements increase, with too much sitting, inten- sity of effort, such as to fix attention, and vary with the 15 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE nature of the activity willed, but involve few muscles directly used in a given task. They increase up the kindergarten grades and fall off rapidly in the primary grades; are greater with'tasks requiring fine and exact movements than with those involving large movements. Automatisms are often a sign of the difficulty of tasks. The restlessness that they often express is one of the com- monest signs of fatigue. They are mostly in the acces- sory muscles, while those of the fundamental muscles (body, legs, and arms) disappear rapidly with age; those of eye, brow, and jaw show greatest increase with age, but their frequency in general declines with growing maturity, although there is increased frequency of cer- tain specialized contractions, which indicate the gradual settling of expression in the face. Often such movements pass over by insensible grada- tion into the morbid automatism of chorea, and in yet lower levels of decay we see them in the aimless picking and plucking movements of the fingers of the sick. In idiots ^ arrest of higher powers often goes with hyper- trophy of these movements, as seen in head-beaters (as if, just as nature impels those partially blind to rub the eyes for " light-hunger," so it prompts the feeble- minded to strike the head for cerebrations), rockers, rackers, shakers, biters, etc. Movements often pass to fixed attitudes and postures of limbs or body, disturbing the normal balance between flexors and extensors, the significance of which as nerve signs or exponents of habitual brain states and tensions Warner has so admir- ably shown. Abundance and vigor of automatic movements are desirable, and even a considerable degree of restlessness 1 G. E. Johnson. Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-Minded Children. Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1895, vol. 3, pp. 246-301. 16 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL is a good sign in young children. ]Many of what are now often called nerve signs and even choreic symp- toms, the fidgetiness in school on cloudy days and often after a vacation, the motor superfluities of awkwardness, embarrassment, extreme effort, excitement, fatigue, sleepiness, etc., are simply the forms in which we re- ceive the full momentum of heredity and mark a natural richness of the raw material of intellect, feel- ing, and especially of will. Hence they must be abun- dant. All parts should act in all possible w^ays at first and untrammeled by the activity of all other parts and functions. Some of these activities are more essential for growth in size than are later and more conscious movements. Here as everywhere the rule holds that powers themselves must be unfolded before the ability to check or even to use them can develop. All move- ments arising from spontaneous activity of nerve cells or centers must be made in order even to avoid the atrophy of disease. Not only so, but this purer kind of innateness must often be helped out to some extent in some children by stimulating reflexes ; a rich and wdde repertory of sensation must be made familiar; more or less and very guarded, watched and limited experiences of hunger, thirst, cold, heat, tastes, sounds, smells, colors, brightnesses, tactile irritations, and perhaps even occasional tickling and pain to play off the vastly com- plex function of laughing, crying, etc., may in some cases be judicious. Conscious and unconscious imita- tion or repetition of every sort of copy may also help to establish the immediate and low-level connection be- tween afferent and efferent processes that brings the organism into direct rapport and harmony with the whole world of sense. Perhaps the more rankly and in- dependently they are developed to full functional in- 17 Syy YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE j tegrity, each in its season, if we only knew that sea- vi son, the better. Premature control by higher centers, or coordination into higher compounds of habits and ordered serial activities, is repressive and wasteful, and the mature will of which they are components, or which must at least domesticate them, is stronger and more forcible if this serial stage is not unduly abridged. / But, secondly, many, if not most, of these activities ^|when developed a little, group after group, as they arise, must be controlled, checked, and organized into higher and often more serial compounds. The inhibiting func- tions are at first hard. In trying to sit still the child sets its teeth, holds the breath, clenches its fists and per- haps makes every muscle tense with a great effort that very soon exhausts. This repressive function is prob- ably not worked from special nervous centers, nor can we speak with confidence of collisions with " sums of arrest " in a sense analogous to that of Herbart, or of stimuli that normally cause catabolic molecular proc- esses in the cells, being mysteriously diverted to pro- duce increased instability or anabolic lability in the sense of Wundt's Mechanik der N erven. 'The concept now suggested by many facts is that inhibition is irradi- ation or long circuiting to higher and more complex brain areas, so that the energy, whether spontaneous or reflex, is diverted to be used elsewhere. These combina- tions are of a higher order, more remote from reflex action, and modified by some Jacksonian third level. ^ 1 Dr. Hughlings Jackson, the eminent English pathologist, was the first to make practical application of the evolutionary theory of the nervous system to the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsies and mental diseases. The practical success of this application was so great that the Hughlings-Jackson "three-level theory" is now the established basis of English diagnosis. He conceived the nervous mechanism as composed of three systems, arranged in the form of a hierarchy, the higher including 18 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL Action is now not from independent centers, but these are slowly associated, so that excitation may flow off from one point to any other and any reaction may re- sult from any stimulus. The more unified the brain the less it suffers from localization, and the lower is the level to which any one function can exhaust the whole. The tendency of each group of cells to discharge or overflow into those of lower tension than themselves increases as correspond- ence in time and space widens. The more one of a number of activities gains in power to draw on all the brain, or the more readily the active parts are fed at cost of the resting parts, the less is rest to be found in change from one of these activities to another, and the less do concentration and specialization prove to be dan- gerous. Before, the aim was to wake all parts to func- the lower, and yet each having a certain degree of independence. The first level represents the type of simplest reflex and involuntary move- ment and is localized in the gray matter of the spinal cord, medulla, and pons. The second, or middle level, comprises those structures which receive sensory impulses from the cells of the lowest level instead of directly from the periphery or the non-nervous tissues. The motor cells of this middle level also discharge into the motor mechanisms of the lowest level. Jackson located these middle level structures in the cortex of the central convolutions, the basal ganglia and the centers of the special senses in the cortex. The highest level bears the same relation to the middle level that it bears to the lowest i.e., no continuous connec- tion between the highest and the lowest level is assumed; the structures of the middle level mediate between them as a system of relays. Accord- ing to this hierarchical arrangement of the nervous system, the lowest level which is the simplest and oldest "contains the mechanism for the simple fundamental movements in reflexes and involuntary reactions. The second level regroups these simple movements by combinations and associations of cortical structures in wider, more complex mechanisms, producing a higher class of movements. The highest level unifies the whole nervous system and, according to Jackson, is the anatomical basis of mind." For a fuller account of this theory see Burk : From Fundamental to Accessory in the Nervous System and of Movements. Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1898, vol. 6, pp. 17-23. 19 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE tion ; now it is to connect them. Intensity of this cross- section activity now tends to unity, so that all parts of the brain energize together. In a brain with this switch- board function well organized, each reaction has grown independent of its own stimulus and may result from any stimulation, and each act, e. g., a finger movement of a peculiar nature, may tire the whole brain. This helps us to understand why brain-workers so often excel laborers not only in sudden dynamometric strength test, but in sustained and long-enduring effort. In a good brain or in a good machine, power may thus be de- veloped over a large surface, and all of it applied to a small one, and hence the dangers of specialization are lessened in exact proportion as the elements of our ego are thus compacted together. It is in the variety and delicacy of these combinations and all that they imply, far more than in the elements of which they are com- posed, that man rises farthest above the higher animals ; and of these powers later adolescence is the golden age. The aimless and archaic movements of infancy, whether massive and complex or in the form of isolated auto- matic tweaks or twinges, are thus, by slow processes of combined analysis and synthesis, involving changes as radical as any in all the world of growth, made over into habits and conduct that fit the world of present environment. But, thirdly, this long process carried out with all degrees of completeness may be arrested at any unfin- ished stage. Some automatisms refuse to be controlled by the will, and both they and it are often overworked. Here we must distinguish constantly between (1) those growing rankly in order to be later organized under the will, and (2) those that have become feral after this domestication of them has lost power from disease or 20 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL fatigue, and (3) those that have never been subju- gated because the central power that should have used them to weave the texture of willed action — the proper language of complete manhood — was itself arrested or degenerate. With regard to many of these movements these distinctions can be made with confidence, and in some children more cer- tainly than in others. In childhood, before twelve, the efferent patterns should be developed into many i more or less indelible habits, and their colors set fast. !/ Motor specialties requiring exactness and grace like piano-playing, drawing, writing, pronunciation of a foreign tongue, dancing, acting, singing, and a host of virtuosities, must be well begun before the relative ar- rest of accessory growth at the dawn of the ephebic regeneration and before its great afflux of strength. The facts seem to show that children of this age, such as Hancock ^ described, who could not stand with feet close together and eyes closed without swaying much, could not walk backward, sit still half a minute, dress alone, tie two ends of a string together, interlace slats, wind thread, spin a top, stand on toes or heels, hop on each foot, drive a nail, roll a hoop, skate, hit fingers together rapidly in succession beginning at the little finger and then reversing, etc., are the very ones in whom autom- atisms are most marked or else they are those consti- tutionally inert, dull, or uneducable. In children these motor residua may persist as char- acteristic features of inflection, accent, or manners; automatisms may become morbid in stammering or stut- tering, or they may be seen in gait, handwriting, tics » A Preliminary Study of Some of the Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort. American Journal of Psychology, July, 1896, vol. 7, pp. 491- 517. 21 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE or tweaks, etc. Instead of disappearing with age, as they should, they are seen in the blind as facial grimaces uncorrected by the mirror or facial consciousness, in the deaf as inarticulate noises; and they may tend to grow monstrous w^ith age as if they were disintegrated frag- ments of our personality, split off and aborted, or motor parasites leaving our psycho-physic ego poorer in energy and plasticity of adaptation, till the distraction and anarchy of the individual nature becomes conspicuous and pathetic. At puberty, however, when muscle habits are so plastic, when there is a new relation between quantity or volume of motor energy and qualitative differenti- ation, and between volitional control and reflex activi- ties, these kinetic remnants strongly tend to shoot to- gether into wrong aggregates if right ones are not formed. Good manners and correct motor form gener- ally, as well as skill, are the most economic ways of doing things; but this is the age of wasteful ways, awkward- ness, mannerisms, tensions that are a constant leakage of vital energy, perhaps semi-imperative acts, con- tortions, quaint movements, more elaborated than in childhood and often highly unesthetic and disagreeable, motor coordinations that will need laborious decomposi^ tion later. The avoidable factor in their causation is, with some modification, not unlike that of the simpler feral movements and faulty attitudes, carriage, and pos- tures in children ; viz., some form of overpressure or mis- fit between environment and nature. As during the years from four to eight there is great danger that over- emphasis of the activities of the accessory muscles will sow the seeds of chorea, or aggravate predispositions to it, now again comes a greatly increased danger, -hardly existing from eight to twelve, that overprecision, es- 22 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL peeially if fundamental activities are neglected, will bring nervous strain and stunting precocity. This is again the age of the basal, e. g., hill-climbing muscles, of leg and back and shoulder work, and of the yet more fundamental heart, lung, and chest muscles. Now again, the study of a book, under the usual conditions of sit- ting in a closed space and using pen, tongue, and eye combined, has a tendency to overstimulate the accessory i / muscles. This is especially harmful for city children who are too prone to the distraction of overmobility at an age especially exposed to maladjustment of motor in- come and expenditure; and it constitutes not a liberal or power-generating, but a highly and prematurely specialized, narrowing, and weakening education unless offset by safeguards better than any system of gymnas- tics, which is at best artificial and exaggerated. As Bryan well says, '^ The efficiency of a machine depends so far as we know upon the maximum force, rate, amplitude, and variety of direction of its move- ments and upon the exactness with which below these maxima the force, rate, amplitude, and direction of the movements can be controlled." The motor efficiency of a man depends upon his ability in all these respects. Moreover, the education of the small muscles and fine adjustments of larger ones is as near mental training as physical culture can get; for these are the thought- \ muscles and movements, and their perfected function is ) to reflect and express by slight modifications of tension and tone every psychic change. Only the brain itself is more closely and immediately an organ of thought than are these muscles and their activity, reflex, spontaneous, \/ or imitative in origin. Whether any of them are of value, as Lindley thinks, in arousing the brain to ac- tivity, or, as Miiller suggests, in drawing off sensations 3 23 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE or venting efferent impulses that would otherwise dis- tract, we need not here discuss. If so, this is, of course, a secondary and late function — nature's way of making the best of things and utilizing remnants. With these facts and their implications in mind we can next pass to consider the conditions under which the adolescent muscles best develop. Here we confront one of the greatest and most difficult problems of our age. Changes in modern motor life have been so vast and sudden as to present some of the most comprehen- sive and all-conditioning dangers that threaten civilized races. Not only have the forms of labor been radically changed within a generation or two, but the basal ac- tivities that shaped the body of primitive man have been suddenly swept away by the new methods of mod- ern industry. Even popular sports, games, and recrea- tions, so abundant in the early life of all progressive peoples, have been reduced and transformed; and the play age, that once extended on to middle life and often old age, has been restricted. Sedentary life in schools and offices, as we have seen, is reducing the vigor and size of our lower limbs. Our industry is no longer under hygienic conditions; and instead of being out of doors, in the country, or of highly diversified kinds, it is now specialized, monotonous, carried on in closed spaces, bad air, and perhaps poor light, especially in cities. The diseases and arrest bred in the young by life in shops, offices, factories, and schools increase. Work is rigidly bound to fixed hours, uniform standards, stints and piece-products; and instead of a finished article, each individual now achieves a part of a single process and knows little of those that precede or follow. Machinery has relieved the large basal muscles and laid more stress upon fine and exact movements that involve nerve strain. 24 MUSCLES AND MOTOR POWERS IN GENERAL The coarser forms of work that involve hard lifting, carrying, digging, etc., are themselves specialized, and skilled labor requires more and more brain-work. It has been estimated that '' the diminution of manual labor required to do a given quantity of work in 1884 as compared with 1870 is no less than 70 per cent. "^ Personal interest in and the old native sense of re- sponsibility for results, ownership and use of the finished products, which have been the inspiration and soul of work in all the past, are in more and more fields gone. Those who realize how small a proportion of the young male population train or even engage in amateur sports with zest and regularity, how very few and picked men strive for records, and how immediate and amazing are the results of judicious training, can best under- stand how far below his possibilities as a motor being the average modern man goes through life, and how far short in this respect he falls from fulfilling nature's design for him. For unnumbered generations primitive man in the nomad age wandered, made perhaps annual migrations, and bore hea^^y burdens, while we ride relatively unen- cumbered. He tilled the reluctant soil, digging with rude implements where we use machines of many man- power. In the stone, iron, and bronze age, he shaped stone and metals, and wrought with infinite pains and effort, products that we buy without even knowledge of the processes by which they are made. As hunter he followed game, which, when found, he chased, fought, and overcame in a struggle perhaps desperate, while we shoot it at a distance with little risk or effort. In warfare he fought hand to hand and eye to eye, while we kill " with as much black powder as can be put in 1 Encyclopsedia of Social Reform, Funk and Wagnalls, 1896, p. 1095. 25 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE a woman's thimble." He caught and domesticated scores of species of wild animals and taught them to serve him; fished with patience and skill that compen- sated his crude tools, weapons, implements, and tackle; danced to exhaustion in the service of his gods or in memory of his forebears, imitating every animal, re- hearsing all his own activities in mimic form to the point of exhaustion, while we move through a few fig- ures in closed spaces. He dressed hides, wove baskets which we can not reproduce, and fabrics which we only poorly imitate by machinery, made pottery which set our fashions, played games that invigorated body and soul. His courtship was with feats of prowess and skill, and meant physical effort and endurance. Adolescent girls, especially in the middle classes, in upper grammar and high school grades, during the golden age for nascent muscular development, suffer per- haps most of all in this respect. Grave as are the evils of child labor, I believe far more pubescents in this country now suffer from too little than from too much physical exercise, while most who suffer from w^ork do so because it is too uniform, one-sided, accessory, or per- formed under unwholesome conditions, and not because it is excessive in amount. Modern industry has thus largely ceased to be a means of physical development and needs to be offset by compensating modes of activity. Many labor-saving devices increase neural strain, so that one of the problems of our time is how to preserve and restore nerve energy. Under present industrial systems this must grow worse and not better in the future. Healthy natural industries will be less and less open to the young. This is the new situation that now confronts those con- cerned for motor education, if they would only make good what is lost. 26 MUSCLES AND MOTOR PO\YERS IN GENERAL Some of the results of these conditions are seen in average measurements of dimensions, proportions, strength, skill, and control. Despite the excellence of the few, the testimony of those most familiar with the bodies of children and adults, and their plwsical powers, gives evidence of the ravages of modern modes of life that, without a wide-spread motor revival, can bode only- degeneration for our nation and our race. The number of common things that can not be done at all ; the large proportion of our youth who must be exempted from many kinds of activity or a great amount of any; the thin limbs, collapsed shoulders or chests, the bilateral asymmetry, weak hearts, lungs, eyes, puny and bad voices, muddy or pallid complexions, tired ways, autom- atism, dyspeptic stomachs, the effects of youthful error or of impoverished heredity, delicate and tender nur- ture, often, alas, only too necessary, show the lamentable and cumulative effects of long neglect of the motor abilities, the most educable of all man's powers; and perhaps the most important for his well-being. If the unfaithful stewards of these puny and shameful bodies had again, as in Sparta, to strip and stand before stern judges and render them account, and be smitten with a conviction of their weakness, guilty deformity, and ar- rest of growth ; if they were brought to realize how they are fallen beings, as weak as stern theologians once deemed them depraved, and how great their need of physical salvation, we might hope again for a physical renaissance. Such a rebirth the world has seen but twice or perhaps thrice, and each was followed by the two or three of the brightest culture periods of history, and formed an epoch in the advancement of the kingdom of man. A vast body of evidence could be collected from the writings of anthropologists showing how superior 27 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE unspoiled savages are to civilized man in correct or esthetic proportions of body, in many forms of endur- ance of fatigiie, hardship, and power to bear exposure, in the development and preservation of teeth and hair, in keenness of senses, absence of deformities, as well as immunity to many of our diseases. Their women are stronger and bear hardship and exposure, monthly periods and childbirth, better. Civilization is so hard on the body that some have called it a disease, despite the arts that keep puny bodies alive to a greater average age, and our greater protection from contagious and germ diseases. The progressive realization of these tendencies has prompted most of the best recent and great changes motor-ward in education and also in personal regimen. Health- and strength-giving agencies have put to school the large motor areas of the brain, so long neglected, and have vastly enlarged their scope. Thousands of youth are now inspired with new enthusiasm for physical de- velopment; and new institutions of many kinds and grades have arisen, with a voluminous literature, unnum- bered specialists, specialties, new apparatus, tests, move- ments, methods, and theories; and the press, the public, and the church are awakened to a fresh interest in the body and its powers. All this is magnificent, but sadly inadequate to cope with the new needs and dangers, which are vastly greater. 