« H » Wt rl H « mH —MtM OTm «IIII HHM « JH« l «i!«»»«;»«/.H«HJMI »-T. 'Otko s:"^-^^ '^-'^ •* A FIRST iii iii i i M iinM iM i » m iiiiiii M MiMii i i ii mimniiiiiii i iiiiiiiiiif i iii iiii i 1 1 1 Class ^ Book . ^-"«- Gop>TightN^. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT, STATUE OF LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY WITH EUROPEAN BEGINNINGS BY GERTRUDE VAN DUYN SOUTHWORTH AUTHOR OF "the STORY OF THE EMPIRE STATE," "builders of our country," etc. ILLUSTRATED D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 1917 Vl »W!»>ll*l«W8l*'W»*l(»aWS>^«!«^J0 W"W« together for the last time, they prayed that God would keep from danger those that stayed and those that went. In July, 1620, this band of brave Pilgrims left the port of Delft Haven on the vessel Speedwell. Another vessel, the Mayflower, with friends from England, was waiting for them at Plymouth. When they arrived in England they found that the Speedwell was too shaky to undertake the voyage, so all went on board the Mayflower and sailed for the New World. There were just one hun- dred and two men, women, and children in this company. Among them were many brave men, such as John Carver, William Brew- ster, William Bradford, and a soldier by the name of Miles Standish. This soldier was not a Pilgrim. Like John Smith, he loved adventure; and so sincerely did he admire the pluck and perseverance of the Pilgrims that he vol- unteered to go with them and help them. The trip across the ocean was long and wearisome. Storms came up, and the poor people had to remain below deck most of the time. The frail vessel was so tossed by 104 From theportrait in I'lhjmn Hall. I'bnnouth, Mass. Miles Standish. MILES STANDISH AND THE PILGRIMS the winds and waves that it seemed as if they would never see land again. At last after many weary weeks they saw the American coast stretched out before them; and on a bleak, wintry day, they rounded the end of Cape Cod and sailed into what is now called Provincetown Harbor. You can hardly imagine with what hope and yet with what fear they The "Mayflower" in Plymouth Harbor. gazed at the snow-laden trees, the bare coasts, and the dark skies above. It was while the Mayflower was lying at anchor in this bay that the Pilgrims drew up a written agreement in the cabin of the ship. In this agreement it was stated that all were to have equal rights; that they would live in peace and help and defend one another in time of need. They elected John Carver governor and agreed to obey such laws as should seem necessary later on. For a month they sailed along the coast of Massachu- setts Bay, endeavoring to find a suitable place to disem- bark. During these days Miles Standish proved a very 105 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY useful friend to the Pilgrims, and it was he who finally chose the spot for the colonists to land on. It was on the 21st of December, when the ground was knee-deep with snow and the weather biting cold, that the Pilgrims left the vessel to make their new home in this place, which John Smith had already called Plymouth. Near the water's edge a large bowlder was lying, and this rock the Pilgrims used as a stepping-stone from their small boat to the dry land. To-day if you should go to Plymouth you would see among many curious relics of the Pilgrims this interesting rock. A large log house was hastily constructed, in which they all could live until they were able to build separate homes for each family. As the winter advanced, the Pilgrims suffered great hardships. Food was getting scarce. They had used up most of the provisions brought from England. The men were nearly worn out by the heavy work they were doing. No wonder that with all these hardships so many be- came ill and died. Those who remained well and strong — and there were only a few of them — nursed the sick. The large log house was turned into a hospital. When spring came, only fifty were left of the one hundred and two who had sailed from England. Governor Carver was one of those who died and William Bradford was chosen governor in his place — a position he held for thirty-one years. In order that the Indians might not know to what a small number they had been reduced, the settlers buried 106 Plymouth Rock. MILES STANDISH AND THE PILGRIMS their dead at night and leveled the graves so that they would not be noticed. Yet, despite the hard winter, when the Mayflower re- turned to England in the spring, not one person cared to go back. Liberty with all its hardships was sweeter than life in their old home. One day an Indian came into the village, of Plymouth and called to the people in English, "Wel- come Englishmen!" His name was Samoset, and he had learned a little English from fishermen on the Maine coast. He stayed over- night and left the next morning. Shortly afterwards Samoset returned with another Indian called Squanto, who told the Pil- grims that the chief of his tribe, Massasoit, was coming to visit them. In an hour's time Massa- soit came with sixty followers. The Pilgrims received him with all possible show. They marched to meet him, carrying their guns and beating all the drums they could muster. The chief seemed much pleased, and a peace compact was drawn up. This peace was kept for over fifty years between these Indians and the English. Squanto afterwards came and lived in Plymouth and proved a valuable friend. He taught the English the way to plant corn, peas, and barley, and acted as inter- preter between them and the neighboring tribes in their fur trading. 107 The Flag of New Eng- land Used by the Plym- outh Colony. Note. — At the upper left- hand corner of the flag the globe represents the World — the white place in it shows the supposed amount of land. The cross in the white field is red; the rest of the flag is a bright blue. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY When spring came, the Pilgrims grew more hopeful. They had twenty acres of corn and six of barley and peas planted, and this promised a splendid harvest. With the autumn the promise was fulfilled. When they had gathered their first harvest, the Pilgrims found them- selves well supplied with grain for the coming winter. Unlike many people, they did not forget who the Giver of all this bounty was. They set aside one day for a thanksgiving for the harvest; and then, thinking the best way to show their gratitude was to give pleasure to others, they invited Massasoit and ninety of his Indians to join them in a celebration. Massasoit brought five deer for the feast. The Pilgrims themselves had sent men out to shoot wild turkey. For three days these friendly neighbors passed the time in feasting and out- door games. From this happy beginning has grown our national custom of observing a Thanksgiving Day in the fall of each year. Not all the Indians, however, were as friendly to the whites as were Massasoit and his tribe. One day Canoni- cus, the chief of a tribe hostile to Massasoit, sent a bundle of arrows wrapped in a snake skin to Miles Standish. This was a sign of war. Standish was a brave man and did not fear the threat. He kept the arrows and, filling the snake skin with powder, returned it to Canonicus. This was enough. Canonicus thought it best to leave the English alone. As the months passed, the Pilgrims were becoming more and more settled. Starting with only the large log cabin which they had built when they first landed, they had now quite a village of separate houses for the different families. These log houses were not like our houses of to-day. The tiny windows were covered with oiled paper instead 108 MILES STANDISH AND THE PILGRIMS of glass, which was too expensive. Instead of dividing the house into dining room, kitchen, and parlor, the Pil- grims had one big room. The cooking was done over the fire under the large chimney. They had scarcely any furniture. Instead of comfortable chairs, they had blocks of wood covered with the furs of wild animals. In one corner stood the large spinning wheel on which the mother and daughters spun yarn for the family use. The church which these people attended was simple From painting by Boughton. The Pilgrims Going to Church. and crude like their homes. Never safe from the Indians, the Pilgrims, even on Sunday, would march to church with their guns over their shoulders. The life of the Pilgrim children was a busy and yet a happy one. Both boys and girls had to help their parents in the daily toil. Then they had their schools to attend- The schoolhouses were built of clumsy logs with a roof of dried grass and seaweeds. Inside, the walls were bare. There were no pictures and maps to help the children understand their lessons. The teachers were exceedingly 9 109 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY strict and thought it wrong for children ever to waste time in play. On Sunday the children had to walk very quietly to church, and to sit perfectly still through the reading of a sermon which was sure to last one hour, and often lasted two. At night they sat around the fire while their father read the Bible to all his family; and then they went to bed. If by chance they should lie awake, they were pretty sure to hear the howling of the hungry wolves which prowled about outside. It was a dreary sound. And so passed the days and nights of the Pilgrim children, until they grew to be God-fearing men and women, honored to this day for the part they took in es- tablishing the first New England colony. Summary The second permanent colony in this country, and the first in New England, was settled at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620. — The colonists were Separatists, or Pilgrims driven from Eng- land by religious persecution. — Before landing, they made a written agreement for governing themselves, and elected John tIJarver governor. They made a peace compact with the Wam- panoag Indians, which was kept for fifty years. — After a winter of great hardship, the abundant harvest of 1621 was celebrated by a thanksgiving feast. This gave rise to our national Thanks- giving. XI GOVERNOR WINTHROP AND THE PURITANS THE PURITANS COME TO AMERICA The Pilgrims were not the only people who did not agree with all the forms of the Church of England. There were others, who, while not leaving the church, wished to have the service more simple. As they expressed it, they wanted "to purify" the church. They were called Puri- tans. In the early days of the Pilgrim settlement, the Puri- tans in England were having much the same trouble in carrying out their religious ideas that the Pilgrims had undergone. And it did not take them many years to de- cide to follow their Pilgrim friends to America, where they, too, could have freedom of worship. The first little party of Puritans to leave England settled in 1628 at Salem, a name which means "peace." They were soon followed by another band headed by John Winthrop. There were over seven hundred, and many of them were from families of education and rank. It was in March, 1630, that they bade farewell to England. In June they reached the Massachusetts coast. A very different reception awaited the Puritans from that which had greeted the Pilgrims. Even Nature was doing her best. In place of the barren, snow-covered land, which seemed to frown upon the landing of the Pilgrims, bright flowers and green trees now nodded and waved a cheerful greeting. Ill A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Finding a suitable location not far from Salem, it did not take the Puritans long to build a new town, which they named Boston. These two settlements were known as the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and John Winthrop became their governor. When autumn came, the people realized that their food supply was nearly at an end. They had used all their corn and were forced to make flour of the acorn. Instead of fresh game, they had to be satisfied with clams and crabs. And with the cold, bleak winds of winter came still more suffering and famine. During all the suf- fering Governor Win- throp cheered and en- couraged the colonists with bright hopes for the future. A touching story is told which shows how loving and kind he was. One day a poor, half-starved man came to him and begged for a morsel of bread. The Governor had only one loaf left; but, seeing that the man needed it more than he did, he gave it to him. On that very day a vessel with fresh supplies arrived from England. Many other like acts were done by Governor W^inthrop. When a man once came to him and complained that a certain neighbor was stealing his wood Governor Win- throp seemed very angry and said, " Does he so? I'll take 112 John Winthrop. WINTHROP AND THE PURITANS a course with him. Go call that man to me. I'll warrant you I'll cure him of stealing." The poor thief came, trembling and frightened. The Governor looked him over, saw how poor he appeared, and said, *' Friend, this is a very hard winter. I doubt you were but meanly provided with wood, wherefore I would have you help yourself at my wood pile till this cold season be over." And there was no more complaint of the man's stealing wood. At the end of a year a thousand immigrants had arrived from England, and Boston was growing to be a large town. As the colony grew, it was necessary to have laws by which to govern the people. These laws were very strict. They were made by representatives chosen by the colonists. This was the first step toward a government by the people. Even the daily life of the settlers was lived according to rule. Sharply at nine every night a bell rang out the curfew, and all had to go at once to bed. At half-past four in the morning another bell warned the people that it was time to be up and doing. Twice each Sunday everyone must attend church. During service the men sat on one side of the church, and the women on the other. The little girls sat on low stools at their mothers' feet. The boys sat together, either in a pew or on the pulpit steps. Then there was the tithing man, who carried a long stick with a hare's foot on one end and a hare's tail on the other. If a boy nodded during the long sermon, he was either tickled with the tail or rapped with the foot. His punishment depended on whether it was his first offense or a bad habit. Many bad habits were severely punished by the Puritans in these early colonial days. A cross, scolding woman was made to stand outside her door with a stick 113 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY tied in her mouth. A man who was caught telling an untruth had to stand in some public place with a large sign hung from his neck. On the sign was printed the word "Uar.'' The same kind of punishment was given a thief. The settlers of Boston were a very busy people. If The Chief Settlements Made in New England between 1620 AND 1675. a housekeeper w^anted linen or woolen cloth, she must weave it. If her family needed mittens or stockings, she must first spin the yarn and then knit them. Nor must she neglect making the candles and soap. Each man must hunt and catch what his family were to eat. He must till the soil, raise crops and make most of 114 WINTHROP AND THE PURITANS the furniture and even many of the dishes for his home. And all this, after he had built the house itself, with the help of his neighbors. This helping of one's neighbors was a noted virtue among the first colonists. When a new settler came to the colony, the men had a " chopping bee/' " a stump pull- ing," and a '^ raising"; and in a short time his land was cleared and his house built. Or, if a man's crops were too heavy for him to handle alone, his neighbors fell to with a will and, for pay, wanted only his thanks. It was the same with the women. They helped one an- other in house cleaning, rag-carpet making, and all the hard work; the}^ visited and cared for the colony's sick, carry- ing them dainty dishes and nursing them back to health. Thanks to the help of Governor Winthrop, the colony prospered. Before many years public schools were es- tablished which proved the foundation of our present school system. This wise and generous Governor served his colony until !649, when he died. In the city of Boston there stands to-day a statue of John Winthrop to testify that his faithful services to the early Puritans were ap- preciated, not only by them, but by those who came after them. ROGER WILLIAMS In 1631 an earnest young Puritan named Roger Will- iams sailed from England for Massachusetts. He became a minister at Salem. It was true that the Puritans had left England to wor- ship God as they wished. And they had had a great deal to say about the King's trying to make people worship only as he worshiped. But once settled in America, their leaders did just the same thing. They ordered the colo- nists to attend the Puritan Church, and those who were not church members could not vote. 115 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Now, Roger Williams soon saw that this was not at all the freedom the colonists should have. He believed that a man could vote just as well if he did not belong to the church. So he said, and so he preached. Moreover, Roger Williams told the colonists that they had no real right to the land w^here they were living. They replied that they had, because their charter granted Roger Williams Received by the Narragansett Indians. it to them. That made no difference, Williams insisted; the land belonged to the Indians, -and no English com- pany had a right to give it away, and no English col- onists had a right to live on it until the Indians had been paid. It was very alarming to the Puritan leaders to have Williams spreading such notions among the settlers. What was to be done about it? The good Puritan fathers held a council and decided that Williams must be sent 116 WINTHROP AND THE PURITANS back to England. A policeman was sent to arrest him, but he had fled. Thus in the dead of winter, Roger Williams became an exile in the desolate forests. For weeks he traveled through the snow, sleeping under any shelter he could find and living on parched corn, acorns, and roots. At last he reached the Indian tribe of which Massasoit was chief; and the friendly old Indian received him as a brother and fed and cared for him. Still he was within the boundaries of Massachusetts, and the Puritans would not have him there. He was warned to leave. So, buying from the Indians a tract of land on the shore of Narragansett Bay, Williams went to live where he would no longer be bothered by his enemies. He named his new land Providence "for God's providence to him in his distress.'' Others followed him, and there grew up the colony of Rhode Island, a colony where, in very truth, each man could believe and worship according to his heart's desire. For a while after this, the Puritans had no serious dis- turbances. Their next trouble came in a different way. A fierce war-loving Indian tribe, the Pequots, proved hos- tile to the Massachusetts settlers. They feared that the settlers would spread out and out and soon take all their land. This they did not mean to have, so they tried in every way to stir up the Narragansetts to join them in a massacre of the Massachusetts colonists. Here was Roger Williams's chance to show that he was willing to practice what he preached. Although he could not agree with the Puritans, he held no grudge against them because they had refused to listen to him and had turned him out. Going to the Narragansett In- dians, Williams urged them not to join the Pequots; and so great was his influence that they refused to fight. 117 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY The Pequots, nothing daunted, determined to attack the settlers nevertheless. They did not come out in open battle, but waylaid a party of whites and killed thirty of them. This must be stopped. So a small party of English, with a large number of friendly Indians advanced on the Pequots. Before sunrise one spring morn- ing in 1637, the English approached the Pequots' stronghold. All were asleep. Before the Indian sentries knew what had happened, the foe was in their midst. The fort was set on fire. Only five In- dians escaped, while more than four hundred per- ished. The great Pequot tribe was crushed, and nearly forty years of peace ensued. How different might have been the result, but for the forgiving spirit of Roger Williams ! KING PHILIP'S WAR As time went on, the friendly old Indian chief Massasoit died. And when his son. King Philip, came to be ruler of the Wampanoag tribe, trouble began to brew for the New England colonists. King Philip did not inherit his father's love for the settlers. Far from it. There were several reasons why Philip looked with suspicion on the white men. The main one was jealousy. He saw them rapidly becoming powerful and occupying 118 0i/nHOJ)E ISLAND WINTHROP AND THE PUKITANS large tracts of land. The land had been paid for, it is true. Yet the Indians did not enjoy being shut out of their old hunting grounds that they might be turned into fields for the crops and cattle of strangers. So, urged on by his braves, King Philip began sending messengers to friendly tribes, inviting them to join in a mighty war on "the palefaces." The English did not know that Philip was preparing for war till an Indian told the Governor of Plymoutli. For doing so, this Indian was murdered by some of Philip's men. And these, in their turn, were hanged by the English. This was the crisis. The Indian chief's patience was at an end. These English must not hang his braves. Philip was very angry and in June, 1675, vented his wrath on the town of Swanzey. The war that followed was a terrible one. The settlers were in constant fear and danger. Hiding behind bushes and trees, the Indians let fly their death-dealing arrows. Many of the Indians used guns, which they had secured in trade from the white men. Oftentimes King Philip's braves, coming upon a house where a mother and her children were alone, would kill them and then burn the house. Imagine how the father must have felt when he came home from the fields and found that his whole family had been murdered! Im- agine how the children must have trembled in their beds when they heard the war whoops of the approaching In- dians! These savages often danced like fiends around their victims' houses, yelling and waving their tomahawks. Often a whole village would be burned to the ground, and the inhabitants killed or made captives. First, the settlements in southern Massachusetts were attacked. Then the Indians' fury was turned on those along the western frontier. As the cold weather drew near, King Philip gathered his warriors and joined the Narragansett tribe that they might camp together during 119 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY the winter. The winter was not favorable to the Indians' mode of attack. The leafless trees did not provide a good screen. So these two Indian tribes chose a piece of rising ground in the middle of a great cedar swamp, and here they fortified themselves. Around their camp they built a thick wall of logs. Inside the wall they set up their Indians Surprising a Settlement. wigwams, and then nearly three thousand Indians settled dovv^n for the winter in what seemed to them perfecr safety. Now was the white men's chance to strike a blow that the Indians would feel. The different settlements sent men, until a goodly army was ready to march against the Indian encampment. On the 19th of December, this army arrived at the cedar swamp. There was but one entrance to the fort, and but one way to reach the entrance. This was by 120 WINTHROP AND THE PURITANS crossing a brook on a fallen tree. The danger of such a crossing was plain. Still there was no hesitation. The soldiers rushed toward the log. In an instant the walls of the fort were alive, and the front rank fell before the first blaze of the Indian guns. Others sprang to take their places and were met by an- other volley. But nothing stopped the forward rush of the colonists. On they went, faster than the Indians could reload their guns. Crossing the log in spite of the firing, they rushed through the entrance into the fort. A hand- to-hand fight followed. Thinking of their murdered wives and children, the w^hite men fought like tigers. The con- fusion was terrible. About sunset a blinding snowstorm filled the air; and under its protection, King Philip, the Narragansett chief, and many warriors, climbed the fortifications and fled into the forests. Then the English set the wigwams on fire and retreated with their wounded and captives, leav- ing the Indian women and children to die in the flames with the wounded braves. In this battle over a thousand Indians perished, and the power of the mighty Narragansett tribe was com- pletely broken. Still, the sad fate of so many braves only added to the hate of those warriors who had escaped. The war went on as savagely as ever all through the next summer. At last King Philip's wife and son were taken prisoners. This was a hard blow for the poor chief. " Now my heart breaks," he said, " and I am ready to die.'^ Put though he may have been ready to die, he cer- tainly was not ready to make peace. When one of his warriors, discouraged by their small numbers, suggested peace to him, Philip promptly struck the man dead. Near by stood the brother of the murdered man. In an instant, all his loyalty to his chief was turned to hate. 121 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY He would be revenged. At the first opportunity he sUpped away and going to the Enghsh told them that they would find King Philip at his old home, Mount Hope. There on August 12th the avenger led a company of English soldiers, who surrounded the Indian chief before he suspected their presence. Hearing footsteps, Philip sprang to his feet and dashed for the woods. As he was fleeing past his betrayer, he received full in his heart the shot of the angry Indian. He fell on his face, his gun under him. Then his slayer sprang upon the body and chopping off the head, carried it in triumph to the English colony at Plymouth. This was the end of King Philip's War, and of the great tribe of the Wampanoag Indians. Summary Puritans, members of the Church of England who disliked some of its forms, settled at Salem, Massachusetts. — These were followed, in 1630, by other Puritans under John Winthrop, who founded Boston. — The settlements of Salem and Boston were known as the Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Winthrop was made governor of this colony. — The sturdiness, industry, and moral courage of both the Pilgrims and the Puritans, were a very large factor in the building of this country. — These colonists be- lieved in government by the people and in free public education. Roger Williams, a Puritan minister of Salem, was driven from the colony because of his liberal views. He fled to the land of the Narragansett Indians. Here, in 1636, he founded a settle- ment, which he called Providence. Complete religious liberty was allowed in Providence. In 1675, New England tribes joined under "King Philip." of the Wampanoags to get back their hunting grounds from the English. — The Indians destroyed Swanzey and settlements throughout Massachusetts, but were finally defeated. — After a year's pursuit. King Philip was killed. — By this war the power of the Indians in New England was completely broken. 122 XII HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH IN AMERICA The hero of this story was an Englishman. He came of a good old English family. His home was in Lorjdon, and somewhere he learned to sail the seas. This much, and little more, is known of the early life of Henry Hudson. When the events happened which make him stand out in his- tory, he was already a man. And from all he dared to do, he must surely have been a brave, perse- vering man. Imagine yourself sailing gayly out on the Zuyder Zee in a little Dutch vessel one spring day in 1609. You are bound for the north, fired with the belief that there lies the long-sought, much- desired short route to India, China, and Japan. Twice before you have sailed in English ships on this errand, and twice you have failed. This time you are saihng under the Dutch East India Company. Much depends on your success, and this time you must not — will not — fail. Look again, and see yourself a month later afloat on the Arctic Ocean, trying, trying to work your little Half 123 Flag of the Dutch East India Company. Note, — The color of the upper stripe is yellow, the next white with the letters in black; the lower stripe is blue. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Moon through the great blocks of ice which lie on every hand. Think of the piercing cold of this snow-bound re- gion. Listen to the frightened complaints of the sailors as they stoutly refuse to go on. And then ask yourself what you w^ould do. Would you turn back, disheartened^ or would you muster all your courage and try the next best course? Henry Hud- son chose the latter. Now, it happened that Captain John Smith and Henry Hud- son were great friends ; and John Smith had written to Hudson from Virginia of an effort he himself had made to find a passage across the new conti- nent. He had sailed up Chesapeake Bay and proved that there was no passage that way. Still he thought there might be one farther to the north. Balked as he was in his endeavors to sail around the north of Europe, Hudson remembered what Captain Smith had said. If there were a route to India to the north of Chesapeake Bay, why should not he, Henry Hudson, go in search of it, as long as his sailors would not sail any farther in the direction they had started? There was no reason. So Hudson turned his ship about and headed for America. South he sailed until he found himself off the shores of Virginia. There was no chance 124 Henry Hudson. HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH of finding what he sought here, according to John Smith; so once more the Half Moon was turned about and headed north. The 3d of September was a clear, bright day. The blue sky, the gleaming waves, the swaying green forests along the coast, made a picture not to be forgotten. The little Dutch ship scudded along in the sunshine, while, from her bow, Henry Hudson watched the widespread- ing shores of a bay which opened just ahead. Might not this opening be the passage to the Pacific? Surely every- thing pointed that way. With his heart full of hope, the brave navigator ran his ship into the bay and dropped anchor. Then out from the shore glided light canoes. Their red-faced owners paddled nearer and nearer the strange- looking "great white bird,^' as they called the white- sailed ship. Slowly the canoes circled round and round the Half Moon. At last, seeing no signs of danger, the Indians came close to the ship. Leaning over its side, Hudson politely asked the red men to come aboard. After this first visit, the Indians came again and brought grapes, furs, pumpkins, and tobacco, which they gave the sailors for some knives and beads. A few days later the Hal] Moon was again under sail, and Henry Hudson was cautiously making his way up the great river which now bears his name. By the time Hud- son had sailed as far as Albany, the hope that he had found a water way to the Pacific had gradually faded away. Bitterly disappointed at finding the water grow- ing so shallow that he feared he might run his ship aground, he turned back and put to sea again. This was Henry Hudson's only visit to the Hudson River. On November 7th the Half Moon arrived at Dart- mouth, England. And from England, Hudson sent his 10 125 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY report on to the Dutch East India Company in Holland. He told all the details of his voyage; still asserted that there must be a northwest way to reach India, and asked for more money and fresh sailors with which to make a new start in the spring. The Dutch East India Company read the report most carefully, and then they sent for Hudson to meet them and talk the matter over. But no! The English King would not listen to Hud- son's sailing again for the Dutch. If he could find a north- west route to the East, he should find it for England — not for Holland. So the little Half Moon was sent off home. And in April, 1610, Henry Hudson left England in an English ship for one more trial at reaching India. Sailing farther north than on his last voyage, Hudson this time entered the landlocked water which has ever since been called Hudson Bay. By the middle of Novem- ber, his ship was frozen hard and fast in the ice. It was dreadfully cold, food was growing scarce, and the sailors were wishing they had stayed at home. All winter and until the 18th of the next June the ice held. When it finally broke, the crew were determined to return to England at once. Hudson was just as deter- mined to push on toward the west. All held firmly to their own opinion. The crew would not sail west, and Hudson would not turn back. There was only one commander, and there were many sailors. So, being the stronger, the crew solved the ques- tion in their own way. Three days after the ice gave way they put Hudson, his son, and several sick men into the ship's open boat and set them adrift. Then the ship was faced about for home. What became of Henry Hudson, what hardships he suffered, and how long his little open boat lived among 126 HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH the great blocks of floating ice, are things that will never be known. But it is doubtless true that the brave English mariner went down sooner or later in the icy waters of Hudson Bay. PETER MINUIT After Henry Hudson had crossed the ocean and ex- plored the river named for him, Dutch interest in the New World awakened. As the years went by, Dutch ships brought Dutch traders to the mouth of the Hudson. And these Dutch traders explored the neighboring cotintry, which they named New Netherland; built a fur-trading post on the island of Manhattan, and put up a fort near the present site of Albany. Then a little later there was formed in Holland a com- pany known as the Dutch West India Company, and in 1623 this Dutch West India Company sent a colonizing expedition to New Netherland. Thirty families came. Some of them went inland to settle, and some of them stayed on Manhattan Island and built cozy little Dutch houses. In 1626 Peter Minuit was appointed Governor of New Netherland and came to the Manhattan settlement. He was one of the best and wisest governors that the Dutch West India Company ever sent to look after their interests in America. Up to this time the Dutch had lived on the island of Manhattan without questioning whether it was right or wrong for them to do so. When Peter Minuit came, he said that the island belonged to the Indians, and that the}^ must be paid for it before the Dutch could call it their own. So he sent to the Indians inhabiting Manhat- tan and asked them to sell the island to him. The Indian chiefs were willing to part with the land 127 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY and sold the whole island to the Dutch for twenty-four dollars' worth of beads, ribbons, knives, and blankets. After Manhattan became Dutch property, Peter Min- uit built a blockhouse surrounded by strong palisades for the protection of the little town which was named New Amsterdam. During the summer more settlers came, and soon there were thirty houses in the village. Besides From a painting by Alfred Fredericks. Purchase of Manhattan by Peter Minuit. these houses there was a large windmill, a flagstaff from which the Dutch colors floated in the breeze, and later a church. And the industrious Dutchmen soon felt much at home. Still the Dutch West India Company saw that some new inducement must be made if their colony was to grow fast enough to suit them. So they offered a tract of land to any member of their company who would agree to have fifty colonists settled on his property within four years. 128 HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH Anyone accepting the offer could choose his own land along any river in the company's domain. If his estate lay on only one bank of the river, he could claim sixteen miles of shore line. Or, he could have eight miles on each bank. In either case his estate should run back from the river as far as he wished it to. The owners of these estates were to be called patroons. In a very short time five such estates were laid out. The patroons acted like lords. They did not need to ex- ert themselves, for they had all the help they could desire and almost absolute power over all the settlers living on their lands. In 1632 Peter Minuit was removed from the governor- ship of New Netherland and sailed away from New Am- sterdam after a short but useful service. PETER STUYVESANT Peter Stuyvesant was the last of the Dutch gov- ernors of New Netherland. He came to the colony in 1647 and ruled for seventeen years. And they were try- ing years for both the people and the Governor. Peter Stuyvesant had many good qualities and many faults. He was loyal to the company that had appointed him and tyrannical to the people he governed. He was honest, brave, and fearless. But he was hot tempered, stern, and unrelenting. His motives were good, but his methods severe. Above all he was stubborn. So stub- born indeed that before he had been long in the colony he was nicknamed "Headstrong Peter." "Old Silverleg" was another name given him. These two nicknames illustrate perfectly the contra- dictory make-up of the man. The first one was given him because of his pig-headedness. The second came through 129 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY DutcWFort, 1623. 'p ((Albany) loyal service to his country. He had lost a leg in battle and now stumped about on a wooden peg trimmed with bands of silver. Peter Stuyvesant found many trials awaiting him in New Netherlands which resulted in many heated argu- ments with his colonists. But, although Peter Stuyves- ant's rule was such a stormy one, he left the colony far better than he found it. New Amsterdam especially improved under his care. The town was given a charter and made into a city. And it was a pretty city, too. Along the streets stood the rows of quaint Dutch houses. Their gables were of col- ored brick and were turned toward the street ; weather- cocks decorated the roofs. Bright little gardens lay before many houses. And the gay-colored clothes of the people lent a cheerful appearance to the town. In the public square stood the stocks, whipping post, and pillory for the punishment of offenders. As Governor Stuyvesant was very fond of dealing out public punish- ment, all three were often occupied at once. Then there was the fort built by Peter Minuit and strengthened by Peter Stuyvesant. Scattered about were Dutch wind- mills wit'i their four long sweeping arms. And all to- gether New Amsterdam was a charming little city and 130 The Dutch and Neighboring Settlements. HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH one of which the Dutch Governor might well be proud. But Peter Stuyvesant's pride in his colony was short- lived. England had long ago, owing to John Cabot^s dis- coveries, claimed the land occupied by New Netherland. Moreover, the English King was determined to have all the English colonies along the Atlantic coast united, and this was impossible so long as the Dutch held New Netherland. So the English King gave the Dutch land to his brother Old Dutch Fort. James, the Duke of York, who sent a fleet to demand the surrender of the Dutch colony. Suddenly one day in 1664 this fleet appeared off New Amsterdam, and its commander sent a letter to Governor Stuyvesant. The letter invited him to give up his col- ony to the Duke of York. In return for the surrender, the colonists were to be allowed to keep their property and all their rights and privileges, and other privileges were to be granted them. "Old Silverleg" was very wTathful. He tore up the 131 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY letter and stamped about on his wooden leg swearing that he would rather be carried out dead than give up the fort. He called upon the Dutch to help him, but they The Wrath of Stuyvesant. refused to come to his aid, as they were anxious to accept the liberal terms of the English. Poor "Headstrong Peter" could do nothing alone; and a white flag was raised in spite of him, and the colony 132 HENRY HUDSON AND THE DUTCH .was given over to the English. This ended Dutch rule in America. The name New Netherland was changed to the Prov- ince of New York in honor of the English King's brother, the Duke of York. And for the same reason New Amster- dam became the city of New York. Sailing to Holland, Peter Stuyvesant reported the surrender to the Dutch West India Company. Then he returned to his home in New York and lived there as a peaceful citizen all the rest of his life. He died in ^1682 when he was eighty years old. Summary Henry Hudson, an English sailor, was employed by the Dutch East India Company to find a passage to Asia. — While on this voyage, he discovered the Hudson River, 1609. — This discovery led to Dutch colonization in America. — Dutch traders explored the valley of the Hudson and named it New Netherland. In 1623 the Dutch West India Company sent a colony to New Netherland, part of which settled on Manhattan Island. The settlement was named New Amsterdam. — In 1626, Governor Peter Minuit purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for twenty-four dollars. — The Dutch West India Company es- tablished the patroon system. Peter Stuyvesant was the last Dutch governor of New Netherland. In 1664 he was obliged to surrender the colony to the English. This ended Dutch rule in America. — The colony was renamed New York, and New Amsterdam became the city of New York. XIII THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS CHAMPLAIN When Columbus discovered America, all the kings of Europe belonged to the Catholic Church and recognized the Pope as their ruler. So, when the kings of Spain and Portugal began to quarrel about lands outside their king- doms, it was the Pope who set- tled their dispute. He took a map and drew a line from the north to the south pole three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. All the land west of this line not belonging to some Christian prince was to belong to Spain; all east of it, to Portugal. When the French King heard about this line he said, " I would like to see the clause in Father Adam's will which divides the world between the Portuguese and the Spaniards. I think France shall have a share too,'' And before long he began sending to America French ships to make discoveries and claims for France. The most important result of these early voyages was the discovery of the St. Lawrence River by Jacques Car- tier in 1535. But though Cartier's discovery led to the 134 Jacques Caktier. THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS French claiming all the country drained by the mighty St. Lawrence, many years passed before they succeeded in making a permanent settlement in Canada. In the year 1603 two little French ships came sailing up the St. Lawrence. Upon the deck of one of them stood a young and fearless Frenchman, Samuel Cham- plain. Already he had served his country with honor both as a soldier and a sailor. And now he had crossed the sea again to visit Cartier's river and find out what New France promised. Past the high rock where Que- bec now stands, past the broad lake of St. Peter the ships sailed steadily on until before them rose the high moun- tain which Car- tier had named Montreal or Royal Mountain. Going ashore, the French spent the summer looking over the country near the river. When autumn came they returned to France. The next year the two ships came again. This time the voyagers were determined to make a settlement upon the shores of the New World. First they tried a rocky island in Passamaquoddy Bay. Then they moved to a place that they named Port Pi^oyal. They spent three winters in these two places. When spring came after the 135 Samuel Champlain, At about the age of sixty-five. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY third winter, it brought bad news from France. The French King would no longer support the colony in America. With heavy hearts the colonists prepared to go home. Their Indian friends followed them to the water's edge and cried bitterly. For a year after this, Champlain stayed in France. He grew homesick for the foggy coasts of Canada, for the 136 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS sound of the sea and the smell of the pine woods. When King Henry decided to send another colony to America, there was no happier man in all France than Champlain. By the summer of 1608 a gang of choppers was at work where the city of Quebec is to-day. They were clearing a place for Champlain's new colony. When autumn came, one ship sailed for France. Champlain stayed behind with twenty-eight men. The winter proved a hard one. Disease swept through the colony. Only eight men were left by spring. Never was ship more welcome than the one that now 'arrived bearing friends and supplies from France. THE ATTACK ON THE IROQUOIS Champlain now decided that, while part of the men stayed at Quebec, he and the others would go to look for a water passage to China. The Europeans could not give up hope of finding such a passage. But what could this handful of men do among the thousands of warlike Indians scattered through the forests they must cross? Champlain thought over this for a long while. Finally he hit upon a scheme. The Iroquois were the fiercest and most powerful In- dians in America. They were a league of five nations, living in what is now the state of New York. The other Indians east of the Mississippi belonged to the Algonquins or to the Hurons. The Iroquois hated the Algonquins and the Hurons, and oftentimes these enemies started out to make savage war against each other. Champlain's plan was to join one of the Algonquin- Huron war parties. By doing this he would make the Algonquins and the Hurons firm friends of the French. Besides, the Algonquins had told Champlain of a great 137 A FIEST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY lake in the land of the Iroquois, and he was eager to see this lake. Champlain sent for some of the Algonquins he knew, and told them that he would help them against their enemies. They soon spread the news. A great band of warriors assembled at Quebec. It was almost July when the party started. Cham- plain and eleven other white men were in a small boat, each with gun and sword and armor. Around them were one hundred birch canoes full of Indians. Swish, swish went the water, as hundreds of paddles pushed up the river. Through a lake and between islands they went, till they came to the mouth of the Richelieu River which flows into the St. Lawrence. Making their way up this river they soon came to a place where the river was full of rocks. No boat could cross such rapids. So nine of the white men went back to Quebec with Cham- plain's boat, while he and the other two went on with the Indians in their canoes. After a time the river grew wider again, and at last they came to the great lake that the Indians had told Champlain about. He named it Lake Champlain. The travelers now had to proceed more carefully, for they were near the home of the Iroquois. All day they would hide quietly in the woods. At night they would launch their canoes and skim over the lake. On the night of July 29th, they saw dark objects on the lake in front of them. They were the canoes of the Iroquois. Each party saw the other, and the lake rang with war cries. The Iroquois did not like to fight on the water, so they landed and began to hack down trees for a barricade. Champlain and his party stayed on the lake and fastened their canoes together with poles. Before daylight Champlain and the two other white 138 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS men put on their armor. Over their shoulders they hung their ammunition boxes; they fastened their swords to their belts and took their guns in hand. The three Frenchmen were in separate canoes. When it grew Ught they kept hidden under Indian robes. The canoes were pulled up close to the shore, and the Algonquin-Huron party landed, the Frenchmen hiding behind the Indians. Draivn by Champlain. Champlain's Battle with the Iroquois. When two hundred of the straightest and fiercest of the Iroquois braves came marching toward them from their barricade, the Hurons and Algonquins began to feel anx- ious. So Champlain stepped out in front of them. The Iroquois stood thunderstruck. They had never seen a white man. He aimed his gun. Bang! A chief fell dead, and another rolled wounded into the bushes. Champlain's In- dians gave a terrible yell, and the woods were full of whiz- zing arrows. For a moment the Iroquois shot back. But from among their enemies came another gunshot, and another. 139 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY They could stand it no longer. They broke rank and fled in terror through the bushes, Hke deer. Like hounds went the Hurons and Algonquins in hot pursuit. Some of the Iroquois were killed, many were taken prisoners. The rest ran away. Camp, canoes, provisions — all were left behind. The white man's gun had done its work. In after years the Iroquois were always the enemies of the French, and this was only the first of much fighting between them. As the years went by, Champlain pushed farther west from Quebec. He discovered Lake Huron. He planted the French people firmly in Canada. His settlement at Quebec became the center, not only of military operations, but also of a large fur trade. From there, the fur traders made their way into the Indian lands and bought furs for beads, purses, and trinkets of many sorts. On Christmas Day, 1635, one hundred years after Car- tier had discovered the site of Montreal, there was great sadness at Quebec. The French had lost their greatest explorer, and the Indians their best friend. Champlain was dead. JOLIET AND MARQUETTE— THE GREAT CANOE TRIP When Champlain died he left the power of the French firmly planted in Canada, which was fast becoming a fa- mous trading section for the fur traders. Besides the fur traders and those looking simply for adventure, there was another class of Frenchmen who came to Canada as the years went by. These were the hardest workers and bravest adventurers of all. They w^re the Jesuits, a society of French Roman Catholics who had sworn to do all they could to convert the world to the Catholic religion. Brave and fearless, they were 140 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS eager to go into the wilds of America and make the In- dians a great CathoUc nation. Soon they pushed their way along the borders of the Great Lakes and established settlements, or missions, where they tried to teach and civilize the wayward red men. At one of these missions, on Lake Superior, was a young Jesuit priest, Marquette, or Father Marquette, as he was called. Every year the Illinois Indians used to Marquette and Joliet Floating Down the Mississit't'i. come to the Jesuit settlement, and from them Father Marquette heard about a great river which they had to cross on their way. This river they called the "Mesipi.'^ Father Marquette was very anxious to find this river^ which he thought must flow into the Gulf of California. At this time the Governor of Canada was Count Fron- tenac. Through the Indians he, too, heard about the great river; and he resolved to send some one to find it and to explore it for France. For this expedition he 11 141 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY selected a young man by the name of Louis Joliet and gave him orders to take Father Marquette on the voyage. In May, 1673, they started. They coasted along the shores of Lake Michigan until they came to the head of Green Bay. Here they entered the Fox River. After paddling for several days between fields of wild rice and prairies covered with deer and elk, they finally reached a place where the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers are only a mile and a half apart. They carried their canoes across this distance and launched them on the Wisconsin. Then they drifted down this peaceful river, until, on June 17th, they saw before them a mighty water w^iich met the Wisconsin. This could be no other than the "Father of Waters/' the Mississippi. Down the great river they paddled, past the mouth of the Illinois and past the w^onderful rocks w^hich at this point line the eastern shore. On one of the rocks were painted tw^o monsters. These were Indian gods. The voyagers w'ere so excited over the strange picture that they scarcely noticed where they were going. Suddenly they saw before them a great yellow torrent rushing into the peaceful blue water and sweeping along in its current, branches and uprooted trees. The canoes w^ere whirled like chips upon the angry waters. They had reached the Missouri River. In spite of the danger, the travelers got safely past. In a few days more they came to the mouth of the river which the Indians called the Ohio, or "Beautiful River.'' After they had passed this, the weather grew warmer very rapidly, and the mosquitoes tormented them day and night. As Joliet and Marquette neared the mouth of the Arkansas River, they saw a group of wigwams on the western bank. The inhabitants stood waving their hatch- ets and yelling the war whoop. Boat loads of them came 142 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS out on both sides of the white men, so that they could go neither forward nor backward, while a swarm of daring young braves waded out into the river. The white men were terribly frightened and called upon the saints to protect them, Marquette holding up his peace pipe all the while. The young warriors paid no attention to this; but when the older ones saw it, they quieted the young braves and told the Frenchmen to come on shore. This they did, and were treated kindly. Marquette and Joliet had now gone far enough to From the bronze relief by H. A. McNeil, in the 2Iar(/uctte Building, Chicago. The Burial of Marquette, make sure that the Mississippi flowed, not into the Gulf of California, but into the Gulf of Mexico. If they went on to the mouth of the river they might be killed by savage Indians, or by Spaniards. So they decided to go back to Canada and report what they had found. It was the end of September when they once more reached Green Bay. Leaving Marquette here, Joliet went on to tell Count Frontenac of all they had discovered. They had been gone four months, and had made a canoe trip of more than 2,500 miles. 