28 CHAPTER III INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Trade classes and schools, their importance in the international market — Our dangers and the superioritj^ of German workmen — The effects of a tariff — Description of schools between the kindergarten and the industrial school — Equal salaries for teachers in France — Dangers from machinery — The advantages of life on the old New England farm — Its resemblance to the education we now give Begroes and In- dians — Its advantage for all-sided muscular development. We must glance at a few of the best and most tj^pical methods of muscular development, following the order: industrial education, manual training, gymnastics, and play, sports, and games. Industrial education is now imperative for every nation that would excel in agriculture, manufacture, and trade, not only because of the growing intensity of com- petition, but because of the decline of the apprentice system and the growing intricacy of processes, requir- ing only the skill needed for livelihood. Thousands of our youth of late have been diverted from secondary schools to the monotechnic or trade classes now estab- lished for horology, glass-work, brick-laying, carpentry, forging, dressmaking, cooking, typesetting, bookbinding, brewing, seamanship, work in leather, rubber, horticul- ture, gardening, photography, basketry, stock-raising, typewriting, stenography and bookkeeping, elementary commercial training for practical preparation for clerk- ships, etc. In this work not only is Boston, our most 29 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE advanced city, as President Pritchett ^ has shown in detail, far behind Berlin, but German workmen and shopmen are slowly taking the best places even in England ; and but for a high tariff, which protects our in- feriority, the competitive pressure would be still greater. In Germany, especially, this training is far more diversi- fied than here, always being colored if not determined by the prevalent industry of the region and more special- ized and helped out by evening and even Sunday classes in the school buildings, and by the still strong apprentice system. Froebelian influence in manual training reaches through the eight school years and is in some respects better than ours in lower grades, but is very rarely co- educational, girls' work of sewing, knitting, crocheting, weaving, etc., not being considered manual training. There are now over 1,500 schools and workshops in Germany where manual training is taught; twenty-five of these are independent schools. The work really be- gan in 1875 with v. Kaas, and is promoted by the great Society for Boys' Handwork. ]\Iuch stress is laid on paper and pasteboard work in lower grades, under the influence of Kurufa of Darmstadt. Many objects for illustrating science are made, and one course embraces the Seyner water-wheel.^ In France it is made more effective by the equal sal- aries of teachers everywhere, thus securing better in- struction in the country. Adolescence is the golden period for acquiring the skill that comes by practice, so essential in the struggle for survival. In general this kind of motor education is least of all free, but sub- ^ The Place of Industrial and Technical Training in Public Education. Technology Review, January, 1902, vol. 4, pp. 10-37. 2 See an article by Dr. H. E. Kock, Education, December, 1902, vol. 23, pp. 193-203. 30 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION servient to the tool, machine, process, finished product, or end in view ; and to these health and development are subordinated, so that they tend to be ever more narrow and special. The standard here is maximal efficiency of the capacities that earn. It may favor bad habitual attitudes, muscular development of but one part, ex- cessive large or small muscles, involve too much time or effort, unhealthful conditions, etc., but it has the great advantage of utility, which is the mainspring of all in- dustry. In a very few departments and places this training has felt the influence of the arts and crafts movement and has been faintly touched with the inspira- tion of beauty. While such courses give those who follow them marked advantage over those who do not, they are chiefly utilitarian and do little to mature or unfold the physical powers, and may involve arrest or degeneration. Where not one but several or many processes are taught, the case is far better. Of all work-schools, a good farm is probably the best for motor development. This is due to its great variety of occupations, healthful conditions, and the incalculable phyletic reenforcement from immemorial times. I have computed some three- score industries ^ as the census now classifies them, that were more or less generally known and practiced sixty years ago in a little township, which not only in this but in other respects has many features of an ideal educa- tional environment for adolescent boys, combining as it does not only physical and industrial, but civil and religious elements in wise proportions and with ped- agogic objectivity, and representing the ideal of such a state of intelligent citizen voters as was contemplated by the framers of our Constitution. * See my Boy Life in a Massachusetts Country Town Forty Years Ago. Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1906, vol. 13, pp. 192-207. 31 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE Contrast this life with that of a " hand " in a modern shoe factory, who does all day but one of the eighty-one stages or processes from a tanned hide to a finished shoe, or of a man in a shirt-shop who is one of thirty-nine, each of whom does as piece-work a single step requiring great exactness, speed, and skill, and who never knows how a whole shirt is made, and we shall see that the present beginning of a revival of inter- est in muscular development comes none too early. So liberal is muscular education of this kind that its work in somewhat primitive form has been restored and copied in many features by many educational institutions for adolescents, of the Abbotsholme type and grade, and several others, whose purpose is to train for primitive conditions of colonial life. Thousands of school gardens have also been lately developed for lower grades, which have given a new impetus to the study of nature. Farm training at its best instills love of country, ruralizes taste, borrows some of its ideals from Goethe's pedagogic province, and perhaps even from Oilman's pie-shaped communities, with villages at the center irradiating to farms in all directions. In England, where by the law of primogeniture holdings are large and in few hands, this training has never flourished, as it has greatly in France, where nearly every adult male may own land and a large proportion will come to do so. So of processes. As a student in Germany I took a few lessons each of a bookbinder, a glassblower, a shoemaker, a plumber, and a blacksmith, and here I have learned in a crude way the technique of the gold-beater and old-fashioned broom- maker, etc., none of which come amiss in the laboratory ; and I am proud that I can still mow and keep my scythe sharp, chop, plow, milk, churn, make cheese and soap, braid a palm-leaf hat complete, knit, spin and even ' ' put 32 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION in a piece " in an old-fashioned hand loom, and weave frocking. But this pride bows low before the pupils of our best institutions for negroes, Indians, and juvenile delinquents, whose training is often in more than a score of industries and who to-day in my judgment receive the best training in the land, if judged by the annual growth in mind, morals, health, physique, ability, and knowl- edge, all taken together. Instead of seeking soft, ready- made places near home, such education impels to the frontier, to strike out new careers, to start at the bottom and rise by merit, beginning so low that every change must be a rise. Wherever youth thus trained are thrown, they land like a cat on all-fours and are armed cap-a-pie for the struggle of life. Agriculture, manu- facture, and commerce are the bases of national pros- perity; and on them all professions, institutions, and even culture, are more and more dependent, while the old ideals of mere study and brain-work are fast becom- ing obsolete. We really retain only the knowledge we apply. We should get up interest in new processes like that of a naturalist in new species. Those who leave school at any age or stage should be best fitted to take up their life work instead of leaving unfitted for it, aim- less and discouraged. Instead of dropping out limp and disheartened, we should train ^' struggle-for- lifeurs," in Daudet's phrase, and that betimes, so that the young come back to it not too late for securing the best benefits, after having wasted the years best fitted for it in profitless studies or in the hard school of fail- ure. By such methods many of our flabby, undeveloped, anemic, easy-living city youth would be regenerated in body and spirit. Some of the now oldest, richest, and most famous schools of the world were at first established by charity for poor boys who worked their way, and such 33 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE institutions have an undreamed-of future. No others so well fit for a life of respectable and successful muscle work, and perhaps this should be central for all at this stage. This diversity of training develops the muscular activities rendered necessary by man's early development, which were so largely concerned with food, shelter, cloth- ing, making and selling commodities necessary for life, comfort and safety. The natural state of man is not war, but peace ; and perhaps Dawson ^ is right in thinking that three-fourths of man's physical activities in the past have gone into such vocations. Industry has determined the nature and trend of muscular development; and youth, who have pets, till the soil, build, manufacture, use tools, and master elementary processes and skills, are most truly repeating the history of the race. This, too, lays the best foundation for intellectual careers. The study of pure science, as well as its higher technology, follows rather than precedes this. In the largest sense this is the order of nature, from fundamental and generalized to finer accessory and specialized organs and functions; and such a sequence best weeds out and subordinates automatisms. The age of stress in most of these kinds of training is that of most rapid increment of muscular power, as we have seen in the middle and later teens rather than childhood, as some recent methods have mis- takenly assumed ; and this prepolytechnic work, wherever and in whatever degree it is possible, is a better adjunct of secondary courses than manual training, the sad fact being that, according to the best estimates, only a fraction of one per cent of those who need this training in this country are now receiving it. * The Muscular Activities Rendered Necessary by Man's Early Environment. American Physical Education Review, June, 1902, vol. 7, pp. 80-85. 34 CHAPTER IV MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD History of the movement — Its philosophy — The value of hand training in the development of the brain and its significance in the making of man — A grammar of our many industries hard — The best we do can reach but few — Very great defects in our manual training methods which do not base on science and make nothing salable — The Leipzig system — Sloyd is hypermethodic — These crude peasant industries can never satisfy educational needs — The gospel of work, William Morris and the arts and crafts movement — Its spirit desirable — The magic effects of a brief period of intense work — The natural develop- ment of the drawing instinct in the child. Manual training has many origins; but in its now most widely accepted form it came to us more than a generation ago from Moscow, and has its best representa- tion here in our new and often magnificent manual- training high schools and in many courses in other public schools. This work meets the growing demand of the country for a more practical education, a demand which often greatly exceeds the accommodations. The philos- ophy, if such it may be called, that underlies the move- ment, is simple, forcible, and sound, and not unlike Pestalozzi's '^ keine Kentnisse ohne Fertigkeiten/' ^ in that it lessens the interval between thinking and doing; helps to give control, dexterity, and skill an industrial trend to taste ; interests many not successful in ordinary school; tends to the better appreciation of good, honest work ; imparts new zest for some studies ; adds somewhat to the average length of the school period ; gives a sense » No knowledge without skill. 35 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE of capacity and effectiveness, and is a useful preparation for a number of vocations. These claims are all well founded, and this work is a valuable addition to the peda- gogic agencies of any country or state. As man excels the higher anthropoids perhaps almost as much in hand power as in mind, and since the manual areas of the brain are wide near the psychic zones, and the cortical centers are thus directly developed, the hand is a potent instru- ment in opening the intellect as well as in training sense and will. It is no reproach to these schools that, full as they are, they provide for but an insignificant fraction of the nearly sixteen millions or twenty per cent of the young people of the country between fifteen and twenty- four. When we turn to the needs of these pupils, the errors and limitations of the method are painful to contem- plate. The work is essentially manual and offers little for the legs, where most of the muscular tissues of the body lie, those which respond most to training and are now most in danger of degeneration at this age ; the back and trunk also are little trained. Consideration of pro- portion and bilateral asymmetry are practically ignored. Almost in proportion as these schools have multiplied, the rage for uniformity, together with motives of econ- omy and administrative efficiency on account of over- crowding, have made them rigid and inflexible, on the principle that as the line lengthens the stake must be strengthened. This is a double misfortune; for the courses were not sufficiently considered at first and the plastic stage of adaptation was too short, while the meth- ods of industry have undergone vast changes since they were given shape. There are now between three and four hundred occupations in the census, more than half of these involving manual work, so that never perhaps 36 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD was there so great a pedagogic problem as to make these natural developments into conscious art, to extract what may be called basal types. This requires an effort not without analogy to Aristotle's attempt to extract from the topics of the marketplace the underlying categories eternally conditioning all thought, or to construct a grammar of speech. Hardly an attempt worthy the name, not even the very inadequate one of a committee, has been made in this field to study the conditions and to meet them. Like Froebel's gifts and occupations, deemed by their author the very roots of human occu- pations in infant form, the processes selected are unde- rived and find their justification rather in their logical sequence and coherence than in being true norms of work. If these latter be attainable at all, it is not likely that they will fit so snugly in a brief curriculum, so that its simplicity is suspicious. The wards of the keys that lock the secrets of nature and human life are more intri- cate and mazy. As H. T. Bailey well puts it in sub- stance, a master in any art-craft must have a fourfold equipment: 1. Ability to grasp an idea and embody it. 2. Power to utilize all nerve, and a wide repertory of methods, devices, recipes, discoveries, machines, etc. 3. Knowledge of the history of the craft. 4. Skill in technical processes. American schools emphasize chiefly only the last. The actual result is thus a course rich in details representing wood and iron chiefly, and mostly ignoring other materials; the part of the course treating of the former, wooden in its teachings and distinctly tending to make joiners, carpenters, and cabinet-makers ; that of the latter, iron in its rigidity and an excellent school for smiths, mechanics, and machinists. These courses are not liberal because they hardly touch science, which is rap- 37 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE idly becoming the real basis of every industry. Almost nothing that can be called scientific knowledge is re- quired or even much favored, save some geometrical and mechanical drawing and its implicates. These schools instinctively fear and repudiate plain and direct utility, or suspect its educational value or repute in the com- munity because of this strong bias toward a few trades. This tendency also they even fear, less often because unfortunately trade-unions in this country sometimes jealously suspect it and might vote down supplies, than because the teachers in these schools were generally trained in older scholastic and even classic methods and matter. Industry is everywhere and always for the sake of the product, and to cut loose from this as if it were a contamination is a fatal mistake. To focus on process only, with no reference to the object made, is here an almost tragic case of the sacrifice of content to form, which in all history has been the chief stigma of degeneration in education. Man is a tool-using animal; but tools are always only a means to an end, the latter prompting even their invention. Hence a course in tool manipulation only, with persistent refusal to consider the product lest features of trade-schools be introduced, has made most of our manual-training high schools ghastly, hollow, artificial institutions. Instead of mak- ing in the lower grades certain toys which are master- pieces of mechanical simplification, as tops and kites, and introducing such processes as glass-making and photography, and in higher grades making simple scientific apparatus more generic than machines, to open the great principles of the material universe, all is sac- rificed to supernormalized method. As in all hypermethodic schemes, the thought side is feeble. There is no control of the work of these schools 38 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD by the higher technical institutions such as the college exercises over the high school, so that few of them do work that fits for advanced training or is thought best by technical faculties. In most of its current narrow forms, manual training will prove to be historically, as it is educationally, extemporized and tentative, and will soon be superseded by broader methods and be forgotten and obsolete, or cited only as a low point of departure from which future progress w^ill loom up. Indeed in more progressive centers, many new de- partures are now in the experimental stage. Goetze at Leipzig, as a result of long and original studies and trials, has developed courses in which pasteboard work and modeling are made of equal rank with wood and iron, and he has connected them even with the kinder- garten below. In general the whole industrial life of our day is being slowly explored in the quest of new educational elements; and rubber, lead, glass, textiles, metallurgical operations, agriculture, every tool and many machines, etc., are sure to contribute their choicest pedagogical factors to the final result. In every detail the prime consideration should be the nature and needs of the youthful body and wall at each age, their hygiene and fullest development ; and next, the closest connection with science at every point should do the same for the intellect. Each operation and each tool — the saw, knife, plane, screw, hammer, chisel, draw-shave, sandpaper, lathe — will be studied with reference to its orthopedic value, bilateral asymmetry, the muscles it develops, and the attitudes and motor habits it favors; and uniformity, which in France often requires classes to saw, strike, plane up, down, right, left, all to- gether, upon count and command, will give place to individuality. 4 39 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE Sloyd has certain special features and claims. The word means skilful, deft. The movement was organized in Sweden a quarter of a century ago as an effort to prevent the extinction by machinery of peasant home industry during the long winter night. Home sloyd was soon installed in an institution of its own for training teachers at Naas. It works in wood only, with little machinery, and is best developed for children of from eleven to fifteen. It no longer aims to make artisans; but its manipulations are meant to be developmental, to teach both sexes not only to be useful but self -active and self-respecting, and to revere exactness as a form of truthfulness. It assumes that all and especially the motor-minded can really understand only what they make, and that one can work like a peasant and think like a philosopher. It aims to produce wholes rather than parts like the Eussian system, and to be so essen- tially educational that, as a leading exponent says, its best effects would be conserved if the hands were cut off. This change of its original utilitarianism from the lower to the liberal motor development of the middle and upper classes and from the land where it originated to another, has not eliminated the dominant marks of its origin in its models, the Penates of the sloyd house- hold, the unique features of which persist like a na- tional school of art, despite transplantation and trans- formation.^ Sloyd at its best tries to correlate several series, viz., exercises, tools, drawing, and models. Each must be progressive, so that every new step in each series in- volves a new and next developmental step in all the 1 This I have elsewhere tried to show in detail. Criticisms of High School Physics and Manual Training and Mechanic Arts in High Schools, Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1902, vol. 9, pp. 193-204. 40 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD others, and all together, it is claimed, fit the order and degree of development of each power appealed to in the child. Yet there has been hardly an attempt to justify either the physiological or the psychological reason of a single step in any of these series, and the coordination of the series even with each other, to say nothing of their adaptation to the stages of the child 's development. This, if as pat and complete as is urged, would indeed constitute on the whole a paragon of all the harmony, beauty, totality in variety, etc., which make it so mag- nificent in the admirer's eyes. But the " 45 tools, 72 exercises, 31 models, 15 of which are joints," all learned by teachers in one school year of daily work and by pupils in four years, are overmethodic ; and such cor- relation is impossible in so many series at once. Every dual order, even of work and unfoldment of powers, is hard enough, since the fall lost us Eden ; and woodwork, could it be upon that of the tree of knowledge itself, is incompatible with enjoying its fruit. Although a philosopher may see the whole universe in its smallest part, all his theory can not reproduce educational wholes from fragments of it. The real merits of sloyd have caused its enthusiastic leaders to magnify its scope and claims far beyond their modest bounds; and although its field covers the great transition from childhood to youth, one searches in vain both its literature and prac- tise for the slightest recognition of the new motives and methods that puberty suggests. Especially in its par- tially acclimatized forms to American conditions, it is all adult and almost scholastic ; and as the most elaborate machinery may sometimes be run by a poor power-wheel, if the stream be swift and copious enough, so the mighty current that sets toward motor education would give it some degree of success were it worse and less economic 41 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE of pedagogic momentum than it is. It holds singularly aloof from other methods of efferent training and re- sists coordination with them, and its provisions for other than hand development are slight. It will be one of the last to accept its true but modest place as contribut- ing certain few but precious elements in the greater synthesis that impends. Indian industries, basketry, pottery, bead, leather, bows and arrows, bark, etc., which our civilization is making lost arts by forcing the white man 's industries upon red men at reservation schools and elsewhere, need only a small part of the systemization that Swedish peasant work has received to develop even greater educational values; and the same is true of the indigenous household work of the old New England farm, the real worth and possibilities of which are only now, and perhaps too late, beginning to be seen by a few educators. This brings us to the arts and crafts movement, originating with Carlyle's gospel of work and Ruskin's medievalism, developed by William Morris and his disciples at the Red House, checked awhile by the ridi- cule of the comic opera ' ' Patience, ' ' and lately revived in some of its features by Cobden-Sanderson, and of late to some extent in various centers in this country. Its ideal was to restore the day of the seven ancient guilds and of Hans Sachs, the poet cobbler, when conscience and beauty inspired work, and the hand did what ma- chines only imitate and vulgarize. In the past, which this school of motor culture harks back to, work, for which our degenerate age lacks even respect, was indeed praise. Refined men and women have remembered these early days, when their race was in its prime, as a lost paradise which they would regain by designing and even weaving tapestries and muslins ; experimenting 42 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD in vats with dyes to rival Tyrian purple ; printing and binding by hand books that surpass the best of the Aldines and Elzevirs; carving in old oak; hammering brass; forging locks, irons, and candlesticks; becoming artists in burned wood and leather; seeking old effects of simplicity and solidity in furniture and decoration, as well as in architecture, stained glass, and to some extent in dress and manners; and all this toil and moil was ad majorem gloriam hominis ^ in a new socialistic state, where the artist, and even the artisan, should take his rightful place above the man who merely knows. The day of the mere professor, who deals in knowledge, is gone ; and the day of the doer, who creates, has come. The brain and the hand, too long divorced and each weak and mean without the other; use and beauty, each alone vulgar ; letters and labor, each soulless without the other, are henceforth to be one and inseparable ; and this union will lift man to a higher level. The workman in his apron and paper hat, inspired by the new socialism and the old spirit of chivalry as revived by Scott, revering Wagner's revival of the old Deutschenthum that was to conquer Christ enthum, or Tennyson's Arthurian cycle — this was its ideal; even as the Jews rekindled their loyalty to the ancient traditions of their race and made their Bible under Ezra; as we begin to revere the day of the farmer-citizen, who made our institutions, or as some of us would revive his vanishing industrial life for the red man. Although this movement was by older men and women and had in it something of the longing regret of senescence for days that are no more, it shows us the glory which invests racial adolescence when it is To the greater glory of man. 43 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE recalled in maturity, the time when the soul can best appreciate the value of its creations and its possibilities, and really lives again in its glamour and finds in it its greatest inspiration. Hence it has its lessons for us here. A touch, but not too much of it, should be felt in all manual education, which is just as capable of ideal- ism as literary education. This gives soul, interest, con- tent, beauty, taste. If not a polyphrastic philosophy seeking to dignify the occupation of the workshop by a pretentious Volapiik of reasons and abstract theories, we have here the pregnant suggestion of a psychological quarry of motives and spirit opened and ready to be worked. Thus the best forces from the past should be turned on to shape and reenf orce the best tendencies of the present. The writings of the above gospelers of work not only could and should, but will be used to inspire manual-training high schools, sloyd and even some of the less scholastic industrial courses; but each is incom- plete without the other. These books and those that breathe their spirit should be the mental workshop of all who do tool, lathe, and forge work ; who design and draw patterns, carve or mold; or of those who study how to shape matter for human uses, and whose aim is to ob- tain diplomas or certificates of fitness to teach all such things. The muse of art and even of music will have some voice in the great synthesis which is to gather up the scattered, hence ineffective, elements of secondary motor training, in forms which shall represent all the needs of adolescents in the order and proportion that nature and growth stages indicate, drawing, with this end supreme, upon all the resources that history and reform offer to our selection. All this can never make work become play. Indeed it will and should make work harder and more unlike play and of another genus, be- 44 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD cause the former is thus given its own proper soul and leads its own distinct, but richer, and more abounding life. I must not close this section without brief mention of two important studies that have supplied each a new and important determination concerning laws of work peculiar to adolescence. The main telegraphic line requires a speed of over seventy letters per minute of all whom they will em- ploy. As a sending rate this is not very diiftcult and is often attained after two months ' practise. This stand- ard for a receiving rate is harder and later, and inquiry at schools where it is taught shows that about seventy- five per cent of those who begin the study fail to reach this speed and so are not employed. Bryan and Harter ^ explained the rate of improvement in both sending and receiving, with results represented for one typical sub- ject in the curve on the following page. From the first, sending improves most rapidly and crosses the dead-line a few months before the receiving rate, which may fall short. Curves 1 and 2 represent the same student. I have added line 3 to illustrate the three-fourths who fail. Receiving is far less pleasant than sending, and years of daily practise at ordinary rates will not bring a man to his maximum rate; he remains on the low plateau with no progress beyond a certain point. If forced by stress of work, danger of being dropped, or by will power to make a prolonged and intense effort, he breaks through his hidebound rate and permanently attains a faster pace. This is true at each step, and every advance seems to cost even more 1 studies in the Physiology and Psychology of the Telegraphic Language. Psychological Review, January, 1897, vol. 4, pp. 27-53, and July, 1899, vol. 6, pp. 345-375. 45 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE intensive effort than the former one. At length, for those who go on, the rate of receiving, which is a more complex process, exceeds that of sending ; and the curves of the above figure would cross if prolonged. The ex- pert receives so much faster than he sends that abbre- viated codes are used, and he may take eighty to eighty- five words a minute on a typewriter in correct form. The motor curve seems to asymptotically approach a perhaps physiological limit, which the receiving curve does not suggest. This seems a special case of a general though not yet explained law. In learning a foreign language, speaking is first and easiest, and hearing takes a late but often sudden start to independence. Perhaps this holds of every ability. To Bryan this suggests as a hierarchy of habits, the plateau of little or no im- provement, meaning that lower order habits are ap- proaching their maximum but are not yet automatic enough to leave the attention free to attack higher order habits. The second ascent from drudgery to freedom, 46 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD which comes through automatism, is often as sudden as the first ascent, ^ne stroke of attention comes to do what once took many. To attain such effective speed is not dependent on reaction time. This shooting together of units distinguishes the master from the man, the genius from the hack. In many, if not all, skills where expertness is sought, there is a long discouraging level, and then for the best a sudden ascent, as if here, too, as we have reason to think in the growth of both the body as a whole and in that of its parts, nature does make leaps and attains her ends by alternate rests and rushes. Youth lives along on a low level of interest and accom- plishment and then starts onward, is transformed, con- verted; the hard becomes easy; the old life sinks to a lower stratum; and a new and higher order, perhaps a higher brain level and functions, is evolved. The practical implication here of the necessity of hard con- centrative effort as a condition of advancement is re- enforced by a quotation from Senator Stanford on the effect of early and rather intensive work at not too long periods in training colts for racing. Let-ups are espe- cially dangerous. He says, ''It is the supreme effort that develops." This, I may add, suggests what is de- veloped elsewhere, that truly spontaneous attention is conditioned by spontaneous muscle tension, which is a function of growth, and that muscles are thus organs of the mind; and also that even voluntary attention is motivated by the same nisus of development even in its most adult form, and that the products of science, in- vention, discovery, as well as the association plexus of all that was originally determined in the form of conscious- ness, are made by rhythmic alternation of attack, as it moves from point to point creating diversions and re- currence. 47 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE The other study, although quite independent, is in part a special application and illustration of the same principle. At the age of four or five, when they can do little more than scribble, children's chief interest in pictures is as finished products; but in the second period, which Lange calls that of artistic illusion, the child sees in his own work not merely what it represents, but an image of fancy back of it. This, then, is the golden period for the development of power to create artistically. The child loves to draw everything with the pleasure chiefly in the act, and he cares little for the finished picture. He draws out of his own head, and not from copy before his eye. Anything and everything is attempted in bold lines in this golden age of drawing. If he followed the teacher, looked carefully and drew what he saw, he would be abashed at his production. Indians, conflagra- tions, games, brownies, trains, pageants, battles — every- thing is graphically portrayed ; but only the little artist himself sees the full meaning of his lines. Criticism or drawing strictly after nature breaks this charm, since it gives place to mechanical reproduction in which the child has little interest. This awakens him from his dream to a realization that he can not draw, and from ten to fifteen his power of perceiving things steadily in- creases and he makes almost no progress in drawing. Adolescence arouses the creative faculty and the desire and ability to draw are checked and decline after thir- teen or fourteen. The curve is the plateau which Barnes has described. The child has measured his own productions upon the object they reproduced and found them wanting, is discouraged and dislikes drawing. From twelve on, Barnes found drawing more and more distasteful; and this, too, Lukens found to be the opin- 48 . MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD ion of our art teachers. The pupils may draw very properly and improve in technique, but the interest is gone. This is the condition in which most men re- main all their lives. Their power to appreciate steadily increases. Only a few gifted adolescents about this age begin to develop a new zest in production, rivaling that of the period from five to ten, when their satisfaction is again chiefly in creation. These are the artists whose active powers dominate. Lukens ^ finds in his studies of drawling, that in what he calls his fourth period of artistic development, there are those " who during adolescence experience a rebirth of creative power." Zest in creation then often be- comes a stronger incentive to work than any pleasure or profit to be derived from the finished product, so that in this the propitious conditions of the first golden age of childhood are repeated and the deepest satisfac- tion is again found in the w^ork itself. At about four- teen or fifteen, which is the transition period, nascent faculties sometimes develop very rapidly. Lukens ^ draws the interesting curve shown on the following page. The reciprocity between the powder to produce and that to appreciate, roughly represented in the above curve, very likely is true also in the domain of music, and may be, perhaps, a general law of development. Certain it is that the adolescent power to apperceive and appreciate never so far outstrips his power to pro- 1 A study of Children's Drawings in the Early Years. Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1896, vol. 4, pp. 79-101. See also Drawing in the Early Years. Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1899, pp. 946-953. Das Kind als Kunstler, von C. Gotze. Hamburg, 1898. The Genetic vs. the Logical Order in Drawing, by F. Burk. Ped- agogical Seminary, September, 1902, vol. 9, pp. 296-323. - Die Entwickelungsstufen beim Zeichnen. Die Kinderfehler, Sep- tei:^iber, 1897, vol. 2, pp. 166-179. 49 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE duce or reproduce as about midway in the teens. Now impressions sink deepest. The greatest artists are usually those who paint later, when the expressive powers are developed, what they have felt most deeply and known best at this age, and not those who in the late twenties, or still later, have gone to new environments and sought to depict them. All young people draw best those objects they love most, and their proficiency should Barnes's Plateau Illusion ^--'#^^°" J I L J I L 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 12 13 14. 15 16 17 18 19 20 — ^Motor,, creative or productive power. Sensory or receptive interest in the finished product. be some test of the contents of their minds. They must put their own consciousness into a picture. At the dawn of this stage of appreciation the esthetic tastes should be stimulated by exposure to, and instructed in feeling for, the subject-matter of masterpieces; and in- struction in technique, detail, criticism, and learned discrimination of schools of painting should be given intermittently. Art should not now be for art's sake, but for the sake of feeling and character, life, and con- duct; it should be adjunct to morals, history, and lit- erature; and in all, edification should be the goal; and 50 MANUAL TRAINING AND SLOYD personal interest, and not that of the teacher, should be the guide. Insistence on production should be eased, and the receptive imagination, now so hungry, should be fed and reenforced by story and all other accessories. By such a curriculum, potential creativeness, if it exists, will surely be evoked in its own good time. Ut will, at first, attempt no commonplace drawing-master themes, but will essay the highest that the imagination can bode forth. It may be crude and lame in execution, but it will be lofty, perhaps grand ; and if it is original in con- sciousness, it will be in effect. Most creative painters before twenty have grappled with the greatest scenes in literature or turning points in history, representa- tions of the loftiest truths, embodiments of the most inspiring ideals. None who deserve the name of artist copy anything now, and least of all with objective fidelity to nature; and the teacher that represses or criticizes this first point of genius, or who can not pardon the grave faults of technique inevitable at this age when ambition ought to be too great for power, is not an educator but a repressor, a pedagogic Philis- tine committing, like so many of his calling in other fields, the unpardonable sin against budding promise, always at this age so easily blighted. Just as the child of six or seven should be encouraged in his strong in- stinct to draw the most complex scenes of his daily life, so now the inner life should find graphic utterance in all its intricacy up to the full limit of unrepressed courage. For the great majority, on the other hand, who only appreciate and will never create, the mind, if it have its rights, will be stored with the best images and sentiments of art; for at this time they are best remembered and sink deepest into heart and life. Now, although the hand may refuse, the fancy paints the 51 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE world in brightest hues and fairest forms; and such an opportunity for infecting the soul with vaccine of ideality, hope, optimism, and courage in adversity, will never come again. I believe that in few departments are current educational theories and practises so hard on youth of superior gifts, just at the age when all become geniuses for a season, very brief for most, prolonged for some, and permanent for the best. We do not know how to teach to see, hear, and feel when the sense cen- ters are most indelibly impressible, and to give relative rest to the hand during the years w^hen its power of accuracy is abated and when all that is good is idealized furthest, and confidence in ability to produce is at its lowest ebb. Finally, our divorce between industrial and manual training is abnormal, and higher technical education is the chief sufferer. Professor Thurston, of Cornell, who has lately returned from a tour of inspection abroad, re- ported that to equal Germany we now need : " 1. Twentj^ technical universities, having in their schools of en- gineering 50 instructors and 500 students each. 2. Two thousand technical high schools or manual-training schools, each having not less than 200 students and 10 instructors." If we have elementary trade-schools, this would mean technical high schools enough to accommo- date 700,000 students, served by 20,000 teachers. With the strong economic arguments in this direction we are not here concerned ; but that there are tendencies to unfit youth for life by educational method and matter shown in strong relief from this standpoint, we shall point out in a later chapter. 52 CHAPTER V GYMNASTICS The story of Jahn and the Turners — The enthusiasm which this move- ment generated in Germany — The ideal of bringing out latent powers — The concept of more perfect voluntary control — Swedish gymnastics — Doing everything possible for the body as a machine — Liberal phy- sical culture — Ling's orthogenic scheme of economic postures and movements and correcting defects — The ideal of symmetry and pre- scribing exercises to bring the body to a standard — Lamentable lack of correlation between these four systems — Illustrations of the great good that a systematic training can effect — Athletic records — Greek physical training. Under the term gymnastics, literally naked exercises, we here include those denuded of all utilities or ulterior ends save those of physical culture. This is essentially modern and was unknown in antiquity, where training was for games, for war, etc. Several ideals underlie this movement, which although closely related are dis- tinct and as yet by no means entirely harmonized. These may be described as follows : A. One aim of Jahn, more developed by Spiess, and their successors, was to do everything physically pos- sible for the body as a mechanism. Many postures and attitudes are assumed and many movements made that are never called for in life. Some of these are so novel that a great variety of new apparatus had to be de- vised to bring them out; and Jahn invented many new names, some of them without etymologies, to designate the repertory of his discoveries and inventions that ex- tended the range of motor life. Common movements, 53 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE industries, and even games, train only a limited number of muscles, activities, and coordinations, and leave more or less unused groups and combinations, so that many latent possibilities slumber, and powers slowly lapse through disuse. Not only must these be rescued, but the new nascent possibilities of modern progressive man must be addressed and developed. Even the com- mon things that the average untrained youth can not do are legion, and each of these should be a new incen- tive to the trainer as he realizes how very far below their motor possibilities most men live. The man of the future may, and even must, do things impossible in the past and acquire new motor variations not given by heredity. Our somatic frame and its powers must therefore be carefully studied, inventoried, and as- sessed afresh, and a kind and amount of exercise re- quired that is exactly proportioned, not perhaps to the size but to the capability of each voluntary muscle. Thus only can we have a truly humanistic physical develop- ment, analogous to the training of all the powers of the mind in a broad, truly liberal, and non-professional or non-vocational educational curriculum. The body will thus have its rightful share in the pedagogic traditions and inspirations of the renaissance. Thus only can we have a true scale of standardized culture values for efferent processes; and from this we can measure the degrees of departure, both in the direction of excess and defect, of each form of work, motor habit, and even play. Many modern Epigoni in the wake of this great ideal, where its momentum was nearly spent, feeling that new activities might be discovered with virtues hitherto undreamed of, have almost made fetiches of special disciplines, both developmental and corrective, that are pictured and lauded in scores of manuals. 