143 A FIRST BOOK IX AMERICAN HISTORY LA SALLE'S PLANS AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS Whex Joliet reached Montreal with the news of his great discovery, he met there a very brave and strong- minded man named La Salle. Hearing Joliet 's story, La Salle asked Count Frontenac to let him go to France to tell the King of all that he had heard.' Frontenac gladly gave his permission, and in the year 1677 La Salle sailed for France. He told the King of the journey of Joliet and Marquette, of the fertile soil of the Mississippi Valley, of the abundant game and the delight- ful climate. "Now," said La Salle, "why should not ail this rich land belong to France, instead of waiting for the English and Spanish to come and take it away from us before our ver}^ eyes?" The King was pleased with what La Salle said, and gave him permission to make a voyage of discovery which should last not more than five years. He was to build forts wherever he thought it necessary. In 1678 La Salle came back to Canada to prepare for his voyage through the west. He thought that, if he could start with a ship above the falls in the Niagara River, he would be able to sail up the river to the lakes, and then through the lakes to the Mississippi. He did not know that part of this distance lay overland. So with his men he sailed up the Niagara as far as the falls. Then with their baggage on their backs the men plodded twelve miles through the forest until they reached a creek above the falls. Here La Salle set the men to work building a ship. By August, 1679, the ship was finished, and named the Griffon. Then the voyagers left the Niagara River and sailed out into Lake Erie. Through Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair, 144 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS Lake Huron they went, and westward into Lake Michigan. At the entrance of Green Bay La Salle cast anchor. Hefe he found some men whom he had sent ahead to buy furs of the Indians. He told these men to load the furs upon the Griffon and take them back to Niagara, where they would find men to carry them to Montreal. Then they were to come back again with the ship. So on a September morn- ing the Griffon fired a parting shot and set sail for Niagara. La Salle, with four- teen men and four canoes, went down the lake to the St. Joseph River. Here he built a fort and waited till December, hoping for the return of the Grif- fon; but no Griffon came. Finally he sent two men back to seek her while he with the others made his way up the St. Joseph River, until they came to the portage, or path, which led to the headwaters of the Illinois River. La Salle now went some distance down this river, and there built a strong fort. Since his ship was gone, he re- solved to build another. In six weeks the ship was half done. But there were no anchors or cables or rigging. There was nothing to be done but to go back for these things to Fort Frontenac, a distance of one thousand miles. La Salle was not a man to hesitate at a little journey like 145 Robert La Salle. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY this; so one day in March, witli two canoes, an Indian hunter, and four Frenchmen, he started up the river. It was a fearful journey. Sometimes pushing the canoes through the drifting ice, sometimes walking over- land for many miles and carrying the canoes on their shoulders, sometimes in danger from the Iroquois, some- Broxze Sux-Dial axd Compass. Found in January, 1902, on the shores of Green Baj-. Undoubtedly ot the sev- enteenth century, and probably lost by some French fur trader or missionary. times torn by brush and briers through which they made their way, the men kept bravely on until they reached the Niagara. By this time all but La Salle w^ere worn out, so he left his companions at Niagara and took three fresh men in their stead. It was May when he saw before him the walls of Fort 146 THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS Frontenac. Here he heard nothing but bad news. Not only was the Griffon lost, but a ship from France laden with La Salle's goods had been wrecked. Still the brave leader did not give up. He went to Montreal for the sup- plies he wanted and returned with them to Fort Frontenac. LA SALLE REACHES THE GULF OF MEXICO It would be a long story to tell of the adventures which befell La Salle before he again reached his fort on the Illi- nois River. He did reach it, however, the following win- ter. Here he found his men were gone and his fort pulled to pieces, but the ship was almost as he had left it. On one of the planks was written in French the words, "We are all savages." From the fort, La Salle and his companions pushed on down to the Mississippi, the great river which they never had seen before. Then turning his canoe. La Salle went back the way he had come. In December, 1681, La Salle started once more to ex- plore the Mississippi. With him were twenty-three French- men, besides about thirty Indians. They set out in their canoes from Fort Miami, on Lake Michigan, and entered the Chicago River. Finding it frozen, they made sledges and loaded the canoes and baggage on them. Then they crossed overland to the Illinois, and finally reached the Mississippi. At first the river was full of floating ice, but as they went farther south it became clear. They sailed on past the place where the mighty Missouri empties its muddy stream into the Father of Waters, and past the mouth of the Ohio. Winter gave way to spring, the air became soft and warm, and the banks were bright with the fresh green of the unfolding leaves. 147 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Near the mouth of the Arkansas River La Salle raised a cross bearing the arms of France and took formal posses- sion of the country for the French King. Then he went on south. On the 6th of April La Salle found the river dividing into three streams. He separated his men into three par- ties, himself taking the western channel. As he drifted down the muddy stream, the salt smell of the sea reached him. The banks of the river disappeared. He had reached the Gulf of Mexico, his journey's end. The three parties soon met. They landed upon a piece of dry ground, a little way from the river's mouth. Here La Salle made a column, bearing the arms of France and these words, in French: "Louis the Great, King of France and of Navarre, rules here. April 9, 1682." The Frenchmen were drawn up in martial array and sang hymns. Then, amid volleys of musketry and shouts of " Long live the King! " La Salle set up the column. He proclaimed in a loud voice that he was taking for France all the land v/atered by the Mississippi, and the rivers which flow into the Mississippi. To this vast region he gave the name of "Louisiana," or "Louis's land." It ex- tended from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada. LA SALLE'S ATTEMPTED SETTLEMENT In the year 1684 La Salle was in France for the last time. His purpose was to ask the King for one ship and two hundred men, that he might build a fort on the Mis- sissippi. He would form an army of fifteen thousand In- dians, he said, with which he could easily capture the Spanish silver mines. The King granted this request most generously. Instead of one ship he gave four, 148 THE EAKLY FRENCH EXPLORERS and recruiting agents were sent out to enlist the soldiers asked for. La Salle's plan was to reach the mouth of the Mississippi River by crossing the Gulf of Mexico. It was December before the little fleet entered the Gulf. On New Year's Day, 1685, they anchored about nine miles from the land. La Salle went ashore, but could find nothing that looked familiar. He had passed the mouth of the Mississippi without knowing it, and his great journey had been taken in vain. Finally he entered Matagorda Bay on the coast of Texas, which he thought was the western mouth of the Mississippi. After building some houses for his little col- ony, La Salle started northward with about fifty of his men. They were gone five months and returned ragged and wearied, all but La Salle discouraged. La Salle's fortunes were now in a very sad state. Many of the colony had died of disease, and La Salle him- self was much broken in health. He resolved that he would find the Mississippi, journey to Canada, and get supplies for his colony. This was his last hope. Everyone set to work to prepare for the journey. The sails of the vessels were cut up and pieced with deerskins to make coats for the men. On the 7th of January, 1687, La Salle made a farewell address to those who were to stay behind and with his men left the fort for the last time. Across prairies and rivers they journeyed. In March they were still on the plains of northern Texas. One day the men fell into a quarrel about some buffalo meat. Three were killed, among them La Salle's nephew. La Salle, who knew nothing of this, asked one of the party where his nephew was. "He is skulking about some- where," answered the man impudently. La Salle rebuked him for his manner of speaking, when 149 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY a shot whizzed from the grass, and the great leader fell dead. He had escaped the fury of flood and Indians, to die at the hands of one of his own countrymen; and the helpless colony in Texas was left to the mercy of the Spaniards. Summary In 1535 Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, discovered the St. Lawrence River. — In consequence France claimed all the country drained by the St. Lawrence, calling it New France. — Samuel Champlain explored the river, 1603, and, by the settle- ment of Quebec, 1608, established the French in Canada. — In 1609, Champlain joined the Algonquin and Huron tribes in an attack on the Iroquois. This brought about the lasting enmity of the Iroquois toward the French. In 1673 Joliet and Marquette explored the Mississippi River to the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1678 La Salle was commissioned by Louis XIV to es- tablish the French claim to the valley of the Mississippi. — In 1682 he reached the Gulf of Mexico. — He named the French claim Louisiana. This claim included all the land drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. XIV LORD BALTIMORE MARYLAND Besides the faith of Pilgrims and Puritans there was yet another creed in England — that of the Roman Cath- olics. Like the Puritans, the Catholics were not allowed • MAP OF '■■■.:■:]■;:: ^ ;:/::^;: r:7:-:;.v :':^ ■ :M A R Y L A N D : i- ■ SCALE OF MILES •.■.••■ 10 20 30 40 50 Original Charter Boundary as claimed by proprietors Present Boundary of 3Iaryland to live in peace and worship God according to their con- science. So they, too, wanted to move to America and start life anew. George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, felt that the Cath- olics were right in their desire; and he resolved to become 151 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY their leader and help them all he could toward estab- lishing their new colony. The English King granted Lord Baltimore plenty of land in Newfoundland; and there, in 1623, he sent his colonists. Newfoundland was not what they had expected, how- ever. The hard winters lasted from the middle of Octo- ber to the middle of May; and the land and the water were so frozen up all those months that proper food was out of the question. So Lord Baltimore went back to England and petitioned Charles I to grant him a strip of land north of the Potomac River, which was not inhabited by English. King Charles consented, and the most liberal charter ever given by an Eng- lish sovereign was drawn up. But be- fore it was completed, Lord Baltimore died. Fortunately Lord Baltimore had a son who was as eager as his father to find a home for his Catholic friends. And it was this son, the second Lord Baltimore, who founded and guided the new English colony during its first years in its new lands. The old Lord Baltimore's charter was given tc the second Lord Baltimore, Cecil Calvert. Leonard Calvert, 152 From an old print. Cecil Calvert. LORD BALTIMORE the second son, was appointed governor of the new colony ; and in November, 1633, he sailed with about three hun- dred people for America. Early in 1634 the colonists entered Chesapeake Bay ' \ 1?^. ^■^ *'*»~«, jhKl !!^^ nHr^^ffl^n ^rM. jm mtyh mB WwRu iitif?lt'f^" wr^ l^^r* 'M£M ^^M Btfl^^KI 3 mm \ Governor Calvert Bartering for Land on Chesapeake Bay, and sailed to the mouth of the Potomac. On the northern bank of the Potomac not far from its mouth lay an Indian villa^re. The settlers were charmed with the spot and were very anxious to make their home there. Gov- 153 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ernor Calvert therefore bought the village from the Indians, giving for it some hatchets, hoes, and cloth; and the English landed as rightful possessors. The new colony received the name of Maryland in honor of Henrietta Maria, the English Queen. And the ready-made town was called St. Mary's. Unlike the Puritans and the Virginians, the Mary- land settlers did not have to till an uncultivated ground. The Indians from whom they had bought the land had enriched the soil, laid out fields, and planted corn and other grains. The great forests, too, were full of game; and the best of fish were to be had for the catching. Good fortune smiled on the newcomers. Such a prosperous beginning promised much for the future. New settlers soon followed on the heels of the first arrivals, and the little town of St. Mary's was quickly surrounded by tidy, well-kept farms. There were many things to draw settlers to Maryland. But perhaps the greatest attraction was that the new col- ony offered a home to any Christian whether Catholic or Protestant. Although founded as a refuge for Catholics, Lord Baltimore did not want his colony to close its doors on anyone who was suffering for religious views. All were welcomed to Maryland. At first it seemed as if this good man's best hopes for his colony might be fulfilled. But when the Virginia col- onists heard that Charles had granted Lord Baltimore the tract of land known as Maryland, they remonstrated and petitioned him to retract his grant. And when the King re- fused to listen to them they took things into their own hands. They regarded the Catholics with an evil eye and de- termined to create trouble for them. Chief among the mischief makers was a man by the name of William Clay- borne, a member of the Jamestown council. 154 LORD BALTIMORE Before the Maryland settlers came to America, Clay- borne had established a fur-trading settlement on the Island of Kent. The Island of Kent was included in the land granted to Lord Baltimore, and one of Governor Calvert's first acts on reaching America was to see Clayborne. Treating him with all tenderness, the new governor still impressed it upon the fur trader that the Island of Kent belonged to Maryland, and to Maryland alone. He might colonize it and welcome, but he must not forget that he was settling on Lord Baltimore's land. Clayborne laid the matter before the Virginia council. They said that Governor Calvert was all wrong, and that the Island of Kent belonged to Virginia, and from this beginning trouble grew and grew. Battles were fought, blood was shed, and year after year bitter feeling was rife. In 1649 King Charles I was beheaded. A new govern- ment was set up. And in 1652 this new government sent a body of commissioners to inspect "the colonies within the Bay of Chesapeake." One of the commissioners was Clayborne. Here was his chance for a last word. The Governor of Maryland was removed from office, a new governor was elected, and Lord Baltimore was declared to have no right in the colony. . You can imagine with what grief Lord Baltimore saw all this strife going on. He had tried all these years to have his colonists keep peace with the Indians and their English neighbors, and had endeavored to found a set- tlement broad in views and generous in religious beliefs. Was all this noble effort to be destroyed by a few men who did not seem to have any conscience at all? About four years later Maryland was restored to Lord Baltimore; and the colony, its troubles over, once more grew and prospered. 155 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY When Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, died, his eldest son succeeded him as proprietor of Maryland. During the years Lord Baltimore had controlled Mary- land, the colonists had learned to love and respect him. He had been a kind father to his people and had done ev- erything possible for their welfare. On his death the col- onists sincerely mourned him and never forgot his many good qualities and unselfish acts. Summary Maryland was settled by English Roman Catholics, under Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, in 1634. — The colony's charter was the most liberal ever granted by England. Maryland became a refuge open to all religions. — The settlers purchased an Indian village on the Potomac, which they called St. Mary's. XV WILLIAM PENN THE QUAKERS While everyone in England was quarreling about the right way to worship God, a weaver's son, tending his mas- ter's sheep and reading his Bible, found what he thought was the true way. Through his study of the Bible, and through prayer, he came to believe that God had sent His Son into the world that men might learn to live at peace and to love one another. This man was George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, as they came to be called. He went about preaching; and everywhere many people be- lieved in what he said and joined the Society, although they were again and again thrown into prison for believ- ing and preaching this strange new religion of peace and brotherhood. The Quakers had many beliefs and customs that seemed strange and wrong to the people of other churches. They believed that all men were equal in the sight of God, and so they would not take off their hats to show honor to any. man, not even the King. They addressed everyone as " thee " and " thou," because the pronoun " you " was then used to express respect to a superior. They said that if " thee " and " thou " were good enough for God, they were surely good enough for men. 12 157 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY They thought that no man should take pay for preach- ing the Gospel, and so they refused to pay taxes to support the English Church. They believed that the teachings of the Bible should be obeyed; and as the Good Book says, ^' Swear not at all/^ they would not even take the oath of allegiance to the King. And since the Bible says, "Blessed are the peace- makers/' they would not quarrel with anyone, or seek revenge, or bear arms, even in defense of their own country. Yet they were a brave people. They would go anywhere and speak what they believed to be true and right, though they knew that they would be cast into prison for it. The Quakers approved of dressing very plainly. ''If people think too much of their clothes,'' they said, "they will be- come proud and envious. '^ In the year 1660 there was at the University of Ox- ford a strong, handsome young man by the name of William Penn. One day a Quaker preacher came to Ox- ford. Penn and many of the other students heard him and were convinced that he spoke the truth. From this time on, Penn refused to wear the student's gown, be- cause, he said, it showed pride. He and some of the other students began to hold Quaker meetings. For this they Avere expelled from the University. 158 William Penn. WILLIAM PENN William Penn's father was an admiral in the British navy and did not believe in the peaceful ways of the Quak- ers. When his son came home Admiral Penn was very angry. He tried to make William say that he would no longer be a Quaker. But William would not yield. His father even whipped him, but it did no good. Finally he was turned out of doors. Fortunately Mrs. Penn helped her son with mone}', so that he did not suffer. The King and the Duke of York, too, were always friendly to him for his father's sake. Once when William went to see King Charles, the King took off his hat. "Friend Charles," said Penn, "why dost thou remove thy hat?" "Because," said the King, "where I am, it is the custom for only one to remain covered." William Penn was put in prison many times for writing about and preaching the Quaker religion. Penn's father soon saw that his son was determined to remain a Quaker, and a very true one. So once more he permitted him to come home and never again inter- fered with his religious belief. THE SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA The Quakers, persecuted everywhere, looked long- ingly toward America as a place where they might live in peace and do God's will as they saw it. Now King Charles owed William Penn's father a debt of sixteen thousand pounds. As the King knew how to make debts a great deal better than how to pay them, the debt was still unpaid when Admiral Penn died. In 1680 William Penn went to the King and asked him for a tract of land in America. The idea pleased Charles 159 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY very much. It was far easier to give away a piece of woodland which he had never seen and knew nothing about than it would have been to raise the money to pay the debt. So in 1681 he gave Penn a charter, granting him a tract of land north of Maryland and bounded on the east by the Delaware River. Penn called his province '^Sylvania/' which is a Latin name meaning ' ^ w o o d - land. '^ The King added "Penn" to this name, making it ''Penn- sylvania." William did not approve of this, for he thought that it looked like vanity, but Charles laughed and said, " We are not nam- ing the province to honor you, but to honor the Admiral, your noble father." So Penn had to be content. Before long, Penn had sent to his province twenty ships with about three thousand people, most of them Quakers. In 1682 he came himself, and sailed up the Delaware River until he came to Chester, where some of his settlers had already built their homes. Here he called an assembly of the people to make the laws for their colony. After these laws were made Penn set out to select a site for the city which he had planned before sailing from 160 Cap€ Mayf!^ The First Settlements of Penn- sylvania. AND New Jersey. WILLIAM PENN England. He chose a neck of land between the Schuylkill antl Delaware Rivers. Here he laid out Philadelphia. '' Philadelphia '^ is a Greek word, which means " brotherly love'^; and Penn meant that brotherly love should rule his city. The city was laid out like a checkerboard, with broad streets and large lots. Each house was to be built in the center of a lot, so that there might be large and beautiful ^ i ^^^^^Wli m ^itfi[il i^ ^ 1 -I 1 ''^^^k [E« 1 ^ i^fl From a paintin'j by Benjamin West- Penn Making the Treaty with the Indians. lawns and also as little danger from fire as possible. The streets were named after different kinds of trees. Penn called a meeting of the Indians. They came armed and painted, but Penn and his friends were un- armed and plainly dressed, with the exception that Penn wore a sky-blue sash. He told the Indians that the Quak- ers had come to l)e their friends, and that they never carried arms. Then he read a treat}' of peace for the Indians and the Quakers, which the Indians gladly agreed to. The white 161 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY men were to buy all land of the Indians, not to take it by force. If there was a dispute between white men and In- dians, it was to be settled by a council of six white men and six Indians. After the treaty was agreed to, Penn gave the Indians some presents and then walked with them, sat on the ground with them, and ate with them roasted acorns and hominy. The Indians were very much pleased with this and began to hop and jump to show their delight. Thereupon Penn sprang to his feet and outdanced them all. The Indians kept the treaty for many years, liv- ing in peace and friendship with the Quakers. But William Penn did not have much opportunity to en- joy his colony. In 1684 he received word that the Quakers in England were again being cruelly persecuted. So he sailed for Eng- land, hoping soon to be able to return to Pennsylvania. However, it was fifteen years before Penn once more sailed for America, years full of deepest sorrow. His enemies in England had made a great deal of trouble for him; and, saddest of all, death had robbed him of his noble wife and several of his children. When he did return to Penn- sylvania in 1699, he found Philadelphia a city of seven hundred houses and four thousand people. Penn stayed in America for two years, part of the time living in Philadelphia, and part of the time in a beautiful country home. Sometimes he would ride to and from the city on horseback, and sometimes he would sail on the 162 Treaty Belt Given to Penn BY THE Indians, WILLIAM PENN Delaware in a little six-oared boat. One day the Govern- or of New Jersey met him in his boat, struggling against wind and tide. "I am surprised/' said the Governor, "that you ven- ture out against such a wind and tide." "I have been struggling against wind and tide all my life," replied Penn. In 1701 his business called him back to England, and he never had an opportunity to return to America. But the colony planted in brotherly love lived and prospered. To-day Pennsylvania is one of the greatest states of the Union, and Philadelphia is one of the most beautiful cities. Summary . In 1681, land in America was granted to William Penn, an English Quaker, to found a refuge for persecuted Quakers. — The grant was named Pennsylvania. — In 1682, Penn founded Phila- delphia. — He made a treaty with the Indians, which insured justice and peace. XVI GENERAL JAMES OGLETHORPE GEORGIA Here in America today debt often brings discredit, dishonor, suffering. Then picture what it must have meant in England in the eighteenth century, when to owe money was held a serious crime. The English laws were very strict. Let a man owe even a very small amount, and absolute ruin stared him in the face. No matter if his poverty came from sickness or misfortune. No matter if he liad a large family to care for. If he could not pay his bills, an officer appeared and dragged him off to prison. There he could not earn a cent to pay his debt, and yet there he must stay. If his friends brought him food and comforts, all well and good; otherwise he might starve. His great hope of freedom was that his creditor would withdraw his claim, and this was often a very slight hope. Now, the debtors' prisons were often visited by an English general, James Oglethorpe. He was of a kind and sympathetic nature, and it seemed to him a dreadful thing — this imprisonment for debt. Was there no way to help these poor people in their misery? While he was pondering as to what he could do, an opportunity came. Some years before, the English had planted to the south of Virginia a colony called Carolina. In 1712 this province was divided into two separate colonies; one North Carolina, the other South Carolina. The English colony of South Carolina lay exposed to attacks from the Spaniards in Florida. The South Caro- lina settlers needed protection on the south. Here was 164 GENERAL JAMES OGLETHORPE Oglethorpe's chance. Why could not the most deserving of the poor imprisoned debtors be taken to America? And why could they not be settled in a colony which would serve as a military outpost against the Spaniards? General Ogle- thorpe laid his scheme before the English King and the English Gov- ernment. Both heartily approved. The land lying be- tween the Savan- nah and the Alta- maha rivers was granted to the new colony, named Georgia in honor of King George II, and General Ogle- thorpe was ap- pointed governor. In January, 1733,General Ogle- thorpe, with his re- leased debtors and their families, entered the Savannah River. The settlers bought from the Indians the land along the southern bank of the river, laid out a town, and named it Savannah. True to his promise to make his colony a military outpost against the Spaniards, Governor Oglethorpe built forts and insisted on military drills. And before many years he had a chance to prove that his colony made a valuable protection for South Carolina. For ten years Governor Oglethorpe devoted himself 165 James Oglethorpe. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY to his colony. In 1743 he bade adieu to his sorrowing friends, both the settlers and the Indians, and left for his English home. Here he lived to a good old age, hon- ored and loved by his countrymen as much as by the un- fortunate debtors whom he had treated so kindly. We have learned something of the founding of Virginia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, Maryland, North and South Carolina, and Pennsylvania. Besides these eight, there were four other colonies in America when General Oglethorpe brought his settlers to Georgia. Out of Massachusetts the New England colonists had gone north and southwest, and, with other colonists from England, had laid the beginrings of New Hampshire and Connecticut. After the Duke of York had seized New Netherland from the Dutch, he gave the name of New Jersey to that part of it which lay east of the Delaware River; and this became a separate colony. Sweden, too, had sent out colonists who settled on the west bank of the Delaware River, near its mouth. This latter colony be- came later the state of Delaware. And so it is that history speaks of Georgia as "the last of the thirteen colonies" which afterward joined in a mighty effort, threw off the yoke of England, and formed themselves into the United States of America. Summary James Oglethorpe, an English general, received a grant of the land between South Carolina and Florida. — Here, in 1733, he founded the colony of Georgia, as a refuge for debtors and a military outpost against the Spaniards. — The first settlement was Savannah. — Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies. — New Hampshire and Connecticut had been opened up by colo- nists from Massachusetts. — Land east of the Delaware River had been separated from New York and called New Jersey. — Delaware had been settled by Swedes. 166 XVII NATHANIEL BACON In the year 1660 Sir William Berkeley was proclaimed Governor of Virginia. He was not a good governor. He was selfish and put his own good ahead of that of the col- ony: he liked to take his comfort undisturbed, and he was very set in his ways. This was hard for the colonists. But worse was to come. From time to time the Indians had caused the Virginians more or less trouble. At last they saw that the English were quarreling among them- selves over taxes and such matters. Here was a fine opportunity for the savages. They began plundering and killing the settlers and laying waste their homes. Before many months, they had killed large numbers of the colonists. The raising of tobacco had had its effect on the colo- nial wa}^ of living. Large fields and many of them were needed, if large crops of tobacco were to be raised. The bigger the crops, the bigger the owner's returns. So in- stead of living in cozy little villages, the Virginia colo- nists laid out large farms or plantations, one beyond an- other, and thus spread their colony over a great territory. One's next-door neighbor lived a long way off, and it took some time to ride from home to home. This living far apart made it hard to guard against Indian attacks. While a plantation owner was tr^dng to get help, his whole family might be killed. The people again and again begged Governor Berkeley 167 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY to help them, but he refused. "Very well, then, we will help ourselves/' said Nathaniel Bacon. This Nathaniel Bacon was a wealthy young planter who had lately brought his young wife to live in Virginia. He was tall, energetic, and commanding. He owned a plantation near where the city of Richmond now stands. One day in May, 1676, word was brought him that the Indians had attacked his plantation and killed the over- seer and a servant. This was the last straw. Bacon promptly called upon his neighbors to meet him. When they came, he reminded them that the Gov- ernor had failed to take any steps to avenge the lives of the slain colonists; that he was acting not for their good but for his own ; and that something must be done at once to pro- tect the Virginians from their deadly foes. He, Nathaniel Bacon, was ready to take matters into his own hands, he said. Were his neighbors not ready to do the same? If so, he begged them to choose a leader and to prepare to march against the warriors. With a shout the colonists declared that Bacon was right. They would certainly have revenge for the death of their friends, and Bacon should lead them. As a final effort at keeping terms with Governor Berke- ley, Bacon sent to ask him for a commission. The Gov- ernor refused. Then he would march without a commission. . So the little army set out with Nathaniel Bacon at its head and marched up the James River. Finding the Indians in the forests, the colonists fell upon them and utterly routed them. This done they turned toward home. While Bacon and his followers were fighting the In- dians, Governor Berkeley was raging in Jamestown. Na- thaniel Bacon was a, rebel, he declared, and so were all the men in his party. Had they not marched contrary to his 168 NATHANIEL BACON orders? Such men should be punished. For this purpose the Governor called out a body of troops and made ready to attack the rebels. He found, however, that Bacon had the sympathy of the colony back of him. So, fearing a Bacon Confronting the Goveknok in the Square. general uprising, Sir William disbanded his troops and meekly gave in. Now a new assembly was chosen, and Nathaniel Bacon was elected one of its members. When he arrived in Jamestown, he was seized and taken before the Governor, who was still very angry with him. A stormy interview 169 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY followed. At last Bacon said that if the Governor would now give him a commission to fight the Indians, he would publicly admit that he had acted illegally in marching without one in the first place. It was agreed. Bacon admitted his faults. But the Governor still failed to give him the coveted commission. It was now Bacon's turn to be angry. He determined that he would have that commission. He left Jamestown, went home, and collected another army of planters. With this army he marched back to Jamestown, drew up his forces in the public square, and sent word to Governor Berkeley that he was waiting for his commission. Trembling with fury the Governor rushed out of the Statehouse and into the square, where he faced the men. There he threw back the ruffles of his shirt, bared his breast, and shouted, "Here I am! Shoot me! Tore God a fair mark, a fair mark — shoot!'' "No," Bacon calmly answered. "May it please your Honor, we have not come to hurt a hair of your head or of any man's. We have come for a commission to save our lives from the Indians, which you have so often promised ; and now we will have it before we go." And Nathaniel Bacon was given his commission. Once more he advanced on the warring tribes. By fall, these tribes were completely crushed, and the dreaded attacks on the plantations came to an end. But Bacon did not have smooth sailing all this time. The Governor had again proclaimed Bacon and his fol- lowers rebels and had raised an army to defeat them. Bacon was not to be put down. He was doing his duty. So he led his men against Governor Berkeley and his army. On the march to Jamestown, Bacon stopped at the homes of those planters who had sided with the Governor, and carried their wives with him as hostages. 170 NATHANIEL BACON At Jamestown he found the Governor's troops ready for him. Placing the women in front of his own men he ordered an intrenchment dug and breastworks thrown up. While this was being done the Governor's guns did not fire a single shot for fear of killing the women. The next day, however, there was a battle in James- town; and Bacon came off victor. The Governor fled From a photograph. The Ruins of Jamestown. from the town, boarded a ship, and sailed down the river. With Jamestown once in his hands and the Governor gone, it would seem as if Bacon should have been satis- fied; but he was not. He realized that even though he remained conqueror in Virginia, the King might send war ships and soldiers from England, and a great many unpleasant things might happen. So he decided first of all to burn the city of Jamestown. It was on the 19th of September, 1676, that they set 171 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY fire to the city; and in a few hours the whole town was reduced to ashes. Undoubtedly many a man and woman wept when they saw their homes eaten up by the flames. But they made no effort to prevent Bacon from doing 'as he thought right. However, the "Bacon Rebellion/' as it was called, was not to last much longer. The very next month after the burning of Jamestown, came the death from fever of the daring young Nathaniel Bacon. And with no leader, his army disbanded and went home. Then Governor Berkeley came back to Virginia ready for revenge, and he had it. More than twenty of the rebels were executed, and many more would have died had not the council decided that blood enough had been shed. When King Charles II in England heard of Governor Berkeley's deeds of revenge, he said, "The old fool has taken away more lives in that naked country than I did for the murder of my father. '' Summary Nathaniel Bacon of Virginia was the first colonist to take arms against the Government in order to obtain better govern- ment for the colonists. — The uprising is known as "Bacon's Re- bellion." — It was directed against Governor Berkeley, who failed to protect the colony from Indian attack. — In 1676, Bacon defeated the Governor and burned Jamestown. XVIII BENJAMIN FRANKLIN BOYHOOD In the early part of the eighteenth century, wheA Bos- ton was a Httle town of less than ten thousand inhabitants, there lived just opposite the Old South Meeting House a good soap boiler and candle maker, named Josiah Franklin. He had seven daugh- ^^„ ters and ten sons. And this story is about the youngest of his sons, Benjamin, who was born in Boston, Jan- uary 6, 1706. With so many mouths to feed, Josiah Franklin could not af- ford to keep any one of his children long in school. However, Benjamin learned to read when he was very young, and at the age of eight he was sent to the Latin Grammar School. The next j^ear he went to a school where arithmetic and writing were taught. These two years were all that he spent in school. In olden times boys began quite early to learn some 13 173 The Birthplace of Franklix. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY trade. The natural thing for a boy to do was to learn his father's trade. So for two years after leaving school Benjamin worked for his father, cutting wicks, molding candles, tending shop, and running errands. But his great liking for the few books at his com- mand persuaded his father to make a printer of him. Benjamin's brother James was a printer; and when the lad was twelve years old, he was apprenticed to this elder brother. In return for his board and clothes, and for being taught the printer's trade, Benjamin was to work for his brother until he was twenty-one. Once in the printing house, Benjamin had better op- portunities for reading. Often the booksellers would lend him books, which he would sit up all night to read that they might be returned in the morning. Inspired by his reading he began to practice writing. All day long he worked hard at his trade; but in the early mornings, in the evenings, and on Sundays, he would read and write to his heart's content. Two years after Benjamin went to work for his broth- er, James began to print a newspaper which he called the New England Courant. Benjamin was very anxious to write something for this paper, but he was sure that James would not print anything if he knew that it had been written by his little brother. So one night Benjamin slipped under the door of the printing house a little story that he had written. James Franklin found it and showed it to some of his friends. All agreed that it had been written by some very clever man. This delighted the young writer, and he kept up his secret writings for some time, enjoying the joke on James immensely. Things would have gone very well had not James Franklin proved a harsh master to his young brother, often beating him. 174 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Finally Benjamin could bear it no longer and left the printing house. This made James very angry. He went around to all the other printers in Boston and told them not to give Benjamin any work. Surely this was a sorry plight for the young printer. EARLY LIFE IN PHILADELPHIA Unable to get work in Boston, young Franklin decided to slip away on a packet boat which was going to New York. This meant a sea journey of three hundred miles and was quite an undertaking in those days. In Octo- ber, 1723, he reached New Y^ork, a lad of seventeen, an entire stranger in the city, with very little money in his pocket. He went to Wiljiam Bradford, the only printer in New Y^ork. Mr. Bradford had no work for him, but advised Benjamin to go to Philadelphia, a hundred miles farther south. Franklin set out and a few mornings after was wan- dering alone up one of the streets of the Quaker city. The first thing he did was to find out where he could get some breakfast. A boy directed him to a bake- shop. It seems that bread must have cost more in Boston than in Philadelphia; for when Franklin asked for a mod- est threepenny worth, to his surprise he was handed out three great puffy loaves. They were much too large to put into his pockets, so he tucked one under each arm and, eating the third, went on up the street. As luck would have it, he sauntered thus by the house of a certain Mr. Read, just as little Miss Read was stand- ing in the doorway. And this young lady, little dreaming that she was looking at her future husband, could not keep from laughing at the poor awkward young stranger. After finding a lodging house and being refreshed by 175 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY a good night's rest, Franklin went to see a printer by the name of Keimer; and here he was given work. One day when Franklin and Keimer were at work they saw two finely dressed gentlemen coming to the door. Keimer thought of course that the distinguished visitors were for him. He was very much surprised when one of them said that he was the Governor of Pennsylvania and wanted to 'UUil I I,- — _ jlilll I liJ see Benjamin Franklin. The Governor told Benjamin that there was great need of a good printer in the colonies, and that if he would set up in business for himself he should have all the public print- ing of Penn- sylvania. This was indeed an honor. Furthermore the Governor offered to send Franklin to London that he might choose for himself those things necessary for his start as an independent printer. Of course Franklin was delighted, and when the yearly ship sailed from Phila- delphia to London he was one of its passengers. He was to find letters of credit from the Governor waiting for him on his ship, but for some unaccountable reason the Governor failed to send them. This fact Franklin did not discover until the ship had almost reached England. And 176 From an old print. Franklin's Arrival in Philadelphia. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN soon he was alone in London, the greatest city in the world, without money or friends. However, Benjamin Franklin was not to be easily discouraged. He soon found employment in a printing house and went to work with a will. After a while he returned to Philadelphia, and went to work for his old employer, Keimer. Through his good sense and thrifty habits, he was soon able to set up in business for himself. At this time there was only one newspaper in Penn- sylvania, and that was a very poor one. In 1729, when Franklin was twenty- three years old, he con- cluded that he would print a newspaper and make it the best in America. He set vigorously to work. In a little while everyone wanted the Pennsylvania Gazette, for that was the name of the paper. It always had the best and latest news, although, as there were no railroads or telegraphs or telephones, this was not always very new. When there was not news enough to fill the paper, Franklin would write funn}^ arti- cles, which surprised and pleased the quiet old Quaker town. Once Franklin published an article in his paper which some of the rich men of Philadelphia did not like. Hear- ing of their complaint Franklin invited the dissatisfied gentlemen to take supper with him. When they sat down at the table, they saw before them only two puddings 177 '^i Franklin and his Printing Press. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Poor Richard y I73'j. made of corn meal, and a stone jug of water. Franklin politely helped his guests and then, filling his own plate, ate heartily. The guests tried to eat, but they were not used to such fare. At last Franklin rose and said, "My friends, anyone who can live on sawdust pud- ding and water, as I can, needs no man's pa- tronage." When Franklin was twenty-four he married Deborah Read, the girl who laughed at him the first morning he came to Philadelphia. Mrs. Franklin was a true help- mate to her husband. He says, "She assisted me cheerfully in my business, folding and stitching pamphlets, tending shop, purchas- ing old linen rags for the paper-makers," etc. In those days every- one read the almanac very carefully. No mat- ter how few books peo- ple had, they were sure to buy an almanac every year. In 1732, the very year that George Washington was born, Benjamin Franklin made up his mind to publish an almanac. It was to contain not only all the useful in- formation usually found in almanacs, but also a great deal 178 A N Almanack FortheYearofChrift ^7 3 3^ Being the Firft after LEAP YEAR; yhid makfs fn.ce the Creation Years By the Account of the Ealtcm Gretkt 7241 By the Latin Church, when G cut. y 6932 By the Computation of H^'.IV c^^a By the Romofi Chronology 5^82 By the yewijb Rabbies j^p^ Wherein is contained The Lunations, Eclipfes, Judgment of the Weather, Spring Tides, Planets Motions & mutual AfpcSs, Sun and Moon's Rifing and Set- ting, Length of Days, Time of High Water, Fairs, Courts, and obfcrvablc Days Fitted to the Latitude of Forty Degrees, and a Meridiati of Five Hours Weft from London, but may without fenfible Error, fciveall the ad- jacent Places, even from Ne-wfoundLind to South- Carol'ma. By RICHJRD SJUNDE RS, Vhilom. PHILADELPHIA: Piimcd and fold hy B. FRjiNKL/N, at the New Printing Office near tl>e Marker. Tbc Third Imprcflioa. ~~— ■" Facsimile of the Title Page of "Poor Richard's Almanack." BENJAMIN FKANKLIN of wisdom, which should benefit the common people who bought scarcely any other books. This almanac was called Poor Richard's AlmanacJx. It was published for twenty-five years. In it Franklin printed many wise sayings. Here are a few of them: " Dost love thy life? Then do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of." "The sleeping fox catches no poultry.'^ "Lost time is never found again." " Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon, over- takes it." " Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." "One to-day is worth two to-morrows." FRANKLIN THE CITIZEN In 1736 Franklin was elected to his first public office. He was made clerk of the General Assembly of Pennsyl- vania. The next year he was made deputy postmaster- general. He now began to think considerably of public af- fairs, always planning something to help the common people. The first thing that he did was to organize a better police force. Then he formed a fire company, the first in Philadelphia. This company had no engines or hose carts, as fire companies have to-day. Every member had to keep ready for use a certain number of leather water- buckets and some strong bags and baskets, in which to carry goods out of the burning house. In Franklin's day all the houses were heated b}' great open fireplaces, near which you might sit and scorch your face while your back froze. Franklin invented an open stove which heated the entire room and at the same time saved fuel. 179 A FIRST BOOK IX AMERICAN HISTORY And, lover of learning that he was, he could not be satisfied to think that Pennsylvania had no college. In 1749 he succeeded in getting an academy founded. This was the beginning of the present University of Pennsyl- vania. Philadelphia's public library, too, was started through Franklin's efforts. Once a doctor came to him and asked him to help in establishing a hospital for poor sick people. The doc- tor said, "When I ask people to subscribe to this, they always say, ' Have you consulted Franklin, what does he think of it?'" The people of Pennsylvania had come to think that nothing could succeed without Benjamin Franklin's good sense behind it. Franklin undertook the business and soon had established a Philadelphia hospital. A great many more things were done for Pennsyl- vania, and especially for Philadelphia, by Franklin. He had the streets cleaned, paved, and lighted. He invented street lamps that did not smoke as the London lamps did. Once when Franklin was in Boston, he met a man who showed him several electrical experiments. Franklin had known nothing of electricity before this time and was much interested in it. A Dutchman living in the Dutch city of Leyclen had discovered how to collect electricity in bottles, which he called Ley den jars. Franklin got one of these jars filled with electricity and soon had tried many experiments with it. His house was crowded with friends who came to see what he could do. He wrote a paper claiming that electricity and lightning were the same, and performed a famous experiment in proof of his belief. He made a kite by fastening two cross sticks to a silk handkerchief. To the upright stick w^as fastened an iron point. The string of the kite was of common hemp, except the end which he held in his hand; this was of 180 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN \5, silk. Where hemp and silk were fastened together, a key was tied. When Franklin saw a thunderstorm coming he went out and raised the kite. A thundercloud passed over it; and after a little, the loose fibers of the hemp string stood out stiffly. Franklin put his knuckles to the key and received a strong shock. Then he tried to fill a Leyden jar with the electricity which came dowm the string, and he suc- ceeded. Thus he had proved his theory. Franklin's next in- vention was the light- ning rod to protect houses from lightning by conducting elec- tricity into the ground. In 1753 Franklin was made postmaster- general of the colonies, and made many im- provements in the postal service. The people of the colonies now began to see that the French were pushing their way to the headwaters of the Ohio and down Lake Champlain from the north, and that they were determined to profit by the discoveries which Champlain and La Salle had made many years before. Something must be done to stop the French, so the English colonies sent men to Albany to meet the chiefs 181 Franklin and His Kite. A FIRST BOOK IX AMERICAN HISTORY of the Iroquois (the old enemies of the French) and to find means of holding the country. Pennsylvania sent Franklin as her representative to the convention. On the way to Albany, Franklin made a plan for the union of the colonies under one government. When the convention met, several plans were talked over, and it was decided that Franklin's was the best. But when the scheme was laid before the different colonies they did not like it because, they said, "it did not give the colonists enough power.'' And when it was laid be- fore the people of England, they said it gave the colonists too much power. So the plan, wise as it was, was not adopted. Later when the battle of Lexington had been fought^ and the farmers at Concord had "fired the shot heard round the world," and the American Revolution had be- gun, Franklin was sent as a delegate to the Second Con- tinental Congress; and he was one of the five men chosen to prepare the Declaration of Independence, which was signed July 4, 1776, making the Ignited States of America an independent nation. As the members of the Congress were signing the Dec- laration, John Hancock, one of the signers, said, "We must all hang together." "Yes," said Franklin, "we must hang together or we shall hang separately." You must remember that while England was a very rich and powerful nation the Ignited States was very poor indeed. So her Congress decided to send to France to ask for aid in her fight for liberty. In all America there was just one man who could persuade the French people to help the Ignited States, and Congress knew it. They sent Benjamin Franklin, seventy years old, and suffering with rheumatism and gout. "I am old and good for 182 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN nothing," he said; "as the storekeepers say of their rem- nants of cloth, I am but a fag end; you may have me for what you please/' When Franklin reached Paris he found the whole city ready to receive him. Everyone had heard of the great Dr. Franklin. But while fame was plenty, money was scarce. Franklin had to be very careful and very wise indeed to get the help which the United States needed. Finally, in 1778, the French signed a treaty promising ships, men, and money. You may be sure the news of that treaty was most welcome. In 1781 the glad news reached Paris that the English general, Cornwallis, had surrendered to General Washing- ton at Yorktown. The war was over. In 1783 men from America and England met in Paris to make the treaty of peace. Through all this time Benjamin Franklin's wise counsel was serving his country well. It was not until 1785 that Franklin came home for the last time. He was so feeble that he could not ride in a carriage and had to be taken from Paris to the seacoast, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, in the "Queen's litter," a kind of covered couch carried between two mules. When the ship reached Philadelphia all the bells 183 From an old print. Bex.tamix Franklix. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY of the city were rung, and cannon were fired in honor of his safe arrival. When he had been home but a few weeks Franklin was elected president of Pennsylvania. Old and weak as he was, the people would not let him off. "They have eaten my flesh," he said jokingly, "and now they are picking my bones." In 1787 Franklin performed his last duty to his coun- try. The wise men of the United States met in Philadel- phia to make the Constitution, and Franklin was chosen one of the delegates. In 1790 the first great American passed away. His work lives after him in the nation that he did so much to build. Summary Benjamin Franklin was the first American to work for the welfare of the Colonies as a whole; he was the first to plan the union of the Colonies under one government. — He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and one of the makers of the Constitution. He was sent to persuade the French to aid the Colonies in their fight for liberty. — He is known as the First Great American. — Besides his services to the Nation, Franklin discovered that lightning and electricity are the same thing and invented the lightning rod. — He published Poor Richard's Almanac for twenty-five years. — Through his efforts the University of Pennsylvania was founded and a iDublic library and a hospital were established in Philadelphia. XIX MONTCALM AND WOLFE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS By the middle of the eighteenth century the colonies of England and France were firmly planted in North America. Along the courses of two great rivers — the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi — the French had crept in and made settlements, strengthening themselves by mighty forts along the St. Lawrence, and by a straggling chain of weaker ones along the Mississippi. And what a great country the claim of these two rivers gave the French; all the wilderness region watered by the Missis- sippi and its branches; all the valley of the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and Lake Champlain. To offset this mighty empire, England had a narrow strip of Atlantic seacoast, settled by thirteen colonies. Doesn't it seem that England's claim was small beside that of France? But remember that although it was only the coast region that was settled, England claimed that her colonies extended straight across North America to the Pacific Ocean. If you will look at your map, you will see that a great deal of the land claimed by France and England was the very same land. The French claimed the entire Mississippi Valley; the English claimed the greater part of it. The French claimed all the region of the Great Lakes^ includ- ing a good part of the present state of New York, while the 185 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY English claimed a- great deal of the lake region for them- selves, including all of New York. As France and England were usually fighting with each other at home, one could hardly expect that their colonies could live in peace in America, especially when both claimed the same territory. War had to come, and war came. The Present Territory of the United States as Claimed by the French, English, and Spanish in 1749. (It must be remembered that the French and English claims overlapped.) There were four wars between the French and the English in America, lasting off and on from 1689 to 1763. The last one was the most important; it settled matters for all time. There were about fourteen times as many English in America as there were French. But the French bal- anced this disadvantage by the help of many tribes of bloodthirsty Indians. The English, on the other hand, had only the Iroquois to help them. 186 MONTCALM AND WOLFE Ft.Wm.Henry* 7 ^TFt.EJvvaid It was in the year 1749 that the very beginnings of the last war between the French and the EngUsh in Amer- ica were made. The French Governor of Canada saw that the daring Enghsh settlers were pushing their way westward into the Ohio Valley. If once a colony of Eng- lish should be firmly planted in the valley of the Ohio, it would be an easy thing for them to get between the French of Canada and the French of Louisiana. Thus the English could creep north and south and attack the French from the very heart of the country they called their own. This invading of the French claims along the Ohio con- tinued and was greatly troubling the French when the Marquis Duquesne was sent as the new Governor of Canada. "We will go straight down to the Ohio country/' said Governor Duquesne, "and build strong forts." So a French expedition set out. First, they stopped on the shore of Lake Erie, and built a fort at a place which they called Presqueisle. Then they made a road through the woods to French Creek, where the}' built another fort, which they called Fort Le Boeuf. Here they were much surprised to see a tall young man on horseback coming out of the woods with a dozen white 187 The Disputed Territory. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY men and Indians. The young man's name was George Washington, and he brought a letter from Governor Din- widdie of Virginia. "Will you please tell me/' said the letter, " what right you have on land which belongs to the King of England? I must ask you to leave at once/' The French treated young Major Washington well, but they refused to leave. When Washington returned to Governor Dinwiddie he told him that he had found a splendid place for a fort at the forks of the Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands. While he was trying to stir up the half-hearted colonies to see their danger, Governor Dinwiddie sent young Wash- ington to occupy the Ohio country. A group of back- woodsmen were to go ahead and build the fort at the forks of the Ohio. Working on their fort, these men saw a great swarm of boats floating down the Monongahela. The boats were full of Frenchmen. "We will save you the trouble of building j^our fort," said the Frenchmen. The back- woodsmen fled over the mountains to meet Washington, while the French tore down their fort and built a bigger and better one. This they named Fort Duquesne, after the Governor of Canada. Then the French attacked Washington's little army and utterly defeated it. England now saw that something must be done. It was decided that all of the strongest forts of the French must be attacked. This was the plan: General Braddock was to take soldiers from England and capture Fort Du- quesne; Governor Shirley of Massachusetts was to take a body of colonists and attack Fort Niagara; Colonel William Johnson, who lived on the Mohawk, and had great influ- ence with the Indians, was to attack Crown Point; and another army of colonists was to attack Acadia, or Nova Scotia, as it is now called. 188 MONTCALM AND WOLFE In 1755, General Braddock, with his well-drilled red- coats, reached Virginia. Braddock was a brave man, but he did not like to listen to other people's advice. When Washington told him of the Indian ways of fighting, he laughed and said that trained British soldiers could not learn warfare from ignorant savages. But before he even reached Fort Du- quesne, his splendid army of redcoats was surprised by the French, who easily scored another victory. And General Braddock was killed. MONTCALM AND WOLFE— THE CLOSE OF THE WAR Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne was a crushing blow to England and her colonies. The attack upon Niagara was scarcely more successful, and that upon Crown Point amounted to little. Although the English did not seem to be making much headway, the French decided that the best of soldiers should be sent to America. The French King looked about for a good general to command the French forces in America, and he chose Louis de Montcalm, one of the best soldiers and truest gentlemen in all France. ^ The only important victory of (yf^/TTtoiaA^ ^ 1756 was won by Montcalm. This was the capture of the English fort at Oswego. Oswego was one of the strongest and most important of the Eng- lish forts, as it was located on Lake Ontario ; and its loss was a great misfortune for the English. The next year Montcalm struck another important 14 189 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY blow. News came that the best of the Enghsh troops had gone to attack Louisburg, which commanded the entrance of the St. Lawrence. This expedition left the two Eng- lish forts, Fort William Henry, on Lake George, and Fort Edward, on the Hudson, without strong protection. The French Forts on the Northern Frontier. This was just what Montcalm wanted. He sent mes- sengers to the north and west to gather the Indians into Montreal. Then with a body of eight thousand men Mont- calm marched south and placed his army between Fort William Henry and Fort Edward, in order to prevent the 190 MONTCALM AND WOLFE soldiers of Fort Edward from coming to help defend Fort William Henry. After a siege of three days, the men defending Fort William Henry saw that there was no hope of receiving aid from any direction. A white flag was raised, a drum was beaten, and one of the English officers left the fort and approached Montcalm's tent. Montcalm agreed that the English should march out with the honors of war, and that they should be taken to Fort Edward the next day under the protection of French soldiers. Montcalm called a council of the Indian chiefs' and made them promise not to allow the English to be hurt. The chiefs promised, but the promise was kept in a savage fashion. The next morning, before the French were stir- ring, they fell upon the English, and commenced a terrible massacre. Montcalm rushed out at the first news of dis- turbance and threw himself among the Indians, crying, " Kill me, but spare the English w^ho are under my pro- tection. '' But even their general's bravery was useless among these savages. Montcalm found that it was easier to lead Indians to battle than to lead them away from it. He was glad indeed when his army once more turned toward Montreal. In the meantime, the English expedition against Louisburg had failed. At the end of the year 1757 the fortunes of the English looked very dark indeed. That year a new prime minister was put at the head of affairs in England. This was William Pitt, a very wise man, who understood America better than most English people did. "Something has to be done," said he. In 1758 he planned three campaigns. " First,'' he said, "we must take Louisburg, as the first step toward taking; Quebec. Then we must capture Ticonderoga, which is 191 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY right in the heart of the northern colonies. Next we must take Fort Duquesne, the key to the great West." General Amherst was sent to attack Louisburg, and with him came a young brigadier named James Wolfe. James Wolfe was the son of an officer in the English army. Although very delicate in health, he had longed from earliest childhood to be a soldier. At fifteen he had entered the army, and at sixteen had served as adjutant of his regiment in Flanders. He passed through several military campaigns in Scotland, and at twenty-three was made a lieutenant colonel. All this time he had kept up a con- stant battle with ill health. He was a great student, and spent all his spare time in study. Wolfe loved his mother very dearly and confided to her all his hopes and ambitions. Once he said to her, " All I wish for myself is that I may at all times be ready to die, and may die properly when the hour comes." How that wish came true you may judge for yourself. Louisburg was indeed the strongest fort in America, but this time the men who had come to attack it were very determined. They meant to win. Of these the bravest and most eager for danger was young Brigadier Wolfe, and there were none who won greater honors there. After a long and stubborn siege, the fort was taken by the English, with almost six thousand French prisoners. The English capture of Louisburg meant a great loss to the French. It gave the English the key to the St. Law- rence. They could now sail straight up to Quebec. This, Wolfe wanted to do at once. He had no patience with the slow movements of the older English generals. The English attack upon Ticonderoga did not succeed. The English leader, Lord Howe, was killed before the siege fairly began. Montcalm defended the fort and fought fearlessly; wherever danger was greatest he was always 192 MONTCALM AND WOLFE to be seen, directing everything, and encouraging his men. The French won the day. This, however, was the last triumph which the French were to have. Before the end of 1758, Fort Duquesne and Fort Frontenac had both fallen into the hands of the English. There remained yet the one great stronghold of the French, the rock-walled city of Quebec. If Quebec were to be taken, the St. Lawrence would belong to the Eng- lish. In 1759 Pitt appointed for this purpose the very man who most longed to attack Quebec, young J^mes Wolfe, now only thirty-two years old. By May, Wolfe had his fleet collected in the harbor of Louisburg. In June they sailed out, the troops cheering and crying, " British colors on every French fort, post, and garrison in America.'" In Quebec, Montcalm was making great preparations to receive his unwelcome guests. Sixteen thousand men, including French soldiers, Canadians, and Indians, poured into the city. All along the borders of the St. Lawrence, Montcalm had men throwing up defenses. Every gate of the city, except the river gate, was closed and barricaded. More than one hundred cannon were mounted on the walls, while gunboats and fire ships lay along the river. Fortified upon that high rock, Quebec seemed like a great eagle's nest far beyond the reach of men. Wolfe entered the St. Lawrence and landed, leaving his fleet anchored in the river. Montcalm saw this, and had the fire ships, filled with tar, pitch, old iron, and gun- powder, lighted and set afloat down the river. For a time the English on the ships were frightened. But the fire ships did the English no harm ; some drifted ashore before they reached the English fleet, and the rest were pushed away by the grappling hooks of the bold English sailors. 193 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Wolfe had landed, but could find no way to get at the enemy. From lofty Quebec, Montcalm could watch the movements of the British; and he decided that it was safer to watch them than offer battle. Wolfe finally took up his position on a height opposite Quebec. Here he waited for an op- portunity to attack Montcalm. Besides, he hoped for reen- forcements. But the reen- forcements did not come, and, on the other hand, there seemed to be no way to provoke Mont- calm to battle. Wolfe's old sickness came upon him, and his officers feared that he would not live to see more fighting. But he got better again, and even tried to be cheerful. One day in Sep- tember Wolfe set out with his spy-glass and sailed up and down the river, studying the steep side of the rock of Quebec. He spied a narrow and rugged ravine, leading up the side of the rock. At once he formed a daring plan. That night the boats of the English floated silently down the river. Landing, Wolfe, at the head of the Eng- 194 From an old print. The Siege of Quebec. MONTCALM AND WOLFE lish troops, scrambled up the narrow ravine which he had seen during the day. Drawing themselves up by the roots and branches of trees, they reached the top. In the gray of the morning the young commander lined up his red-coated soldiers on the Plains of Abraham, with the city directly in front of him. "They come! They come!" cried a swift runner to Montcalm. "Who come?" asked Montcalm, in surprise. From a painting by Chappcl. Death of General Wolfe. " The English ! " was the excited reply, and " The Eng- lish ! " was echoed in terror throughout the city. It seemed impossible, but it was true. The French general drew up his troops to meet the English, in front of the walls of Quebec. " I remember well how he looked," said one of the Canadians many years after. " He rode a black horse along the front of our lines, brandishing his sword, as if to excite us to do our duty." Wolfe too was everywhere, encouraging the men, kind 195 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY and thoughtful to the wounded, praising the brave. As he was leading a charge at the head of his grenadiers, a shot shattered his wrist. He wrapped his handkerchief about it and went on. Another shot struck him, but he still kept on. A third lodged in his breast. He stag- gered and, as he fell, was caught in the arms of his sol- diers. They carried him to the rear. " Will you have a surgeon? " they asked. "There's no need,'' he said. "It's all over with me." A moment later one of the men cried, " They run! See how they run!" Wolfe raised himself for the last time. "Who run?" he asked. "The enemy, sir; they give way everywhere." "Now, God be praised, I die in peace," said the dying man. A few moments later Montcalm, on his gallant black horse, was shot through the body. A soldier caught him on each side and led his horse through the city gates. "It is nothing, nothing," said Montcalm. "Don't be troubled for me, my good friends." "How long have I to live?" he asked the surgeon a little later. "Twelve hours," was the answer. "So much the bet- ter," he said. "I am happy that I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." The capture of Quebec by the English was the last blow to French power in America. One nation was wild with joy, and one bitter with grief. In far-away England and France two homes mourned apart. Two mothers were weeping for their cherished sons, whose lives had been given for their countries. The final settlement of the war between France and England came with the Treaty of Paris, made in 1763. 196 MONTCALM AND WOLFE By its terms France ceded to England all her American possessions east of the Mississippi River, with the ex- ception of two small islands near the Newfoundland coast. Thus ended French rule on the American continent. Summary In 1749, the French and the English in America began to quarrel about their overlapping land claims, — Because the French employed Indian allies, the war is known as the French and Indian War. — In trying to take the Ohio country, the English under General Braddock were defeated, 1755. In 1756 and 1757, under Louis de Montcalm, the French put themselves in control of central New York, and successfully defended Louisburg, the entrance to the St. Lawrence. — In 1758, the English seized Louisburg and captured the Ohio forts. — In 1759, under General Wolfe they captured Quebec and ended the war. — By the Treaty of Paris, 1763, England gained Canada and all the Frencn possessions east of the Mississippi, with the exception of two small islands near the Newfoundland coast. XX PATRICK HENRY "GOD SAVE THE KING!" Quebec fell. The French and Indian War came to an end. And with its close came the last of French power in America. On that September day of 1759 it seemed as if the might of England were established in America forever, and "God save the King" was sung in every village and town of the loyal English colonies. The long struggle was over. The victory was Avon. And now the colonists turned to the peaceful duties of home once more. Life was much the same as before the war, and yet in some respects there were marked differ- ences. To begin with, the English colonists no longer dreaded the French and their cruel Indian friends. Moreover, the courage and perseverance which had gained this great blessing had not all belonged to the King's red-coated troops. The colonists justly felt that they themselves had done much toward conquering the foe. They had left their homes and families, had made long hard journeys over unbroken lands, and had fought shoulder to shoulder with the English troops on many battlefields. Yes, surely the victory belonged as fully to them as to the King's regulars. Their pride was great. Before the war each colony had stood alone. But now the settlers from the different colonies had met in a com- 198 PATRK^K HENRY mon cause, had fought a common foe, and had come to realize that they dwelt in a common country— one well worth fighting for. And so, with their enemy beaten, their ability to fight established, and their love for their land increased, these loyal colonists sent up the heartfelt petition, " God save the King!" Meanwhile, however, in 1760, the King of England, George II, died; and immediately his grandson was pro- claimed King in his place. Just as the colonists were set- tling down to work, and start- ing to enlarge their already profitable trade, this new king, George III, took a step which threatened trouble for them. About one hundred years before George III became king, England had passed cer- tain ''Navigation Acts.'' These Acts had declared that the English colonies in Ameri- ca must not carry on trade with any countries other than England and her possessions, must not ship their goods in any but English or colonial ships, and must not manu- facture their own products into finished articles. But these laws had not been enforced; and so, in spite of their existence, the colonies had sent their goods to Spain, France, and the West Indies, and had used their lumber, iron, furs, and other products as they saw fit. All this was now to be changed. George III proposed to put the old Navigation Acts into force and to insist that his American colonies obey them. 199 George III of Englaxd. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY This meant nothing short of ruin to colonial commerce. As the colonists had disobeyed the Navigation Acts for so long, without hindrance, there seemed no reason why they should obey them now. Hence they commenced to smuggle goods and to hide them in their houses. The King was determined to stop the smuggling, so he issued "Writs of Assistance." These writs gave the King's colonial officers the right to enter any suspected house and search it. This made it easy for an officer who suspected a colonist unjustly to enter his house, and very unpleasant for an innocent colonist to have his house searched from top to bottom at the whim of an officer. Bitter feeling sprang up, and appeal after appeal was sent to the King — but all in vain. King George had found that, with his throne, he had inherited enormous debts. One of them wa^ the great cost of the French and Indian War. Moreover, he in- tended to keep British soldiers in America, to prevent the French from regaining what they had lost. This standing army would be a further expense. But why should not his prosperous American colonists be made to pay for a war that had been fought chiefly in their behalf? Why should they no.t also help to support a standing army sent for their protection? The next question was how best to get some of the colonists' money into the English treasury. The King and his Parliament decided to do this by means of a stamp tax. Stamps of different kinds and values were to be is- sued and sent to America to be sold. Thereafter, in Amer- ica, no business paper, such as an insurance agreement, a will, a note, or a deed, would be legal unless it were written on paper that bore one of these stamps — the stamp of right kind and value for that particular purpose. The stamps were to be so varied in their uses that they would 200 PATRICK HENRY cover nearly every line of business. Even each newspaper was to be stamped, so that the man who bought it would pay, not only for the thing itself, but for its stamp as well. All the money received from the sale of the stamps would go to the English Government. To George HI this seemed an excellent plan. Early in 1765 the Stamp Act, as it was called, was passed by Parliament. Word was sent to the American colonists that by November 1st of that same year they might look for their stamps; for on that day the Stamp Act would be put in force. THE FIRST BREACH The news that the Stamp Act had been passed swept from end to end of the colonies. Everywhere men heard it with serious faces and asked each other what it meant. What worried the colonists was not that they must help pay England's war debt, al- though they had already fully paid their share ; or that they were ordered to support in their midst an army of British soldiers, just when they had learned to defend themselves. The trouble was that they had not been consulted in these matters. Never before had England tried to tax her American colonies without their con- sent. Were they to allow it now? Virginia was the first to summon her House of Bur- gesses, as her legislative assembly was called, in an effort to find an answer to the grave question. Its members met at Williamsburg, on the 30th of May, 1765. The discussion began. All were opposed to the Stamp Act, but the remedies that they suggested for the evil were ex- 201 |!lllj[|l|[I||llljillllllllll!ni|tl!!lll!l|l!![ll[| ! ^^-^^'^-^^i^ 1 sJjIlli^i^^QC^^IIP 1 i^y^/fZf^^s^^^^^\^^wiK Wu^^^^^^^^\\y\lll 1^ v^^W^P ■i^^^ml }1. SKILL INC., ilil[|l!ll;iP';,ll!l'llll!lliltlll|l|||l!!!ill|!llI!P,ll 1 A Colonial Stamp. A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY tremely mild. True Englishmen at heart were the Yir- ginia burgesses, and the hfelong habit of obedience to their King prevented most of them from any thought of radical action. " Let us send the King a statement of our rights and petiaon him to consider them/' said these con- servative members. For a moment no protest was raised. Then Patrick Henry rose slowly to his feet. All turned toward him Patrick Henry Addressing the House of Burgesses. wonderingly, and well they might. Only twenty-nine years old, roughly dressed, stoop-shouldered and awk- ward, surely this new member could have little to say on so great a subject. Quietly glancing from one to another of the dignified bewigged and beruffied older members, Henry began to speak. According to English law, he argued, King George could place no tax on his subjects at home or abroad with- out the consent of those subjects or their representatives? 202 PATRICK HENRY in Parliament. Had the American colonies been asked their opinion of this Stamp Act? No! Had they any representatives in England's Parhament to give consent to such a measure? No! Then clearly King George had no right to demand that his American colonists pay this tax or buy his stamps. And he, Patrick Henry, had written some resolutions which he respectfully requested the bur- gesses to hear. These resolutions he read from the fly leaf of an old book on which he had just jotted them down. They were a clear and concise statement of the rights granted the Virginians by their charter — rights which belonged to each and every subject of the English King, wherever he dwelt in that King's domains. And, concluded the resolutions, His Majesty's liege people, the inhabitants of this colony, are not bound to obey any law which imposes a tax, unless that law is made by the Virginia House of Burgesses. Moreover, any person who denies this exclusive right to the House of Burgesses shows himself an enemy to the colony. At once all was excitement. On every hand the con- servative members were attacking this open defiance of the King — this declared intention to disobey his stamp law. Again Patrick Henry rose to his feet. This time his head was high, his eyes flashed, and his wonderful voice thrilled every listener. In plain terms he now repeated his views of the Stamp Act, and the King and Parlia- ment who had passed it. "Csesar had his Brutus," he cried, "Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third " "Treason! Treason!" rose on all sides. "And George, the Third may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it," added Henry; and without another word he took his seat. 203 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Now followed argument after argument for and against Patrick Henry's resolutions. And gradually, one by one, the members of the Virginia House of Burgesses began to see the situation with Henry's eyes. Finally came the deciding vote. When it was counted, it was found that Patrick Henry's resolutions, in a slightly modified form, had been adopted. Henry, content with the result, threw his saddlebags over his arm and set off for home, leading his horse. He had made his fight and won. Compared with this, it mat- tered little to him that he had been charged with treason. And yet to be charged with treason was no small affair. Treason means an attempt to betray one's country, or one's king. It is still considered the greatest crime that a soldier or a citizen can commit ; and in Patrick Henry's day its punishment was death. Troublous times followed. In- to the peaceful relations with Eng- land a breach had come. Wider and wider it grew. Still, as at the beginning, the conservatives were in favor of patching up the gap and holding to the mother country. Patrick Henr}^ on the other hand, felt that only galling chains could now tie the American colonies to England. Hear his w^ords to the members of the House of Burgesses assembled in Richmond, when the crisis came in 1775: "Gentlemen may cry ^ Peace! Peace!' but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sw^eeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Our brethren are already in the field. 204 PATRICK HENRY What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it. Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!'' Summary To pay for the cost of the French and Indian War and the expense of a standing army in the colonies, England levied taxes on the colonists.^-The colonists refused to pay the taxes which had been imposed without their consent. — The first tax was levied by means of the Stamp Act, 1765. — The Virginia House of Burgesses passed resolutions introduced by Patrick Henry, refusing to pay any tax unless levied by their own representa- tives. — The speeches of Patrick Henry incited the colonists to fight for freedom. 15 XXI SAMUEL ADAMS THE STAMP ACT Virginia was the first colony to declare her opposi- tion to the Stamp Act after it became a law. Patrick Henry's resolutions against it were printed and scattered broadcast throughout the country. Their sentiments were read with satisfaction from north to south. But nowhere did they find a stronger echo than in the hearts of the Massachusetts colonists. Here, even before the Stamp Act had been passed, these stanch New Englanders had begun to voice their opinions of old England's doings. No sooner had the mere rumor that such a law might be passed reached America than Samuel Adams made known his views on the matter. This Samuel Adams was a Harvard graduate, a thinker, a lover of his country. For several years he had served in one office after another, until now, at the age of forty-two, he had come to be as well versed in colonial needs and conditions as any man in Massachusetts. There was not the slightest question in his mind re- garding this proposed Stamp Act. Not only through the common rights of all Englishmen, but also by their charter, the Massachusetts colonists could claim a voice as to the taxes they were to pay. England could not tax her col- onies without the consent of their representatives. The 206 SAMUEL ADAMS American colonies had no representatives in Parliament. Therefore there was but one conclusion: England had no right to pass this law. So Samuel Adams believed, and so he stoutly declared. And others were so convinced that he was right that a protest based on his views was sent to England, stating how Massachusetts felt. However, as we have seen, the King and his Parlia- ment passed the Stamp Act and notified the American col- onies that it would go into effect on November 1, 1765. When that day dawned in America, the sun shone on a state of affairs which King George had not foreseen. Flags waved at half-mast, shops were closed, and business was at a standstill. The colonists had agreed that, come w^iat might, they would not buy the stamps. Already boxes of them had been seized, and burned or thrown into the sea. And already the men chosen to sell the hated stamps had been point- edly warned not to attempt to carry out their orders. How was it all to turn out? Surely the time had come for stern measures; and, thanks to Samuel Adams, stern measures were adopted throughout the colonies. Now it was that his nonimportation plan was put into practice. This meant that the American colonists refused to buy goods from England as long as the Stamp Act remained a law. " We will eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing coming from England, until this detested law is repealed," they declared. 207 iZ fT^ t^j0.^cl^X^rr-u Eafy Rules for the Meafuring of Board and Timber, by the Carpenter's Plain-Rule, and by Fracr tion$; with Tables for fueh as h*ve not learned Arithmetick: And to compute the Charge of Build- ing a Houfe or any Part theieof. Alfo DireOions for Meafuring, Guaging, and Plotting of Land by Gunttru Chains and taking height* and diftanccj by the Quadrant and Triangle. The Ufe Of GiMier'i Line in Meafuring Olobes, Bulleu, Walli, Cones, Spire Steeples, and Barrels-. With the Art of Dialling, and Colouring of Work within and with- out Doorj. Dir«aions for Dying of Stuffe. tSc. Together with a Map of the Globe of the Earth and Water; and Coffrnicui'i Defcriptioo of the vifible World. Alfo a Map of Efglmdi and to know which are Cities, and their Diftance from LonJen- Choice Monthly Obfervations for Gardening Planting. Grafting, Inoculating Fruit- Trees, and the beft Time to Pfune them; and the making Wine of Fruit; With experienc'd Medicine* for the Poor. An Account of CftrhTaits m London *amigt. Xftlfjr, HKtU Binhin Lane, 1717 WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION and quick-tempered woman, and when she drove her open gig to any part of the plantation and found that the slaves had failed to carry out her directions to the letter, they had good cause to fear. She was devoted to her children, but even they stood in awe of her and gave her unquestioning obedience. There is a tale which shows that, while demanding much, she was just and willing to forgive. Early one vacation morning George and some companions were look- ing over his mother's splendid Virginia horses. Among them was a sorrel which especially* pleased Mrs. W^ashing- ton. George told how no one had ever been able to ride this horse, so fierce and ungovernable he was. And then because George was young and strong and looking for ad- venture, he impulsively proposed that if his friends would help him bridle the horse he would ride him. Of course they were ready to help, and somehow the bridle was put on. George sprang to the horse's back. Away they went. The horse reared and plunged. The other boys fairly held their breath, expecting each moment to see George thrown. Still he held on. Finally the wild furi- ous animal gave one mighty leap into the air, burst a blood vessel, and fell dead. Just then came the call to breakfast, and the frightened boys walked toward the house asking each other, "What shall we do? Who will tell what we have done?'' As luck would have it, at the table Mrs. Washington asked, "Have you seen my horses this morning? I am told my favorite is in excellent condition." The boys exchanged a glance, and then George said, ^'Your favorite, the sorrel, is dead, madam," and went on to tell the whole story. First an angry flush came to Mrs. Washington's face; but when George had finished she proudly raised her head 219 A FIRST BOOK IX AMERICAN HISTORY and said, "It is well. While I regret the loss of my favor- ite horse, I rejoice in my son who speaks the truth/' When George was fourteen he took up the study of surveying, as that seemed to give the best promise for From an old print. Washington Surveying. the future. Then in the autumn of 1747, Washington's schooling came to an end, and he went to Mount Vernon to live with his brother Lawrence. THE SURVEYOR Lord Fairfax, a relative of Mrs. Lawrence Washing- ton, owned large tracts of land in the beautiful valley of 220 WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION the Shenandoah. All this land had to be surveyed, and to his young friend George Washington, Lord Fairfax gave the work. Of course Washington was delighted with the opportunity; and in March, 1748, when he was sixteen years old, he set out on horseback with a small company of assistants. A hard month was before him. The rivers were so swollen from the spring thaws that fords were out of the question, and it was necessary" to swim the horses across the ugly streams. The weather was cold. Fires were not always to be had. Food was none too plentiful. What there was, each man must cook for himself on forked sticks over the fire. Chips were the only plates. Nights in a tent, or more often on the ground, were varied by an occasional night in a settler's cabin. Such incidents with long hard tramps and constant work made up the story of Washington's first surveying trip. In April he reached Mount Vernon and laid the result of his work before Lord Fairfax. Lord Fairfax went over the carefully prepared maps and was so delighted that he used his influence to have Washington appointed Public Surveyor for Culpeper County. This appointment gave authority to his work, and how well it was deserved may be seen from the fact that his surveys are unques- tioned to this day. Now anxious times came to Mount Vernon. Lawrence became ill with consumption; and in July, 1752, this much- lovecl brother died. When his will was read it was found that he had appointed George guardian of his little daugh- ter, and heir to his estates in case the child herself should not live. And so it was that on her death, not long after, •Mount Vernon became the property of George Washing- ton. 16 221 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY GOVERNOR DINWIDDIE'S MESSENGER When Washington was twenty-one years old, the dis- putes between the Enghsh and French over the possession of the Ohio country reached a chmax. In the spring of 1753 fifteen hundred Frenchmen landed at Presqueisle, erected a fort, and set about cutting a road through the forests to French Creek, where they built Fort Le Boeuf. News of this move was not long in spreading throughout the English colonies. What was to be done? Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia was one of the first to realize the seriousness of the question. He promptly sent letters to England, telling of the danger. England ordered, " Build forts near the Ohio if you can get the money. Require the French to depart peacefully; and if they will not do so, we do hereby strictly charge and demand you to drive them off by force of arms.'' To require the French to depart peacefully was more easily said than done. The French were hundreds of miles away; many high and rugged mountains rose be- tween Williamsburg, Virginia's capital, and the French fort; and over half the journey lay through the unbroken forests. The man who should carry England's message must know something of the country, must understand Indian ways, must be used to hardships. He must be strong, full of courage, and ready for whatever might arise. Such a man was George Washington. And Gov- ernor Dinwiddie chose him as his messenger. It was the middle of November when the twenty-one- year-old leader and his party got away from Will's Creek — the end of civilization. Tramping through the forests amid blinding snowstorms, crossing raging creeks, always on the outlook for Indian treachery, slowly they worked 222 WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION their way to the French fort, where Washington presented Governor Dinwiddie's letter to the French commander. For three days the Commander and his officers dis- cussed the answer which was to be sent to the EngUsh Governor. Meanwhile Washington looked over the fort, drew its plan, and learned all he could regarding its strength and the number of soldiers detailed to guard it. Then came the journey home. After nearly a week of hard traveling, Washington proposed to Christopher Gist, one of his men, that they leave the rest of the party and make for Will's Creek on foot. They walked eighteen miles the first day. The cold was dreadful. All the streams were so frozen that it was almost impossible to find water to drink. By night Washington was nearly exhausted. The next da}' they met an Indian who seemed so friendly that Washington asked him to guide them through that part of the forest. For ten miles all went well. Then, as they came to an open space, suddenly the guide, who was only fifteen paces ahead, turned and fired. "Are you shot?" shouted Washington. "No," answered Gist. Together they rushed on the Indian before he could reload. Gist wished to kill him, but Washington would not listen to that. "If you will not have him killed, we must get away and then travel all night," urged Gist in low tones. " He will surely follow our tracks as soon as it is light, and we must have a good start." So, pretending that they thought the Indian's shot an accident, the two men let him go; and, w^hen sure he was out of hearing, they crept aw^ay in the opposite direction. All that night and all the next day they hurried on, with no sleep and with sore and bleeding feet. At last they reached the Allegheny River, which was 223 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY full of floating ice. A whole day was spent in building a raft on which to cross. They pushed off. The current was swift, and before the raft was halfway across the river it was being jammed on every side by cakes of ice. Washington Climbing out of the Frozen Stream, Every moment they expected that it would be forced under, and that they would perish. Struggling to keep a clear space for the raft with a long pole, Washington was all at once jerked into the water. It was by the merest chance that he was able to catch hold of one of the logs and so pull himself back on the raft. 224 WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION There seemed no hope of reaching either shore now; so when the current carried them near an island, both Washington and Gist jumped into the freezing water and swam for the land. Gist had all his fingers and some of his toes frozen. By morning the ice in the river was solid, and it was comparatively easy to reach the mainland. A few days later Washington arrived at Williamsburg and gave to Governor Dinwiddie the letter that he had carried so carefully on his long and dangerous journey. As usual, Washington had kept a journal of the trip; and this, too, he gave to the Governor, thinking it the simplest way to report all the events of his travels. So straightforward was the journal and so clearly did it set forth the exact conditions on the Ohio, leaving out all complaint of hardship, that Governor Dinwiddie ordered a copy of it sent to each of the colonial governors. Washington found himself the hero of the hour. Xot yet twenty-two, he had faced a great responsibility and had done well all that he had been asked to do. But still, far from being proud and self-satisfied, when he was told that his journal was to be published he modestly wrote in it, "I think I can do no less than apologize for the numberless imperfections of it.'^ GREAT MEADOWS AND FORT NECESSITY That the French would not depart from the Ohio for the asking, was plainly shown by the French Commander's reply to Governor Dinwiddle's letter. Then they must be driven away by force. Governor Dinwiddie determined that Virginia should do her full share, and ordered the en- listment of men at Alexandria. In February, 1754, he sent out a company to build a fort on a site chosen by Wash- ington, where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers join. 225 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY On the 2d of April, Washington set out with a small force to garrison the fort that was being built. Before long, discouraging reports reached him. Five hundred Frenchmen had landed and demanded the builders of the fort to surrender. They had surrendered, and their victors were even now building Fort Duquesne on the ver}' site chosen by the English. (See map on p. 187.) Here was a gloomy outlook for Washington. How- ever, it was decided to push on. When the little army had covered about half the distance, an Indian came to Wash- ington bearing word that the French army was coming. Washington had been expecting as much ; so, hurrying his soldiers forward to a place called Great Meadows, he had the bushes cleared away and trenches dug. But no enemy appeared. A few nights later another Indian messenger reported that his chief was in camp six miles off and felt sure that the French were hiding near him. Prompt to act, Washington took forty of his men and joined the Indians. Scouts tracked the French to a hol- low surrounded by rocks and trees; and in single file Wash- ington, his men, and the Indian warriors crept to the French hicUng place, and surrounded it. While Washing- ton was moving through the trees, he was seen by the French. They sprang to their arms. In a moment both sides were firing. For fifteen minutes the fighting lasted, and then the French gave up. This little skirmish proved of much greater importance than could have been foreseen. Here was shed the first blood of the French and Indian War. Moreover, the at- tack of the English added to the French determination to drive the English away from the Ohio. Washington ap- preciated the situation; and when he got back to Great Meadows, he began the work of strengthening Fort Neces- sity, as the encampment was now called. 226 WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION On the morning of the 3d of July, the French appeared before the fort, and a battle began. All day it lasted. At eight that night the French asked for a parley, which was granted. The French proposed that, on condition that the Eng- lish would surrender, the whole garrison might go back to Virginia. But for a year they must not attempt to build any more forts this side of the mountains. With almost no provisions, with their powder about gone, with more than fifty of their men dead or wounded, while the French might be reenforced at any moment, Washington and his officers could see no course but to accept the conditions. So in the morning the fort was deserted, and the weary, half-starved soldiers started slowly home. On the way Washington shared their hard- ships and encouraged them by his cheerful and uncom- plaining endurance. And all the time his heart was heavy. He was young; he had set out to win and was going back defeated. . At Williamsburg he reported to Governor Dinwiddie, and then went to Alexandria to recruit new companies to lead against the French. But England had now decreed that any officer holding a commission from the King should outrank any officer holding a colonial commission. To have commanded an expedition, and then to be outranked by any upstart offi- cer from England, was more than Washington's pride could bear. He therefore resigned from the service. BRADDOCK'S CAMPAIGN By his little skirmish with the French in the wilderness. Washington had started a war which was to spread be- yond the colonies and become of grave concern abroad. 227 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY France sent eighteen war vessels filled with French soldiers to Quebec. And England, not to be outdone, likewise sent troops to her colonies. Two regiments were assigned to Virginia; and early in 1755 the British ships sailed by Mount Vernon to put the soldiers ashore at Alexandria, only eight miles away. Whether in the army or out, Washington could not with- hold a lively interest in the redcoats. Many an early morn- ing found him on horseback headed for the English camp. Knowing of course who he was and his story, the British officers watched the young Virginian as he went about their camp. He was six feet two inches tall, broad- shouldered, straight as an Indian; and he walked with a strong, swinging gait. His dignified bearing, and his way of -looking each man in the face, could not fail to win friends. And General Braddock, the English commander, noticed Washington, learned of his desire to serve and the sole reason he was not on duty, and offered him a position on his staff. Exciting times followed. It was easy to see that the strength of the French lay in their splendid line of forts. Troops, ammunition, and food could be hurriedly sent .from one to another. To defeat the French, this line must be broken. Therefore it was agreed that one force should be sent to take the post at Niagara; that one should march against Crown Point, and a third against Acadia; and that General Braddock himself should take Fort Duquesne. General Braddock was brave, resolute, and energetic. But his bravery was of the sort that made him despise his enemy; and his energy led him to underestimate the task before him. He knew nothing of the Indian way of fighting; nothing of the hardships of the wilderness. He was extreme in his British contempt for colonists. 228 W ASHINGTON BEFORE THE REYOLUTIOX By the middle of May, General Braddock's troops had arrived at Will's Creek; and on the 10th of June, 1755, the great procession headed for Fort Duquesne. The 9th of July was chosen for the attack on the French fort, and at sunrise that morning the army was on the move. What a sight it was! With drums beating, fifes playing, flags flying, bayonets flashing in the sun, and Braddock's March. redcoats showing bright against the forest green, the army marched to victory. All was in perfect order. Riding with the General's staff, Washington was thrilled and delighted. Finally the last ford was made, and now Fort Duquesne was only eight miles away. "Forward! March!" ordered the officers, and the soldiers went briskly along the road that led through the forest to the fort. Suddenly a French officer was seen rushing down the 229 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY road, while behind him came swarms of French and In- dians. At a signal, they darted into the woods, hid them- selves among the trees and in the thickets, and with blood- curdling yells began pom^ing a deadly fire into the English lines. "Scatter your men as they have done," Washington begged the Gen- eral. But that was not the Eng- lish way of fight- ing. The soldiers must stand in ranks to fire. The fearful yells and the smoke from the enemies' rifles were all thai told them where to aim. The officers did everything in their power to keep order and encour- age the men. But soldier after sol- dier fell, picked off by the shots of the hidden foe. From time to time a savage in war paint and feathers leaped from behind a tree to scalp a victim or seize a horse whose rider had been killed. And he in turn was killed by the sure aim of some Virginian, firing from the shelter of the trees. For the despised Virginians knew the fashion of savage warfare, and, like the French and Indians, had 230 Retreat of Braddock's Army. WASHINGTON BEFORE THE REVOLUTION scattered through the forest. By keeping then- senses and fighting, every man for himself, they did much to protect the redcoats huddled in the open roadway. The Enghsh troops were fast becoming panic-stricken. All orders were unnoticed. They shot at random. No foe was to be seen, and yet the constant firing from the thickets increased. Washington was everywhere. With flashing eyes and determined face, he galloped back and forth in the thickest of the fight, repeating the General's orders and shouting to the men to keep up their courage. His horse was 'shot under him. In a moment he leaped on another. Soon this, too, went down. Four bullets tore through his coat, and still he rushed on unwounded. At last General Braddock was shot, and fell from his horse. The troops broke and ran wildly. On, on they tore, leaving Washington and a few officers and provincials the task of carrying off the dying General. The defeated army returned to Virginia. SECOND ATTACK ON FORT DUQUESNE The next three years Washington spent in protecting the Virginian frontier from Indian raids. He had been offered the command of Virginia's troops, and had gladly accepted. In the fall of 1758 Washington's troops joined in another attack on Fort Duquesne. But the reception at the fort was very unlike the one given General Braddock. Scouts had reported to the French commander the English approach. Winter was coming on, and the French line of forts had been broken in the North. There was no hope of reenforcement or supplies from that direction. The whole garrison at the fort was not over five hundred. To 231 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY wait for the English would mean certain surrender. So, when the British troops were within a day's march, the French commander blew up his magazine, burned the fort, and retreated with his men. Imagine the astonishment of the English. A stout defense and a brisk battle was what they had expected. On the 25th of November, Washington and the advance guard marched in and raised the British flag over the smoking ruins of Fort Duquesne. Now, finally, the Ohio countr}^ was secured to the English. And no longer responsible for the safety of the Virginian frontier, Colonel Washington could honorably re- sign his commission. The war was not yet ended. Fighting continued in the North. It was not until September of the next year that Quebec — the last great stronghold of the French — fell, and not until 1763 that the treaty was signed which put an end to French power in America. Summary George Washington was born in Mrginia on February 22, 1732. — His first official position was Public Surveyor for Cul- peper County, Virginia. — He played an important part in the French and Indian War. — In 1753 he was sent by Governor Dinwiddle on a long and dangerous journey to the commander of the French forts on the Ohio to ask the French to withdraw from the Ohio country. On their refusal, in 1754, he commanded an expedition to drive them out and capture their forts. Wash- ington's army was defeated. — In 1755 he served on the staff of General Braddock, taking part in the ill-fated attack on Fort Duquesne. — For three years he was in command of the Virginia troops protecting the Virginia frontier from Indian raids. — In 1758, he took part in the capture of Fort Duquesne. The French and Indian War came to an end in 1763. 232 XXIII GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT COMMANDER IN CHIEF In January, 1759, Washington was married to Martha Custis, and went to Mount Vernon to live the peaceful life of a Virginia plantation owner. Then followed the years that saw the Stamp Act passed and repealed; the duties on glass, paper, and paints imposed and removed; and the trouble over the tea tax, which resulted in the Boston Tea Party. When, in 1774, England planned to punish Boston by closing her port, it was the Virginia House of Burgesses which proposed that a congress of all the colonies be called to consider the plight of Massachusetts and the best course open to her sister colonies. While serving as a member of the House of Burgesses, Washington was chosen one of Virginia's representatives to this congress, which was to be known as the First Con- tinental Congress. It met at Philadelphia on the 5th of September, 1774. Before the colonial delegates left Philadelphia, they agreed to meet again the following spring if their petition to the King and their declaration of rights were still un- heeded. Both petition and declaration were ignored; so in May, 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held. By the time the members reached Philadelphia, word 233 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY of Lexington and Concord had thundered throughout the land. The effect was remarkable. Fighting with the mother country had actually begun. Was there then no other way for the colonies to maintain their rights than by taking up arms in defense? It began to look so; and even while sending one last petition to their King, begging that their wrongs be righted, the Second Continental Congress was voting to raise an army. Already thousands of colonial soldiers had gathered to the siege of Boston. They must be recognized as acting not only for New England, but for the whole thirteen colonies. They must be organized as the Continental Army. They must have a commander, and this at once. George Washington was unanimously chosen for the posi- tion. It was a great honor, but an even greater respon- sibilit3^ "I beg it may be remembered by every gentleman in this room, that I this day declare with the utmost sin- cerity I do not think myself equal to the command I am honored with," said Washington. However, he accepted on condition that he should re- ceive no salary, merely being repaid for his actual expense. His commission was signed on the 19th of June, and the 21st saw him already on the road to Boston. THE CAMPAIGN BEFORE BOSTON AND AROUND NEW YORK It was the 2d of July, when Washington reached Cambridge, the headquarters of the colonial army. And, as he rode within the lines, the English shut up in Boston knew, by the soldiers' shouts of welcome, that he had come. Next day, while the colonial troops were drawn up on the Cambridge common, Washington rode out on horse- 234 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT back under the now famous elm and took command of the army. There were fifteen or sixteen thousand soldiers, men who knew little about fighting and less about military discipline; and Washington had work ahead of him to get them into shape and enforce the necessary obedience. When March, 1776, came, Washington was ready to try what the colonial army could do. One evening he Washington Taking Command of the Army at Cambridge, 1775. moved troops, artillery, and all that would be needed in building fortifications, to Dorchester Heights overlooking Boston. It was like another Bunker Hill surprise. The next morning there were the Americans in a position to fire right into the British camp. It was apparent that the English General had his choice of leaving the town or of being destroyed with it. He chose to leave, and sailed away on March 17, 1776. On the 18th, Washington marched into Boston in triumph, after his bloodless victory. 235 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT It seemed likely that New York would be the next place to be attacked by the English. Therefore Wash- ington left part of his troops in Boston and with the rest hurried to New York. Here raw recruits joined his force until it numbered eighteen thousand. Let us leave the army at work building defenses for New York and go back to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. You will remember that last petition which the Continental Congress sent to England. As usual it was received with contempt. The King would do nothing for his disobedient colonists. And what was more, to end their rebellion, he had hired German troops to go to America and do this work for him in short order. The colonists were outraged. All thoughts of peace were at an end. Daily the break between England and her American colonies grew wider, until finally, on the 4th of July, 1776, a Declaration of Independence was adopted by Congress, and the thirteen English colonies became the United States of America. When this glorious news reached Washington and his men, they had barely time to celebrate before British ships entered New York Haj-bor, and a British army, far larger than Washington's, took possession of Staten Island. Part of Washington's force was stationed on Long Island, at Brooklyn Heights just opposite New York. It seemed a simple thing to the English Commander, General Howe, to defeat these men. And with Brooklyn Heights once in his hands, he could take New York from Washing- ton as surely and as easily as Washington had taken Boston from him. However, it was late in August before he put his plan to the proof. Twenty thousand trained soldiers were landed on Long Island. But instead of attacking the 17 237 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Heights, General Howe decided to lay siege and starve out this handful of the enemy. Before many hours Washington learned of this de- cision. Here indeed was danger. If once the British ships got between New York and the Heights, all hope of escape would be at an end. Soon trusted messengers were on their way to New York to collect all the boatS; large or small, which were to be found. The night of the 29th was foggy, and under cover of the darkness, the boats were brought to the Brooklyn shore. There they were quickly and quietly filled with men, small arms, ammunition, supplies, and even cannon, all of which were safely landed in New York. Washington himself was the last to leave the now deserted fortifications. Can you imagine General Howe's amazement the next morning? Washington was proving himself a veritable will-o'-the-wisp to the British. Where they least expected him, there he was; and when they counted him in their grasp, he faded away. THE RETREAT ACROSS NEW JERSEY With English troops on Brooklyn Heights and English vessels in New York Harbor, Washington felt that it would be asking the impossible to expect his small force to keep the English out of New York City. However, he did not mean to give up more ground than was absolutely neces- sary. Although obliged to retreat, he yielded each step only when forced on by the British, who were constantly at his heels. He crossed to the west bank of the Hudson, and was gradually crowded back into New Jersey, until at last he reached the Delaware River. Here he saw a chance of stopping the English for a 238 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT while at least. Seizing every boat for miles up and down the river, the Americans crossed the Delaware to the Pennsylvania side. The English would have followed, but there was no means of doing so, and they were obliged to camp along the shore until the December weather should freeze the river hard and fast. While they were waiting, Christmas day came and Washington Crossing the Delaware. on that night something happened of which the English had not dreamed. During that December night of 1776, Washington, at great peril, recrossed the Delaware. The next morning he fell upon the British encampment at Trenton and captured a thousand of the King's hired soldiers. Such was the battle of Trenton, and great was the rejoicing it caused. Meanwhile in New York the English General, Corn- wallis, was celebrating Christmas and preparing to sail 239 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY The Flag of the United Colonies, 1775-1777. back to England. In his opinion, the revolt was about over. With the British troops so closely pursuing, this upstart American commander must surely give up in a very short time. Then came news of the battle of Trenton with its thousand prisoners taken. Cornwallis was amazed. Per- haps after all it did need a master hand to end this war once and for all. So, putting off his sailing, Cornwallis him- self hurried to Trenton with eight thou- sand soldiers to conquer Washington. It was late in the day when he reached Trenton. By that time, Washington had with- drawn his army across a small river, along whose banks he had placed his batteries. Tired out from their day's march, the British put off their attack overnight. Cornwallis, sure of success, was in the best of spirits. " At last we have run down the old fox and will bag him in the morning," was his confident assertion. But, foxlike, Washington was not to be run to earth quite so easily. All through the night the English sentries pacing back and forth watched the gleam of Washington's camp fires and I j ^""N^ listened to the thud, thud of falling ^ earth as the Americans worked on their intrenchments. Little did they suppose that only a few men were making all that noise and tending all those fires. Such was the case, nevertheless. While the camp fires blazed and the digging went on, Washing- ton and his army were slipping away toward Princeton. 240 The First Flag of THE United States, Adopted January, 1777. COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT Washington had reasoned that in Princeton he would find so small an English force left to guard the stores that his army could defeat it and capture the supplies. About sunrise Princeton was reached, and the battle was on. In less than half an hour it was over, and Wash- ington had once more come off victorious. This was on January 3, 1777. From Princeton, Washington took his soldiers to the Heights of Morristown, where the English dared not attack him. Here he spent the rest of the winter, raising new troops and doing what he could to strengthen his army. As for Cornwallis, he returned empty-handed to New York. THE ENGLISH PLAN AND BURGOYNE'S ADVANCE While Washington and his army were encamped in the hills about Morristown, the English were laying plans which promised quick success. Their scheme was to gain control of New York State, thus completely separating New England from the other colonies. As New England was Washington's chief source of men and supplies, such a step would be full of danger to him and would surely prove a tremendous stride toward final victory for old England. The English had good reason to expect this plan to succeed. Not only was New York City already in their hands, but Canada was theirs as well. The}' were in a position to invade New York State from the north, south, or west; and they concluded to attack from all three directions. One army under General Burgoyne was to enter New York State from Canada, by way of Lake Champlain. General Howe, with a second army, was to move up the 241 A FIEST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Hudson from New York City. Colonel St. Leger, with still another army, was to land at Oswego and, conquering as he came, march through the Mohawk Valley. With their work done, all three armies were to meet at Albany. The summer of 1777 saw this plan set in motion, and down from the North came General Burgoyne with a force of nearly eight thousand soldiers and Indians. The Americans had placed Gen- eral Philip Schuyler in command of the Northern Department of the arm}", and so it fell to his lot to de- fend New York State against the three English armies. General Burgoyne aimed his first blow at Fort Ticonderoga, and cap- tured it. This was bad. General Schuyler saw that in some way time must be gained. If Burgoyne were allowed to advance before more troops w^ere recruited, the result would be disastrous. Something must be done to check him, and that at once. Hurrying to the head of Lake Champlain, Schuyler's men fell to work with a will. Guns were laid aside, and axes took their place. Hundreds of trees were chopped down and left to block the roads. Bridge after bridge was burned; the streams themselves were choked until they overflowed, and all the country for twenty miles was laid waste. Then, while General Schuyler retreated to Stillwater, 242 The English Route FROM Canada. COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT the English tried to advance. But their path was so obstructed that a mile a day was the best they could do. At last they reached the deserted post of Fort Edward. Meanwhile, St. Leger, according to the arrangement, sailed up the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario and landed at Oswego. Then marching east from Oswego, he confidently laid siege to the American post of Fort Stanwix, only to be driven back the way he had come. BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER General Burgoyne now found himself in a grave predicament. Colonel St. Leger had been defeated and had fled. No help had come from General Howe, who The Surrender of General Burgoyne. had gone off south instead of ascending the Hudson, as Burgoyne had fully expected him to do. The Americans had sent a force to cut off his retreat, should he attempt to return to Canada. Moreover, his orders were positive and left him no choice. He was to march through to Albany, nothing more nor less. 243 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Therefore, in the middle of September, Burgoyne left Fort Edward and once more began his advance. On the 19th, he reached Bemis Heights, where he found the Amer- ican army encamped. During the morning Burgoyne at- tacked the Americans. All afternoon the battle waged with fury. Then darkness came to put an end to the fighting. Neither side had lost or won. The Americans fell back to their fortifications, and the English camped on the battlefield. Here they stayed for over two weeks, watching each other's every move. At last, on October 7th, Burgoyne determined to see what another attack woiild do toward opening the way to Albany. The Americans came forward to meet their foe. This time there was no drawn battle. When night came on October 7th, the English had been utterly defeated. Burgoyne now fell back to Saratoga. He no longer had any hope of reaching Albany. American troops sur- rounded him on every side. No supplies were to be had; starvation stared his army in the face, and on October 17, 1777, General Burgoyne and his army surrendered to the Americans. IN PENNSYLVANIA During the early surnmer of 1777, General Howe made an attempt to reach Philadelphia by an overland march from New York. Washington's force was still too small to risk meeting the English thousands in open battle. However, he so annoyed and worried their commander by keeping just out of reach and yet in the way, that General Howe gave up and went back. Next, General Howe put his troops aboard ship, sailed them up Chesapeake Bay to its head, and set out for Philadelphia from that point. At Brandywine Creek 244 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT there was Washington again. He had marched s6uth in the hope of once more turning the Enghsh away from Philadelphia. On September 11th, the armies met in battle, and Washington was defeated. Soon after, the English entered Philadelphia and took possession of the capital of the United States. Nothing daunted, Washington decided to try another attack; and on the morning of October 4th he appeared at German- Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge. town, where part of the English were encamped. At first, success seemed sure. But a heavy mist soon caused con- fusion and misunderstanding, and the Americans were once more repulsed. Another winter was at hand. It was evident that General Howe meant to spend it in Philadelphia. There- fore Washington went into camp at Valley Forge, where he could keep an e3'e on his foe. This winter at Valley Forge was terrible for both the 245 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY American army and its General. The cold was intense and persistent. The men were poorly clothed and half starved. Shoes were a luxury. The soldiers walking bare- foot over the ice left bloody tracks behind. Money was scarce, and the army unpaid. All night men sat huddled around the camp fires. They had even no blankets in which to roll themselves. Washington did all he could to provide for his troops and earned their loyal love and devotion by his constant sympathy and his willingness to share in their privations. His courage inspired them. In his turn Washington found help and comfort in the companionship of certain of his brave officers. One of these was the Marquis de Lafayette. Lafayette was a young Frenchman, who not only gave his services to our country, but generously used his private fortune to supply with clothes and arms the soldiers under his command. At last the winter broke; and the spring of 1778 came, bringing good news to America. France had recognized the United States of America as a nation, and had agreed to send us aid in our fight against her old enemy. The English general, Clinton, now succeeding General Howe, decided to abandon Philadelphia and unite his forces in New York. He was very anxious to gain control of the Hudson River, but strong fortifications at West Point held him in check. Then the treachery of one of Washington's officers seemed to open a way. This officer was Benedict Arnold. During the early part of the Revolution, Arnold gave America brave and valiant service. But later he grew bitter from lack of promotion; and when his conduct made enemies for him, their attacks so stirred up his anger that he betrayed both his country and his honor, and offered his services to the English. 246 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT His plan was to ask Washington for the command of West Point, and then allow the English to capture it. Suspecting nothing, Washington gave Arnold the coveted command. The very next month Arnold and Andre, General Clinton's young adjutant general, met one dark night in a thicket on the river's eastern shore. Here Arnold gave Andre maps of the fort, and papers telling just what steps the English should take. With these papers in his stockings, Andre started back to New York on horseback. But halfway to the city he was captured. Later he was hanged as a spy. As soon as Arnold heard of Andre's capture, he fled down the river and joined the English army. This was in September, 1780. Years after, he died in England, pray- ing God to forgive him for deserting his country. Noth- ing came of the plot but soreness of heart to Arnold's betrayed commander, and disgrace to the traitor himself. YORKTOWN During the years 1779 and 1780 the war for the most part was carried on in the South. Although Wash- ington himself stayed in the North, where he could have a watchful eye on the Eng- lish in New York, he still kept in touch with condi- tions in the South. Back and forth through the southern states went Cornwallis and the English troops, until, in the summer of 1781, he followed Lafa- yette up into Virginia. Then he betook himself and his 247 ■>?^^W ^^M N D "VX^>. ■ ^fe 5"^ ^•^ >w. '^^^ lIZ ..i i/ 1 30*^ ^*'^*n ^v^^ f lim i .f==i b- ^'•t— Ia^ jb^ ^^ *\ James ^^^3 k^^^ M t==^=A V /"^"'^'^^^^^Vfi:^ ^>-_ ■ — ^"17^:^ YJU ~--- — - l| m^ ^ M t-f c- ^m Ky^ < y ^^ ^-= == — ^ P-^ \ '^ Norfolk ^ 1 V ^ ^ ^^J Where the Revolution Ended. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY troops to Yorktown, where he and Clinton could be io communication by sea. Yorktown is on a cape, three sides of which are sur- rounded by Chesapeake Bay. At the first word of his enemy's move, Washington was on the alert. Carefully going over in his mind the position of his forces, he realized that the fleet sent us by France could be placed so as to From, a painting by Trumbull in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington, D. C. Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Va., October 19, 1781. prevent Cornwallis from escaping by sea. And if his own New York troops could possibly be mustered with the French soldiers, and those under Lafayette, so as to shut Cornwallis into this land pocket, a deadly blow could be aimed at England's power. It must be done and done at once. Misleading Clinton by seemingly preparing an attack on New York, Wash- ington slipped away south. After a long forced march the soldiers reached Chesa- peake Bay and went by ship to Yorktown. There was 248 COMMANDER AND PRESIDENT the French fleet, and there was Cornwallis ready to be shut in exactly as Washington had foreseen. For days the English held out against Washington's attack. But no help came to them; and at last, on October 19, 1781, Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. To the tune of *'The World Turned Upside Down'' the British marched out of Yorktown between the two long lines of Washing- ton's victorious army. And the American Revolution was practically at an end. A few years later the United States adopted their Constitution and set up their government. Then through loving gratitude and just appreciation of his value, they chose as their first President, the loyal commander of the army which had won their independence. President and Mrs. Washington. Washington was President of the United States for two terms. At the close of this service, he went back to Virginia to the happy home life awaiting him. For a little while he gathered up the reins of control on his plantations, but they soon slipped from his fingers forever. 249 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY December 14, 1799, was a day of grief for the entire country — grief which spread in every direction with the news that, at Mount Vernon, George Washington lay dead. Summary The First Continental Congress was held at Philadelphia; September 5, 1774. George Washington was a delegate. A petition and a declaration of colonial rights were sent to the King of England. Both were ignored. — In May, 1775, the Second Continental Congress sent a last petition to the king and voted to raise an army. Washington was chosen commander in chief. — In 1776 he fortified Dorchester Heights and forced the British to leave Boston. — July 4, 1776, the thirteen colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence and declared them- selves the United States of America. — Later in 1776 the British drove Washington out of New York and forced him to retreat across New Jersey. — ^Washington next defeated the British at Trenton and Princeton. — In 1777 the British planned to cut off New England from the other colonies. The defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga prevented this. — After defeating the American army at Brandywine Creek in 1777 the British captured Philadelphia, the national capital. — In 1778 France recognized the United States as an independent nation and sent us aid. — During 1779 and 1780 the war was carried on mostly in the South. — In 1781 the English General Cornwallis withdrew to Yorktown. Wash- ington promptly gathered the American troops at Yorktown and besieged the British. The British army surrendered to Washington October 19, 1781. This ended the American Revolution. — In 1783 the Treaty of Peace was signed at Paris. — When the United States adopted their Constitution, Washington was made the first President of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797.— In 1799 he died at his home, Mt. Vernon. XXIV NATHANAEL GREENE HIS EARLY LIFE Nathanael Greene had a busy, happy boyhood. His home was in a Uttle Rhode Island town. His Quaker father was a preacher and a miller, and an anchorsmith as well. The children were taught to read that the}" might read the Bible, and taught to write and cipher as a help in business. Theirs was a simple, healthy life with work and play all mixed to- gether. Well content with such a life, Nathanael Greene reached the age of fourteen. But now a chance acquaintance, talking of college, showed him how meager his learning was; and he be- gan to think and won- der about things that he had never considered be- fore. At last he asked his father for more schooling. A new master. was arranged for, and under his guidance Nathanael 251 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY laid the foundation for a good general education. Thus the boy came to early manhood, in the years when his country needed the help of every strong arm and active brain at her command. Soon came the stirring times of the tea tax, the Boston Tea Party, and the closing of Boston's port. And in 1774 Nathanael Greene had a hand in organizing a military company, which was called the Kentish Guards. Greene joined the company as a private. But as he was a soldier without a gun, he resolved to go to Boston and get one. Even for an enemy there was a certain fascination in the well-trained British redcoats. And while in Boston, Greene went both morning and evening to see the regu- lars drill. Strong, vigorous, broad-shouldered and full- chested was this Rhode Island recruit, whose keen eyes watched every move, from under his wide-brimmed Quaker hat. ' • What he saw must have pleased him well, for before he left Boston he had engaged a British deserter to go back with him to drill the Kentish Guards. Having bought his musket, he was in doubt as to how he could take it out of Boston. At last a farmer agreed to hide it under the straw in his wagon. And following the wagon at a safe distance, Greene set out for home. IN WASHINGTON'S ARMY In April, 1775, a messenger rushed into Providence with the news of Lexington and Concord. A few days later the Rhode Island Assembly voted to raise an army of fifteen hundred men, and Nathanael Greene was chosen brigadier general and placed in command of the fifteen hundred. In due time he led them to join the American forces; and so it was that Greene was already in the army 252 NATHANAEL GREENE that waited before Boston to welcome Washington, when he came to be its chief. Washington was quick to see Greene's sterUng quali- ties, and a close and lasting friendship grew up between the two. In the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandy- wine, and Germantown, Greene led a division of Wash- ington's army. And while at Valley Forge, he accepted the position of quartermaster general, to please Wash- ington. Thus the commander in chief came to know his friend's value both in the camp and on the field of battle. Was it not natural, then, that, when the English turned their attention to the south, Washington's choice for commander of the southern department was Nathanael Greene? But Congress did not see with Washington's farsighted eyes. In carrying the war to the South, the English reasoned somewhat in the following way: We have not been very successful so far. These northern colonies are surely strong in their rebellion. However, the South does not seem equally determined. Would it not be our wisest plan, therefore, to subdue the southern colonies first? Then, if worst comes to worst, and we are obliged to make terms with the North, at least we shall still have a foothold in the colonies. The conquering of the South was to begin with Georgia. In December, 1778, an expedition attacked Savannah; and with three men to our one the British found the city an easy prey. A few more minor victories followed, and the English soon claimed Georgia as their own. Till the end of 1779 the conditions were practically unchanged. But early in 1780, the English reopened their southern campaign with vigor. This time South Carolina was attacked; and a mighty army advanced against Charleston, and completely surrounded it. It 18 253 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY would have been a waste of life for the American force, gathered to protect the city, to have risked battle with such an army. Even the citizens of Charleston petitioned that terms be made with the British. They were accord- ingly made, and the city surrendered. The English at once sent detachments to take possession of Camden, and other points throughout the State. The Siege of Charleston. At this time Congress put Gates in command of what was left of the southern army, even though Washington had recommended Greene. Gates had dreams of promptly defeating the English. He determined to surprise them at Camden before Lord Cornwallis could reach there. But Lord Cornwallis reached Camden first, prepared a warm welcome for Gates, and even advanced to meet him. When the battle began, the English came on with such a rush that the Virginia troops threw down their loaded 254 NATHANAEL GKEENE guns and took to their heels. Seeing them disappear, others did the same; and the troops that did stand their ground were soon routed. Nor was General Gates left behind in the headlong flight. Deserting his artillery, his baggage, and his few stanch followers, he covered sixty miles before night. Although the Americans won a brilliant victory at King's Mountain in October, the disaster at Camden had convinced Congress that, after all. General Gates was not much of a success as a commander. Washington was now asked to suggest some one to take the place of Gates. Thoroughly convinced that Nathanael Greene was the man of all men, Washington again un- hesitatingly recommended him. IN THE SOUTH In December, 1780, General Greene arrived in North Carolina and took command of the American forces. These forces were so small that Greene himself said they seemed but "the shadow of an army.'' And they were a disheartened, discouraged, unpaid, and poorly fed shadow at that. Still the man who had come to com- mand them was the best general the Americans had, Washington alone excepted. His very presence soon in- spired his forlorn troops, and they took heart once more. Before he had been long in the camp. General Greene sent part of his men, under Morgan, to threaten the English in the northern part of South Carolina. Then General Cornwallis, in his turn, sent out a detachment to drive Morgan back. Morgan heard that the English were coming, and he waited for them at Cowpens. Here, on the 17th of January, 1781, he was attacked by the British. But so well had he planned his defense, and 255 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY so bravely did his men do their part, that the English were terribly and utterly defeated. Cornwallis was astonished. More determined than ever that Morgan should be crushed, he hurried against him before Greene could come to his aid. However, Morgan did not intend to be crushed, and started north before Cornwallis could reach him. Here was General Greene's chance. His army was far too small to risk meeting the English in open battle. He must find some other w^ay of getting the best of them. And what other way could be better than to tire them out by leading them a long, merry chase, all the time coaxing them farther and farther from their base of supplies? With all speed, therefore, he hastened to join Morgan; and together they retreated, while Cornwallis followed in hot pursuit. Across the State of North Carolina went the Americans; and a few hours behind them came the British. Realizing that more than one river lay in his path, Greene had wisely ordered boats to be mounted on light wheels and taken along on the retreat. When a river was reached, it was an easy matter to put the wheels into the boats and carry the army safely to the opposite shore. At last Greene and his men came to the Dan River, which was too deep for Cornwallis and his men to ford. Once in Virginia, General Greene received reenforcements until he felt his army could hold its own with the English. Then he went back into North Carolina once more, bent on battle with his enemy. Cornwallis, too, was willing and anxious to meet the Americans. And on March 15th the two armies came together at Guilford Court House. It was a furious and bloody battle. General Greene was defeated. But though the English loudly boasted of their victory, they had paid dearly for it. So heavy had been Cornwallis's 256 NATHANAEL GKEENE losses that he dared not stay where he was. He re- treated therefore nearly as fast as he had come, and made his way to Wilmington on the shore of North Carolina. From Wilmington. Cornwallis marched into Virginia. Touching Off the First Gun at the Siege of Yorktown. Meanwhile, General Greene had begun his campaign to retake South Carolina and Georgia. It was no simple matter; but by patient, tireless effort, he at last won back the conquered southern states. 257 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY In marching into Virginia, Cornwallis was unconscious- ly marching toward his surrender. Finally he went to Yorktown. Washington came and shut him in, and the Revolution was over. Soon after its close, the State of Georgia gave General Greene a plantation; and to this Georgia plantation he moved with his family. But his pleasure in his new home was to be short. In June, 1786, he died of sunstroke, at the age of forty-four. His boyhood in the forge, the mill, and the field, had given him strength. His efforts to become a scholar had broadened his mind. Vast common sense and good tact were his by nature. A lasting patriotism came to him from seeing his country oppressed. These were what he had to give America, and he gave them with all his heart and all his energy. Great is the honor due Nathanael Greene. Summary NathanaGi Greene of Rhode Island was the ablest of Wash- ington's generals. — He led a division of the army under Wash- ington in the campaigns of 1776-1778. — Carrying the war to the South, the English conquered Georgia and South Carolina, — In 1780, Nathanael Greene was put in command of the southern army. — With General Morgan he retook South Carolina and Georgia from the British and drove Cornwallis 's army into Virginia, making it possible for Washington to end the war- XXV ALEXANDER HAMILTON STEPS TO FAME Alexander Hamilton was born in 1757 on the little island of Nevis in the West Indies, and there he spent his childhood. When he was fifteen years old he was sent to New York to continue his studies. At the time Hamilton entered King's College, now Columbia University, the colonies were on the eve of their struggle for liberty. Excitement was running high among old and young. On July 6, 1774, he was present at a great meeting held by the patriots in New York to favor the First Continental Congress. Young, impulsive, thor- oughly interested, he lis- tened to the cautious lukewarm speeches. Finally he could stand it no longer and, stepping to the platform, began to address the meeting himself. The impression made by this boy orator of seventeen was great and deep. 259 Alexander Hamilton. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY His eloquence struck his hearers with surprise, and from that hour he was important to the cause of Uberty. Once aroused, Hamilton's keen interest in the fight for independence never lagged. During the campaign around New York he acted as captain of a company of artillery, which he had trained so well that it attracted general notice. He had a share in the victories of Trenton and Princeton, although by that time his company was reduced to a mere handful of men. And at Yorktown he headed the assault on one of the British outworks and gallantly captured it. Early in the war, Washington was attracted by the young soldier; and in March, 1777, he appointed Hamilton his aide, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. His duties, as aide, were to take charge of the correspondence of the commander in chief, to prepare and draw up his orders, proclamations, and other important papers. There can be no doubt that this discipline was of immense value to Hamilton. It developed him and gave him a grasp of national affairs. And best of all, for four years it kept him in intimate touch with Washington and cemented the friendship between them. DEPRECIATION OF THE CURRENCY The affairs of the Government, after the close of the war, were in a disheartening condition. The soldiers were unpaid. Congress had no power to raise money by taxa- tion, had not even the power to protect the lives and property of the citizens. Commerce was at a low ebb. The states, jealous of each other, fell to quarreling and bickering. The only way in which Congress was allowed to raise money for its many debts was by making requisitions on the states. These requisitions were paid grudgingly by 260 ALEXANDER HAMILTON some of the states; by others not at all. And Congress had no power to enforce payment. The distress of the country was great. Almost every one was in debt. Between 1775 and 1780 the Continental Congress had issued paper money to the amount of about $200,000,000. But it is not enough merely to print paper and call it money. People will not accept it as money at Continental Bills. its face value unless it represents gold or silver — some- thing of value which can be had in exchange for this printed paper. Because there was no gold or silver behind the paper money of Congress, it rapidly fell in value until, in 1780, a man had to pay forty dollars in paper money for what would cost one dollar in gold or silver. And later in the South it cost one thousand of Congress's paper dollars to buy one gold dollar's worth of goods. This 261 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY depreciated paper money gave rise to the expression " not worth a continental/' Besides the worthless paper money issued by Congress, there was also the paper money issued by most of the states. This added to the confusion. As there was no Government mint, practically the only coins in use, besides a few pennies, were foreign coins. It was not always easy to be sure what these foreign coins were worth, and any moderately cautious man had to keep at hand a small pair of scales with which to weigh the gold or silver. Therefore much of the trading was done by exchange. That is to say, if a farmer bought a suit of clothes, he would probably pay for it in flour or some other product of his farm. Thus we read of an editor of a paper offering to take subscriptions for his paper in salt pork. With all these complications, the country was rapidly going from bad to worse. So a convention was called at Annapolis, in 1786, to consider the question of setting up a uniform financial system. Alexander Hamilton was sent to represent New York. The convention did little. But from it originated the idea of calling all the states together in another convention to reorganize the govern- ment of the country. THE NEW CONSTITUTION AND FINANCIAL REFORM New York appointed as her delegates to the proposed Federal Convention, John Lansing, Robert Yates, and Alexander Hamilton. The first two were bitterly opposed to the idea of giving great power to a National governing body. They feared that the importance of the State of New York might be lessened. Hamilton, with a broader view, was earnestly in favor of any movement to strengthen the Central Government. 262 ALEXANDER HAMILTON The convention met at Philadelphia in May, 1787. Hamilton did his utmost to show up the dangers of the system of government under which they were living, and used his influence to have measures adopted that would remedy these evils. To his delight it was decided to draw up a new Constitution which would give greater power to Congress, would regulate the- rights of the states, and would provide a president to see that the laws were carried out. The various articles of the Constitution were finally agreed upon and were signed by the majority of the dele- gates, ready for the states to ratify. When a convention met in New York to decide whether that state should accept the Constitution, Hamilton was put to his wits' ends. Forty-six of the delegates out of sixty-five were bitterly opposed to the ratification. But by arguments so strong that they convinced enough of his opponents, he won a majority, and the ratification was approved. It was a great triumph for Hamilton. Eleven states having accepted the Constitution, it went into effect in 1789. Washington was unanimously elected to act as the first President under the new Constitution. His inaugura- tion was to be held in New York, and great preparations for the event were made in that city. Washington reached New York from Mount Vernon on April 23d. On his journey he received a constant ovation from a loyal and enthusiastic people. From New Jersey he was rowed to New York in a gorgeous barge, manned by thirteen mas- ters of vessels, dressed in white uniforms. Every vessel in the harbor was gay in holiday attire. On April 30, 1789, at the old Federal Building in Wall Street, George Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States. When President Washington chose his cabinet, he made 263 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Hamilton his Secretary of the Treasury. With the coun- try deeply in debt, with no money in the treasury, and with the endless number of important questions that must From an old print. Washington Taking the Oath of Office, as the First President, at Federal Hall on Wall Street, now the Sub-Treasury Building. be decided before the new government could be placed on a sound financial basis, Hamilton had a stupendous task before him. He bent all his great ability to the straighten- ing out of America's tangled financial condition. Where 264 ALEXANDER HAMILTON others would have ended with dismal failure, Hamilton succeeded. As the result of his work he brought out a series of finan- cial measures which quickly and firmly established the credit of the country. He advocated the payment in full with interest of the enormous National debt and the debts of the states. He established methods of taxation; he provided for the establishment of a National Bank and a Mint. All of these measures and many more besides, un- FiRST Money Coined by Congress. der his leadership, were adopted by Congress, though not without bitter controversies. After Hamilton had rendered this valuable service to the country he retired from public office, and again took up the practice of law which he had begun years before. This was in 1795. THE DUEL AND HAMILTON'S DEATH Hamilton was worshiped by his friends and hated by his enemies. He never ceased to take an active interest in the politics of the time; and it was largely through his efforts that Thomas Jefferson, and not Aaron Burr, was 265 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY elected President in 1800. Then four years later, Hamil- ton prevented Burr from being elected governor of New York. Whereupon Burr became Hamilton's bitter enemy, and determined to kill him. So, claiming that Hamilton had defamed him, he picked a quarrel with the New York lawyer and challenged him to a duel. According to the code of honor of those days, Hamilton could not well refuse to accept the challenge, although he did not believe in dueling. Weehawken, in New Jersey, was chosen as the place for the fight. Arrangements were made; and on the morning of July 11, 1804, the two statesmen and their seconds were rowed to the Jersey shore. Pistols were to be the weapons. The principals took their places. The signal to fire was given. Hamilton did not even attempt to shoot Burr. But, in his hatred, Burr took calm and deliberate aim. His bullet struck Hamilton in the body, and he fell. He had received a fatal wound; and although he lived to be taken home, before many hours he died. He had barely passed the prime of life, for he was but forty-seven years old. The grief for his loss was deep. Burr was indicted for murder and was compelled to flee. The misfortunes that came to him in his after life must have seemed sufficient penalty for his revenge. Disliked, suspected, with the stain of Hamilton's death on his reputation, this bril- liant man died in misery and poverty thirty-two years later. Hamilton was buried in New York in Trinity church- yard, at the head of Wall Street. His tomb of white marble, now yellow with age, is surrounded by stately buildings. He lies near one of the great financial centers of the world — a center which his genius did much to create. 266 ALEXANDER HAMILTON Perhaps the love and admiration of his countrymen is best told in the epitaph on his tomb. It reads in part: The Patriot of incorruptible Integrity The Soldier of approved Valour The Statesman of consummate Wisdom Whose Talents and Virtues will be admired By Grateful Posterity Long after this MARBLE shall have mouldered into DUST. Summary Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies in 1757. — Coming to America at fifteen he sided with the colonists in their struggle for liberty.— During the Revolution he served as Wash- ington's aide. — At the close of the war the country was in great financial distress.— In 1787 a Federal Convention met at Phila- delphia to reorganize the Government. Here the Constitution was made, providing for a strong central government to bind together the different states. Hamilton represented New York at this convention.— George Washington, the first President of the United States, appointed Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury.— It was Hamilton's problem to plan a way by which the country could pay its debts, could collect revenue with which to run the Government, and could make its credit respected by foreign nations. To do this, Hamilton advocated the payment of the national debt with interest, established a system of taxation, and provided for the establishment of a National Bank and a Mint. XXVI THOMAS JEFFERSON AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE On that day when Patrick Henry offered his resolu- tions against the Stamp Act, he had other hearers besides the members of the Virginia House of Burgesses. Near the door stood a tall, gawky young man with sandy hair, freckled face, and large hands and feet. He was Thomas Jefferson, who was later to write America's Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was the son of a well-to-do Virginia planter. In 1760, when seventeen years old, he came to Will- iamsburg and entered Will- iam and Mary College. After- wards he took up the study and practice of law, at which he proved himself a great success. When, early in 1775, the House of Burgesses met at Richmond, Jefferson was a member. Here he heard Patrick Henry's second stirring speech — the speech denouncing all efforts at peace and 268 THOMAS JEFFERSON for himself choosing liberty or death. Jefferson was thrilled by Henry's eloquence and heartily approved his motion that Virginia " be immediately put into a state of defense/' Later in that same year Jefferson was sent to represent Virginia at the Continental Congress, which met in Phil- adelphia. The crisis had come. England had thoroughly roused the blood of her American colonists. Fighting had begun, Signing of the Declaration of Independence. and dependence on England was no longer to be endured. It was time for America to declare her rights and claim her freedom. So in June, 1776, John Adams, Benjamin Frank- lin, Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston, and Thomas Jefferson were appointed to draw up a declaration of the colonies' independence. Thanks to Jefferson's early training, he had developed into a powerful writer; and it now fell to his lot to draft this all-important paper. He worked on it for three weeks. By the end of June it was ready, and Jefferson submitted it to the Continental Congress. . 