54 GYMNASTICS Others have had expectations no less excessive in the opposite direction and have argued that the greatest possible variety of movements best developed the great- est total of motor energy. Jalm especially thus made gymnastics a special art and inspired great enthusiasm of humanity, and the songs of his pupils were of a better race of man and a greater and united fatherland. It was this feature that made his work unique in the world, and his disciples are fond of reminding us of the fact that it was just about one generation of men after the acme of influence of his system that, in 1870, Ger- many showed herself the greatest military power since ancient Rome, and took the acknowledged leadership of the world both in education and science. These theorizations even in their extreme forms have been not only highly suggestive but have brought great and new enthusiasms and ideals into the educational world that admirably fit adolescence. The motive of bringing out latent, decaying, or even new powers, skills, knacks, and feats, is full of inspiration. Patriot- ism is aroused, for thus the country can be better served ; thus the German Fatherland was to be restored and unified after the dark days that followed the humilia- tion of Jena. Now the ideals of religion are invoked that the soul may have a better and regenerated somatic organism with which to serve Jesus and the Church. Exercise is made a form of praise to God and of ser- vice to man, and these motives are reenforced by those of the new hygiene which strives for a new wholeness- holiness, and would purify the body as the temple of the Holy Ghost. Thus in Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation training schools and gymnasiums the gospel of Christianity is preached anew and seel^ to bring sal- vation to man's physical frame, which the still linger- 5 55 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE ing effects of asceticism have caused to be too long neg- lected in its progressive degeneration. As the Greek games were in honor of the gods, so now the body is trained to better glorify God; and regimen, chastity, and temperance are given a new momentum. The physical salvation thus wrought will be, when ade- quately written, one of the most splendid chapters in the modern history of Christianity. Military ideals have been revived in cult and song to hearten the warfare against evil within and without. Strength is prayed for as well as worked for, and consecrated to the highest uses. Last but not least, power thus developed over a large surface may be applied to athletic con- tests in the field, and victories here are valuable as fore- gleams of how sweet the glory of achievements in higher moral and spiritual tasks will taste later. The dangers and sources of error in this ideal of all- sided training are, alas, only too obvious, although they only qualify its paramount good. First, it is impossible thus to measure the quanta of training needed so as rightly to assign to each its modicum and best modality of training. Indeed no method of doing this has ever been attempted, but the assessments have been arbitrary and conjectural, probably right in some and wrong in other respects, with no adequate criterion or test for either save only empirical experience. Secondly, hered- ity, which lays its heavy ictus upon some neglected forms of activity and fails of all support for others, has been ignored. As we shall see later, one of the best norms here is phyletic emphasis, and what lacks this must at best be feeble; and if new powers are un- folding, their growth must be very slow and they must be nurtured as tender buds for generations. Thirdly, too little regard is had for the vast differences in in- 56 GYMNASTICS dividuals, most of whom need much personal pre- scription. B. In practise the above ideal is never isolated from others. Perhaps the most closely associated with it is that of increased volitional control. Man is largely a creature of habit, and many of his activities are more or less automatic reflexes from the stimuli of his environ- ment. Every new power of controlling these by the will frees man from slavery and widens the field of freedom. To acquire the power of doing all with consciousness and volition mentalizes the body, gives control over to higher brain levels, and develops them by rescuing activities from the dominance of lower centers. Thus mens agi- tat molem} This end is favored by the Swedish commando exercises, which require great alertness of attention to translate instantly a verbal order into an act and also, although in somewhat less degree, by quick imitation of a leader. The stimulus of music and rhythm are excluded becaiLse thought to interfere with this end. A somewhat sophisticated form of this goal is sought by several Delsartian schemes of relaxation, de- composition, and recomposition of movements. To do all things with consciousness and to encroach on the field of instinct involves new and more vivid sense impres- sions, the range of which is increased directly as that of motion, the more closely it approaches the focus of attention. By thus analyzing settled and established coordinations, their elements are set free and may be organized into new combinations, so that the former is the first stage toward becoming a virtuoso with new special skills. This is the road to inner secrets or in- tellectual rules of professional and expert successes, such 1 Mind rules the body. 57 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE as older athletes often rely upon when their strength be- gins to wane. Every untrained automatism must be domesticated, and every striated muscle capable of direct muscular control must be dominated by volition. Thus tensions and incipient contractures that drain off energy can be relaxed by fiat. Sandow's '' muscle dance/' the differentiation of movements of the right and left hand — one, e. g., writing a French madrigal while the other is drawing a picture of a country dance, or each playing tunes of disparate rhythm and char- acter simultaneously on the piano — controlling heart rate, moving the ears, crying, laughing, blushing, mov- ing the bowels, etc., at will, feats of inhibition of re- flexes, stunts of all kinds, proficiency with many tools, deftness in sports — these altogether would mark the extremes in this direction. This, too, has its inspiration for youth. To be a universal adept like Hippias suggests Diderot and the encyclopedists in the intellectual realm. To do all with consciousness is a means to both remedial and expert ends. Motor life often needs to be made over to a greater or less extent; and that possibilities of vastly greater accomplishments exist than are at present real- ized, is undoubted, even in manners and morals, which are both at root only motor habits. Indeed consciousness itself is largely and perhaps wholly corrective in its very essence and origin. Thus life is adjusted to new en- vironments; and if the Platonic postulate be correct, that untaught virtues that come by nature and instinct are no virtues, but must be made products of reflection and reason, the sphere and need of this principle is great indeed. But this implies a distrust of physical human nature as deep-seated and radical as that of Cal- vinism for the unregenerate heart, against which mod- 58 GYMNASTICS ern common sense, so often the best muse of both psycho- physics and pedagogy, protests. Individual prescription is here as imperative as it is difficult. Wonders that now seem to be most incredible, both of hurt and help, can undoubtedly be wrought, but analysis should always be for the sake of synthesis and never be beyond its need and assured completion. No thoughtful student fully informed of the facts and tentatives in this field can doubt that here lies one of the most promising fields of future development, full of far-reaching and rich re- sults for those, as yet far too few, experts in physical training, who have philosophic minds, command the facts of modern psychology, and whom the w^orld awaits now as never before. C. Another yet closely correlated ideal is that of economic postures and movements. The system of Ling is less orthopedic than orthogenic, although he sought primarily to correct bad attitudes and perverted growth. Starting from the respiratory and proceeding to the muscular system, he and his immediate pupils were con- tent to refer to the ill-shapen bodies of most men about them. One of their important aims was to relax the flexor and tone up the extensor muscles and to open the human form into postures as opposite as possible to those of the embryo, which it tends so persistently to approximate in sitting, and in fatigue and collapse attitudes gener- ally. The head must balance on the cervical vertebrae and not call upon the muscles of the neck to keep it from rolling off; the weight of the shoulders must be thrown back off the thorax; the spine be erect to allow the abdomen free action; the joints of the thigh ex- tended; the hand and arm supinated, etc. Bones must relieve muscles and nerves. Thus an erect, self-respect- ing carriage must be given, and the unfortunate associa- 59 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE tion, so difficult to overcome, between effort and an involuted posture must be broken up. This means economy and a great saving of vital energy. Extensor action goes with expansive, flexor with depressive states of mind; hence courage, buoyancy, hope, are favored and handicaps removed. All that is done with great effort causes wide irradiation of tensions to the other half of the body and also sympathetic activities in those not involved; the law of maximal ease and minimal ex- penditure of energy must be always striven for, and the interests of the viscera never lost sight of. This involves educating weak and neglected muscles, and like the next ideal, often shades over by almost imperceptible gradation into the passive movements by the Zander machines- Realizing that certain activities are suffi- ciently or too much emphasized in ordinary life, stress is laid upon those which are complemental to them, so that there is no pretense of taking charge of the totality of motor processes, the intention being principally to supplement deficiencies, to insure men against being warped, distorted, or deformed by their work in life, to compensate specialties and perform more exactly what recreation to some extent aims at. This wholesome but less inspiring endeavor, which combats one of the greatest evils that under modern civilization threatens man's physical weal, is in some respects as easy and practical as it is useful. The great majority of city bred men, as well as all students, are prone to deleterious effects from too much sitting; and indeed there is anatomical evidence in the structure of the tissues, and especially the blood-vessels of the groins, that, at his best, man is not yet entirely adjusted to the upright position. So a method that straightens knees, hips, spine, and shoulders, or combats the school-desk 60 GYMNASTICS attitude, is a most salutary contribution to a great and growing need. In the very act of stretching, and per- haps yawning, for which much is to be said, nature itself suggests such correctives and preventives. To save men from being victims of their occupations is often to add a better and larger half to their motor development. The danger of the system, which now best represents this ideal, is inflexibility and overscholastic treatment. It needs a great range of individual variations if it would do more than increase circulation, respiration, and health, or the normal functions of internal organs and fundamental physiological activities. To clothe the frame with honest muscles that are faithful servants of the will adds not only strength, more active habits and efficiency, but health; and in its material installa- tion this system is financially economic. Personal faults and shortcomings are constantly pointed out where this work is best represented, and it has a distinct advantage in inciting an acquaintance Avith physiology and invit- ing the larger fields of medical knowledge. D. The fourth gymnastic aim is symmetry and cor- rect proportions. Anthropometry an4 average girths and dimensions, strength, etc., of the parts of the body are first charted in percentile grades ; and each individual is referred to the apparatus and exercises best fitted to correct weaknesses and subnormalities. The norms here followed are not the canons of Greek art, but those established by the measurement of the largest numbers properly grouped by age, weight, height, etc. Young men are found to differ very widely. Some can lift 1,000 pounds, and some not 100; some can lift their weight between twenty and forty times, and some not once; some are most deficient in legs, others in shoul- ders, arms, backs, chests. By photography, tape, and 61 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE scales, each is interested in his own bodily condition and incited to overcome his greatest defects; and those best endowed by nature to attain ideal dimensions and make new records are encouraged along these lines. Thus this ideal is also largely though not exclusively remedial. This system can arouse youth to the greatest pitch of zest in watching their own rapidly multiplying curves of growth in dimensions and capacities, in plotting curves that record their own increment in girths, lifts, and other tests, and in observing the effects of sleep, food, correct and incorrect living upon a system so ex- quisitely responsive to all these influences as are the mus- cles. To learn to know and grade excellence and defect, to be known for the list of things one can do and to have a record, or to realize what w^e lack of powder to break best records, even to know that we are strengthening some point where heredity has left us with some short- age and perhaps danger, the realization of all this may bring the first real and deep feeling for growth that may become a passion later in things of the soul. Growth always has its selfish aspects, and to be constantly pass- ing our own examination in this respect is a new and perhaps sometimes too self-conscious endeavor of our young college barbarians; but it is on the whole a healthful regulative, and this form of the struggle to- ward perfection and escape from the handicap of birth will later move upward to the intellectual and moral plane. To kindle a sense of physical beauty of form in every part, such as a sculptor has, may be to start youth on the lowest round of the Platonic ladder that leads up to the vision of ideal beauty of soul, if his ideal be not excess of brawn, or mere brute strength, but the true proportion represented by the classic or mean temperance balanced like justice between all ex- C2 GYMNASTICS \^y tremes. Hard, patient, regular work, with the right dosage for this self -cultural end, has thus at the same time a unique moral effect. The dangers of this system are also obvious. Na- ture's intent can not be too far thwarted; and as in mental training the question is always pertinent, so here we may ask whether it be not best in all cases to some extent, and in some cases almost exclusively, to develop in the direction in which we most excel, to emphasize physical individuality and even idiosyncrasy, rather than to strive for monotonous uniformity. Weaknesses and parts that lag behind are the most easily overworked to the point of reaction and perhaps permanent injury. Again, work for curative purposes lacks the exuberance of free sports: it is not inspiring to make up areas; and therapeutic exercises imposed like a sentence for the shortcomings of our forebears bring a whiff of the atmosphere of the hospital, if not of the prison, into the gymnasium. These four ideals, while so closely interrelated, are as yet far from harmonized. Swedish, Turner, Sargent, and American systems are each, most unfortunately, still too blind to the others' merits and too conscious of the others' shortcomings. To some extent they are pre- vented from getting together by narrow devotion to a single cult, aided sometimes by a pecuniary interest in the sale of their own apparatus and books or in the train- ing of teachers according to one set of rubrics. The real elephant is neither a fan, a rope, a tree nor a log, as the blind men in the fable contended, each thinking the part he had touched to be the whole. This inability of leaders to combine causes uncertainty and lack of confidence in, and of enthusiastic support for, any system on the part of the public. Even the radically different 63 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE needs of the sexes have failed of recognition from the same partizanship. All together represent only a frac- tion of the nature and needs of youth. The world now demands what this country has never had, a man who, knowing the human body, gymnastic history, and the various great athletic traditions of the past, shall study anew the whole motor field, as a few great leaders early in the last century tried to do ; who shall gather and cor- relate the literature and experiences of the past and pres- ent with a deep sense of responsibility to the future; who shall examine martial training with all the in- spirations, warnings, and new demands; and who shall know how to revive the inspiration of the past animated by the same spirit as the Turners, who were almost in- flamed by referring back to the hardy life of the early Teutons and trying to reproduce its best features; who shall catch the spirit of, and make due connections with, popular sports past and present, study both industry and education to compensate their debilitating effects, and be himself animated by a great ethical and human- istic hope and faith in a better future. Such a man, if he ever walks the earth, will be the idol of youth, will know their physical secrets, will come almost as a savior to the bodies of men, and will, like Jahn, feel his calling and work sacred, and his institution a temple in which every physical act will be for the sake of the soul. The world of adolescence, especially that part which sits in closed spaces conning books, groans and travails all the more grievously and yearningly, because unconsciously, waiting for a redeemer for its body. Till he appears, our culture must remain for most a little hollow, falsetto, and handicapped by school-bred diseases. The modern gymnasium performs its chief service during adoles- cence and is one of the most beneficent agencies of which 64 GYMNASTICS not a few, but every youth, should make large use. Its spirit should be instinct with euphoria, where the joy of being alive reaches a point of high, although not quite its highest, intensity. "While the stimulus of rivalry and even of records is not excluded, and social feelings may be appealed to by unison exercises and by the club spirit, and while competitions, tournaments, and the artificial motives of prizes and exhibitions may be invoked, the culture is in fact largely individual. And yet in this country the annual Turnerfest brings 4,000 or 5,000 men from all parts of the Union, who sometimes all deploy and go through some of the standard exercises together under one leader. Instead of training a few athletes, the real problem now presented is how to raise the gen- eral level of vitality so that children and youth may be fitted to stand the strain of modern civilization, resist zymotic diseases, and overcome the deleterious influ- ences of city life. The almost immediate effects of sys- tematic training are surprising and would hardly be inferred from the annual increments tabled earlier in this chapter. Sandow was a rather weakly boy and ascribes his development chiefly to systematic training. We have space but for two reports believed to be typical. Enebuske reports on the effects of seven months' training on young women averaging 22.3 years. The figures are based on the 50 percentile column. Before training . . After six months . it C a %z cc o fl u 2.65 2.87 93 120 65.5 81.5 27 32 26 28 23 25 HS 230 293 By comparing records of what he deems standard normal growth with that of 188 naval cadets from six- 65 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE teen to twenty-one, who had special and systematic train- ing, just after the period of most rapid growth in height, Beyer concluded that the effect of four years of this added a little over an inch of stature, and that this gain was greatest at the beginning. This increase was great- est for the youngest cadets. He found also a marked increase in weight, nearly the same for each year from seventeen to twenty-one. This he thought more easily influenced by exercise than height. A high vital index or ratio of lung capacity to weight is a very important attribute of good training. Beyer ^ found, however, that the addition of lung area gained by exercise did not keep up with the increase thus caused in muscular substance, and that the vital index always became smaller in those who had gained weight and strength by special physical training. How much gain in weight is desirable beyond the point where the lung capacity increases at an equal rate is unknown. If such measurements were applied to the different gymnastic systems, we might be able to com- pare their efficiency, which would be a great desideratum in view of the unfortunate rivalry between them. Total strength, too, can be greatly increased. Beyer thinks that from sixteen to twenty-one it may exceed the average or normal increment fivefold, and he adds, *' I firmly believe that the now so wonderful performances of most of our strong men are well within the reach of the majority of healthy men, if such performances were a serious enough part of their ambition to make them do the exercises necessary to develop them. ' ' Power of the organs to respond to good training by increased strength probably reaches well into middle life. 1 See H. G. Beyer. The Influence of Exercise on Growth. American Physical Education Review, September-December, 1896, vol. 1, pp. 76-87. 66 GYMNASTICS It is not encouraging to learn that, according to a recent writer,^ we now have seventy times as many physicians in proportion to the general population as there are physical directors, even for the school popula- tion alone considered. We have twice as many physi- cians per population as Great Britain, four times as many as Germany, or 2 physicians, 1.8 ministers, 1.4 lawyers per thousand of the general population; while even if all male teachers of physical training taught only males of the military age, we should have but 0.05 of a teacher per thousand, or if the school population alone be considered, 20 teachers per million pupils. Hence, it is inferred that the need of wise and classified teachers in this field is at present greater than in any other. But fortunately while spontaneous, unsystematic exercise in a well-equipped modern gymnasium may in rare cases do harm, so far from sharing the prejudice often felt for it by professional trainers, we believe that free access to it without control or direction is unquestionably a boon to youth. Even if its use be sporadic and occasional, as it is likely to be with equal opportunity for out-of-door exercises and especially sports, practise is sometimes hygienic almost inversely to its amount, wiiile even lameness from initial excess has its lessons, and the sense of manifoldness of inferiorities brought home by experiences gives a w^holesome self-knowledge and stimulus. In this country more than elsewhere, especially in high school and college, gymnasium work has been brought into healthful connection with field sports and record competitions for both teams and individuals who aspire to championship. This has given the former a 1 J. H. McCurdy, Physical Training as a Profession. Association Seminar, March, 1902, vol. 10, pp. 11-24. 67 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE healthful stimulus although it is felt only by a picked few. Scores of records have been established for run- ning, walking, hurdling, throwing, putting, swimming, rowing, skating, etc., each for various shorter and longer distances and under manifold conditions, and for both amateurs and professionals, who are easily accessible. These, in general, show a slow but steady advance in this country since 1876, when athletics were established here. In that year there was not a single world's best record held by an American amateur, and high-school boys of to-day could in most, though not in all lines, have won the American championship twenty-five years ago. Of course, in a strict sense, intercollegiate contests do not show the real advance in athletics, because it is not necessary for a man in order to win a championship to do his best ; but they do show general improvement. We select for our purpose a few of those records long- est kept. Not dependent on external conditions like boat- racing, or on improved apparatus like bicycling, we have interesting data of a very different order for physical measurements. These down to present writing — July, 1906 — are as follows: For the 100-yard dash, every annual record from 1876 to 1895 is 10 or 11 seconds, or between these, save in 1890, where Owen's record of 9f seconds still stands. In the 220-yard run there is slight improvement since 1877, but here the record of 1896 (Wefers, 21 -J seconds) has not been surpassed. In the quarter-mile run, the best record was in 1900 (Long, 47 seconds). The half-mile record, which still stands, was made in 1895 (Kilpatrick, 1 minute 52| sec- onds) ; the mile run in 1895 (Conneff, 4 minutes 15| seconds). The running broad jump shows a very steady improvement, with the best record in 1900 (Prinstein, 24 feet 7 J inches). The running high jump shows im- 68 GYMNASTICS provement, but less, with the record of 1895 still stand- ing (Sweeney, 6 feet 5| inches). The record for pole vaulting, corrected to November, 1905, is 12 feet Iff inches (Dole) ; for throwing the 16-pound hammer head, 100 feet 5 inches (Queckberner) ; for putting the 16- pound shot, 49 feet 6 inches (Coe, 1905) ; the standing high jump, 5 feet 5J inches (Ew^ry) ; for the running high jump, 6 feet 5f inches (SweenejO- We also find that if w^e extend our purview to include all kinds of records for physical achievement, that not a few of the amateur records for activities involving strength com- bined with rapid rhythm movement are held by young men of twenty or even less. In putting the 16-pound shot under uniform condi- tions the record has improved since the early years nearly 10 feet (Coe, 49 feet 6 inches, best at present writing, 1906). Pole vaulting shows a very marked advance cul- minating in 1904 (Dole, 12 feet iU inches). Most marked of all perhaps is the great advance in throwing the 16-pound hammer. Beginning between 70 and 80 feet in the early years, the record is now 172 feet 11 inches (Flanagan, 1904). The two-mile bicycle race also shows marked gain, partly, of course, due to im- provement in the wheel, the early records being nearly 7 minutes, and the best being 2 minutes 19 seconds (McLean, 1903). Some of these are world records, and more exceed professional records.^ These, of course, no more indicate general improvement than the steady re- duction of time in horse-racing suggests betterment in horses generally. 1 These records are taken from the World Almanac, 1906, and Olympic Games of 1906 at Athens. Edited by J. E. Sullivan, Com- missioner from the United States to the Olympic Games. Spalding's Athletic Library, New Yor.k, Julv, 1906. 69 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE In Panhellenic games as well as at present, athleti- cism in its manifold forms was one of the most character- istic expressions of adolescent nature and needs. Not a single time or distance record of antiquity has been pre- served, although Grasberger ^ and other writers would have us believe that in those that are comparable, ancient youthful champions greatly excelled ours, especially in leaping and running. While we are far from cultivating mere strength, our training is very one-sided from the Greek norm of unity or of the ideals that develop the body only for the sake of the soul. While gymnastics in our sense, with apparatus, exercises, and measure- ments independently of games was unknown, the ideal and motive were as different from ours as was its method. Nothing, so far as is known, was done for correcting the ravages of work, or for overcoming hereditary defects; and until athletics degenerated there were no exercises for the sole purpose of developing muscle. On the whole, while modern gymnastics has done more for the trunk, shoulders, and arms than for the legs, it is now too selfish and ego-centric, deficient on the side of psychic impulsion, and but little subordinated to ethical or intellectual development. Yet it does a great physical service to all who cultivate it, and is a safeguard of virtue and temperance. Its need is radical revision and coordination of various cults and theories in the light of the latest psycho-physiological science. Gymnastics allies itself to biometric work. The pres- ent academic zeal for physical development is in great need of closer affiliation with anthropometry. This im- portant and growing department will be represented in 1 O. H. Jaeger, Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Heitz, Stuttgart, 1881. L. Grasberger's great standard work, Erziehung und Untericht im klas- sischen Alterthum. Wiirzburg, 1864-81, 3 vols. 70 GYMNASTICS the ideal gymnasium of the future — First, by courses, if not by a chair, devoted to the apparatus of measure- ments of human proportions and symmetry, with a kinesological cabinet where young men are instructed in the elements of auscultation, the use of calipers, the sphygmograph, spirometer, plethysmograph, kinesometer to plot graphic curves, compute average errors, and tables of percentile grades and in statistical methods, etc. Second, anatomy, especially of muscles, bones, heart, and skin, will be taught, and also their physiology, with stress upon myology, the effects of exercise on the flow of blood and lymph, not excluding' the development of the upright position, and all that it involves and im- plies. Third, hygiene will be prominent and compre- hensive enough to cover all that pertains to body-keeping, regimen, sleep, connecting with school and domestic and public hygiene — all on the basis of modern as distinct from the archaic physiology of Ling, who, it is sufficient to remember, died in 1839, before this science was recre- ated, and the persistence of whose concepts are an anomalous survival to-day. Mechanieo-therapeutics, the purpose and service of each chief kind of apparatus and exercise, the value of work on stall bars with chest weights, of chinning, use of the quarter-staff, somer- saults, rings, clubs, dumb-bells, work with straight and flexed knees on machinery, etc., will be taught. Fourth, the history of gymnastics from the time of its highest development in Greece to the present is full of interest and has a very high and not yet developed culture value for youth. This department, both in its practical and theoretical side, should have its full share of prizes and scholarships to stimulate the seventy to seventy-five per cent of students who are now unaffected by the influence of athletics. By these methods the motivation of gymnas- 6 71 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE tics, which now in large measure goes to waste in en- thusiasm, could be utilized to aid the greatly needed intellectualization of those exercises which in their nature are more akin to work than play. Indeed, Gutsmuths's first definition of athletics was " work under the garb of youthful pleasure." So to develop these courses that they could chiefly, if not entirely, satisfy the re- quirements for the A. B. degree, would coordinate the work of the now isolated curriculum of the training- schools with that of the college and thus broaden the sphere of the latter ; but besides its culture value, which I hold very high, 'such a step would prepare for the new, important, and, as we have seen, very inadequately manned profession of physical trainers. This has, more- over, great but yet latent and even unsuspected capaci- ties for the morals of our academic youth. Grote states that among the ancient Greeks one-half of all education was devoted to the body, and Galton urges that they as much excelled us as we do the African negro. They held that if physical perfection was cultivated, moral and mental excellence would follow; and that, without this, national culture rests on an insecure basis. In our day there are many new reasons to believe that the best nations of the future will be those which give most intel- ligent care to the body. 72 CHAPTER VI PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES The view of Groos partial and a better explanation of play proposed as rehearsing ancestral activities — The glory of Greek physical training, its ideals and results — The first spontaneous movements of infancy as keys to the past — Necessity of developing basal powers before those that are later and peculiar to the individual — Plays that interest due to their antiquity — Play with dolls — Play distinguished by age — Play preferences of children and their reasons — The profound significance of rhythm — The value of dancing and also its significance, history, and the desirability of re-introducing it — Fighting — Boxing — Wrest- ling — Bushido — Foot-ball — Military ideals — Showing off — Cold baths — HiU climbing — The playground movement — The psychology of play — Its relation to work. Play, sports, and games constitute a more varied, far older, and more popular field. Here a very different spirit of joy and gladness rules. Artifacts often enter but can not survive unless based upon pretty purely hereditary momentum. Thus our first problem is to seek both the motor tendencies and the psychic motives be- queathed to us from the past. The view of Groos that play is practise for future adult activities is very par- tial, superficial, and perverse. It ignores the past where lie the keys to all play activities. True play never practises what is phyletically new; and this, industrial life often calls for. It exercises many atavistic and rudi- mentary functions, a number of which will abort before maturity, but which live themselves out in play like the tadpole's tail, that must be both developed and used as a stimulus to the gro\\i;h of legs which will otherwise never mature. In place of this mistaken and mislead- 73 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE ing view, I regard play as the motor habits and spirit of the past of the race, persisting in the present, as rudimentary functions sometimes of and always akin to rudimentary organs. The best index and guide to the stated activities of adults in past ages is found in the instinctive, untaught, and non-imitative plays of children which are the most spontaneous and exact ex- pressions of their motor needs. The young grow up into the same forms of motor activity, as did genera- tions that have long preceded them, only to a limited extent ; and if the form of every human occupation were to change to-day, play would be unaffected save in some of its superficial imitative forms. It would develop the motor capacities, impulses, and fundamental forms of our past heritage, and the transformation of these into later acquired adult forms is progressively later. In play every mood and movement is instinct with heredity. Thus we rehearse the activities of our ancestors, back we know not how far, and repeat their life work in summative and adumbrated ways. It is reminiscent, albeit unconsciously, of our line of descent; and each is the key to the other. The psycho-motive impulses that prompt it are the forms in which our forebears have transmitted to us their habitual activities. Thus stage by stage we reenact their lives. Once in the phylon many of these activities were elaborated in the life and death struggle for existence. Now the elements and com- binations oldest in the muscle history of the race are re- represented earliest in the individual, and those later fol- low in order. This is why the heart of youth goes out into play as into nothing else, as if in it man remembered a lost paradise, This is why, unlike gymnastics, play has as much soul as body, and also why it so makes for unity of body and soul that the proverb ' ' Man is whole 74 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES only when he plays " suggests that the purest plays are those that enlist both alike. To address the body pre- dominantly strengthens unduly the fleshy elements, and to overemphasize the soul causes weakness and automatisms. Thus understood, play is the ideal type of exercise for the young, most favorable for growth, and most self-regulating in both kind and amount. For its forms the pulse of adolescent enthusiasm beats highest. It is unconstrained and free to follow any outer or inner impulse. The zest of it vents and satisfies the strong passion of youth for intense erethic and per- haps orgiastic states, gives an exaltation of self-feeling so craved that with no vicarious outlet it often impels to drink, and best of all realizes the watchword of the Turners,^ frisch, frei, frohlich^ fromm. Ancient Greece, the history and literature of which owe their perennial charm for all later ages to the fact that they represent the eternal adolescence of the world, best illustrates what this enthusiasm means for youth. Jager and Guildersleeve, and yet better Grasberger, would have us believe that the Panhellenic and especially the Olympic games combined many of the best features of a modern prize exhibition, a camp-meeting, fair, Derby day, a Wagner festival, a meeting of the British Association, a country cattle show, intercollegiate games, and medieval tournament ; that they were the ' ' acme of festive life " and drew all who loved gold and glory, and that night and death never seemed so black as by contrast with their splendor. The deeds of the young athletes were ascribed to the inspiration of the gods, whose abodes they lit up with glory ; and in doing them honor these discordant states found a bond of unity. 1 Fresh, free, jovial, pious. 75 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE The victor was crowned with a simple spray of laurel; cities vied with each other for the honor of having given him birth, their walls were taken down for his entry and immediately rebuilt; sculptors, for whom the five ancient games were schools of posture, competed in the representation of his form; poets gave him a pedigree reaching back to the gods, and Pindar, who sang that only he is great who is great with his hands and feet, raised his victory to symbolize the eternal prevalence of good over evil. The best body implied the best mind ; and even Plato, to whom tradition gives not only one of the fairest souls, but a body remarkable for both strength and beauty, and for whom weakness was peri- lously near to wickedness, and ugliness to sin, argues that education must be so conducted that the body can be safely entrusted to the care of the soul and suggests, what later became a slogan of a more degenerate gladi- atorial athleticism, that to be well and strong is to be a philosopher — valare est philosophari. The Greeks could hardly conceive bodily apart from psychic educa- tion, and physical was for the sake of mental training. A sane, whole mind could hardly reside in an unsound body upon the integrity of which it was dependent. Knowledge for its own sake, from this standpoint, is a dangerous superstition, for what frees the mind is dis- astrous if it does not give self-control ; better ignorance than knowledge that does not develop a motor side. Body culture is ultimately only for the sake of the mind and soul, for body is only its other ego. Not only is all muscle culture at the same time brain-building, but a book-worm with soft hands, tender feet, and tough rump from much sitting, or an anemic girl prodigy, * ' in the morning hectic, in the evening electric," is a mon- ster. Play at its best is only a school of ethics. It gives 76 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES not only strength but courage and confidence, tends to simplify life and habits, gives energy, decision, and promptness to the will, brings consolation and peace of mind in evil days, is a resource in trouble and brings out individuality. How the ideals of physical preformed those of moral and mental training in the land and day of Socrates is seen in the identification of knowledge and virtue, ** Kennen und Konnen.^'^ Only an extreme and one- sided intellectualism separates them and assumes that it is easy to know and hard to do. From the ethical stand- point, philosophy, and indeed all knowledge, is the art of being and doing good, conduct is the only real sub- ject of knowledge, and there is no science but morals. He is the best man, says Xenophon, who is always study- ing how to improve, and he is the happiest who feels that he is improving. Life is a skill, an art like a handicraft, and true knowledge a form of will. Good moral and physical development are more than analo- gous; and where intelligence is separated from action the former becomes mystic, abstract, and desiccated, and the latter formal routine. Thus mere conscience and psychological integrity and righteousness are allied and mutually inspiring. Not only play, which is the purest expression of motor heredity, but work and all exercise owe most of whatever pleasure they bring to the past. The first influence of all right exercise for those in health is a feeling of well-being and exhilaration. This is one chief source of the strange enthusiasm felt for many special forms of activity, and the feeling is so strong that it animates many forms of it that are hygienically unfit. 1 To know and to have the power to do. 77 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE To act vigorously from a full store of energy gives a reflex of pleasure that is sometimes a passion and may fairly intoxicate. Animals must move or cease grow- ing and die. While to be weak is to be miserable, to feel strong is a joy and glory. It gives a sense of superior- ity, dignity, endurance, courage, confidence*, enterprise, power, personal validity, virility, and virtue in the etymological sense of that noble word. To be active, agile, strong, is especially the glory of young men. Our nature and history have so disposed our frame that thus all physiological and psychic processes are stimulated, products of decomposition are washed out by oxygena- tion and elimination, the best reaction of all the gangli- onic and sympathetic activities is aroused, and vegetative processes are normalized. Activity may exalt the spirit almost to the point of ecstasy, and the physical pleasure of it diffuse, irradiate, and mitigate the sexual stress just at the age when its premature localization is most deleterious. Just enough at the proper time and rate contributes to permanent elasticity of mood and disposi- tion, gives moral self-control, rouses a love of freedom with all that that great word means, and favors all higher human aspirations. In all these modes of developing our efferent powers, we conceive that the race comes very close to the in- dividual youth, and that ancestral momenta animate motor neurons and muscles and preside over most of the combinations. Some of the elements speak with a still small voice raucous with age. The first spontaneous movements of infancy are hieroglyphs, to most of which we have as yet no good key. Many elements are so impacted and felted together that w^e can not analyze them. Many are extinct and many perhaps made but once and only hint things we can not apprehend. Later 78 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES the rehearsals are fuller, and their significance more in- telligible, and in boyhood and youth the correspondences are plain to all who have eyes to see. Pleasure is always exactly proportional to the directness and force of the current of heredity, and in play we feel most fully and intensely ancestral joys. The pain of toil died with our forebears ; its vestiges in our play give pure delight. Its variety prompts to diversity that enlarges our life. Primitive men and animals played, and that too has left its traces in us. Some urge that work was evolved or degenerated from play; but the play field broadens as with succeeding generations youth is prolonged, for play is always and everywhere the best synonym of youth. All are young at play and only in play, and the best possible characterization of old age is the ab- sence of the soul and body of play. Only senile and overspecialized tissues of brain, heart, and muscles know it not. Gulick ^ has urged that what makes certain exercises more interesting than others is to be found in the phylon. The power to throw with accuracy and speed was once pivotal for survival, and non-throwers were eliminated. Those who could throw unusually well best overcame enemies, killed game, and sheltered family. The ner- vous and muscular systems are organized with certain definite tendencies and have back of them a racial set- ting. So running and dodging with speed and endur- ance, and hitting with a club, were also basal to hunting and fighting. Now that the need of these is less urgent for utilitarian purposes, they are still necessary for per- fecting the organism. This makes, for instance, base- ball racially familiar, because it represents activities 1 Interest in Relation to Muscular Exercise. American Physical Education Review, June, 1902, vol. 7, pp. 57-65. 79 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE that were once and for a long time necessary for sur- vival. We inherit tendencies of muscular coordination that have been of great racial utility. The best athletic sports and games are composed of these racially old elements, so that phylogenetic muscular history is of great importance. Why is it, this writer asks, that a city man so loves to sit all day and fish? It is because this interest dates back to time immemorial. We are the sons of fishermen, and early life was by the water's side, and this is our food supply. This explains why certain exercises are more interesting than others. It is because they touch and revive the deep basic emo- tions of the race. Thus we see that play is not doing things to be useful later, but it is rehearsing racial history. Plays and games change only in their ex- ternal form, but the underlying neuro-muscular activi- ties, and also the psychic content of them, are the same. Just as psychic states must be lived out up through the grades, so the physical activities must be played off, each in its own time. The best exercise for the young should thus be more directed to develop the basal powers old to the race than those peculiar to the individual, and it should enforce those psycho-neural and muscular forms which race habit has handed down rather than insist upon those ar- bitrarily designed to develop our ideas of symmetry regardless of heredity. The best guide to the former is interest, zest, and spontaneity. Hereditary momenta really determine, too, the order in which nerve centers come into function. The oldest, racial parts come first, and those which are higher and represent volition come in much later. ^ As Hughlings Jacl^on has well shown, 1 The Influence of Exercise upon Growth, by Frederic Burk. Ameri- can Physical Education Review, December, 1899, vol. 4, pp. 340-349. 80 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES speech uses most of the same organs as does eating, but those concerned with the former are controlled from a higher level of nerve-cells. By right mastication, deg- lutition, etc., we are thus developing speech organs. Thus not only the kind but the time of forms and de- grees of exercise is best prescribed by heredity. All growth is more or less rhythmic. There are seasons of rapid increment followed by rest and then perhaps suc- ceeded by a period of augmentation, and this may oc- cur several times. Roberts's fifth parliamentary report shows that systematic gymnastics, which, if applied at the right age, produce such immediate and often sur- prising development of lung capacity, utterly fail with boys of twelve, because this nascent period has not yet come. Donaldson showed that if the eyelid of a young kitten be forced open prematurely at birth and stimu- lated with light, medullation was premature and im- perfect; so, too, if proper exercise is deferred too long, we know that little result is achieved. The sequence in which the maturation of levels, nerve areas, and bundles of fibers develop may be, as Flechsig thinks, causal; or, according to Cajal, energy, originally em- ployed in gro^vth by cell division, later passes to fiber extension and the development of latent cells; or, as in young children, the nascent period of finger move- ments may stimulate that of the thumb which comes later, and the independent movement of the two eyes, their subsequent coordination, and so on to perhaps a third and yet higher level. Thus exercise ought to de- velop nature's first intention and fulfil the law of nascent periods, or else not only no good but great harm may be done. Hence every determination of these periods is of great practical as well as scientific im- portance. The following are the chief attempts yet 81 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE made to fix them, which show the significance of adoles- cence. The doll curve reaches its point of highest intensity between eight and nine/ and it is nearly ended at fif- teen, although it may persist. Children can give no better reason why they stop playing with dolls than because other things are liked better, or they are too old, ashamed, love real babies, etc. The Roman girl, when ripe for marriage, hung up her childhood doll as a votive offering to Venus. Mrs. Carlyle, who was compelled to stop, made sumptuous dresses and a four- post bed, and made her doll die upon a funeral pyre like Dido, after speaking her last farewell and stab- bing herself with a penknife by way of Tyrian sword. At thirteen or fourteen it is more distinctly realized that dolls are not real, because they have no inner life or feeling, yet many continue to play with them with great pleasure, in secret, till well on in the teens or twenties. Occasionally single women or married women with no children, and in rare cases even those who have children, play dolls all their lives. Gales 's^ student concluded that the girls who played with dolls up to or into pubescent years were usually those who had the fewest number, that they played with them in the most realistic manner, kept them because actually most fond of them, and were likely to be more scientific, steady, and less sentimental than those who dropped them early. But the instinct that " dollifies " new or most unfit things is gone, as also the subtle points of contact between doll play and idolatry. Before puberty 1 A study of Dolls, by G. Stanley Hall and A. C. Ellis. Pedagogical Seminary, December, 1896, vol. 4, pp. 129-175. 