19 269 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Congress spent a few days in going over it, making changes here and there. As a whole, they were well pleased with Thomas Jefferson's work; and on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted. The first to sign it was John Hancock, the Pres- ident of Congress. He wrote his name in a clear, bold hand and, as he put down the pen, exclaimed, "There, John Bull can read that with- out spectacles!" Meanwhile, about the State House throngs packed the streets. Would Congress adopt the Declaration? If so, the old State House bell was to announce the fact. While the anxious crowd watched and hstened, up in the build- ing a small boy waited for a signal from the doorkeeper. At last it came. Away to the old bell ringer rushed the boy shouting, "Ring! ring! ring!'' And in an instant the great bell pealed out the joyous news. The excitement was intense. Cheer rose after cheer; and there were hand shakings and shouting, and even tears of joy. Then a copy of the Declaration was sent to each colony. And everywhere by fireworks, cannon firing, and flag flying the American people proclaimed their new-born freedom. It was the 4th of July, 1776, when this greatest, this most prized blessing — independence — became the pos- session of America. That day marked the founding of the American nation. And on each 4th of July, we, the 270 The Liberty Bell as it Looks To-Day. THOMAS JEFFERSON American people, still proclaim our undying love of inde- pendence by patriotic speeches, cannon firing, and flag flying. PRESIDENT Two months after the adoption of his Declaration of Independence, Jefferson resigned from Congress and went home to Virginia. Here for two years he served as Governor of Virginia. Then for five years he was abroad as envoy to France. The State House in Philadelphia Where the Declaration of Independence was Signed. On his return to America he was appointed Secretary of State under President Washington. And later, so well had the American people come to know his value, he was elected the third President of the United States. Jefferson was the first President to take the oath of office in the city of Washington, the new capital of the 271 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY country, named for George Washington and founded on a site of his choice. At the time, Washington was a city of but a few thousands, and the Capitol was an unpreten- tious building. This fact must have well suited Thomas Jefferson. Both Washington and John Adams, Washington's suc- cessor, had felt that the President of the United States Map Showing the Territory of the United States Before AND After the Louisiana Purchase, should stand a little apart from the people. They had kept up a dignity and formality befitting their idea. All this was very unlike Jefferson. He believed in " Republi- can simplicity"; believed that all men are equal, and that the President should be always ready to exchange a friendly hand shake with any one. On the day of his in- auguration, dressed in his everyday clothes, he went on foot to the Capitol. Thomas Jefferson was President for eight years. One 272 THOMAS JEFFERSON of the wisest things he did while in office was to buy from France the land known as Louisiana. This was not merely the present state of Louisiana; it was a great stretch of land containing nearly nine hundred thousand square miles, lying between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, and between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico. All this Jefferson got from Napoleon Bonaparte, at a veritable bargain. At the time. Napoleon was in sore need of money; so he was glad to sell Louisiana to America for fifteen millions of dollars — less than three cents an acre. Now that Louisiana was the property of the United States, Jefferson wanted to know what it was like. Few, if any, Americans had ever crossed that part of the coun- try; so no one could tell him. Accordingly he sent out an expedition under two young men named Lewis and Clark. They started from the log-cabin village of St. Louis and went by boat up the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains. They were away nearly two years and a half. When they came back they brought tales of adventure and de- scriptions of the natural wealth and beauty of Louisiana, and a carefully made map of their trail. In 1809 President Jefferson's term ended, and he went back to Monticello — his beautiful home near Charlotte- ville — to live with his daughter in a house full of rollicking grandchildren. But he did not lose his keen interest in the welfare of Virginia. He had long wanted to see a new university in his State, and during these peaceful 3^ears at home he himself founded the University of Virginia. Jefferson lived until 1826. It is a strange coincidence that his death should have occurred on the 4th of July, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration 273 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY of Independence. His body was laid in the family ceme- tery at Monticello, and on the stone which marked his grave were written the words, "Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence/^ Summary Thomas Jefferson of Virginia was the author of the Declara- tion of Independence, which was adopted by the Continental Congress, July 4, 1776. — Jefferson served as Governor of Virginia, as envoy to France, as Secretary of State under President Wash- ington, and as the third President of the United States. — He was inaugurated in 1801, at Washington, and held the office for two terms. — ^While Jefferson was President, the United States pur- chased from France the great western tract called Louisiana. — Lewis and Clark were commissioned to explore, and report on, the Louisiana lands. They mapped out the valley of the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains. — Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. — He died at his home in Monticello, Virginia, in 1826. on the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. XXVII DANIEL BOONE THE YOUNG HUNTER When white men first came to America they planted their settlements here and there along the Atlantic coast. For many years the great unbroken forest, extending westward from these settlements, deterred the early colonists from pushing their way into the wilderness. However, a few, bolder than the rest, and with a stronger love for adventure, did penetrate some little way into the unexplored country. And then there came a pioneer whose energy and fortitude helped to set the pace for the great migrations west. This was Daniel Boone. Boone was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in 1735, and when still a boy went with the rest of the family to build a new home on the banks of the Yadkin River in North Carolina. Here he went to school for a short time and studied the " three R's." His spelling was original— what one might expect of a boy who spent nearly all his time in the fields and the woods. Boone was a hunter born, and passionately loved the forest. In its depths he learned to track the deer and the elk; to imitate the calls of the birds, and to seek out the hiding places of the panther, bear, and wolf. He grew up to be a strong, lithe, sinewy man with muscles of iron. A.t twenty-five Boone started out to explore. He 275 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY pushed his way as far west as Boone's Creek, a branch of the Watauga River in eastern Tennessee. Here stili stands a birch tree on which can be seen the words he carved: "D Boon cilled A BAR on this tree year 1760/' These early explorations only made Boone long for more. He wanted to find the great hunting grounds of the far interior, the land we now know as Kentucky. To the Indians this meant "The Dark and Bloody Ground." SCALE OP MILES Pioneer Settlements on the Western Frontier. Although the region was fair to look upon, the savages were not far wrong when they gave it such a name. This blue-grass country lay midway between the northern and southern Indians. No one tribe owned it, but all used it as their hunting grounds and were jealous of any one else who came there. At last Boone decided to visit the Bloody Ground, and on May 1, 1769, set out accompanied by five other men. After a long and tedious journey of five weeks, the ex- 276 DANIEL BOONE plorers saw before them a beautiful level region which they knew to be the land they were seeking. Boone and his companions built a rude shelter of logs, open on one side. Here they lived, and in the country around they hunted until December without being mo- lested by Indians. Then one day they were attacked, and Boone was captured. For days there was no chance of escape. But at last he succeeded in creeping stealthily away by night. A year from the next spring Boone re- turned to North Carolina. THE WILDERNESS ROAD AND BOONESBOROUGH Some time after, a certain Richard Henderson con- cluded a treaty with the Cherokees by which they agreed to allow white men to settle on the Bloody Ground. When the treaty was concluded, Henderson sent Boone with a company of thirty men to open a pathway from the Hols- ton River, over the Cumberland Gap, to the Kentucky River. This was the first regular path into the wilderness, and it is still called, "The Wilderness Road.'' When Boone's party reached the Kentucky they built a fort which they called Boonesborough. The fort was oblong in shape. There was a loopholed blockhouse at each corner. The log cabins were so arranged that their outer sides formed part of the wall, with a stockade twelve feet high filling the spaces between. This stockade was made by driving into the ground heavy timbers, pointed at the top. The building of Boonesborough at this time was most important, as it offered protection for the settling of Kentucky. After building the fort, Boone went back to North Carolina. When he returned to Boonesborough a little 277 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY later, he brought with him his family and a band of settlers. Not long after this, Boone's daughter and two girl companions were surprised by Indians and taken captive. As they went along, the eldest girl broke off twigs and dropped them in the path. Seeing her, one of the Indians Daniel Boone Bringing His Family and the New Settlers Over THE Wilderness Road. threatened her with his tomahawk. However, she man- aged to tear off bits of her dress instead and, unnoticed, scatter them along the trail. When the girls did not return to their home, Boone knew at once what had happened. With some neighbors he started in pursuit. Guided by the twigs and bits of cloth they overtook the savages just as they were cooking 278 DANIEL BOONE supper. Firing into the camp, they killed two of the Indians and frightened the rest away. The girls were un- harmed, although badly scared. At another time the Indians captured Boone himself and carried him off. But because they so admired his courage and skill, they decided to adopt him into their tribe in place of killing him. Accordingly he was made to go through some curious ceremonies. First, all his hair was taken off, with the exception of a tuft on the top of his head. Next, he was ducked in the river and scrubbed well in order to wash out his white blood. With a 'coat of paint on his face, with feathers in his scalp lock, and dressed in Indian costume, Boone certainly resembled his adopted brothers. Although they treated him as one of themselves and seemingly gave him the utmost freedom, the Indians w^ere ever watchful lest he should get away. Cunning and sagacious as the Indians were, Boone was a match for them. Apparently he was quite contented. One day he learned that his savage friends were planning an attack on Boonesborough. Then by great good luck he managed to escape. He had a hundred and sixty miles to cover and food enough for but one meal. He did not dare shoot game for fear the savages would hear him. Four days he traveled, almost without stopping. On the fifth day he arrived in safety at the fort. The settlers immediately prepared the defenses; and when the Indians came to make their attack, they were repulsed and Boonesborough was saved. For many years Boone continued to be a useful citizen of Kentucky. But in due time, Kentucky be- came too crowded to suit him. He needed more room. So, toward the close of the eighteenth century he went farther west and finally reached Missouri. This State 279 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY was then the outpost of civihzation. Here he Hved until his death. Daniel Boone was a typical backwoodsman. In his life and character we have a good picture of the western frontiersmen of the eighteenth century, men whose cour- age and perseverance opened the way to civilization. Summary The first great pioneer to cross the Alleghany Mountains and settle in Kentucky was Daniel Boone. — In 1769 he set out to explore the Indian hunting grounds of Kentucky. — Later he opened up a road for emigrants through the forests from North Carolina into Kentucky. It was called the "Wilderness Road." — Boone with others built a fort at Boonesborough, Kentucky, and settled there. This fort, by protecting the settlers from Indian raids, greatly heljDcd the growth of that part of the country. XXVIII ELI WHITNEY AND ROBERT FULTON ELI WHITNEY Few men have done more for the welfare of mankind than did Eli Whitney. He did not discover a new land, nor did he explore the untrodden wilderness or win'a great battle. He invented a machine which revolutionized the cotton industry. Eli Whitney was a native of Massachusetts. At nineteen he made up his mind to go to col- lege. As his father did not see fit to send him, he earned the nec- essary money himself. Partly by teaching and partly by odd jobs at carpentry, he gathered enough to pay his way through Yale University. In 1792 he was graduated. Soon after, Whitney secured a position as tutor in a Georgia family. But when he reached the South, he found the place filled. So he decided to study law. On the trip south he had become acquainted ^^dth Mrs. Greene, the widow of General Nathanael Greene, of Revo- lutionary fame. Hearing of his disappointment, Mrs. Greene now cordially invited him to make her plantation his home while he was studying law. Whitney did many little things for his hostess to show 281 ' Cc/'^^^o^^^^^LeL/ A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY that he appreciated her kindness. He made toys for the children and an embroidery frame for Mrs. Greene, which was an immense improvement over the awkward old- fashioned one she had been using. In fact, he had what has long been known as "Yankee ingenuity." One day Mrs. Greene had as guests a number of planta- tion owners. They were speaking about the raising of cotton, and of how the value of the crop would be vastly increased if only some one could invent a machine that would strip the seeds from the cotton fiber. Mrs. Greene advised the men to lay the problem before her young friend, Eli Whitney. They explained the matter to him; but as he had not even seen the cotton fiber and its seeds, he was afraid he could do nothing. However, he said he would try. At the time Whitney went to Georgia, cotton seeds were removed from the fiber by hand. It used to take a negro a whole day to clean a single pound of cotton, and it took many slaves several months to clean an entire crop. Because of this vast amount of labor, the planters could not raise cotton at a profit. But if only some one could invent a cotton cleaner, the profits on cotton would be immense. This then was Whitney's problem. All winter long he tinkered. By the spring of 1793 he had succeeded in contriving a machine with which one man could clean one thousand pounds of cotton in one day. The machine consisted of two cylinders. On one were rows of teeth, which pulled the cotton through a grating too fine for the seeds to pass through. The other cylinder was covered with little brushes, which, as they met the teeth, brushed the cotton from them into a place pre- pared to catch it. And all this was done without in any way harming the seeds for the msmy uses they could be put to. 282 WHITNEY AND FULTON Whitney called the machine a cotton gin, "gin" being a contraction of the word "engine/' He let only Mrs. Greene and a few others see his model. Yet, before long, nearly every one in the South was talking about his won- derful invention; and, careful as he was, his shop was broken into, and his model was stolen. Before he could make another and get it patented there were several cotton gins in operation. All were copied from his stolen model, and it was years before Whitney received justice in connec- tion with his great invention. Immediately after the invention of the cotton gin the planters began to increase the size of their cotton fields, and every year more and more cotton was raised. In 1784 America exported three thousand pounds. In 1803, ten years after the cotton gin came into use, forty million pounds were exported. Since Whitney's time, the increase in production has lowered the price of cotton goods from a dollar and fifty cents a yard to as low as five cents a yard, thus enabling the very poorest to buy cotton cloth. And all this is due to Eli Whitney's cotton gin, and has been brought about in a little over a century. The cotton gin has helped not only the Southern cotton growers, but also the manufacturers of both North and South. It has done much to improve our foreign trade, 283 A Section of the Cotton Gin, Showing the Cotton Passing from the Feeder Over THE Cylinders. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY and so has helped the commerce of the country at large. Improvements have been made upon the original cotton gin, but the Americans of the twentieth century owe as much to Eli Whitney's invention as did those of a hundred years ago. TRAVEL IN COLONIAL DAYS In early colonial times a journey of any length was not lightly to be undertaken. There were no railroads in the colonies. There were not even good, broad, well-trodden, cross-country roads. If the traveler chose to make his journey by land he must make his way through the forests, guided only by the Traveling by Stage Coach. blazed trees that marked the path. In those early colo- nial times two or more persons traveling in the same direc- tion often used the "ride and tie system/' as it was called. That is to say, one would start on horseback, the other following on foot. The one on horseback, after riding about a mile, would dismount, tie the horse, and walk on. The one on foot, coming to the horse, would mount, ride past the one ahead for a distance, tie the horse, and walk on in his turn, leaving the horse once more for the first rider. 284 WHITNEY AND FULTON By 1776 a lumbering stage coach ran between New York and Philadelphia. But even then it took two days to make the trip in the most favorable weather. And a water journey was not much more easily made. Only slow sailing vessels crossed the ocean; the best of them taking weeks and sometimes months. Better, quicker means of travel were sorely needed. So efforts were made to replace the small river hand boats by ones which would go by steam. Several tried to solve this problem, but it w^as left for Robert Fulton to make the first successful steamboat in our country. ' THE BOY FULTON Robert Fulton was born in a Pennsylvania village^ in 1765. When he went to school his schoolmaster found it hard work to keep the boy's attention. He did not ap- pear interested in the lessons set before him, but liked much bet- ter to spend his time drawing pictures with pencils that he had hammered out of pieces of lead. However, Fulton was far from being stupid. He had ideas of his own, and good ones. Shortly before the 4th of July, 1778, the people of Ful- ton's town stopped as they went along the street to read a public notice. The notice said that in- asmuch as candles were at present very scarce, the citi- zens were requested not to illuminate their houses that year in celebration of Independence Day. This was a bitter disappointment to Robert, who was 20 285 Robert Fulton. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY full of patriotism and eager to express it. He simply could not have the streets dark on the Fourth of July. So he bought some gunpowder and pasteboard, and went to work. Fourth of July came, and he was ready for it. He had made some sky rockets which surprised and astonished all the people. When young Fulton and his friends went fishing, they went in a heavy, flat-bottomed boat, which had to be poled along from place to place. As this was slow and rather hard work, Robert made a pair of paddle wheels, one of which was fastened to each side of the boat. They were turned by a crank and were far easier to manage than the long poles whose place they took. But while Fulton enjoyed making all sorts of things, lie still took chief pleasure in drawing and painting. And when he was seventeen years old he went to Philadelphia to take up the life of an artist. THE "CLERMONT" Soon after Fulton became of age his friends began to urge him to go abroad, as in Europe he could learn to do better work and could win a wider reputation as an artist than in America. The voyage was made in a sailing vessel. Now and again a fair wind filled the sails, and the ship made good headway. Then came days of calm when the vessel rocked to and fro on the waves and drifted idly. It seemed a long journey. At last England was reached, and Robert Fulton went to London. For a while he devoted his time to art, but gradually his love for invention grew upon him and enticed him more and more away from his painting. During his stay in 286 WHITNEY AND FULTON England he invented several useful machines. Idea fol- lowed idea. At length he went to France and, while in that country, made a diving boat that would, move about under the water. This diving boat was to carry torpedoes, one of which could be fastened to the bottom of a ship so that, when it exploded, it would blow the ship to pieces. Fulton thought that such a boat would be a mighty protection to a country with a weak navy. Should an enemy's warship on mischief bent enter a harbor, down could go the diving boat with its torpedo; and in no time the dangerous visitor would be a hopeless wreck. But in spite of the inventor's belief in his boat, he could induce neither England nor France to adopt it. Another thing that Robert Fulton tried to do while in France was to make a boat that would run by steam. Fulton remembered that old flatboat to which he had fas- tened the paddle wheels. Why not try the same plan on a large boat and make a steam engine turn the crank? At that time Robert R. Livingston was America's minister to France. He grew so interested in Fulton's scheme that he offered to furnish the money necessary. When the boat was finished it was launched on the River Seine.- Fulton was well pleased; but just as the day of its trial trip was at hand, the boat broke in two and sank. The machinery had proved too heavy for so light a framework. A stronger one was made; but now the engine was not powerful enough to move the boat with any speed. Still Fulton was not discouraged. In 1806 he and Mr. Livingston went to New York, determined to try once more. The building of their boat was soon under way, and almost every day saw Fulton down at the shipyards direct- 287 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ing just how it should be done. He named the boat the Clermont, which was the name of Mr. Livingston's home on the Hudson. Others called it "Fulton's Folly/' so absurd did it seem even to try to make steam run a boat. Out of sheer curiosity, men visited the shipyards to look at "Fulton's Folly"; and they spoke of it with scorn and ridicule. It was August, 1807, when the Clermont was done. The "Clermont." Her owners invited their friends to go on a trip up the Hudson. So Fulton really thought that boat would go! It was too ridiculous. Great crowds gathered to see the fun of the start, which they felt would be no start at all. Even the invited guests stepped to the Clermont's deck with grave misgivings. No one enjoys being in an absurd position, and this certainly looked like one. The signal was given. The side wheels began to churn the water, and — wonder of wonders! — the Clermont moved steadily away from the dock. A great cheer rose from the amazed crowd on the shore. 288 WHITNEY AND FULTON But it died again as quickly as it rose. The boat had stopped. Now indeed the guests on board wished them- selves out of their predicament. Why had they come? They knew all the time just how it would be. Fulton frankly admitted that he did not know what was wrong. But he asked his passengers to give him half an hour in which to set things right. He promised that, if he could not start the boat in thirty minutes, he would give up the trip and put his guests ashore. Then, hurrying to his engine, he looked it over anxiously. The trouble was only a small matter, and in a few moments Fulton's skilled fingers had made the needed readjustment. Again the Clermont started, and this time she steamed straight up the Hudson. All the rest of that day and all fchat night she went on and on toward Albany. Fisher- men in their boats, sailors on sailing vessels, watchers on the shore heard the strange sound of the ClermonVs engine, and saw the smoke pouring from her stack. All were filled with wonder, and many were overcome with terror. To Albany and back the Clermont went, covering the distance of one hundred and fifty miles between Albany and New York in thirty-two hours. This was only the first of many trips she made up and down the Hudson, carrying passengers. Robert Fulton was now a great man. He had suc- ceeded where all had expected failure; he had made a boat that would go in spite of wind or tide. And more than that. He had found the means for the better, quicker water travel which our country needed. Before many years steamboats were running on the Mis- sissippi and the Missouri Rivers and on the Great Lakes. The great West lay open to emigrants, and Robert Fulton had furnished a way for them to go there. Railroads came later. The first one was only about 289 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY thirteen miles long and ran from Baltimore^ Maryland, to Ellicott's Mills. Over its rails in 1830 went the first American locomotive. Ten years later there were nearly three thousand miles of railroad in the different states. On May 10, 1869, the last spike was driven in a railroad that ran clear across our country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. And to-day one can travel the 3,322 miles be- tween New York and San Francisco in the same length of time it took the early colonists to journey from New York to Boston. Railroad Travel in New York State in 1831. Summary The dev^elopment of the South was furthered more by Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin, in 1793, than by any other means. This machine separated the seeds from the fiber of the cotton. — A plantation laborer could clean by hand but one pound of cotton a day; the machine could clean one thousand pounds a day. — The increase in the amount of cotton that could be pre- pared for manufacturing helped industry the world over. The use of steam as a power in turning machinery was the first great step in facilitating travel. — In 1807, Robert Fulton built the first successful steamboat in America. — The first steam railroad in America was operated in 1830. — The use of steam- boats and railways quickened the settlement of the West and enormously helped the industries and commerce of the country. 290 XXIX OLIVER HAZARD PERRY BEFORE THE WAR OF 1812 A SAILOR himself, Christopher Perry destined bis soa Oliver, for the sea. The boy was born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, was sent to school in Newport, and lived the life of all boys until he was nearly fourteen. At this time his father was given command of the United States ship General Greene, bound for Cuba. What better chance for Oliver to become a sailor? The General Greene put out to sea in the spring of 1799, with Oliver Hazard Perry acting as her midshipman. It was on this West Indian cruise that the lad first learned practical seamanship, satisfying even his father by his readiness. Thanks to Christopher Perry's training and his own aptness, Oliver, when he left his father's ser- vice, was fitted for the seaman's life that lay before him. Now came years when England and France were at war with each other. England needed all the sailors she could get. She even went so far as to stop American ships on the high seas to search them for Englishmen sail- ing under the American flag. " Once an Englishman, al- ways an Englishman," she said. "If we find native-born Englishmen on your vessels, we shall treat them as de- serters to be returned to the English navy." Once aboard an American vessel, the British officers commanded the crew to be drawn up for inspection. Then 291 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY began the selecting of sailors, whom, the intruders insisted, should be serving England's King. It mattered little that many of these sailors said they were American born. They were able-bodied men; England wanted them, and they were made to board the English ships and were carried off. Not only did British men-of-war stop our vessels on the open sea, but they were so bold as to lie in wait near the entrance of our harbors. When over six thousand sailors had been seized, and hundreds of vessels had been over- hauled, the end of American endurance was reached. And in 1812 war was declared on England. THE VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE At the beginning of the War of 1812, Perry was sta- tioned at Newport. Since the days of his first cruise on the General Greene, he had had a hand in putting down the pirates of the Mediterranean. He was no longer a mid- shipman, but was in com- mand of a flotil- la of American gunboats. Seeing little prospect of actual fighting if he stayed at Newport, Perry asked to be transferred. And, according to his wish, he was sent to the Great Lakes, where Commodore Chauncey put him in command of the forces on Lake Erie. By the capture of Detroit, the English had gained con- trol of Lake Erie, where they had a fleet which was a seri- 292 Where the Battle of Lake Erie Was Fought. OLIVER HAZARD PERRY ous menace to the Americans. It was Perry's task to rid the country of this danger. Commodore Perry was a man who believed in doing things; and from the time of his arrival on the lakes, things began to happen. When he reached Erie in March, 1813, he found two brigs, two gunboats, and a small ~ schooner being built from the green timber of the forest trees. Leav- ing the shipbuilders to complete their work, Perry rushed to Pittsburg to hurry up the equipment for his little fleet. He hastened to get additional boats. He hurried them to Erie before the English could intercept them. And such was his alacrity that, by the end of July, his fleet was ready, except for the crews. These arrived slowly. Perry named his flagship the Lawrence, in honor of a gallant American captain who had shortly before died in battle, calling to his men, "Don't give up the ship!" August went by, and the first days of September. Then on the 10th of September, 1813, Perry met the Eng- lish fleet near Put-In Bay. In the American fleet were nine boats, large and small. In the English there were six. But the English six carried more guns than the American nine. Running up a blue flag bearing the brave words of Captain Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" l^erry or- dered his fleet to advance toward the approaching English. The Lawrence with two little schooners forged ahead. The rest of the fleet was delayed in starting, so the first of the English attack fell upon the flagship. Her masts were shot away, her guns were disabled, and she was completely crippled. The English had wrecked Perry's ship. Had they conquered the commander? No! Flag in hand, he slipped over the Lawrence's side, dropped into a small boat, and amidst the whizzing balls of the enemy was rowed to the Niagara. 293 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Taking command at once on this second ship, Perry sailed straight into the enemy's Une and raked the vessels with a deadly fire. The English could not endure long under such conditions, and one by one they struck their flags. With his victory won, Perry went back to the deck of the Lawrence and there received the English surrender. Commodore Perry Leaving the "Lawrence." His message to General Harrison, commanding the army in the west, was written on the back of an old letter. It read in part, "We have met the enemy, and they are ours.'' This victory gave the United States the control of Lake Erie, and the English abandoned Detroit. Other naval victories were ours on the ocean and on Lake Champlain. On the land we did not fare so well. In August, 1814, the English entered Washington and burned the Capitol to the ground. 294 OLIVER HAZARD PERRY However, when, on December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, the United States had gained from England independence for all American ships sailing the seas. Summary In 1812, this country declared war against England, because she persisted in plundering our ships, seizing our sailors, and interfering with our commerce. — In 1813, Commodore Perry achieved a great victory over the Enghsh on Lake Erie. — This victory together with victories on the ocean and one on Lake Champlain, established the reputation of our navy. — In 1814, the Enghsh burned the Capitol at Washington. — In the end the Americans won their cause; and, at the close of 1814, a treaty was signed at Ghent. XXX ANDREW JACKSON THE EMIGRANT'S BOY About the time the injustice of the Stamp Act was common talk in the thirteen colonies, a poor Irish emigrant and his family set sail for America. The father was Andrew Jackson. He and his wife and two sons, Hugh and Robert, landed in America and made a clearing on Twelve Mile Creek, a branch of the Catawba River. After two short years of struggle to gain a living for his family, Andrew Jackson died. The wife was left to care for Hugh and Robert, and a baby boy, who was born on March 15, 1767, a few days after the father's death. The mother named her little boy after his father. And now we have come to the ,hero of our story, Andrew Jackson. On the death of her husband, Mrs. Jackson moved from the clearing, and went to the home of an invalid sister. Here she did what she could to support her children. When the boys were old enough, Mrs. Jackson sent them to school. But school was a sort of bugbear to Andrew. He was not much of a student. He was a thin, barefooted, freckle-faced lad, with reddish hair and eyes of a beautiful clear blue. He loved all out-of-door sports — hunting, running, jumping, and 296 ANDREW JACKSON wrestling. He was so full of tricks and fun that he was called "mischievous Andy." He was very wiry and active; and, although the strong- er boys could throw him three times out of four, he was so quick in getting to his feet that they couldn't keep him down. He was never afraid of the older lads, and always took the part of the smaller and weak- er boys. But Andy had his faults as well as his virtues. One of these was his quick temper, which was always ready to blaze forth. As he grew older he learned to control it; but even then it some- times ran away with him, and he did things for which he was very sorry afterwards. Although still a little fellow when the Revolution be- gan, Andrew took the liveliest interest in it; and when the campaign in the South brought the fighting near his home, he and Robert attached themselves to a band of dragoons. It is hard to tell just what work was assigned 297 Jackson Refusing to Clean the Boots OF THE British Officer. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY to such young boys, but they saw at least one battle during that summer. The next year Robert and Andrew Jackson were cap- tured by the British. One day, while they were prisoners, an officer ordered Andrew to clean his muddy boots. The boy's temper was up in an instant; and he flashed out, "Sir, I'm not your slave. I am your prisoner; and, as such, I refuse to do the work of a slave." Angered at the lad's boldness, the officer raised his sword to strike. Andrew parried the blow, but received two severe wounds, the scars of which he carried to the grave. He and Robert were soon sent to the prison pen at Camden. This was a large yard around the jail. The poor soldiers had no shelter and hardly any food. Some of them had smallpox, and everything was as wretched as could be. Day by day the men waited for the help that did not come. Andrew's mother had been pleading for her sons' release and finally succeeded in getting them exchanged for British prisoners. When they left the prison, both boys had smallpox. Robert died, and An- drew recovered only after a long illness. As soon as his mother could leave him, the patriotic woman went to care for the soldiers on the prison ships in Charleston Harbor. There she took a fever; and she, too, died. Poor Andrew was now left to face the world alone. LAWYER AND FIGHTER At the age of twenty-one, after he had been admitted to the bar, young Jackson joined a party that crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains into Tennessee and settled in Nashville. The freckle-faced schoolboy had grown into a man, six feet and one inch tall, with the same thick red- dish hair and sharp blue eyes. 298 ANDREW JACKSON In 1791 Jackson married. His home during his mar- ried life was on a large plantation not far from Nashville. Here he built a house, which he called "The Hermitage.'* Rich and poor alike were welcome here, and " The Hermi- tage " was always famous for its hospitality. A few years rolled by; and then one summer the Creek Indians attacked Fort Mimms in Alabama and massacred about five hundred men, women, and children who had taken refuge there. Jackson, who had long before been elected Major General of the Tennessee militia, took com- mand of a detachment and marched against the Indians. After this campaign, in which the power of the Creeks was broken, Jackson received the title of Major General in the United States army. The War of 1812 was now in progress; and a few months after subduing the Creeks, General Jackson and his troops were ordered south to keep the British out of the Mississippi Valley. In Florida, which still belonged to Spain, the British had been allowed to land at the town of Pensacola. When Jackson heard of this he marched against the sleepy little Spanish town and drove the British back to their ships. Then he went to the defense of New Orleans, as that city was the key to the Mississippi. The English soldiers sent to take New Orleans were veterans just from the wars with Napoleon. Their foreign victories were still fresh in their minds, and they thought what short work they would make of the backwoodsmen of America. On the 8th of January, 1815, the British made their last advance against the city. All their previous attacks had been repelled by the vigilance and activity of General Jackson. Nor did he mean to be beaten now. "Old Hickory'' was everywhere on that memorable day. 299 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY "Stand to your guns!" "See that every shot tells!" were his commands. And so well did the soldiers obey, that when the battle was over they could claim an over- General Jackson Keeping Watch of the Enemy from the Roof OF His Headquarters in New Orleans. whelming victor}^ The British had lost more than twenty- five hundred men. The saddest thing about the whole war was that the battle of New Orleans was fought after peace had beer 300 ANDREW JACKSON declared. The agreement as you know was made in Ghent; and just because there were no cables or fast ocean steamers in those days, the news of peace did not reach this country until after these many lives had been sacri- ficed. PRESIDENT In 1828, Andrew Jackson was elected President of the United States. As President, he showed the same fear- lessness that he had displayed in battle. The South at this time was opposed to the law which put a high tariff, or tax, on imported goods. The North- ern States wanted this tariff because they were manu- facturing states. They said that Americans ought to buy goods made in America, and that the way to make them support the home industries was to force a high price on foreign manufactures. The Southern States were not manufacturing states, and so had to buy their finished woolen and cotton cloth from either the North or Europe. Before the tariff, they had been able to get it from Europe for less than they could buy it in the North. Now all this was changed. With the duty that must now be paid, foreign cloth was even higher in price than cloth made in the North; so the South was practically forced to buy from the North at her price. The South claimed that this was an effort to enrich the North at the expense of the South. South Carolina, especially, 21 301 d ^-^-^^e^A^^ Ja,^A^ t^>y^ A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY resented such a step and said that she would disobey the law. President Jackson was a southern man, so the South thought that he would not oppose them. Imagine their surprise then, when, at a banquet of southern sympa- thizers, he offered the toast, "The Federal Union. It must and shall be preserved.'' Jackson felt that the Union should stand ahead of the States, and that no state had the right to withdraw from it. When he found that South Carolina was firm in her refusal to pay the tariff, he said, "Send for General Scott.'' Troops were immedi- ately ordered south, and South Carolina withdrew her opposition. Jackson's firmness of decision had put off the day of secession. At the end of his second term of ofHce, Andrew Jackson retired to his plantation home, where he spent the few remaining years of his life in peace and quiet. He will always be remembered for his fearless devotion to what he believed to be right, and will live in the hearts of all loyal Americans as one who helped to preserve the union of our country. Summary During the early years of this country the frontier settle- 'ments frequently suffered from Indian attacks. — The Creek Indians massacred the garrison and refugees at Fort Mimms, Alabama. — Andrew Jackson, who was sent against the Creeks, completely conquered them and broke their power forever in the South. — In the War of 1812, General Jackson drove the British from Florida. — In 1815, he defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans. — He was President of the United States from 1829 to 1837. — When the people of South Carolina refused to pay the tariff on imported goods, President Jackson sent troops into the South to enforce the law. He insisted that all the States obey the Federal laws, that the Union might be preserved. 302 XXXI HENRY CLAY AND DANIEL WEBSTER EARLY TRAINING OF HENRY CLAY Have you ever heard of the " Mill Boy of the Slashes "? He was born in Virginia in 1777, in a part of the country that had many low, swampy lands, called "The Slashes/' This "Mill Boy" was Henry Clay. The neigh- bors often saw him riding to the mill seated on a bag of corn thrown across his horse's back, and the people all along the way called him "The Mill Boy of the Slashes." Although the Clays were poor, Henry was sent to school. Then, when he was fourteen, he went to Rich- mond to work. Later he took up the study of law. As there was little chance in Richmond, Clay, like Jackson, concluded to go west when he had become a full- fledged lawyer. So, when he was not quite twenty-one, he settled down in Lexington, Kentucky, where he hoped his profession as a lawyer would bring him fair returns. He was not mistaken. 303 The Birthplace of Henry Clay. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY And all the while he was gaining popularity. The peo- ple of Lexington and of the whole state loved and admired him. He was not yet thirty years old when they sent him to fill a vacancy in the United States Senate. IN CONGRESS In the Senate, Clay began at once to take part like an old hand at the business. He was all attention and ready to act w^henever any one made a resolution which had to do with "internal improvements." At this time America was at peace with foreign nations, and the country was thriving. Thousands of people were Emigrant and Freight Wagon of Pioneer Days. pouring over the mountains into the fertile regions be- yond. But the roads were poor; there were snags, sand bars, and rapids in the rivers, and the hardships of a jour- ney were great. So, as the West grew, there was constant cry for better roads and for canals and bridges between the East and the West. Henry Clay knew how hard the journey was, because he, too, had been an emigrant. And from the days of his first term in the Senate he became a veritable champion of the cause of internal improvements. One of the most useful of these improvements was the famous Cumberland Road, which in due time vv^as opened from the banks of 304 CLAY AND WEBSTER the Potomac at Cumberland, Maryland, over the moun- tains and across the country, until it almost reached the Mississippi. Clay's first term in the Senate was soon over. But in 1809 he was sent again to fill the unexpired term of another senator. He served for two years, and when the two years were up he was elected a member of the House of Representatives. Late in 1811 Henry Clay arrived in Washington to take his place in the House. On his very first day of service he was chosen Speaker. In this position Clay had great influence, and it was largely due to his leadership that the War of 1812 was brought on as soon as it was. He said that America must stand up for the rights of her sailors, and not allow Eng- land to seize them. He felt and preached that war must come, and war came. New England was against the war. But Clay insisted that a sailor who works or fights for his country has a right to be protected by that country. The flag under which he sails should be his protection. If a country cannot protect its sailors by peaceable means, then it ought to do so by force. The War of 1812 was not much of a success from a military point of view. It was our plucky little navy which taught England that she must keep her hands off American sailors. In 1814 Henry Clay was one of the men who went to Europe to arrange the treaty of peace that put an end to the war. THE GREAT PACIFICATOR In the early days black slaves were brought by ship- loads from Africa and were sold to the colonists. No matter how long or how hard the slave worked, he could 305 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY never earn his freedom; and he might, at any time, be f5old away from his family. Occasionally a master gave a slave his freedom, but this happened rarely. Many of the slaves were kindly treated and had comfortable homes; but others had little to eat and wear, and many hardships to endure. Before the Revolution all the states had slaves. But in the years that followed the war, the North gradually gave up slavery. The Northern States were turning their attention to manufacturing; for their swift-flowing streams gave excellent water power for mills and factories. The negroes of those days were not educated enough to work in the factories, so slave labor was no longer practicable in the North. This fact doubtless made it easier for the North to recognize the evils of slaveholding, and one by one the Northern States declared themselves free states — that is, states opposed to slavery. The South still held firmly to its slave system and intended to do so. With their warm climate and broad stretches of fertile land, the Southern States went on raising cotton, rice, and tobacco. And it is in no way surprising that they saw much good and little evil in the slave labor which was so cheap and which served their purposes so well. Thus, little by little, the difference in business interests between the North and the South led to an ever-growing difference of opinion in regard to slavery. The laws that governed the interests of the North and the South were made in Congress by the representatives of the different states. So it was only natural that North and South should each want on its side as many states as possible, in order to increase the number of its votes in Congress. When Missouri asked to be taken into the Union as a 306 CLAY AND WEBSTER slave state, there were eleven free states and eleven slave states — an arrangement of which neither side could com- plain. Now, if Missom-i came in as a slave state, it would give the controlling votes in Congress to the South. Of course the South was in favor of admitting Missouri. And of course the North was set against such a step. For nearly two years the matter was debated. Neither side would give in to the other. Then Henry Clay per- suaded Congress to make a compromise which promised satisfaction to both North and South. By this com- promise, Missouri was to be taken into the Union as a slave state, on the express understanding that any other states that might be formed from the Louisiana Purchase land north of Missouri's southern boundary should be free forever. The Missouri compromise was adopted in 1820. But even before Missouri succeeded in becoming the twelfth slave state, Maine had been ad- mitted as the twelfth free state. And so neither North nor South could yet claim the balance of power in Con- gress. In 1848 a short war between the United States and Mexico came to an end. And at its close Mexico ceded California and New Mexico to the United States. Here was the old struggle back again. Should slavery be al- lowed in this new land or not? 307 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY California wanted to enter the Union as a free state. Again there was the same number of free and slave states, and again the state asking to come in would give one side the advantage over the other. So again there were hot disputes. These grew^ so bitter that the Union was in danger of being broken up. Once more, as in the case of Missouri, Henry Clay urged a compromise. This com- promise contained so many points that it was called the '^Omnibus Bill." According to Clay's plan, California was to be admitted as a free state ; the people in the rest of the new land were to suit themselves as to how their territory should come into the Union; and the North was to arrest, and send back to their owners, all runaway slaves found in the free states. For two days Clay spoke in the Senate. People had come from far and near to hear him, and all his old charm of voice and manner were used to convince his audience of the advantages of the compromise. He asked the North to yield, and appealed to the South for peace. Then followed a debate which lasted for months, but finally Clay's compromise was adopted. This was in 1850. A fellow Kentuckian told Mr. Clay that this compro- mise would injure his chances of ever becoming president. ''Sir, I would rather be right than be president/' answered Mr. Clay. In two short years after his struggle to keep the states together by his compromise of 1850, Henry Clay died. He has been called the great Pacificator. Though his compromises failed to secure to the country the lasting good he hoped for, they attest his patriotism — his pure love for his country, and his desire to see the Union great and glorious. The name of Henry Clay will always fill a place in the list of America's honored statesmen. 308 CLAY AND WEBSTER DANIEL WEBSTER'S EARLY DAYS One day, many, many years ago, an eight-year-old boy hurried into a New Hampshire village store. His black eyes were bright, and he was eager, for he had come to buy a coveted treasure. On a past visit to the store the lad had seen a cotton handkerchief on which was printed the new Constitution of the United States. How he had wanted this wonderful handkerchief! But it takes money to buy things; and for lack of the price the treasure had been left behind, while the boy went home to save up the needed twenty- five cents. At last he had succeeded and, money in hand, had come to buy the longed-for copy of the Constitution. It was from his printed cotton handkerchief that Daniel Webster learned the Constitution from end to end. Little did he think then that he would ever be called the de- fender of that same Constitution. Daniel Webster was born in Salisbury, — now Franklin, — New Hampshire, in 1782. He was the ninth of ten children. Because of his ill health little was expected of him on the farm, and he was allowed to roam at will over the hills and through the meadows. His companion on these rambles was an old soldier-sailor, who had deserted from the British ranks to help the Americans fight for freedom. And many thrilling tales did he pour into the willing ears of his little listener, which filled Daniel with love for his cou'ntry. Whenever he could, Daniel went to school. As he learned easily and remembered well, he soon came to be considered the brightest boy in his class. Once his teacher promised a jackknife to the pupil who could recite the 309 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY greatest number of verses from the Bible. When Daniel's turn came, he reeled off so many verses that the master had to stop him. There was no question as to who had won the knife. His talents were a delight to his father, who had had little chance himself for study and appreciated what he had missed. Knowing that Daniel's poor health would prevent him from ever doing hard physical labor, Mr. Webster determined to give the boy an education. This was a great undertak- ing in those days, especially to people of small means. For the Websters it meant much sacrifice on the part of the whole family. Mr. Webster told Daniel about the plan and spoke sad- ly of his own lack of school- ing. Daniel was much moved and never forgot his father's words. The next spring Mr. Webster took the boy to Ex- eter Academy. This was Daniel's first step in the outside world, and it proved a bitter experi(>nce for him. The boys at Exe- ter were mostly sons of wealthy parents. They were well dressed and came from cultured homes, and they laughed at Daniel's country clothes and manners. Such treat- ment hurt the sensitive boy, but he had the good sense not to resent it. Although he rose rapidly in his classes, one thing he could not do. He could not face these school- boys and declaim. He invariably failed completely when- ever he was called upon to speak before his schoolmates, 310 Q^Om^ y^^/^Z^^ CLAY AND WEBSTER Alone in his room, he would go over and over what he wanted to say; but as soon as he faced the boys, not a word could he utter. And yet in years to come, this lad was to be one of the greatest orators of modern times. Before he was sixteen, Webster was ready to enter Dartmouth College. During the first two years of life at college, he was not the best student in his class. He was never a scholar, in the true sense of the word; but he had the reputation of being one. Webster himself said that it was because he read so much and remembered so well what he read, that he could talk with ease; and that when he came to the end of his knowledge he was careful to stop and let other people do the talking. Everyone wondered at his elociuence. He had over- come the bashfulness which made his life wretched at Exeter, and now he delighted in nothing so much as hold- ing an audience spellbound by the music of his marvelous voice. IN CONGRESS Webster was graduated from Dartmouth in 1801 and later went to Portsmouth, where he practiced law and took an active part in politics. Soon he was elected to Congress, and took his seat there in May, 1813. There were many noted men in the Jlouse at this time. Among them were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Both were statesmen and born debaters and orators. They were leaders of the Southern States; and, as Webster be- I'iame a northern leader, he was often oj^posed to them on the great questions of the day. One of these questions had to do with the tariff, or duty, on certain imported goods. Mr. Clay, and at that time the South, thought that there ought to be a tariff on these articles to protect the growing American indus- 311 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY tries. Webster did not agree with him and made several speeches against the different tariff laws as they came up from time to time. But when the tariff bill of 1828 was before the House, to the general surprise Webster changed about, and spoke in favor of it and voted for it. The reason for his change was that New England had, by this time, increased her manufacturing and was now in a position to profit by a tariff that placed a tax on competing goods imported from other countries. With New England it was simply a matter of dollars and cents, not one of right and wrong. And being a New England man, Webster changed his views to accord with those of his home section. By this time the South, too, had changed about, and was bitterly opposed to the tariff bill of 1828; for she had found that foreign goods were, on the whole, cheaper than goods made in the North However, the bill was passed and became a law. As a result the enraged southern peo~ pie held mass meetings and declared the new tariff a vio- lation of the Constitution, claiming that Congress had no power to impose duties expect those necessary for the ex- penses of the government. South Carolina even went so far as to say that the law would not be obeyed and that, if force was used, she would withdraw from the Union. In January, 1830, Senator Hayne of South Carolina made a bitter attack on Massachusetts and on Webster, and in the Senate of the United States declared this south- ern doctrine — that any state has the right to disobey the nation's laws. Webster, who was now Senator from Massachusetts, agreed that on the next day he would reply to Hayne. There was some doubt felt as to whether Webster could answer Hayne's arguments. He had only one night in which to prepare what he had to say. But none knew the 312 CLAY AND WEBSTER Constitution better than he, for had he not been a close student of it ever since his childhood days? By the opening hour of the next day the crowd that had come to hear him packed the Senate Chamber. ''It is a critical moment," said a friend; "and it is time, it is high time that the people of this country should know what this Constitution is." The House of Representatives ix the Days of Webster and Clay. "Then," answered Webster, '^by the blessing of Heaven, they shall learn this day before the sun goes down what I understand it to be." His theme was "Nationality." His sole purpose was to strengthen the claims of the Union; to put the Union first and the State second. For four hours he held that vast throng spellbound, while he set forth the meaning of the Constitution. His whole life had been a prepara- tion for this moment. And his closing words, " Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable," m- 313 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY spired all loyal Americans with deeper devotion to the Union. In his "Reply to Hayne" Daniel Webster reached his highest point as a public speaker. More than his elo- quence was the influence of the man himself. Nature had been most lavish with her gifts to him. His voice, face, and form were perfectly suited to an oratxDr. He lacked but little of six feet. He had a swarthy complexion and straight black hair. His head was large and well shaped. His brow was high and broad. His wonderful eyes were deep set, black and glowing. But perhaps his voice was the most remarkable of all. In conversation, it was low and musical. In debate, it was high and full, sometimes ringing out like a clarion and then sinking to deep notes like the tones of an organ. By his splendid defense of the Constitution, Daniel Webster won a national fame which brought with it talk of the Presidency. This high honor dangled before his eyes all the rest of his public life — a dream never to be realized. Through the years of his long public career, Daniel Web- ster had taken much pleasure in his country home at Marshfield near the Massachusetts coast. It was to ]\Iarsh- field that he came in disappointment over his failure to gain the Presidency in 1852. And it was here that he died in October of that same year. From his boyhood he had loved the flag with an inten- sity which increased with his years. And now, when he lay dying, his eyes constantly looked through the window in the dark hours of the night to a small boat anchored at the shore, for over this boat were flying the stars and stripes, lighted by a ship lantern on the mast. Daniel Webster was a true American citizen. His chief desire was to see the nation great and glorious, and he strove with all the ardor and force of his great soul to 314 CLAY AND AVEB8TEK preserve the Union. For years he poured the message of nationality into the ears of the people. He it was who fostered and strengthened this spirit so that, when the South seceded, the North had the courage to perform her mighty task. This is the debt the American people owe to Daniel Webster, and in this lies his importance in the history of our country. Summary While United States Senator from Kentucky, Henry Clay did great service to his country by urging that Federal laws be passed and Government money be appropriated to build roads and make other internal improvements. — Of these the Cumber- land Road was the most important. — As Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1811, Clay was largely responsible for the declaration of war against England. He was one of the makers of the Treaty of Ghent. — The states of the Union came to differ on the question of slavery, the North opposing the system, and the South maintaining its right to use slave-labor. — In 1820, the dispute in Congress over Missouri's petition to be admitted as a slave state was settled by Clay's bill known as the "Missouri Compromise. " — War with Mexico resulted in the United States' acquiring New Mexico and California in 1848. — On the admission of California as a free state in 1850, Clay's "Omnibus Bill" again averted, for the time, war between the states. Daniel Webster, like Henry Clay, worked vigorously to pre- vent the separation of the United States. — He argued that the rights of the individual states should not be allowed to interfere with the good of the Union as a whole. — In 1828, South Caro- lina refused to obey the new tariff law and declared her right to withdraw from the Union. — In 1830, in the United States Senate, Webster replied to Senator Hayne, who upheld the posi- tion of South Carolina, in a stirring speech explaining and defend- ing the Constitution. — Daniel Webster was an able lawyer and statesman, and one of the most eloquent orators of modern times. 