2 Studies in Imagination, by Lillian H. Chalmers. Pedagogical Seminary, April, 1900, vol. 7, pp. 111-123. «9 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES dolls are more likely to be adults; after puberty they are almost always children or babies. There is no longer a struggle between doubt and reality in the doll cosmos, no more abandon to the doll illusion ; but where it lingers it is a more atavistic rudiment, and just as at the height of the fever dolls are only in small part representatives of future children, the saying that the first child is the last doll is probably false. Nor are doll and child comparable to first and second dentition, and it is doubtful if children who play with dolls as children with too great abandonment are those who make the best mothers later, or if it has any value as a preliminary practise of motherhood. The number of motor activities that are both inspired and unified by this form of play and that can always be given whole- some direction is almost incredible, and has been too long neglected both by psychologists and teachers. Few purer types of the rehearsal by the individual of the history of the race can probably be found even though we can not yet analyze the many elements involved and assign to each its phyletic correlate. In an interesting paper Dr. Gulick ^ divides play into three childish periods, separated by the ages three and seven, and attempts to characterize the plays of early adolescence from twelve to seventeen and of later adolescence from seventeen to twenty-three. Of the first two periods he says, children before seven rarely play games spontaneously, but often do so under the stimulus of older persons. From seven to twelve, games are al- most exclusively individualistic and competitive, but in early adolescence ' ' two elements predominate — first, the plays are predominantly team games, in which the in- 1 Some Psychical Aspects of Physical Exercise. Popxilar Science Monthly, October, 1898, vol. 53, pp. 793-805. 83 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE dividual is more or less sacrificed for the whole, in which there is obedience to a captain, in which there is cooperation among a number for a given end, in which play has a program and an end. The second character- istic of the period is with reference to its plays, and there seems to be all of savage out-of-door life — ^hunting, fishing, stealing, swimming, rowing, sailing, fighting, hero-worship, adventure, love of animals, etc. This char- acteristic obtains more with boys than with girls." " The plays of adolescence are socialistic, demanding the heathen virtues of courage, endurance, self-control, bravery, loyalty, enthusiasm." Croswell ^ found that among 2,000 children familiar with 700 kinds of amusements, those involving physical exercises predominated over all others, and that " at every age after the eighth year they were represented as almost two to one, and in the sixteenth year rose among boys as four to one." The age of the greatest number of different amusements is from ten to eleven, nearly fifteen being mentioned, but for the next eight or nine years there is a steady decline of number, and progressive specialization occurs. The games of chase, which are suggestive on the recapitulation theory, rise from eleven per cent in boys of six to nineteen per cent at nine, but soon after decline, and at sixteen have fallen to less than four per cent. Toys and original make- believe games decline still earlier, while ball rises stead- ily and rapidly to eighteen, and card and table games rise very steadily from ten to fifteen in girls, but the increment is much less in boys. '' A third or more of all the amusements of boys just entering their teens are games of contest — games in which the end is in one way 1 Amusements of Worcester School Children. Pedagogical Seminary, September, 1899, vol. 6, pp. 314-371. 84 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES or another to gain an advantage over one's fellows, in which the interest is in the struggle between peers. '^ * * As children approach the teens, a tendency arises that is well expressed by one of the girls who no longer makes playthings but things that are useful." Parents and society must, therefore, provide the most favorable conditions for the kind of amusement fitting at each age. As the child grows older, society plays a larger role in all the child's amusements, and from the thirteenth year '' amusements take on a decidedly cooperative and competitive character, and efforts are more and more confined to the accomplishments of some definite aim. The course for this period will concentrate the effort upon fewer lines," and more time will be devoted to each. The desire for mastery is now at its height. The instinct is to maintain one's self independently and ask no odds. At fourteen, especially, the impulse is, in manual training, to make something and perhaps to cooperate. McGhee ^ collected the play preferences of 15,718 children, and found a very steady decline in running plays among girls from nine to eighteen, but a far more rapid rise in plays of chance from eleven to fifteen, and a very rapid rise from sixteen to eighteen. From eleven onward with the most marked fall before fourteen, there was a distinct decline in imitative games for girls and a slower one for boys. Games involving rivalry increased rapidly among boys from eleven to sixteen and still more rapidly among girls, their percentage of preference even exceeding that of boys at eighteen, when it reached near- ly seventy per cent. With adolescence, specialization 1 A study in the Plaj^ Life of Some South Carolina Children. Peda- gogical Seminary, December, 1900, vol. 7, pp. 459-478. 85 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE upon a few plays was markedly increased in the teens among boys, whereas with girls in general there were a large number of plays which were popular with none preeminent. Even at this age the principle of organi- zation in games so strong with boys is very slight with girls. Puberty showed the greatest increase of interest among pubescent girls for croquet, and among boys for swimming, although baseball and football, the most favored for boys, rose rapidly. Although the author does not state it, it would seem from his data that plays peculiar to the different seasons were most marked among boys, in part, at least, because their activities are more out of doors. Ferrero and others have shown that the more intense activities of primitive people tend to be rhythmic and with strongly automatic features. No form of activity is more universal than the dance, which is not only in- tense but may express chiefly in terms of fundamental movements, stripped of their accessory finish and detail, every important act, vocation, sentiment, or event in the life of man in language so universal and symbolic that music and poetry themselves seem to have arisen out of it. Before it became specialized much labor was cast in rhythmic form and often accompanied by time-marking and even tone to secure the stimulus of concert on both economic and social principles. In the dark background of history there is now much evidence that at some point, play, art, and work were not divorced. They all may have sprung from rhythmic movement which is so deep- seated in biology because it secures most joy of life with least expense. By it Eros of old ordered chaos, and by its judicious use the human soul is cadenced to great efforts toward high ideals. The many work-songs to secure concerted action in lifting, pulling, stepping, the 86 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES use of flail, lever, saw, ax, hammer, hoe, loom, etc., show that arsis and thesis represent flexion and extension, that accent originated in the acme of muscular stress, as well as how rhythm eases work and also makes it social. Most of the old work-canticles are lost, and machines have made work more serial, while rhythms are obscured or imposed from without so as to limit the freedom they used to express. Now all basal, central, or strength movements tend to be oscillatory, automatically repeti- tive, or rhythmic like savage music, as if the waves of the primeval sea whence we came still beat in them, just as all fine peripheral and late movements tend to be serial, special, vastly complex, and diversified. It is thus nat- ural that during the period of greatest strength incre- ment in muscular development, the rhythmic function of nearly all fundamental movements should be strongly ac- centuated. At the dawn of this age boys love marching; and, as our returns show, there is a very remarkable rise in the passion for beating time, jigging, double shuffling, rhythmic clapping, etc. The more prominent the factor of repetition the more automatic and the less strenuous is the hard and new effort of constant psychic adjustment and attention. College yells, cheers, rowing, marching, processions, bicycling, running, tug-of-war, calisthenics and class gymnastics with counting, and especially with music, horseback riding, etc., are rhythmic ; tennis, base- ball and football, basket-ball, golf, polo, etc., are less rhythmic, but are concerted and intense. These latter emphasize the conflict factor, best brought out in fencing, boxing, and wrestling, and lay more stress on the psychic elements of attention and skill. ' The effect of musical accompaniment, which the Swedish system wrongly re- jects, is to make the exercises more fundamental and automatic, and to proportionately diminish the conscious 7 87 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE effort and relieve the neuro-muscular mechanism in- volved in fine movements. Adolescence is the golden period of nascency for rhythm. Before this change many children have a very imperfect sense of it, and even those who march, sing, play, or read poetry with correct and overemphasized time marking, experience a great broadening of the hori- zon of consciousness, and a marked, and, for mental pow- er and scope, all-conditioning increase in the carrying power of attention and the sentence-sense. The soul now feels the beauty of cadences, good ascension, and the sym- metry of well-developed periods — and all, as I am con- vinced, because this is the springtime of the strength movements which are predominantly rhythmic. Not only does music start in time marking, the drum being the old- est instrument, but quantity long took precedence of sense and form of content, both melody and words coming later. Even rhythmic tapping or beating of the foot (whence the poetic feet of prosody and meter thus later imposed on monotonous prose to make poetry) exhilarates, makes glad the soul and inspires it to attack, gives compulsion and a sense of unity. The psychology of rhythm shows its basal value in cadencing the soul. We can not con- ceive what war, love, and religion would be without it. The old adage that " the parent of prose is poetry, the parent of poetry is music, the parent of music is rhythm, and the parent of rhj^thm is God " seems borne out not only in history, but by the nature of thought and atten- tion that does not move in a continuum, but flies and perches alternately, or on stepping-stones and as if in- fluenced by the tempo of the leg swinging as a compound pendulum. Dancing is one of the best expressions of pure play and of the motor needs of youth. Perhaps it is the most 88 ^ PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES liberal of all forms of motor education. Schopenhauer thought it the apex of physiological irritability and that it made animal life most vividly conscious of its existence and most exultant in exhibiting it. In very ancient times China ritualized it in the spring and made it a large part of the education of boys after the age of thir- teen. Neale thinks it was originally circular or orbicu- lar worship, which he deems oldest. In Japan, in the priestly Salic College of ancient Rome, in Egypt, in the Greek Apollo cult, it was a form of worship. St. Basil advised it; St. Gregory introduced it into religious ser- vices. The early Christian bishops, called pra?suls, led the sacred dance around the altar ; and only in 692, and again in 1617, was it forbidden in church. Neale and others have shown how the choral processionals with all the added charm of vestment and intonation have had far more to do in Christianizing many low tribes, who could not understand the language of the church, than has preaching. Savages are nearly all great dancers, imi- tating every animal they know, dancing out their own legends, with ritual sometimes so exacting that error means death. The character of people is often learned from their dances, and Moliere says the destiny of nations depends on them. The gayest dancers are often among the most downtrodden and unhappy people. Some mys- teries can be revealed only in them, as holy passion-plays. If we consider the history of secular dances, we find that some of them, when first invented or in vogue, evoked the greatest enthusiasm. One writer says that the polka so delighted France and England that statesmen forgot politics. The spirit of the old Polish aristocracy still lives in the polonaise. The gipsy dances have inspired a new school of music. The Greek drama grew out of the evolution of the tragic chorus. National dances like 89 YOUTH : ITS EQUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE the hornpipe and reel of Scotland, the Reihen of Ger- many, the rondes of France, the Spanish tarantella and cliaconne, the stratlispey from the Spey Valley, the Irish jig, etc., express racial traits. Instead of the former vast repertory, the stately pavone, the graceful and dig- nified saraband, the wild salterrelle, the bourree with song and strong rh5i:hm, the light and skippy bolero, the courtly bayadere, the dramatic plugge, gavotte, and other peasant dances in costume, the fast and furious fandango, weapon and military dances; in place of the pristine power to express love, mourning, justice, pen- alty, fear, anger, consolation, divine service, symbolic and philosophical conceptions, and every industry or characteristic act of life in pantomime and gesture, we have in the dance of the modern ballroom only a degen- erate relict, with at best but a very insignificant culture value, and too often stained with bad associations. This is most unfortunate for youth, and for their sake a work of rescue and revival is greatly needed ; for it is perhaps, not excepting even music, the completest language of the emotions and can be made one of the best schools of sen- timent and even will, inculcating good states of mind and exorcising bad ones as few other agencies have power to do. ' Right dancing can cadence the very soul, give ner- vous poise and control, bring harmony between basal and finer muscles, and also between feeling and intellect, body and mind. It can serve both as an awakener and a test of intelligence, predispose the heart against vice, and turn the springs of character toward virtue.^/ That its present decadent forms, for those too devitalized to dance aright, can be demoralizing, we know in this day too well, although even questionable dances may some- times work off vicious propensities in ways more harm- less than those in which they would otherwise find vent. 90 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES Its utilization for and influence on the insane would be another interesting chapter. Very interesting scientifically and suggestive practi- cally is another correspondence which I believe to be new, between the mode of spontaneous activity in youth and that of labor in the early history of the race. One of the most marked distinctions between savage and civilized races is in the longer rhythm of work and relax- ation. The former are idle and lazy for days, weeks, and perhaps months, and then put forth intense and pro- longed effort in dance, hunt, warfare, migration, or construction, sometimes dispensing with sleep and mani- festing remarkable endurance. As civilization and spe- cialization advance, hours become regular. The cultured man is less desultory in all his habits, from eating and sleeping to performing social and religious duties, al- though he may put forth no more aggregate energy in a year than the savage. Women are schooled to regular work long before men, and the difficulty of imposing civilization upon low races is compared by Biicher ^ to that of training a cat to work when harnessed to a dog- cart. It is not dread of fatigue but of the monotony of method that makes them hate labor. The effort of sav- ages is more intense and their periods of rest more pro- longed and inert. Darwin thinks all vital function bred to go in periods, as vertebrates are descended from a tidal ascidian.^ There is indeed much that suggests some other irregular rhythm more or less independent of day and night, and perhaps sexual in its nature, but not lunar, and for males. This mode of life not only preceded the industrial and commercial period of which regularity is a 1 Arbeit und Rythmus. Triibner, Leipzig, 1896. 2 Descent of Man. D. Appleton and Co., 1872, vol. 1, chap, vi, p. 204 et seq. 91 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE prime condition, but it lasted indefinitely longer than the latter has yet existed ; during this early time great exer- tion, sometimes to the point of utter exhaustion and col- lapse, alternated with seasons of almost vegetative exist- ence. We see abundant traces of this psychosis in the muscle habits of adolescents, and, I think, in student and particularly in college life, which can enforce regularity only to a limited extent. This is not reversion, but partly an expression of the nature and perhaps the needs of this stage of immaturity, and partly the same instinct of re- volt against uniformity imposed from without, which rob life of variety and extinguish the spirit of adventure and untrammeled freedom, and make the savage hard to break to the harness of civilization. The hunger for fatigue, too, can become a veritable passion and is quite distinct from either the impulse for activity for its own sake or the desire of achievement. To shout and put forth the utmost possible strength in crude ways is an erethic intoxication at a stage when every tissue can become erectile and seems, like the crying of infants, to have a legitimate function in causing tension and flushing, en- larging the caliber of blood vessels, and forcing the blood perhaps even to the point of extravasation to irrigate newly growing fibers, cells, and organs which atrophy if not thus fed. When maturity is complete this need abates. If this be correct, the phenomenon of second breath, so characteristic of adolescence, and one factor in the inebriate's propensity, is an ontogenetic expression of a rhythm trait of a long racial period. Y^outh needs overexertion to compensate for underexertion, to under- sleep in order to offset oversleep at times. This seems to be nature's provision to expand in all directions its possi- bilities of the body and soul in this plastic period when, without this occasional excess, powers would atrophy or 92 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES suffer arrest for want of use, or larger possibilities would not be realized without this regimen peculiar to nascent periods. This is treated more fully elsewhere. Perhaps next to dancing in phyletic motivation come personal conflicts, such as wrestling, fighting, boxing, dueling, and in some sense, hunting. The animal world is full of struggle for survival, and primitive warfare is a wager of battle, of personal combat of foes contesting eye to eye and hand to hand, where victory of one is the defeat and perhaps death of the other, and where life is often staked against life. In its more brutal forms we see one of the most degrading of all the aspects of human nature. Burk ^ has shown how the most bestial of these instincts survive and crop out irresistibly in boy- hood, where fights are often engaged in with desperate abandon. Noses are bitten, ears torn, sensitive places kicked, hair pulled, arms twisted, the head stamped on and pounded on stones, fingers twisted, and hoodlums sometimes deliberately try to strangle, gouge out an eye, pull off an ear, pull out the tongue, break teeth, nose, or bones, or dislocate jaws or other joints, wring the neck, bite off a lip, and torture in utterly nameless ways. In un- restrained anger, man becomes a demon in love with the blood of his victim. The face is distorted, and there are yells, oaths, animal snorts and grunts, cries, and then ex- ultant laughter at pain, and each is bruised, dirty, dishev- eled and panting with exhaustion. For coarser natures, the spectacle of such conflicts has an intense attraction, while some morbid souls are scarred by a distinct phobia for everything suggestive of even lower degrees of opposi- tion. These instincts, more or less developed in boyhood. ^ Teasing and Bullying. Pedagogical Seminary, April, 1897, vol. 4, pp. 336-371. 93 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE are repressed in normal cases before strength and skill are sufficiently developed to inflict serious bodily in- jury, while without the reductives that orthogenetic growth brings they become criminal. Repulsive as are these grosser and animal manifestations of anger, its im- pulsion can not and should not be eliminated, but its ex- pression transformed and directed toward evils that need all its antagonism. To be angry aright is a good part of moral education, and non-resistance under all provo- cations is unmanly, craven, and cowardly.^ An able- bodied young man, who can not fight physically, can hardly have a high and true sense of honor, and is gen- erally a milk-sop, a lady-boy, or a sneak. He lacks virility, his masculinity does not ring true, his hon- esty can not be sound to the core. Hence, instead of eradicating this instinct, one of the great problems of physical and moral pedagogy is rightly to temper and direct it. Sparta sedulously cultivated it in boys; and in the great English schools, w^here for generations it has been more or less tacitly recognized, it is regulated by custom, and their literature and traditions abound in illustra- tions of its man-making and often transforming influ- ence in ways well appreciated by Hughes and Arnold. It makes against degeneration, the essential feature of which is weakening of will and loss of honor. Real vir- tue requires enemies, and women and effeminate and old men want placid, comfortable peace, while a real man rejoices in noble strife which sanctifies all great causes, casts out fear, and is the chief school of courage. Bad as is overpugnacity, a scrapping boy is better than one who 1 See my Study of Anger. American Journal of Psychology, July, 1899, vol. 10, pp. 516-591. 94 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES funks a fight, and I have no patience with the sentimental- ity that would here ' ' pour out the child with the bath, ' ' but would have every healthy boy taught boxing at ado- lescence if not before. The prize-ring is degrading and brutal, but in lieu of better illustrations of the spirit of personal contest I would interest a certain class of boys in it and try to devise modes of pedagogic utilization of the immense store of interest it generates. Like dancing it should be rescued from its evil associations, and its educational force put to do moral work, even though it be by way of individual prescriptions for specific defects of character. At its best, it is indeed a manly art, a su- perb school for quickness of eye and hand, decision, force of will, and self-control. The moment this is lost stinging punishment follows. Hence it is the surest of all cures for excessive irascibility and has been found to have a most beneficent effect upon a peevish or unmanly disposition. It has no mean theoretic side, of rules, kinds of blow and counters, arts of drawing out and tiring an opponent, hindering but not injuring him, defensive and offensive tactics, etc., and it addresses chiefly the funda- mental muscles in both training and conflict. I do not underestimate the many and great difficulties of proper purgation, but I know from both personal practise and observation that they are not unconquerable. This form of personal conflict is better than dueling even in its comparatively harmless German student form, although this has been w^armly defended by Jacob Grimm, Bismarck, and Treitschke, while Paulsen, Pro- fessor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and Schrempf, of Theology, have pronounced it but a slight evil, and sev- eral Americans have thought it better than hazing, which it makes impossible. The dark side of dueling is seen in the hypertrophied sense of honor which under the code 95 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE of the corps becomes an intricate and fantastic thing, prompting, according to Ziegler,^ a club of sixteen students to fight over two hundred duels in four weeks in Jena early in this century. It is prone to degenerate to an artificial etiquette demanding satisfaction for slight and unintended offenses. Although this profess- or, who had his own face scarred on the mensur, pleaded for a student court of honor, with power to brand acts as infamous and even to expel students, on the ground that honor had grown more inward, the traditions in favor of dueling w^ere too strong. The duel had a religious romantic origin as revealing God's judg- ment, and means that the victim of an insult is ready to stake body, or even life, and this is still its ideal side. Anachronism as it now is and degenerating readily to sport or spectacle, overpunishing what is often mere awkwardness or ignorance, it still impresses a certain sense of responsibility for conduct and gives some physi- cal training, slight and specialized though it be. The code is conventional, drawn directly from old French military life, and is not true to the line that separates real honor from dishonor, deliberate insult that wounds normal self-respect from injury fancied by oversensi- tiveness or feigned by arrogance; so that in its present form it is not the best safeguard of the sacred shrine of personality against invasion of its rights. If, as is claimed, it is some diversion from or fortification against corrosive sensuality, it has generally allied itself with excessive beer-drinking. Fencing, while an art suscep- tible of high development and valuable for both pose and poise and requiring great quickness of eye, arm, 1 Der deutsche Student am Ende des 19 Jalirhunderts, 6th ed., Goschen, Leipzig, 1896. See also H. D. Sheldon: History and Pedagogy of American Student Societies, New York, 1901, p. 31 et seq. 96 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES and wrist, is unilateral and robbed of the zest of inflict- ing real pain on an antagonist. Bushido,^ which means military-knightly ways, des- ignates the Japanese conception of honor in behavior and in fighting. The youth is inspired by the ideal of Tom Brown " to leave behind him the name of a fel- low w^ho never bullied a little boy or turned his back on a big one." It expresses the race ideal of justice, patriotism, and the duty of living aright and dying nobly. It means also sympathy, pity, and love, for only the bravest can be the tenderest, and those most in love are most daring, and it includes politeness and the art of poetry. Honor is a sense of personal dignity and worth, so the hiishi is truthful without an oath. At the tender age of five the samurai is given a real sword, and this gives self-respect and responsibility. At fifteen, two sharp and artistic ones, long and short, are given him, which must be his companions for life. They were made by a smith whose shop is a sanctuary and who begins his work with prayer. They have the finest hilts and scabbards, and are besung as invested with a charm or spell, and symbolic of loyalty and self- control, for they must never be drawn lightly. He is taught fencing, archery, horsemanship, tactics, the spear, ethics and literature, anatomy, for offense and defense; he must be indifferent to money, hold his life cheap beside honor, and die if it is gone. This chivalry is called the soul of Japan, and if it fades life is vulgar- ized. It is a code of ethics and physical training. Football is a magnificent game if played on honor. An English tennis champion was lately playing a rub- ber game with the American champion. They were even 1 Bushido: The Soul of Japan. An exposition of Japanese thought, by Inazo Nitob6. New York, 1905, pp. 203 et seq. 97 YOUTH: ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE and near the end when the American made a bad fluke which would have lost this country its championship. The English player, scorning to win on an accident, intentionally made a similar mistake that the best man might win. The chief evil of modern American foot- ball which now threatens its suppression in some col- leges is the lust to win at any price, and results in tricks and secret practise. These sneaky methods impair the sentiment of honor which is the best and most po- tent of all the moral safeguards of youth, so that a young man can not be a true gentleman on the gridiron. This ethical degeneration is far worse than all the bruises, sprains, broken bones and even deaths it causes. Wrestling is a form of personal encounter which in antiquity reached a high development, and which, al- though now more known and practised as athletics of the body than of the soul, has certain special disciplinary capacities in its various forms. It represents the most primitive type of the struggle of unarmed and unpro- tected man with man. Purged of its barbarities, and in its Greco-Roman form and properly subject to rules, it cultivates more kinds of movements than any other form — for limbs, trunk, neck, hand, foot, and all in the upright and in every prone position. It, too, has its manual of feints, holds, tricks, and specialties, and calls out wariness, quickness, strength, and shiftiness. Vic- tory need involve no cruelty or even pain to the van- quished. The very closeness of body to body, em- phasizing flexor rather than extensor arm muscles, im- parts to it a peculiar tone, gives it a vast variety of possible activities, developing many alternatives at every stage, and tempts to many undiscovered forms of per- mament mayhem. Its struggle is usually longer and less interrupted by pauses than pugilism, and its situations 98 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES and conclusions often develop slowly, so that all in all, its character among contests is unique. As a school of posture for art, its varieties are extremely manifold and by no means developed, for it contains every kind of emphasis of every part and calls out every muscle group and attitude of the human body; hence its train- ing is most generic and least specialized, and victories have been won by very many kinds of excellence. Perhaps nothing is more opposed to the idea of a gentleman than the sceva animi tempestas ^ of anger. A testy, quarrelsome, mucky humor is antisocial, and an outburst of rage is repulsive. Even non-resistance, turning the other cheek, has its victories and may be a method of moral combat. A strong temper well con- trolled and kept in leash makes a kinetic character ; but in view of bullying, unfair play, cruel injustice to the weak and defenseless, of outrageous wrong that the law can not reach, patience and forbearance may cease to be virtues, and summary redress may have a distinct ad- vantage to the ethical nature of man and to social order, and the strenuous soul must fight or grow stagnant or flabby. If too repressed, righteous indignation may turn to sourness and sulks, and the disposition be spoiled. Hence the relief and exhilaration of an out- break that often clears the psychic atmosphere like a thunderstorm, and gives the ' ' peace that passeth under- standing " so often dilated on by our correspondents. Rather than the abject fear of making enemies what- ever the provocation, I would praise those whose best title of honor is the kind of enemies they make. Better even an occasional nose dented by a fist, a broken bone, a rapier-scarred face, or even sometimes the sacrifice of 1 Fierce tempest of the soul. 99 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE the life of one of our best academic youth than stagna- tion, general cynicism and censoriousness, bodily and psychic cowardice, and moral corruption, if this indeed be, as it sometimes is, its real alternative. So closely are love and war connected that not only is individual pugnacity greatly increased at the period of sexual maturity, when animals acquire or develop horns, fangs, claws, spurs, and weapons of offense and defense, but a new spirit of organization arises which makes teams possible or more permanent. Football, baseball, cricket, etc., and even boating can become schools of mental and moral training. First, the rules of the game are often intricate, and to master and ob- serve them effectively is no mean training for the mind in controlling the body. These are steadily being re- vised and improved, and the reasons for each detail of inner construction and conduct of the game require experience and insight into human nature. Then the subordination of each member to the whole and to a leader cultivates the social and cooperative instincts, while the honor of the school, college, or city, which each team represents, is confided to each and all. Group loyalty in Anglo-Saxon games, which shows such a marked increment in coordination and self-subordina- tion at the dawn of puberty as to constitute a distinct change in the character of sports at this age, can be so utilized as to develop a spirit of service and devotion not only to town, country, and race, but to God and the church. Self must be merged and a sportsmanlike spirit cultivated that prefers defeat to tricks and secret practise, and a clean game to the applause of rooters and fans, intent only on victory, however won. The long, hard fight against professionalism that brings in husky muckers, who by every rule of true courtesy and 100 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES chivalry belong outside academic circles, scrapping and underhand advantages, is a sad comment on the char- acter and spirit of these games, and eliminates the best of their educational advantages. The necessity of inter- vention, which has imposed such great burdens on facul- ties and brought so much friction with the frenzy of scholastic sentiment in the hot stage of seasonal enthu- siasms, when fanned to a white heat by the excessive interest of friends and patrons and the injurious ex- ploitation of the press, bears sad testimony to the strength and persistence of warlike instincts from our heredity. But even thus the good far predominates. The elective sj^stem has destroyed the class games, and our institutions have no units like the English colleges to be pitted against each other, and so, as colleges grow, an ever smaller percentage of students obtain the benefit of practise on the teams, while electioneering methods often place second-best men in place of the best. But both students and teachers are slowly learning wisdom in the dear school of experience. On the whole, there is less license in " breaking training " and in celebrating victories, and even at their worst, good probably pre- dominates, while the progress of recent years bids us hope. Finally, military ideals and methods of psycho- physical education are helpful regulations of the ap- petite for combat, and on the whole more wholesome and robust than those which are merely esthetic. March- ing in step gives proper and uniform movement of legs, arms, and carriage of body; the manual of arms, with evolution and involution of figures in the ranks, gives each a corporate feeling of membership, and involves care of personal appearance and accouterments, while the uniform levels social distinction in dress. For the 101 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE French and Italian and especially the German and Russian adolescent of the lower classes, the two or three years of compulsory military service is often compared to an academic course, and the army is called, not with- out some justification, the poor man's university. It gives severe drill, strict discipline, good and regular hours, plain but wholesome fare and out-of-door exer- cise, exposure, travel, habits of neatness, many useful knacks and devices, tournaments and mimic or play battles; these, apart from its other functions, make this system a great promoter of national health and intelli- gence. Naval schools for midshipmen, who serve before the mast, schools on board ship that visit a wide curricu- lum of ports each year, cavalry schools, where each boy is given a horse to care for, study and train, artillery courses and even an army drill-master in an academy, or uniform, and a few exterior features of soldierly life, all give a distinct character to the spirit of any in- stitution. The very fancy of being in any sense a soldier opens up a new range of interests too seldom utilized ; and tactics, army life and service, military his- tory, battles, patriotism, the flag, and duties to country, should always erect a new standard of honor. Youth should embrace every opportunity that offers in this line, and instruction should greatly increase the intellectual opportunities created by every interest in warfare. It would be easy to create pregnant courses on how sol- diers down the course of history have lived, thought, felt, fought, and died, how great battles were won and what causes triumphed in them, and to generalize many of the best things taught in detail in the best schools of war in different grades and lands. A subtle but potent intersexual influence is among the strongest factors of all adolescent sport. Male birds 102 I/' PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES and beasts show off their charms of beauty and accom- plishment in many a liturgy of love antics in the presence of the female. This instinct seems somehow continuous with the growth of ornaments in the mating season. Song, tumbling, balking, mock fights, etc., are forms of animal courtship. The boy who turns cart- wheels past the home of the girl of his fancy, is brilliant, brave, Avitty, erect, strong in her presence, and elsewhere dull and commonplace enough, illustrates the same prin- ciple. The true cake-walk as seen in the South is pre- haps the purest expression of this impulse to courtship antics seen in man, but its irradiations are many and pervasive. The presence of the fair sex gives tonicity to youth's muscles and tension to his arteries to a degree of which he is rarely conscious. Defeat in all contests is more humiliating and victory more glorious thereby. Each sex is constantly passing the examination of the other, and each judges the other by standards dif- ferent from its own. Alas for the young people who are not different with the other sex from what they are with their own ! — and some are transformed into different be- ings. Achievement proclaims ability to support, defend, bring credit and even fame to the object of future choice, and no good point is lost. Physical force and skill, and above all, victory and glory, make a hero and invest him with a romantic glamour, which, even though concealed by conventionality or etiquette, is profoundly felt and makes the winner more or less irresistible. The applause of men and of mates is sweet and even intoxicating, but that of ladies is ravishing. By universal acclaim the fair belong to the brave, strong, and victorious. This stimu- lus is wholesome and refining. As is shown later, a bashful youth often selects a maiden onlooker and is sometimes quite unconsciously dominated in his every 8 103 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE movement by a sense of her presence, stranger and ap- parently imnotieed though she be, although in the intel- lectual work of coeducation girls are most influenced thus. In athletics this motive makes for refinement and good form. The ideal knight, however fierce and terri- ble, must not be brutal, but show capacity for fine feeling, tenderness, magnanimity, and forbearance. Evolution- ists tell us that woman has domesticated and educated savage man and taught him all his virtues by exercising her royal prerogative of selecting in her mate just those qualities that pleased her for transmission to future generations and eliminating others distasteful to her. If so, she is still engaged in this work as much as ever, and in his dull, slow way man feels that her presence enforces her standards, abhorrent though it would be to him to compromise in one iota his masculinity. Most plays and games in which both sexes participate have some of the advantages with some of the disadvantages of coeducation. Where both are partners rather than antagonists, there is less eviration. A gallant man would do his best to help, but his worst not to beat a lady. Thus, in general, the latter performs her best service in her true role of sympathetic spectator rather than as fellow player, and is now an important factor in the physical education of adolescents. How pervasive this femininity is, which is slowly transforming our schools, is strikingly seen in the church. Gulick holds that the reason why only some seven per cent of the young men of the country are in the churches, while most members and workers are women, is that the qualities demanded are the feminine ones of love, rest, prayer, trust, desire for fortitude to endure, a sense of atonement — traits not involving ideals that most stir young men. The church has not yet learned to appeal to 104 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES the more virile qualities. Fielding Hall ^ asks why Christ and Buddha alone of great religious teachers were re- jected by their own race and accepted elsewhere. He answers that these mild beliefs of peace, nonresistance, and submission, rejected by virile warrior races, Jews and ancient Hindus, were adopted where women were free and led in these matters. Confucianism, Moham- medanism, etc., are virile, and so indigenous, and in such forms of faith and worship women have small place. This again suggests how the sex that rules the heart con- trols men. Too much can hardly be said in favor of cold baths and swimming at this age. Marro - quotes Father Kneipp, and almost rivals his hydrotherapeutic enthusi- asm. Cold bathing sends the blood inward partly by the cold which contracts the capillaries of the skin and tissue immediately underlying it, and partly by the pres- sure of the water over all the dermal surface, quickens the activity of kidneys, lungs, and digestive apparatus, and the reactive glow is the best possible tonic for der- mal circulation. It is the best of all gymnastics for the nonstriated or involuntary muscles and for the heart and blood vessels. This and the removal of the products of excretion preserve all the important dermal func- tions which are so easily and so often impaired in modern life, lessen the liability to skin diseases, promote freshness of complexion; and the moral effects of plunging into cold and supporting the body in deep water is not in- considerable in strengthening a spirit of hardihood and reducing overtenderness to sensory discomforts. The exercise of swimming is unique in that nearly all the movements and combinations are such as are rarely used 1 The Hearts of Men. Macmillan, 1901, chap. xxii. 2 La Puberty. Schleicher Freres, editeurs, Paris, 1902. 105 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE otherwise, and are perhaps in a sense ancestral and lib- eral rather than directly preparatory for future avoca- tions. Its stimulus for heart and lungs is, by general consent of all writers upon the subject, most wholesome and beneficial. Nothing so directly or quickly reduces to the lowest point the plethora of the sex organs. The very absence of clothes and running on the beach is ex- hilarating and gives a sense of freedom. Where prac- ticable it is well to dispense with bathing suits, even the scantiest. The warm bath tub is enfeebling and degen- erative, despite the cold spray later, while the free swim in cold water is most invigorating. Happily, city officials, teachers, and sanitarians are now slowly realizing the great improvement in health and temper that comes from bathing and are establish- ing beach and surf, spray, floating and plunge summer baths and swimming pools; often providing instruction even in swimming in clothes, undressing in the water, treading water, and rescue work, free as well as fee days, bathing suits, and, in London, places for nude bathing after dark ; establishing time and distance standards with certificates and even prizes; annexing toboggan slides, swings, etc., realizing that in both the preference of youth and in healthful and moral effects, probably noth- ing outranks this form of exercise. Such is its strange fascination that, according to one comprehensive census, the passion to get to the water outranks all other causes of truancy, and plays an important part in the motiva- tion of runaways. In the immense public establishment near San Francisco, provided by private munificence, there are accommodations for all kinds of bathing in hot and cold and in various degrees of fresh and salt water, in closed spaces and in the open sea, for small children and adults, with many appliances and instructors, all in 106 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES one great covered arena with seats in an amphitheater for two thousand spectators, and many adjuncts and accessories. So elsewhere the presence of visitors is now often invited and provided for. Sometimes wash-houses and public laundries are annexed. Open hours and longer evenings and seasons are being prolonged. Prominent among the favorite games of early pu- berty and the years just before are those that involve passive motion and falling, like swinging in its many forms, including the May-pole and single rope varieties. Mr. Lee reports that children wait late in the evening and in cold weather for a turn at a park swing. Psy- chologically allied to these are wheeling and skating. Places for the latter are now often provided by the fire department, which in many cities floods hundreds of empty lots. Ponds are cleared of snow and horse- plowed, perhaps by the park commission, which often provides lights and perhaps ices the walks and streets for coasting, erects shelters, and devises space economy for as many diamonds, bleachers, etc., as possible. Games of hitting, striking, and throwing balls and other objects, hockey, tennis, all the courts of which are usually crowded, golf and croquet, and sometimes fives, cricket, bowling, quoits, curling, etc., have great " thum- ogenic " or emotional power. Leg exercise has perhaps a higher value than that of any other part. Man is by definition an upright being, but only after a long apprenticeship.^ Thus the hand was freed from the necessity of locomotion and made the servant of the mind. Locomotion overcomes the tendency to sedentary habits in modern schools and life, and helps the mind to helpful action, so that a peri- » See A. W. Trettien. Creeping and Walking. American Journal of Psychology, October, 1900, vol. 12, pp. 1-57. 