315 XXXII SAMUEL F. B. MORSE AND HIS SUCCESSORS METHODS OF SIGNALING "If danger threatens you from our direction, we will warn you by a beacon fire/^ agreed the early inhabitants of neighboring settlements. This way of sending a mes- sage from hilltop to hilltop by signal fires was a custom our ancestors brought with them from across the sea. At best it was uncertain, and the message to be sent had to be agreed upon beforehand. Later another signaling device, the semaphore, came into use to some extent. The semaphore was made by fastening a movable arm to an upright post, the different angles at which the arm was placed indicating the different words of the message. Then during the Civil War, flags and. rockets were used in signaling on the battlefield, and to notify troops of the approach of the enemy. The heliographic system was still another form of sig- naling, and was carried out by reflecting the sun's light from one station to another by means of mirrors. Helio- graph signals have been sent more than one hundred and fifty miles. But even this system had its drawbacks. It was only a daylight and pleasant- weather system, dark- ness or cloudy weather putting an end to communication between the stations. So you see that the invention of the telegraph supplied 316 S. F. B. MORSE AND HIS SUCCESSORS a great and pressing need. Here was a means of rapid communication, one that could be used by night as well as by day, and could carry a message long or short. Samuel F. B. Morse was the inventor of the telegraph. SAMUEL MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH Morse was a Massachusetts boy, born there in 1791. While in college at Yale, Morse had for professors two of the most noted scientists of the day in this country, ^s Signals by Means of the Heliograph. and through them he first became interested in electricity. However, at the time of graduation his ambition was to become an artist, not a scientist. Accordingly he went to London, where he worked for four years with splendid results and where, through his father's influence, he came to know many prominent Englishmen. In 1815 he came back to America and set about earn- 22 317 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ing his living through his art. He seems to have been a true Yankee with an active, inventive mind. At dinner one night, in 1832, when he was returning from another visit abroad, the conversation turned on electricity. Then and there the thought flashed through his mind that this mysterious force might be employed in sending messages. For the next eleven years Morse's principal interest in life was pushing and perfecting the idea of an electric tele- graph. Poor! He was so poor that it was with great difficulty that he managed to carry on his investigations at all. Discouragement followed discouragement; but still he plodded on, always confident of final success. In 1835 he was appointed professor in the University The First Telegraphic Message Sent by the Morse System. of the City of New York. Luckily for him one of his pupils became interested in the experiments and induced his father, the owner of brass and iron works, to furnish the necessary materials. Then came the struggle to raise the money needed to put up a telegraph line. Morse exhibited his apparatus in Philadelphia. He exhibited it in Washington to the President and his Cabinet, and for several years sought an appropriation from Congress with which to build an ex- perimental telegraph line. Finally, in 1843, an appro- priation of $30,000 was granted. The Senate approved the bill late at night on the last day of the session, after Morse had given up all hope of its being reached and had 318 S. F. B. MORSE AND HIS SUCCESSORS gone home to bed. As he was coming down to breakfast in the morning, a young lady congratulated him on his success. Had the Senate passed his bill? He could hardly believe the news. A year later the bearer of the good tidings was asked to send the first telegraph message in this country. " What hath God wrought!" were the words she chose. And on May 24, 1844, this message was flashed from Washington to Baltimore over Morse's new telegraph line. Of course the opening of the line created intense interest; and the Chamber of the Supreme Court, the Washington end of the line, was filled with excited people. The practical use of the telegraph was shown in a rather dramatic way a few days later. The Democratic National Convention was being held in Baltimore, and Silas Wright was unexpectedly nominated for Vice Presi- dent. The news was telegraphed to Morse at Washington, and Wright's refusal of the nomination was quickly sent back to Baltimore, and the convention was told of it. This was beyond belief. It was not possible that a message had really been sent, received, and answered in so short a time. Surely it was some trick of Wright's enemies, noth- ing more nor less. So the convention adjourned, while a committee went to Washington to see Wright in person, only to learn that the message was correct and that he had refused the nomination. Soon after the opening of the telegraph line a young lady came to Morse with a sealed letter and asked him to send it by telegraph to Baltimore. When he said that he could not do that, she asked if he would not send her. These and other queer notions about Morse's invention were held by many when it was first put into operation. The influence of the telegraph was soon widely recog- nized, and Morse richly deserved the many rewards he 319 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY received. By his genius and ability he had contrived a means of overcoming distance, enabhng those separated by many miles to communicate with the swiftness of lightning. CYRUS W. FIELD AND MARCONI After becoming accustomed to the rapidity of com- munication by telegraph, ten days or more seemed a long time to wait for European news. So Cyrus W. Field in- terested himself in plans for the laying of an ocean cable. H. M. S. "Agamemnon" Laying the First Atlantic Cable. Early in 1854 the New York, Newfoundland, and Lon- don Telegraph Company was chartered, and the prelim- inary work was begun. By August of 1857 all the ar- rangements were made; and on the 7th a steamer started from Ireland for Newfoundland, unrolling the cable as it 320 S. F. B. MORSE AND HIS SUCCESSORS went. But after a few hundred miles had been laid; the cable broke; and the attempt was put off for a year. In 1858 another effort at cable-laying proved success- ful, and for eighteen days England and America were con- nected. Messages of congratulation were sent by the Queen and the President, and every one concerned with the undertaking was happy. Then suddenly the cable ceased to work; a break had occurred somewhere. No further attempt was made to carry out Field's plan until 1865, when the Great Eastern, the largest ship of that time, suc- ceeded in laying more than a thou- sand miles of cable. At that point came another discourag- ing break. Mr. Field still persisted, how- ever; and finally in 1866 a cable was successfully stretched across the Atlantic Ocean. Ever since that time there has been cable communication between this country and Europe. There are to-day more than half a dozen cables across the Atlantic and Pacific; and, as far as news is concerned, New York is as near to London and the capi- tals of Europe as it is to Washington. It is indeed wonderful to be able to send messages over a wire across land and sea. But a still more mar- velous invention is now coming into use. This is wire- less telegraphy. The inventor is an Italian, Guglielmo 321 Transatlantic Wireless Station at Cape Breton. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Marconi. By Marconi's system messages can be sent miles through the air from station to station without a wire to carry them. In 1907 a wireless message was sent from a station in Nova Scotia to a station in Ireland and to-day, thanks to this wonderful invention, ships crossing the ocean can keep in constant communication with land. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AND THE TELEPHONE Eighteen hundred and seventy-six was the year of the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, and at that time and place another great electrical invention was The Telephone Exchange at a Central Office. exhibited. But in spite of the fact that the telegraph by land and sea had already illustrated the marvelous uses of electricity, the telephone of Alexander Graham Bell was regarded by people generally as a toy. 322 S. F. B. MORSE AND HIS SUCCESSORS Few, if any, credited that it could ever be of practical service. And yet there is hardly any modern invention that has done as much to add to the convenience of living as has the telephone. We use it to order our meals, to chat with our friends, or to transact business, near at hand or miles away. Most of us use it a hundred times where we use the telegraph once. Summary Samuel F. B. Morse invented the electric telegraph.' The first line was operated in 1844, between Washington and Balti- more. Chiefly through the efforts of Cyrus W. Field, in 1858 a tele- graph cable was laid between England and America: after a few days this cable broke. In 1866 another cable was laid and successfully operated. To-day a number of cables cross the Atlantic and Pacific. Gulielmo Marconi, an Italian, invented a practical system of wireless telegraphy. Alexander Graham Bell invented the electric telephone, first operated in 1876. XXXIII ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 LINCOLN'S BIRTHPLACE On the roughly built bed over in the corner two little children lie asleep. Before the open fireplace the mother and father talk together in low tones. It is winter, and outside a storm is raging. From time to time the wind beats with added fury against the lonely Kentucky log cabin. As its icy breath comes through the cracks between the logs, the mother shivers; and crossing to the bed she tucks the patchwork quilt closer about her chil- dren and spreads an extra deerskin over them. A smaller skin, which is the only cover for the window, is flapping, letting in the cold. This then must be fastened better; and while she is about it, the mother looks to see if the doorway is covered as tightly as it can be. Sure that all is now secure she comes back to the fire and sits down on one of the wooden blocks that serve as chairs. To a stranger this might seem a poor little place, with 324 Where Lincoln was Born. ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 only the hard earth for a floor and only one room to hold the bed, the board table, the wooden bench, the shelf for dishes, and even the old Dutch oven. But to Thomas and Nancy Lincoln it is home, and they are happy in it. Suppose it is cold on a winter's night — summer will soon come again, bringing warmth, sunshine, and a free out-of- door life. Suppose their bread is made from corn meal, and potatoes are about the only vegetable they have — there is always plenty of venison, and other game, or fish, to be boiled in the great iron pot, or broiled over the hot ashes. Things might be much worse. The Lincolns' life is the life of those about them, and they are content in their little log cabin, the birthplace of their boy Abraham. LINCOLN THE BOY Abraham was four years old on the 12th of February 1813. Within a few months after that date, his father sold the farm where the boy was born and moved to an- other about fifteen miles away. This second home was a log cabin much like the old one. Naturally the neighbors were interested to learn some- thing about the new family. They found Thomas Lincoln a cheerful, happy-go-lucky man. He was a carpenter by trade, a farmer by circumstance, and a do-nothing by choice. Nancy Lincoln was a handsome young woman with far more energy than her husband. She was considered very well educated because she could read and write, things which few of her neighbors could do. She was a good housekeeper. She could spin and weave, could use a hoe or an ax as well as Thomas, and was as good a shot. Best of all she was a devoted wife and mother. Then there was their daughter Sarah and the boy 325 A FIKST BOOK IX AMERICAN HISTORY Abraham. Abraham was an awkward, homely child. He wore a rough homespun shirt, deerskin trousers and leggings, homemade shoes, and a coonskin cap. The Lincolns hved on their second Kentucky farm until the fall of 1816. Then the spirit of unrest tempted Thomas Lincoln to move again. This time he took his family to the timber lands of Indiana. The journey ended in a piece of lonely forest. At once the father and son fell to with their axes, chopping trees, cutting poles and boughs. With these they built a ''half-f ace'^ camp fourteen feet square. A " half-face " camp is practically a shed with three walls, the fourth side being open and entirely unpro- tected. In front of this open side the Lin- colns kept a fire burning to shut out the cold. Here they spent their first winter — in fact, their first year in Indiana. By another fall they had cleared a patch of ground, had planted it with corn, and had built a new log cabin. A happy year in the new home went quickly by, and then a great sorrow came. A sickness had broken out in the neighborhood, and Nancy Lincoln took it and died' 326 Sarah Bush Lincoln — Lincoln's Step Mother. ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 Her husband built a board coffin, and the family and neighbors carried her a httle distance from home and buried her. Then the two children followed their father back to the desolate house, where the little girl made shift to do her mother's work. Lincoln Reading at Night. Before long the influence of another good woman came into Abraham's life. Late in 1819 Thomas Lincoln mar- ried a Kentucky widow and brought her to Indiana. She was a sensible, happy, thrifty woman; and Abraham soon loved and respected her. Abraham was very fond of studying and went to school whenever a teacher came along to make this possible, 327 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Most of his reading was done at night when the day's work was finished. Then the boy would curl up near the fireplace and read by the light of the flames. "Robinson Crusoe/' "Pilgrim's Progress/' "^sop's Fables/' a his- tory of the United States, and the Bible, he read over and over. These were his favorites. From the time Abraham was ten years old he was kept busy. When not needed at home, he was hired out to the neighbors at twenty-five cents a day, which was paid to his father. Young Lincoln was very obliging, very capable, and, as he grew older, very powerful. He could and would do any sort of work there was to be done. It was not that he really liked to work. He didn't. But he accepted it as part of life and did his duty the best he knew how. And so with plenty of hard work, many jolly times with his comrades, a little schooling, and all the reading and studying he could find time for, the years passed by, and the boy grew up and became a man. LINCOLN STARTS OUT FOR HIMSELF In February, 1830, Abraham Lincoln became of age. Now he was free to use his time as he liked and to keep the money he earned. But that very month saw a great stir in the Lincoln household. Once more the family were packing up, saying good-by to friends and neighbors, and making ready for another move farther west, this time to Illinois. Two weeks they traveled before they reached the place where they were to build their new cabin. In a short time the cabin was done. And then such a chopping as went on before the men had made rails enough to fence in ten acres of ground! They must have worked fast in- 328 ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 deed, because they not only split the rails but put up the fence, broke the ground, and raised a crop of corn on it that same year. Within a few miles of his father's new house there lived a woman who could weave a material called jeans. As Lincoln had no respectable clothes, he went to her Lincoln's Trip to New Orleans on a Flat Boat. and made a bargain to split four hundred rails for each yard of brown jeans necessary to make him a pair of trousers. Now that he had helped his father move and settle, Lincoln decided to start out for himself. When he left home, he left empty-handed. He had nothing at all to take with him. Even his looks were not prepossessing. He was six feet four inches tall, his hands and feet were 329 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY large, his legs and arms long and loose-jointed. But his muscles were like iron, his endurance remarkable, and his courage beyond question. In the spring of 1831 Lincoln made a trip to New Or- leans on a flatboat belonging to a Mr. Offutt. For a month he stayed in New Orleans seeing life as he had never seen it before. One phase of life in the great city sickened Lincoln. This was the horrors of slave trade. For the first time he now saw men and women sold like animals in a public market. He saw them in chains, saw them w^hipped; and the cruelty of it all raised in him a hatred of slavery, which lasted all his life. When the New Orleans trip was over, Lincoln went to New Salem, Illinois, to be a clerk in Mr. Offutt's store. New Salem was a little town of about fifteen houses and a hundred people. Its women came to the store for supplies; its men came to lounge, tell stories, and talk politics. With all of them Lincoln was soon in favor; for was he not the kindest, the most amusing, the most honest man that had ever come to New Salem? He walked several miles one evening after tlie store was closed to return six cents to a woman who had over- paid him. Once a customer came in for half a pound of tea just at closing time. In the dim light Lincoln weighed out the tea. Next morning he found that he had taken a wrong weight and so had given this customer too little by half. So shutting up shop he carried another quarter of a pound to the belated buyer. For such things New Salem named him "Honest Abe.'' In the spring of 1832 there was an Indian uprising, known as the Black Hawk War. The frontier settlers were in terror, and the Governor called for volunteers to repel the savages. Lincoln was chosen captain of the 330 ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 company from his neighborhood, and marched off to war. In about three months the war was over, and Lincoln was back in New Salem without having fought in a single battle. By this time Mr. Offutt's store had proved a failure and was closed. Lincoln looked about for work. Every- thing considered, keeping store suited him best. As none of the three grocers of New Salem needed a clerk, he and a young man named Berry decided to buy one of the stores. Before they got through with it, they had bought all three — or at least they had taken the stock of all three ^nd had promised to pay for it when they could. The partnership was not a fortunate one. Lincoln wanted so to read and study that he left the management of the store largely to Berry; and Berry was unreliable and worthless. Business was slack, and Lincoln gladly accepted the position of postmaster when it was offered him the next spring. The duties of postmaster at New Salem were not very heavy. The mail usually consisted of a dozen or fifteen letters and a few newspapers. The letters Lincoln carried about in his hat until he saw the people to whom they were addressed. The newspapers he opened and read through before he handed them over. One day soon after Lincoln and Berry opened their store a man drove up. He had in his wagon a barrel, which he asked Lincoln to buy. On dumping it to see what it held, Lincoln discovered a book which proved to be a standard authority on law. He had often wished that he could study law; so he wasted no time in getting to work on this book, which good fortune had tossed in his way. People were now beginning to flock into Illinois. This meant that much land must be surveyed. The county 331 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY surveyor needed all the help he could get; and he offered to make Lincoln a deputy surveyor if he would learn to do the necessary work. In six weeks Lincoln reported that he was ready to begin. Although his surveying brought him in more money than any other work he had tried, he did not get ahead very fast. There was the store with its heavy debt. Un- der Berry's management, conditions there grew worse and worse, until the partners were so discouraged that it was given up. A few months later Berry died, leaving on Lincoln's shoulders the responsibility of paying off their debt of eleven hundred dollars. ''That debt," said Lin- coln, "was the greatest obstacle I ever met in my life. There was however but one way. I went to the creditors and told them that if they would let me alone, I would give them all I could earn over my living as fast as I could earn it." Fifteen years later he was still sending money to Illinois to pay this debt. But " Honest Abe " at last paid every cent. LINCOLN THE LAWYER The summer of 1834 was a busy one for Lincoln. His surveying took him much about the country. Every- where he met new acquaintances and won many friends. And the kindness shown him encouraged him to try for a place in the Legislature. He won. Hardly was the campaign over when he began to study law again. He threw himself into the work heart and soul. Before long he was able to write deeds and other legal papers for his neighbors. That winter and the next he spent in the Legislature, coming back to New Salem for the summer between — the summer of 1835 — to go on with his law study and sur- veying. 332 ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 In September; 1836; he was admitted to the bar. An- other winter was given to the Legislature. And then in the spring of 1837 Lincoln moved to Springfield to accept a partnership with John T. Stuart. He rode into town " on a borrowed horse, with no earths ly property save a pair of saddlebags containing a few clothes.'' Being asked to room with a friend, he climbed the stairs, put his saddlebags on the floor, and announced, ''Well, I'm moved." Now came the years of building up a practice, and making a legal reputation. When he had been a while in the town, a certain Miss Mary Todd came there to live with her married sister. She and Lincoln met, fell in love, and in 1842 were married, LINCOLN THE POLITICIAN For four terms Abraham Lincoln served in the Illinois Legislature. For one term he was a member of the Na- tional Congress. The term ended in the spring of 1849. He came home with the intention of dropping out of politics, and devoting his time to his law practice and his children. But these were the days of the great disputes over the spread of slavery. And how could a man be indifferent who had seen only the awful side of slavery, first in the New Orleans slave market and then in the slave market at Washington? For a time it seemed that Henry Clay's compromises had settled the question of slavery in America's western lands. According to the Missouri compromise, Missouri had come intu the Union as a slave state on the condition that all the states which should be formed from the land north and west of Missouri's southern boundary should be free forever. 23 333 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Clay's second compromise admitted California as a free state, leaving the people on the rest of the land ob- tained from Mexico to decide for themselves whether their states should be free or slave. This was all well and good and apparently gratified North and South alike. However, four short years after Clay's second compromise was adopted, both sides were all excitement again. In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois brought up in Congress a bill to make two territories of the lands beyond Missouri and the Missouri River. The northern of these territories was to be called Nebraska; the southern one, 334 ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 Kansas. And Mr. Douglas wanted the people of Kansas and Nebraska to be allowed to choose for themselves whether or not they should have slaves. The North protested loudly against Douglas's bill. But in spite of the protest, Congress passed it, thus re- pealing the Missouri compromise. A Scene at the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. And now would the new territories be for or against slavery? The South was anxious that they should adopt the slave system. The North was determined that they should be free. With the repeal of the Missouri compromise in 1854 Lincoln's interest in the slave question became so intense that he once more entered politics. And when in the fall 335 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY of that year Stephen A. Douglas spoke in Springfield, justifying the repeal, it was Lincoln who was called upon to answer his arguments. This was only the first of many public debates on slavery between Lincoln and the " Little Giant/' as Douglas was called. In his speeches Lincoln voiced his honest opinion of the great question that was uppermost in all men's minds. He held that in the words "all men are created equal/' the Declaration of Independence meant to say that black as well as white men were entitled to " life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." He said that he firmly believed that slavery should not be allowed in new states; and he stoutly asserted that the Government could not go on half slave and half free; that the future would see the whole country united on one policy in regard to the holding of negro slaves. Most of the debates between Lincoln and Douglas were during the campaign of 1858, when the two men were rival candidates for the office of United States Senator. When the campaign was over, Lincoln was recognized as the abler talker, but Douglas had been elected to the Senate. But could Lincoln have looked even a little way into the future, he would have understood that he had no occasion to be disheartened over this defeat. "Who is this man that is replying to Douglas in your state? Do you realize that no greater speeches have been made on public questions in the history of our country?'' wrote a prominent eastern statesman. And this states- man's letter voiced the reputation which Lincoln's sound logic, his insight into the subject, and his simple direct style were making for him all over the country. The year 1860 was the time for the election of a new National President. This office is the highest honor the 336 ABRAHAM LINCOLN BEFORE 1861 country can give, and Lincoln was nominated the Re- publican candidate for the Presidency. Election day that year came on the 6th of November. By daylight Springfield was astir. About eight o^clock Mr. Lincoln went as usual to his room in the State House and calmly began to look over his mail. But if Mr. Lin- coln was calm, his friends were not. They rushed in and out of his room until some one suggested that it might be well for him to shut them out and rest. No, indeed. Never in his life had he closed his door on his friends, and he did not intend to begin it now. So all day they .came and went, until it was time for Lincoln to go home to supper. A little after seven he was back, and now came the excitement of waiting for news from the different parts of the country. It was nearly morning before the reports were all received, and Lincoln announced that he " Guessed he'd go home now.'' He had been elected President of the United States. Summary In 1854, Congress passed a bill introduced by Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, which provided that the disputed land west of Missouri and the Missouri River should be divided into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, with the privilege of choosing for themselves whether they should have slaves. This action repealed the Missouri Compromise. — When Mr. Douglas de- fended his bill, he was answered in a strong speech by Abraham Lincoln, a lawyer of Illinois. — Lincoln's speeches against slavery, and his wisdom as a lawyer and a member of the State Legisla- ture made him recognized by the Republican Party as a fit man for the Presidency of the United States. He was elected in 1860. 337 XXXIV PRESIDENT LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR THE DIVISION OF THE UNION Although Lincoln was elected President in Novem- ber, I860, he was not inaugurated until March, 1861. In those four months great changes took place in the South. When the thirteen American colonies joined together to form the United States, slavery was general. One by one, however, the northern states became convinced that slavery was doing them more harm than good. So slavery was abolished in the North. The South still held to it. Then, having recognized the evils of the slave system, the North naturally wanted to keep it out of any new states which might come into the Union, The South, on the other hand, saw no harm in holding slaves and wanted slavery spread into America's western lands. At last, through this struggle for the control of the new states, the South came to believe that the North meant to crush slavery even in those of the original thirteen states which still favored it. This was not true. And time and again Mr. Lincoln and the Republican party which elected him stated that their great desire and firm purpose was to shut slavery from the new states, not to interfere with it in the South. Still the South persisted in believing that their theory was right. And the very month after Lincoln's election, 338 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR South Carolina withdrew from the Union. By the 1st of February six other slave states had followed South Caro- lina's example, and before many days these seven had formed a government of their own and named themselves, The Confederate States of America. The six states to follow South Carolina from the Union The Inauguration of Lincoln. were Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. A few months later Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee joined the Confederate States and raised their new flag in place of the stars and stripes. No sooner had the seven southern states declared themselves out of the Union than they began to seize upon the United States forts and arsenals within their limits. 339 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY This was the state of affairs when Abraham Lincoln left Springfield and journeyed to Washington, where he was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1861. The new President fully realized the gravity of the responsibility which had fallen upon him. In his inau- gural address he went over the situation. But while he denied the right of the southern states to secede from the Union and vowed to do all in his power to " preserve, pro- FiRiNG ON Fort Sumter. tect, and defend it,^' he assured the southern sympa- thizers that if civil war came it would be the South that would start it. One month went by, and then the South put a final end to all hope of peace between herself and the North. A southern general demanded the surrender of Fort Sum- ter, in Charleston Harbor. The officer in charge refused. Whereupon, on April 12th, southern batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter and kept on firing until the fort was sur- rendered. 340 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR This was too much. The North was ablaze with re- sentment. So when Lincoln called for seventy-five thou- sand men to defend the Union, more than ninety thousand enlisted. Washington was turned into a veritable camp and put into a state of defense. The men of the South were hurrying to join the Confederate army and rushing to the protection of Richmond, the capital of the Confed- erate States. " On to Washington! " was the cry of the South. " On to Richmond!" rang throughout the North. JULY, 1861— SEPTEMBER, 1862 In July, 1861, the two armies met on the banks of the little Virginia stream. Bull Run. In the beginning the Confederates fell back before the onslaught of the Union troops. Then the southern general, Jackson, came to their rescue. And so like a stone wall did he and his men stand their ground that he was ever after called "Stonewall Jackson." First the Union advance was checked, and then the Union troops were driven from the field. Now came a time of comparative quiet, while each side laid its plans and drilled its forces. Part of the North's plan was to close the ports of the southern states and so keep them from getting supplies from abroad. Well- armed ships were stationed near the mouth of each har- bor and did valiant work, capturing hundreds of vessels which tried to run the blockade. Eight days after the firing on Fort Sumter, the Con- federates had seized the United States navy yard at Nor- folk, Virginia. But before they succeeded in getting pos- session, its Union commander had destroyed the shops and ships. One ship, the Merrimac, had burned to the water's edge and then had sunk. 341 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Soon discovering that her engines were not damaged, the Confederates raised the Merrimac and rebuilt her. This time she was covered with plates of iron, mounted with large cannon, and made into an ironclad war vessel. When the ironclad Merrimac was ready, she put to sea and set out to attack the three wooden vessels from the North, which were riding at anchor in Hampton Roads. Two of the three Union ships opened fire on the strange- The "Merrimac" and the "Monitor." looking sea monster. Their shots could not pierce her iron plates, and the Merrimac came on unharmed. Steadily, steadily she drew near the Cumberland, until, with a mighty crash, she tore a gaping hole in the wooden ship. In rushed the water, and the Cumberland filled and sank. Then turning to the Congress, the Merrimac forced this second ship to surrender, set it on fire, and left it to its fate. The next morning the Merrimac came sailing out to destroy the Minnesota, the last of the three Northern 342 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAK ships. But there beside the Minnesota lay another vessel — a queer-looking affair " like a cheese box mounted on a raft/' It was the new Union warship, the Mo7iitor; and it, too, was ironclad. Never before had two ironclad vessels engaged in bat- tle. For hours they fought without being able to do each other serious damage. The little Monitor had saved the Minnesota and had held in check the dreaded Merrimac. A new era for naval warfare had begun. The Merrimac had done all the damage she was ever to do. Some weeks later the Confederates were, forced to give up Norfolk, and before they went they destroyed their ironclad vessel. The news that the Monitor had repulsed the Merrimac must have been to Lincoln a ray of encouragement in a storm of troubles. When the Avar began, every one felt that a few short weeks would bring its close. But nearly a year had gone by, and still there were no signs of peace. And -everywhere were people willing to blame the coun- try's President because things had not turned out as they had expected. Officers placed in high command proved unfitted for their work. Soldiers deserted, and still others turned cowards in the hour of battle. As commander in chief, Lincoln looked into these cases; and while he was severe on willful insubordination, he was always ready to give a man the benefit of the least doubt. " Leg cases " was the name he gave for cowardice in the face of the enemy. And he was inclined .to show pity to such offenders "because,'^ he said, "if Almighty God has given a man a cowardly pair of legs, how can he help running away with them?" The doorkeepers at the White House had standing or- ders to admit every person who came seeking a pardon for some one condemned to death. In every way Lincoln 343 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY did all in his power to lessen the burden of those made to suffer through the war. In the East the army was still trying to take Richmond, and the Confederates were still successfully fighting them off. Late in the summer of 1862 the southern general, Lee, crossed the Potomac and attempted to march on Philadelphia. The Union troops hurried to stop him. The two forces met at Antietam, where, on September 17th, they fought one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The "Boys in Blue" defeated the "Boys in Gray" and drove them back across the river. But even with so signal a success to encourage them, the North could not see that the South was any nearer giving up than in the beginning. JANUARY, 1863— APRIL, 186c Lincoln constantly turned the situation over in his mind. For weeks he thought about it, until certain facts came to stand out from the rest clear and unquestioned. He was convinced that slavery was not only the cause of the war, but that it was also the means by which the South was keeping up her strength. Did not the slaves raise crops with which to supply the southern army and carry those supplies to the camps? And were they not of the greatest help to the troops in the digging of trenches, the building of fortifications, and the daily work of camp life? To take away the slaves would be to strike a hard blow at the Confederate strength. When elected President, Lincoln truthfully said that he had no intention of interfering with slavery in the South. However, at that time he had taken an oath to preserve, protect, and defend the Union. There now seemed but one way to keep that oath. This was to free 344 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR the slaves. So onNew Year's Day, 1863, Abraham Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, which gave free- dom to more than three million slaves living in the Con- federate States. Month after month the war went on. In June, 1863, General Lee made another effort to invade Pennsylvania, and for the second time crossed the Po- tomac. There were seventy thousand men in his army when it reached Get- tysburg, and there he entered into a three- day battle with the Northern troops. But when, on the third day, utterly defeated, he fell back into Vir- ginia, he had lost more than twenty thousand. This was the last attempt to enter Pennsylvania. The Northern army, President Lincoln and His Son -Tad'! , , , , ., (Thaddeus). too, had lost heavily. This battle of Gettysburg is the greatest and the saddest in our history. While the Eastern armies were fighting at Gettysburg, another battle was taking place in the West. The Union General had been trying for weeks to capture the Con- federate city of Vicksburg. Day and night he had kept up his attack. Night and day his big guns went on shelling the city. At last, on July 4th, the very day 345 A FIEST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY after the Union success at Gettysburg, Vicksburg sur- rendered. The persistent general who had won this victory was Ulvsses S. Grant. Lincoln soon saw in him the one man who could put an end to the war; and in March, 1864, Grant was given command of all the Union armies. At once he made his plans and began to carry them out. Battle followed battle all through that year. In April, 1865, Grant finally raised the stars and stripes over the city of Richmond and a few days later received the surrender of General Lee and his army. That very month the four years' struggle came to an end. The Civil War was closed, and the Union was saved. LINCOLN'S DEATH In the White House the President's family are at breakfast. All are happy, for Robert, the eldest son, has just come home from serving as General Grant's aid-de- camp. There is much for Lincoln and his boy to talk over. But some of it must be kept for another time, as this is a morning on which the President meets his cabinet. By afternoon he is free. The carriage is called, and Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln drive out together. The long years of the war have saddened Lincoln's face and cut deep lines in it. But to-day the lines are softened, and the face is bright. With a smile he turns to Mrs. Lincoln. "Mary," he says, "we have had a hard time of it since we came to Washington; but the war is over, and, with God's blessing, we may hope for four years of peace and happiness; and then we will go back to Illinois, and pass the rest of our lives in quiet." 346 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR Many a friend receives a hearty greeting, many an ac- quaintance a cordial bow. And late in the afternoon the drive is over. Then comes dinner. And all too soon it is eight o'clock, and Mr. Lincoln is due at the theater. This is the 14th of April, 1865 — the night of a benefit perform- ance ; and guests have been invited to share a box with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln. When they reach the theater the play has already begun. But the people in the crowded house are watching the Presi- dent's box; and, catch- ing sight of his tall figure, they rise from their seats and wel- come him with cheers, while the orchestra strikes up " Hail to the Chief!" The play goes on. It is good, and Lincoln listens and laughs and enjoys it all. The players are going through the third act. The people are pleased and do not notice a pale, handsome man who is making his way toward the President's box. Quietly he slips in, stands one instant behind Lincoln, and then deliberately aims a pistol at him and fires. The shot rings out. A woman screams. The mur- derer leaps to the stage and escapes. All is now confusion. 347 Ford's Theater where Lincoln WAS Shot. A FIKST BOOK IN AMEKICAN HISTOKY Some try to follow the murderer; some try to reach the Lincoln box. But in the midst of all the uproar, the President sits quiet. His head has fallen forward on his breast. Strong arms hft him and carry him from the theater to a modest brick house across the way. He is put to bed. His son and friends are sum- moned, and all watch beside him through the night. They have no hope. The assassin has done his work. Slowly the hours drag by. The dawn comes. It is a lit- tle after seven, and Abraham Lincoln has ceased to breathe. The watchers bow their heads. A prayer is said; and in the stillness a solemn voice proclaims, " Now he belongs to the ages.^' House where Lincoln Died. Summary The Republican Party, which elected Lincoln President of the United States, did not intend to interfere with slavery where it already existed. They were only trying to prevent the spread of slavery into the new states and territories of the Union. The South believed the Republicans meant to put an end to slavery in all the states. As they held that every state had the right to decide this question for itself, seven of the southern states seceded from the Union before Lincoln was inaugurated in 1861. These states formed an independent government, called the Confederate States of America. Later they were joined by four other southern states. President Lincoln determined to 348 LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR preserve the Union at any cost. — In April, 1861, the South seized Fort Sumter in Charlestown Harbor, thereby opening war against the Government. — President Lincoln called for troops to invade the South. — The Government attempted to blockade the southern ports. This resulted in a naval warfare, during which, in 1862, iron-clad vessels were used for the first time in history. — In order to cripple the South, on January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in the country free men. — The greatest battle of the war was at Gettys- burg, Pennsylvania, in 1863. After three days of fighting, the southern armies under General Lee were defeated. — In the West, General Grant captured Vicksburg and other Confederate forts. — In 1864, President Lincoln appointed General Grant com- mander of all the Union forces. — In April, 1865, Grant brought the war to a close by the capture of Lee's army and of the Con- federate capital at Richmond, Virginia. — On April 14, 1865, within a week after the surrender, President Lincoln was as- sassinated. 24 XXXV ULYSSES S. GRANT YOUNGER DAYS Ulysses S. Grant^s father was a tanner in Georgetown, Ohio, and owned considerable land outside of the city. Ulysses disliked the tanning business, but loved the farm, especially when he could use the horses. And from the time he was eleven until he was seventeen, he did all the plowing and hauling, besides taking care of the cows and horses, sawing the firewood, and going to school. Just before Ulysses was seventeen, he received an ap- pointment as a cadet to the United States Military Acad- emy and, in May, 1839, went to West Point. The four years at West Point passed rather slowly but pleasantly enough for Grant. He never stood very high in his classes. In French his work was such that he him- self said, " If the class had been turned the other end fore- most, I should have been near the head." On being graduated from West Point, he was commissioned an officer in the United States Infantry. In 1844 the regiment to which Grant belonged was ordered to Louisiana. The young soldier was soon to have his first taste of real war. Some years before, the great state of Texas had made herself independent of Mexico, to which she had formerly belonged. She now asked to become a part of the United States and, in 1845, was taken into the Union. But the 350 ULYSSES S. GRANT Mexicans were not willing to grant her as much land as she claimed. Texas said that her territory extended to the Rio Grande River. Mexico denied this, and said that it extended only to the Nueces River, about one hundred miles north of the Rio Grande. An American army then seized the disputed land — a step which the Mexicans nat- urally resented. Blood was shed, and the result was war declared between the United States and Mexico in 1846. This war. General Grant said in later years, was "one of the most unjust ever waged stronger against a by a weaker nation. '^ However, whether Grant thought the war was just or unjust made no difference. It was his duty as a soldier to fight at his country's call. Late in the summer of 1846, the army under General Taylor was headed for Mon- terey, one of the important places on the road to the City of Mexico. Monterey was built on a high plane, at the entrance to a pass in the Sierra Madre Mountains. The town was well defended. Upon the low flat-roofed houses were soldiers, protected by rows of sand bags. Over the tops of these sand bags the Mexicans could shoot with but little danger of being struck them- selves. And it was only after a four-day battle that the American troops succeeded in taking the town. During this battle Lieutenant Grant performed a most daring feat. Ammunition was getting low, and some one had to go for more. It was a dangerous ride; and as the 351 ^. /.^..^^.^itr A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY General in command did not like to ask anyone to take the risk, he called for a volunteer. Grant promptly re- sponded. Hanging over the farther side of his horse he galloped through the streets so fast that the enemy's shots were always too late to strike him. At another time, when near the City of Mexico, he caught sight of a church with a high steeple. With a few men he took a cannon up into the belfry and showered shots upon the enemy. The city was finally taken, and a treaty was arranged between the United States and Mexico. By the terms of this treaty Texas extended her territory to the Rio Grande, as she had claimed, and New Mexico and California were secured to the United States. In return, the United States paid Mexico $15,000,000. FARMER, BUSINESS MAN, AND GENERAL For the next few years Grant remained in the army. In the meantime he married. Finding that he could not support a family on the pay of an army officer, he resigned his position and became a farmer near St. Louis, Missouri. Here he lived for four years, working hard in good weather and bad, until fever and ague forced him to give up farm life. In 1860 he went to Galena, Illinois, where his father had a store; and in this store he clerked until President Lincoln's first call for volunteers. Then he was selected to take charge of the volunteers of the town, drill them, and take them to Springfield, where they would be assigned to a regiment. Grant was soon made Colonel of a regiment in General Pope's division of the Union army, and in August was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General. 352 ULYSSES S. GRANT At this time the Confederates held forts along the Mississippi River from its mouth to Columbus, Kentucky. They had also Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, and Fort Henry on the Tennessee. General Grant saw the importance of taking these two forts and gaining control of this section of the enemy's country. Fort Henry was the first point of attack. Here the gunboats had the advantage. While Grant with his land forces was wading through the flooded creeks and the deep mud of the roads, Commodore Foote sailed up and took the fort. At Fort Donelson it was different. For three days the land and naval forces carried on a siege. Then the com- mander of the Confederates asked Grant what terms would be allowed if the fort were given up. Grant replied, " No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender 353 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY can be accepted. '^ This was characteristic of General Grant. He was the kindest of men to a conquered enemy, but he was firm and would not budge an inch before he had gained a victory. After the siege of Fort Donelson people said that Grant's initials stood for " unconditional surrender.'' The surrender of Nashville soon followed the capture of Fort Donelson, and General Grant with his victorious soldiers marched along the Tennessee River to Shiloh. Here they were attacked and driven back. But the next day, more Union troops having come, Grant again won a great victory. Another post of vast importance held by the South was Vicksburg, and in the spring of 1863 Grant laid siege to that city. Never was a city more nobly defended than was Vicksburg. Week after week Grant and Sherman kept up their attack by day and by night. Within the besieged city the food became so scarce that a soldier had only one cracker and a small piece of pork for a day's rations. During the last days the Confederates were compelled to use cats and rats for food. In some places the Union and Confederate lines were so close that the Confederates would call across, "Well, Yank, when are you coming into town? " "We propose to celebrate the Fourth of July there," the Union men would call back. " The Yankee soldiers say they are going to take dinner in Vicksburg on the Fourth," said the Vicksburg paper. " The best receipt for cooking a rabbit is, ^ First catch your rabbit.' " The last issue of the newspaper was printed on the back of wall paper on the Fourth of July and admitted that the Yankees had "caught their rabbit." Vicksburg had fallen. When the Yankee soldiers entered the city, all hard 354 ULYSSES S. GRANT feelings between the two armies were at an end. " I my-- self/' said General Grant, "saw our men taking bread from their haversacks and giving it to the enemy they had been so recently engaged in starving out.'' When the Confederate soldiers passed out of the works they had defended so bravely, not a cheer nor an insulting word was uttered by the Union soldiers. After the battle of Chattanooga in the following No- vember, President Lincoln saw that the one man who ought to be at the head of the whole army was General Grant. So he made him Lieutenant General, with the power to manage the rest of the war according to his own ideas. LIEUTENANT GENERAL AND PRESIDENT When Ulysses S. Grant took command of the Uniott forces, there were two Confederate armies in the field, — one under General Johnston in Georgia, the other under General Robert E. Lee, in Virginia. General Grant de- cided that he himself would lead the Army of the Potomac- and march against Lee. Sherman was to conquer John- ston, and then push his way through Georgia to the sea. They were to hammer away at the two Confederate armies- at the same time. General Philip Sheridan was put in charge of the cav- alry of the Army of the Potomac, and made it his business- to torment Lee's army as much as possible. He captured its supplies in the Shenandoah Valley. He destroyed miles of railroad and telegraph lines. He defeated Lee's cavalry in several battles. In fact he made the United Stated cavalry seem like a swarm of hornets, buzzing around the Confederate army. He burned so many barns, and mills stored with grain, that some one said, " If a crow wants to fly down the Valley, he must carry his provisions with him." 355 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY In the meantime General Grant and General Sherman were "hammering away'' at the enemy. Sherman went first to Atlanta, conquering the troops that he met on the Y ^ (j(--ttysbuit;, p \vHaI•ri:^bu^g■ ■Jv I N;. I:, A^ : rhiladelphia'^ ■\^ "Wihiiiiigtou /^j^^ Appom^tii Frederick "; ^^J ^ ..'