107 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE patetic philosophy is more normal than that of the easy chair and the study lamp. Hill-climbing is unexcelled as a stimulus at once of heart, lungs, and blood. If Hip- pocrates is right, inspiration is possible only on a moun- tain-top. Walking, running, dancing, skating, coasting are also alterative and regulative of sex, and there is a deep and close though not yet fully explained reci- procity between the two. Arm work is relatively too prominent a feature in gymnasia. Those who lead ex- cessively sedentary lives are prone to be turbulent and extreme in both passion and opinion, as witness the oft- adduced revolutionary disposition of cobblers. The play problem is now fairly open and is vast in its relation to many other things. Roof playgrounds, recreation piers, schoolyards and even school-buildings, open before and after school hours; excursions and out- ings of many kinds and with many purposes, which seem to distinctly augment growth; occupation during the long vacation when, beginning with spring, most juve- nile crime is committed; theatricals, which according to some police testimony lessen the number of juvenile de- linquents ; boys ' clubs with more or less self-government of the George Junior Republic and other types, treated in another chapter ; nature-study ; the distinctly different needs and propensities of both good and evil in different nationalities; the advantages of playground fences and exclusion, their disciplinary worth, and their value as resting places; the liability that *' the boy without a playground will become the father without a job "; the relation of play and its slow transition to manual and industrial education at the savage age when a boy abhors all regular occupation; the necessity of exciting interest, not by what is done for boys, but by what they do ; the adjustment of play to sex ; the determination of 108 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES the proper average age of maximal zest in and good from sand-box, ring-toss, bean-bag, shuffle-board, peg-top, charity, funeral play, prisoner's base, hill-dill; the value and right use of apparatus, and of rabbits, pig- eons, bees, and a small menagerie in the playground; tan-bark, clay, the proper alternation of excessive free- dom, that often turns boys stale through the summer, with regulated activities; the disciplined " work of play ' ' and sedentary games ; the value of the washboard in rubbing and of the hand and knee exercise of scrub- bing, which a late writer would restore for all girls with clever and Greek-named play apparatus; as well as dig- ging, shoveling, tamping, pick-chopping, and hod-carry- ing exercises in the form of games for boys ; the relations of women's clubs, parents' clubs, citizens' leagues and unions, etc., to all this work — such are the practical problems. The playground movement encounters its chief ob- stacles in the most crowded and slum districts, where its greatest value and success was expected for boys in the early teens, who without supervision are prone to commit abuses upon property and upon younger children,^ and are so disorderly as to make the place a nuisance, and who resent the " fathering " of the police, without, at least, the minimum control of a system of permits and ex- clusions. If hoodlums play at all, they become infat- uated with baseball and football, especially punting; they do not take kindly to the soft large ball of the Hull House or the Civic League, and prefer at first scrub games with individual self-exhibition to organized teams. Lee sees the * ' arboreal instincts of our progenitors ' ' in the very strong propensity of boys from ten to fourteen ' Constructive and Preventive Philantliropy, by Joseph Lee. Mac- millan, New York, 1902, chaps, x and xi. 109 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE to climb in any form; to use traveling rings, generally occupied constantly to their fullest extent; to jump from steps and catch a swinging trapeze ; to go up a lad- der and slide down poles ; to use horizontal and parallel bars. The city boy has plenty of daring at this age, but does not know what he can do and needs more super- vision than the country youth. The young tough is com- monly present, and though admired and copied by younger boys, it is, perhaps, as often for his heroic as for his bad traits. Dr. Sargent and others have well pointed out that athletics afford a wealth of new and profitable topics for discussion and enthusiasm which helps against the tri- viality and mental vacuity into which the intercourse of students is prone to lapse. It prompts to discussion of diet and regimen. It gives a new standard of honor. For a member of a team to break training would bring repro- bation and ostracism, for he is set apart to win fame for his class or college. It supplies a splendid motive against all errors and vices that Aveaken or corrupt the body. It is a wholesome vent for the reckless courage that would otherwise go to disorder or riotous excess. It supplies new and advantageous topics for composi- tions and for terse, vigorous, and idiomatic theme-writ- ing, is a great aid to discipline, teaches respect for deeds rather than words or promises, lays instructors under the necessity of being more interesting, that their work be not jejune or dull by contrast; again the business side of managing great contests has been an admirable school for training young men to conduct great and difficult financial operations, sometimes involving $100,000 or more, and has thus prepared some for successful careers. It furnishes now the closest of all links between high school and college, reduces the number of those phys- 110 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES ically unfit for college, and should give education gen- erally a more real and vigorous ideal. Its obvious dan- gers are distraction from study and overestimation of the value of victory, especially in the artificial glamours which the press and the popular furor give to great games ; unsportsmanlike secret tricks and methods, over- emphasis of combative and too stalwart impulses, and a disposition to carry things by storm, by rush-line tactics ; friction with faculties, and censure or neglect of in- structors who take unpopular sides on hot questions; reaction toward license after games, spasmodic excite- ment culminating in excessive strain for body and mind, with alternations of reaction; *' beefiness "; overdevel- opment of the physical side of life, and, in some cases, premature features of senility in later life, undergrowth of the accessory motor parts and powers, and erethic diathesis that makes steady and continued mental toil seem monotonous, dull, and boresome. The propensity to codify sports, to standardize the weight and size of their implements, and to reduce them to what Spencer calls regimentation, is an outcrop of uniformitarianism that works against that individuation which is one of the chief advantages of free play. This, to be sure, has developed old-fashioned rounders to modern baseball, and this is well, but it is seen in the elaborate Draconian laws, diplomacy, judicial and leg- islative procedures, concerning " eligibility, transfer, and even sale of players. ' ' In some games international conformity is gravely discussed. Even where there is no tyranny and oppression, good form is steadily ham- pering nature and the free play of personality. Togs and targets, balls and bats, rackets and oars are graded or numbered, weighed, and measured, and every emer- gency is legislated on and judged by an autocratic mar- Ill YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE tinet, jealous of every prerogative and conscious of his dignity. All this separates games from the majority and makes for specialism and professionalism. Not only this, but men are coming to be sized up for hereditary fitness in each point and for each sport. Runners, sprinters, and jumpers,^ we are told, on the basis of many careful measurements, must be tall, with slender bodies, narrow but deep chests, longer legs than the average for their height, the lower leg being especially long, with small calf, ankle, and feet, small arms, nar- row hips, with great power of thoracic inflation, and thighs of small girth. Every player must be studied by trainers for ever finer individual adjustments. His dosage of work must be kept well within the limits of his vitality, and be carefully adjusted to his recuperative power. His personal nascent periods must be noted, and initial embarrassment carefully weeded out. The field of play is as wide as life and its varieties far outnumber those of industries and occupations in the census. Plays and games differ in seasons, sex, and age. McGhee ^ has shown on the basis of some 8,000 children, that running plays are pretty constant for boys from six to seventeen, but that girls are always far behind boys and run steadily less from eight to eighteen. In games of choice, boys showed a slight rise at sixteen and seventeen, and girls a rapid increase at eleven and a still more rapid one after sixteen. In games of imita- tion girls excel and show a marked, as boys do a slight, pubescent fall. In those games involving rivalry boys ' C. O. Bemies. Physical Characteristics of the Runner and Jumper. American Physical Education Review, September, 1900, vol. 5, pp. 235-245. • A Study in the Play Life of some South Carolina Children. Peda- gogical Seminary, December, 1900, vol. 7, pp. 459-478. 112 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES at first greatly excel girls, but are overtaken by the latter in the eighteenth year, both showing marked pubescent increment. Girls have the largest number of plays and specialize on a few less than boys, and most of these plays are of the unorganized kinds. Johnson ^ se- lected from a far larger number 440 plays and games and arranged the best of them in a course by school grades, from the first to the eighth, inclusive, and also according to their educational value as teaching ob- servation, reading and spelling, language, arithmetic, geography, history, and biography, physical training, and specifically as training legs, hand, arm, back, waist, abdominal muscles, chest, etc. ]\Iost of our best games are very old and, Johnson thinks, have deteriorated. But children are imitative and not inventive in their games, and easily learn new ones. Since the Berlin Play Con- gress in 1894 the sentiment has grown that these are of national importance and are preferable to gymnastics both for soul and body. Hence we have play-schools, teachers, yards, and courses, both for their own value and also to turn on the play impulse to aid in the drudgery of school work. Several have thought that a well-rounded, liberal education could be given by plays and games alone on the principle that there is no profit where there is no pleasure or true euphoria. Play is motor poetry. Too early distinction between play and work should not be taught. Education per- haps should really begin with directing childish sports aright. Froebel thought it the purest and most spir- itual activity of childhood, the germinal leaves of all later life. ' Schooling that lacks recreation favors dul- ness, for play makes the mind alert and its joy helps 1 Education by Plays and Games. Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1894, vol. 3, pp. 97-133. 113 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE all anabolic activities. Says Brinton, " the measure of value of work is the amouiit of play there is in it, and the measure of value of play is the amount of work there is in it." Johnson adds that "it is doubtful if a great man ever accomplished his life work without having reached a play interest in it. ' ' Sully ^ deplores the increase of '' agolasts " or '' non-laughers " in our times in merry old England ^ every one played games ; and laughter, their natural accompaniment, abounded. Queen Elizabeth's maids of honor played tag with hilarity, but the spirit of play with full abandon seems taking its departure from our overworked, serious, and tense age. To requote Stevenson with variation, as lahorari,^ so liidere, et joculari orare sunt.* Laughter itself, as Kiihne long ago showed, is one of the most precious forms of exercise, relieving the arteries of their tension.^ The antithesis between play and work is generally wrongly conceived, for the difference is essentially in the degree of strength of the psycho-physic motivations. The young often do their hardest work in play. With interest, the most repellent tasks become pure sport, as in the case Johnson reports of a man who wanted a pile of stone thrown into a ditch and, by kindling a fire in the ditch and pretending the stones were buckets of water, the heavy and long-shirked job was done by tired boys with shouting and enthusiasm. Play, from one aspect 1 An Essay on Laughter. Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1902, p. 427 et seq. 2 See Brand's Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, 3 vols., Lon- don, 1883. 3 To labor. * To play and to jest are to pray. * Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic, by G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin. American Journal of Psychology, October, 1897, vol. 9, pp. 1-41. 114 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES of it, is superfluous energy over and above what is nec- essary to digest, breathe, keep the heart and organic processes going; and most children who can not play, if they have opportunity, can neither study nor work without overdrawing their resources of vitality. Bible psychology conceives the fall of man as the necessity of doing things without zest, and this is not only ever repeated but now greatly emphasized when youth leaves the sheltered paradise of play to grind in the mills of modern industrial civilization. The curse is overcome only by those who come to love their tasks and redeem their toil again to play. Play, hardly less than work, can be to utter exhaustion; and because it draws upon older stores and strata of psycho-physic impulsion its exhaustion may even more completely drain our kinetic resources, if it is too abandoned or prolonged. Play can do just as hard and painful tasks as work, for what we love is done with whole and un- divided personality. Work, as too often conceived, is all body and no soul, and makes for duality and not totality. Its constraint is external, mechanical, or it works by fear and not love. Not effort but zestless en- deavor is the tragedy of life. Interest and play are one and inseparable as body and soul. Duty itself is not adequately conceived and felt if it is not pleasure, and is generally too feeble and fitful in the young to awaken much energy or duration of action. Play is from within from congenital hereditary impulsion. It is the best of all methods of organizing instincts. Its cathartic or purgative function regulates irritability, which may otherwise be drained or vented in wrong directions, exactly as Breuer ^ shows psychic traumata 1 1. Breuer and S. Freud. Studien uber Hysteria. F. Deuticke, Wien, 1895. See especially p. 177 et seq. 115 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE may, if overtense, result in '' hysterical convulsions." It is also the best form of self-expression; and its ad- vantage is variability, following the impulsion of the idle, perhaps hyperemic, and overnourished centers most ready to act. It involves play illusion and is the great agent of unity and totalization of body and soul, while its social function develops solidarity and unison of ac- tion between individuals. The dances, feasts, and games of primitive people, wherein they rehearse hunting and war and act and dance out their legends, bring in- dividuals and tribes together.^ Work is menial, cheer- less, grinding, regular, and requires more precision and accuracy and, because attended with less ease and pleas- ure and economy of movement, is more liable to produce erratic habits. Antagonistic as the forms often are, it may be that, as Carr says, we may sometimes so suffuse work with the play spirit, and vice versa, that the present distinction between work and play will vanish, the transition will be less tragic and the activi- ties of youth will be slowly systematized into a whole that better fits his nature and needs; or, if not this, we may at least find the true proportion and system between drudgery and recreation. The worst product of striving to do things with defective psychic impulsion is fatigue in its common forms, which slows down the pace, multiplies errors and inaccuracies, and develops slovenly habits, ennui, flit- ting will specters, velleities and caprices, and neuras- thenic symptoms generally. It brings restlessness, and a tendency to many little heterogeneous, smattering 1 See a valuable discussion by H. A. Carr. The Survival Values of Play, Investigations of the Department of Psychology and Education of the University of Colorado, Arthur AUin, Ph.D., Editor, November, 1902, vol. 1, pp. 3-47 116 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES efforts that weaken the will and leave the mind like a piece of well-used blotting paper, covered with traces and nothing legible. All beginnings are easy, and only as we leave the early stages of proficiency behind and press on in either physical or mental culture and en- counter difficulties, do individual differences and the tendency of weak wills to change and turn to some- thing else increase. Perhaps the greatest disparity be- tween men is the power to make a long concentrative, persevering e:^ort, for In der Beschrdnkung zeigt sick der Meister} Now no kind or line of culture is com- plete till it issues in motor habits, and makes a well-knit soul texture that admits concentration series in many directions and that can bring all its resources to bear at any point. The brain unorganized by training has, to recur to Richter's well-worn aphorism, saltpeter, sul- fur, and charcoal, or all the ingredients of gunpowder, but never makes a grain of it because they never get together. Thus willed action is the language of com- plete men and the goal of education. When things are mechanized by right habituation, there is still further gain ; for not only is the mind freed for further and higher work, but this deepest stratum of motor associ- ation is a plexus that determines not only conduct and character, but even beliefs. The person who deliber- ates is lost, if the intellect that doubts and weighs alternatives is less completely organized than habits. All will culture is intensive and should safeguard us against the chance influence of life and the insidious danger of great ideas in small and feeble minds. Now fatigue, personal and perhaps racial, is just what arrests in the incomplete and mere memory or noetic stage. It makes 1 The master shows himself in Hmitation. 117 YOUTH : ITS EDUCATION, REGIMEN, AND HYGIENE weak bodies that command, and not strong ones that obey. It divorces knowing and doing, Kennen and Konnen, a separation which the Greeks could not con- ceive because for them knowledge ended in skill or was exemplified in precepts and proverbs that were so clear cut that the pain of violating them was poignant. Ideas must be long worked over till life speaks as with the rifle and not with the shotgun, and still less with the water hose. The purest thought, if true, is only action repressed to be ripened to more practical form. Not only do muscles come before mind, will before intel- ligence, and sound ideas rest on a motor basis, but all really useless knowledge tends to be eliminated as error or superstition. The roots of play lie close to those of creative imagination and idealism. The opposite extreme is the factitious and superficial motivation of fear, prizes, examinations, artificial and immediate rewards and penalties, which can only tattoo the mind and body with conventional patterns pricked in, but which lead an unreal life in the soul because they have no depth of soil in nature or heredity. However precious and coherent in themselves, all subject-matters thus organized are mere lugs, crimps, and frills. All such culture is spurious, unreal, and parasitic. It may make a scholastic or sophistic mind, but a worm is at the root and, with a dim sense of the vanity of all knowledge that does not become a rule of life, some form of pessimism is sure to supervene in every serious soul. With age a civilization accumulates such impedimenta, traditional flotsam and jetsam, and race fatigue proceeds with equal step with its increasing volume. Immediate utilities are better, but yet not so much better than acquisitions that have no other than a school or exam- ination value. If, as Ruskin says, all true work is 118 PLAY, SPORTS, AND GAMES praise, all true play is love and prayer. Instil into a boy's soul learning which he sees and feels not to have the highest worth and which can not become a part of his active life and increase it, and his freshness, spontaneity, and the fountains of plaj^ slowly run dry in him, and his youth fades to early desiccation. The instincts, feelings, intuitions, the work of which is always play, are superseded by method, grind, and education by instruction which is only an effort to repair the defects of heredity, for which, at its best, it is a vulgar, pinchbeck substitute. The best play is true genius, which always comes thus into the world, and has this way of doing its work, and all the contents of the memory pouches is luggage to be carried rather than the vital strength that carries burdens. Gross well says that children are young be- cause they play, and not vice versa ; and he might have added, men grow old because they stop playing, and not conversely, for play is, at bottom, growth, and at the top of the intellectual scale it is the eternal type of research from sheer love of truth. Home, school, church, state, civilization, are measured in one supreme scale of values, viz., whether and how, for they aid in bringing youth to its fullest maturity. Even vice, crime, and decline are often only arrest or backsliding or reversion. National and racial decline beginning in eliminating one by one the last and highest styles of development of body and mind, mental stimulus of excessive dosage lowers general nutrition. A psj^cholo- gist that turns his back on mere subtleties and goes to work in a life of service has here a great opportunity, and should not forget, as Horace Mann said, " that for all that grows, one former is worth one hundred re- formers. ' ' 9 119 CHAPTER VII FAULTS, LIES, AND CRIMES Classifications of children's faults — Peculiar children — Real faults as dis- tinguished from interference with the teacher's ease — Truancy, its nature and effects — The genesis of crime — The lie, its classes and re- lations to imagination — Predatory activities — Gangs — Causes of crime — The effects of stories of crime — Temibility — Juvenile crime and its treatment. SiEGERT ^ groups children of problematical nature into the following sixteen classes : the sad, the extremely good or bad, star-gazers, scatter-brains, apathetic, mis- anthropic, doubters and investigators, reverent, critical, executive, stupid and clownish, naive, funny, anamnesic, disposed to learn, and blase; patience, foresight, and self-control, he thinks, are chiefly needed. A unique and interesting study was undertaken by Kozle ^ by collecting and studying thirty German writers on pedagogical subjects since Pestalozzi, and cataloguing all the words they use describing the faults of children. In all, this gave 914 faults, far more in number than their virtues. These were classified as native and of ex- ternal origin, acute and chronic, egoistic and altruistic, greed, perverted honor, self-will, falsity, laziness, frivol- ity, distraction, precocity, timidity, envy and malevo- lence, ingratitude, quarrelsomeness, cruelty, superstition ; 1 Problematische Kindesnaturen. Eine Studie fiir Schule und Haus. Voigtlander, Leipzig, 1889. 2 Die padagogische Pathologie in der Erziehungskunde des 19 Jahrhunderts. Bertelsman, Giitersloh, 1893, p. 494. 120 FAULTS, LIES, AND CRIMES and the latter fifteen were settled on as resultant groups, and the authors who describe them best are quoted. Bohannon ^ on the basis of questionnaire returns classified peculiar children as heavy, tall, short, small, strong, weak, deft, agile, clumsy, beautiful, ugly, de- formed, birthmarked, keen and precocious, defective in sense, mind, and speechj^ nervous, clean, dainty, dirty, Age 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 74 73 72 71 70 69 « 68 $ 67 866 fe 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 r / 1 / -V / \ H \ / \ / \ \ \ ^ J \J \ r 13 / \ r \ , 1 \/ \J xNumuer of Case, 362 409 431 434 427 314 2