^^ ' ■■V; V^ <^Baltiinnn-(^.'/ ;>' 1 y; 1 Oaks ^ \. ^. "^^ ^ ^ "JN ve Forks, ■ -— sburi; ^ '^-T:iY„rkWn ^J^^, The War in the East. way. Then, having taken Atlanta and destroyed every- thing that might be of use to the Southern army, he began his famous march to the sea. On the 22d of December, 1864, Sherman telegraphed to President Lincoln, "I beg 356 ULYSSES S. GRANT to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah."' His army had mowed down everything in the way and had reached the coast. He now turned northward to march through the CaroUnas and advance upon Lee from the south. But General Grant did not need Sherman's help. He had met the Confederates in several fierce battles in the The Surrender of General Lee. "Wilderness," the desolate woody region south of the Rapidan River. His losses had been great; but in spite of everything he would not turn back. "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer/' he insisted. Then he turned his attention to Petersburg, south of Rich- mond; and the city was captured on April 2, 1865. On the fall of Petersburg, Lee withdrew his army along 357 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 'the Appomattox River. The next day, April 3d, the Union army marched into Richmond; and for the first time in four years the stars and stripes floated over the capital of the Confederacy. It was at Appomattox Court House, about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, that General Lee, Commander in Chief of the Confederate army, finally surrendered to Gen- eral Grant. This was a few days after the fall of Rich- mond. General Lee was tall, handsome, and noble look- ing. Dressed in a beautiful new Confederate uniform he looked most splendid beside the plain, round-shouldered, quiet man, in rough soldier's dress, with nothing but the straps on his shoulders to tell that he was Lieutenant General of the Union army. In the terms of surrender Grant's usual kindness showed itself. He would not take the officers' swords and allowed the soldiers to keep their horses, as they would need them for the spring plowing. The men in the Union lines, hearing that Lee's army had surrendered, were about to fire a salute of one hundred guns in honor of the victory. But Grant would not allow his men to rejoice over a fallen foe, and forbade the firing. When the news of Lee's surrender reached Sherman's army, the men went nearly wild with joy. They shouted, threw up their caps and turned somersaults. Indeed the whole country rejoiced that the long, hard war was ended. But into the midst of all the joy came the appalling tidings of President Lincoln's assassination. When a new President was to be elected in 1868, there was but one man great enough for the place. That was the Ohio plow- boy, the quiet modest soldier, the Commander in Chief of the Army of the United States. '^Let us have peace," he said in accepting his nomina- tion. And during the eight years of his presidency Grant 358 ULYSSES S. GRANT fought as hard for peace as ever he had fought in war. The Southern States were once more received into the Union; and, in 1871, for the first time in more than ten years, there was a representation of all the states in Con- gress. HONORS AND DEATH At the end of his second term, General and Mrs. Grant took a trip around the world. Great men gathered to see them off. Crowds lined the shore, greeting them with cheers. Bells rang and whistles sounded. When the steamer arrived in Liverpool, it was welcomed with even greater display. In France, Germany, on the Mediterra- nean — everywhere, it was the same. At last, after traveling through Asia, he sailed eastward across the Pacific to San Francisco, and was received home at the west gate of the country. On July 23, 1885, General Grant died. During the hour of the funeral, services were held over the entire country. Thousands followed his body to the vault where it was laid. 359 The Tomb of General Grant A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY April 27th was the anniversary of Grant's birth, and on that day in the year 1897 his casket was removed from the vault and carried to a splendid mausoleum raised by his countrymen on Riverside Drive in New York City. Over the portico are his words, "Let us have peace." Summary Ulysses S. Grant served as an officer in the Mexican War. — In the Civil War he was, for a time, commander of the army of the West, and later of the entire Union forces. — For eight years he was President of the United States. — The Mexican War was caused by the United States, in 1846, seizing a tract of disputed land between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River. As a lieu- tenant under General Taylor, Grant took part in the capture of Monterey and the City of Mexico. In 1848, the war was closed by a treaty which gave to the United States the disputed land and the Mexican territories of New Mexico and California in return for $15,000,000.— In 1863, General Grant, by his cap- ture of Vicksburg and other Confederate forts proved himself a great commander. — As commander of the entire Union forces, Grant ordered General Sherman to march across Georgia to the sea, in order to prevent General Johnston's army in Georgia from joining Lee's in Virginia. Sherman captured Atlanta and Savannah and plundered the country between. — Assisted by General Sheridan's cavalry. Grant conquered Virginia from the Shenandoah Valley to the coast. In April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House, and the war was ended. — As President of the United States, from 1869-1877, Grant labored to restore the Southern States to their former position in the Union. In 1871, all the states of the LTnion were again represented in Congress. XXXVI ROBERT E. LEE BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR While reading of the courage and wisdom of the men who fought for the Union, one must not forget that there were two sides. Among the men who fought for the South were some of the bravest soldiers and truest men in all history. Numbers of them belie^^ed that slavery was right; that the negroes were created to be slaves, and that only as slaves could they be taken care of. Others knew in their hearts that slavery was wrong. But they thought that it could not be blotted out in a single day. They felt that the negro slaves could not be turned loose as free men without homes or means to care for themselves. One of the men who believed in this way was Robert E. Lee, and it is his story that I am going to tell. Between the Rappahannock and the Potomac rivers in Virginia lies the county of Westmoreland. Here, in the midst of broad lawns and mighty trees stood stately Stratford, the home of "Light-Horse Harry Lee,'' a brave cavalry commander of Washington's, during the Revolu- tion. And here, in 1807, "Light-Horse Harry Lee's" son, Robert E. Lee, was born. As he grew older, Robert decided, like his father, to be a soldier. He obtained an appointment to West Point and entered in 1825. He was graduated second in his class and was assigned to the engineer corps of the army. 361 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY On the Virginia bank of the Potomac near Washington stands Arlington, a beautiful old house with broad porti- coes. In Lee's youth this was the home of George Wash- ington Parke Custis, the adopted son of George Washington. One June evening, two years after Robert Lee had left West Point, Mr. Custis's great house was aglow with a hundred lights, and strains of wedding music floated out across the lawn. Before the altar stood the bride and groom, Mary Custis and Robert E. Lee. It was through this marriage that Lee later came into posses- sion of Arlington. From the time of his marriage until the outbreak of the Mexican War, Lee remained an army engineer. During the Mexican War he did gallant service. The war over, he continued his work as engineer. The year 1852 saw him made superintendent of the military academy at West Point. In 1855 Congress formed two new regi- ments of cavalry. As Lieutenant Colonel of one of these regiments, Lee was sent to Texas, where he was stationed until that state seceded from the Union. COMMANDER OF THE CONFEDERATE FORCES In the life of many men there comes a time when they must choose between two things, both of which they dearly love. That time had now come to Robert E. Lee. 362 EGBERT E. LEE During the beautiful days at Arlington, in the spring of 1861, his soul struggled with the choice between loyalty to the Government under which he had fought and loyalty to the South. In April, President Lincoln offered him the command of the Union army that was being prepared to invade the South — to invade his own state, his father's state, his home. Lee refused the offer and two days later sent in his resignation from the United States army. To his sister in Baltimore he wrote, " I have not been able to make up my mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my children, my home.'' Having taken his stand, Lee went from Washington to Richmond, leaving his beautiful Arlington to fall into the hands of the North- ern army. In Richmond he was made Commander in Chief of the Virginia forces. Before long Mr. Jefferson Davis, President of the Con- federacy, came to Richmond; and that city was made the capital of the Southern Government . General Lee knew that Virginia would be the great battlefield for the two armies. There were two moves to be made: to defend Richmond, and to try to make a counter attack upon Washington. On July 21st, the Union troops attacked General Beauregard at Manassas, or Bull Run. Beauregard's men were beginning to fall back when General Jackson advanced upon the center of the Union line and drove the troops back to Washington. In this case defeat really helped the North more than victory helped the South. The North saw that war was on in deadly earnest and that serious preparations must be made. The South, however, grew overconfident through its first victory. In 1862 General Lee was made Commander in Chief, under Jefferson Davis, of all the armies of the Confederacy; and in June he took command of the troops defending 363 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Richmond. Already the invading army under General McClellan had crept so close that the roar of its cannon could be heard in the city. Lee planned to attack McClel- lan's army and drive it away. Looking about for a man who would have the courage and quickness to go out and explore the enemy's right, he chose ''Jeb" Stuart, a dashing young cavalryman. Lee made no mistake in his choice. Within forty-eight hours Stuart had rid- den entirely around McClellan's army and was back in Richmond, besides having torn up rail- roads and destroyed provisions in the enemy's rear. From June 25th to July 1st, Lee and McClellan fought what are known as the " Seven Days' Battles." By these battles Lee suc- ceeded in forcing McClellan to retreat, though in the last, at Malvern Hill, thousands of the brave Confederates lost their lives. About two months later the Northern General, Pope, led his army against Richmond. Lee and Jackscn ad- vanced to meet him and won the second battle of Ma- nassas, or Bull Run. Pope fell back to Washington, de- feated, and gave up his command. Then followed Lee's advance across the Potomac and his retreat after the terrible battle of Antietam. 364 A PoNTOo:n iJixLOGB. ROBERT E. LEE Late in 1862 General Burnside took charge of the Northern army and pushed toward the Rappahannock. No sooner had Lee discovered Burnside's move than he and his army took possession of the Heights near Freder- icksburg, through which Burnside would pass on his way to Richmond. At dawn one December morning, when Burnside's men tried to throw their pontoon bridges across the river, Confederate guns boomed out the signal which called Lee's men to arms. Instantly the riflemen began to pick off the bridge builders. The Union army was delayed on the river bank for many hours; and when finally they did cross, they found Lee well pre- pared and the Confederates stationed in the best positions. The battle was begun on the morning of the 13th. All day long the Confederate soldiers, many of them barefoot, stood in the Decem- ber snow and created havoc among the enemy. Only once did General Meade, later the victor of Gettys- burg, break through a gap in Jack- son's lines; and then he was quickly driven back. By nighttime Burnside's army had been beaten, and Burnside, with the men that were left, recrossed the river. In the spring of 1863 "fighting Joe Hooker" was in command of the Union forces in Virginia. At the head of a splendid army of one hundred and thirty thousand men, he felt sure of defeating Lee, who had less than half that number. For this purpose he marched toward Chan- cellorsville, to the west of Fredericksburg, where Lee's army was still encamped. But Lee did not wait for Hooker to carry out his plan. With Stonewall Jackson, 25 365 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Lee moved promptly forward and confronted Hooker's main body in a tangled forest, only a few miles from Chancellorsville. Here a two days' battle took place. The Confederates won the fight, but their victory cost the life of Stonewall Jackson. In June, 1863, came Lee's daring invasion of Pennsyl- vania. And in July the South received the double blow of Gettysburg and Vicksburg. Lee's army was compelled to retreat to Virginia, and from this time on Lee was constantly worried about his ragged, hungry men. At Richmond his wife and daughters with flying needles were knitting socks for the soldiers. The General wrote to Mrs. Lee, "Tell the girls to send all they can. I wish they could make some shoes too. We have thousands of barefooted men." SURRENDER You remember that in the spring of 1864 General Grant was put at the head of the Union army and led the Army of the Potomac into Virginia. Then followed the terrible Wilderness campaign in which the ranks of the Confederates grew steadily thinner, and the men grew gteadily weaker from lack of food and clothing. Yet even in the Wilderness there were victories for the Confederates. At Cold Harbor they held back the Union lines with frightful slaughter. It was here that a hungry soldier had his only cracker shot from his hand. "The next time I'll put my cracker in a safe place down by the breastworks where it won't get hurt, poor thing," he said. In spite of much hard fighting, "On to Richmond!" was still Grant's cry. He knew that if he could take Petersburg to the south of Richmond, it would be an easy matter to capture Richmond at last. For over nine long 366 ROBERT E. LEE months Lee bravely defended Petersburg, his men ever growing fewer and weaker, and arms and ammunition be- coming scarcer. Between Grant and Sherman the work- shops had been destroyed, and there was no way of getting new suppUes. On the first Sunday morning in April, 1865, a boy came into the church where Jefferson Davis was Ustening to the sermon and handed him a telegram. It was from Lee. " I can no longer defend Petersburg," it said. " You must give up hope of sav- ing Richmond." The next day, as Grant rode through the deserted streets of Petersburg, Lee was leading his army along the banks of the Appo- mattox. Grant pur- sued Lee to Appo- mattox Court House. Though General Lee felt that he must save the remainder of his men for their wives and children at home, he declared, "I would rather die a thousand deaths than surrender." There were five houses at the place caUed Appomattox Court House. The largest was a square brick house; and here, on April 9, 1865, General Grant and General Lee met to arrange the terms of the surrender. After the meeting Lee rode up to break the news of his surrender to his brave troops. They crowded about him eager to shake his hand, to touch his horse; and tears ran down their cheeks as they looked upon their beloved 367 House where General Grant and Gen- eral Lee Arranged the Terms of Surrender. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY leader. "Men," he said, "we have fought through the war together. I have done my best for you. My heart is too full to say more.'' The war over, the trustees of Washington College in Virginia begged Lee to become its President. For five years he directed the affairs of the College, beloved by the students as he had been by his soldiers. On a September day in 1870, he was stricken with an illness from which two weeks later- he died. From far and near the old Confederate soldiers gathered to escort their leader to his last resting place. Behind the hearse walked Lee's riderless horse. Traveler, his trap- pings all in black. , In Richmond there now stands a statue of Lee mounted on Traveler. It is a tribute to a great soldier and a true gentleman. Summary In 1861, Robert E. Lee of Virginia was an officer in the army of the United States. — When the Civil War began he decided to serve the South, and was appointed by Jefferson Davis, Presi- dent of the Confederacy, to command the Virginia army. — Lee's plan was to defend Richmond, the capital of the Con- federacy, and to attack Washington, the National capital. Assisted by General Beauregard and "Stonewall" Jackson, he ably defended Virginia. — In 1862, General Lee was made com« manding general of the Confederate forces, and for some time carried on a successful campaign. — After the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg in 1863, and the surrender of Vicksburg, the strength of the South steadily declined. — Lee defended Petersburg through a nine months' siege to keep the Union army from Richmond, but finally surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House, April 9, 1865. 368 XXXVII DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT MIDSHIPMAN One day a man in a splendid uniform paid a >visit to David Farragut's father at his home near New Orleans. He was Commander Porter of the United States Navy. He asked that he be allowed to adopt one of the mother- less Farragut boys and train him for a career in the navy. The chance was offered to eight-year-old David. David wanted to go, and he said good-by to his father whom he was never to see again. Commander Porter returned to Washington, and David went with him. There he met the Secretary of the Navy, and was promised a midshipman's warrant as soon as he should be ten years old. The promise was not forgotten. Not long after he had passed this tenth birthday, his foster father was given the command of the frigate Essex and took the little midshipman into his service. During the War of 1812 the Essex under Porter, with Midshipman Farragut on board, started on a cruise around Cape Horn to destroy the British whale-fishing in the Pacific. On this voyage Farragut found that whatever no one else had time to do was a midshipman's work during a fight. He carried messages for the Captain, brought powder for the gunners, and did his duty so well that when Cap- tain Porter sent home his dispatches to the United States, David Farragut was one of those mentioned for bravery. 369 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY OFFICER IN THE NAVY For the next few years after the close of the War of 1812, Farragut sailed the Mediterranean and fought the pirates of the West Indies. In 1854, he was sent to the Pacific coast, where a navy yard was to be built on Mare Island near San Francisco. To plan and construct this yard was an important task, and Farragut was just the man to do it well. Four years were given to the work, and then he re- turned to the East. He was now a captain and was given command of the Brooklyn, one of the first steam war- ships in our navy. After a two years' cruise on the Brooklyn, Farragut left the ship and went to Norfolk, Virginia. A few months later the war between the North and the South broke out, and our captain had a new query to settle. Farragut was born in the South; his home at this time was in Norfolk, and most of his friends were Southerners. Now came the question, should he side with the South, his old home, or should he follow the flag for which he had worked and fought for nearly fifty years? Farragut and his Norfolk neighbors met daily and dis- cussed the great questions before the country. He ex- pressed his opinions fearlessly, but he soon saw that his friends did not agree with him. One day one of them said, "A person of your sentiments cannot live in Nor- folk.^' "Very well,'' he replied, "I will go where I can live with such sentiments." And he moved to a little village on the Hudson River, called Hastings. The time was not far away when the North needed just such a man as Farragut. 370 DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT NEW ORLEANS The South held possession of New Orleans and th^ mouth of the Mississippi, both of which the North wanted to control; and in 1862 Farragut was ordered to go and take them from the South. So with a large Union fleet he sailed for the mouth of the Mississippi. Once there, it took him two weeks to get the ships across a bar formed at the mouth of the river by its mud deposits. This w^as only the first obstacle that lay in the path. Beyond the bar, the Confederates had stretched across the river two great cables on hulks. Beyond the cables were two forts, one on each side of the river; and still beyond was a Confederate fleet. Farragut 's operations were begun by storming the two forts for six days and nights, but with no success. Then he decided to run his ships past the two forts and on to New Orleans. This was easier said than done. First a passageway for the ships must somehow be made through the cables. To break these the brave commander of the steamer Itasca ran her under the fire of both forts straight up against the chain. It snapped. The hulks drifted apart and made a breach large enough for the warships to pass through. Soon the signal was given to weigh anchor and move up the river. In single file the vessels set out to run the gantlet of fire, ^vhich was sure to greet them from the forts. The Cayuga ran through the breach unharmed; but, as the second boat passed the barrier, the guns of the two forts blazed forth. The ships' broadsides answered, and flying shells filled the air. Down the river came a flaming fire ship straight for the flagship Hartford. Farragut was helpless to get away. The flames from the fire ship leaped up, and soon the Hart- 371 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ford was ablaze. Men were detailed to fight the flames while all the time the gunners loaded, fired, and reloaded their guns. At length the flames were put out, and the flagship once more started upstream. On went the Union boats. They had passed the bar, the cables, and the forts. Ahead of them now lay the Confederate fleet. Fiercely did Farragut's ships rush to the attack, and in short order they overcame this last obstacle to their advance. When the people of New Orleans saw the Union fleet coming, they became desperate. They sent rafts of burn- ing cotton bales downstream. They set fire to cotton- laden ships, smashed hogsheads of molasses and sugar, and destroyed property right and left to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Union men. In the last week of April, 1862, Captain Farragut sent men ashore at New Orleans to haul down the Confederate flag from the public buildings and to run up the stars and stripes instead. After the city was taken, the forts were soon captured, and the North had control of the mouth of the Mississippi. MOBILE BAY After the fall of New Orleans the next fort on the Gulf to be considered was Mobile Bay, and in 1864 Farragut undertook to conquer this port. Two forts near the en- trance to the bay protected the city of Mobile, and these had to be passed by Farragut's ships before they could encounter the Confederate fleet which lay inside the bay. In this fleet was an ironclad ram — the Tennessee. The Confederates had made great preparations against the attack. A triple line of torpedoes had been laid in the channel, and the forts had been strengthened in every way possible. 372 DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT Farragut had four ironclad monitors, besides twenty- one wooden vessels. He ordered his wooden ships lashed together in pairs, a larger with a smaller. Then, with the stars and stripes floating from every peak and masthead, early on the morning of August 5, 1864, the entrance into Mobile Bay was begun. Farragut wanted to lead the column in his flagship, the Hartford; but his officers begged him not to do it. They felt that the commanding officer ought not to be exposed to the great- est danger. So, to please his men, Far- ragut gave in, and the Hartford, with her running mate, took second place in the column of wooden ships. In order to see things more clearly, and to be able to di- rect the movements of the fleet to better ad- vantage, Farragut climbed into the rigging; and, as the smoke of the guns became more dense, he went higher and higher until he was close under the maintop. Here he had a good view of the whole field of battle, and, by bracing himself against the shrouds, could use his spyglass. The four ironclads were in single file, a little ahead of the wooden vessels. The Tecumseh was leading the line. Suddenly she ran into a torpedo; and Farragut, from the 373 Farragut Entering Mobile Bay. A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY rigging of the Hartford, saw her plunge below the water and disappear. The Brooklyn, in the first rank of the wooden ships just behind, began to back, and thereby caused confusion in the line of ships in the rear. This was the supreme moment of Farragut's life. To go on meant the raking fire of the forts, the torpedoes, the Confederate fleet, and possible victory. To turn back meant a crushing and humiliating defeat. "Full speed ahead!" he shouted down. And passing by the Brooklyn, the Hartford dashed straight at the line of torpedoes. As the flagship passed over them, they could be heard knocking against the bottom of the ship; but none exploded. With the flagship safe beyond this danger, the other ships followed; and the attack on the Confederate fleet began. One Confederate gunboat was destroyed by fire, one was captured, and one ran away. Then, coming down from the Hartford's rigging, Farragut was just telling his signal officer to order his fleet to drop anchor when a shout arose. The ironclad Tennessee, which had with- drawn from the battle and had been lying under the pro- tection of one of the forts, was boldly approaching to fight the entire Northern fleet. Farragut ordered each of his monitors to attack the monster. The wooden vessels also were ordered to charge the Tennessee at full speed. Down they rushed upon the ironclad, striking her with all their force, although their bows were crushed by the blow. The monitors did their part by keeping up a ceaseless fire until the Tennessee's steering chains were shot away, her smokestack destroyed, and her commander wounded. She had made a bold fight and lost. To surrender was all that was left for her, and she surrendered. Thus ended the battle of Mobile Bay. "One of the 374 DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT hardest earned victories of my life, and the most desperate battle I ever fought since the days of the old Essex/' said Farragut. Soon after the surrender of the Tennessee, the forts were captured, and the victory was complete. Farragut 's work in the Gulf was now done, and he sailed for the North. Great was the reception given him when he reached New York! The citizens formally invited him to make his home among them and gave him fifty thou- sand dollars to enable him to do so. And for his faithful, loyal, continued service to his country. Congress, 'at the close of the war, created a new and higher rank in our navy and named David Glasgow Farragut the first Amer- ican Admiral. Summary David Glasgow Farragut was the first and greatest admiral of our navy. — He was a southerner who, in 1861, remained loyal to the Union. — His greatest victories were at New Orleans and Mobile Bay. In 1862 he ran his vessels between the fire of Con- federate forts on the Mississippi and took possession of New Orleans and the mouth of the river. In Mobile Bay, in 1864, his ships fought and captured a Confederate fleet, conquered the harbor forts, and opened the port to the Union army. — At the close of the war, Congress created in our navy the rank of Admiral to which it named Commodore Farragut. XXXVIII GEORGE DEWEY '♦THE HERO OF MANILA" The splendid battleship Maine rode peacefully at anchor in Havana Harbor. Over her floated the stars and stripes. Cuba was in revolt against Spain, and the little island was suffering tortures from Spanish cruelties; but the United States battleship was there to take no part in the war. She was a neutral vessel, merely paying a visit to the harbor. It was the 15th of February, 1898, and the officers and sailors aboard the Maine were performing their daily duties. Suddenly there was a tremendous explosion, and two hundred and sixty-six American seamen were killed. The Maine had been blown to pieces, and all that was left of the splendid battleship was a mass of wreckage. What caused this frightful disaster? Who was re- sponsible for the dastardly deed? Was the explosion an accident, or was it a piece of Spanish treachery? Ameri- cans north, south, east, and west clamored for an explana- tion. A Court of Inquiry was appointed to sift the matter to the bottom and find the cause. And after many days came the report, "The Maine was destroyed by the ex- plosion of a submarine mine.^' It was late in March when the Court of Inquiry made its report. In April, Congress resolved to recognize the 376 GEORGE DEWEY independence of Cuba, and demanded that Spain give the Cubans their liberty. Spain refused. Then the United States resolved to take up arms in Cuba's behalf. Troops were called out. Ships were sent to blockade the Cuban ports. President McKinley telegraphed Commodore George Dewey, in com- mand of our Asiatic squadron at Hong Kong, China, to go at once to Manila and to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet guarding that port. With all dispatch Dewey started for the Philippine The "Maine." Islands, and the last night of April saw his six war vessels outlined in the moonlight off Manila Bay. Before them opened the harbor, planted with subma- rine mines and protected by Spanish batteries. In the harbor lay the fleet Dewey had come to " capture or de- stroy.^^ And he meant to do it, cost what it might. Through the darkness of the night, the moonlight having waned, his flagship, the Ohjmpia, led the way. By day- light the ships were off Manila and were fired upon by five batteries and the Spanish fleet. Two mines exploded ahead of Dewey's flagship, but failed to harm it. 377 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY In line, one behind another, our ships advanced to battle. Commodore Dewey was on the flagship's bridge. At last the moment of attack came, and Captain Gridley heard him say, "You may fire when ready, Gridley.'* Our squadron opened fire at 5.41 that morning. About 7.30 the signal went up to stop firing and to withdraw from action. What had happened? The Commodore had tried to find out how many rounds of am- munition were left on his ship, and by mis- take had been told that only fifteen re- mained. That could not be! But to make sure, the ships were ordered to withdraw from the battle. While the crews had break- fast, the officers con- sulted and learned that all was right with the ammunition. Then back to the battle went the Ameri- can ships, and in an hour and a half the Spaniards ceased firing. Their ships had been sunk, burned, or riddled; and Dewey's work was done. Throughout May and June the war went on. Then in July an American fleet destroyed another Spanish fleet in the harbor of Santiago. And a few days later the city of 378 Dewey on the Bridge of the "Olympia." GEORGE DEWEY Santiago was surrendered to an American army. The Spaniards had now had enough and sought terms of peace. The treaty which closed the war gave the Cubans their freedom and ceded to the United States Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, for which we agreed to pay $20,- 000,000. Summary In April, 1898, the United States declared war against Spain to force that country to free Cuba. Cuba was under military rule, and the Cubans were oppressed and ill'-treated. — The previous February the United States battleship Maine had been wrecked in Havana Harbor, supposedly by Spanish autnority. — Commodore George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippine Islands. — When the Spanish fleet in the Harbor of Santiago, Cuba, had been de- stroyed and the city of Santiago had surrendered, the war was over. — By treaty, Cuba became independent; Spain ceded to the United States Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, for which the United States paid $20,000,000. XXXIX THOMAS A. EDISON NEWSBOY AND TELEGRAPH OPERATOR The flaming pine knot used long ago burned well, and pine was easy to get. But it smoked and dripped tar in the cabins of the early house- wives, so candles came to take its place. Candles give a mellow light. But they were expen- sive to buy, and it was tedious to dip, dip the twisted wicks in the melted tallow, so whale- oil lamps were introduced. Then some fifty-odd years ago whale oil was pushed aside for kerosene, which sup- plies to-day the customary light of the farmers' houses. Many people in towns and cities as well still use the kero- sene lamp, but unlike the isolated farmer they do so from choice. The city houses of the present may be lighted by the soft light of gas or the steady glow of Thomas Edison's electric bulb. Thomas Edison's father was not well to do, and very early Thomas had to begin to earn money. He was 380 Copyright, Pack Bros., N. F., 1906 Thomas A. Edison. THOMAS A. EDISON twelve years old when he became newsboy on the Grand Trunk Railroad, and a pretty shrewd newsboy he was too. He soon learned that exciting news sold better than dry items, and he would run over a paper's headlines and judge how many he could sell before deciding how many he would buy. What is more, he printed the only newspaper ever printed on a train — a little paper full of railroad gossip. One thing that especially fascinated the newsboy was the click, click of the telegraph. Endless questions were put to the operators along the road. Then came a day when the little child of a station agent was playing on the track, all unnoticed. Down upon it came a freight train, nearer and nearer. When it was almost too late, Edison spied the child. Like a flash he made a dive, grabbed the baby, and cleared the track without a moment to spare. The grateful father could hardly do less than teach Edi- son how to telegraph. Night lessons began, and in a few months the newsboy had become an excellent telegraph operator. To the train boy this had seemed a fair ambition, but now that Edison knew how to run the machine he wanted to perfect it. So he studied his work, spent his money for books, and made experiment after experiment, which have resulted in more than one priceless improvement. He was engrossed in his work and disliked interrupt tion. The manager of his cir- cuit had found from experi- „ ^ ^ Telegraph Instrument. ence that operators were not always on hand, and he insisted that each operator should signal to him over the wire each half hour. This was a decided nuisance to Edison, so he managed to connect his clock to his machine in such a way that the signal was 26 381 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY promptly turned in at headquarters every thirty minutes, whether the young operator was in the office or not. He had another device, too, which gave the impression that he could receive a long message very rapidly, when such was not the case. In both of these little frauds he was found out, and he had the good sense to be ashamed of his deception rather than proud of his inventions. The chagrin over the discovery of his real lack of speed in taking a message led him to work, work, work in this line, until there was no one who could equal him. At least he would be all he claimed to be. THE INVENTOR After drifting from place to place in the West, Thomas Edison went to Boston and then to New York. When he reached New York he had little but debts to call his own. Man after man refused him work, until, by chance, he reached a large broker's office just at the time all was in confusion because the recording machine had broken down. Edison offered his services and soon made it right. Such a man was too good to lose. He was promptly appointed superintendent at two hundred dollars a month, and from that hour his fortune was made. At once he set to work to make improvements on the machines used in this and similar offices. These improvements he offered for sale, hoping to get a few thousand dollars out of them. Imagine his surprise at being offered forty thousand! With the forty thousand Mr. Edison established his first large laboratory and engaged a force of men to work with him. Now had come the longed-for opportunity to perfect the ideas with which his brain was teeming. From his first laboratory grew a second and then a third 382 THOMAS A. EDISON — a great one in which Mr. Edison is still working, and where he has invented marvels. This is at Orange,. New Jerse}^ In the days when he was a fifteen-year-old telegraph operator, a telegraph wire could carry only one message at a time. Edison determined to find a way to send two messages at once over one wire. Effort followed effort until the desired result was reached. But still the in- ventor was not content. He would make one wire do the work of four. He did this, too. Then once again he began to work to make a single wire carry six messages, and he has succeeded! Asked a few years ago to name his principal inventions he said, "The first and foremost, the idea of the electric lighting station; then — let me see — what have I invented? Well, there was the mimeograph and the electric pen, and the carbon telephone, and the incandescent lamp and its accessories, and the quadruple telegraph and the auto- matic telegraph, and the phonograph, and the kinetoscope and — I don't know, a whole lot of other things. '^ This is a modest answer surely, when one considers that the number of Mr. Edison's inventions reaches high into the hundreds. Many men would be content with the honor of having invented the phonograph alone. Think of inventing a machine that will make a record of sound and will re- produce that sound any number of times afterwards! Let one or more persons talk, sing, or whistle; let a band play, or a medley of sounds be poured into a phonograph ar- ranged to receive it, and later each note received will be repeated over and over as often as the record is adjusted in the machine. What Edison's phonograph does for sound, his kineto- scope does for sight. Who has not seen the wonderful ■6SS A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY " moving pictures " so full of life and action that it is hard to believe they are pictures at all? But perhaps the greatest gift Mr. Edison has given the world so far is the incandescent light. The principal of this light is simple, but to apply it to practical use was an undertaking that for some time taxed even Mr. Edison's great genius. The trouble was to find the right material for the little coil which runs inside the air-tight glass bulb. He tried a piece of cotton thread that had been carbonized. He tried paper, manila hemp, and an endless variety of bamboo fibers. At last he adopted the platinum wire and gained success. Compare the bright, clear glow of these little bulbs with the smoky light of a whale-oil lamp and the feeble gleam of a candle, and you will realize what a marvelous invention is this of Thomas Edison's. It was in 1879 that Mr. Edison showed the world a complete system of lighting by electricity. Will the wonderful inventor go on and do more? Here is his answer: "The achievement of the past is merely a point of departure, and you know that in our art, ^im- possible' is an impossible word." Summary Thomas A. Edison has made more electrical inventions and improvements than any other man. — His greatest invention is the incandescent electric light and the system of lighting stations, by which large districts ma}^ be supplied with electric light. He has made many improvements in telegraphy. — He is the inventor of the phonograph and the kinetoscope. XL THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Before the middle of the eighteenth century, thirteen colonies, all owing allegiance to England, were scattered along the Atlantic coast of North America. The settlers were Old World folks tempted across the seas either by- fabled wealth, love of adventure, or an unconquerable desire to worship God as they saw fit. There was little temptation to journey far from home. Great lumbering coaches, the saddled back of a horse, or small sailing boats offered the only means of travel. So for the most part the colonist was a stay-at-home. As far as circumstances would allow, he lived much as did his far-away relatives beyond the sea, shaping his new Hfe by the habits and customs, the laws and ideals, that had come down to him through the ages from the different races of Europe. Then into this quiet Colonial life came the cruel French and Indian War. A common danger threatened the thirteen colonies. For the first time the colonies united to fight a common foe. And they conquered ! But even while they still rejoiced in their victory, England's king tried to tax the colonists unjustly. The colonists resisted. The king's grasp tightened, and Old England seemed about to crush her American children. Then from colony after colony rose the cry for freedom. The struggle was long and bitter. At last the victor}^ was won. The power of England, mighty England, was broken. 385 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Her king had lost his grasp on his American colonies. And by their united courage, perseverance and pluck these colonies had gained their freedom and the world a new nation — the United States of America. From the time the thirteen separate English colonies became the United States of America our country has grown and prospered. It is true we have fought a civil war in which the very unity of the Nation itself was at stake. But, terrible as it was, that very war established our union as ''one and inseparable," and removed from us the stigma of being a slave-holding nation. From the eastern shore of our land pioneers early began to work their way west. At first they rode on horseback, gun on shoulder, beside the lumbering canvas- covered wagons that held their families and household goods. Some sought rich land for farming, others went in search of gold. But west, ever west they have pushed, until those wildernesses, where herded the buffalo of old, have been turned into flourishing cities or widespread fields for the vast grain crops of America. To-day railroads cross our country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The old-time farming tools are being laid aside and great steam-driven machines plow the ground, sow the seeds and reap the harvests. Coal, silver, gold, and copper are mined. Factories of every sort are at work throughout the land. American-made locomotives, American steel bridges, American automobiles, sewing machines, typewriters, aeroplanes, hydroplanes, and many other products of American labor are known the whole world over. To-day America leads the nations of the world in the magnitude of her foreign trade. Nor are we content with all this. Through annexa- tion and purchase, we are extending our boundaries. Alaska, the PhiHppines, Porto Rico, and Hawaii have 386 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA all become ours. Then, too, we have bought from the Republic of Panama the right to open a canal across that isthmus that our great merchant vessels and splen- did battleships may pass easily and quickly from our eastern to our western coasts. Growth and improvement have been the history of our land since the days of the Nation's birth. On that flag which floated over the plucky Httle states which won our independence were thirteen stars and thirteen stripes. To-day the American flag displays forty-eight stars, each one representing a state in our union. The stripes still number thirteen. The number of our states may increase and our Nation's flag proudly boast the fact. But with even greater pride does it constantly proclaim that, do what they will, the Americans to come can never make to America as great a gift as did those men of the thirteen original states. We rejoice in America's greatness, her wide possessions, her immense achievements, but our glory, our great and lasting glory, is first and always America's freedom. America's freedom does not mean merely our in- dependence of England's king. It means much more. It means that every citizen of our land, rich or poor, has a voice in the government of America; has a right to protest against oppression; has a claim to justice for himself or for his neighbor; has a chance to make of himself the best of which he is capable. This same sort of freedom is being given in greater and greater measure to the people of the European countries. But, in the very heart of Europe, Hes one mighty nation that clings, or seems to cling, to the old belief that the 'Tving can do no wrong." This nation is Germany. For years past the ruling house of Germany has been teaching the Germans that they are the most advanced, the most 387 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY superior race of men, and therefore are entitled to rule the world. To this end Germany has trained her men to fight, her women to work, and has gathered arms, ammuni- tion and money in vast, unbelievable quantities. And, in 1914, thinking the time had come to spread her dominion, she undertook to advance on France, through Belgium. The outcome has been a great World War. For over two years America remained neutral. Then Germany, in her effort to cut off the supplies of her enemies, ordered her submarines to sink, without warning, all vessels, flying any flag, and bound on any errand. This was too much. Germany in her desire for power was threatening the freedom and liberty of the people of the whole world. The United States could no longer be neutral. The time had come for her to join with the allied countries of Europe in their fight for freedom, and when she acted she threw the whole weight and power of the greatest republic of the world into the defense of those principles upon which American freedom stands. So, calling a special session of Congress in April, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson read to the members a won- derful war message, in which he said: ''We are now about to accept gage of battle with this natural foe to liberty and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to check and nullify its pre- tensions and its power. We are glad, now that we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples the German peoples included; for the rights of nations, great and small, and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy; its peace must be planted upon tested foundations of political liberty." 388 REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER I 1. What part of the world was known in the days of Alexander the Great? What countries were the chief centers of civihzation? 2. For what were the Greeks noted? What sort of people were they? 3. What were the Olympian games? 4. What can you tell about the Greek states? 5. What great lesson did Athens teach the world? 6. Tell what you can about Alexander the Great and his conquests, 7. How did he spread Greek thoughts and influence far and wide? 8. W^hat have we learned from Greece? CHAPTER II 1. Where was Rome? Who founded it and why was the site a good one? 2. Tell aboiit its early history and its growth. 3. What sort of people were the Romans and to what did they give their attention? 4. What did they learn from the Greeks? 5. Who was Hannibal and what part did he take in the history of Rome? 6. What countries were conquered by the Romans? 7. What country did Julius Csesar conquer? 8. What race of people did he first meet in Gaul? 9. Why did he go to Britain? How many visits did he make? ID. What was the result of the Roman conquests to the west? 11. What title was given to Csesar after he returned to Rome? 12. Tell what you can about his rule in Rome and his death. 13. Describe life in Rome at the time of Caesar's death. 14. Who was Augustus and what sort of ruler did he make? 15. What event happened in his reign which was to change the religion of the world? Tell about the spread of Christianity. 16. What race finally conquered the Romans? 17. What lessons have the people of to-day learned from the Romans? 389 EEVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER III 1. Who were the Germans and where was their land? 2. Tell how they lived. 3. How did they treat their women? 4. Where did the Romans first meet the Germans in battle? What was the result? 5. What made the Goths cross over into Italy? 6. How were they received? 7. Who was Alaric and what great city did he conquer? 8. What German tribe settled in Northern Gaul and what name did they give to their possessions? 9. Who was Charlemagne and what did he do for France? 10. Tell what you can about the Germans in Spain. 11. What great lesson have we learned from the Germans? 12. What did the Arabs bring to Spain? CHAPTER IV 1. What nation first conquered the Britons? 2. What did the Romans do to improve the land they had con- quered? 3. How long did Britain remain a Roman province? 4. What German tribes next conquered the land? 5. Tell the story of their coming and who led them. 6. How did the name of Britain become changed to England? 7. Who was Augustine and how were he and his followers re- ceived by the King of Kent? 8. What was the object of his coming to Britain and how did he succeed? 9. Tell what you can about the monasteries in England. 10. Who were the Northmen and where did they come from? 11. Tell about their raids on England's coast. 12. What division of the Northmen invaded England and what part did they seize? 13. Who was Alfred the Great, and what agreement did he make with the Danes? . 14. What did he do for England and what did he invent? 15. Who was Canute and what kind of a king was he? 16. What country beside England was invaded by the Northmen? 17. What part of France was finally given to the Northmen and what was it named? 18. What Duke of Normandy claimed the English throne and why? 19. What was he called? 390 REVIEW QUESTIONS 20. How did he prevent the Enghsh people from rising against him? 21. What kind of ruler was he? Name some of his laws which the English hated. 22. How did the Norman conquest help England? 23. Tell about the feudal system. Who owned all the land? To whom did he grant it? What did he get in return? What did the king's vassals do with the land? Who were the serfs and how did they live? 24. Tell what you can about the life in England in the days of chivalry. 25. What was the object of the Crusades and what English king went to the Holy Land? What were the results of the Crusades? 26. What sort of king was John and what did his nobles force him to do? 27. Why was the calling of the first Parliament an important step? CHAPTER V 1. About 700 years ago, what ideas did Europeans have of the world? 2. Who was Marco Polo? Why were his travels so important? 3. What is the story of Vinland? 4. W'hat knowledge or experiences of others helped Columbus tc form his plans? Who provided the means to carry out these plans? 5. Describe the first voyage of Columbus. What land did he be- lieve he had reached? What did he call the inhabitants? 6. How many other voyages did Columbus make? Tell about them. 7. About how old was Columbus when he made his last voyage? What had he gained for himself? For Spain? For the world? 8. After whom was America named? Whj^? CHAPTER VI I. Who commanded the first expedition sent by England to the New World? By whom and for what reason was it ordered? What did it accomplish? Who was Sebastian Cabot? CHAPTER VH 1. What tempted the Spaniards to the New World in the century alter Columbus? 2. Which of these Spaniards gained what he sought? Why was he successful? Who were the x\ztec&, and how did they live? How does ]\Iexico still show the influence of this conquest? 391 REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. What did Ponce de Leon seek? What name did he give the country he discovered? Why? 4. What led Balboa to the Pacific Ocean? 5. How long was De Soto in reaching the Mississippi? Through which of our present States did he pass? Explain the name Mis- sissippi. Tell the story of the end of De Soto's journey. CHAPTER VIII 1. What great fact did Magellan's expedition prove? Trace the route of Magellan's ships. What islands did he discover? What was the fate of Magellan himself? 2. How long after this did Drake make his great voyage? Trace his route. What was the object of his voyage? What new lands did he claim for England? 3. What steps did Raleigh take in order to establish a colony? Where did his colonists locate? Why was not the first colony a success? When did he send out the second? Tell the story of this. Why was the region called Virginia? What plants did Raleigh's colonists bring back to England? CHAPTER IX 1. Tell of John Smith's adventures before he went to Virginia. 2. After whom was Jamestown named? Locate it. When was it settled? What kind of men made up the colony? 3. How did Smith discipline the colonists? How did he deal with the Indians? Why was he a good leader? 4. Give the story of Pocahontas. 5. What event of 1619 helped the industry of the South? How? 6. What section of our country did John Smith name? 7. How was the Indian race divided, and by whom governed? Describe the appearance of the Indians; their homes. CHAPTER X 1. How did the Pilgrims get their name? Why did they choose America for their new home? When did they come? 2. What is the story of the Speedwellf The Mayflower. 3. Name two of the leaders in the colony and tell what each dido 392 REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. How did these colonists differ from the Jamestown colonists? 5. What Indians showed their friendship, and how? 6. Give the story of the first winter at Plymouth. Describe the first Thanksgiving. CHAPTER XI 1. Why were the Puritans so named? Where did they first settle in America? When? 2. When was Boston founded? What kind of people were the New England Puritans? 3. Give a sketch of Governor Winthrop. 4. Describe the growth of the colony and the town. How did the Puritans educate their children? How did they keep order? 5. Locate the Pilgrim and Puritan settlements. 6. Why was Roger Williams banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony? Do you think his ideas were right? 7. HoAv did he get the land for his settlement? Locate it. What name did he give it? For what was his colony noted? 8. What troubles threatened the Puritans? How did Roger Williams "return good for evil"? What was the result of the In- dian hostilities? 9. AVho were the Wampanoag Indians? What strong tribe joined them in the war? What was the immediate cause of the war? Why did the Indians fortify themselves? What led to the capture of King Philip? 10. What was the result of King Philip's War? CHAPTER XII 1 . Why did the Dutch East India Company wish to find a north- erly passage to Asia? 2. When Hudson set sail, what did he know of this continent? What great river did he discover? What did he hope it was? What is the last we know of Henry Hudson? 3. Where did the Dutch settle? W^hy? What did they call their colony? 4. Explain the patroon system. 5. What did Peter Minuit do for the colony? 6. Who was the last of the Dutch governors? Tell about him. 393 KEVIEW QUESTIONS 7. Why did England claim New Netherland? Why did Stuy- vesant surrender? What particular advantages did England see in the acquisition of this land? After whom was the colony re- named New York? CHAPTER XIII 1. What great river did the French discover? Who discovered it? When? 2. What was the first permanent French settlement in America? When was it settled? By whom? 3. Who were the Iroquois and what land did they occupy? Why did the Iroquois become the bitter enemies of the French? 4. Why did Champlain continue his explorations westward? 5. Who was Marquette? What brought him to America? Who sent Joliet and Marquette on their journey? For what purpose? Trace their route on the map. 6. Through what waters did La Salle travel before he reached the Mississippi? What difficulties did he encounter? When did he reach the mouth of the Mississippi? What was the extent of Louisiana? For whom was it named? 7. What was La Salle's last journey, and how did it result? CHAPTER XIV 1. To whom was the Maryland charter first granted, and why? 2. Where previously had Lord Baltimore planted a colony, and with what success? 3. After whom was Maryland named? W^hen was it settled? W^ho was appointed the first governor of the colony? 4. How did Virginia regard the new colony, and why? Tell what troubles arose between them. CHAPTER XV 1. What were the beliefs peculiar to the Quakers? 2. Who was William Penn, and how did he happen to become a Quaker? Why did he wish to found a colony in America? 3. What is the meaning of Pennsylvania? After whom was it named? What name did Penn give to the city he founded? When was it settled? What does the name mean? 394 REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. What were the two important provisions of Penn's treaty with the Indians? 5. Describe the growth of the colony. 6. What other settlements were made in America because of re- ligious persecution? CHAPTER XVI 1. What was the condition of debtors in England in the eighteenth century? Who made a plan for their relief? What was it? 2. After whom was Georgia named? When was it founded? 3. Who were the first settlers of New Jersey? How did this colony receive its name? 4. Which of the thirteen colonies were founded by the Enghsh? CHAPTER XVII 1. How did the settlements in Virginia differ from those in Massachusetts? Which were the more difficult to guard against Indian attack, and why? 2. What did Bacon demand of the governor? Why did the gov- ernor pronounce him a rebel? How did Bacon's fellow-colonists show their confidence in him? 3. What was accomplished by the rebellion? How did Governor Berkeley have his revenge? CHAPTER XVin 1. What is an apprentice? What was the first undertaking in which Franklin attracted public attention? How did he later win fame in the same kind of work? What is an almanac? How did the newspapers of those days differ from ours? 2. In Franklin's time what facilities of travel were there in the colonies? Between the colonies and Europe? 3. With what city is Franklin's name most closely associated? What different things did he do for this city? 4. What different public offices did Franklin fill under the govern- ment of the colonies? Under the government of the United States? 5. What was Franklin's great discovery in science? What prac- tical invention was the result of his discovery? What other things did Franklin invent? 395 REVIEW QUESTIONS 6. Why did Europe recognize Franklin as a great man? What important mission did he undertake for the United States? How did he succeed? CHAPTER XIX 1. About the year 1750, what lands in America were claimed by the English? By the French? Which of these were claimed by both? 2. What move on the part of the English did the French fear? Why? How did they try to prevent it? 3. In the war that followed, who aided the French? What tribe sided with the English? To what beginning can you trace this Indian partisanship? What had the English accomplished by the end of the first year of the war? 4. Explain the three campaign movements planned by the Eng- lish in 1758. 5. Explain the French plans of campaign and the reason for each. 6. State what office was filled by each of the following men dur- ing the war, and give an account of one episode in which he took an important part: Dinwiddle, Duquesne, William Pitt, Amherst, Braddock, Montcalm, Washington, William Johnson, Wolfe. 7. Locate each of the following places, and tell something of its history during the war: Fort Le Bceuf, Fort Duquesne, Fort William Henry, Louisburg, Fort Ticonderoga, Fort Frontenac, Oswego. 8. Tell about the battle of Quebec. Why did not the war con- tinue after the surrender of Quebec? 9. Give the date and the terms of the treaty of peace. CHAPTER XX 1. What effect did the French and Indian War have upon the relation of the colonies to one another? To England? 2. Who was King of England at the time of the siege of Quebec? Who was King when the Treaty of Paris was signed? 3. What were the Navigation Acts? Why did England now en- force them? 4. What were the Writs of Assistance, and what occasioned them? 5. How was the French and Indian War a cause of the Stamp Act? What was the Stamp Act? Why did the colonists oppose it? Who was the first American publicly to denounce it? 396 REVIEW QUESTIONS 6. What was the Virginia House of Burgesses? In 1765, did Patrick Henry wish the colonists to separate from England? In 1775, did he desire separation? For what did he wish the colonists to fight? CHAPTER XXI 1. Who was Samuel Adams? What did he do for Massachusetts and the other colonies? 2. How did the Massachusetts colonists show their disapproval when the stamp tax went into effect? Why did King George repeal the Stamp Act? Was it taxation itself of which the colonists dis- approved? 3. What events led to the " Boston Tea Party "? How did England punish the colony in return? What action did the colonists take? 4. What were the colonial soldiers called? Why? 5. Who was now the King's Governor of Massachusetts? How did he plan to subdue the rebels at once? 6. Read Longfellow's poem ''Paul Revere's Ride," and explain the incident about which it is written. 7. Read Emerson's "Hymn on Concord Bridge," and explain the event it celebrates. 8. What was the first battle of the Revolution? Give its date. 9. Locate Bunker Hill. Give an account of the battle. What was its effect throughout the colonies? CHAPTER XXII 1. Give the date and the place of Washington's birth. Tell about his boyhood and education. 2. What was the first important work that he did? How well did he do it? 3. What was Governor Dinwiddie's message to the French commander? Why did he choose Washington to carry it? Tell about Washington's trip to the French forts. 4. What was the importance of the skirmish at Great Meadows? In what year was this? What was the object of the expedition, and how did it end? 5. What was Washington's next military service? 6. What plans of campaign did England make against the French? Account for the failure of the attack on Fort Duquesne. 27 397 KEVIEW QUESTIONS 7. After this, how did Governor Dinwiddie show his confidence in Washington's abihty? 8. Where is Mount Vernon? How did Washington come into possession of it? CHAPTER XXIII 1. What was the first joint action taken by the colonies against England? When and where did their delegates meet? What was the immediate cause of the meeting? What was its result? 2. When and where was the second meeting of delegates held? What action did they take? Why was this now made necessary? 3. What event marked the 19th of June, 1775? Where were the King's ''regulars" at this time? Where was the Colonial army? Compare Washington's army to the English army in America. 4. What was Washington's first move against the British army? When was this? Why had he delayed so long? What was the result? 5. What finally determined the colonists to declare themselves independent? Until this time, for what had they been fighting? When was the declaration made? What did the colonies call their independent government? 6. Tell of three occasions in 1776 when Washington outwitted the English. Trace the route of Washington's army from Boston to Princeton. 7. During the war, what plans were made by the English for the capture of Philadelphia? Tell about the winter at Valley Forge. 8. For what reasons did the English plan a campaign in New York State? What moves were the British commanders to make? 9. To what American general fell the duty of defending the State? How did he protect the Hudson and Champlain valleys? 10. Locate Fort Stanwix. What occurred here? 11. What was General Burgoyne's objective point? Where and when was he checked? Tell of his surrender. What did this vic- tory mean to the Americans? 12. Why was 1777 the darkest year of the war for the United States? What Frenchman aided us? Was he sent by the French Government? Who persuaded the Government of France to recog- nize and aid this country? 398 REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. ^\Tio succeeded General Howe in command? Tell the story of Andre's mission. 14. How was the British army divided in 1781? What was Washington's plan for ending the war? Give the date and place of the British surrender. Give the date of the treaty that ended the war. 15. How did Washington continue to serve his country after the war? When and where did he die? CHAPTER XXIV 1. In what colony was Nathanael Greene born? What was his religion? What principle in the foundation of the colony does this fact suggest? 2. How did Nathanael Greene train himself for military service? To what position was he appointed in 1775? In what important battles did he hold a command between 1775 and 1778? 3. How did it happen that England carried the war into the South? With what success at first? 4. In what battle did General Gates lead the American troops? With what result? Locate the Southern towns in the hands of the British at the close of 1780. 5. Who was sent to succeed General Gates? W^hat was the con- dition of the Southern armj^ at this time? W^hat was Greene's plan of campaign? What general assisted him? 6. Describe the battle of Guilford Court House. Give its re- sults. How did Greene's generalship help Washington in his plans? 7. Where did General Greene make his home after the war? Why? CHAPTER XXV 1. When and where was Hamilton born? W^hy did he come to New York? 2. Tell the story of Alexander Hamilton's entrance into pubhc life. 3. What part did he take in the Revolutionary War? 4. At the present time do you know how the Government fills its Treasury? For what uses is this money needed? 399 REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. At the close of the Revolution, for what several uses did the Government need large sums of money? Why could it not collect them? 6. What does money represent? Explain the phrase ''not worth a continental." After the war, how did people obtain food, cloth- ing, and other necessaries? 7. Of what importance was the convention at Annapolis? 8. Where and when was the next convention held? What op- posite views were held by the delegates? On which side was Alex- ander Hamilton? Explain the meaning of "a strong Central Government," as applied to the United States. What was ac- complished by this convention? What was necessary before the Constitution could be made the working basis of the Govern- ment? 9. According to the Constitution, how was the United States to be governed? Describe the great event of April 30, 1789. 10. .What position did Hamilton hold under the new Government? Explain what he did to improve the financial condition of the country. How long was Hamilton in ofRce? 11. Tell the stcry of Hamilton's death. Why is his place of burial appropriate? CHAPTER XXVI 1. What colony was Thomas Jefferson's home? W^hat part did he take in public affairs before the battle of Lexington? Immedi- ately after the battle? 2. When the thirteen colonies decided to declare their inde- pendence, who were appointed to prepare the Declaration? What was Jefferson's part of the work? Who approved and issued the Declaration? Who was president of the body? When and where was the paper signed? Tell the story of the announcement. Why do we celebrate the Fourth of July? 3. What positions did Jefferson hold under the Government of the United States? In what year was he inaugurated President? Where? 4. Trace on a map of the United States the part included at the beginning of Jefferson's administration. At the end. How was this new territory secured? Trace the route of Lewis and Clarke. Who ordered the expedition, and why? 5. What public service did Jefferson render to his home State? 400 REVIEW QUESTIONS 6. How did Jefferson differ in his personal tastes from most of thv public men of his day? 7. On what day did Jefferson die? CHAPTER XXVII 1. Why are pioneer woodsmen important in our history? 2. Where did Boone explore? When? Give a sketch of the man as you picture him. 3. Trace the Wilderness Road. 4. Locate and describe Boonesborough. Why was Boones- borough important? 5. How far west did Boone go? CHAPTER XXVIII 1. How is the name of Nathanael Greene associated with that of Eli Whitney? Where w^as Eli Whitney born? 2. In what year did Whitney make his great invention? Explain the name by which it is known. 3. How many pounds of cotton could Whitney's machine clean in a day? How many could a slave clean? What was the value of Whitney's machine to the South? To the North? 4. Find out, if you do not know, to what country most our ex- ports of raw cotton have been sent. 5. How did the early colonists travel from one settlement to another? In what kind of vessels did they cross the ocean? About how long did it take? 6. How long does it take now to go from this country to England? 7. What has brought about the change? 8. What were some of Robert Fulton's first inventions? 9. Where was Fulton's native home? In what city did he make his fame? Who was his friend and helper? 10. Describe the first trip of the Clermont. 11. What scheme of Fulton's, discarded in his day, is now of great use to all the navies of the world? 12. How long did it take to go by stage coach from New York to Philadelphia? How long does it take now by fast express? 13. When and where was our first steam railroad opened? When was the first line of railroad across the country completed? 401 REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER XXIX 1. Why did America have war with England in 1812? On what pretext did the Enghsh seize our sailors? To what extent had England annoyed our navy before the war? 2. How had Oliver Hazard Perry obtained his training in sea- manship? 3. How did it happen that a battle occurred on Lake Erie? How did Commodore Perry prepare for it? Name and locate the site of the battle. What was the name of Perry's flag-ship, and after whom was it named? 4. In what words did Perry announce his victory? To whom did he send the message? What v/ere the results of the battk? 5. Where else was our navy victorious? 6. What disaster on land befell us in 1814? 7. When did the war end? In what country was the treaty signed? Compare the position of America among nations before and after the war. CHAPTER XXX 1. Describe the early life of Andrew Jackson. What national events were occurring during this time? Tell of Jackson's experi- ences during the Revolution. 2. W^here did Jackson go to live after the Revolution? 3. What military service did he give before the Treaty of Ghent? After the treaty? Why? 4. What was the highest honor Jackson received? At this time what problem was troubling the whole country? Why? 5. What principle guided all of Jackson's decisions on this ques- tion? What event tested his judgment, and how did he decide? CHAPTER XXXI 1. What did Clay's boyhood neighbors call him, and why? 2. How did it happen that the name of Henry Clay is associated with Kentucky? What did Clay do particularly for this State and for the West? In what capacity did he urge these improvements? 3. Was Clay's work chiefly in the cause of war or of peace? When and why did he recommend war? What was his first service in the cause of peace? 402 REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. What problem was the country debating at this time? How was opinion divided? Why was it so divided? 5.- By what two measures did Clay earn the epithet "the great pacificator"? 6. What conditions led Clay to offer the Missouri Compromise? Why did it please the upholders of slavery? Why did it please the opponents? When was it passed? 7. What conditions led to the "Omnibus Bill"? When was it passed? 8. Trace on the map the states which at the close of this year allowed slavery within their borders. Show on the map which states prohibited slavery. 9. What does the term "Pacificator" mean as applied to Clay? 10. What made Daniel Webster a leader in his time? What be- lief of his determined most of his political actions? Of what one thing particularly had he been a close student? 11. What is meant by "a tariff to protect growing industries"? How did it happen that the North came to desire a tariff on manu- factures, and the South to oppose it? To what extent did the South protest? Recall from a previous lesson who was President of the United States at this time. What action did he take? 12. What position did Webster receive in 1813? What office did he hold in 1830? What was the subject of the debate between Hayne and Webster? What was the gist of Webster's reply? 13. Where was Webster's early home? His later home? De- scribe his personal appearance. When did he die? CHAPTER XXXII 1. Name three early methods of signalling. Three modern methods. 2. Which of all these inventions is the latest? By whom was the system perfected? Give an instance, with the date, to show its successful use. Find out, if you can, the method by which these messages are sent and received. What is. the advantage of the system over the old system of telegraphing? 3. Who was the inventor of the telegraph? Tell briefly the story of his efforts to complete his invention? When, and between what points, was the first message sent? What was the message? Ex- plain, if you can, what is done by the key that the operator presses. 403 KEVIEW QUESTIONS 4. When, and by what means, was the first telegraph message sent to Europe? How did the hne succeed? What had been the first attempt made? Who was the leader in the work? How many- trials did he make before he succeeded? When was the system established? What was the Great Eastern ? 5. What does the word telegraph mean? The word telephone? Who invented the telephone? When? CHAPTER XXXIII 1. Where and when was Abraham Lincoln born? Describe his home. Tell of the move to Indiana and Lincoln's life there. 2. What education did Lincoln have? 3. In what state did Lincoln spend most of his later life? Give a short account of his life in the years 1831 and 1832. 4. What was his first public position? What other positions did he hold before 1850? 5. What important bill did Stephen A. Douglas introduce in Congress in 1854? What measure was repealed by its passage? Which party favored it? What did Lincoln think about it, and why? 6. Why was the election of 1860 a crisis? What qualities of Abraham Lincoln brought him into prominence as a candidate? CHAPTER XXXIV 1 . Where was Lincoln inaugurated President of the United States? By this time, what change had come in the union of the states? What was the cause? How many states were in the Confederacy? Name them. 2. What was the immediate cause of the Civil War? What was Lincoln's oi)imon of slavery? How did he intend to treat it? 3. Who was elected President of the Confederacy? Where was its capital? What was the first great land battle of the war? What was its result? To whom was the victory due? 4. What was the most notable naval battle of 1862? Why was it so? What was its result? 5. Who commanded the Southern army? Locate Antietam. What was the importance of the battle here? 4U4 REVIEW QUESTIONS 6. For what event is January 1, 1863, memorable? Why did Lincoln take this action? What hardship did it mean to the South, and why? Name and locate the greatest battleground of 1863. 7. Who was commanding the Union army in the West? What important place surrendered to him? When did the war close? 8. Describe Lincoln's appearance. 9. When did Lincoln's first administration end? How long waa his second? Give a brief account of Lincoln's death. 10. Why is Abraham Lincoln one of the greatest Americans? CHAPTER XXXV 1. What was General Grant's nativ^e state? Where was he edu- cated for the army? In what wars did he take part? 2. What was the cause of the Mexican War? Why did Grant denounce it as unjust? In what battles did Grant distinguish himself? What were the terms of peace? 3. At the opening of the Civil War, to what position was Grant assigned? What was the object of his Western campaign? Name and locate the forts he captured. Tell of the siege of Vicksburg. Give the date of its surrender. What other great victory for the North came just at this time? To what position did Grant's own skill recommend him? 4. With what campaigns in the East did Grant plan to close the war, if possible? In these, who were the commanding officers on each side? How did these plans succeed? 5. What battle preceded the capture of Richmond? Describe the event that ended the war. Give its date. 6. Give a short account of Grant's life after the war. When did he die? Where is he buried? What words of his are on his tomb? 7. Quote three famous sentences spoken by Grant, and give the circumstances in which each was said. CHAPTER XXXVI I. What was the full name of the Confederate commander? When and where was he born? Tell briefly how his inheritance, home, and education differed from Grant's. In what respect was their training alike? 405 REVIEW QUESTIONS 2. What was Lee's military experience before 1860? When the time of division came, how did Lee decide? Had he upheld the Union cause, what position might he have filled? 3. Why was Virginia the battleground through so much of the war? What effect did the battle of Bull Run have upon the South? Upon the North? 4. Name two Southern commanders under Lee and the battles in which they fought. What Northern generals did each then oppose, and what were the results of these battles? 5. How did General Jackson receive his nickname? What was his last battle? 6. At the close of 1863, how did the fortunes of each side stand? Tell about the war in 1864. AVhen did the war end? 7. After the final surrender, how was Lee regarded by his army and the South. Where and how did General Lee live after the war? 8. For what had the South been fighting? For what had the North? What changes in the Union, if any, did the war bring about? CHAPTER XXXVII 1. Where was Farragut's native home? How did he happen to enter the navy? What experiences did he have as an officer before the Civil War? 2. When the covmtry divided, how did Farragut decide? 3. What, and when, was Farragut's first great victory? Give an account of the way he accomplished it. What effect did it have? 4. What still more difficult victory did he win? In what year of the war? Locate the battle. 5. On this occasion, what ships formed Farragut's fleet? What was the danger from ironclads? What is meant by saying that a ship "ran into a torpedo"? Give a brief account of the battle. What were the results? 6. What did the United States do to show its appreciation of Farragut's services? CHAPTER XXXVIII 1. What is now the condition of Cuba? How did she obtain her independence? Why did she wish it? 2. On what grounds did the United States interfere? In what year was this? What event had previously roused this country against Spain ? 406 REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. What part did Commodore Dewey take in the war? Where was the battle fought? Why in that place? 4. What other naval victory did we win? Locate this. How did it bring the war to a close? What were the terms of peace? CHAPTER XXXIX 1 . How were houses lighted in early days? 2. Answer in one statement the question, Who is Thomas Edison? 3. Tell the story of Edison's boyhood. How did he first become familiar with electrical machinery? What were his first inventions? 4. What is a ''laboratory"? Where is Mr. Edison's? Name and describe four of his inventions. Which of these has greatly increased the efficiency of Morse's invention? 5. Which of Edison's inventions is the most useful and most widely used? What is meant by "a complete system" of lighting by electricity? When did he complete the invention? CHRONOLOGY 753 B.C. Rome founded. 356 Alexander the Great becomes King of Greece. 264-241 First Punic War. 146 Destruction of Carthage. 55 JuHus Caesar. 43 A.D. Romans invade England. 325 Christianity made national religion of Italy. 410 Alaric conquers Rome. 449 Invasion of Britain by Angles and Saxons. 481 Franks invade Gaul. 597 Augustine introduces Christianity into England. 787 Danish Northmen invade England. 912 Northmen establish themselves in Normandy. 1000 (?) Northmen explore the mainland of North America. 10 16 Canute, the Dane, becomes King of England. 1066 William of Normandy conquers England and is crowned king. 1205 King John signs the Magna Charta. 1271-1295 Marco Polo visits China. 1492 Columbus discovers the West Indies (San Salvador). 1497 The Cabots discover the North American continent. 1498 Columbus on his third voyage discovers South America. 1507 The New World named after Americus Vespucius. 1 5 13 Ponce de Leon claims Florida for Spain. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 1519-1521 Cortez conquers Mexico. 1519-1522 Magellan's ships sail around the world. 1535 Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence River. 1 541 De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 409 CHRONOLOGY 1 5 77- 1 580 Sir Francis Drake sails around the world. 1579 Drake explores the coast of California. 1584-1587 Sir Walter Raleigh sends an exploring expedition to the eastern coast of America and attempts a settlement on Roanoke Island. 1604 Acadia settled by the French. 1607 Expedition sent out by the London Company makes the settlement of Jamestown. 1608 Champlain founds Quebec. 1609 Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River. 1610 Henry Hudson reaches Hudson Bay. 1614 Manhattan Island settled. 1 619 Slavery introduced into Virginia. 1620 The Pilgrims land at Plymouth. 1628 First settlement of Puritans at Salem, Massachusetts. 1630 Governor Winthrop and Puritans come to New Eng- land and found Boston. 1634 English Roman Catholics under Lord Baltimore found Maryland and make the first settlement at St. Mary's. 1636 Roger Williams founds Providence. 1637 Pequot War. 1638 Delaware settled by the Swedes. 1664 The Dutch surrender New Netherland to the English. 1673 Joliet and Marquette journey down the Mississippi. 1675 King Philip's War. 1676 Bacon's Rebellion and the burning of Jamestown. 1682 The Quakers under Penn found Philadelphia. La Salle explores the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claims Louisiana for France. 1733 English (mostly debtors) under Oglethorpe found Georgia and make the first settlement at Savannah. 1689-1763 The French and Indian Wars. 1754-1763 Last of the French and Indian Wars. 1754 Colonial Congress at Albany; Franklin's plan of union. 1755 Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne. 1757 French capture Forts William Henry and Ticonderoga. 1758 English capture Forts Duquesne and Frontenac. 1759 Siege of Quebec. 1763 Treaty of Paris. 1765 Parliament passes the Stamp Act. 410 CHRONOLOGY 1766 Stamp Act repealed and Declaratory Act passed. 1767 Duties placed on glass, paper, paints, and tea. 1773 All duties repealed but that on tea. Boston Tea Party. 1774 Boston port closed. First Continental Congress. 1775 Second Continental Congress. Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19th. Wasliington appointed Commander in chief. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17th. 1776 British evacuate Boston, March 17th. Declaration of Independence signed, July 4th. Battle of Long Island, August 22d. Washington's retreat across New Jersey. Battle of Trenton, December 26th. 1777 Battle of Princeton, January 3d. Washington's army at Morristown. Battle of Brandymne, September 11th. Battle of Bemis Heights, September 19th. Howe enters Philadelphia. Battle of German town, October 4th- Burgoyne's surrender, October 17th. Washington's army at Valley Forge. 1778 France acknowledges America's independence. British leave Philadelphia. Savannah captured, December 29th. 1780 Fall of Charleston, May 12th. Battle of Camden, August 16th. Arnold's treason. Battle of King's Mountain, October 7th. 1781 Battle of Cowpens, January 17th. Greene's retreat north through the Carolinas. Battle of Guilford Court House, March loth. Cornwallis in Virginia. British surrender at YorktowTi, October 19th. ■ 1783 Treaty of peace with England. 1787 Federal convention frames the Constitution. 1789-1797 Washington, President. 1 79 1 United States Bank established. 1792 United States Mint established. 411 CHRONOLOGY 1793 Whitney invents the cotton gin. 1797- 1 80 1 John Adams, President. 1800 City of Washington becomes the National Capital. 1801-1809 Jefferson, President. 1803 Purchase of Louisiana. 1804 Lewis and Clarke Expedition. 1807 Fulton launches the Clermont. 181 2 War declared against England. 1813 Battle of Lake Erie, Septe7nber 10th. 1814 Battle of Plattsburg, September 11th. Treaty of Ghent. 181 5 Battle of New Orleans, January 8th. 1820 Missouri Compromise. 1830 Opening of the first steam railway. 1844 Morse sends the first telegraph message. 1845 Texas annexed. 1846 War declared against Mexico. Battle of Monterey, September 24th. 1847 Fall of the City of Mexico, September l^th. 1848 Treaty of peace with Mexico. 1850 Omnibus Bill. 1854 The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 1858 First Atlantic cable laid. i860 Secession of South Carolina. 1 86 1 Confederacy formed. 1861-1865 Civil War. 1861-1865 Lincoln, President. 1 86 1 Fort Sumter fired upon, April 12th. Norfolk Navy Yard seized, April 20th. Battle of Bull Run, July 21st. 1862 Attack on Fort Henry, February 6th. Attack on Fort Donelson, February 16th. Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9th. Battle of Shiloh, April 6th-7th. Farragut takes New Orleans, April 25th. Lee takes command of the Confederate Army. Seven Days' battles, June 25th-Jidy 1st. Pope's campaign in Virginia, August. Second Battle of Bull Run, August 30th. 412 CHRONOLOGY 1862 Battle of Antietam, September 17th. Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13th. 1863 Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January 1st. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2d-2d. Battle of Gettysburg, July Ist-Sd. Fall of Vicksburg, July 4th. Siege of Chattanooga, October-November. 1864 Grant made Lieutenant-General. Campaign in the Wilderness. Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3d. Battle of Mobile Bay, August 5th. Sherman takes Atlanta, September 2d. Sherman takes Savannah, December 22d. , 1865 Capture of Petersburg, April 2d. Grant takes Richmond, April 3d. 1865 Lee's surrender, April 9th. Assassination of Lincoln, April l^ih. 1866 Second Atlantic cable laid. 1867 Purchase of i\laska. 1869-1877 Grant, President. 1869 Pacific Railroad completed, May 10th. 1 87 1 All states again represented in Congress. 1898 Destruction of the Maine , February 15th. War with Spain declared. Battle of Manila Bay, May 1st. Hawaii annexed. 1899 Treaty of peace with Spain. 1907 A wireless message was sent across the Atlantic. 1909 Self-government granted Cuba by the United States. 28 O o m Q G (A o X! 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Freed t pine Islanc am becai ed States. was convin es was abl( otect her r tting off' •s the war es to unde a greater e possess y, and : . were c ,. Phihp and Gu the Unit rt became th ed territor California ted States. ^ - o reat Britain ■ United Stat mined to pr sea. By cu several yeai United Stat facturing to ever before. r« O M 3 O lished t sibility ro slave om of C' to Ric sessions exas put* and Uni stab posi neg reed For pos O H H ^ 1 C tf b£'2 g o a^ i^ Si cA"^ hi the :,ween xico. > la . de- Spain r lib- n re- the; s de- CO O d persist' 3ing Ame p s, sei rican s; forcing rve vmde ish flag. es over dary bet .s and Me > o States ded that 1 Cuba he Spai 3d, and ed State id war. 1 S- S^ ^-So isput* boun Texa CB CD nited man' give erty f US( Unit clare H O Q P ^ 2 a5 ^3 o -^-» ^ ->^ 4S i=! -ij K ^ 1^ c3 o3 m c5 ^ a ^-d Ou l-s o +^ tl S fi^ g^ 002 fl H S ^ p lO 00 lO 1— 1 Tt^ «3 ?? 00 GO 00 1 1— 1 1 tH 1 I ^ ^ 3 M 419 EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MAEK3 USED IN THE PRONOUNCING INDEX {Following the Usage of Webster's Dictionary) a as a in ate a as a in am e " e " ive e " e " end 1 " i " ice i " i " it o " " old 6 " " not u " w " use u " ■?< " up a, e, i, o, like a, e, i, o, but not to be pronounced so long a as rt in turhan (turban) e as e in there e " e " burden (burden) 6 ^* o '• 07'b Q " " prison {pris'n) u " w " urn a as a in fatigue e as e in term a as a in father ti " w " rude GO as 00 in food a as a in aZ? Ha strong aspirate h If French nasal n as in g as ^ in get enfant PRONOUNCING INDEX Acadia (a-ka'd^), 188, 228 Adams, John, 269, 272 Adams, Samuel, 206-216 Adrianople (ad'ri-an-o'p'l), bat- tle of, 27 Africa, 57 Alabama, 339 Alaric (al'a-rik), 27, 28 Alaska, 386 Albany, 127 Albany, convention at, 181 Alexander the Great, 1-6 Alexandria, 6 Alfred the Great, 39, 40 Algonquin (3,l-g6n'kwln) In- dians, 137 Alleghany (al'e-ga'ni) River, 223, 225 Alphabet, 3 America, visited by Northmen, 61; discovered by Columbus, 63; named, 67 Amherst (am 'erst). General, 192 Andre (an'dra), 247 Angles and Saxons, 35 Americus Vespucius, 67 Annapolis, Convention at, 262 Antietam (an-te'tam), battle of, 344, 364 Appomattox (ap-po-mat'toks), Court House, Lee's surrender at, 358, 367 Arabic numbers, 31 Arabs, 31 Arkansas (ar'k§ji-sa') River, 142 Arkansas, State of, 339 , Arlington, 362 Arnold, Benedict, 246 Asia, explored by Polo, 56 Athens, 4 Atlanta, capture of, 356 Atlantic cable, 320 Augustine, 36 Azores (a-zorz'), 59 Aztecs (az'teks), 64 Bacon, Nathaniel, 167-172 Bacon's Rebellion, 167-172; causes of, 167 Balboa (bal-bo'a), 72-74 Baltimore, first Lord, 151-152. See Calvert Baltimore, second Lord, 152-156. See Calvert Bank, National, 265 Beauregard (bo'reh-gard), Gen- eral, 363 Bell, Alexander Graham, 322- 323 Bemis (be'mis) Heights, 244 Berkeley, Sir William, 167, 172 Black Hawk War, 330 Blockade of southern ports, 341 421 PEOXOU^^CIXG IXDEX Bonaparte (bo'n§,-part), Napo- leon, 273 Boone, Daniel, 275-280 Boonesborough (boons'bur-o), 277 Boston, 112-115 Boston port closed, 211, 233, 252 Boston, siege of, 214, 234, 235 Boston Tea Party, 208-211, 233, 252 Braddock, General, 188, 189, 227-231 Bradford, Gov. William, 104, 106 Bradford, William, printer, 175 Brandywine, battle of, 244, 253 Brewster, William, 104 Bridges Creek, 218 Britain, Roman invasion of, 16, 17, 33; German invasion of, 34-36 British Isles, 16, 33 Britons, 16 Brooklyn, the, 370 Brooklyn Heights, 237 Bull Run, battle of, 341, 363; second battle of, 364 Bunker Hill, battle of, 214 Burgoyne (btir-goin'), General, 241-243 Burnside, General, 365 Burr, Aaron, 265 Cables laid, 320 Cabot (kab'ot), John, 68-70, 131 Cabot, Sebastian, 69, 70 Caesar, Augustus, 21 Caesar, Julius, 14-19 Calhoun, John C, 311 Cahfornia, 307, 334, 352 Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Bal- timore, 152-156 Calvert, George, first Lord Bal- timore, 151-152 Calvert, Leonard, Governor of Maryland, 152-155 Cambridge, 234 Camden, battle of, 254 Canada, 135, 140 Canonicus (k3,-n6n'i-ktis), 108 Canute, 40 Cape Breton (brSt'on) Island, 69 Cape Verde (verd) Islands, 134 Capital at New York, 263; at Washington, 271 Carthage, 11-14 Cartier, Jacques (zhak kar-tya'), 134 Carver, John, 104-106 Catawba (ka-ta'ba) River, 296 Cathay (kath-a'), 55 Catholics, 151 Cayuga (ka-yoo'ga), the, 371 Champlain (shS,m-plan'), Lake, 138 Champlain, Samuel, 134-140 Chancellorsville, battle of, 365 Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 30 Charles I of England, 152, 154, 155 Charles II of England, 159, 172 Charleston, surrender of, 253 Charlestown burned, 216 Chattanooga (chat-t§,-noo'g§,), battle of, 355 Chauncey (chan'sl). Commo- dore, ^92 Cherokee (ch6r'6-ke), Indians, 277 Chesapeake Bay, 90 Chester, 160 Chicago River, 147 422 PROXOUXCmG IXDEX Chili, 81 China, 56 Christian rehgion, growth of, 22; in England, 36, 37 Circumnavigation of the globe, first, 80; second, 82 Civil War, 316, 338-346, 352- 358, 363-368, 370-375 Clark, William, 273. See Lewis and Clark Clay, Henry, 303-308, 311, 333 Clayborne, William, 154 Clermont (kler-mont'), the, 288 Clinton, General, 246, 248 Clothilde (klo-teld'), 29, 30 Clovis, 29, 30 Cold Harbor, battle of, 366 Colonies, The Thirteen. Table, 416 Columbus, Christopher, 55-67 Compromise of 1850, 308, 334 Concord, battle of, 182, 211, 234, 252 Confederate States of America, 339 Congress, 265, 306, 312, 318, 334, 342, 359, 362, 375, 376 Connecticut, 166 Constantine, 22, 24 Constitution of the United States, 1&4, 249, 263, 312 Continental Congress, First, 233, 259; Second, 182, 233, 237, 253, 254, 260, 269 Cornwallis, General, 183, 239, 247, 254, 255 Cortez, Hernando (er-nan'do kor-tez), 74, 75 Cotton gin invented, 282 Cowpens, battle of, 255 Creek Indians, 299 Croatoan (kro'tan), 87 Crown Point, 188, 189, 228 Crusades, 49, 50 Cuba, 64, 376 Cumberland, the, 342 Cumberland Gap, 277 Cumberland Road, 304 Custis, George Washington Parke, 362 Custis, Mary, 362 Dare, Virginia, 86 Davis, Jefferson, 362, 367 Debtors, 164 Declaration of Independence, 182, 237, 268, 270, 273, 336 Delaware, 166 Delaware River, 160, 166 Delft Haven, 104 De Soto, Hernando (er-nan'do da s5't5), 75-78 Dewey, Admiral George, 376- 379 Detroit, 292, 294 Dinwiddle (din-wid'i). Governor, 188, 222, 225 Discoverers and Explorers. Ta- bles, 414, 415 Diving boat invented, 287 Doomsday Book, 43 Dorchester Heights, 235 Douglas (dug'las), Stephen A., 334 Drake, Sir Francis, 79-82, 85 Duquesne (du-kan'), IMarquis, 187 Dutch in America, 123-133 Dutch East India Company, 123 Dutch West India Company, 127 423 PROXOUXCIXG IXDEX Earl Harold, 41, 42 Edison, Thomas A., 380-384 Edward the Confessor, 41 Egypt, 6 Elizabeth, Queen, 79, 82-84 Emancipation Proclamation, 345 England, 68, 69, 79, 82, 84, 88, 101, 104, 111, 126, 131, 151, 152, 157, 164, 165, 182, 185, 196, 198-201, 204, 207, 208, 214, 222, 226, 228, 231, 233, 234, 238, 241, 243, 244, 247, 253, 255, 269, 291, 299, 385 English navigators. See Tables, 414, 415 English navy, 40 Essex, the, 369 Etruscans, 9 Explorers and Discoverers. Ta- bles, 414, 415 Fairfax, Lord, 220 Farragut (far'a-giit), David Glas- gow, 369-375 Federal Convention, 262 Ferdinand and Isabella, 32, 61 Feudal System, 44-47 Field, Cyrus W., 320, 321 Financial difficulties after the Revolution, 260 First Punic War, 12 Florida, 72, 339 Foote, Commodore, 353 Fort Donelson, 353 Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), 188, 189, 192, 193, 226, 228, 229, 231 Fort Edward, 190, 243, 244 Fort Frontenac (fron'te-nak), 193 Fort Henry, 353 Fort LeBoeuf (leh-btif), 187, 222 Fort Miami (ml-am'i), 147 Fort Mimms, 299 Fort Necessity, 226 Fort Niagara, 188, 189 Fort Stanwix, 243 Fort Sumter, 340, 341 Fort Ticonderoga (tI-k6n-der-o'- ga), 242 Fort William Henry, 190 Fox River, 142 Fox, George, 157 France, 29, 134, 144, 148, 132, 185, 197, 199, 222, 225, 228, 231, 246, 291 Franklin, Benjamin, 173, 184, 269 Franklin, James, 174 Franklin, Josiah, 173 Franks, the, 29 Fredericksburg, battle of, 365 French explorers. See Table, 415 French and Indian Wars, 185- 197,200,222-224,385; causes of, 181, 185, 187, 222, 226 Friends, Society of, 157 Frontenac (fron'te-nak). Count, 141, 144 Fugitive Slave Law, 308 Fulton, Robert, 285-290 Gadsden Purchase. See Table, 417 Gage, General, 211, 214, 216 Gates, General, 254 Gaul, 14-16 General Greene, the, 291 Genoa (jen'o-a), 57, 61 Geography, early ideas of, 55, 58, 59, 61, 91 424 PROXOUNCIXG INDEX George II, King of England, 165, 199 George III, King of England, 199, 202, 207, 208, 211 Georgia, 165, 166, 253, 258, 339 German troops in the British Army, 237, 239 Germans, 15, 25-29 Germantown, battle of, 245, 253 Germany, war with, 387, 388 Gettysburg (get'Iz-btirg), battle of, 345, 365, 366 Ghent (gent), Treaty of, 295, 301, 305 Gist (jlst), Christopher, 223 Gladiators, 21 Golden Age of Rome, 21 Golden Hind, the, 81, 82 Goths, 26-28; in Spain, 31 Government by the people begun in Massachusetts Colony, 113 Grant, Ulysses S., 346, 350-360, 366 Great Eastern, the, 321 Great Meadows, 226 Greece, 1-6 Greek colonies, 4 Greeks, customs of, 2-4 Green Bay, 142, 145 Greene, Nathanael, 251-258 Greenland, discovered by Norse- men, 61 Gridlej^ Captain, 378 Griffon, the, 144-147 Growth of the United States. See Table, 417 Guilford (girford) Courthouse, battle of, 256 Half Moon, the, 123-126 Hamilton, Alexander, 259-267 Hampton Roads, 342 Hancock, John, 182, 211, 270 Hannibal, 11-14 Harrison, General, 294 Hartford, the, 371, 373 Hastings, battle of, 42 Hawaii (ha-wi'e), 387 Hayne (han). Senator, 312 Hayti (ha'tl), 64 Henderson, Richard, 277 Hengist and Horsa (hen'gist and hors'a), 35 Henrietta Maria of England, 154 Henry, Patrick, 198-205, 206, 268 Henry's Resolutions, 203, 206 Henry VII of England, 68 Hermitage, the, 299 Holland, refuge for Pilgrims, 102 Hooker, General Joe, 365 House of Burgesses, 201, '204, 233 Howe, General, 237, 241, 243, 244, 246 Howe, Lord, 192 Hudson, Henry, 123-127 Hudson Bay, 126 Hudson River, 125 Huron (hu'ron) Indians, 137 Iceland, discovered by the North- men, 61 Illinois River, 142 Incandescent Ught invented, 384 Independence, Declaration of, 182, 237, 268, 270, 273, 336 India, 57 Indians, 63, 64, 73, 74, 75, 78, 84, 85, 91, 92, 94, 95-100, 107, 109, 117, 118, 125, 127, 137, 141, 425 PKOXOUXCI^^G IXDEX 142, 154, 161, 165, 167, 182, 186, 188-191, 223, 226, 230, 242, 276-279, 299 Ironclads, 342, 372 Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi') Indians, 137-140, 182, 186 Isabella, Queen of Spain, 32, 61, 66 Island of Kent, 155 Italy, 9-24; merchants of, 56; trade routes of, 57 Itasca (i-tas'ka), the, 371 Jackson, Andrew, 296-302, 303 Jackson, General Stonewall, 341, 363, 365 James I. Iving of England, 90, 101 James River, 90, 168 Jamestown, 90, 168-171 Japan, 57 Jefferson, Thomas, 265, 268-274 Jesuits (jez'u-its) in America, 140 John, ruler of England, 48; struggle with Pope, 50, 51 Johnson, Colonel William, 188 Johnston, General, 355 Joliet, Louis (loo-e' zho-le-a'), 142-144 Kansas, 335 Kansas and Nebraska Bill, 334 Keimer (ki'mer), 176, 177 Kent Island, 155 Kentucky, 277 Kentucky River, 277 Kinetoscope invented, 383 King Alfred's "clock," 39 King Arthur, 34 Kings Mountain, battle of, 255 King Philip's War, 118-122; causes of, 118 Knight, 47 Labrador, 69 Lafayette (la-fa-yef), Marquis de, 246, 248 Lake Champlain, 138 Lake Erie, 144 Lake Erie, battle of, 292-294 Lake Huron (hu'ron), 140 Lake Michigan, 142 Lake Ontario, 243 Lake Superior, 141 Lansing, John, 262 LaSalle (la-sal'), 144-150 Lawrence, Captain, 293 Lawrence, the, 293 Lee, Harry, 361 Lee, General Robert E., 344-346, 355, 357, 361-368 Lewis and Clark's expedition, 273 Lewis, Meriwether (Lewis and Clark), 273 Lexington, battle of, 182, 211- 214, 234, 252 Lightning rod invented, 181 Lincoln, Abraham, 324-337, 338- 349, 352, 355, 356, 358, 363 Lincoln, Mary Todd, 333, 346 Lincoln, Nancy Hanks, 325, 326 Lincoln, Robert, 346 Lincoln, Thomas, 325, 326 Livingston, Robert R., 269, 287 London Company, The, 88 Louisburg (loo'is-burg), 190-192 Louisiana (loo-e-ze-a'na), French claims, 148; purchase, 273, 307; State of, 339 426 PEOXOUXCIXG IXDEX Macedonia, 4 Magellan (ma-jSl'§,n), Ferdinand, 80 Magellan, Straits of, 80, 81 Magna Charta (mag'na kar'ta), 51 Maine, the, 376 Maine, 307 Malvern Hill, battle of, 364 Manassas (ma-na,s'as), battle of, 363; second battle, of 364 Manhattan, 127, 128 McClellan, General, 364 McKinley, William, 377 Manila, battle of, 377-379 Manors, 46 Marconi (mar-ko'ne), 320-322 Mare Island, 370 Mariner's compass, 58 Marquette (mar-kSf), Father, 140-143 Marshfield, 314 Maryland, 151-156, 166 Massachusetts, 166, 206, 207, 211, 233 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 112 Massasoit (mas'sQ,-soit), 107, 117, 118 Matagorda (mS,t'§,-g6r'da) Bay, 149 Mayflower, the, 104, 107 Mayflower Compact, 105 Meade, General, 365 Mediterranean (med'I-ter-ra'ne- an), 58, 292, 370 Merrimac, the, 341-343 Methods or lighting, 380 Methods of signaling, 316 Mexican War, 307, 350-352, 362; causes of, 350 Mexico, 74; city of, 75 352; Gulf of, 148, 149 Minnesota, the, 342 Mint, National, 265 Minuit (min'u-lt), Peter, 127- 129 Minutemen, 211, 213, 214 Mississippi River, 76, 141, 147, 185 Mississippi Valley, claimed for France, 148 Missouri, 279, 306, 333; Com- promise, 307, 333, 335; River, 142 Mobile Bay, battle of, 372 Mohammedans, 31 Monasteries, 37 Monongahela (mo-n6n-ga-he'la) River, 225 Monitor, the, 343 Monterey (mon-ta-ra'), battle of, 351 Montcalm (m6nt-kam'), Louis de, 189-197 Montreal (mont-re-al'), 135 Monticello (mon-te-sel'lo), 273 Moors, 31, 32 ]\Iorgan, General, 255 Morristown Heights, 241 Morse, Samuel F. B., 316-320 Mount Hope, 122 Mount Vernon, 220, 221 Napoleon, 273 Narragansett Bay, 117 Narragansett Indians, 117, 119, 121 Nashville, 354 National Bank, 265 National Mint, 265 427 PEOXOUJS^CIXG IXDEX Navigation Acts, 199 Nebraska, 334 Negro Slaves. See Slavery New Albion, 82 New Amsterdam, 128-133 New England, 61, 95, 110 New England Courant, 174 Newfoundland, 152 New Hampshire, 166 New Jersey, 166 New Mexico, 307, 352 New Netherland, 127-133 New Orleans, battle of, 299; cap- tured by Farragut, 371 New York, 133, 137, 166 New York City, 133, 237, 238, 246, 259, 263 Niagara, 228 Niagara, the, 293 Niagara River, 144 Nina (nen'ya), the, 62 Nonimportation plan, 207 Norfolk, 341, 343 North Carolina, 164, 166, 255, 256, 339 Northmen, 38, 40-44, 61 Northwest Passage, search for, 70, 82, 123-126, 137, 141 Nova Scotia (no'va sko'shi-g,), 188 Nueces (nwa'sSs) River, 351 Nulhfication, 302, 312 Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thorp), General James, 164-166 Ohio country, 187, 222, 232 Ohio River, 142, 188 Olympia, the, 377 Olympian games, 2 Omnibus Bill, 308 Orinoco (6-rI-n6'ko) River. 66 Oswego, capture of, 189 Pacific Ocean, 74, 79 Palos (pa'los), 62, 64 Panama Canal, 387 Panama, Isthmus of, 72, 81 Parliament, first English, 52; later, 200, 203, 207 Passamaquoddy (pSs-a-ma- kwod'i) Bay, 135 Patricians, 11 Patroon system, 128, 129 Penn, Admiral, 159, 160 Penn, WiUiam, 157, 163 Pennsylvania, 159, 160, 166 Pennsylvania Gazette, 177 Pensacola (p6n-sa-ko'la), 299 Pequot (pe'kwot) War, 117-118; causes of, 117 Perry, Christopher, 291 Perry, Oliver Hazard, 291-295 Persia, 5, 6 Peru, 80 Petersburg, 357, 366 Philadelphia, 161, 245, 246 Philip, king of Macedon, 4 Philip, King, 118-122 Philippine Islands, 80, 379, 386 Phonograph invented, 383 Picts and Scots, 34 Pilgrims, 101, 110, 111 Pinta (pen'ta), the, 62 Pitt, Wilham, 191, 193 Plains of Abraham, 195 Plebeians, 11 Plymouth, 106 Plymouth Rock, 106 Pocahontas (po-k§,-h6n't§s), 92- 95 428 PROXOUA^CIXG IXDEX Polo (po'16), Marco, 56, 60 Ponce de Leon (pon-tha da la- on'j, 71, 72 Poor Richard's Almanack, 179 Pope's division of the World, 134 Pope, General, 352, 364 Port Royal, 135 Porter, Commander, 369 Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), 66, 71, 379, 386 Portugal, 57, 58, 61 Potatoes introduced into Eng- land, 85 Potomac River, 152 Powhatan (pow-h^-t^n'), 91, 92, 94 Presqueisle (pr6sk-el'), 187, 222 Princeton, battle of, 241, 253, 260 Providence, 117 Provincetown Harbor, 105 Puritans, 111-122 Put-In. Bay, 293 Quakers, 157-159 Quebec, 137, 191-193, 232 Railroad in America, first, 289; first transcontinental, 290 Raleigh (raw'll), Sir Walter, 83- 87 Read, Deborah, 175, 178 Religious freedom in America, 117, 154 Revere (r6-ver'), Paul, 212 Revolution, 234-249, 252-258, 297, 385; causes of, 201, 206, 208, 211, 233 Rhode Island, 117, 166 Richard the Lion-hearted, 48-50 Richmond, 341, 346, 358, 363, 367 Rio Grande (re'6 gran 'da) River, the, 351 Roanoke (ro-§,-nok'), 84, 86 Rocky Mountains, 273 Roderick, 31 Rolfe, John, 94 Roman Empire, divided, 24; fall of, 24 Romans, 9; customs of, 10, 11 Rome, 9; civilization of, 19-21 Runnymeade, 51, 52 > Sailors' rights, 305 St. Joseph River, 145 St. Lawrence River, 134, 185 St. Leger (I6j'er), Colonel, 242, 243 St. Louis (sant loo 'Is), 273 St. Mary's, 154 Salem, 111, 112 Samoset (sSm'o-sSt) , 107 San Francisco Bay, 82 San Salvador, 64 Santa Maria (san'ta ma-re'a), the, 62, 64 Santiago (san-te-a'go), battle of, 378 Saratoga, 244 Savannah, 165, 253 Savannah River, 165 Schools, 109, 115 Schuyler (ski'ler), General Philip, 242 Scott, General, 302 Secession, 338, 339 Second Punic War, 12 Separatists, 101 Serfs, 46 429 PROXOrXCIXG lA'DEX Seven Days' Battles, 364 Shenandoah (shen'an-do'a) Val- ley, 221, 355 Sheridan, General Philip, 355 Sherman. General, 354, 355, 367 Sherman, Roger, 269 Shiloh (shi'lo), battle of, 354 Shirley, General, 188 Sicily, 11, 12 Slavery, 94, 305, 330, 333, 338, 344, 361 Smith, Captain John, 88-100, 106, 124 South Carolina, 164, 166, 253, 255, 257, 301, 312, 339 Spain, 61, 64, 67, 71-75, 79, 80, 84, 164, 199, 376 Spanish Explorers. See Tables, 414, 415 Spanish War, 376-379; causes, 376 Sparta, 4 Speedwell^ the, 104 Springfield, Illinois, 333 Squanto, 107 Stamp Act, 200, 201, 206, 233, 268; repealed, 208, 233, 268 Standish Miles, 101-110 Stars and Stripes, 387 Staten Island, 237 State Rights, 302, 312, 338 Steamboat, first in America, 288 Stillwater, 242 Stuart, J. E. B., 364 Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, 129-133 Swanzey, 119 Sweden, 166 Tariff laws in the United States, 301, 311 Taxation of colonies, 200, 206, 208, 233, 252 Taylor, General, 351 Tea tax, 208, 233, 252 Tecumseh (te-kGm'se), the, 373 Telegraph invented, 318; im- proved, 381, 383 Telephone invented, 322 Tennessee, 339 Tennessee, the, 372, 374 Texas, 149, 339, 350 Thanksgiving Day, 108 Thirteen original colonies, 166. See Table, 416 Ticonderoga (tl-k6n-der-6'ga), 191, 192 Tobacco, culture of, in America, 94, 167; introduced in Eng- land, 85 Toga, 10 Toscanelli (tSs-ka-nSl'le), 60 Tournaments, medieval, 47 Towns, medieval, 46 Trade routes to the East, 57 Treaties: Treaty of Paris (French and Indian War), 196; Treaty of 1783 (close of Revolution), 183; Treaty of Ghent (War of 1812), 295, 301, 305; treaty with Spain (Spanish War), 379 Trenton, battle of, 239, 240, 253, 260 Triumph, Roman, 17, 18 United States of America, 166, 182, 237, 246, 270, 385 University of Pennsylvania, 180 University of Virginia, 273 Valley Forge, 245, 253 430 PRO^'OUXCI^^G I^^DEX Venice, 57, 61 Vespucius, Americus (a-m6r'i- ktis vGs-pu'se-iis), 67 Vicksburg, 345, 354, 366 Vinland, 61 Virginia, 84, 90, 154, 166, 167, 188, 201, 206, 222, 225, 233, 256, 339 Wampanoag (wam-p§,-n6'ag) In- dians, 118 War of 1812, 291-295, 299-301, 305; causes of, 291 Wars, important. See Tables, 418, 419 Washington, National Capital, 271 Washington, Augustine, 217, 218 Washington, Augustine, Mrs., 218-220 Washington, George, 183, 188, 217-232, 233-250, 253, 254, 260, 263, 271, 272 Washington, Lawrence, 220, 221 Washington, Martha Custis, 233 Webster, Daniel, 309, 315 Weehawken, 266 West, growth of, 141, 147, 187, 273, 275, 277, 289, 298, 304, 307, 386 West Indies, 64, 71, 199 West Point, 246 White, Governor John, 86 Whitney, Eli, 281-285 Wilderness, battles of, 357, 366 Wilderness Road, 277 Wilham the Conqueror, 42-44 Williams,, Roger, 115-118 Williamsburg, 201, 222, 225, 227 Wills Creek, 222, 229 ^ Wilson, War Message, 388 Winthrop, Governor John, 111- 115 Wireless telegraphy, 321 Wolfe, General James, 189-197 World War, 388 Wright, Silas, 319 Writs of assistance, 200 Yadkin River, 276 Yates, Robert, 262 York, Duke of, 131, 159, 166 Yorktown, 183, 248, 258, 260 (12)